a ww ©O Oo w N © - oO - wo ™- - ise) Digitized by the Internet Archive In 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopaediaoru16rees __ a _ Cs ol Nr | ; \ Ue | 4) THE CYCLOPA DIA; OR, Universal Dictionary OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE. VOL. XVI. = i * geaveh .” af (iy a Girt qihnioyine Inet. « Td ACTROAANTI GA Monat 2 ah - AVX 107 THE ewe lOPrA DIA; OR, UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF Arts, Sciences, and Literature, BY ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. — oro IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. VOL. XVI. ae LONDON: Printep ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, PaTERNOSTER-Kow, F.C. AN» J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A- ARCH, CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J- BOOTH, J- BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R- SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.) J. DICKINSON, J- PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 1819. ee sf = ,* 3HT - . . AIGAIOL0Y9 Ey AM POG IAA af “ ‘ a) , a0 router on nie . * ; i = 208 Ash Boe Daa oe BASH VE nn ; e an i helt Hp Xd - hss COM ” 4 <6 ha RAL SOvAEN " Ny a Starry oF 10) 1016 05. Bele ihe a? ‘ AV UL ¥ a :¥ ne Vio x * mils ape ay 1TA WH, as Dis TILA. ae eI ‘“ Po if estos P= | eT TS CAP osT a Om tery? VM POE OTR mea ena ni ahora? ‘4 APRA 4 A. wiv Au wmidadc Meal aWLasfe sad v4 tayV Ki OPA AOA IS eee snl ate ARTOKe ca ibe re wes ieee W UAE Je ¢ # AO ot etn) this | oh) 4 7 ae 245 pen Qala ¥ i ri. . wid "hed Woy Zin ‘ee aidan 4 yiprowtay " LB ; “we a CLO LOP A Di A: OR, A NEW UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF Ay tS and SiC ING, Es: GENERATION. ENERATION is that funGtion of the animal econo- my by which the fpecies is perpetuated. Inanimate matter and unorganized bodies are fubject to no alterations, and would never change their condition, did not external forces deftroy or modify them. On the contrary, organized bodics, very different from thefe inert maffes, are aCctive media of new combinations and changes ; they undergo al- terations, and are even dettroyed by the exercife of their own powers, the entire ceffation of which delivers up their fpoils to the grand circle of changes, which organized matter is conftantly undergoing. Although fome of thefe bodies may laft for a century, while the. greater number live only for a few years, days, or even hours, this unequal duration, thefe moments or ages of exiftenee, are nothing with refpect to nature, and the death which fhe allots to man, to the plant or the infect, is not the lefs neceffary and certain. But, if individuals are facrificed and perifh, the fpecies furvive and are immortal; by aconitant and general law, animated bodies never die altogether, but are renewed and perpetuated by various modes a re-produ€tion. Some terminate their vital courfe while others are beginning it ; and never, fays Lucretius, does morning or night vilit the globe, without haying funeral lamentations round a bier, and the plaintive cries of aninfant in the cradle. ‘T'here is a conitant alter- nation of deaths and births, of loffes and reparations; and the torch of life is rapidly tranfmitted in the feries of fuc- ceeding generations ; ‘¢ quafi currentes vitai lampada tra- dunt.” t a certain point of elevation in the feale of ani- mal exiftence, this objec is accomplithed by a double feries of organs, executing very different funCtions ; and re-pro- duction is effete | by a true procefs of generation, under the influence of that phyfical feeting, tue Venus, whofe univer- Vou. XVI Strahan and Prefton, New-fireet Square, Loudon, fal empire and irrefiftible attra¢tions are fo beautifully deli- neated by the Roman poet. « /Eneadum genetrix, hominum diyumque voluptas, Alma Venus! ceeli fubter labentia figna Que mare navigerum, que terras frugiferenteis Concelebras ; per Te quoniam genus omne animantum Concipitur, vifitque exortum lumina folis ; Te, Dea, te fugiunt venti, te nubila cel, Adventumque tuum : tibi fuaves dedala tellus Submittit flores ; tibi rident equora ponti, Placatumque nitet diffufo lumine ccelum. Nam, fimul ac fpecies patefacta eft verna diel, Et referata viget genitabilis aura Favonn ; Aériz primum volucres, te, Diva, tuumque Significant initum, perculfe corda tua vi. Inde ferz pecudes perfaltant pabula leta, Et rapidos tranant amnes ; ita, capta lepore, Tlecebrifque tuis omnis natura animantum Te fequitur cupide, quo quamque inducere pergis. Denigue, per maria, ac montes, fluviofgue rapaces, Frondiferafque domos avium, campofque virentes, Omnibus incutiens blandum per pectora amorem, Efficis, ut cupide generatim fecla propagent. Generation is the greateit myttery prefented to our view in the economy of living bodies ; and its real nature is ftill involved in the moft complete obfcurity. Hitherto no ob- feryation authorizes us to admit the fimultaneous formation of a living body in all its parts ; that is to fay, by the union of particles fuddenly brought together. The comparifon of generation with cryftalfization is fupported by no jut analogy : cryftals are made up of homogeneous particles, attra¢ting each other indiitinGly, and agglutinated By : ACES, GENER faces, which determine the order of arrangement; while liing bodies are compofed of numerous fibres or plates, heterogene- ous in their compofition, diverfified in their configurations, and deftined to particular fituations, fo that they’ can only be in one place, and between other determined fibres or Ja- nelle. Moreover, living bodies, however {mall they may be, poflefs all their parts from the firft moment of their exiftence ; they grow, not by the addition of new layers, but by the fometimes uniform, and fometimes irregular developement of parts, all of which exilted previoufiy to any fenfible growth. The only circumftance belonging to all kinds cf generation, and confequently the only eflentialcircumftance in the pro- cefs is, that every living body, at the fir® periods of its fens frble exiftence, is attached to a larger body, of the tame {pe- cies with itfelf, that it makesa part of this larger body, and is nourifhed by its juices for a certain length of time. Its fubfequent feparation conititutes its birth; which may be produced fimply from the life of the larger body, and the confequent developement of the fmaller, without the aid of any occafional caufe. Thus, in its eflence, generation, as far as we can underttand it, is only the appearance of a {mall organized body upon or in fome part of another and larger one, from‘which it will be feparated, at the expiraticn of a certain period, in order to aflume an independent and ifolat- ed exiftence. All the ats or organs, which co-operate in the procefs, in a certain clafles of organized bodies, are only acceflary to this primary fun¢tion. When the function is thus reduced to its moft fimple itate, it conftitutes the gemmi- parous, or generation by fhoots. In this way buds are form- ed on trees, and developed into branches, which wilt form future trees, by means of flips or cuttings. The polype (hydra) and the fea anemone (actinia) multiply inthis man- ner ; fome worms are propagated by a divilion of their body, and mutt therefore be arranged in the fame divifion. This mode of generation requires no diftinGtion of fex, no copu- Jation, nor any particular organ. Other modes of gencra- tion are accomplifhed in appropriate organs: the germs ap- pear in a definite fituation ef the body, and the affiftance of certain operations is required for their further develope- ment. ‘hefe operations conftitute fecundation, and fuppofe the exiftence of fexual parts; which may either be feparate or united in the fame individual. The fecundated or fecun- dable fex, in which the germ is found, is the female ; and the fecundating fex, the affiftance of which is neceffary for the complete developement of the germ, is the male. The office of the latter is that of furnifhing the fecundating cr feminal fluid: but the manner in which that contributes to the developement of the germ, is not yet fettled by phyfiolo- gifts. Some, forming their opinions from the human fubject and the mammalia, where the germs are imperceptible before fecundation, fuppofe that thefe are created by the mixture of the male fluid, with that which they fuppofe to exift in the fernale ; or that they pre-exift in the male femen, and that the female only furnifhes them with an abode. Others con- fult the acalogy of the other claffes of animals, and of plants. In feveral inftances, particularly in the frog, the germ may be clearly recognized in the ovum of the female before fecundation: its pre-exiftence may be inferred, in other cafes, from the manner in which it is organically con- nected to the ovum, when it is firft vifible. For it is agreed on all fides, that the ovum exifts in the female before fecun- dation, fince virgin hens lay eggs, &c. From this analogy, thefe phyfiologifts conclude, that the germ pre-exifts in all females ; and that the fecundating liquor isa ftimulus which beltows on it an independent life, by awakening it, in a man- ner, from the fpecies of lethargy, in which it would have “otherwile conitantly remained. ATION. The origin of the germs, and the mode of their extitence in the female; whether they are originally formed in ail their parts in each individual by any vital procets, or are all pre-exilient, being inclofed in each other, or whether they are diffeminated through the bedy, and require a concourle of circumftances to bring them into a fituation favourable for their developement, are queftions, which it is utterly impof- fible for us to decide in the prefent flate of our ney liee Thefe points have for a long time been agitated by phyfiolo- gills; but the difcuffion feems now to be abandoned by univerfal conient. The combination of the fexes, and the mede of fecun- dation, are fubject to great variety. In fome inflances, the two fexes are united in the fame individual, and fecundation is accomplifhed without any extraneous aid; fuch are the hermaphrodite and monoicous plants, the acephalous molluj- ca, and the echinodermatous animals. vidual poffeffes both fexes, but requires the affiitance of an- other, which it fecundates, and by which it is fecundated. This is the cafe with the gafteropodous mollufca, and with feveral worms. There are diftin¢ét individuals, male and fe- male, in other claffes ; as, for inftance, in the dioicous plants, in all animals, which have a vertebral column, in the cephalo- podous and fome gafteropedous mollufca, in fome werms, in the cruttacea, and in infects ; in fhort, in the far largeit por- tion of the animal kingdom. Fecundation is accomplifhed in plants by means of a liquor contained in {mall capfules, which refemble a fine powder in appearance, lodge on the female organs, and, buriting, depo- fit their contents. In animals, the liquor is always applied immediately upon or about the germs; and in many cafes it is not brought in contaét with the ova, until they have been laid, as in the bony and oviparous fifhes, and the cepha- lopodous mollufca : here the males and females have no com- meree. _ Sometimes, as in the frog and toad, copulation is neceflary in order to determine the difcharge of the ova and femen, but fecundation is ftill performed out of the body. Laftly, in the great majority of inftances, the feminal liquor, introduced by the male into the body of the female, fecun- dates the ova before they are laid. This is the cafe in the mammalia, birds, moft reptiles, and fome fifhes, in the herma- phrodite gafteropedous mollufca, in the cruftacea and infeéts. The union of the two fexes, or the a€t by which this is accom- plifhed, is called copulation. In all the laft-mentioned orders ova may be difcharged without previous copvlation, as in the preceding ones. But they receive no further developement ; nor can they be fecundated when thus voided. The effeét of a fingle copulation varies in its degree; it ufually feeun- dates one generation only, and produces one pregnancy ; but fometimes, as in poultry, feveral eggs are fecundated, and afterwards difcharged fucceffively : itil], however, they only form one generation. In a very few inftances, one att of copulation Eines feveral generations, which can pro- pagate their fpecies without the aid of the male. In the plant-loufe (aphis) the fpecies has been continued through eight generations from one eopulation ; and in fume mone- cull, through twelve or fifteen. a: When the germ is detached from the ovary, its means of exiftence may be more or lefs complete. In moft animals it is accompanied by an organized ma{s, to which it is conneét- ed by means of veffels. “The abforption of this ferves for its nutrition and developement, until the period of its indepen dent exiftence. It derives nothing therefore from the body of the mother, from which it is feparated by coverings, va~ rying in number and folidity. ‘The germ, to; with its mafs of nourifhment, and the furrounding me m1 tutes an egg, or ovum ; and the animals, which prg duce't In others, each indi- - GENERATION. youns in this ftate, are denominated cviparous. In molt of thefe the germ contained.in the egg is not developed, or hatched, until that part has quitted the body of the mother, or has been /aid; whether it be neceffary that it fhould be afterwards fecundated, as in many fifhes, or that it requires only the application of artificial heat for its incubation, asin birds ; or that the natural heat of the climate is fufficient, as in reptiles, infeéts, &c. Thefe are ftrifily ovisarous animals. The ovum, after being fecundated, and detached from the Gvarium, remains in fome animals within the body of the mo- ther, until the contained germ be developed and hatched. Thefe are falfe viviparous animals, or ovo-viviparous. ‘The viper and fome fifhes afford inftances of this procefs. ‘he mammalia alone are truly viviparous animals. Their germ pofieffes no provilion of nourifhment, but grows by what it derives from the juices of the mother. For this pur- pofe it is attached to the internal furface of the uterus, and fometimes by accident to other parts, by a kind of root, or infinite ramification of veffels, called a placenta. It is not therefore completely feparated from the mother by its cover- ings: and it does not come into the world until it can enjoy an independent organic exiftence. The mammalia cannot therefore be faid to poffefs an ovum, in the fenfe which we haye affigned to that term. According to this fketch of the fubject, generation may be faid to confitt of four functions, differing in their import- ance, and in the number of animals, te which they neloneh viz: ft. The produdicn of the germ, which is a conitant circumftance: zdly. Fecundation, which belongs only to thofe inftances where there is a diltinéticn of fexes: 3dly. Copulation, which is confined to thofe kinds of fexual gene- ration in which fecundation is accomplifhed within the body: laftly, Utero-geftation, which belongs exclufively to viviparous generation. ‘Ihe generative organs may be moft naturally arranged aceording to this diltribution of the partial func- tions, which they execute. The fimple produdtion of a germ, Or gemmiparous generation, may be accomplifhed at any point’ of the body, and has, therefore, no peculiar organ. Sexual generation cemands an organ for the produc- tion of germs, and another for that of the fecundating liquor. Modes of union are neceflary when copulation takes place : and geftation requires a receptacle adapted to the abode of the fetus. Thus we have preparatory and preferving or- ans; inftruments of copulation; and organs of education. Thofe of the two firft claffes are divided inte male and fe- -male; the laft belong to the latter fex only. ‘The prepara- tory and preferving organs of the males feerete the femen, and the other fluids which are to be mingled with it, and re- tain thefe fecretions. They confift, in their moft compli- cated form, 1{t. Of the teffieles, which prepare the feminal fluid, and condu& it, either into a particular refervoir, or -jato a canal, from which it is conveyed cut of the body, or into a cloaca, from which it isin like manner ejected : -2dly. Of the vsficule ferinales, fuppofed to be refervoirs for the fe- men: 3dly. Of the profate glands; and, athly. Of Cocuper’s glands, which feparate a pecultar fuid, mixed with the femen at the time of coition. ‘The teiticles are abfent in the laft claffes only of the animal kingdom, where generation is per- formed by a fimple divifion of the animal, or by fhoots. They exit in all the clafles of vertebral animal ; and. of the -Ynvertebral divifion, in the mollufca, cruftacea, infects, and moft vermes. Pheir namber, ftructure, &c. differ very much in thefe various claffes. he veficule, proftates, and Cow- per’s glands, being lefs effential in their funCtions, are much _Jefs’ generally found, and are chiefly confined to the firft clafies of the animal kingdom. ‘The preparatory female organs ferve the purpofe of developing and preferving the - germs. Their exiftence is as general as that of the parts juft mentioned ; but they are much more fimple in the firft clafs of the animal kinedom. They confift cf two bodies fimilar in form, fize, and f{tru€iure, and named by modern phyfiologifis ovaria, in order to exprefs more accurately, than by their old name of teftes, the function to which they are Gettined. In fact, if their ftructure, confidered fimply in man, and moft of the mammalia, leave any doubt concerning their office, its nature is fo evident in the other clafles,. that their funétion cannot fail tobe recognized. In all the clafies which fucceed the mammalia, the ovary or ovaries ferve evi- dently for the produiion and prefervation cf the germs or ova, which are formed in thefe bodies previoufly to the ap- proaches of the male. Analogy leads us to conclude that the fame cireumftance holds-good inthe maramalia ; and this conclufion is one of the moft important refults from the ftudy of comparative anatomy and phyfiology. The organs of copulation, inthe male fex, confift of one or more projecting bodies, called penes, generally perforated by a canal, named the urethra, capable cf being introduced into the female organs, in order to convey to them the fecun- dating liquor, or for the imple purpofe of producing anirri- tation. neceflary for conception; or they are fupernumerary members, enabling the male to grafp and hold the female. In the latter fex, the copulating organs confift of canals, particularly defigned to receive the male penis, or give paf- fage to the products of conception: or of cavities, which. ferve alfo for other purpofes, but which, at the time ef eopu- lation, receive the penis, and tranfmit the fecundating liquor to the educating organs, ; The educating organs receive the germ or ovum, after its detachment, from the ovarium,retain it fora greater orlefslength of time,contribute in a more or lefsdireét manner to its growth, and convey it out of the body : or they furnifh nourifhment to the young, when born, or afford it a temporary lodging. hey are, therefore, divided into external and internal parts. The laiter may be again diftinguifhed into two kinds, The firft of thefe are fimple canals, through which the germ or ovum is to pafs, either in order to be conveyed out of the body (asin the egg), or to betranfmitted mto the parts of the fecond defeription. The latter are very dilatable bags, to the parietes of which the germ is attached by means of veffels conveying the materials of its nutrition, and preferv- ing it in this way until it has acquired a certain degree of growth. -Organs of the firft kind are formed in the four claffes of vertebral animals ; and are called Fallcpian tubes in the mammahia, owiduds in the birds, reptiles, and fifhes. Parts of the latter defcription belong to the mammalia only, andare the uterus. The external educating organs are, in the mammalia, the mammary glands fecreting the milk by which the young are nourifhed ; or receptacles, in which they are retained for atime, in afew genera. One kind of reptiles only poffefles analogous pouches. To All up the outline which we have prefented to our readers in the preceding fketch, would require a detailed de- feription of organs varying almoft infinitely in form and ftructure in the different claffes of organized bodies. Thefe details will be found in the proper articles of the Cycle- pedia, relating to vegetable and comparative anatomy : this general view has been thought neceflary, as introduery and explanatory. ‘The remainder of this article will be devoted to the anatomy and phyfiology of the generative organs in the human fubject.. The growth and developement of the ovum inthe uterus, have been confidered under the article Emsryo, and the anatomy of the mammary gland wili be found under BREAST. , The preceding account will fhew what various methods areemployed by nature for the perpetuation of the races of B2 orgas GENERATION. organized beings ; this feems to have been a very leading ob- ject, and one accordingly, in which fhe has developed all the fertility of her refourcess Scareely can fuch diverfified phe- nomena be reduced, by artificial claffifications, to any com- mon and conftant laws : new facts fpeedily modify or overturn the previous generalizations; and imagination can fearcely con- ceive any poflible forms of propagation which obfervation does not foon realize. ‘The generative functions fhould be particularly attended to by thofe who are employed in de- lineating the manners of animals. They will probably find that the propenfities and habits of each are intimately con- neéted with the mode of propagation ; and that the charac- ter of its wants, pleafures, and labours, its fociability and per- fedtibility, and the extent or importance of itsrelations either to other {pecies or to the various external bodies or agents, parti- cularly depend on the circumftances or conditionsto which its reproduction is fubjected, and on the difpofition of the or- gans employed for this purpofe. This is certainly very much the cafe with man, which is the objet of our prefent inveftigation. Man belongs to one of thofe claffes of the more compli- cated and perfee animals, where propagation is effected by the concurrence of two beings, whofe organization, pofleff- ing moft cir¢umftances in common, is diftinguifhed by certain particular traits. He quits the womb of his mother with organs capable of refifting the impreffions of the atmofphere, and of affimilating food to his own fubftance : he can already live by his own independent powers. He is not deftined to remain, like the oviparous animal, included in a foreign en- velop, and to continue for an indeterminate length of time ina {tate of inaction which hardly differs from non-exiftence : he does not wait until creative warmth beftows on him mo- tion and life, amid the nutritive fluids prepared beforehand by nature, like thofe in which the embryo of the ferpent, the tortoife, or the bird fwims for a long time as an invifible point. The human foetus has been fupported in the uterus by fluids animalized in the veflels of the mother: it fubfilts, immediately after birth, on milk, prepared in organs fet apart for that office. The duration of geftation, that of infancy, during which the aid of the parents is indifpenfible, and theepoch of puberty, or the moment at which the ge- nerative faculty is manifetted by fenfible figns, differ greatly in the different fpecies of animals; thefe circumftances are not conneéted together by uniform or con{tant relations. Man, like all the more perfe& animals, is not born with the power of reproducing the {pecies. The organs, which are at a future period to exercife this funGtion, are now com- pletely inaétive,andthe appetites which folicit their action do not exilt. The time of puberty ;—the epocha at which the frame and powers of the being receive their full developement, is alfo the period at which the generative organs, recovered from their lethargy, affume an aétive ftate, and become capable of exercifing their fun@ions. The duration of infancy is longer, and the age of puberty 1s later in man than in any animals ; although the term of geftation is fhorter than in fome other {pecies. Thefe circumitances mult have a very marked influence on the wants, the faculties, and the habits of the human race. The charatters of the generative functions partake of thofe which belong to the animal and organic lives. Thus, on one fide, all that precedes the union of the fexes, all the imprefhons made on one by the charms which nature has be- ftowed on the other, belong to the fenfes; this very union js an aét of the external life, to which animals are impelled by initingt, over which reafon prefides to a certain degree in man. ‘he influence of habit is alfo perceived here ; but inftead of blunting the enjoyment, it renders it rather more acute, and often gives rife to factitious wants. On the other hand, the fecretion of the fluid, by the emiffion of which man contributes to the reproductive procefs, the mytterious work of conception, the developement of the new being, &c. all belong to the organic life. Sexual Diftinétions—Some ancient philofophers have held on this fubje¢t opinions very injurious to the fair fex, and in- deed fo manifeftly whimfical and ridiculous, that a {imple ftatement of them will fhew their abfurdity. Woman, in the opinion of Ariftotle, is an imperfect man, an ill-formed and imbecile individual ; while man is chara¢terized by the attributes of ftrengthand power. Galen goes even further, and confounding the fexes in thofe very parts, where their dif- tinguifhing characters are the moft unequivocally marked, ad- mits no other differences between the male and female gene- rative organs than fuchas may be deduced from developement and fituation. He does not regard even the addition of the uterus in the female as an objection to this opinion, but, bending nature to his hypothelis, he reprefents this organ as being turned infide outwards in man toenvelope the glands in which the feminal fluid is elaborated. This ftrange paradox has been adopted by numerous writers, and is hardly yet completely abandoned. Daubenton calls the clitoris a penis in miniature ; Buffon turns the ovaries into teflicles, and en- deavours to prove that the addition of the uterus alone con- {titutes any effential diftin¢tion between the male and female parts. f Some refemblance in the unimportant points of form and arrangement gave rife to thefe unfounded analogies: pride and fexual prejudices, joined to the refults of fuperficial ob- fervation, feem to have fo far mifled true philofophers, whofe ftrange opinions we have juft alluded to, as fo make them difcover, in one of the firft productions of nature, a feeble fketch, and a timid production. Woman has appear- ed to them as a degradation and imperfect copy of the con- ftitution of man, while, in faét, the is the moft effential part of the fpecies, as contributing by iar the greatett fhare to the bufinefs of reproduGion. A more accurate examinay tion will deftroy thefe fuppofed analogies, and prove that man and woman do not differ in the relations of more or lefs, but that the ftruéture and functions of their generative or- gans are different in their kind ;. that their whole conftitution has in each its peculiar type, the diftinétive traits of which offer to our view along chain of phylical and moral effects more or lefs immediately dependent on the functions of the organs concerned in the bufinefs of generation. The characters of fex do not therefore fhew themafelves in any fingle point; it is not merely a particular organic ap- paratus, nor thofe external forms which delight us, that conftitute woman; and if fhe is principally characterized in fome parts, where the fexual phyGognomy is the moft de- cidedly expreffed, if the fuperficial traits, and the {weetly rounded contours, which conttitute her charms, form her moft agreeable dittinction, fhe is woman in the eyes of the natu- ralift and phyfician, in all her modes of exiftence, in her moral affections as wel! as in her phyfical fyitem, in her en- joyments and pains; in a word, all parts of her exiftence bear the character of fex, and prefent a feries of contrafts and oppofitions with the correfponding points in man. It is however only at the epocha of puberty, at that’pericd of life called by Buffon “ le printenips de la nature, la fai- fon des plaifirs,’”? that the affemblage of all the fexual traits is exhibited to our obfervation ; and that man and woman, at- trated to each other the more forcibly in proportion as they differ, become conneéted by various relations, which enlarge an exiftence hitherto perional, folitary and ifolated. Woman may be ditinguifhed from man by general and particular dif- ferences: the latter are fo decided as to be eafily difcerni- ble at all times, while the former, which are our prefent ob- ject GENERATION. ject, are not always equally remarkable, and at one time cannot be diftinGly traced. Inthe firft years of life, the in- dividuals of the two fexes do not differ from each other at the firfl view ; they haye nearly the fame general air, the fame delicacy of organization, the fame gait, and the fame voice. Experiencing the fame wants, exercifing the fame functions, and often partaking together of the fame infan- tile {perts, they excite in the mind of the {pectator who watches them with pleafure, no ideas of diftinguifhing characters ; they both appear to him only asawekening that tender emotion which we always feel at the contemplation of innocence joined to weaknefs. Indifferent and ifolated, each as yet lives only for himfelf; their exiftence, purely indi- vidual and independent, exhibits hitherto none of the rela- tions which conititute in the fequela fource of mutual de- pendence. However, this equivocal {tate does not laft long : man f{peedily aflumes the features and chara&er which mark his deftination; his limbs lofe the foftnefs and the gentle forms which he partook with the female; the mufcles, the chief inftruments of animal force, condenfe, by their reite- rated contraétions, which are confequent on more violent and long continued exercife, the cellular fubftance, which filled their interflices and gave a roundnefs to their form ; hence they become more prominent, and give to the limbs more rough and decided outlines. It isno longer the fame individual: the deeper tint of the countenance, the increafed depth and ftrength of the tone of voice announce an accefs of vigour neceflary for the purpofes of his future character. The timidity of infancy has given way to an inftinét which makes him defpife danger; he fears nothing, becaufe the impetuous current of his blood makes him difregard all ob- ftacles. His fuperior ftature, his determined gait, his new taftes and ideas all confpire to mark in him the image of firength, and to give the characters of that fex which is to protect the other. Woman, in advancing towards the age of puberty, de- parts from her primitive conititution lefs fenfibly thay man. Delicate and tender, fhe even retains fomething of the tempera- ment belonging to children. The texture of her organs does not loie all its orrzinal foftnefs. The developement, produced by age in all the parts of her body, never be- itows on them the fame degree of confiftence which they ac- quire in man: yet, in proportion as the traits of the female are fixed, her figure, form and proportions exhibit differences, fome of which did not exift before, while others were fcarce- ty fenfible. Although fhe fets off from the fame point as man, {heis developed in a manner peculiar to herfelt, and arrives {ooner at the term of her developement. Every where puberty arrives earlier in the female than in the male fex. Has nature a greater taik to perform in the latter than in ‘the former? Does it coft her greater efforts to bring man to perfeGtion than woman? Or does the eafe which cha- ratterizes female motions and aétions exhibit itfelf already in the firft developements of her phyfical conftitution ? Perhaps nature terminates her work the fooner from the fe- male organs being of lefs volume than the male, as her ope- rations are conducted within a more limited fphere. How- ever we may explain it, man is ftill fubjeét to the laws which govern him if infancy, while woman experiences alrea- dy a new mode of exiitence, and finds herfelf, perhaps with aftonifhment, provided with new attributes. and fubjeét to a clafs of fun@tions not obferved in man, and hitherto un- ‘known to herfelf. From this initant there is unfolded in her anew chain of phyfical and moral relations, on which depends that new and attractive intere(t with which. fhe in- fpires ian, and wich has already become a fource of new wants and affeCiens. In running through a more detailed fketch of the dif- ferences obfervable in the two fexes, we find them differing in the firft place in ftature, and in the fize and proporticns of parts. ‘The height is lefs in the female, by about one- fixth. The middle of the body inmanis at the feparation of the lower limbs at the pubes: in woman it is higher, and hence the lower limbs are fhorter, while the lumbar re- gionis longer. This gives to the female fex in general, and to the Americans and Negreffes in particular, that elegant flendernefs which diftinguifhes them. The arm orleg of a woman could be immediately diftinguiflted from thofe of a man: the form of thefe parts is much more delicate, and lefs marked by decided prominences. The buft is not fo broad, but more rounded, and particularly diflinguifhed by the fize and elegant formation of the breaft, which is com- monly but little developed inman, where its greater develope- ment would be regarded as a deformity. The thighs are much larger, more rounded, and further apart; they ap- proach each other below, fo that the knees are flightly turned in. The latter circumftance is feen in the Venus, and the whole formation of thefe parts is attended with ad- vantages in geftation and parturition, although the pecu- larity in queition isnot feen in thofe females which in com- mon opinion are the beft formed. The convexities defcribed by the lower limbs at their upper part, and uniting them by fuch happily rounded forms with the trunk, have avery ob- vious peculiarity of charaéter in the fofter fex. They are more prominent, and approach in their contour more to the hemifpherical form. All other parts of the lower limbs are diftinguithed by their foftly rounded outlines. - The foot is fmaller, and the bafe of fupport for the body 1s proportion- ally narrow. The leg gradually diminifhes from above downwards, inftead of {welling out abruptly at the calf. The outlines of the upper limbs are equally. flowing and foft ; thus the arm of woman is fatter and more rounded ; the whole upper extremity corre{ponds in its comparative fhortnefs and f{mallnefs to the general difference in {lature ; and is terminated by a {mall hand, and fhort, delicate and flexible. fingers. We may obferve further that the head is fmaller, the face fhorter, and the neck longer inwoman. The cheit is not fo long, but deeper ; the abdomen more prominent and round- ed; the fhoulders are carried more backwards, and {tard out lefs from the trunk. Hence the breadth of this part ts mich lefs confiderable than in man, where the fhoulders ere more fully developed and more widely fet off, and conititute, in. their comparatively greater fize, a very impreflive feature of the fuperior ftrength, which 1s the attribute of the male fex. Inthe female trunk, o# the contrary, the broadeft part is below: the pelvis, holding tke organs of generation, be- ing principally concerned in the functions of utero-geftation and parturition, being, in fort, the feat of thofe attrtbutes which efpecially diftinguith the female, is much more capa- cious than in the male. Hence the fuperior breadth of the female hips: hence the oppofite characters of the trunk in the two fexes, in refneét to fize. The trunk of the female is a pyramid, with the broadeft part below ; that of the puale is juit the reverfe. Camper has fhewn, that if the body ot a well-formed man be delineated on an elliptical area, the {houlders pafs out of the ellipfe, while the pelvis falls within it ; on the contrary, that the hips exceed, and the fhoulders fall within the line in woman. (Mémoire furlebeau Phyfique ). In thofe fpecimens of ancient art, which may be regarded as models of the moft characteriftic formation, the diflerence of breadth in thefe parts amounts to one-third: the fhoulders being fo much broader in the male, and the hips in the fe- male. The greater breadth of the pelvis gives a broader bale GENERATION, bafe of fupport to the female trunk ; and, as it throws the thigh-bones further apart at their upper ends, produces the increafed widenefs of the hips. Hence in progreffion the centre of gravity is more fenfibly changed at each ftep ; and there is a perceptible rolling of the pelvis, which charaCter- izes the female gait. The inconvenience of this arrangement counterbalances the advantages which the broader bafe of fupport might otherwife have beftowed on the female organi- zation ; and the latter is, in truth, an imaginary fuperiority, fince the feet, which are always fmnall in women, offer ulti- mately anarrow furface for the body to reft on. The various pieces of the fkeleton, by their_refpective difpofitidn and jun¢tions, determine the effential form of the body, its pofition and attitudes, and the extent and variety of its motions. "The charatters of the general form, which we have already confidered, are therefore to ke retraced in the bones ; and in this point of view a parallel of the male and female organization leads to very important refults. It is difficult to meet with a well-formed female fkeleton, where the itruéture can exhibit or recal the leading traits of the female form. After wuch trovble and obfervation, Soemmerring met with a fpecimen of what he confidered the beft and moft natural form in a young girl of Mentz, whofe form had nct beer impaired by abfurd modes of dreff- ing, and who had been fuccefsfully delivered a fhort time before her death. A beautiful plate of this fkeleton, with its defcription, is exhibited in his “Tabula {celeti feminini, junéta defcriptione,”” folio, 1797- The female fkeleton, on the whole, is fmaller in all its dimenfions, and more flender than the male. The individual bones have fewer inequali- ties, their prominences are lefs ftrongly marked, the grooves or impreffions more fuperficial, all the cavities lefs deeply hollowed out: hence the furface feems more finely turned, and is diftinguifhed by its fmoothnefs. They are often 2c- tually fofter, and have on the whole a peculiarly feminine charaéter, which cannot be eafily conveyed in defcription. The head, with the teeth, bears a greater ratio to the weight of the fkeleton, on account of the individual bones being in general more flender: the proportions arc 1:6 in the female, 1:8 or 1:10 inthe male. ‘The craniumis larger in proportion to the face. The thorax is fhorter, more con- vex in front, and more diftant from the pelvis, the fpace be- tween the laft rib and the criftailii being greater. It is lefs prominent in front ; fo that while this part projects the fur- thefl in the ereét or fupine pofition of the male, the fymphy- fis pubis does the fame in the female. ‘The loins are longer, and the angle between them and the facrum more acute. The difpofition of the pelvis is particularly charaéeriftic, as being fo immediately conneCied with the elual funéticns. ‘Tt is larger’in all its dimenfions. ‘The facrum is turned more backwards; is broader, and more concave ; the offa coccygis, more moveable and flender, projet lefs into the cavity of the pelvis. The hip-bones (offa innominata) are broader, {moother, and expanded further in the lateral direétion : lence their criftz and tuberofities are more drftant, hence the {pace between the offa pubis is greater. ‘The angle formed between the ramus and Pigg pubis is larger: that be- tween the two bones of the pubes is acute in man, while it is of 80 or go degrees in woman ; and approaches more near- ly to the form of an arch. ‘That the fexual functions are favoured by all thefe circumftances is very evident ; but the advocates of final caufes point out more particularly the reafon for the wider fpace under the offa pubis: « Ad virum admittendum intercapedme majore crurum inferiorum offium pubis.’’ (Albinus de fceleto, p. 475.) The tuberofities of the ifchia are more diftant, larger and fmoother. ‘The clavicles are lefs curved, and the fhoulder joints are lefs dif- tant. The acetabula are further apart, and the thigh-bones more oblique in their pofition: the latter are alfo more curved forwards, and have longer internal condyles. The mufcles of the female are more flender and delicate, they are, in faét, lefs denfe, fofter and moifter. Thefe organs are lefs prominent, and their fwellings, partaking of the general foftnefs of the female conftitution, have not that chara&ter of vigour which ther rough prominences and firongly marked interftices imprefs on the frame of a muf- cular man, in whom the exterior traits of fex have not been deftroyed by effeminate manners or fedentary habits. The cellular and adipous tiffue is more abundant in the female ;- and tliis, joined to the {mailer prominence of the mufcular bellies, gives to the limbs that foft roundnefs ‘and delicate. contour which chara¢terize female beauty, as expreffed in the moft celebrated produétions of great artilts. F The differences jut deferibed, the comparative weaknefs of the mufcles, the elegance and beauty of the external forms, belong to the very nature of woman. Education and habits may add to thefe chara€iers ; may increafe the de- licacy of organization; but their influence is not fufficient- ly powerfel to induce us to overlook the exiftence of a ra- dical innate difference in the phyfical flru€ture of the fexes, occurring in allages and amongit every people. That fuch differences of organization will produce correfponding ya- ricties of fun@tion may be readily allowed : but our facts are not quite fo indifputable on this point. We could un- doubtedly point out many peculiarities in the fenfibility cf women, taking the term in its moft extenfive fenfe, in their perceptions, their mental operations, and the reac- tions of the nervous fyftem on the reft cf the frame. We could trace many circumflances to the influence of the gene- rative organs, and particularly of the uterus. But the in- fluence of education, habits and cuftoms, is fo extenfive, that it is difficult to diftinguifh between the refults of thefe caufes, and of the fuppofed original diftinétions in organiza- zation. The reader may refer on this fubje& to the Hiftoire naturel'e de la Femme, by Moreau, tome 1, p. 112, &c. We cannot draw any very firong Ine of diftin@ion be- tween the fexes in the vital and natural funG@ions. We may apply, indeed, to this fubje&, the philofophical remark of Buffon concerning animals; viz. that they differ from each other more firikingly in proportion as we compare them together in fuperficial points, which do not affect the nature of their exiitence fo much as its exterior development. Yet the charaGers of fex are fo deeply imprefied, that we find traces of them even in thefe functions, when: fubmitted to arigorous examination. The pulfe, ceteris paribus, is more frequent ; the lungs are fmal’er, and the cheit ania, : er. The appetite is lefs; the body grows more rapidly, and the periods of dentition, puberty, and adult flature aré more early. See, for more detailed obfervation on this. head, the work above quoted. 1 eusiv fine The voiee is marked by very charateriflic diftinGtions in- the two fexes. In man itis ftrong, deep, lefs foft and’ flexi- ble. In the female it is fharper; and the organs are more flexi- ble, fo that articulation can be performed mere rapidly. ‘Tt has alfo a peculiar quality or tone, which, in many inftances,, conftitutes an inexpreflibly attractive charm. “ Ofallacute voices,’ fays Ronflean, “it muft be allowed,,in fpite of the- prejudices entertained by the Italians in. favour of the caftra- ti, that none are equal to thofe of worren,. either in the ex- tent or beauty of the tone.” ‘The anatomift, perhaps, will attempt to explain thefe creumftances by ony in that the glottis is not enlarged at the age of puberty in females, as it is in-males ; that the larynx is confiderably that the tongue, the mufcles, and the organs of fpeech being. 5 leis: aller 5 _ whiter and more expanded in women. differ in the two fexes. -rous hairs. GENERATION. Aefs rigid, like all t e other parts of the female, young girls ought to fpeak fooner than boys, &c. Among the feveral diitinctions belonging: to this head, we muil notice the greater prominence of the thyroid cartilage in the male. The texture of the fkin is more denfe and compact in men, In brunettes, particu- larly, it has afoftneis and polith, which convey the moft vo- luptuous impreifions to the organs of touch. Perfons,”’ fays Winckelmann, «* who prefer fuch females, are captiva- ted through the medium of feeling, rather than of vilton."’ The fkin in woman pofleffes alfo a tranfpareney, which al- “lows the colour of the blood to be difcerned in the fuper- ficial veins, and-produces the beautiful azure tint, which -contraits fo charmingly with the clear whitenefs of other The cutaneous fecretion has been contidered to “ La tran{piration parait beaucoup moins abondante chez les femmes ; elle a furtout, dans cer- parts. -taines parties, une odeur, qu'il ferait difficile d’exprimer, mais qu'un odorat exercé parvient aifément a diftinguer chez, -les femmes qui jouiffent avec plénitude de tous les attributs :de leur fexe, et qui font femmes jufque dans leur atmo- {phere.”? Moreau, t.1. p. 171. The fin of man is always, comparatively, more deeply tinted; itis thicker, rougher, and covered with more nume- Jaovr account of this organ, too, we have to mention a very characteriitic attribute of the male fex, the _ beard. : jects. and is not completely developed until after fome years. This produétion, which-adorns the figure of the male, in the human fpecies, is more or lefs abundant in different fub- It does not begin to appear until the age of aaah ts - great thicknefs depends, perhaps, on the habit of cutting it. In old age a fimilar produétien appears in fome women; shere, however, it is difperfed irregularly, and has not the thicknefs which it poffefles ig man ; nor does it ever acquire the fame length. Yet rare examples have been known of women with long beards. A cafe of this kind is mentioned -inthe Anatomie Delfcriptive of Bichat, tom. 5. p- 165, as having been feen at the hofpital of the Ecole de Médecine. . The woman was forty years of age; her breafts were well- formed, and fhe had had a child. Her beard was as ftrong _as that ofa man, and numerous hairs covered the lobuli of the ears. The charaGters of fex in thofe organs which are immedi- -ately employed in the generative functions, will be exhibited in the courfe of this article. We have only to obferve fur- ther, that the circumference of the anus, which is covered with hair in the male, is fmooth in the female fubieG. The reader may refer, on fexual diftinétions, to Rouffel, Syfteme phyfique et moral de la Femme; to the works of Moreau and Cabanis; to the French Encyclopedie, Yverdun edition, art. Femme and Wiril ; to Ackermann, De difcrimine fexuum preter genitalia, Mogunto 1788, Svo.; to A. I. Nolte, Diff. nitens momenta quedam circa fexus differen- tiam. Getting. Svo. The differences in the: general habit and appearance of the body, the foftnefs, delicacy, and infe- rior ftature of the female, as contrafted with the ftrong fi- newy frame of the male, may be feen in the two figures, fup- pofed to have been drawn by Titian, contained in Vefalius, De Corp. hum. Anat. Bafil..1542: alfo in the rft, 2d, and 3d plates of Bidloo’s work ; and in the Cours complete -d’ Anatomie gravé par M. A. E. Gautier, et expliqué par M. Jadelot; Nanc. 1773, folio. The unrivalled artifts of -Greece could not fail to perceive the fame diftinctions, which they have exprefled moft admirably in fome of the fineft mo- -nument$ of their artyas in the Venus, the Apollo, and Her- cules, -. ISIS DGG M . ‘ The differences which we have enumerated are not very diftingtly perceivable, until the two fexes have reached the epocha of their refpeétive perfect development. They are concealed, in the early periods of infancy, under externak forms which are nearly the fame in both fexes. It is true, indeed, that we can diltinguifh a male from a female embryo (fee Emaryo); but the leading fexual diftinGions are by no means fully developed until the age we have mentioned. The mufcles have not yet produced any remarkable change in the direction of the bones ; the glandular and flethy parts hardly differ either in form or volume; and the fkeletons ean fearcely be diflinguifhed by the breadth of the hips and pelvis. The like confulion prevails in the moral difpofition: of the two fexes: boys are not diftinguifhable in this refped from girls. The appetites, ideas, and paffions of both are tl:e fame. We cannot at prefent, nor perhaps fhiall we ever be able to determine, by what particular aétion the oreans of generation influence the other parts of the body, dire¢t their operations, and modify the character and order of the pheno-« mena relating tothem. The fact, however, is evident ; and the influence is inconteftable. For, when the natural deve. lopement or actions of the generative organs is impeded, the fecondary characters, by which the fexes are diftinguith- ed, do not take place. To illuftrate this fubje&, let us obferve, that the feveral differences of animals may be divided into primary and fecondary ; the former include the differences in the parts of generation themfelves, which are originally formed differences, and belong equally to both fexes; the latter are all the other variations depending on thefe, not taking place until the parts of the firft clafs are coming into ufe, and being principally, though not entirely, in the male. One of the moft remarkable fecondary charaéters in animals, generally fpeaking, is the fuperior ftrength of make in the male ; and this frength is generally directed particularly to the organs employed in fighting. Hence it is efpecially noticeable in the animals whofe females are of a peaceable nature; ¢. 9. the legs of the cock and neck of the bull. But in carnivo- rous animals, where ftrength 1s required by both fexes to kill the prey, the differences in the form of the male and female are not fo ftriking, yet the fexes are {till diftinguifhed by fome differences in their external covering, as the male lion by his mane, and the cock and hen of many birds by the plumage. The general ftrength of make, the hairy covering, and the voice diftinguifh the male from the female of the human fpecies. Now in all animals, which are not of any diitinét fex, no fuch alteration takes place in the form at the time of puberty. Thus, the free martin, which pofleffes a mixture of the generative organs of both fexes, does not exhibit in form a refemblance of either the cow or bull. It is very much like the ox or {payed heifer, being confiderably larger than either the bull or the cow, and having horns very fimilar‘to thofe of the ox. The voice is fimilar to that of the ox, and more like that of the cow than of the bull. The flefh, like that of the ox or {payed heifer, is generally much finer in the fibre, than that of either the bull or cow ; it is fuppofed to exceed that of the ox and heifer in delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price at market. (See “ Account.of the Free Martin’”” in Mr. Hun- ter’s obfervations on the animal economy, p. 55.) A fimilar effe€t is produced, when the fexual parts are removed after birth ; the caftrated male and the {payed female have both the fame common properties, and are very much like the free martin; the artificial removal of the generative organs preventing the occurrence of thofe changes, which would naturally have occurred at the time of puberty. Thus; by depriving either fex of the true parts of eee ; they GENERATION. they feem to approach each other in appearances, and acquire a refemblance to the hermaphrodite. Refpecting the changes, which occur at puberty, Mr. Hunter fays, “ It is evidently the male, which at this time in fuch re{pects recedes from the female; every female being at the age of maturity more like the young of the fame fpecies than the male is obferved to be: and if the male is deprived of his teftes when young, he retains more of the original youthful form, and therefore more refembles the female. From hence it might be fup- pofed, that the female charaéter contains more truly the {pecific properties of the animal than the male ; but the cha- rater of every animal is that which is marked by the pro- perties common to both fexes, which are found in a natural hermaphrodite, as ina {nail, or in animals of neither fex, as the caitrated male or {payed female. But, where the fexes are feparate, and the animals have two characters ; the one cannot more than the other be called the true; as the real dittinguifhing marks of each particular fpecies, as has been mentioned above, are thofe common to both fexes; and which are likewife in the unnatural hermaphrodite. That thefe properties give the diftinét character of fuch animals is evident, for the caftrated male and {payed female have both the fame common properties; and when I treated of the free martin, which isa monilrous hermaphrodite, I obferved that it was more like the ox than the cow or bull; fo that the marks characteriltic of the fpecies, which are found in the animal of a double fex, are imitated by depriving the in- dividual of certain fexual parts, in confequence of which it retains only the true properties of the {pecies.”’ (See “* Ac- count of an extraordinary Pheafant,” in Mr. Hunter’s ob- fervations on the animal economy, p. 75.) The influence of the generative organs in the developement of the body at puberty, and in the modifications which con- ftitute the fexual charaéter, is clearly evinced in the ftag, whofe amours are conduéted info {plendid a ftyle, and evince fo remarkable an exuberance of vitality. When he is de- prived, at an early age, of the fexual attributes, none of the vigour of the rutting feafon is difplayed ; the mufcular fleth is fofter, and the horns are either arrefted in their growth entirely, or are imperfectly formed. Raffel caftrated a very young ftag, and no horns appeared; he operated on an older one, and the horn was partially developed. When he removed one teftis at a more advanced age, the oppofite horn was the mott completely formed ; the removal of both glands from two adult {tags did not prevent the appearance of the horns ; but they were fhorter, and neither the invett- ing membrane, nor the horn itfelf, were afterwards feparated. (On the Economy of Nature in glandular Difeafes. ) Faéts very analogous to thefe may be obferved in the human fubjec&. An imperfe& original formation of the fexual organs, or the removal of fome of them modilies the whole charaéter of the individual, changes the phyfical con- ftitution in a very remarkable manner, and influences in a no lefs ftriking degree the moral habits and difpofitions. Ob- fervers in all ages have remarked, that mutilated or imperfe&t animals poffefs an aflemblage of peculiar characters, all of which have not a very diredt relation to the functions of the generative organs. Not only are the fexual defires entirely loft in thefe degraded individuals, but the whole of their organization 1s affected in a very fingular way. The cel- lular texture becomes more abundant and Jax, and is more loaded with fat; the mufcles are weaker; the voice more acute 3 and the developement of the beard is impeded. The change in the moral difpofitions is not lefs worthy of atten- tion. It was the opinion of the ancients, that mutiltion degrades man, and brings animals to perfeétion ; the truth is, that it equally degrades both, fince it alters their nature. But, by weakening an animal, it renders him more docile, and better fuited to the purpofes of man ; by deitroying the tie, which conneéts him the moft powerfully to his fpecies, it affifts in developing thofe habits of obedience and atten- tion, and thofe feelings of gratitude and attachment which make him fo ferviceable to us. A fimilar effect is produced in man; mutilation feparates him in a manner from his fpecies ; and the fatal event, which deprives him of the moit agreeable relations cftablifned by nature, between beings of the fame kind, almoft extinguifhes in his breait the peculiar feelings of humanity. In thofe young perfons, to whom nature has denied either wholly or in part, the diitinguifhing powers of the male fex, puberty does not produce its ordinary effects. And more- over, at this time the bony and mufcular organs are conftantly affuming more and more of the external forms, and general character belonging to the female. Thefe equivocal indi- viduals have an acute voice, weak mufcles, a foftnefs and laxity in the general organization. The pelvis, too, has that greater proportional breadth which characterizes this part m women. This circumftance, as well as the confequent breadth, and great roundnefs of the hips, may be particu- larly noticed in the caftrati. The phyfical condition is generally accompanied in thefe individuals with a perfeétly correfponding moral ftate. All thefe points are fully fub- ftantiated in the following account of a marine foldier, aged 23, by Mr. Home, (Obfervations on Hermaphrodites, Philof. Tranfa&t. 1799.) “He had no beard ; his brealts were fully as large as thofe of a woman at that age; he was in- clined to be corpulent ; his fkin uncommonly foft for a man ; his hands fat and fhort ; his thighs and legs very much like thofe of a woman; the quantity of fat on the os pubis re- fembled the mons vencris; the penis was unufually fmall, as well as fhort, and not liable to erections; the tefticles not larger in fize than we commonly find them in the fetal ftate ; and he had never felt any paffion for women. He was weak in his intelleéts, and his bodily ftrength.”? Mr. Home mentions, in the fame place, two other {till more ftrikim; examples. A woman had three children, of which the firit and third were fuppofed to be hermaphrodites ; the fecond was a perfect female. The eldeft, when Mr. H. faw him, was thirteen years of age, ‘of a moft uncommon bulk, which appeared to be Aes wholly compofed of fat ; his body, round the waiit, was equal to that of a fat man, and his thighs and legs in proportion ; he was four feet high ; his breafts as large as thofe of a fat woman; the mons ve- neris loaded with fat ; no penis; a preputium —th of an inch ‘long; and under it the meatus urinarius, but no ae There was an imperfeét ferotum, with a fmooth furface, without a raphe in the middle, but in its place an indented line ; it contained two tefticles of the fize they are met with in the fectus. He was very dull and heavy, almoft an idiot, but could walk and talk. The younger one was fix years old, uncommonly fat, and large for his age ; more an idiot than the other, not having fenfe enough to learn to walk, though his limbs were not defective. The external parts of generation diflered in nothing from thofe juft deferibed, except in the prepuce being an inch long? An interefting cafe is mentiéned in the Mémoires de la Société médicale d’ Emulation, t. 3, p. 293, which tends to confirm the preceding obfervations. A young man, a 23, has no teltes in the ferotum, which is only indicated by a flight corrugation of the integuments ; a very fmall penis, which never changes its fize, and two folds of fkin, extend- ing from the latter organ to the anus, and very much relembhing the female labia. His ftature is below the middle fize. The ‘kin is foft, fmooth, and entirely free from hair; 2 the GENERATION. the place of thie beard fupplied by a flight down. The voice habitually hoarfe. The mufcles not well marked, and the pelvis and cheit refembling thofe cf the remale. The intelle@tual faculties are very dull, and the fexual appetite entirely wanting. The period, and the manuer of mutilation, have confiderable influence on the effects of the procefs. ‘Che complete re- moval of all the external organs is a much more deciiive method of annihilating the propenfities connected with them, than any partial amputation, or compreffion, or ligature of the {permatic cords. ‘The operation is-alfo more effectual, when performed in carly infancy, than after the period of puberty, Venereal defires have been known to fubhit in confiderabie force, and with the ufual external figns, after fhe remoyal of the tees in the adult. The moral efiedts of this mutilation have been ttrongly depicted by Cabanis. « Eunuchs are the vilett clafs of the human {pecies: cowardly and knavifh becaufe they are weak; envious and malignant, becaufe they are unfortunate. ‘Lheir underitanding thews the abfence cf thofe impreffions, which give to the brain fo much activity, which infefe mto it an extraordinary pro- portion of vital energy, which cherifh all the expanfive and generous feelings of the foul, elevate and direct all the thoughts. aries is almoit the only very impoling excep- tion to this rule; he is alinoft the only eunuch whofe name appears with glory inthe page of hiltory. Solemon, one of the lieutenants of Belifarius, is another rare example; he exhibited great courage aud talents in the war with the Vandals in Africa. How immoral, then, how cruel and fatal to {eciety, is the practice of thus degrading and corrupt- ing at pleafure the human {pecies !”’ A curious cafe ia the Philofophical Tranfactions for 1805, pt» 2,in which the ovaria were delicient, fhews that fucha deficiency occafions the female to. approach in fome points to the male formation. The fubject of this narrative died at the age of twenty-nine. ‘ Having ceafed to grow at ten years of age, fhe was in ftature not more than four feet ix incheshigh. Her breadth acrofs the fhoulaers was as-much as fourteen inches, but her pelvis (contrary to what 1s ufually obferyed in the proportions of the female fkeleton} mea- fured only nine inches from the offa ilia acrofs the facrum. Her breaits and nipples never enlarged more than inthe male fubject; fhe never mentiruated; there was no appearance Of hair onthe pubes, nor were there any indications of pu- berty, either in mind or body, even at twenty-nine years of age.’ The removal of the ovaries has been moit rarely practifed in the human fubject; probably the only cafe in which it has ever been done is that recorded by Mr. Pott, where theie bodies were contained in inguinal herme., A healthy young woman, aged twenty-three, large breaited, fiout,-and menitruating regulariy, had a painful tumour in each groin, near the abdominal mufcles. ‘I'he ovaria were removed from thefe tumours by a furgical operation. “ She has enjoyed good health ever lince, but is become thinner aud more apparently mufeular; her breaits, which were Jarze, are gone; nor has fhe ever menttruated fince the ope- ration, whichis now fome years.’? (Pott’s Works, vol. iii. p- 329.) ‘Che changes which took place in the latter cale feem analogous to what has been obierved in fome birds. After they have done laying, hen pheafants have been ob- ferved to acquire the plumage of the cock in fome inftances. "This has been noticed in wild individuals ; but Mr. Hunter had three opportunities of afcertaining the fact by his own exami- nation. He further mentions a pea-hen, which had produced ehickens eight times, aud which, after moulting-at eleven ears old, difplayed the feathers peculiar to the other fex. The tail of the cock appeared at the fame time. This was Vou. XVI. repeated for three years, and the fpurs of the cock appeared alfo in the third year. The animal never bred after this change of plumage. “he fame fa&t has beea noticed in the duck, fee Home on Hermaphiodites, in the Philo! Tranfaét. 1799- ‘We may conclude,” fays Mr. Hunter, “that this change is merely the effect of age, and obtains to a certain decree inevery clafsof animals. We find fomething fimilar taking place even in the human fpecies; for that increafe of hair obferyable en the faces of many women in advanced life, is an approach towards the beard, which is one of the moft diftinguithing fecondary properties of man. ‘Thus we fee the fexes, which, at an early period, had little to c utinguifh them from each other, acguiring, about the time of puberty, f{-condary properties, which clearly chara¢terize the male and female ; the male at this time receding from the female, and affuming the fecondary properties of his fex. The female, ata much later time of life, when the powers of propagatica ceafe, lofes many of her peculiar properties ; and may be faid, except fromthe mere tiru€ture of parts, to be of no fex ; even receding from the original character of the animal, and approaching in appearance towards the male, or perhaps more properly towards the hermaphrodite." Obfervation on the Animal Economy, p 80. Nothing can be more ablurd than to feek for any mecha- nical explanaticn of thefe accidental phenomena, or even of the more regular phenomena, cf which they interrupt the courfe, at the fame time that they elucidate the laws. They cannot furely be devived from the ftruéture of the organs to which they belong, nor from the known nature of the Ji- quors feereted im thofe organs. But the confideration of fome phyfiological circumfiances, which are very fimple in -themfelves, may enable us to efcape from this dark abode of occult cauies, to which the theories of the ancients were confined, and which have been little changed, except in name, by the moderns. The latter indeed, by fubftituting, for the epinions of the ancients, other more dogmatical ex- plaaations, have given rife to more important and dangerous errors: they have inured men’s minds to the pernicious habit of attempting to determine the nature of cauies, where we can only oblerve effects ; and in determining thefe caufes they have often perfonifed mere abttraétions. In the rf place, it isa certain fact, however it may be explained, that the mufcular fibres are weaker, and the celiular uiflue more abundant, in women than in men. Secondly, we cannct doubt that this difference is produced by the prefence and influence of the uterus and ovaria; it takes place infallibly when thefe organs are originally well formed, andyare de- veloped in the natural crder. This weaknefs of the mufcles imparts an initinctive dittafte for violent exercifes ; it inclines the individual to amufements, and, when the age admits of it, to fedentary occupations. The greater feparation of the hips renders progreffion lefs eafy in the female, on account of the more extenfive change of the centre of gravity. The mode of life inthe female is thus indicated a priori by a cir- cumftance in their orjanization, which might be regarded as trifling, and which can hardly be diltinétly obferved at an early age. Again, the habitual fenfe of weaknefs infpires lefs coniidence. Not poffefling the means of acting on fur- rounding objects by dire¢t force, woman feeks for more in- dire&t methods; in proportion as fhe finds herfelf lefs cal- culated to exiit alone, does fhe attempt to attract the atten- tion of others, and to fortify her own exiltence by that of thofe furrounding beings, whom fhe judges moit able to protect her. Thefe obfervations would be ‘almoft fufficient to explain the difpefitions, taltes, and general habits of women. They will naturally prefer thofe employments which require delicate addrets rather than mufcular force : C they GENERATION. they will employ themfelves on little objects : and their minds will confequently acquire acutenefs and penetration rather than extent and depth. Thus, as they lead a fedentary life, to which tne nature of their employments confines them as- ftrongly as the immediate propenfities depending on their organization, we fee in a manner a new phyfical and moral fyltem developed in them. They perceive their own weak- nefs; hence the neceflity of pleafing: from the latter cir- cumitance arifes the continual obfervation of all that is pafl- ing azround them, alfo their diflimulation, their artifices, their manners, their graces, in a word their coquetry, which, in the prefent fyftem of fociety, muik be regarded as the af- femblage or refult of their good and bad qualities. For reafons exaétly contrary to thofe which have been juft explained, boys acquire the oppofite original and cha- rafteriitic propenfities: hence they naturally contract oppo- fite manners and habits. Full of the feeling of their growing itrength, and of the with to exercife it, repofe is difagree- able and irkfome to them: they want lively motion, end they indulge in it with impetuofity. Thus, without entering into further details, we fee that the bent of their ideas and the charaéter of their paffions are formed directly by their ori- ginal difpoiitions, and the kind of amufements or occupations which thefe determine them fo prefer. Now, the paflions and ideas of the grown man are only thofe of the child de- veloped and completed by the maturity of the organs, and the perfonal experiece of the individual. See Cabanis, Rapports du phyfique et moral de ’4iomme, memoire cingnieme. ae 7 But nothing hitherto explains to us how modifications of io general a nature can depend on the conditions of certain (peculizr organs. Wemuit then afcend a little higher, and inquire whether the remarkable influence exerted by the organs of generation can be at all elucidated by their ftru€ture, their functions, or their phyfological relations to the other branches of the fyftem. We fee, in the firit place, that parts fupplied by nerves which come from diferent trunks, or are formed by differeut nerves united together, are either more fenfible or more irritable, and almoit always both atonce. Nature feems to have placed the ganglia ana plexufes in the neighbourhood of the vifcera, where the neryous influence muft be the moft confiderable. The epi- galtric and hypochondriac regions abound with them ; confe- quently their fenfibility is very acute, their fympathies very extenfive, andthe correfponding portions of the inteftinal canal enjoy a degree of irritability hardly equalled by that of the heart. Now the nerves of the generative organs 1 both fexes, without being apparently very important by their fize or number, come from various fources, are con- neéted with thofe of all the abdominal vifcera, and by them, or rather by the great fympathetic, which ferves asa general medium of conneétion, with the molt effential divifions of the neryous fyltem. Secondly, obfervation fhews us that the nervous fyftem (of which the original organization and mode of acting de- termine the general! fenfibility of ail the organs taken toge- ther, and the particular feniibility of each confidered fepa- rately) may in its turn be powerfully modified by the charac- ter of thofe fun‘tions, which perform the moit important part in the animal economy ; that-is to. fay, in other words, by the habitual impreffions conveyed to it from {ome of its mott fenfible extremities. The lofs of one fenfe dees not produce merely an increafe of energy or attention in thofe which remain, and which feem to redouble their efforts in order to fupply its place; but it changes the manner ia which the nervous fyltem feels and re-aéts, arid. hence arife new habits evidently connected with the uaufual im- preflions which thefe fenfes then begin to reteive. The prac tice of medicine proves to us, by daily examples, that the af« feétions of various organs have the moft marked influence on the taftes, ideas, and paffions. The moral difpofitions are by no means the fame in difeafes of the cheft, as in thofe of the {pleen or liver. A greater or lefs propenfity towards a par- ticular train of ideas or feelings (as for inftance towards thofe connected with religious belief) is experienced in par- ticular {tates of languor than in others ; and the greateft apti- tude to thofe avocations, which demand either confiderable ftrength and activity in the imagination, or long continued and profound meditation, is often experienced ina ftate of difeafe caufed by the deranged fun@tions of fome of the ab- dominal vifcera.. Thus, then, nothing is more conformable to the laws of the animal economy, than that organs, endowed with a fingular degree of feniibility, fhould exereife a very extenfive influerice on the machine in general; and we per- ceive immediately that the’prefent is one of the moft remark- able phenomen: referrible to thefe laws. ‘ In the work lalt quoted, Cabanis endeavours to explain this fubje@t further, by obferving that thofe organs, which feem to be the principal feats (foyers) of the peculiar ferfibi- lity of the genevative apparatus, viz. the ovaries and tefticless are of a glandular ftructure, that the various parts of the glandular fyftem affeét each other very powerfully ; and that the conditioa of this fyltem altcgether has a moft important influence on the {tate of the brain, augmenting or diminifhing itsenergy. The latter circumitance will apply with fo much the greater force toa cafe, where the glands are diftinguifhed by their great fenfibility. Again, it has been alleced that the feminal fluid formed in the tefticles, whea ebforbed and conveyed into the circu- lation, affe€ts the general mafs of blood. At all events the cémmencement of this fecretion is marked by important changes in the voice, the mufcular motions, and the phyfiog- nomy, -by the appearance of the beard, &c. And we have feex, that in animals, the development of particular parts is materially modified by the prefence and aétion of the teltes: That an analogous fluid forms in the ovaries, and either furnifhes the materials of the embryo, or contributes co their formation, and that its abforption produces analogous effe&s in the female, to thofe which we obfervein the male, is in truth a mere hypothefis. But the influence of the ova- ries in the changes at the time of puberty, whether produced in this way or ndf, is incontellible. Laitly, in explaining the different influence of thefe parts in the two fexes, we mult” affume peculiar difpofitions in the original formations of the nervous fyftem, as well as in the cellular organ, the mufeles, and bones. Thefe muft depend on thofe unknown circum- ftances which influence the formation, life, and develop- ment of the embryo; their explanation muft be referred to that of the differences of fex, they muit be regarded as fimple fa&ts, and be admitted as fuch, without attempting to trace them any higher. iy Hermaphrodifm —Having compared together the two fexes, and mentioned the moft remarkable circumftances which diftinguith the organization of each, we have to: exa- mine further whether nature has in any inftances united the attributes of the male and female in the fame individuals, fo as to form a‘ true hermaphrodite. The refolution of this quettion, whichis net to be confidered as fatisfying idle cu- riofity, is equally interefting to the naturalift and the philo- fopher, and may influence the decifions of judicial tribunals on the important queftions of impotence and fterility. The Grecian artifts have endeavoured to combine the beauties and properties of the two fexes in the fame fubje&t, and have exerted the magic powers of their chiffel on figures of her- maphrodites. GENERATION, maphrodites. Among thefe ideal productions, we may men- tion two beautiful ftatues in a recumbent pofition in the Flo- rentine gallery. A fmall hermaphrodite ftatue is feen in the villa Albani, a very fine one in the villa Borghefe, and there is another in an obfcene attitude, pointing out that it partakes of the two fexes. All thefe are males in the external ap- pearance of their generative organs, females in the form of the breaft, in the features, in the elegance of the figure, and the foftnefs of the contours. (Winckelmann, Hittoire de TArt, gto. tome 1. p»364.) Thefe monuments furnifh no proof on the fubject ; they are to be regarded as creations of art, derived from the imagination of the fculptor, and not as the reprefentatives of any real exiftence. Winckel- mann himfelf, who, in other ref{pects, believes in hermaphro- difm, claffes the chef-d’ceuvres we have juit alluded to among the ideal productions. They exhibit an attempt to forma more perfect being, by uniting together the peculiar excel- lencies of the male and female, without attending very p ticularly to the genital organs. ‘I'he word hermaphrodite then, as applied to thefe works of art, includes the notion of avery high degree of beauty and elegance, in which all that is moft admirable in either fex is combined in one indi- vidual ; and the works, in which fuch are reprefented, may be regarded as the inventions-of the greateft maiters. (See Caylus’s Recueil d'Antiquités, tome 3.) The fabulous ac- count of the transformation of Hermaphroditus and the nymph Salmacis into a moft lovely being, combining the attra€tion and the powers of both fexes, may be regarded as an expreffion of the common opinions onthe fubje&. The vaft multitude of obfervations and hiftories of her- maphrodites, recorded in various medical works, renders it eeffary for us to clafs them under certain heads. rt. The true hermaphrodite? There is much reafon to believe, that no inftance of an hermaphrodite, in the SriGt fenfe of the word, has ever occurred in the more perfect quadrapeds, or in the human fpecies. For, when we confider the bones of the elvis, to which the crgans of generation are conneted, it is difficult to conceive in what way the complete parts. of the male and female could be placed, diftin@ from each other ; and no inftance of its having happened is to be found, in any record, which can be depended on. To conttitute an hermaphrodite, in the fenfe we are now confidering, it would be neceflary that the male organs of copulation and impreg- nation, fuch as the teftes and their ducts, the velicule femi- nales, proftate, urethra, and penis, flould exilt in the fame individual with the organs employed for the purpofes of con- ception, of receiving, nourifhing, and expelling the foetus, fuch as a well-formed vagina, uterus, ovaries, ard Fallepian tubes. he difficulty, and even impoflibility of fuch an union, has been already recognized by Haller and Pietfch. Medical authors have indeed related cafes of women, who, after having many children, had impregnated other females ; (fee Mollerus, Traétat. de Hermaphrodit. cap, 2.: Blan- card, Colle&t. Medico-Phyf. cent. 3, obf. 80.) but fuch narratives are too obvioufly fabulous to require ferious re- futation. The neareft approach to fuch an occurrence, as we have jult alluded to, conlifts in a partial mixture of the female and male organs. ‘This has been obferved, not very rarely, in fome animals. Mr. Hunter has given feveral inftances of it in neat cattle; and it has alfo been feen in the dog, the afs, and the goat. The individuals, in whom fuch appearances have been noticed, are fo far from having had the properties of both fexes, that they were obvioufly incapable of exe- cuting any fexual function at all. Even in this -reftriGed fenfe, we believe that no cafe has occurred in the human fpe- cies, and that all the fuppofed hermaphrodites among men 4 have been individuals with imperfect or monftrous formations of fome parts. ‘The cafe mentioned by Petit, im the Me- moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1720, as exhibiting a mixture of organs, was clearly a male: and that related by Maret in the Memoires de Dijon, t. 2, p. 157, belongs ta the fame clafs. The following cafe, diflected by Giraud of the Hotel Dieu, fhews us how careful we fhould be in drawing conclufions from external appearances, and will convince us that no accounts of hermaphrodites can be received, except on the faith of diffeGtion performed by experienced anato- mifts, The individual was eflentially a male, and offered fome appearances of the other fex, not from the addition of any organs, but from an unufual diftribution of fome parts of the male apparatus. He was received in fociety as a wo- man, and was conne¢ted by a voluntary affociation with a man, who had for a long time performed the duties of a huf- band towards him. ‘This fingular charaéter died in the Hotel Dieu. ~He exhibited, externally, an affembl: ge of the male and female properties. ‘The buft has a completely mafculine appearance; the chin was covered with firm hairs, very ana- legous to a beard; the neck was thick, the cheit broad, the bofoin flightly {woln, and the nipples exatly like thofe of aman. ‘Che lower half of the body prefented a contraft to thefe characters. The foft and delicate contours of the lower limbs, the rounded hips, the broad pelvis, and the greater feparation of the thighs, approximated decidedly to the female form. An imperforate penis, two tefticles, and an appearance of vulva, were the external generative organs. The teftes were well formed, the veficulz feminales imperfect, and the urethra opened at the cul-de-fac, which reprefented the vagina. Thus, inftead of a double fex, the individual was an ill-formed male, entirely incapable of any fexual funGtion. See Journal de Médecine par Sédillot, .tome 2, - 319. The laft inftance of mixed organs, which we fhall quote, is mentioned by Dr. Baillie, to whom it was communicated by Dr. Storer of Nottingham. “ The perfou bears a woman’s name, and wears the apparel of a woman. She has a re- markably mafculine look, with plain features, but.no beard. She had never menftruated ; and on this account fhe was de- fired by the lady, with whom fhe lived as fervant,-to become an out-patient at the Nottingham hofpital. At this time fhe was twenty-four years of age, and had not been fenfible of any bad health, but only came to the hofpital, in order to comply with the wifhes of her miftrefs. Warious medicines were tried without effeG, which led to the fufpicion of the hymen being imperforated, and the menftrual blood havnig accumulated behind it. She was therefore examined by Mr. Wright, one of the furgeons to the hofpital, and by Dr. Storer, The vagina was found to terminate in a cul-de-fac, two inches from the external furface of ‘the labia. The head of the clitoris, and the external orifice of the meatus uring, appeared as in the natural ftru€ture of a female, but there were no nymphz. The labia were more pendulous than ufual, and contained each of them a body refembling a tefticle of a moderate fize, with its cord. he mammz refeinbled thofe of a woman. The perfon had no defire or partiality whatever for either fex.’’ (Morbid Anatomy of fomeof the moft important Parts of the human Body, 2d ed. p- 410.) This narrative leaves very little doubt that the in- dividual was a male, with the generative organs fo imperfect as not to have exerted their ufual influence on the frame jy general: there is no evidence of any female ergan being prefent here. We repeat then, that there is not oz!y no initance re- corded, of perfeét male and femal? organs fo united in the human fpecies, as to conftitute an individual capable of ex- (O43 ercifing GENERATION. ercifing the generative funtions of both fexes—of impreg- nating or being impregnated—but alfo, that there is no elearly defcribed inftance of the fmallett mixture of organs in any human perfon, afcertained by actual diffeétion, and teftified by perfons of competent anatomical fill. All the fuppofed initances of hermaphrodites muit then be referred to one of the following claffes ; in which unufual fituations of certain organs, vicious conformations, various mon‘tro- fities, imperfeétly developed male organs, or a greater pro- minence than ufual of fome female parts, occalion a devia- tion from the acevitomed type, fuppofed to conititute her- inaphrodifm, very capable, when aihited by lies and fraud, of impofing on thofe whe know nothing of natural appear- ances, and often miftaken by thole who ought to have known better. Hence have arifen the numerous ftatements, contained even in che writings of anatomifts and phyficians, and tending to prove the extitence of the prodigy, of which no well authenticated faét has hitherto determined the reality. A found fpirit of criticifm, fourded on a more accurate knowledge of natural appearances, reduces to their juft ftandard thofe fingular deviations from the ordinary type, from which ignorance, credulity, and a love of the marvel- jous, have drawn fuch extravagant and ridiculous confe- uences. 2d Clafs —-Male individuals, with unufual formations of the urinary and generative organs ; (androgynus.) Where the ordinary type is confiderably changed, an appearance Is fometimes produced, very capable of deceiving fuperficial obfervers: there is a kind of fketeh, or imperfect attempt, at a double apparatus of organs. But the male fex gene- rally predominates very clearly in thefe cafes, and the am- biguity depends commonly on the teftes being contained in feparate paraliel folds of the fkin; the penis being imperfo- rate ; and the urethra opening in the perineum, on the fur- face of a blind pouch, having a red and tender appearance, and eafily miitaken for the vagina. In fuch an individual the penis, being imperforate, and probably finaller than ufual, is confidered as a large clitoris ; the folds of {kin holding the teftes very much refemble the female labia, and the red flit, behind which the urethra ends, is tolerably analogous to the vagina. The imperforation of the penis, and the opening of the ejaculatory duéts near the perineum, at which their contents efcape, deprives thefe individuals of the power of procreation; and the fterility of their marriages, if they enter into that ftate, in fpite of their imperfeét formation, arifes entirely from this caufe. The teftes and veficulz feimi- nales appear to be perfect in thefe cafes. The individuals experience the ordinary fexual defires, and the feminal fluids are expelled at the unnatural opening in the perineum. A fimilar deformity oecurs not unfrequently m the goat and fheep,; Ariftotle having obferved it in the former. The reader will find examples in Haller’s Commentarius de Her- maphroditis, where a vaft number of inftances is quoted ; in Wrifberg’s Commentatio de Singulari genitalium Defor- mitate in puero Hermaphroditium Mentiente; § 7, note 4: in Moreau Hiftoire Naturelle de la Femme, tom. 1. p. 224: in Mertrud, Differtation fur la fameufe Hermaphrodite, qui paroit aux yeux du publique, Paris 1749, folio: Agoty, Obfervations fur Hiftoire Naturelle, la phyfique, &c. avec des planches imprimées en couleyr, Paris gto. 1752 An inftance, fimilar to the kind jut deferibed, is related and drawa by Wrifberg in the memoir above quoted: but there was this difference, that the reétum, as well as the urethra, opened in the unnatural fituation in the perineum ; this male child had been chriitened by a female name. Other lefs effeatial deviations from the accuitomed organi- gation have given rife to the opinion that the individuals were hermaphredites. A fiffure, of vatious depths, has exifted in the perineum; covered with a fecretion from numerous febaceous glands ; when all the other organs were perfect im every refpect. Wrifberg knew an inflance of this kind at Gottingen: the mdividual was always deemed an herma- phrodite, but he had the natural defires and powers of a male. "he abfence of the teftes from the ferotum has given rife to the fame opinions. A confinement of the penis to the fcrotum, by a particular formation of the integu- ments, has occafioned perfons to be reputed hermaphrodites. In thefe the urine is in the direGtion downwards, and the confinement of the organ will not allow of its performing the fexual functions. ‘The parts may be fet free by a fur- rical operation. The latt defcription of males, fuppofed to be hermaphro- dites, are thofe in whom the urinary bladder is deficient, together with the lower and anterior portion of the abdo- minal mufcles and integuments, and the fymphvfis pubis, a red and fenfible mafs of an irregular and fungous-like fur- face, with the ureters opening on it, is placed at the lower part of the abdomen. Confiderable alterations take place in the generative organs, in confequence of this deformity. The urethra is deficient, and the penis confequently imperforate- The feminal duéts open near the fungous mafs above-men- tioned, or on the open furface of the urethra, or even teu- minate in blind extremities. As the tubercfities of the if- chia are at an unufual diftance from each other, the crura penis are concealed within the body for a greater lengthy. and the pendulous part of the organ is-extremely fhort, {el- dom exceeding two inches in length, even in the adult. The urethra appears as if it had beer flit open, forming 2 band or grocve, initead of a perfect canal, and rendering the glans penis bifid. The fituation of the urethra is alle very remarkable; for, inftead of running, as it naturally does, in the lower angle formed by the junétion of the cor- pera cavernofa, it has commonly pafled along the upper angle, giving the penis and glands the appearance of being in- verted. ‘That the part now deferibed is really the wethre, is evident from its vafcular furface, with lacune opening upon it, from the prefence of the caput gallinaginis, and of the openings of the feminal ducts. In contequence of the glands being bifid at its upper furface, the prepuce is at- tached only to the lower half, and is conneéted by a frenum, as ufual he tefticles, in fome imftances, are contained in the {crotum, in others in folds of integument refemblin the labia of the female ; and in fome do not defeend. The ferotum is rarely pehdulous, being increafed im breadth in conlequence of the feparation of the offa pubis. ‘The fexual appetite, in fome of thefe individuals, has been weak, in others {trong, in others altogether wanting. It is evident that they are not capable of procfeating the {pecies, in con- fequence of the fhortnefs and imperforation of the penis, and the feminal du&ts opening externally. See Dr. Duncan, jun. on this fubject, in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. r. pp. 43 and 132: where he has colle&ted to- gether a vait number of cafes. 3d Clafs.—Female individuals; (androgyne). An un- ufually large fize of the clitoris, is one of thofe euifes whieh have led to miftakes concerning the fex. This is 1fot a com- _men occurrence in thefe countries, but is faid to be much more frequent in.warm climates; infomueh that a furgical Operation for removing the part is deferibed by the Arabi- ans. ‘Thefe individuals are perfect females in all other cir- cumances of their organization, and the menitrual difchargé fufficiently characterizes them. In many of the recorded in- ftances of this defeription, there is probably exaggeration, as avy enlargement of the clitoris can hardly make it fuffi- ciently GENERATION. ciently like a penis to give rife to miftakes. A. gipfey applied -to Columbus for the removal of a clitoris which incommo- ded her. The famous hermaphrodite negrefs of Angola, exhibited in London, was in the fame cafe with the gipfey mentioned by Columbus. Parfons has colle¢ted many faéts of this kind. Mr Home relates an inftance in a negrefs. « She was of the Mandingo nation, 24 years of age; her breafts were very flat ; fhe had a rough voice, and mafculine countenance. The clitoris was two inches long, and in thick- nefs refembled a common-fized thumb ; when viewed at fome diftance, the end appeared round, and of ared colour; but, on a clofer examination, was found to be more pointed than that of a penis, not flat below, and having neither prepuce nor perforation ; when handled ~it became half ereéted, and was then fully three inches long, and much larger than be- fore: when fhe voided her urine, fhe was obliged to lift it up, as it completely covered the orifice of the urethra. The other parts of the female organs were found to be in a na- tural itate.”’ A gentleman, who had practifed midwifery among the negro women, ftated that an enlarged condition of the clitoris was common among{t them. Parfons and fome others, in confequence of the {tructure juft defcribed, have afcribed all hermaphrodites to the female fex. Whe- ther this unufual fize of the organ can be produced, “ per fceleratum abufum clitoridis’’ is very doubtful. In order to avoid all mifiake concerning fex in newly born children, it muft be remembered that the clitoris is proportionally very large at that age. A prolapfus of the uterus is another circumftance which has occafioned females to be deemed iiermaphrodites, and even to be vublicly exhibited as fuch. A perfon of this kind came to Paris in 1693, drefled as a man, and wearing afword. She pretended to have the organs of both fexes, and to be able to employ both, and exhibited her perfon to the curious for a {mall gratification. Befides the numbers who took up the common opinion of her being an herma- phrodite, and who could not be fuppofed fufficiently well-in- formed to judge of fuch a fubject, feveral phyficians and furgeons fell in with the vulgar fentiment, and gave certifi- cates which prove incenteflibly, that a great reputation may be acquired in the profeffion, without any real talents, or any ‘large “tock of folid informatien. Saviard, after in- {peGting the parts clofely, found that the cafe was a pro- lapfus uteri, which he reduced. When the female had re- covered, fhe prefented a requelt to the king for permiffion to take again the female drefs, in {pite of the magiltrates of Touloufe, who had ordered her to clothe herfelf asa man. See Saviard, Recueil d’Obfervations, obf 15. A inftance of the fame kind is related by Mr. Home. «© A French woman had a prolapfus uteri at an carly age, which increafed as fhe grew up; the cervix uteri was un- commonly narrow, and at the time I faw her, when fhe was about 25 years old, projected feveral inches beyond the ex- ternal opening of the vagina; the furface of the internal parts, from conftant expofure, had Joft its natural appear- ance, and refembled the fkin of the penis : the orifice of the os tince was miftaken for the orifice of the urethra. This woman was fhewn asa curiofity, and in the courfe of a few weeks made 4co/. I was induced by curiofity to vifit her, and on the firit infpection difcovered the deception ; which, though very complete to a commen obferver, muft have been readily deteéted by any perfon intimately acquainted with anatomy. ‘To render herfelf fill more an objec of curiofity, the pretended to have the, powers of a male.”’ Philof, ‘T'ranfact. 1799. We have already mentioned fome inftances where the ge- nerative organs, although belonging clearly to one fex, had 1 been imperfectly developed, and confequently had net pros duced their ufual effe& in modifying the form of the body, and impreffing it with the fexual character. ‘There are other cafes, in which men or women, having their organs appa- rently of the accuftomed magnitude, partake refpectively of the characters of the other fex, probably from the caufe juit alluded to, of the-fexual parts not exerting their full influence on the frame. Such individuals may be accounted neuters ; and feem, in the human fubjeét, to refemble the free martin in neat cattle, where there is a true mixture of organs, bet they are fo imperfe& that organization.is not influenced by them, andthe form of the individual differs both from tuat of the bull and cow. The perfons thus cir- cumt{tanced are often deemed by the vulgar hermayhro- dites. i All the cafes of fuppofed hermaphrodites may be referred to one or the other of the heads now defcribed : they will: be found to be either males, with fome unufual organization or pofition of the urinary or generative apparatus; or fe- males, witha long clitoris, or prolapfed uterus ; or indivi- duals, in whom the generative ergans have not produced their ufual effe& in influencing the development of the body. Thus, it is evident, that initead of combining the powers of the two fexes, they are, for the moft part, incapable of exerting any fexual funétion. Yet ignorance and fupertti- tion have marked cut thefe individuals, already fuihciently unfortunate from.their defeétive organization, as the objeéts of perfectition, and have fubjeted them to the @peration of the moft abfurd and cruel laws. The ancients, regarding them as an impure and ominous kind cf montters, difpatched them by the moft barbarous deaths. It appears from Dio- dorus that they had been burned by the Athenians and Ro- mans. By the ediéts of Conftantine and other princes, they were beheaded, drowned, or banifhed to defert iflands. Livy informs us that a newly born child, of which the fex could not beafcertainel, was thrown into the fea. (L. +t.) Further information on this fubjeé&t may be derived from Gafpar Bauhin, De Hermaphroditorum menttroforumque partuum hatura, ex ‘Uheotogorum, Jureconfultorum, Phi- lofophorum, et Rabbinorum fenteatia; libri duo, Erancof. 1629, 8vo. Thefeab{urd notions and praéticeshave at pre- fent difappeared ; but the fubject is important on many ac- counts, as thefe unufual deviations render the fex of an in- dividual often doubtful, and impofe even on profeffional per- fons. The decifion may be important ix deciding the em- ployment in life of an individual, the defeent of property, the fitnefs for religious funtions, particularly for the male or female religion in the Romifh church, and the judicial decifions concerning impotence or fterility.. We therefore add a few obfervations on the grounds of difin@ion in fueh circurnftances. The greatett difficulty is experienced with re{pect to newly born children; for many things affift our determinations inthe adult. The beard, the hair furround- ing the anus, the defires excited by the prefence of women, the teftes and their cords, and the comparatively greater ebreadth of the fhoulders than of the pelvis and hips, thew us that the individual is aman. ‘The {moothnefs and foftnefs of the body in general, the increafe of the beard, and of the hair from the anus, the men/trual difcharge, the want of teftes, andthe fuperior breadth of the hips, prove the indi- vidual to be a woman. A male, witha fiffure in the perineum and an imperforate penis, may be afcertained by the fize of the penis, by the different organization of the preputium from that which covers the clitoris 3 the abfence of nymph and hymen, and probably the prefence of teftes. The different relation of the fiffure in the perineum to the penis, from that of the meatus. GENERATION. @mentus urinarius to the clitoris in the female, will affift the decifion, as alfo the want of power to pais an initrument towards the fituation of the uterus. : The fmaller fize of the clitoris, and its different fhape ; the connetion of its preputium to the nymph, and the pre- fence of the latter parts ; the feparate opening of the vagina and meatus urinarius, and the prefence of the hymen ; the abfence of tefticles, all prove the individual to bea wo- man. An adhefion of the labia to each other at their convexities may caufe a difficulty in deciding : but here the abfence of the penis and tefticles, the difcharge of the urine at the upper end of the labia, and the line of union between thofe folds, fhew us the nature of the cafe. Much information on the fubje€&t of hermaphrodites may be gained from the following werks. Parfons’? Mechanical and Critical Enquiry into the natere of Hermaphrodites : London, 8vo. 1741. Ambrofe Paré's Works, book 24. Pietfeh, Gedanken von den Zwittern, in the Old Hamburg Magazine, vol. iv.-p. 538, et feq. Arnaud, in Mémoires de Chirurgie. Haller, num dentur Hermaphroditi, com- mentarius, in the Commentarii foc. reg. fcient. Gottingen, tom. i.; or in his Opera Minora, vol. ii. Hunter on the Free Martin, in his Obf. on the Animal Economy. Home, DiffeGtion of an Hermaphrodite Dog, with Obfervations on Hermaphrodites in general, Philof. ‘Tranfa@t. 1799. Mo- reau Hiftoire Naturelle de la Femme, tom. 1. p. 211, et feq. Wrifberg, Commentatio de fngulari genitalium de- formitate in puero, hermaphroditium mentiente, in his Com- mentat. voli. p. 504, et, feq. Male Organs of Generation—In the human fubjet thefe coafift of the tefticles, veficule feminales, proftate, Cow- per’s glands, urethra, and penis; making up a fecretory ap- paratus, which is double, confilting of a right and left _or- gan, in the two former parts, and fingle in the latter. The peculiarities of the apparatus confit in the fmall quantity of flu'd which it furnifhes, in the long periods for which this fluid is retained in its refervoirs ; inthe particular condition of the organ dettincd for its emiffion, effentially neceflary to that a&t ; and in the phyfical feeling which accompanies the The Teflicles.—Thefe organs, placed externally to the ca- vity of the abdomen, and lefs prote&ted againit external in- jury than moft other important vifcera, are fufpended, each of them by a confiderable vafcular bundle, called the /perma- tic cord, and contained ina kind of bag or cavity formed of feve- ral membranous layers. A middic feptum divides the interior of the bag, and feparates from each other the right and leit teitis, with their coverings, which are double with the exception of the outer one. The latter, formed by the integuments, and called the ferotum or purfe (in French les bourfes) con- diitutesa fingle bag, which envelopes all the others. The f{crotum is attached to the upper and front part of the pelvis, unconneéted in every other fituation, contiguous laterally to the infide of the thighs, in front to the penis, and feparated behind from the anus by an interval of two or three inches, called the perineum. A {mail fold of the fin under the penis, a flight groove below, and a prominent line -behind, conti- nued into the raphe of the perineum, mark out fucceffively, on the external furface, the fymmetrical’ divifion of the organ. Yet the right fide of the {erotum is almoft conitant- ly more elevated than the left, in confequence of the cor- refponding {permatic cord being fhorter, and the teftis nearer to the ring. The fcrotum is foft to the feel, and elongated, fo that the teftes appear loofe and hang low, in warm wea- ther, in old perfons, after coition, and under the action of any caufes which have a debilitating influence on the frame in generak, -It is rough and. harder on the furface, and, fhorter in cold weather, in young fubjeéts, at the time of ereCtion, and in a ftrong, vigorous ftate of the body : con- fequently, at fuch times, it is applied more exaétly to the. teftes, and, drawing thefe organs gently upwards, fhertens the cords. The fudden aétion of cold, and even of fear,. will produce the latter flate of the organ. The wrinkles which it exhibits at fuch times are effaced by extending it. : The coverings of the teftes {ucceed each other in the fol- lowing arder: rt. The cutaneous imvefiment, er fcrotum ; 2dly. The cellular layer ; 3diy. Membrane of a fibrous ap- pearance, common to the teftis and cord; 4thly. The ferous membrane, The reafon why the dartos is not enumerated among thefe coverings will appear prefently. The fcrotum is contmuous with the integuments of the infide of the thighs, the perineum, and penis. It is difin- guifhed by a browniih hue from the reft of the integumentsy but follows in general the tints of the latter, being always darker in colour. A few fhort hairs are fcattered over its furface, and their bulbs, obliquely implanted, form: fenfible prominences from the thinnels of the fkin, which are not effaced by exteniion of the organ. In its general organiza- tion the ferctum refembles the fin ; but it is very thin, fo that the veins of the fubjacent cellular tiffue are vifible through it. The vital properties of the ferctum are the fame with thofe of the fkin in general ; but the contraétion produced ‘by cold is more maniieft in the former than in the latter. "The phenomenon feems to be the fame in both in- ftances. It conftitutes the cutis anferina of the furface’ in general. This corrugationof the part has given rife to the opinion that a mufcular expanfion 1s found under the fkin in this fituation ; and hence have arifen the defcriptions of the dartos. We can, however, clearly diftinguifh that the contraétion is in the integuments, and not in afy more deeply-feated part; they feel denfe and firm at this time, inftead of being foft and loofe, as in their ordinary ftate. The teftis and cord are furrounded in their fituation by a copious and loofe layer of cellular fubftance, placed imme- diately under the fkin, and conftituting,. where it divides the two teftes from each other, the feptum feroti. This is rather more denfe immediately under the cutaneous integument, and loofer at the furface of the teftis. Several blood-veffels ramify through it, particularly veins ; and hence arifes an appearance which may have authorized the opinion concern= ing a muicular covering on a fuperficial examination: but accurate infpection can difeover no mufcular fibres. Many nervous filaments are alfo feen in this fubitance, and enable us to explain the acute fenfibility obferved on the removal of the teftis in furgical operations, a little fat is feen near the ring and the urethra; but it is completely abfent from all other fituations. Here, as in the penis, the eye-lids and fome other parts, the abundant depofition of fat would in- terfere with the functions of the organ ; and its abfence in thefe fituations feems to indicate the defign and forefight em- ployed in the conitruction of the body as fully as the parti- cular con{truction of any parts can de. However the fize of the bedy in geneval.may be increafed in corpulent perfons, the fcrotum, penis, &c. always retain the fame dimenfions. The abfence of fat renders thefe parts more efpecially fub- ject to the watery depofitions of anafarea: fuch effufiows often manifelt themfelves firlt in the ferotum, and that organ. is generally very much increafed in bulk when the anafarca is coniiderable. ‘The impulfion of air through an opening in the fcrotum demonitrates very well the nature and extent of this cellular layer ; by diftenGon of this kind it refembles cotton m appearance. Maceration in water may be employed for ‘A GENERATION. f for the fame purpofe; as the fluid penetrates very minutely into the cellular interftices. It is continuous with the fimi- lar covering of the penis, and with the cellular fubftance of the perineum and groins ; fo that air pafles from it into thefe fituations. The cord and teftis are clofely enveloped by a condenfed cellular covering, which defcends from the neighbourhood of the abdominal ring, and includes the organs juft men- tioned, together with the membranous coverings of the latter ; it conftitutes the elythroid or erythroid coat of fome writers. The cremafter mufcle is ftrongly conneéted with this, and contributes to the formation of the cellular fheath. ‘This part has been defcribed as the tunica vaginalis of the fpermatic cord, but it is entirely overlooked by many writers. Its thicknefs differs confiderably in different fubjeéts. It is connected to the cellular fubftance of the ferotum externally ; and adheres, by cellular connections, to the fpermatic veffels, _and to the tunica vaginalis teftis, on the infide. If air be impelled through a {mall opening, it is feparated from thefe ‘parts, and may be divided fo as to thew that it is a diftiné&t -membrane. It then appears femi-tranfparent and thin, and feems to confift of fibres varioufly interwovea. Its thick- nefs is much increafed in f{erotal ruptures, to which it givesa _complete external covering. .Camper has delineated it very well in-his pofthumous plates edited by Soemmerriny, and he defcribes it in the following paragraph; ‘¢ Cremaitteres igitur mufculi funt, ab obliquo interno et tran{yerfo abdomi- nis orti, per involucrum membranaceum fub cute feroti dif- perfi, quocum yvelamentum efformant, funiculum fpermati- eum et teitem undequaque cingens, quodque in herniofis craffius tenaxque fit, et ex multis fibi invicem impofitis la- mellis conftare videtur, cum chirurgia hernias attingimus. Velamentum illud facile a facco herni digiti feparatur ; for- mius autem adheret vafis fpermatices.?? Icones herniarum, p. 13. The ferous membrane of the teftis is called the tunica vaginalis, and the name fhould be confined entirely to it, as moft of the anatomical defcripticns apply to this. part only. Like all other ferous membranes, this forms an entire and unperforated bag. Its arrangement is fimple. It forms a pouch-covering, and appearing to include the teftis and epididymis, as the heart is cluded in the pericar- dium. When an opening is made into it, and air impelled, it is elevated into a bag on the front and fides of the teftis. At the pofterior edge of the organ it is reflected over its furface, covering the epididymis, a {mall portion of the {permatic veffels, and the whole teftis; and giving to thefe parts a fmooth external coat. The tunica vaginalis there- tore may be faid to confift of two parts; vz. an exterior portion, forming the bag, which includes the teftis; and an internal, reflected over the furface of the organ. The two are continuous at the back edge, and at the upperand lower ends of the teflis. ‘he bag-like portion of the membrane is covered by the fibrous inveltment already defcribed: the refieGied part adheres very clofely to. the epididymis and teiticle. The tunica vaginalis is very thin, and every where cellular on its external furface; internally it is fmooth, po- lifhed, and moittened by a ferous fecretion, which, in an n- creafed quantity, conititutes hydrocele. ‘There is hardly any fenfible fluid in che ordinary ftate of the parts. Some- times there are partial adhefions between the oppofed fur- faces of the two portions of the membrane; and fometimes a general achefion, by which the cavity is entirely deftroyed, is produced by theoperation for the radical cure of hydrocele. Tn man and quadrupeds the tefticle confifts of two parts ; viz, the proper teftis, and the epididymis, which adheres to it belind.. Ordinarily the {crotum contains two of thefe 4 A glands, a right and a left one: but this number is not invariable. We fhall explain hereafter how it may happen that the fcrotum fhould contain no teltis, or only one; and, if authors could be credited, we might cite examples, in which there have been three, four, or even five. We believe that the number never exceeds two, that the flate- ments now alluded to have arifen from the fwellings inci- dental to thefe parts, being mittaken for teftes, and that there is no obfervation deferving of credit by which this affertion can be contradi€ted. The ordinary fize of the gland in the adult is an anatomical faét known to each indi- vidual; but there are fome varieties in this refpect. Long continued chaftity probably caufes a fhrinking of the organ ; and a fimilar diminution, to a much greater degree, “may be occafionally obferved in old fubje&s, when the fun¢tion of the part has ceafed, without any difeafe. On the con- trary, when venereal enjoyment has been habitually indulged, temporary abftinence will caufe a {welling of ‘the organ, with fome pain; and. this may be relieved by a fponta- neous difcharyge of the fecretion. Again, there are differences of volume from original formation. The right and left glands are not always of the fame fize, nor is the right par- ticularly obferved to exceed the left, as fome have euieet. The figure of the part is pretty exaCtly oval, with the two ends placed perpendicularly, aud the furface flattened in the direCtion of the imall diameter. The extremities, which are diftinguifhed by the epithets fuperior and inferioz, are not in the fame perpendicular line ; the former is inclined forwards and outwards ; the latter backwards and inwards. The two ends are fometimes almoft caterior and potfterior. The fat fides, which are external and internal, are turned, the former towards the thigh of the fame fide, and the latter towards the correfponding furface of the oppofite gland. The edges of the teftes, which are anterior .and pofterior, are placed obliquely, fo as to flant from above backwards and downwards. The anterior edge is fome- times defcribed as the interior, and the pofterior as fuperior. The epididymis is a thin and elongated organ, placed along the back edge of the teltis, to which it ad- heres by means of the tunica vaginalis and blood-veffels, {maller im the middle and enlarged at its upper and lower ends, and reflected at the latter, to form the vas deferens. Its upper extremity is called the caput epididymidis or globus major (téte de lepididyme) ; and this adheres very hrmly to the upper end of the tellis, being placed rather above, as well as behind it, From this point the organ defcends in a thin and flattened form, diftinglly feen asa feparate part in the fide of the teftis, which is turned towards the thigh, but not on the oppefite furface. It fwells again at the lower end into the globus minor (queue de L’epi- didyme) and then turns up to form the vas deferens. The {permatic cord is attached along the potterior edge of the gland, and the greater or lefs obliquity of the teftis depends on the mode of its conneGtion. A cord, compofed of the fame parts, fufpends each teitis in its place, but it is rather longer on the left fide;.a circumftance which has been noticed by painters and fiatuaries. The pathologitt afcribes to this circumftance the more frequent occur- rence of varico-cele on the left fide of the bedy. The diftance of both organs from the ring is variable, and de- pends on the fate of the ferotum, and the cremafter mufcle. Thefe two parts generally contra&- together. The confiftence of the gland is foft to the feel. As it is covered almoft entirely by the ferous membrane already defcribed, it ac- quires from this ciscumftance a fmooth and polifhed furface ; its whiteneis arifes from the tunica albuginea. Strudure of the Tefticle—The glandular part of the organ, is GENER in which the feminal fecretion is immediately effected, 13 a light-brown pulpy mafs, confiderably fofter than the parenchyma of the other glandular organs, contained in a ftronz fibrous: membrane, which determines the exterior configuration of the part, and the confiftence which it pre- fents on examination. This membrane is rt med the tunica albuginea. It is feen through the reflection of the tunica vaginalis, which envelopes the teiticle, and Oe. very clofely. Yet, notwithftanding the frength or this adhefion, the ferous layer may be part ily feparated by diffecting from the epididymis forwards. But, over the general furface the union is too intimate to admit of fepa- ration; and confequently the ferous layer and the true albuginea are defcribed ordinarily as compoling one mem- brane under the latter name. It is from analogy, rather than the dire& teftimony of anatomical obfervation, that we defcrib2 them as diftin@ parts. Along the pofte- rior edge of the tellis, the albuginea is perforated by numerous openings for the paflage of the feminal and blood-veffels. From the inner furface of this membrane are detached numerous delicate proceffes penetrating the fubftance of the teflis, and forming partial fepta, by which the glandular mafs is flixhtly fubdivided into fmaller por- tions. Some of thefe produétions feem to confift of blood- veffels. [he flruéture of this fart claffes it amongft the fibrous membranes; it is denfe, very firm, of a peculiar white colour, and poffefiing fome blood-veffels. Its ex- ternal furface is every where covered by the reflected tunica vaginalis, except at the back of the tettis, and its inner furface is in contact with the glandular dubftance of the organ. The great clofenefs and firmnefs ofits texture explain to us the peculiarly hard feel of the inflamed tettis, as the membrane yields with difficulty to the diltention produced by the {welling of the contained vafeular parts. It is manifeftly thicker where the feminal tubes penetrate it; and in this fituation we obferve the corpus Highmori, concerning which we have further obfervations to make below. The albuginea poffeffes exteniibility, and the corref{ponding contractility : the fwellings of the tefticle, from various caufes, thew the former, and its iubfequent return to the natural fize, as well as the fhrinking of the part from age demonftrate the latter. It is very fubject to Converfion into cartilage. Little excrefcences are fome- times obferyed on the furfaces of the gland, about the fize of a pin’s head. ‘ The tunica albuginea is filled with a foft pulpy matter, of a light brownith-yellow hue, and divided into fmall portions or lobuli. Imperfect cellular fepta, along which the fmall arteries and veins run, divide thefe portions ; but the partitions are not merely vafcular. They are at- tached, as we have already obferved, to the internal furface of the albuginea. Behind, they unite together ina white * cellular hue, running along the back edge of the tefticle, from above downwards., Such are the appearances exhi- bited in the recent organ, without any diilection or pre- paration. Its fub/tance is very fott, fo that when dried it lofes’more than eight-tenths of its weight. A more accurate examination, particularly with the affiftance of maceration and putrefattion, difcover that all this pulpy mafs is made up of convoluted ferpentine threads poflefiing fome firmnefs and conneéted together by a very foft cellular fubftance. 'Thefe, which are called the tubuli or duétus feminiferi teftis, feem about the fize of an ordinary fewing thread, and can eafily be drawn out witha needle, after maceration, tothe length of aninch and even more. Thefe threads are tubular, cylindrical thick in their coats with {mall calibre, plentifully fupplied with minute vafcular rami- ATION. fications, from which however injected liquors do not pafs into the duéts. They do not ramify, but pafs in a tolera- bly ftraight dire€tion to the cellular Ime at the back of the teflis. That they are-tubular is proved by the poflibility of injeGing them wih qvickfilver from the vas deferens: this indeed often fails, but in fome cafes the tubuli are filled in this way through the whole teftis. The diameter of one of thefe ducts, according to Monro, is 1-20cdth of an inch ; or 1-120th when injected with quickfilver. By the calculations of the fame anatomift, the teftis fhould appear to confilt of 62,500 tubes, fuppofing each to be one iach in length: and confequently, if- they were joined into cne tube, it would be 5208 feet and 4 inches in length. The convolutions and turns of the duéts are fo numereus, that they do not continue their courfe, in the fame ftraight line, for more than 1-4oth of an inch, The white and firm cellular line -at the back of the teftis, jult at the adhefion of the epididymis, is called the corpus Highmori. Many anatomifts have defcribed it as tubular, and have affigned to it the office of conveying the femen to the epididymis. Sucha part cbyioufly exifts in the teftis, and is fill more manifeit in animals, as in the boar, than in the human fubjeét. Haller, who has given the moft accu- rate account of this fubjeé, fays, « After I had accurately filled the vas deferens with quickfilver, I obferved in the corpus Highmori numerous veffels, larger than the tube of the epididymis, running according to the length of the gland, ferpentine, eafily torn, and communicating with each other.’’ Elem. Phyfiol. v. 7. p. 445. In thefe the tubuli feminiferi teftis terminate ; and they conftitute the rete vafculofum of the organ. The dudts contaired in each part of the tubuli feminiferi end in one ftraight tube, which terminates in the rete teftis. A certain number of tubes, called the vafa efferentia, convey the femen from the rete vafculofum to the commencement of the epididynus. Obfcure notices of thefe veffels may be found in various writers, and De Graaf in particular has defcribed them. But the labours of Haller have thrown the preateft light on the fubje&t. « When, after various anticceftftl ate tempts, the continued labour of an hour or more had enabled me to fill completely the vas deferens, I obferved the head of the epididymis to be made up of vafcular cones, amounting in number to twenty or thirty, and connected together by cellular fubftance before any diffeCtion had been ufed. Each of thefe cones is made up of a fingle {mall veffel, larger however than the tube of the epididy- mis, convoluted into innumerable folds. The bafis of the cone is turned towards the epididymis; its apex is a veffel_ proceeding downwards to the teltis, perforating the albuginea, and communicating with the rete teitis.”” Ibid. p. 447. The epididymis, of which we have already deferibed the pofition and figure, is diftinenifhed by its greyith colour from the fhining whitenefs of the teftis. the point where the cord is attached to the tefticle, it is furrounded by blood-veffels, of which feveral are di‘lri- bated to itfelf: its furface is partially covered by the reflection of the tunica vaginalis, which adheres to it clofely, except at the angle of refleion, where the conneétion is loofer. Its ftructure is much more eafily unravelled than that of the teflis, for, when filled with quickfilver from the , vas deferens, it is proved to confift of a fingle tube, almoft infinitely convoluted upon itfelf, excepting only a {mall part of the caput, whichis made up of the vafcular cones. ‘The latter uniting together form one very finall tube, which by its ferpentine courfe and turns, conneéted to each other b cellular {ubftance, containing the ramifications of blood- veffels, Being placed at, a GENERATION. vellels, forms the body of the epididymis. As it defcends alone the back of the teftis, it increafes in diameter, and at the fame time is proportionally lefs convoluted. Ina confiderably enlarged {late, it is refle€:ed from,the lower end of the teftis, itil a little convoluted at firft, but foon forming a itraight tube, called the vas deferens. By care- fully deltroying the cellular fubitance, which connects to- gether the convolutions of this tube, we can demonitrate the facts now mentioned concerning the frudture of this organ. In fitch a procefs the tube can be drawn out toa furprifing length, to five ells, according to De Graaf, to 400 times the length of the epididynus in its natural ftate, according to Heuermann. Monro has taken great pains in meafuring and calculating the dimenfions of this part: he finds the diameter of the tube, on an average, to be 1-8oth of an inch, its length 31 feet, and the number of its turns, as it dees not go in a ftraight direction at any part, for more than 1-30th of an inch, 11,100. (De femine et teftibus in variis animalibus, p. 31 and 32). As a further proof, that the organ is made up of a fingle tube, we may obferve, that if we cut it acrofs while we continue to inject quick- filver from the vas deferens, the fluid efcapes from one orifice only, and when that is tied, no more runs out. Thus, the femen, firft formed in the fmall ferpentine vef- fels (tubuli teffis) which make up the pulpy mafs of the tef- tis, is depofited from thefe in the ftraight feminiferous tubes, which convey it into the rete vafculofum, placed at the back of the teftis, and connected to the albuginea, where it forms the corpus Highmori. Hence it pailes through the vafa effe- rentia, or excretoria teftis, about twelve in number, which perforate the albuginea, at the upper end of the teftis, and then form, in a convoluted ftate, the ferpentine vafcular cones, which make up the caput epididymidis. Thefe unite into a fingle {mall tube, which, by its numerous turns, firft forms the epididymis, and then ends in the vas deferens. Hal- ler, Programma de vafis feminalibus, Gotting. 1745 ; and in Oper. minor t. 2. p. 5. From the origin of the conyoluted tubuli feminiferi, to the termination of the epididymis in the vas deferens, the femen goes through a feries of veffels, which are folded 16,860 times, and, if extended in a ftraight line, would ex- ceed 42 feet in length. Monro, lib. cit. : The {mallnefs of thefe tubes prevents us from afcertaining their texture, or the nature of their fides. The tubuli teftis poffefs confiderable firmnefs, as we may afcertain by extend- ang them until they break, and by obierving the column of quickfilyer which they fupport, when we inject them: The tube of the epididymis poffefles firm and itrong fides, in comparifon to its cavity. ; E A {mall tube, either ftraight, or flightly convoluted, is fometimes obferved to arife from the epididymis, and after afling to various diftances on the cord, to terminate in a cul-de-fac. Its fize is equal to that of the tube of the epi- didymis itfelf. This circumftance was firft noticed by Hal- ler, who called the yeffel vafeulum aberrans. (Progr. de “vas. feminal.) He did not undertake to determine its termi- nation or nature, obferving that it proceeded mia the cord, ‘¢ incerto fine: an lymphaticum ??’ The exiftence ‘of the vafculum aberrans has been confirmed by Monro, who injected it in four out of fixteen tefticles ; and he adopts the opinion fuggetted by Haller, of its being a lymphatic. Mr. Cruikfhank takes a different view of the matter. “ It is,’ fays he, “a lufus nature, and either forms a cul-de-fac, or, after many convolutions, returns back again upon itfelf, and terminates where it began. It fometimes mounts four inches upon the cord, and then terminates ina caecum, or blind ‘end. Sometimes it is not a quarter of an inch in length. I Vou. XVI. have feen it convolute, like the epididymis itfelf ; from which it could not be diftinguifhed, till, by maceration and diflec- tion, the cellular mentbrane had been removed. It may be compared with the diverticulum ili, fo frequently met with in the human inteftines.”” Anatomy of the abforbing Vef- fels, p. 148. V offels of the Tefticle : Spermatic cord.—Under the inferior extremity of the kidney, and about the middle of the pfoas magnus mufcle, we obferve a fafciculus of blood-veffels, lymphatics, and nerves, placed behind the peritoneum, and connected to that membrane by a cellular fubftance: this is the commencement of the fpermatic cord. It defcends over the pfoas mufcle, pafling at the fame time rather outwards, croffes the ureter, continues its courfe over the iliacus inter- nus, and arrives at the upper opening of the abdominal ring. Here it is increafed by the acceffion of the vas deferens, from the fide of the bladder. It now penetrates the upper aper- ture of the ring, going under the inferior edge of the ob- liquus internus, and tranfverfus abdominis: then it turns downwards and forwards in the canal placed between the twa openings of the ring, covered in front by the aponeurofis of the obliquus externus, and lying behind on the fafcia tranf- verfalis. In this part of its courfe, it is further increafed by the acceffion of the cremafter mufcle. The cord finally emerges through the opening in the tendon of the obliquus externus, and then turns fuddenly downwards ; lying not fo much on the bone between the two columns of the ring, as on the outer column itfelf, fo as to cover its infertion into the pubes. Juit at the point, where the cord enters the abdo- minal canal, it lies on the root cf the epigaftric artery. As it is placed behind the peritoneum, in the whole of its defcent from the loins to the abdominal ring, that membrane is not perforated at the point where the cord leaves the abdomen. Ner is there any fheath continued from the peritoneum, along the cord, to the tunica vaginalis ; although fuch a ftructure has been afcribed to the human fubje& from the obfervation of animals, in which it is really found. In bu- bonocele, indeed, a membranous cavity, produced by aconti- nuation of the peritoneum, lies over the cord; but this is difeafe : and in a particular period of fcetal exiftence, there is a canal leading from the abdomen to the tunica vaginalis, but this is ordinarily clofed before birth. Neither is there any foundation for the defcription of two layers of the perito- neu, of which the ureter is faid to accompany the cord. Efcaping through the opening in the tendon of the obliquus externus abdominis, the cord defcends in a ftraight courfe to the teftis, covered externally by the fibrous fheaths alrea- dy defcribed, and growing rather larger as it approaches the organ. Copious foft cellular fubftance, with very little fat, connects together the component parts of the cord. The {permatic are the chief arteries for fupplying the tef- tes and their coverings. 'Thefe veffels are the longett in their courfe, compared to their diameter, of any in the body ; they were known to the ancient phyficians, and called by them the /emina/ veflels. They would probably have efcaped the diligence of the difleétor, had not the importance of the part, which they fupply, been more attended to, than the fize of the tube. They arife, moft commonly, from the front of the aorta, between the origins of the renal and. in- ferior mefenteric veffels ; either near together, or at a {mall diftance from each other. This is the cafe in twenty-two out of thirty-five initances. They may arife from the aorta higher or lower than the point which has been mentioned. The artery of the right fide fometimes comes from the right renal; but the left arifes much more commonly from the re- nal artery, infomuch, that this has been defcribed as the ac- cuftomed origin. Often a fmaller branch from the renal joins the GENERATION. the trunk of the fpermatic. It defcends at an acute or half- right angle, and goes in front of the vena cava, on the right fide of the bedy ; but has been feen behind that vein. Its courfe is rather tortuous: joining the vein onthe pfoas muf- cle, it defcends along the cord, and arrives at the teftis in two branches, It gives off {mall twigs to the renal capfule, fat of the kidney, ureter, lumbar glands, and the cord itfelf. The area of the yeflel, inftead of being diminifhed by all thefe branches, is rather increafed. Several ramifications are difpatched, below the ring, to the cremalter, tunica va- einalis, and cellular fubftance of the ferotum. Ultimately it is diftributed in numerous branches to the epididymis and tefticle ; thefe partly perforate the back of the albuginea, and are employed in fupplying the pulpy fubitance of the organ. Some of the ramifications communicate with branches of the epigaftric artery. Smaller arteries come to the fper- matic cord, or telticle, from the epigaftric, or from the i »xa abdominis. The ferotum, and its cellular fub- flance, receive twigs from the arteries of the thigh. ‘* Hence,” fays Haller, “ tying the fpermatic arteries does not deitroy the teftis, on account of the fupply derived from the exter- nal veffels; but as thefe are very {mall, the venereal powers of the organ are loft.’ Element. Phyfiolog. v. 7. p. 430. It has been afferted by many anatomifts, and fome of con- fiderable celebrity, that the {permatic arteries and veins com- municated together : and Euftachius has drawn large commu- nicating channels. ‘That injetion will fometimes pafs from one order of thefe veffels into the other, when dexteroufly impelled, is very true, and it holds equally good of other parts ; but there is no more than the ordinary kind of com- munication here. The {permatic veins, like the arteries, are two in number : the right ufually terminating in the front of the vena cava, the left in the renal vein, either alone, or in conjunétion with the capfular, or a lumbar, or the hemiazyga. The left fperma- tic may end in the vena cava; Or the right in the renal vein. Sometimes the vein ends by two, three, or four branches in the cava and renal vein. "The fize of the veffel is very confiderable when compared to that of the artery: its diameter being nearly aline anda half. When the veflel has reached the pfoasmufcle, it divides into branches, which unite again, and give origin to other ramifications, which alfo anaftomofe together, and foon: thus a large plexus of veins is formed, conftituting the corpus pampiniforme, forming the chief bulk of the cord, and increafing in fize as it approaches the teftis. Branches correfponding to thefe arteries, which arife from the {perma- tic, join the vein. Valves are found in the {permatic veins, but none at their terminations: the tendency to the forma- tion of varices in thefe veflels, fhews the neceility for the ex- iftence of valves. The veins of the fcrotum, derived from the epigaftric, communicate with the fpermatic, and with thofe of the penis. The abforbents of the tefticles are numerous and large, but have not been lone known. Nuck had demonftrated them by inflating the {permatic veins; and Monro rejected them when he had thrown quickfilver into the vas duerets. He obferved four or five valvular veffels arifing from the rete teflis, and afcending the cord. Haller candidly admits that he did not know much of them; ‘ In homine aliquo- ties vidi majufcula, non tamen valde numerofa, in funiculo feminali cum venis afcendentia, valvulofa, ut tamen neque originem, neque finem fatis accurate viderem.”” (Elem. Phyfiol. v. 7. p. 436.) Mr. Cruikfhank has given us the molt perfect account of thefe veffels. “ The abforbents of the tunica vaginalis,” fays he, “ are eafily difeovered, lying between the reflection of that coat and the tunica albuginea.. Though they are thus fituated, I know that they belong equally to the body of the tefticle; they are in great num- bers, and I have fometimes covered the albuginea with ab- forbents injeéted with quickfilver; perhaps there is not any part of the body where the abforbents are larger or more numerotis, in proportion to the part, than they are here. They foon leave the albuginea, and get upon the cord, where they are joined by others, to be defcribed pre- fently ; but the tunica vaginalis has alfo other abforbents, upon the anterior and lateral parts, which have not the leaft connection with the body of fe tefticle, nor with the albugi- nea, and which alfo foon blend with the former, on the begin- ning of the cord, The abforbents, which arife out of the rete teftis, are exceedingly large, and appear to have no con~ neétion with its coats. A very beautiful preparation of thefe veffels { made at Windmill-ftreet, at leaft ten years ago: 1 injected the vas deferens with quickfilver, and had in view not only the filling of the epididymis, but the tubuli teftis them- felves. I had forced the mercury along the epididymis, and was delighted to fee it get into the body of the telticle ; the mer- cury continued to defcend very quickly through the glafs in- jeCting tube, but I foon found that it was not running into the tubuli teitis, but into fome yeffels, which mounted along the cord: thefe I foon perceived were abforbents. I have alfo injected them from every part of the epididymis, from its fuperior extremity, from the middle, and from the lower end. The abforbents, having reached the cord, form from fix to twelve trunks or more; fome of thefe are fometimes larger than a crow-quill: they do not appear to anaftomofe with one another as they pafs along the cord; at firft they run ftraight upwards, in the direétion of the ring of the ex- ternal oblique mufcle ; after which they are Pent upon them- felyes, and pafsa little way in the dire¢tion of the {pine of the ilium ; after which they are bent as it were a fecond time upon.themfelves, and run over the anterior furface of the pfoas mufcle, and terminate at laft in the lumbar glands. The reafon of their termination, fo diftant from their origin, will eafily occur to thofe who refleét that the original fitua- tion of the tefticle was at this place, and that it was natural for it, like the other vifcera, to receive its blocd-veffels and nerves from the neareft trunks, and to return its abforbents to: the neareft glands.’”? Anatomy of theabforbing Veffels,p. 140.. The nerves, like the blood-veffels of this organ, arife from the trunks contained in the abdomen, and have confequently a long paflage to their ultimate deftination. They are rather numerous than large. They are produced from the renal plexus chiefly, with additions from the mefenteric and hy- pogaftric plexufes, and from the trunk of the great fympa- thetic. They are clofely conneéted to the veffels in the cord, but can hardly be traced to the teitis. The fcrotum and cre- matter are fupplied by the lumbar nerves. Although the teftis does not appear to poffefs acute fenfibility, compreflion of the organ caufes a peculiar, dull, and intolerable fenfa- tion, of the moft diftreffing kind. Befides the parts juft enumerated, the cord contains the vas deferens, which will be prefently noticed; and the cremaf- ter mufcle, which is defcribed under the article CREMASTER. A foft and loofe cellular fubftance unites together the parts which have been juft mentioned; it refembles that of the {crotum in not containing fat generally ; but in corpulent perfons {mall depofitions of adipous matter may be obferved init. It does not communicate with that of the ferotum, as the fibrous covering of the cord is interpofed between them ; and itis much lefs fubjeét than the latter to anafar- cous affections. Indeed its quantity is proportionally lefs abundant. Yet in rare cafes it has been the feat of aqueous infiltration, conitituting a very uncommon kind of hydrocele of the cord: the latter complaint shews itfelf more frequent- <_< GENERATION. ly in the form of a fingle cyft with fmooth fides, contained in the cellular fubitance of the part. The vas, or ductus deferens,is the tube which conveys the femen from the epididymis to the urethra. Its figure is for the mott part cylindrical, and it confilts of a very {mall tube, which will only admit a large briftle, with very thick fides. Although its calibre is fo fmall, the diameter of the part on a {ection equals a line. The fubftance of its fides is very firm, and cuts like cartilage; hence we can diftinguifh it by the feel trom the other component parts of the cord, by fliding them between the finger and thumb in the living fub- ject. ‘The internal furface of the tube is {mooth. Nothing ofa mufcular ftructure can be difcerned in its compofition. It arifes from the pofterior and inferior part of the epidi- dymis, afcends behind and a little on the infide of that organ, and then continues its courfe along the {permatic cord be- hind the veffels to the ring. Compreffion of this part occa- fions the fame kind of pain as is experienced when the teltes are injured ; and the very acute fuffering obferved on tying the cord in caftration, has been explained by the circum- ftance of this tube being included in the ligature. Perhaps this explanation may be doubted, as the nerves of the teftes are alfo among the comprefled parts; however, the vas de- ferens is ealily omitted, as its hard feel enables us to feparate the veflels which lie in front, and are connected to it by a loofe cellular fubftance. It pafles through the abdominal canal, holding the fame relative fituation to the {permatic veffels, It feparates from them behind the opening, and then bends downwards and backwards along the furface of the pfoas mufcle, and of the iliac veflels, to enter the pel- vis. ere it becomes attached to the pofterior and lateral part of the bladder, and defcends obliquely from without in- wards, juft in the fituation where the peritoneum is reflect- a to the bladder from the fide of the pelvis, connected by cellular fub{tance on one fide to the bladder, and on the other to the peritoneum, and fituated in front of the rectum. In this courfe it decuffates the umbilical artery, behind which it paffes: it alfo crofles the ureter, being placed between the lower extremity of that canal and the bladder. At the lower and back part of the latter organ it turns for- wards and inwards, fo as to approach towards the canal of the oppofite fide, itill connected to the furface of the blad- der; in this direction it continues along the under furface of the organ, within the veficula feminalis, and connected below by cellular fubftance to the rectum. - In the neighbourhood of the proftate, the two vafa deferentia are placed clofe to- gether, and each unites jult at the furface of the gland, with the anterior extremity of the veficula feminalis. The ganal, refulting from this junction, fometimes called the eja- ceulatory dud, penetrates the fubitance of the proitate, from below and behind, upwards and forwards, and opens in the urethra at the fide of the veru montanum. The commencement of the vas deferens is a little convolu- ted, and rather larger in its calibre: at the upper part of the teftis it becomes ftraight in its courfe, and its area is dimi- nifhed. Under the bladder it is confiderably enlarged again, where it lies along the inner edge of the veficula feminalis. it has here fometimes a {lightly ferpentine courfe, and pof- feffes a flattened form. Its cavity is proportionably aug- mented, and, inftead of a cylindrical tube, prefents a reticula- ted texture, like that of the veficula feminales. Its furface is irregular and tuberculated in confequence of this cellular ftru€ture, After receiving the tube of the veficula femina- lis, it ig again diminithed remarkably in fize, and forms a {mall cylindrical caral. The vas deferens receives atterial and venous ramifications from the trunks, in the neighbourhood of which it paffes. Nothing is known of its nerves. It is by no means common in animals for the vas deferens to join the veficula feminalis in the manner already defcribed. In all cafes where there are tefticles, that duct conveys the fecreted fluid into the urethra, there being no veticule in fome, while in others they terminate by feparate cpenings. The communication between the two parts m man isa very free one ; and, although the canal formed by their junCtion proceeds ina ftraight direGion to its termination in the ure- thra, yet quickfilver, or any other injeSted fluid, or air thrown into the vas deferens, pafles into, and diftends the correfpond- ing veficula before it gets into the urethra. ‘The compreifion of the common canal by the firm fubftance of the proftate, the finall fize of the tube and of its opening, anda particular turn made by it, have been affigned to explain this fa@. If the injection is pufhed further, it will go into the urethra, Fluids thrown into the veficula alfo diftend the vas deferens, but are more readily admitted into the urethra, as the ca- pacity of that veffel is nat confiderable. The veficule feminales are two foft bodies, refembling, when undifturbed by diffeCtion, membranous tubes with blind extremities, convoluted, and therefore marked with rifings and grooves on theirfurface. They are fituated un- der the inferior flattened furface of the bladder, and upon the upper furface of the rectum, being connected to both thefe organs by loofe cellular adhefions. They are pyri- form, with the apex placed forwards, and the bafis back- wards, and convergent from behind forwards. Their ante- rior extremities, joined, as we have already mentioned, to the vafa deferentia, lie on the upper and back part of the proftate, and would be in contact with each other, were they not feparated by the tubes jutt alluded to. From this point they grow gradually broader, and are divergent, terminating behind in rounded ends, which are the moft dif- tant from eachother. ‘The fuperior furface, in conta&t with the bladder, is rather flattened: the inferior, lying upon the rectum, is flightly convex. The vas deferens runs in scon- tat with the inner margin, and the outward edge 1s turned towards the fide of the bladder. The pofterior broad and rounded ends are partly in contatt with the peritoneum, and lie at the fides of the pouch, formed where that mem- brane is refleted from the bladder to the rectum, Nume- rous arterial and venous ramifications, particularly the latter, and a confiderable quantity of cellular fubfance, furround thefe organs in all direCtions, and conneét them to the neighbouring parts. In fome individuals the pyriform fhape is not well marked; but the anterior and lower end is always fmall. ‘The flattened appearance of its furfaces ig altered by injeQion: the whole organ then appears thick- er, and the tubercular rifings of the furface are more dif- ting. A very different appearance is produced when thefe bo- dies are unravelled by the anatomift. Each veficula 1s then found to confilt of a fingle tortuous tube, about the fize of a writing quill, with a blind extremity, and feveral lateral ap- pendices, which alfo end in cul-de-facs. Sometimes the lat- ter are very few ; perhaps one or even none. In other in- ftances they may amount in number to ten, or more, Haller has feen feyenteen larger, befides fmaller ones. Some of thefe are fimple blind appendices; others, particularly near the anterior end of the organ, again branch out. Sometimes the whole veficula is bifid almoft from its ‘very origin ; the varieties, indeed, are fo numerous, that D2 two GENERATION. two velicule will hardly be found exaétly refembling each other ; but thefe variations are not important. (See Monro de T2ftibus, tab. 3.) This tube, with its appendices, is fo convoluted upon itfelf, the turnings being clofely connected together by cellular fubftance, containing numerous vafcular ramifications, that the organ, when undiflected, is four or five times fhorter than the unravelled tube ; and a feétion of it in this ftate makes it appear to be compofed of numerous cells, communicating together. This ftructure accounts to us alfo for the knotted appearance of the organ on its fur- face. c : The ftruéture of the veficula is analogous to that of the vas deferens: its fides are not fo thick, but they are fill denfe and ftrong. ‘The external coat is of a clofe texture, and whitith colour, covered with cellular fubftance external- ly. Nothing of a mufcular nature can be difcerned here, although the funétions of the organ oblige us to admit_ that it pofleffes acontraétile power. We cannot otherwile ac- count for the expulfion of the contents of the veficula. The aétion of the levatores ani, vshich has been affigned as the efficient caufe of this expulfion, is certainly inade- quate to account for it ; as their ordinary daily exertion is at- tended with no fuch effect, when the venereal orgafm is not prefent, and thefe parts are not exerted in their {pecific man- ner. We may obferve, moreover, that the perineal mufcles contraé at the moment of ejaculation; now the contents of the veficulz muft be conveyed into the urethra in the pre- vious moments. ‘The internal furface of the veficule is formed by a mucous lining, cenne¢ted clofely to the preced- ing tunic. Its colour is whitifh, and its thicknefs not con- fiderable. It is continuous with the lining of the urethra. Its furface is very minutely reticulated, and marked with extremely {mall divifions, not to mention the larger fepta formed by the turnings and folds of the tube and its appen- dices. It has, moreover, a downy or villous appearance : a fimilar ftruéture characterizes that enlarged portion of the vas deferens which lies along the edge of the veficula. The flrudture of thefe parts, as well as the junction of the vas defgrens and velicula at an acute angle, has very confiderable analogy to the gall-bladder and ductus hepaticus. Both have the fame reticulated internal furface ; the union of the two tubes, and the fuppofed courfe of the contaimed fluids, are contidered to be fimilar. : Some anatomifts have defcribed glands as being con- tained in the fubftance of the coats of the veficule, and fecreting the mucous fluid poured into thefe organs = but the mott careful inveftigation does not lead us to detect any thing glandular, and the fecretion is probably performed by the furface of the parts. We proceed to defcribe more exa‘tly the canal by which the veficula and vas deferens communicate with the urethra. The tube of the former affuming a fmooth appearance on jts internal furface, and rather diminifhed in fize, converging towards its fellow, joins the correfponding vas deferens at a very acute angle ; itds ftill confiderably larger than the latter canal. When the parts are diffefted, and the connetting cellular membrane removed, as in the hepatic and cyftic duéts, the junétion appears to be effected at a half right angle. ‘The canal formed by this union, and belonging equally to the veficula and yas deferens, proceeds more direét- ly in the courfe of the latter,lies in clofe contact with its fellow, paffes between the proftate and neck of the bladder, and thus arrives at the under furface of that part of the ure- thra, which runs through the gland. A {mall elongated eminence is found in this portion of the urinary canal, com- pofed of its internal coat, broader behind, where it aflumes an oval fizure. Towards the front it is continued into 2 long prominence, which is fimply a fold of the urethral lin- ing, and difappears in the bulb, ending in one of the long ftrie, of which feveral are feen in the urethra, and fome- times bifid, or even radiated at its extremity. It is called caput gallinaginis, or veru montanum. The elevations cf the lining of the bladder, continued from the ureters, termi- nate in this eminence. Itsoval portion is hollow, and pre- {ents a long flit leading intoa cul-de-fac, which can be in= flated, but which has no communication with the feminal paflages. On each fide of the eminence there is a fmall ob- long opening, the termination of the ejaculatory duct, but much narrower than the calibre of that tube, which is fuddenly reflected from within outwards, at nearly a right angle, and pours its contents, by this {mall opening, into the urethra. There is no valvular ftruéture at thefe orifices. The flit and cul-de-fac already mentioned have given rife ta an opinion, that the two ejaculatory ducts termimated by a common orifice, which is altogether erroneous. The proitate is a firm glandular body, placed behind the _ fymphyfis pubis, in front of the neck of tae bladder, and furrounding the commencement of the urethra. In. moft animals there are two feparate glands in this fituation, and the expreffion proffates has been erroneoufly transferred to the human fubject. The fize and figure of this part have been not unaptly compared to thofe of alarge chefnut. Its broader end 1s turned towards the bladder, and is divided by, a flight fiffure into two lateral lobes, the narrower part is- fituated forwards. It is confiderably thicker from fide to- fide, than in the vertical dire€tion. - The fuperior furface- correfponds to the arch of the pubis, but is rather behind- that part: itis covered by a ftrong fibrous expanfien, de- fcending from the arch, and named the inferior ligament of the bladder. Below, the gland is conneéted by. clofe cellu lar adheiions to’ the upper furface of the re€tum, and the- contaét of thefe two parts is more extenfive in proportion to- the fize of the gut, which, when much diftended, rifes: flightly on each fide of the proftate, fo as to be endangered: in the lateral operation of lithotomy. The convex promi- nent fides are covered by the anterior fibres of the levator. ani. The bafis, or broad pofterior part, whichis gently con-- cave, embraces the neck of the bladder, and the {mall ante— rior ends of the veficule feminales and vafa deferentia. The cellular fubitance, which conneéts it here to the bladder, is- very denfe and firm, and the mufcular fibres of the organ- are partly interwoven with it. ‘This part prefents the- groove already mentioned as dividing the organ into two- lateral lobes. In front, the narrower portion of the proftate- is loft indefinitely on the membranous part of the urethray_ to which it adheres moft firmly. The bulk of the urethra, the fat and mufcles of the perineum, cover the part fo deeply ~ on its anterior afpeét, that it can by no means be felt from: the furface ; on the upper part of the reétum, however, the- gland may be diftinétly recognized by the finger introduced) into the gut, as nothing but the inteftine covers it in this: fituation: and it projects fenfibly into the tube when en-- larged. Z : : The urethra, immediately at its origin from the bladder,, pafles through the proftate from behind forwards, and the membrane is almo‘t confolidated with the fides of the open— ing inthe gland. ‘This paflage does not take place at the centre, but nearer to the fuperior furface, fo that a {mall! portion only of the gland is above the urethra, and the chief bulk of it below and at the fides. At the inferior part of. the opening, by which the urethra commences, a finall por- tion of the gland projects flightly towards the bladder; and 5 this ———— a, GENERATION. this part is perforated by the feminal ducts.. It has been particularly deferibed by Mr. Home as forming a third lobe oi the proftate. See the defcription of a {mall lobe of the human proitate gland in the Philof. Tranfadt. 1806, pt. 1. The external furface of the proftate is covered by a more er lefs diftin& cellular inveltment, which is the moft com- plete below, and furrounded by numerous vafcular ramifica- tions, particularly of the venous kind. For an account of fome mufcular fibres connected to it, fee Compressor. Its. firuéture is rather obfcure; for it does not con- flitute a fimple gland with one excretory cavity, nor is it feparable into fmaller conflituent portions. It is denfe and very firm to the feel, apparently homogeneous when cut: into, of a light brown colour, and on the whole confiderably re- fembling a fcirrhous mafs. Small cavities are fcattered through it, and excretory duéts, from 7 or 8, to 12 or 15 im number, continued from thefe, open into the commence- ment of the urethra, on each fide of the caput gallinaginis. From thefe openings, a white and thickifh fluid may be exprefled in confiderable abundance: it differs effentially in its colour from that contained in the veficule feminales. Cowper's glands, are two {mall glandular mafles, fo named from the anatomift who particularly defcribed them, and publifhed figures of them; fee his Defcriptio glandularum, quarundam auper detectarum, &c. 1702. They have alfo been called the inferior, or f{maller proftates, or glandule acceflorie ; they are of a roundifh or oval figure, rather flat- tened, about the fize of apea, placed on each fide of the lower end of the bulb of the urethra, and covered by the accelerator mufcle. They may be eafily demonttrated by cutting through the middle of that mufcle, and reflecting it towards each fide: they are of a reddifh-grey colour, and compofed of many little portions, united together by cellu- Ler fubftance. Each of them has a feparate excretory dud, about half an inch in length, running obliquely forwards, and opening into the urethra by an aperture, which will ad- mit a hog’s briflle. They fecrete a mucous fluid, of a red- difh colour, which affifts in lubricating the lining of the urethra. According to Morgagni, they are fometimes want- ing. Haller has always found them, when he fought for them carefully. Cowper defcribes a third gland as being placed under the pubes in the curve of the urethra; but this has not in general been admitted. The Penis.—Aiter this defcription of the organs, which fecrete and preferve the feminal fluid, or form other liquors which are added to the produce of the teiticles, we proceed to fhew how this is conveyed to the place of its deitination mthe female. The urethra is a common paflage for the femen and urine, commencing at the bladder, continued along the penis to its extremity, at which it opens, and facilitating, by its connection with this organ, the tranfmiffion of the fecundating liquor to the germs prepared in the generative parts of the female. The penis is a very leading character in the ftructure of the male, and is the feat of enjoyment in the ‘ aét.of copulation. Its form is elongated, and nearly cylin- drical; it is placed at the middle and lower part of the ab- domen, in front of the fymphyfis pubis, and at the bifurcation of the lower limbs. When not ere¢ted it is foft and pendent, hanging in front of the fcrotum. Its length and fize are not eonitant, even in this condition, in the fame individual : for there are numerous degrees between the confiderable dimi- nution of bulk produced by the operation of cold, and the fwelling, which precedes ere€tion, in any of which the organ may be found according to circumftances; yet there is a middle ftate, in which it is commonly found, which is not the fame in all individuals. In the ereéted fkate it is lengthened, enlarged, changed in its direCtion, and rendered, by the {welling of the urethra, fomewhat triangular: a flicht curvature may be obferved in it at this time, adapted to the direction of the vagina. The increafe in the length and fize of the penis is always the fame in the fame individual: and it is more confiderable in proportion as the dimenfions of the organ in its itate of repole are greater ; but this is not con- ftant. We may notice a fuperior and inferior furface, two fides, an anterior and a potterior extremity. The upper furface, named the dorfum, or back of the penis, is inclined forwards ; it is turned towards the abdomen, and becomes pofterior in the ereéted flate. A large vein runs along its middle, and fometimes there are two trunks. The inferior furface, turned backwards, is placed againft the front of the ferotum; it forms-a prominent line from the courfe of the urethra, and the integuments in this fituation: have a longitudinal rough mark, called the raphé, continuous with a fimilar part in the ferotum. On each fide of this mid- dle prominence there is a fuperficial depreffion, where the urethra is in conta&t with the corpora cavernofa. The two fides of the penis are rounded. The potterior extremity, called alfe the root of the penis, is divided into three portions, which will be prefently deferibed, viz. the urethra in the middle, and the two corpora cavernofa, one on each fide.. The anterior extremity prefents the glans and prepuce. The ,penis is made up cf various parts, each of which ferves fome particular purpofe in the funétions of the organ, confidered as an inftrument of reproduétion.. 1ft. The cor- pora cavernofa, making up its chief bulk, foft. and loofe in the ftate of repofe, are fo organized as to become very fud- denly increafed in fize and hardnefs, in confequence of the operation of certain fiimuli. By thefe the penis is rendered capable of introduction into the female vagina. 2dly. The urethra, by which the fecundating liquor is conveyed, is a membranous canal, furrounded bya vafcular fubftance, called corpus {pongiofum, which is fufceptible of the fame change in ere€tion as the corpora cavernofa. 3dly. The glans is a {mall organ, confifting of a continuation of the corpus fpongi- ofum, covered by a highly organized and acutely fenfible fkin, the excitation of which, in the aé of coition, deter- mines the difcharge of the feminal fluid through the urethra. The penis poffefles an external cutaneous covering, which is fimply contiguous to the glans, but united to the corpora cavernofa and urethra by cellular fubftance. The corpora cavernofa, or crura penis, are two nearly cy- lindrical bodies, of a very firm texture, united laterally in the greateft part of their length, but feparated from each other behind, like the branches of the letter Y, and termi- nating by flender, conical, and pointed extremities, Thefe, fixed behind to the rami of the ifchia and pubes, advance for- wards and inwards, approximating to cach other. In front of the fymphyfis pubis they come in contact, or rather, are confounded together in one fingle body, the fize of which is uniform throughout, exceptin front, where it terminates by ablunt extremity. The feparate origin of the two lateral portions has Jed anatomifts in general to {peak of the corpora" cavernofa in the plural number}. but their confolidation into one body has induced Sabatier, and fome other modern authors, to admit only a fingle corpus cavernofum, bifurcated behind for a double infertion into the pelvis. The fingle body, formed by the union ofthe two crura, to which the bulk and firmnefs of the penis are almoft entirely owing, is flattened above and below, and prefents two furfaces, a fuu perior and an inferior, on each of which there is a longitu. dinal groove, correfponding to the feptum, which is within the corpus cavernofum. ‘That of the upper furface is the {malleft, and lodges the great veins of the penis; the infe- rior, broader and deeper, receives the urethra, to which it is united GENERATION. pnited by a clofe cellular fubftance. The fides of the body are rounded and covered by the fkin, its anterior extremity forms a blunt point, received into a concavity, at the bafe of the glans. ‘The two parts are united by a very denfe cellu- lar iubftance, and fome blood-veffels pafs between them, but there is no other kind of communication ; and air or in- jeCtien, thrown into the cellular fubftance of the corpus ca- yvernofum, do not find their way into the glans. The latter, therefore, is not an expanfion or continuation of the former, as fome old anatomills fuppofed.. The pofterior extremity is bifurcated, and its two prolongations form the two crura senis already mentioned. ‘Thefe begin ina pointed form a ittle above the tuberofities of the ifchia, from the inner furface of the bone, to which they are attached as far as the fymphyfis. Below and within they are covered by the ereétores and accelerator mufcles, above and without they adhere ftrongly to the bone. They leave between them a triangular {pace, filled by fat, and by the urethra, which oc- cupies its middle. Three parts are to be confidered in the corpus cavernofum, viz. an external membrane, a peculiar fpongy fubftance, anda longitudinal feptum, occupying its middle. The outer membrane is of a fibrous nature, very thick and firm, whitifh in its colour, and beftowing on the body its peculiar figure. Its external furface is covered with a denfe cellular tiffue; on the infide it adheres clofely to the fpongy fubftance. Thinner on the crura, in the groove lodging the urethra, and at the anterior extremity, it prefents in thele fituations a livid tint, produced by the con- tained blood, while it is thicker every where elfe, whitith, and opake, Jn the former fituations there are fome per- forations for the admiffion of blood-veffels. It 1s continuous and ftrongly interwoven with the periofteum of the os in- nominatum, at the origin of the crura, Jt partakes entirely of the charaéters belonging to fibrous organs; and is made up of fibres varioufly interlaced, and forming feveral ftrata, Tt is found to be very hard and refifting, when expofed to the action of acutting initrument. It experiences a pailive dilatation from the influx of blood in ereétion, and returns to its former ftate, when this extenfion goes off, It does not feem to poffefs any vital properties, The fpongy matter of the corpus cavernofum is a cel- Inlar fubttance, compofed of very fine and numerous plates and fibres detached from the internal furface of the fibrous membrane, and decuflating each other in every direétion, Fts cells are all communicated together, and are more or lefs filled with blood, which can be removed by forcible fqueezing, or repeated wafhings, Various fibrous threads crofs the cel- lular fubftance in different fituations, and are attached to the furface of the fibrous membrane, ‘They are faid to prevent exceffive diftention of the corpora cavernofa. An artery and a vein pafs through the centre of the cellular fubftance on each fide, from behiud forwards, Their minute ramifi- cations inaft, undoubtedly, communicate with the cells of the organ, fince injeftion will pafs from the arteries inte thefe cells 5 and injected fluids or air, after filling the corpus eavernofum, gain admiffion into the veins, The blood contained in the corpus cavernofum has always a dark livid appearance in the dead body s but it is red during life, asmay be feen in amputation of the penig, or in living ani- mals, Its quantity varies very confiderably, according to the condition of the penis 5 when it is increafed, the whole cor« pus cayernofum is diftended; from the bony origin to the glans, it is elongated and hardened, and erection is produced, The feptum of the penis divides it longitudinally into two portions, which moft anatomilts confider as diftmé tubes, under the name of corpora cavernofa, Jn order to fee it well, the fibrous membrane fhould be cut through on each 7 fide of the penis, and all the fpongy fubfance removed ; the feptum will them be found continuous, by its two edges, with the fibrous membrane, and compofed of ftrong whitifh fibres, not forming an entire plane, but leaving intervals be- tween them,at which the two fides of th> corpus cayernofum communicate freely. From this ftru€ture the name of feptum pectiniforme has been derived. ‘Whe intervals: between the fibres are larger towards the inferior than the fuperior edge of thefeptum. At the part where the two crura meet to- gether, the feptum is complete, it degenerates inte feparate fafciculi towards the oppotite end of the organ, and the in- tervals between thefe are more confiderable, as we approach nearer to the front extremity. The dimenfions of the penis are determined m great mea- fure by the corpus cavernofum; and to this body the organ owes that firmnefs in the erected Late, which enables it te fulfil its office in the bufinefs of generation. j Each of the crura penis gives attachment at its origin to atolerably ftrong mufele, named the erefor penis, probably, becaufe when a power, capable of producing the effe& ir- dicated by that name, was fought for by anatomifts, this mufcle feemed to be their only refource, At prefent the name appears very ill adapted, fince the mufcles in quef- tion obvioufly draw the penis downwards and backwards, in- flead of upwards and againft the pubes. Thofe who ex- plain the ereGtion of the penis, by the compreffion of its vein, fhould find out a power capable of elevating the organ againft the bone, and of carrying it forwards. It has a ten- dinous origin, below the attachment of the crus penis, from the inner furface of the tuberofity, and ramus of the ifchium. Tt paffes forwards, upwards, anda little inwards, and is firmly implanted in the fibrous membrane of the crus penis. It will draw the corpus cayernofum downwards, fo as to bring it more nearly into a direCtion, fuitable to the cavity of the vagina ; it has a flight«power of fhortening thé crus penis, and thereby exprefling the blood into the anterior part of the organ, fo as to increafe its turgefcence, Its origin and courfe render it completely incapable of comprefling the large vein of the penis. Vhe urethra, which, in'the female, belongs only to the uri. nary paffages, conftitutes moreover in man an effential part of the generative apparatus, Its lengthis very confiderable, and its organization very complicated, in confequence of the latter office. It has connections with almoft all the parts belonging to this apparatus 5 the ejaculatory and proftatic duéts open into it; 1t is clofely conneéted to the corpus ca- vernofum, and terminated by the glans. In the male fub- je@ it forms a canal extended from the neck of the bladder to the end of the penis, and giving paffage to the urine and femen. Itslength, which varies in different individuals, and in fubjects of different ages, is about nine or ten inches in the adult. At its origin it penetrates the proftate, pafiing for- wards and downwards; it goes under the fymphyfis pubis, and then efcends in front of that part, between the two crura penis, in order to reach the inferior furface of the corpus cayernofum, and become attached to the channel which we have already defcribed. Being thus united to the corpus cayernofum, it runs along the whole Jength of that body, and follows its direétion, Laftly, it traverfes the glans penis, and opens at its extremity, by a vertical flit with flightly rounded edges of a bright red colour. Hence the canal forms in its courfe curvatures refembling thofe of the letter S 5 but this is only when the penis is relaxed; for, in the erected flate, the curvature in front of the pubes, of which the concavity is turned downwards, is entirely effaced, and that only remains, which is below the pubes, and of which the concavity faees upwards, The GENERATION. he canal is divided into three portions, diftinguifhed from each other by theit organization, The firit, of about an inch ia length, which pafies through the proftate, has re- ceived no name; the fecond, of about equal extent, conti- nued from the proitate to the bulb, is called the membranous portion ; the ether correfponds aboye to the inferior fur- face of the fymphylis pubis, but is about half or three quarters of an inch belew the bone. Below it is connedted by cellular fubftance to the furface of the reétum, and at the fides, the front edges of the levatores ani are in contact with it. This part of the canal has been called the membranous portion, from anotion that the membrane of the urethra was covered here by no external inveftment, but in fa@ it is clofely furrounded by a thick ftratum of mufcular fibres. The mot interior of thefe are cireular, and lie clofe upon the membrane of the urethra. Mr. Wilfon has lately deferibed fome fibres, arifing by a double tendon from the arch of the pubes, defcending on each fide of the urethra, and united under the canal. (Seg the Medico-chirurgical Tranfa€tions, vol. i.) Thefe fibres are connetted in front with the accelerator urine, and behind with the levatores ani. They will comprefs the canal when they contract, andy by clofing it at the time of emiffion, will prevent the feminal fluid from being driven backwards by the action of the accelerator. The third portion of the urethra, including all the reft of the canal, is called the fpongy part. It begins by an ob- long rounded portion, named the bulb of the urethra. This is fituated below the union of the crura penis, between which it makes a remarkable prominence. Below, and on the fides, it is covered by the accelerator urine {fee Accr- LERATOR), and by Cowper’s glands. ‘Together with the two preceding parts of the canal, the bulb forms the firft eurvature of the urethra, and its fides are ftronely connected to the arch of the pubis by means of a fibrous expanfion, termed the triangular ligament of the urethra. The latter part poffeffes the figure, which its name indicates ; the bafe of the triangle is turned downwards, the apex upwards, corre{ponding to the junction of the ofla pubis, and the fides are attached to the rami of the pubes. It is perforated by the paflage of the urethra, which it holds firmly in its re- Tative fituation to the bone. In the reft of its extent, the fpongy portion of the urethra correfponds above to the channel in the under furface of the corpus cavernofum. Be- low, it is covered near the bulb by the accelerator, then by the cellular fubftance of the ferotum, and afterwards by the integuments of the penis. The djameter of the canal is by no means uniform in its whole length. It is large in the middle of the proftate, and fmaller ies it enters and leaves the gland. . The canal is here rather flattened laterally. In the rnembranous portion it is perfectly cylindrical, but fmall in its fize; and the nar- rowelt portion of the whole canal is juft where the bulb and membranous part join. In the bulb it is again confiderably enlarged, and after contraCting flightly, preferves a cylin- drical figure and uniform fize to the bafe of the glans, ‘There it again dilates, and forms what fome anatomiits have called the foffa navicularis ; its anterior opening is fome- what narrower. Mr. Home took the trouble of afcertain- ing the dimenfions of the canal by filling it with wax, and meafuring the caft thus formed. The length was nine inches ; from the external orifice to the bulb, feven. The membra- nous portion was 1% inch, and the proftatic part of the canal half aninch. ‘The diameter of the caft, at = of aninch from the external orifice, was g-20ths of an inch in a fubject of 8o years, and 7-20thsin one of 30 years; at 4: inches from the external orifice 7-20ths; at the bulb of the urethra 12-20ths; in the membranous part, immediately adjoining the bulb, 7-zoths; in the middle of the proltate if-2oths; at the neck of the bladder g-2oths, Hote on Strictures, vol. i. p. 24, and2g. The iituation of the eminence, om which the ejaculatory, ducts open, called the veru montanum, in the proflatic part of the urethra, and its figure, have been already noticed $ as well as the openings of the proftatic ducts in the fame part of the canal. In the reft of its extent, the internal furface of the canal poffeffes a reddifh colour In the membranous and {pongy portions, longitudinal folds are obfervable, difap- pearing onextenfion. Thefe are not feen in the proftate, nor at the glans, becaufe the firm texture of the parts which ad- here fo very clofely to the mucous tnembrane, keeps it eon- ftantly fmooth. Hence the diameter of thefe parts is neatiy uniform at all times. The fides of the canal exhibit openings of numerous fmall oblique duéts, frequently natned after Morgagni, Thefe are only feen in that part of the urethra which. is in front of the bulb, and are fometimes called lacune 5 their number and fize vary in different fubjeés. They run from behind forwards, and terminate by fimple oblique orifices. They are always very numerous about the foffa navicularis, from which fome have explaitied the cir- cumiftance of this part being particularly affeéted in gonor-- rhea. They confiit of fhort canals, formed in the membra- nous fides of the urethra, lined by a coritinuation of the in-- ternal membrane of this canal, and about large enough to’ admit a large hog’s briftle. They are of various lengths, but commonly erase a quarter of an inch. Sometimes feveral fmaller join into one larger duét.- If carefully exa- mined, their whole number will not be found lefs than 60 or 70. No glandular apparatus can be difcerned connected with them. In thefe tubes the mucous: fluid is fecreted; by which the furface of the urethra is fmeared, and defended from the action of the urine. Where thefe lacune do not exift, as in the bulb, membranous portion and proftate, a protecting fluid is furnifhed from other fources, as Cowper’s‘glands and the proftate. The fluid of the lacune feems to be a clear vifcid fecretion, fimilar in appearance and tenacity to the white of ego. In this-form it can be expreffed from the openings on the furface of the urethra; Under various cir- cumftances of difeafe it is increafed in quantity, and va-- rioufly altered from its natural properties, asin gonorrhea and gleet, and in ftricture. In fome of thefe inflances, it is a clear, tranfparent, vifcid fluid, being the natural fecretion in a more abundant form. The fides of the urethra aré differently organized’ in dif-: ferent parts; it is lined indeed throughout by a mucous membrane, but this is covered externally by very different ftruétures.. Where the canal is paffing through the proftate, the fides are formed merely by the mucous membrane, clofely united to the gland’ by a denie cellular texture. The firm fubftance of the proftate, fo intimately conneCted. with the canal, gives to it a itrength and thicknefs in this part. The membranous portion is differently circumftanced ; this is the thinneft, and leaft firmly fupported divifion of the canal, and, as it is placed in the bend of the urethra, is particularly Hable to injury in the employment of the catheter. Tven here the membrane is covered by a denfe cellular texture, continued from the proftate, and by the mufcniat fibres already defcribed. In the fpongy portion of the urethra, the fides of the canal are covered bya fubftance of peculiar organization, analogous in ‘its effects to that which fills the corpora cayernofa penis.. This is called corpus {pongiofum urethre, or corpus eavernofum. It ‘begins in front of the membranous part of the canal, by a large protuberance already mentioned, as the bulb of the urethra. It forms an oblong rather elongated production, hanging between the crura GENERATION. 4 crura penis and below the canal of the urethra, fometimes bearing a flight appearance of divifion into two lateral parts by amiddle line, and terminating behind by a rounded end. The bulb correfponds only to the inferior furface of the urethra ; but a thinner Inyer of the corpus {pongiofim, con- tinued from the bulb, covers the nrethra on all fides in front of that body to the end of the canal. Here it is again in- creafed in quantity, and reflected over the anterior extremity of the corpus cavernofum penis, to form the glans. ‘The fpongy fubitance furrounds the urethra uniformly on all fides. It is clofely conneéted to the corpus cavernofum above by cellular fubftance, and by veflels which are feen when the urethra is detached from its channel; below and on the fides it is covered by a cellular fheath, common to it with the corpus cavernofum penis. The external furface of the corpus fpongiofum confifts of a thin but compact fibrous layer ; andthe interval between this dnd the mucous mem- brane feems to be filled by a very fine cellular net-work, the cells of which contain venous blood. ‘The tenuity of the external layer occafions the part to poffefs a livid colour, as the tint of the blood is difcernible. This net-work is covered in the glans-by a highly organized f{pecies of fkin, through which the colour of the venous blood is not dif- cernible. The corpus fpongiofum does not confilt, ac- cording to the common opinion, of acellular texture ; but it is made up of very {mall and repeatedly convoluted veins, as may be afcertained diftin@tly enough by infpecting atten- tively the furface of it, when fuccefsfully injected: this ftruéture is more evident in fome animals, as particularly in the dog. The bulk of the corpus fpongiofum depends on the quantity of blood which it contains ; and this part admits of the fame diftin€tion, as the fpongy fubftance of the cor- pora cavernofa penis, and for the fame purpofes. Air, im- pelled into any part, finds its way readily oyer the whole ex- tent of the fubftance, and the fame circumitance may be ob- ferved of injeftion. It may be readily injected from the large vein at the back of the penis; but the valves fometimes prevent the fuccefs of this attempt. The canal of the urethra is lined by a mucous membrane, continuous with the lining of the bladder at one extremity, and with the cutaneous covering of the glans at the other, and fending prolongations into the mucous finufes of Mor- gagni, the ducts of Cowper’s glands, the ejaculatory ducts, and thofe of the proftate. Its furface is perfeétly fmooth, excepting the longitudinal wrinkles, which are effaced by extenfion. The colour is a bright red at the external orifice, and in the fofla navicularis: in other parts it appears pale, when the blood has been exprefled from the corpus {pongio- fum. But the injection of coloured fluids proves that it re- ceives every where an abundant fupply of blood-veffels. Its fubftance is very thin, and the opinion of its being covered by a continuation of the epidermis does not feem to be at all well-founded, as there is a well marked line of feparation at the glans, and no cuticle can be fhewn in the canal. The external furface is rough and cellular for its conneétion to furrounding parts. No appearance of mufcular ftruGure can be difcerned in any part of the membrane. The intro- duétion of an initrument fhews this membrane to poflefs acute fenfibility ; and the repetition of the praétice evinces the force of habit in blunting fuch feelings. The firft time of. pafling a bougie or found is fometimes attended with fainting, and almolt always with fharp pain, but after a few times, no unpleafant énfation is excited. The pafiage of the urine is attended ordinarily with no fenfation ; but this be- comes molt acutely painful when the membrane is inflamed. It has been much difputed whether or no this canal poffefs a contractile power in its own lining. The phenomena are *{tronaly in favour of the affirmative, althoush no mufeular 5°) ? 6 fibres have been demonitrated. The temporary cbftru€tion to the flow of urine, under circumiflances of difeafe, and fda onvemence, can‘ hardly be ile foree to the mem- sents from the ‘canal is ne kind. That the urethra is ible, and that it returus again to itsGrizinal fize, isproved by the paffage of inftriments. Haller flates that c¥emical ftimulants willcaufe it to contra, The glans is the body furmounting the anterior and upper part of the corpus cavernofum penis, and forming the front extremity of the organ, of which it augments the length in a trivial degree. It has the form of a cone, fligntly flattened from before backwards, with its bafe very obiique- ly truncated. Its apex prefents the aperture of the urethra already defcribed. Below this, is placed the irenum connect- ing it to the prepuce ; and on each fide of this fold it Avells into a {mall convex protuberance (colliculi glandis). This partis called by Haller “ fenfus acerrimi fedes.”” The glans cannot be faid to extend below the urethra, as that part belongs to the corpus fpongiofum. Since the bafis is fo obliquely truncated, the depth of the organ is very incon~ fiderable at the two.convexities already named; but it is much more confiderable above, where it is produced over the corpus cavernofum, and terminated by a thick rifing ed of a femi-lunar outline, with the convexity turned ce. wards, called the corona glandis. ‘This margin, fufficiently thick and prominent to elevate the integuments, and caufe a perceptible rifing externally, forms the front boundary of a cul-de-fac, or gutter, caufed by the refleGtion of the inner membrane of the prepuce over the glans. Below, the corona glandis is interrupted by a {mall groove, which extends to the orifice of the urethra, and gives attachment to the fold which forms the frenum. In fome fubje¢ts this groove is hardly perceptible. The colliculi glandis are continuous below with the corpus fporgiofum ; the bafis of the glans is hollowed out, and the anterior extremity of the corpus ca- vernofum penis is received into the concavity. In confe- quence of this ftruéture, although the glans appears to be an inch or more in length, it makes very little addition to the length of the penis. The fubftance of the organ confifts of a fpongy matier fimilar to and continuous aes that of the urethra. Air or injeGted fluids pafs readily from one into the other. This matter is made up, as in the urethra, of convoluted veins, and it admits of the fame changes of laxity and ereétion from the fame caufes. Sometimes there is an appearance as if the corpus {pongofum urethre and the glans were fepa- rated from each other byafeptum. The fubftance of the glans is always more denfe, and contains lefs blood than that of the urethra. The furface of the organ is covered by a very vafcular and delicate produ€tion of the integuments, continuous towards the apex of the glans with the mucous lining of the urethra, and at its bafis with the inner layer of the prepuce, This covering is very thin, and fmooth and foft to the touch. Its external furface is compofed of a de- licate epidermis; this is fucceeded by a layer of the true fkin, of a very foft and delicate ftru€ture, covered with nu- merous {mall villous proceffes, which are moft diftin@ly feen about the corona glandis. The moft favourable method of - obferving thefe villi is to plunge the part in boiling water, . which feparates the cuticular covering; they are then vifi- ble in vait numbers over the whole furface, giving it an irre- gularity in its appearance. This circumftance in the ftruc- ture of the glans was firft demonitrated by Albinus (Annot. Academ. lib. i1.‘, and is admitted by Ruy{fch and Winflow, although ® GENERATION. although fome anatomifts have queftioned it, probably be- caufe the demonftration is rather difficult. That the nerves of the organ are continued into thefe papillz, as they are in the tongue, and that the exquiite fenfibility of the glans arifes, from this organization, is rather matter of probable - conjeGture, than thérefult of dire&t proof. The blood-vef- fels of this cutaneous production are numerous, fo that a general redne!s is produced by minute injections. The op- pofed furfaces of the glans and prepuce are fmeared over with a white, friable, and unctuous fubitance, of a very pe- culiar odour, moiftening the parts and preventing the effects which might otherwife follow their mutual attrition. In animals there are manifeft ¢lands to fecrete this fub{tance, and an apparatus of glandular ftructure deflined to. the fame office has been defcribed in man. his kind of febaceons matter is formed in other lituations of the body by peculiar glandular organs, as in the eye-lids by the Meibomian glands ; and the notion that it is depofited by the urine, which is con- trary to all obfervation, and to every thing we know of the properties of that fluid, would be immediately overturned by the fact, that a fimilar depofition occurs under the pre- putium clitoridis of the female, where the urine could not formit. Although in many fubje¢ts no glands can be feen, they are occafionally obvious enough, and are now_ uniyer- fally admitted, under the name of glandule odorifera. Morgagni, in his Adverfaria, has pivenja very particular de- feription of them, and Haller confirms his itatements, They are hardifh, white, and very {mall. bodies, particularly ob- fervable about the corona glandis, and in the channel behind that part, where the prepuce is reflected. Morgagni alfo Mentions them near the frenum inthe prepuce. “ I have feen,’’ fays Haller, “five rows of themin the corona, but their number diminifhed towards the frenum, fo that no more than two rows could be feen.’’ They can be obferved moft advantageoufly when the cuticle has been removed, "That the orifices of thefe bodies can be feen, and their febaceous contents {queezed out, is not fo clearly afcertained 3 but both thefe facts are aflerted by competent witnefles. ~ They may be rendered more evident when enlarged in difeafe ; and might be miftaken for venereal pimples, if their fymmetri- cal arrangement did not throw light on the appearance. That the matter fecreted by thefe glands accumulates under the fore-fkin, in the form of a white, foft, and greafy fub- itance, where the neceffary attentions to perfonal cleanlinefs are negle€ted, and that in hot weather, it may become acrid and irritating, fo as to produce excoriation and even ulcera- tion, are well known fats. The inhabitants of warm clhi- mates are chiefly expofed to thefe inconveniences, and the moft important advantage of circumcifion confilts in its ob- viating {uch accumulations. Hence we know that Chrittians, living under the burning fun of Senegambia, fubmit to this Operation, and that uncireumecifed Europeans, living in the Patt, very frequently experience the ill efiects ariling from the fource juft alluded to. For this reafon Guido de Bes liaco, a celebrated furgeon of his time, about the ntiddle of the fourteenth century, obferved that circumcifion was ufe- ful to many others befides Jews and Saracens: “ propterea -guod non congregantur fordities in radio balani et caleface- rent ipfum.’’ Chirurgie, tr. vi. doctr. 11. Pe Mie ide * The glans penis poilefles a very exquifite fenfibility, par- ticularly in perfons where it is habitually covered by the pre- ‘pace; this feeling is only obferved on certain occafions, and is the fource of that phytfical fenfation experienced at the expulfion of the feminal fluid. It fwells and becomes firm in the a& of erection, as well as the reit af the penis. - The cutaneous covering of thepenis is continuous, at one end, with that of the fcrotum and pubes, and at the other Vout. XVI. - with the prepuce. It is thin, furnithed with numerous fe. baceous glands, particularly at the under furface, and marked in) that fituation by a rough line, called the raphé, running along the middle of the organ, and continued with a fimilar ene onthe ferotum. Itis darker coloured than the interu- ments in general, and has a few hairs towards the root of the organ. The cellular texture connecting the fkin to the penis is very loofe, and contains no. fat except clofe to the pubes; hence the flcin adapts itfelf with the greateft facility tothe varying bulk of the organ, falling into wrinkles in the collapfed ftate, and extended more {moothly in the ereéied condition. It is continuo&s with the cellular fubftance of the fcrotum, groins, and pubes, and air pafies readily between them. Towards the furface of the corpus cavernofum it becomes more denfe, and affumes the form of a regular mem- branous covering ; it is more and more loofe towards the furface, and has, when inflated, a cottony appearance. The fufpenfory ligament of the penisis placed at the root of the organ, which it unites to the fymphyfis pubis. It confilts of 4 denhfe, cellular, elongated, and fattened band, proceed- ing from the front of the fymphyfis pubis, running along the cellular tiffue of the organ, and expanded under the fkin. Its limits and figure are not very determined, and the knife of the diffe€tor often influences its fize and appearance. The prepuce or fore-fkin is a loofe fold of the cutaneous covering of the penis, continued over the glans, without ad- hering to it, and affording amore or lefs complete covering to the extremity of the pems. Its length yaries in different individuals ; fometimes it is produced confiderably in front of the glans, and its opening is then generally {mall.’ Its ex- ternal furface offers the fame ftru@ure and appearance as the integuments covering the body of the penis, and is fmooth or wrinkled, according to the ftate of the organ. "The inner furface, much fofter to the touch, is in conta& with the glans, to which it has a membranous attachment below. termed the frenum. © The latter is continuous, on one fide, with the internal membrane of the prepuce, and fixed, on the other, to the fmall longitudinal groove which we have deferibed in the under part of the glans ; and it ends in this fituation by a prominent line fixed to the véry opening of the’ urethra. The frenum limits the extent to which the retrac- tion of the prepuce can be carried 3 but allows the organ either to be brought fufficiently forwards to cover the whole rlans, or to be carried backwards far enough to expofe its whole furface. In the latter ftate the frenum is on the {tretch, and, if the prepuce be moved forcibly in this direGtion, it may even be torn, asin coition:; this accident is particularly likely to occur, if the fhortnefs of the fold allows only a partial expofure of the glans. Such a difpofition of parts rendering the aét of copulation painful, might require a fec- tion of the frenum. The bafis of the prepuce is attached, on the infide, to the bafe of the glans, behind which it is reflected fo as to Ine the fmall channel already deferibed in this fitua- tion. Its apex forms a large round opening, of a fufficient magnitude, in general, to allow the part to be drawn en- tirely back behind the glans; and, even where it is more contra¢ied, much larger than the orifice of the urethra. In fome cafes its opening is fo {mall as not.to allow the retrace tion of the organ, and even to obftrué the flow of urine ; this conftitutes phymofis: in others, it can be withdrawn, but the tightnefs is fo great that it may not be poffible to reftore it ; that is termedsparaphymofis. It has been aflerted of fome races in the Eaft that the prepuce is unufually long, and that this ftructure particularly favours the accumulation of the matter fecreted by the glandule odorifere ; fo that circumcifion has been more efpecially neceflary on that ace count, \ E The GENERATION. The integuments of the penis, having arrived at the bafe of the glans, are continued forwards to its apex, as far as the opening of the prepuce. There they acquire a different organization, are folded back in a contrary direction, and terminate by a firm attachment round the bafis of the glans. The two layers, of which the exterior does not differ from the skin of the penis, except in being thinner, are connected by a ftratum of very loofe cellular fubitance, perfectly free from fat. The laxity of this cellular matter is fo confider- able, that, when the prepuce is withdrawn as far as poffible, the two component layers are uo longer in contact, but feparated completely. ‘The furfaces, by which they before adhered, are now applied to the corpora cavernofa, and the integuments of the penis are withdrawn towards the pubes. The prepuce feems defigned to proteét the glans, and defend it from the effets of conta&, and rubbing againft external objects. Yet it is not effential to the functions of the organ, that it fhould poffefs fuch a covering, as the deftruction of it by eircumcifion or difeafe proves. The cevering of the zlans becomes afterwards thicker and harder, but the pecu- i fenfibility, excited in the performance of the generative functions, does not feem to be diminifhed. The arteries of the male generative organs are chiefly furnifhed by the trunk of the pudendal; but the proftate and veficulz feminales receive branches alfo from the vefical arteries. _ The integuments of the external parts have branches from the perineal artery, and from the veffels of the thigh. ‘The veins of the penis unite, for the moft part, into a large trunk at the middle of the upper furface of the organ, which paffes under the fymphyfis pubis, and opens into a large plexus furrounding the proftate and neck of the bladder. Thefe end partly in the hypogaftrie veins, and partly in the inferior mefenteric. Befides thefe there are fuperficial veins in the prepuce and penis, terminating in the faphena and femoral vein. The lymphatics of the penis are divided into fuperficial and deepfeated. The former arife from the prepuce and integuments, and go to the fuperficial inguinal glands. The latter, arifing from the urethra and corpus cavernofum, enter the pelvis in company with the branches of the pudendal artery, and join the hypogaftric plexus. The nerves of the penis are of confiderable fize, and are derived principally from the 2d, 3d, and 4th facral pairs. Developement of the Male generative Organs —Asthe funGtion of generation does not commence until a confiderable period after birth, the developement of its organs in the humaa fubje& follows alaw derived from this circumftance. ‘They ae no remarkable change from birth till the age of puberty, at which time the procefs of nutrition is carried on in them with great activity. But they may be obferved at an early period in the fetus, where, without having any remarkable predominance over other parts, they are con- fiderably advanced, as if nature, in fketching out the organi- zation, had wifhed to mark decidedly the diftinguifhing fexual traits. In the foetal ftate, we fhall defcribe merely the condition of the teitis and fpermatic cord, as thefe are the only parts differing effentially at that time from the ftate in which they are found in the newly born child. The reft of the genera- tive apparatus undergoes no remarkable changes, until the time of birth, and we fhall therefore not notice them until that time, There is no part in the body which undergoes fo re- markable a change in its fituation as the telticle; and, if it be interrupted in this procefs, a particular difeafe is very commonly occafiened, This organ, which, at its firft for- mation, i in the abdominal cavity at the inferior margin 1 of the kidney, furrounded by the inteftines, paffes in the advanced periods of utero-geitation into the ferotum, and, as the canal through which it defcended is fhut up, never regains its original fituation. At the time of birth, or very foon after, manand moft other mammalia have both tefticles in the fcrotum. ‘This remarkable change was firft noticed and deftribed about the middle of the laft century, when many celebrated anatomifts turned their attention to it, in- fomuch that it is difficult to determine with whom the credit of being the firft defcriber refts. The peculiar kind of rupture, called hernia congenita, which takes place when the defcent of the teftis is not accomplifhed in the regular manner, was the circum{tance which principally led to the difcovery, and more minute inveftigation of the faéts- When furgeons began to reafon on the caufes and feats of ruptures, and the ftructure of the hernial fac, they naturally turned their attention towards thefe parts, and foon difco- vered that kind of the complaint in which the parts occupy the canal formed by the defcent of the teftis, and to which. the name of congenital was given, becaufe the ftate of parts. favouring its occurrence commonly exifts at the time of birth. ‘The examination of the origin and peculiarities of, this affeGtion, led to a complete elucidation of the whole affair, in a feries of excellent publications. J Reneaulme de la Garaune, a French furgeon, who wrote a treatife on ruptures in 1726, has the firft hint on the fub- je&t; he fpeaks of the inteftines and omentum efcaping’ through the fame canal at which the teftis has paffed out. Among the numerous claims, which the great Swifs phyfio- logift poffeffes, to the gratitude and refpe& of all medical men, is that of having given the firft clear account of this matter. Indeed, there is hardly any part of the fubject which has not been difcuffed and explained in the writings of this great man; and, as the obfervation of La Garaune is a fingle and indirect hint, we muft affign the honour of the difcovery entirely to: Haller. (See Commerc. litterar. No- rimberg. 1735, p- 1973 1737) P-3- Programma, hernia- rum obfervationes aliquot. Goetting, 1739. Opufcula pathologica, Laufanne, 1755.) Soon after thefe publica- tions, the fubjeét was taken up in England by the Hunters. Dr. W. H. according to his brother’s ftatement, had found both teftes lying in the abdomen in a ftill-born child of fever or eight months, fome years before the publication -of Haller’s “ Opufcula Pathologica,”’ and could not explain the © matter to his fatisfation. Mr. J. Hunter published a very full and accurate account of the original fituation, and of its change in the teitis. (See Medical Commentaries, p.1. Lond. 1762, cap.ix.) About the fame time the obfervations of Mr. Pott were made public. The vait praétical opportuni- ties enjoyed/by this gentleman enabied him to explain all the pathological ei atencen connected with the deicent of the teftis; his knowledge of the anatomy was probably derived from the fources already pointed out. (See acceunt of a peculiar kind of rupture frequently attendant upon new born children, and fometimes met with in adults, Lendon, 1765. Treatife on the Hydrocele, fe&. 3. p. 12. Chirurgi- cal‘ obfervations and cafes relative to ruptures, fect. 2.) Camper, who united fo fuccefsfully anatomical and furgical purfuits, invefligated this matter with confiderable atten— tion, and gave the refults of his labours to the public in the Haarlem TranfaCtions, v. 6. and 7. The works of Neubaur and Lobftein muit not be omitted in this enumeration ; that of the former is entitled, “* De tunicis vaginalibus teitis et funiculi fpermatici.”” Gieffe, 1767. The differtation of the- latter, “ De hernia congenita, inqua inteftinum in contaétu. teftis eft,’” Argentorat 1771, contains a very excellent and complete account of the whole matter, both in an ae c GENERATION. eal and furgical point of view. In addition to thefe we have to notice, as containing good defcriptions and ufetul informa- tion, the following more modern works. Girard’s Appendix adjeGta tabulis poithumis Santorini. Palletta nova guberna- culi teftis Hunteriani et tunice vaginalis anatomica defcrip- tio. Mediolani, 1777. Brugnone de teftium in feetu pofitu, &e. Wrifberg obfervationes anatomice de tefticulorum ex abdomine in fcrotum defcenfu, &c. in the Gottingen com- mentaries for 1778. Vicq d’Azyr recherches fur la ttructure et la pofition des tefticules, &c. in the Memoires de I’ Acad. des Sciences, année 1780. Martin commentarius de hernie congenite ortu, &c. in the Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Scient. Upfal. v.3. Sandifort icones hernie congenite, Lugd. Bat. 1781, 4to. Until the approach of birth, the teftes of the fetus are lodged within the cavity of the abdomen, and may therefore be reckoned among the abdominal vifcera. ‘They are fitu- ated immediately below the kidneys, on the fore-part of the pfoex mufcles, and by the fide of the rectum, where this inteltine is paffing down into the cavity of the pelvis ; for in the fetus, the rectum, which is much larger in_ proportion to the capacity of the pelvis, than in the full-crown fubjeé, lies before the lumbar vertebre, as well as before the facrum. Indeed the cafe is nearly the fame with regard to all the contents of the pelvis ; that is, their fituation is much higher in the foetus than in the adult; the figmoid flexure of the colon, part of the rectum, the greatelt part of the bladder, the fundus uteri, the Fallopian tubes, &c. being placed in the foetus above the hollow of the pelvis, in the common or great abdominal cavity. At this time the figure of the gland is much the fame as in the adult, and its pofition is the fame as when it is in the ferotum, that is, one end is placed upwards, the other downwards ; one flat fide is to the right, the other to the left; and one edge is turned backwards, the other forwards. But as the teftis is lefs firmly conneéted to the furrounding parts, while it is in the loins, its pofition may vary a little. The moft natural feems to be when the anterior edge is turned dire€tly forwards ; but the leaft touch will throw that either to the right fide, or to the left, and then the flat fide will be turned forwards. It is attached to the pfoas mufcle all along its pofterior edge, except jult at its upper extremity. This attachment is formed by the peritoneum, which covers the teltis and gives it a f{mooth furface, in the fame manner as it envelopes . the other loofe abdominal vifcera. The epididymis lies along the outer and pofterior edge of the organ, in the fame relative pofition, which it occupies at a more advanced age. This part is larger in proportion, and adheres behind to the pioas. When the foetus is very young, the adhefion of the teftis and epididymis to the pfoas is very narrow, the part is confequently more loofe and prominent. As its age ad- vancees, the adhefion becomes broader and tighter. The blood-veffels, like thofe of moft parts of the body, com- monly arife from the neareft large trunks; wiz. from the aorta and cava, or from the emulgeats. The nerves too come from the neareft fource; that is, from the abdominal plexufes of the intercoftal. In refpeét, therefore, to its fupply of nerves and of veffels, this organ may be reckoned an abdominal vifcus; and this circumttance of its peculiar fituation before birth accounts for its being fupplied after- wards from fo remote a fource. The vas deferens, inftead of running upwards from the lower end of the teftis, as it does at a more advanced period of life, goes downwards and inwards in its whole courfe ; it continues, indeed, in the dire€tion of the epididymis. It turns Jiwards from the lower end of that organ, behind the upper extremity ef the gubernaculum, which we fhall de- {cribe prefently ; then it goes over the iliac veffcls, and the infide of the pfoas mufcle, fomewhat higher than in the adult, and paffes afterwards, in the direétion already defcribed, alone the bladder. The cremafter mufcle turns upwards, inftead of defcending over the pubes, and feems to be lott on the peritoneum near to the teftis. No fpermatic cord exifts at the time of life we are now confidering. ‘The arteries and veins of the teftis go behind the peritoneum, conneed to it by loofe cellular fibtantes, and enter the fubftance of the organ at its pofterior edge, where the peritoneum is reflected over it, ju‘t as the veflels of the inteftines pafs between the laminz of the mefentery or mefocolon. The vas deferens alfo goes behind the perito~ neum from the teftis to the bladder. y While it remains in the abdomen, the teftis is conne&ed Ina very particular manner with the parietes of the cavity, and with the ferotum, at the place where the fpermatic veffels pafs out. ‘This conneétion is by means of a fubftance, which runs down from the lower end of the teftis to the ferctum, and which Mr. Hunter named the ligament, or gubernaculum teltis, becaufe it conneéts the organ with the {crotum, and, as he conceived, direéts its courfe in its defcent. It has been defcribed alfo under the names of ligamentum fufpen- forium, bafis, and cylindrus. It is of a pyramidal form ; its largeit part is placed upwards, and fixed to the lower end of the teftis and epididymis, while the lower and {lender extre- mity is loft in the cellular membrane of the ferotum. The upper part of the gubernaculum is within the abdomen, before the pfoas, and reaches from the teftis to the abdo- minal mufcles. Tt runs into the fcrotum through the fame opening that is afterwards occupied by the fpermatic veffels, and is there loft. That portion of it which is within the ab- domen is covered by the peritoneum, except at its pofterior part, which is contiguous to the pfoas, and conneéted with it by the reflected membrane and cellular fubftance. Its co- lour is white, and it may be diftinguifhed by this circum- ftance from the teflis, which is of a reddifh-grey. The texture is foft, and has a fibrous vafcular appearance. « It is covered,” fays Mr. Hunter, “by the fibres of the cre- mafter muicle, which is placed immediately behind the peri- toneum : this is not eafily afcertained in the human fubjedt, but is very evident in other animals, more efpecially in thofe whofe tefticles remain in the cavity of the abdomen after the animal is full grown.’ He obferves again, “that in the human foetus, while the teftis is retained in the cavity of the abdomen, the crematter is fo flender, that I cannot trace it to my own fatisfaction, cither turning up towards the teftis, or turning down towards the fcrotum.’”? The peritoneum, which covers the teftis and its gubernaculum, is firmly united to the furfaces of thofe two bodies ; but all around, that is, onthe kidney, the pfoas, the iliacus internus, and the lower part of the abdominal mufeles, that membrane adheres very loofely. Where it is continued, or refle@ed from the abdo- minal mufcles to the ligament of the teftis, it paffes firft downwards a little way, asif paffiny out of the abdomen, and then upwards, fo as to cover mope of the ligament than what is within the cavity of the abdomen. At this place the peri- toneum is very loofe, thin in its fubftance, and of a tender gelatinous texture ; but all around the paflage of the liga- ment it is confiderably tighter, thicker, and more firm. When the abdominal mufcles are pulled up, fo as to tighten or ftretch the peritoneum, this membrane ren{ains loofe at the pailage of the ligament, while it is braced or tight all around ; and in that cafe, the tight part forms a kind of border, or edge, around the loofe doubled portion, where the teftis is afterwards to pafs. If the pares are drawn towards the abdomen, there is no appearance of an aperture, or paflage, E2 gown GENERATION, . down towards the-Scrotum: but when the latter and the ligament are drawn downwards, then there is an aperture from the cavity of the abdomen all round the fore-part of the ligament, apparently ready tq receive the. teftis. This aperture becomes larger when the-teitis defceuds lower, as if the pyramidal ligament was firft drawn down, in order not only to direct, but to make room for the teitis, which muit follow it. The aperture is fometimes fo large that the teitis can be pufhed into it, as far as the tendon of the external oblique mufcle. From this original fituation in the abdomen, the teflis moves downwards, at a certain period, to its deftined flation inthe ferotum. Its lower extremity comes into contaét with the lower part of the abdominal parictes. At this time,s the upper part of the ligament, which hitherto was in the abdomen, has funk downwards, and lies in the pafflage from the abdomen to the ferotum, which is afterwards to receive the teftis. As the latter paffes out, it inverts the guber- naculum, going down behind it: what was the anterior furface of that organ now becomes polterior, and compafes the lower and anterior portion of the tunica vaginalis. Mr. Hunter ftates, that the place where the ligament!is moft con- fined, and where the teitis meets with moft obitruction in its defcent, is the ring in the tendon of the external oblique muf- cle ; and, confequently, that where the teftes are not in the fcrotum, they are more frequently lodged immediately with- in the tendon of that muifcle, than included in the cayity of the abdomen. The teltis commonly remains for fome time by the fide of the penis, and defcends only by degrees to the bottom of the fcrotum. When it has entirely defcended, the ligament is no longer vifible. While the teftis is defcending, and even when it has paffed into the ferotum, it is {till covered by the peritoneum, and is connected by its pofterior edge exactly in the fame manner as when it was within the abdomten. ‘The {permatic veflels run in the fame way behind thegmembrane, the teflis is fixed backwards to the parts again{t which it refs, and is uncon- nected and loofe forwards, as it was when in the abdomen. In its defcent the teitis brings the peritoneum with it ; but the elongation of that membrane, though itrefembles, in fome circumf{tances, a common hernial fac, in others is very dif- ferent. Ifa perfon can reprefent to himfelf a herntal fac reaching to the bottom of the ferotum, and coyered by the cremafter ; if he can imagine, further, that the polftericr half of the bag covers, and is united with the teltis, epi- didymis, f{permatic veflels, and vas deferens, while its anterior half lies loofe before all thofe parts, he will haye a perfect idea of the {tate of the peritoneum and of the teitis when it firft defcends into the {crotum. ‘This gland, therefore, does not fall loofe, like the parts protruded in a rupture, into the elongation of the peritoneum ; but it flides down from the loins, carrying the peritoneum with it, and both continue to adhere, by cellular membrane, to the parts behind them, as they did in the loins. . The duétility of the peritoneum, and the loofenefs of its connection to the parts turrounding the ‘teftis, are circumftances which favour its elongation and de- {cent into the fcrotum with the teltis. It is plain, from this defcription, that the cavity of the bag, or elongation of the peritoneum, which: contains the teftis in the fcrotum, muft at firft commtinicate with the general cavity of the abdomen, by an aperture at the abdo- minal ring. ‘That aperture has exa¢tly the appearance of a comnion hernial fac: the fpermatic veffels aud vas deferens lie immediately behind it, and a probe pafles readily through it from the general cavity of the abdomen down to the bottom of the {crotum. And if this procefs of the perito- neum be laid open through its whole length on the fore-part, it will be plainly feen to be a continuation of the peritoneum the teftis and epididymis will be feenat the lower part of it ; and the fpermatic veflels and vas deferens may be obferved,- covered by the polterior part of the bag, in their whole courfe from the groin to the tefkis. Before the teftis has quitted the abdomen, the fcrotum is {mall and corrugated, and contains nothing but cellular fubftancee This is loofe, and yielding near the ring, but more denfe and clofe below. Some have deferibed a pouch of peritoneum pafling through the ring, and therefore con- tained in the fcrotum, previoufly to the defcent of the teftis but this is not generally correét. "here is no fuch pouch while the gland remains near the kidney. The parts about the ring are furrounded by fuch a loofe and cellular texture, that, by drawing the gubernaculum downwards, the perito- neum is carried with it fo as to reprefent a fmall cul-de-fac. The teftis, too, after it has paffed the ring, may be drawn up again into the abdominal cavity, in confequence of this laxity of the furrounding fubitance. ; : In the human body then, when the teflis has recently come down, it is contained in a membranous bag, formed of an elongation of the peritoweum, and communicating with the abdomen by means of a narrow procefs, afcending in front of the fpermatic cord. The parts remain in this condition throughout life in the quadruped, but in man the communication between the membranous covering of the teftis and the abdomen is foon cut off. "The upper end of the canal is clofed firft, and the aperture is obliterated to {peedily, that there is feldom any communication in a child born at its full time. The procefs of contra€tion is conti- nued downwards, along the cord, to the upper end of the teflis, at which it flops. Thus the tunica vaginalis teftis,, which was in the firft inftance a produ€tion of peritoneum, becomes entirely feparated from that membrane; the peri- toneal covering of the gland is the reflected tunica vagi- nalis. ‘«‘ This contraCtion and obliteration of the paflage feems,’” fays Mr. Hunter, «‘ to be a peculiar operation of nature, depending upon fteady and uniform principles, and not the confequence of inflammation, or of any thing that is acci- dental: and, therefore, if it is not accomplifhed at the proper time, the difficulty of bringing about an union of the part is much greater: as in children who have had the fac kept. open by a turn of the inteftine falling down into the ferotum” immediately after the teitis.”” «The clofing of themouth, and of the neck of the fac, is peculiar to the human fpecies ; and we mutt fuppofe the final caufe to be the prevention of ruptures, to which men are fo much more liable than beatts, from their erect flate of body.” We feel fome hefitation in admitting this reafoning as to the caufe of obliteration : at all events, if we fhould acknowledge it, the frequent occur- rence of ruptures muft prove that nature accomplifhes her end very imperfedtly. ‘ What!” fays the fame phyfiolo- gift, “is the immediate caufe of the defcent of the’ teftis from the loins to the ferotum? It is evident that it cannot be the comprefied force of refpiration, becaufe commonly the teftis is~in the ferotum before the child has breathed ; that is, the effe& has"been preduced before the fuppofed caufe has exifted. Is the teitis pulled down by the cre- matter mufcle? I can hardly fuppofe that it is. Becaufe, if that was the cafe, I fee no reafon why it fhould not take place in-the hedge-hog, as well as in other quadrupeds ; and if the mufculus tellis had this power, it could not bring it lower than the ring of the mufcle.”’ ‘ : The pracefs, which we have now defcribed, is liable to fome variations. In fome individuals, the neck of the peri- toneal elongation is not obliterated, fo that the tunica cs nabs — Bae GENERATION. nalis) communicates’ permanently with the abdomen, ~as in quadrupeds. Hence, 'we fometimes fee hydroceles particu- /larly in children, “where the fluid can be made to pafs into the belly by prefflure. If a rupture occurs in fuch indivi- duals, it is contained, together with the teltis, in the tunica vaginalis.. Sometimes the teftes do not defcend before birth ; when they pafs down after this time, a part of the antettine or omentum is liable to defcend with them, and is of courfe contained in the tunica vaginalis. One or both may be retained in the abdomen beyond the ufual period. When the natural procefs has not begun, or has been inter- rupted before birth, it becomes afterwards very uncertain when the defcent will be completed. It takes place moit frequently between the years of two and ten, while the per- fon is young and growing, being feldom delayed beyond the age of puberty. However, one or both of thele glands may be retained in the abdomen through life. In this cafe, ‘Mr. Hunter conceives that there is fome imperfection in their formation. “lam inclined,’’ fays he, “ to fufpect that the fault originates in the tefticles themfelves.’’ And again, <¢ when both teiticles remain through life in the belly, I believe that they are exceedingly imperfect, and incapable of perform- ing the natural funttions of thofe organs ; and this imperfec- tion prevents the difpofition for their defcent taking place.’ The writer of this article has feen two cafes, where one teitis had remained in the abdomen, and where the circum- ftances aféertained by anatemical examination corroborated the opinion of Mr. Fiunter. In one, the body of the gland was not more than half its ufual fize : the epididymis, which was very imperfect, ran for about an inch behind the fac of a hernia, which had occurred in this individual, and did not join the body of the teftis. ‘The other cafe prefented exactly the fame appearances. A third inftance has come to his knowledge, in which both of the teftes remained in the abdomen, but were formed apparently perfect in their ftruc- ture. In this cafe, it was underftood, that the ordinary funtions ef the glands had been executed ina healthy man- ner during the perfon’s life. j The times, at which the changes in pofition already de- feribed take place, are moit accurately noted by Writberg in the memoir above quoted. He gives a tabular arrange- ment of his obfervations on this fubject, deduced from very numereus- examinations, of which the following account contains the chief particulars. “¢ At the age of one month and three weeks, the tefles were clofe to the kidneys, with “the fmalleit pofiible interval ; the ferotum loofe and edema- tous. At two months, the teftes, exceedingly fmall, touch- ed the kidneys ; the gubernaculum very long, and the fero- tum wrinkled and rather hard. Two months and one week, tefticles very near the kidneys ; fpermatic veffels difcernible through the peritoneum, like very fine threads ; guberna- eulum diftiné. Three months, teftes about the fize of hemp-feeds, placed rather further from the kidneys, and at the edge of the pelvis: Three months one week and a half, the ferotumvextremely {mall, and indeed fcarcely difcernible, fo that the penis huag from a flight prominence of the flcin. The {mall inteftines coiled together in the upper part of the abdomen, far from the teftes. The latter had defeended fur- ther on the fide of the pelvis ; the gnbernaculum véry fhert. Three months and three weeks, the fcrotum {mall and con- tracted : the teftes more than three-lines below the kidneys. Four months, the fcrotum very fmalk: the teltes deeply placed, with their inferior ends touching the rings. A dif- tin canal of peritoneum on the left fide, leading from the cavity of the abdomen into the ferotum, although the guber- Haculum was not yet inverted. Four months and one week, the teltes very high, nearly touching the kidneys: the ga- 4 bernacula long; no canal paffing through the ring, which was perfeétly clofed. Four months and two weeks, the teftes near the ring, with a canal of peritoneum on each fide, pafling to the bottom of the fcrotum. Five months and.two wecks, both teftes in the rings; fo that they could not be feen until preffed towards the abdomen, when they appear- ed readily. Eight months, fcrotum well formed, with its furface wrinkled, but empty. The teftes had paffed the ring, but remained in the neighbourhood of the groin: the right could be eafily pufhed back into the abdomen through the procefs of peritoneum, which was ftill open ; but the lett could not, as the communication was already clofed. Nine _months, teftes in the bottom of the ferotum; the canal of communication perfe@ly clofed on the left fide ; it was fhut on the right by a foft cellular fubftance eafily yielding to the probe. Nine months, both canals perfeétly clofed.” From the foregoing facts, the following conclufions may be drawn: 1ft. Before the beginning of the fixth month the teftis has not pafled the ring on either fide ; but gene- rally remains near the kidney: fo that this fituation may be depended on as a proof of the immaturity of a fcetus. 2dly. Between the beginning of the fixth, and end of the fe- venth month, they are generally found about the ring ; be- ing in fome initances above it, in fome within the canal, and in others jult below. 3dly. The {crotum in the firft months, up to the fixth, is {mall in proportion to the body, fome- times loofe, fometimes harder, but always empty, and con- taining cellular fubftance inftead of the cavity, in which the teftis is to be afterwards lodged. A broad and ftrong faf- ciculus of fibres (the gubernaculum) is contained in the midift of its cellular fubitance. 4thly. When the teftes have firft defcerided into the ferotum, the canal of peritoneum {till opens to the abdomen, fo that they can be eafily drawn back into the belly, and fink down again. ‘This is generally practicable, in foetufes, between the 7th and oth months. The ordinary law of nature on this fubjecét is, that the hu- man fubject, born at the expiration of the full term of utero- geftation, has both tefticles im the ferotum. Hialler’s con- trary itatement, ‘‘ ut rariffime fetus in lucem edatur, cum tefticulis feroto inclufis,” (Element. Phyfiol. vol. 7. p. 413.) has been completely difproved by the teftimony of fubfe- quent obfervers. Whether the canal of communication be generally clofed before birth, is a point on which authors are not unanimous. According to Wrifberg, with whom Vicq | d’ Azyragrees, this is commonly the cafe. But the reprefen- tation of Camper is fomewhat different : this anatomift and Lobitein obferve, that the obliteration takes: place earlier on the left than on the right fide. Of 53 newly born children examined by Camper, 23 had the canal open on both fides, 11 onthe right fide only, and fix on the left only. In fix it was clofed en both fides. In four both teftes were contained in the abdomen ; and in three only the right. In the excellent memoir of Wrifberg, already referred to, there is a table of 103 births obferved by himfelf, in whick the pofition of the teftes was carefully afcertained. The proportion of premature to mature and perfect births was as g to 94, or in round:numbers 1 to ro. All the children, whofe weight did not exceed slbs. came into the world at the beginning of the ninth month, or in the eighth, or even in the feventh month. Three of thefe had both teftes in the ferotam; three in the ¢roins, and three in the abdomen ot the children bern towards the end of the ninth month, 69 had both teites in the fcrotum, 17 one or both in the groin, eight one inthe abdomen, and three, whofe weights were 53, 63, and 7lbs. both in'the abdomen. Inthe 12 out of thefe 103 cafes, where one or both teftes remained ‘inthe abdomen, they were obferved to defcend on the days mentioned below, Vix« GENERATION. viz.: in one inftance it paffed down on the day of birth; the defect took place in three fubjeéts on the fecond day, in'an equal number on the third, in two on the fifth, and in one on the twenty-firft. In the remaining individuals, they had not appeared on the fourth and fifth weeks from the time of birth ; and as the children then left the hofpital, the time of defcent was not known. In three inftances, the de- {cent was obferved to be accompanied with crying and con- vulfive motions of the limbs. Both teftes had paffed into the ferotum of one child, born at the end of feven months, and weighing only 34!bs.; which muft be deemed a rare oc- currence. They have been feen in the ring in a fetus of four months. Bichat, Anat. Defer. t. 5. p. 234. The colour of the organ, while in the abdomen, is greyifh, and its form elongated. The epididymis is confiderably larger in proportion than in the adult, and its head lies confi- derably above the teftis : it is more loofely conneéted to the body of the gland. The confiitence of the teftes at this time is foft and pulpy. The penis, at the time of birth, although {mall, is well formed, and poffeffes an elongated prepuce, which completely covers the glans. The integuments of the penis, as well as thofe of the {crotum, are not diltinguifhed in colour from thofe of the body in general. The ruge of the ferotum are not yet well marked. There is a {mall quantity of fat in the fcrotum, and the fibrous covering, common to the cerd and teftis, cannot yet be diltinguifhed. The veficulx feminales, in confequence of the pofition of the bladder, peculiar to this age, are nearly vertical in their direction, very {mall and collapfed, and not exhibiting the tubercles on their furface feen in the adult. Internally they contain a mucous fluid. The corpus cavernofum penis is very fhort and fmall, and remarkable for the {mall proportion of its fpongy fubftance, and the trifling quantity of blood which it contains. The latter circumitance is {till more ftriking after a few years, in confequence of the increafed thickneis of the fibrous mem- brane: hence, as erection depends principally on the {well- ing of the fpongy part of the corpus cavernofum, the penis of children, when ereéted in confequence of fome fympathe- tic excitation, is hardly increafed in fize, and very little in length. The urethra, in the firft years of life, is long ; and its dire€tion from the bladder to below the fymphyfis pubis is more oblique than in the adult. Thefe two circumftances, in the conformation of the urinary canal, arife from the blad- der being fituated higher in the abdomen, and from the fu- perior aperture of the pelvis being more flanting. The pre- puce is elongated, fo as to give the penis a pointed termina- tion. Its opening, always very narrow, may be fo {mall as to prevent the sitchin of the urine, or to render it im- practicable to denude the glans. .The latter cireumftance con{titutes congenital phimofis. The frenum is narrow and reaches to the opening of the urethra. No great changes are obferved in the organs of generation from the time of birth until puberty. Butied with the genc- ral organization of man, and particularly attentive to the bringing to perfection the agents by which he communicates with furrounding objeéts, to the putting in action the {prings of his intellectual powers, nature feems, if we may. ufe the expreflion, to forget the inftruments of reproduction, which continue for a time ftationary. If, during this long period, thefe organs undergo no important revolution, they partake flighty in the general growth. Each of them, confidered fingly, without increafing in any very marked degree,. be- comes more perfect in its organization, of which the princi- pal traits may be more eafily obferved fome years after birth. But thefe changes, which take pluce very gradually, are trifling when compared with thofe which happen at pus berty. Changes in the male Organs at the Time of Puberty.—In the two or three years immediately preceding this period, the pubes is covered by a flight down, which appears generally before the beard. We may remark alfo, that its appearance. is more conftant, and its growth more rapid. In faét, the hair on the generative organs, although it is ‘not completely developed for fome years, has gained nearly its full length and thicknefs, while the beard is {till thin and fhort. At the fame time that the hairs appear, the fkin of the {crotum and penis lofes its whitenefs, and becomes more or lefs brown in conformity with the tint which it poffeffes in other parts of the body. The fcrotum, hitherto contraéted, becomes longer ; the tefticle is removed to a greater diltance from the ring, and the f{permatic cord proportionally elongated. The penis becomes larger and longer ; the frequent erections eccafion the prepuce to appear fhorter, and the glans to bea little uncovered. The various layers compofing the fcrotum are complete at this time. The teltis is proportionally larger than the veficulz feminales and penis, as the exercife of the generative funétions commences here. The velicule fe- minales are ftili very {mall, even in a fubject of 14 or 15 years. The canal of the urethra, as well as the other parts of the penis, is confiderably increafed, as may be feen by obferving the ftream of urine. In old men the fcrotum is generally foft and pendent, and external impreffions are no longer able to bring it into the ftate of corrugation. The cellular fubftance which it contains is frequently the feat of watery effufion. The fi- brous covering of the teftes and cord is denfe, thick, and eafi- ly demonftrable. The tefticle is fmall, foft, and wafted ; but without any remarkable change in its organization: the volume of the epididymis, on the contrary, 1s equal to. what it poffeffed in the adult. The fpermatic cord is ra- ther fmaller, unlefs the veins fhould be in a dilated -ftate. The veficule feminales are collapfed, and the proftate be- comes hard: the penis is conftantly placid. Phyfiology of the male Organs of Generation.—We fhall de- {cribe, in the firft place, the fecundating fluid, as it appears when expelled trom the body in the act of copulation; and fhall then diftinguifh the various parts of this compound li- quor. We fhall exhibit the facts which have been afcertain- ed concerning this interefting fubject, jult as we treat any other part of phyfiology : we mutt either ufe fuch language as fhall be intelligible, or pafs over in entire filence every thing which relates to the production and development of the new beings, and the continuation of the fpecies. The fluid expelled from the urethra of a healthy man, un- der the influence of the venereal aét, is white, inclining per- haps flightly to a blueifh caft. But it is not homogeneous, as it contains thicker and more opaque mixed with a more thin and femipellucid matter. The latter is’ more abundant in proportion as the fubje¢t is weaker, and the a&t more fre- quently repeated. From this difference in the appearance of its component parts it has been fometimes compared to coa- gulated milk. It is of a vifcous or glutinous nature, and therefore readily entangles air : hence it becomes frothy if rub- bed ina mortar. When firft difcharged, its confiitence is about equal to that of a thick cream; but as it cocls, the opaque mucilaginous part becomes tranfparent, and acquires greater corfiftency. In about twenty minutes after its emifhon the whole becomes liquid: at this time, too, it is tranfparent, having depofited a fediment of a whitifh matter, refembling: a ma{s of flenderrags. The liquefaGtion is not owing to the abforption of moifture from the air, for it lofes initead of acquiring weight during its expofure to the atmofphere ; nor GENERATION. nor is it owing to the action of the air, for it takes place equally in clofe veffels. It has been obferved that the thick flaky portion is thrown out firft; while the thinner part comes after. It is heavier than any animal fluid, and finks immediately in water : but a part {wims, confifting of white fhining filaments, forming a cobweb-like texture, and com- pofing {mail floating maffes. That which finks in the mu- cous or pulpy portion, which is the greater part of the whole ; but of this little membranous-like flakes are fome- times fufpended by air bubbles. Thefe fink to the bottom and difappear on the fecond day, but the water remains tur- bid, and contains flocculi and white fhining threads. Its odorous properties are very fenfible ; not irritating but mawkifh and unpleafant, like the farina of the Spamifh chef- nut. In animals it is faidto be of a more penetrating na- ture ; fo that when abforbed it infecis the whole body, and renders the flefh unfit for eating, unlefs the teftes are cut out immediately after the animal's death. (See Buffon, t. 5. p. 121. of the boar.) Thetafte is at firft infipid ; yet there is fomewhat of pungency in it, which after fome little time ftimulates and excites a degree of warmth in the mouth. It converts paper ftained with the bloffoms of mallows or violets to a green colour, and confequently contains an alkali. It diffolves readily in water, after its fpontaneous liquefaction : alcohol or oxymuriatic acid: precipitates white flakes from this folution. Acids readily diffolve the femen, and alkalies do not decompofe this folution. Lime difen- gages no ammonia from frefh femen ; but after that fluid has remained for fome time in a moift and warm atmofphere, lime feparates a great quantity from it. Confequently am- monia is formed during the expofure of femen to the air. When oxymuriatic acid is poured into femen, a number of white flakes precipitate, and the acid lofes its peculiar odour. Thefe flakes are infoluble in water, and even in acids. If the quantity of acid be fufficient, the femen acquires a yel- low colour. Thus it appears that femen contains a mucila- ginous fubftance analogous to that of the tears, which co- agulates ‘by abforbing oxygen. Wauquelin obtained fix parts of this mucilage from 100 parts of oxygen. When expofed to the air at the temperature of 60°, a pellicle forms gradually, and in three or four days {mall tranfparent cry{- tals of phofphate of lime are formed. Afterwards fmall round mafles of the fame fubftance are obferved in the pellicle. If the air is moift, cryftals of carbonate of foda may be formed. The evaporation does not go on to complete ex- ficcation, unlefs in a temperature of 77° with dry air. When all the moitture is evaporated, the femen has loft 0.9 of its. weight; the refiduum is femi-tranfparent like horn, and brittle. When kept in moilt air, at the temperature of 77°, it acquires a yellow colour, acid tafte, and putrid odour. Expofed to heat, it becomes brown, and exhales a yellow fume, having the cdour of burnt horn. When the heat is raifed the matter {wells, becomes black, and gives out a flrong odour of ammonia. When the odour of am- monia difappears, if the matter be lixiviated with water, an alkaline folution may be obtained, which, by evaporation, yields cryftals of carbonate of foda. If the refiduum be incinerated, there will remain only a quantity of white afhes, confifting of phofphate of lime. Thus it appears that femen is compofed of the following ingredients : go water, 6 mucilage, 3 phofphate of lime,, 1 foda. — 1cQ The feminal fluid, in its recent ftate, contains an immenfe number of animalcula, called fometimes vermiculi fperma- tici. They have a rounded head, witha gradually tapering tail, not ftraight, but alternately bent to either fide. “They are 1rcoo times {maller than a hair, and 10,000 times more flender than one of the tubuli teftis: fo that, according to Leeuwenhoeck, 216,0co of them would go in a fphere, equal in diameter to the breadth of a hair. Their length has been eftimated at +-23.-,dth of aninch. They are found in all quadrupeds, in reptiles, birds, fifhes, infects, and even in teftaceous animals. Some variations in figure are ob- ferved in different animals: but their fize is nearly uniform inall. They are no larger in a-whale than in a {mall fifh. They are faid not to exift in children, nor to be obfervable after frequent coition, nor in old fubjeéts; but only in healthy and prolific femen, fo that their prefence may per- haps be deemed a criterion of the maturity and perfe¢inefs, of that fluid. The feminal vermiculi were firft obferved by a German youth, Lewis Hamme. He fhewed living ani- mals in the human femen to Leeuwenhoack in the year 1677. ‘This indefatigable obferyver immediately employed himfelf on the fubjeét, and in the fame year fent an account of the phenomenon, with drawings of the vermiculi in the dog and rabbit, to the Royal Society at London. (See Phil. Tranf. n. 143.)° The communication was received with great applaufe, the facts were fhewn to king Charles II. and admitted by all. At the fame time they were examined and defcribed in France, and, as far as the mere demonttration goes, they were univerfally admitted in the literary world. Nicolas Hartfoeker claimed the dif- covery, but not tillthe year 1678. (Eflais de Dioptrique,, p- 227.) ‘ It has been alleged that thefe animalcula are not pecu- liar to the femen, but that they are found in various other animal fluids. Accurate inveltigation has not fubftantiated this objeCtion ; but, on the contrary, fhews that they are peculiar to the feminal fluid. Others have denied that they poffefled tails; and Buffon, in particular, reprefents the facts very differently from Leeuwenhoeck. (Hiftoire Nat. Gener. & Partic. t. 2. p. 176 & feq.) ; his reprefentaticns. being fupported by thofe of Turberville Needham. ( Nouvel- les Obfervations Microfcopiques, p. 213.) M. De Buffor obferved the fluid from the feminal veflels of a dead human- body yet warm. It was full of filaments moving about, and branching into many parts. The filaments {welling burit, and many ovular corpufcula efeaped, which {till remained at- tached to the filament, as bya thread: then they ofcillated like a pendulum, and during thofe ofcillations the thread extended. The corpufcula, at length detached from the filaments, traverfed the moft fluid part of the femen, along with their filaments, the extreme length of which impeded their motions, andthey feemed to him to endeavour to free themfelves from it. Having diluted the femen with rain water, the microfcopic view was better defined. It clearly ap- peared that each ovular corpufcle had a double motion of ofcillation, and of progreffion. In two or three hours the feminal matter acquired greater fluidity, the filaments difap- peared; the number of corpufcula increafed ; the threads contraéted ; the ofcillations relaxed; and .the progreflive motion increafed. In five or fix hours the oyular corpuf- cula, having loft the threads, refembled animals more than ever ; not only becaufe their quicknefs in fwimming was greater, but becaufe they direéted their courfe to every quarter. In twelve hours the activity of the corpufcula was great; and fome revolved upon their axis; others changed the ovular to the globular figure under the ob- Server's eye 3 fome divided afunder, fo that one formed two..- At GENERATION. At the end of one day the number diminifhed ; and, upon the third, none were to be feen. In other femen, which feemed to be entirely filamentous, the ovular corpufcula did not proceed from the filaments ; but thefe, dividing in two, were metamorphofed into corpufcula. They were em- barraffed by a thread. The longer it was, the more it im- peded their motion ; but it gradually contracted, and was at laft completely deftroyed. The figure of thefe ovular corpufcula, refembled that of thofe of infufions. They: fwam with a progreflive motion, though, at firtt, the thread eccafioned a fimple ofcillation. He obferved fimilar pheno- mena in the feminal fluid of other animals. Sometimes the corpufcula altered their figure ; fometimes they divided into two. Buffon conceives that they cannot properly be deemed animals, and he forms of them a_ particular clafs, under the term of organic molecules, which are particles dif- feminated through all matter, original, incorruptible, ani- mated, and always active. Nor does he hefitate to confide the formation of the animated univerfe to thofe molecules. Subfequent refearches haye not confirmed thefe opinions of the French naturalift. That the feminal vermiculi have tails is proved by numerous accurate obfervers, and is parti- cularly fupported by the teftimoy of Haller. (Elem. Phyfiol. t. 7. p. 521.) It feems queitionable whether Buffon ever faw the real {permatic vermiculi; for the latter live at moft only for a few hours after the dif- charge of the fluid, while thofe obferved by him remain- ed for fome days. And his remarks on the whole feem much more applicable to the microfcopic animalcula ob- ferved in vegetable infufions, as well as in all liquors ex- pofed to the air. This point feems clearly proyed by the labours of Spallanzani, who made a vaft number of obfer- yations on the fubject, and fet the whole hiltory of the {per- matic animalcula in fo clear a light, that no doubt can re- main on the fubje&. The general refult of his refearches tends completely to confirmthe original remarks of Leeu- wenhoeck. (See his Traéts on the Nature of Animals and Vegetables, Edinb. 8vo. 1799.) He obferves that his ex- periments on frefh human femen prefented him with totally different refults from thofe deferibed by Buffon, but as he could not regard Buffon’s itatements as purely chimerical, he thought the contradiétion might be reconciled by thesw- ing that the French naturalift had deferibed animals of a dif- ferent kind. «+ I had remarked,’ fays he, ‘ that there is no part of an animal which, when infufed, does not give exiltence toa particular kind of animalcula. They are produced indif- ferently, by the mufcles, brain, nerves, membranes, tendons, veins, and arteries. The fame holds good of the blcod, ferum, milk, chyle, faliva, &c. mixed with water, or even by themfelves. I had not yet made experiments upon the human femen for this purpofe; but it was moft probable, that the putrefaction of this liquid would give exiftence to particular beings. May not M. de Buffon have confounded thefe with the feminal vermiculi, and afcribed to the latter the properties and phenomena exhibited by the former? I de- termined to afcertain this fa by obferving what happened fucceffively to the femen, when long preferved in a watch- glefs. I made my firft experiments on the human feminal fluid. The vermiculi died in three hours and a half, and were precipitated to the bottom of the glafs. Upon the fixth day, the feminal fluid began to exhale a foetid and dif- agreeable odour ; but I could perceive no animated being : only, upon taking fome drops from the bottom of she glais, I obferved the dead bodies of the yermiculi apparently very entire. The feventh and eighth days I faw no change, but the foetor increafed. On the ninth I difcovered very minute animalcula, their fize nearly equalling that of {permatic ver- ’ miculi; but they had no tail, and greatly refembled moft minute {pherules. Like animalcula of infufions, they fome- times topped at little fragments of corrupted {emen: fome- times their courfe was very rapid, retrograde, rifing and finking in the fluid: in a word, they pofiefled every pro- perty of infufion animalcula. "They were feen in every ftra- tum of the femen; and thofe at the bottom put in motion the dead bodies of the feminal vermiculi, which were fill entire, and remained fo fome days longer.”’ ‘Two or three fucceflive generations of thefe animals were obferved, as in the cafe of other animalcula. When the femen was expofed to a greater degree of heat, they appeared at a more early period, even as foon as twenty-three hours from the removal of the fluid from the dead body. In one inftance they were obferved to propagate by a {pontaneous tranfverfe divilion of the body. ‘“ Vhefe fats fufficiently fatished me’ that Buffon had erroneoufly afcribed to the fpermatic vermiculi properties belonging only to the amimaleula of infufions. Let us, in a few words, colleét the cireumftances. Arcord- ing to this author, after a certain time, the vermiculi were deprived of their tails. He fhould have faid that the ani- malcula of infufion came in the place of the vermiculi, which were already dead, and precipitated to the bottom of the liquid. _ He was arreited by their firft appearance : and took them for feminal vermiculi deprived of their tail; which in truth they often very much refemble. When difengaged from the tail, Mr. Buffon adds, they acquire greater aétivi- ty. This was a neceflary confequence of the firit miftake. When the infufion animalcula had taken place of the yermi- culi, their increafed agility could not be unobferved, fince the animaleula move with much greater quicknefs than the yermiculi. This erroneous fuppotition being admitted, Mr. Buffon had to relate, as he has done, the remainder of the phenomenon. He had to {peak of the imaginary changes of the vermiculi, of their divifion, and then diminution, with the more confidence, as his opinions had to be confirmed by a repetition of his experiments, if not upon all, at leaft upon many fpecies of infufion animeleula in the femen,’’ p- 135--142. The following account of the fpermatic vermiculi is taken from the work of Spallanzani already quoted, which contains the moit complete account of the fubject. ; e bys, When the femen begins to diffolve, if it be examined with a magnifier of fmail power, the irregular parts feem to. be in an indifting flow agitation, produced by globular cor- pufcula, of which each poffeffes a fort ef filament, or fhort appendage, about fix times the length of the body. They have two motions; one ofcillatory, from right te left, and vice vera, in which the appendageis curved from one fide to. the other: the other is progreffive, the vermiculus tranfport- ing itfelf by ofcillation. They ftrike againft every obftacle, and when in confiderable numbers, make a thoufand contor- tions to efcape, at laft taking that way where they feel the leaft refiltance. ‘Thus they are in continual motion, In twenty-three minutes the motions of ofcillation and pro- greflion had diminifhed ; and in an hour and a half it had leffened fo much, that a very {mell number of corpufcula ° pofleffed any power of motion. In general, the progreffive motion ceafes before the ofcillatory; fo that, at lait, the corpufcle merely bends from right to left, and reciprocally, They continue fixed to the fame fpot, until the ofcillatory motion infenfibly dies away. After all motion is gone, the corpufcula remain entire in the fluid, and then they are bet- ter feen than even when *the liquid is diluted with water, Each corpufcle is not properly globular, but elliptic, aad the appendage is not only longer than. it appears, but the breadth is not equal throughout like a thread, but increafes 7 aa ES ee) ee , a ee GENERATION. as it approaches the body. Water or other fluids rendered them immediately motions. ‘They may be fometimes ob- ferved, in the clots of the femen, before they have diffolved, attached by their appendages to the filamentous matter: they ftruggle to difengage themfelves, and then {wim about im ehe fuid. The motion continues much longer when the temperature of the atmofphere is increafed: at 36° all mo- tion had ceafed in three quarters of an hour? at 49° in two hours; at 59 in three hours and a half: and at 81° they lived for feven or eight hours. The corpufcula were feen in the fluid obtained from the epididymis and tefticles of various living and recently dead animals. ‘That they are not formed, according to the fentiment of Buffon, from the filamentous part of the femen, is proved by this; that they are moft abundant in the fluid part, and even do not exift at all in the clots, where they are examined in a very recent fate, and freed as much as pofiible from the thinner part of the femi- nal fluid; while the latter, at the fame time, abounds with them. Nor are they generated, as Needham afferted, by expofure to air. For Spalilanzani faw them in the ufual umbers, when the time employed in taking the fluid matter from the feminal vefleis {till warm, to prefent it to the. mi- crofcope, did not exceed a iecond; and they were ob- ferved in the fame numbers in feminal fluid carried without delay from the epididymis of a living ram to the microfcope. Great care and attention are neceflary in obferving the appendages of thefe vermiculi, and hence they efcaped the notice of Buffon. ft is wonderfully flender, and at the fame time tranfparent, fo that too Rrong a hekt confounds at with the feminal fluid: the flider fhould be fine and thin, and the drop of fiud very thin: and a microfcope of a fingle Jens is preferable to the compound one. ‘They live longer in clofe veffels, than when the femen is expofed to the air: and they alfo live longer in vacuo. The difference of time at which they die in thefe different fitua- tions amounts even to one, two, or three hours. « Thefe facts prove that the air is noxious to the vermiculi, and the following prove that it is the cavfe of their being in conti- nual agitation. With the blow-pipe I formed capillary tubes, one end of which I immerfed in recent femen; it afcended the cavity, filling the tube to a certain height. Breaking the tubes near the part to which it afcended, I prefented this extremity to the blow-pipe, and immediately fealed it hermetically. 1 did the fame to the other end, by which means the feminal fluid was deprived of all communication with the external air. I drew out the tubes, fo that the thinnefs of the tubes permitted me to fee the vermiculi within. The peculiarities prefented by the vermiculi in the tubes were very different from thofe of the ref. All, or at leaft moft of them, had a fingular mode of moving. Some had that fort of activity obferved in thofe, which ex- perience the influence of the open air. Others had a con- tinued irregular motion; they changed from quicknefs to in- activity, and reciprocally. Others ftopped entirely, and, after refting fome minutes, refumed their former velocity ; befides, they were not obferved to run againft the folid por- tions of the femen, but to avoid them by turning afide or retreating, ‘Thefe peculiarities always fucceeded better, and with more uniformity, when the tubes were kept warm. I have before faid that the longeft period of life, of the human {permatie vermiculi, was feven or eight hours, when expofed to the open air, but this period is greatly prolonged when they are included in tubes. Jn fummer I have fucceeded in preferving them two days or more; and in {pring and au- tumn they have lived almoft three.’ P. 158. Cold, near to that of freezing, renders the vermiculi mo- tionlefs ; but they are recovered by the application of heat. Vou, XVI. A temperature of 131° kills them; but the animalcula pro- duced in the femen by putrefa¢ticn are deftroyed by a tem- perature of 108°. To-this account of the feminal vermiculi we fubjoin the following refleCtions on them by Bonnet, obferving only that we are ina flate of the moft profound ignorance of all the points alluded to in his queitions. “The vermiculi are, of all the animaleula of liquids, thofe which have moft excited my curiofity ; the element in which they live, the place of theix abode, their figure, motion, fe- cret properties, all, ina word, fhould intereft us in fo fingular a kind of minute animated be How are they found there, how are they propagated, how are they developed, how are they fed, and what is their motion? What becomes of them when the liquid they inhabit is returned by the veffels, and mixed with the blood? Why do they appear only at the age of puberty ; where did they exifl before this period ? Do they ferve no purpofe but to people that fluid, where they are fo largely {cattered? How far are we from being able to anfwer any of thefe queftions !’? Spallanzani's 'Traéts, p- 179. ‘The reader may alio confult, on this fubje@, W. I. von Gleichen tiber die Saumen-unk infufions-thier- chen, Norimb. 1778, 4to. 2S. The opinions of Leeuwenhocck concerning thefe vermi- culi; viz. that they are of different fexes, that they co- pulate, become impregnated and produce young ; and that they are the rudiments of the future beings, to be conveyed by copulation into the body of the mother, and there deve- loped; are deftitute of all proof, and completely chimeri- cal. We have no accurate accounts of the fen&ble properties, nor any chemical hiftory of the fluid feparated in the teftis. When obferved in the vas deferens or epididymis of man, after death, it pofleffes a light-brown or yellowifh colour, and approaches in fluidity to water. It may be feen in ani- mals, on cutting into the teftis or epididymis, much thicker, vifcous, and of a grey colour. At leat it has this appear- ance in a dog. The whole gland, in a healthy animal, is tur- gid with this fluid. The contents of the velicule feminales differ in their appearance from the fecretion of the tefticles, {t isa brownifh or yellowith fluid of light colour, femi- tranf{parent, and often containing flakes or coagula, fo as to vary in confiftence in different parts of the bag. Expcfvre to the air produces no change in its confiftence, as it docs in the femen. Sometimes the contents of thefe ags area clear mucous fluid. Mr. Hunter took the trouble of obfervin them, in two healthy perfons killed fuddenly, immediate] after death. _ In one the fluid in the veficule was of a lighter colour than is ufually found in men who have been dead a con- fiderable time ; but it was not by any means like the femen either in colour or {mell.’’ In the other “the contents of the veficule were of a lightith whey colour, having nothing of the fimell of femen ; and in fo fluid a fate, as to run ont on cutting into them.” (Obf. on the animal Economy, p. 28.) Thus it appears that the fluid of thefe bags differs both from that contained in the teftis, and from the femen emitted in coition ; confequently, that they are not merely refervoirs for the matters feparated in the teflicle, but that they add to the fecretion of that gland fome confiderable bulk of fluid, feparated by their own'yeflels’ "Nhe peculiar organization of their internal furface would have led us priori to ex- pe& this, as itexhibits an arrangement of parts found only where fome fecretion is performed. The fame argument will lead us to affign a fimilar funétion to the enlarged por- tion of the vas deferens ly ing by the fideof the veficula femi- nalis, "The exaét nature of the fluid f{eparated in the veficule 10 } is ‘GENERATION. js not knowns nor have we any chemical analyfis of it. In many in{tances it looks like a timple mucus ; and there can be very little donbt, that in all cafes the contents of thefe. bass confift chiefly of their own fecretions. "The opinion, that the veficule perform a particular fe- cretion, was held by Haller: 1 have,” fays he, ‘no ex- periments of my own to prove that any thing js feparated in thefe organs, and mixed with the fluid formed in the teftes. ¥ fufpect, however, that a fecretion takes place here as in the gall-bladder.” (Elem. Phyfiol.'7. p. 540.) Galen conceived that the femen was generated ih thefe parts; and Riolau, Ruyfch, and Swammerdam, were of opinion that they added fomething to the femiinal fluid. The point has been molt clearly proved by Mr. Tlunter in@ paper contained in his Ob- . feryations on the animal Economy, and entitled “ Obferva- tions on the Glands fituated between the Re&um and Blad- der, and called Veficule feminales.’* His chief argument is de- rived from the examination of the organs in perfons who have loft one of the teftes by accident, or in confequence of afe. It is well known that this lofs does not affect the «enerative powers, and that fuch individuals retain their fexual appetites and the faculty of procreation. We may confequently prefume that they have afterwards had con- neGtion with women, and confequently had the aétion of emifiion, ‘which muft have emptied the veficula of the caf- trated fide, if it had contained femen; and, as the removal of the teftis muft have cut off all fource of fupply from that quarter, it fhould be found empty after death, on the fuppo- fition of its contents being ordinarily derived from the teftis. Such cafes alfo afford an opportunity of making compara- tive obfervations between the veficula of the perfeét and that of the imperfeé fide. «A man,” fays Mr. H., “who was under my care in St. George’s hofpital for a venereal complaint,» died there, and was difcovered to have loft his right tefticle. From the cicatrix being hardly obf{ervable, it muft have been re- moved fome confiderable time before his death; and the complaint, for which he was received into the hofpital, is a convincing proof that he had conneGtion with woman after that period. I infpe&ted the body in the preferice of Mr. Hodges, the houfe furgeon, and feveral of the pupils of the hofpital. Upon difle&ting out, and examining the contents of the pelvis, with the penis and fcrotum, I found that the vas deferens of the right fide was fmaller and firmer in its texture than the other, efpecially at that end next to the ab- dominal ring, near to the part that had been cut through in the operation. The cellular membrane furrounding the duct on the right fide was not fo loofe as on the left ; neither were the yeflels which ramified on the right veficula fo full of blood. But upon opening the veficule, both appeared to be filled witha kind of mucus fimilar to that which is found in other dead bedies ; and the veficula on the right fide was rather larger than that on the left. Whatever, therefore, may be the real ufe of thefe veficulke, we have a proof from this diffeGion, that in the human fubjeé they do not contain the femen. «Ina man who died in St. George’s hofpital with a very large bubonocele, the tefticle of that fide was difcovered to have almott loft its natural texture from the preffure of the hernial fac ; and upon examining the te‘ticle with attention, there was no appearance of yas deferens till we came near the bladder, where it was almoft as large as ufual. ‘The veficula of that fide was found to be as fuil as the other, and to con- tain the fame kind of mucus. : “J extirpated the left tefticle of a Frenchman on account of its being difeafed. He wasa married man, and died about a year afterwards, having been extremely all for feyeral 2 months before his death, On examining the body, the vefi- cule were both found nearly full; more efpecially that of the left fide, which I fuppofe might be accidental. But upon examining the vas deferens cf the left fide, where it hes along the fide of this bag, and where it has a jimilar ftru€ture with the veficulz, I found it filled with the fame kind of mucus; and this, I believe, is always the cafe, whether the tefticle has been removed or not. « A young man, a coachman, who had a difeafe in his left teilicie, had it removed, at St. George’s hofpital, by Mr. Walker, in Auguft 1785; and in February 1786 he re- turned again to the hefpital, on account of uncommon pains all over him, and for which he requetted to be put into. the warm bath. But as he was going from the ward to the bath, he dropped. down, and died almoit immediately. The body was infpected, with a view to difcover the caufe of his death, and upon an examination of the veficule, the bag of the left fide was as full as that on the right, and the contents in both were exattly fimilar. “Tn diffeGing amale fubjeét, inthe year 1755, for a fide view of the contents of the pelvis, I found a bag on the left fide, lying contiguous to the peritoneum, juit on the fide of the pelvis, where the internal iliac veffels divide above the angle of refleCtion of the peritoneum at the-union of the blad- der and rectum. The left vas deferens was feen pafiing on to the bag; and, what is very fingular, that of the right or oppolite fide croffed the bladder near its union with the rectum tojoinit. I traced the left vas deferens dewn to the telticle ; but on following the right through the ring of the external oblique muicle, I difcovered that it terminated at once, about an inch from its paflage out of the abdomen, in a blunt point, which was impervious. On examining the {fpermatic cord from this. point to the teiticle, I cowd dif- cover no vas deferens, but by beginning at the tefticle, and tracing the epididymis from its origin about half way along, where it lies upon the body of the teiticle, I found that it at firft became ftraight, and foon after feemed to terminate in a point. ‘The canal at this part was fo large as to allow of being filled with quickfilver, which however did not pafs far, {o that a portion of the epididymis was wanting ; and the vas deferens for nearly the whole length of the fpermatic cord of the right fide. On the left fide the vas deferens be- gun where the epididymis commonly terminates ; and there was a deficiency of nearly an inch of the extremity of the epididymis. I then diffeéted the bag above-mentioned, which proyed to be the two veficule; for by blowirg air from one vas deferens I could only inflate half cf it; and from the other vas deferens, the other half. ‘They contained the mucus commonly found in thefe bags; but upon the” moft accurate examination I could difcover no duct leading from them to the proftate gland, nor any remains of one. In this fubje€t it was evident that there was no communica- tion between the vas deferens and epididymis; nor between. thefe bags and the urethra. The caput gallinaginis had the common appearance, but there were no crifices to be feen. The tefticles were very found ; and the ducts from them to the epididymis were very manifeft, and full of femen.’? P. 30—32. $ Mr. Hunter obferves further, in fupport of his opinion, that thefe bags are as full of mucus in bodies much emaciated, where fhe perfon has died from a lingering difeafe, as in ftrong robult bodies where death has happened from vio- lence or acute difeafes; and they are nearly as full in the o'das in the young ; which molt probably would not be the cafe if they contained femen.”? Ibid. p. 33. The {ecretion of the proftate is the lait ingredient in. the feminal uid ; and it contributes very largely to the bulk of ¢ what GENERATION. what is expelled in copulation. Its opaque whitenefs and vifcidity completely obfeure the properties of the fluid fe- creted in the teltis, and beftow on the feminal liquor its moft obyious characters. The opinion which fuppofes that the femen is formed, or that part of it is produced in the proftate, is not therefore fo very far from the truth. A thick, white, and opaque liquor may be expreffed in confiderab'e abundance from the prottatic duGs on each fide of the caput gallinagi- wis after death. Phyfiologitts afcribe to the proftatic fluid the office of increaling the bulk of the femen, and of thereby augmenting its impetus, fo that it may arrive with greater force at the place of its deftination. _ Tt has been conjeCtured that a nervous fluid is mixed with the femen, and hence the weaknefs of the male after copulz- tion has been explained. We may be excufed from difeufiing this opinion until we know what nervous fluid is. The con- vulfive exertion of the whole frame, which occurs in the ve-. nereal organs, will fufficiently account for the fenfe of fatigue that follows it. It appears from what we have faid, that the fluid expelled in copulation is furnifhed in a {mall proportion only by the teftes; that a peculiar fecretion of the veficule feminales is added to this, and that the chief bulk is made up of the proftatic liquor. An important queftion arifes here, which of thefe is the effential and immediate agent in impregnation ? The general practice in the Eatt, continued from ages of the moit remote antiquity, of entrufting their females to the care of eunuchs, and the common operation of gelding, as performed on various domeftic animals, lead us to affign this prerogative to the fluid fecreted in the teftis. In emafeu- lating animals, or men, the teftes are cut or torn out, or they are comprefled fo as to deilroy their organization, or the cord is fo fqueezed or bruifed as to aanihilate the fun¢tions of the part. Yet, under the circumitancce juft enumerated, we read of numerous examples where venereal defires have been experienced, where erection, copulation, and emiffion have taken place, and even where children have been be- gotten. Thefe examples, however, are too repugnant to the general effect of caftration, as obfervable in man and animals, to allow of our admitting them. | Ordinarily we obferve not only that no deiires are felt, but alfo that the lofs of the organs, in which the natural and leading ftimulus refides, oc- calions the other parts concerned in the bufinefs of genera- tion to be much diminifhed in fize, and altered in appear- ance. Where emafculation has been performed merely by, comprefling the cord or teflis, the organization of the part may not have been deitroyed fufficiently to interrupt its funtions, and fuch an animal might be {till capable of fecun- dating ; but no well authenticated initance can be produced of impregnation being effected where the teftes had been cut out in any male animal. Yet it cannot be doubted that eunuchs may have erections, fince the feat of the phyfical feeling is in the glands, and the whole apparatus concerned in ereGion remains entire after the lofs of the teftes. A man, after the latter occurrence, like one who has loft his owers through age, may at times be itimulated by the re- collection of pait joys. Hence, in the Eaft they value thofe eunuchs mott highly, in whom the penis as well as the teftes has been removed ; no caufe for the flighteft jezloufy ean then remain. ‘The proftatic liquor, or that of the vefi- cule feminales, might be difcharged in the eunuch. If an animal has impregnated another after cafration, there may have been fome femen remaiming in the veficule feminales. Befides the facts now enumerated, we may obferve that all animals which copulate have teites ; but that feveral have either no prottate or no veficule. The fecreted femen is either expelled from the body, ful- filling the purpofes of its formation ; or it is retained in its receptacles, and taken up by the abforbents. The feminal veflels are always full of their peculiar fluids, which are only difcharged at confiderable intervals, and often only at pe- riods of forme months or years. Asthe teftis and veficule ferinales poffefs numerous abforbents, we cannot doubt that the contained fluids are conveyed by thefe veflels into the general circulation, It has been a general opinion that this abforption produces many of the changes which are well- known to take place at ‘puberty ; and which obvioully de- pend, as we have already fhewn, on the tefles. We refor to a former part of the article on this fubjec. The males of animals, when the rutting feafon approaches, have their whole bodies penetrated by a fingular fetor, fo that they are unfit for food. The flefh at this time putrifies more rapidly than at other feafons in the flag. That abforbed femen is the caufe of this fetor, is rendered probabie by the faa, that the removal of the teftes deftroys it ; and by its abfence from caftrated animals of the fame {fpecies. The fame caufe has been affigned for the phenomena confequent on concep- tion in the female ; but this feems very doubtful. 'Tlus ab- forbed femen has been fuppofed by phyticlogifts to a& as a ftimulus on the heart, and the organs of motion, to increafe the mufcular ftrength, and to contribute thereby to health of body and {trength of mind. Hence, too, they have ex= plained the foftnefs and infipidity of the flefh obferved in fome animals after the copulating feafon ; as, for inftance, inthe boar. The flefh of the falmon is remarkably changed in colour and flayour at this time. Caftration produces de- bilitating effe€ts both.on the body and mind of man and animals ; the ferocious and powerful bullis changed into the mild and patientox. The influence of the fame procefs in mankind has been already noticed ; and we have futficiently proved that the s»markable developement of the frame at the: time of puberty arifes entirely from the influence of the tellicles.. And itis no lefs true that the reft of the fexual organs are particularly affected by the prefence and activity of theteltes. In this country we have little or no opportu- nities of cbferving in eunuchs the effect of the mutilation on the other organs of generation 3 but we ean fee the confe- quences in animals.. In Mr. Hunter's opinion, the penis, urethra, and all parts connected with them,’ are fe fub- fervient to the tefticles, that he conceives that*few of thenr would have exifted if there had been no tefticles in the ori- ginal conitraction, of the body; thefe parts would then have been fo formed as to affift merely in the expullion of the urine, lo illuitrate this opinion, let us obferve what is the difference between thefe parts in the perfect male, and in a male that has been deprived of the tefticles when very young, at an age when they have had no fuch influence on the ani- mal economy as to affeét the growth of the other parts. In the perfect male the penis is large; the corpora caverno{a being capable of dilatation. The corpus {pongiofum is very vafcular ; and that part of the canal which is called the bulb is confiderably enlarged, forming a cavity ; the mufeul; acceleratores urine, as they are called, are {trong and healthy. {In many animals which have long penifes, they are continued forwards to the end of it, and in others they are not extended fo far, but are very large. On the contrary, in the caflrated animal, the penis is {mall and not capable of much dilatation ; the corpus fpongiofum is lefs vafcular ;- the cavity at the bulb is alittle larger tham the canal of the: urethra ; and the mufeles are white, fmall, and have a lira mentous appearance. The fame obfervationsare true, if ap- plied to the ereétores penis. The penis of the perfe&t male’ is of fufficient length, when ereéted,. to reach to the further end of the vagina of the female. In the caitrated animal it Rae ig GENERATION. is much fhorter ; and ereétions having thus become unnecef- fary, the parts which fhould project often adhere to the in- fide of the prepuce. The proitate, Cowper’s glands, and the glands along the urethra, of which the lacune are the excretory duéts, in the perfeét male, are large and pulpy, fe- ereting a confiderable quantity of a flimy mucus, which is falt to the tafte, is molt probably for the purpofe of lu- bricating thofe parts, and is only thrown out when the aniraal is in vigour for copulation; while in the caitrated animal they are finall, flabby, tough, and ligamentous, and have little fecretion.?” Animal Economy, p. 39. It muft be acknowledged that we haye no very direé&t proof that any actual abforption of femen takes place from the tefticles or veficule, and fome phyfiologilts deny it: altoge- ther. .*¢ I very much doubt,’ iays Blumenbach, “ whether real femen be ever abforbed from its veficular refervoirsin a healthy man;—ftiill more of what has been occafionaily afferted, that it is immediately conveyed into the neighbour- } ins: and mott of all, that fuch abferptica (fuppofing tence to be granted) should be confidered as a provi- fion againft premature venereal ftimuli.. On the contrary, if we compare the-phenomena obferved in animals, the impe- tuous irrefiftible nature of their defires at particular feafons of the year, with the conftitution of fuch as are caitrated, ve fhall rather deem fuch abforption the caufe of that ungo- vernable and almoft furious appetite. I conceive that a very different means (peculiar, as far as J know, to the human {ubje¢t) has been adopted to anfwer the purpofe juit alluded to; viz. nocturnal emiflions, which I refer to the natural ex- cretions of man, inafmuch as their more rare or frequent cc- currence, according to varieties of temperament and cont{ti- tution, ferves to liberate him from the troublefome and in- convenient confequences of an abundant feminal fecretion. It may be readily granted that barbarous nations, of a phlegmatic temperament, and practifing irregular fexual inter- courfe, do not require fuch an excretion ; yet, I think it muft be deemed a very natural and fuitable relief ina young unmarried man, of a fanguine temperament, plethoric habit, lively and warm imagination, particularly if he indulges in a luxurious mode of life and enjoys perfect health. See Chr. Rud. Jaenifch de pollutione noéturna. Gotting. 1795, 4to. Inftitut. Phyfiol. fect. 36. The lerigth of courfe, and the {mall diameter of the fper- matic artery, ‘together with the impofhbility of forcing any injected fluid from i's branches into the fecretory tubes of the tefticle, have led phyfiologitts to conclude that the fecre- tion of the feminal fluid is performed very flowly. But va- rious. circumitances are capable of accelerating this procefs. « Princeps eft amor ;” fays Haller, Elem. Phyfiol. 7.551. «© Nemo forte fuerit,.quin in juventute {ua feminam concupi- yverit; quin fi caita fait, in ejas familiaritate ignes conceperit eccultos : quin fenferit cum dolore et incommodo fibi teftes intumefcere, et vafa feminalia ; dolore certe tanto, ut vix tangere poffet eam regionem, vix incedere. Manifefto in hoc malo accelerata eft {ecretio ‘eminis, ejufque liquoris major penus teftem diftendit. Id mali genus ex reddita tranquilli- tate animi, et abfentia amote femine fedatur; et celerius etiam fanatur fruitione cupite puellx, et fi neutrum remedium accefferit in difficiles tumores abire poterit. Quare in uni- yerf{um, ut plurimum ad movendam yenerem irritamenta fa- ciunt defiderate femine, aut imagines afpeéiu lubrice, aut atia queecunque, que per legem aflociationis idearum volup- tatis memoriam renovant ; ita abfentia ejufmodi ftimulli, ‘et cogitationes perpetuo ad alia averfe, ipfaque religio, ita mi- nuunt feminis gencrationem, ut multo minori copia gigna- tur, neque moleltum fit, et demum vafa feminis pene coale- feent, €t genitaliam moles ipfa diminuatur.”’ A healthy and 4o« ftrong {tate of the animal, nutritious and perhaps rather ges nerous food, and_a certain warmth of the weather, pro= mote the feminal fecretion. All thefe circumftances difpofe the organs for a€tion, when the natural feelings are duly ex- cited ; and the oppofite caufes, as infirm health, fatigue, infufficient or bad food, and confiderable cold, prevent the feelings or difpofitions neceflary for the action of the genera- tive organs from taking place. ‘he reproductive furétion igs fo much influenced by the feafon in animals, that itis only carried on at a particular time of the year ; and the leading” organs (the telticles) are reduced in many inftances to a very fmall fizein the winter. But in man, and in fuch domefti- cated animals as are not ina tate of nature, no fuch change takes place in the tefticles ; they are confequently always im good condition, and in that ftate to which other animals that are left to themfelves, can only attain in the warmer feafon. That the femen, fecreted in the ferpentine tubuli of the teftis, is conveyed from them into the epididymis, and thence into the vas deferens, is fufficiently obvious from the anatomi- cal ftru€ture. De Graaf proved it ftii! furthers by tying the vas deferens of a dog before copulation: all the feereting tubes were diftended to the utmoit, and the teftis confider- ably fwollen. : We cannot doubt that the fecretory veffels of the teftis propel their contents by feme contractile power ; although the precife manner in which this is effected efeapes our ob- fervation. Does the elevation of the teftis to the ring, by the action of the crematter, conftantly obferved to accom- pany emiflion, promote the progrefs of the fecreted fluid ? The immenfe length and numerous turns of the femmal tubes muit render the paffage of this fluid from its firft feeretion very flow: hence, when the fupply contained in the veficule is entirely exhaufted, an intermiffion of fome time is necefla- ry for the reproduGion of a fufficient fupply ; hence teo, in the dog, where there are no veficule, the aét of copula- tion is unufually prolonged. It has been generally confidered that the fluid produced in the teftes is depofited and retained in the veficule feminales, as in refervoirs, until occafion occurs for its difcharge- Mr. Hunter has endeavoured to fhew that thefe bags are not to be regarded in the light of receptacles for the femen, but as deitined to perform a peculiar fecretion. The com- mon opinion reits on the fa€ts of the very free communica- tion between the vafa deferentia and velicule, on the courfe which injected fluids take in the dead body, andthe extreme minutenefs, numerous convelutions, and great length of the feminal tubes, which feem very unfavourable to the produc- tion of femen in the fudden way, and at the very fhort notice at which it muit be formed, if we do not fuppofe it to come from the veficule. We have already detailed the proofs by which it appears that thefe organs perform a fecretion ; but none of thofe fas fhew that the contents® ef the veficuke may not confift, in part, of matter formed in the teflis. We know that the gall-bladder produces a copious fecretion of its own; but that it alfo receives bile from the hepatic duct through the du€tus cyiticus. Mr. H. endeavours to adduce a decifive argument from comparative anatomy: he ftates that in many animals, the parts correfponding to the human veficule feminales have no communication with the vafa defe- rentia, and moreover, that their flru@iure, in feveral mftances, feems little calculated to make them refervoirs. Where the obvious ftruéture is fo different, we are by no means war- ranted in concluding that the funétions are exaCtly fimilar. To argue that the femen does not pafs into the veficule-of man, where the vafa deferentia are fo intimately conneGed to thofe bags, becaufe the analogous parts are not conneéted in other animals, is not more reafonable, than it would be to affirm a oe \ Se ee ee GENERATION. affirm that the fluid of the vafa deferentia paffes into the ve- ficule in animals, where the two are not connected, becaufe the {trudture leads us to infer that it does fo in man. Mr. Hunter continues, we may likewife infer, from what has been faid, that the femen is not retained in refer~ voirs after it is fecreted, and kept there till it is wfed; but that it is fecreted at the time, in confequence of certain af- fections of the mind flimulating the teilicles to this aétion : for we find, that if lafcivious ideas are excitedin the mind, and the paroxy{m is afterwards prevented from coming on, the teiticles become painful and {welled from the quantity of femen fecreted, and the increafed action of the veilels ; which pain and {welling are removed immediately upon the paroxy{m being brought on and the femen evacuated ; but if that doesnot take place, the aétion of the veffels is {Hill kept up, and the pain in the tefticles will generally contimue till the paroxyfm and the evacuation of the femen are brought on, which renders the act complete ; without which a ftop cannot be put to the action of the veffels that produce the fe- cretion, northe parts be allowed to fallback totheir natural ftate. ‘There is at this time no fenfation felt in the fituation of the yelicule feminales. The pain in the tefticles, in confe- quence of their being filled with femen; and the action being incomplete, is fometimes fo confiderable as to make it neceffary to produce an evacuation of the femen to relieve the patient.’”’? Animal Economy, p. 33. We certainly admit with Mr. H. that the veficule femi- nales of the human fubje& perform a particular fecretion ; but we do not conceive him to have fucceeded in proving that they are not allo refervoirs for the femen. The opinion, which denies the veficulz feminales to be re- fervoirs for the femen, is defended alfo by J. A. Chaptal, in the Journal de Phyfique, February 9, 1787, p. 101. Soem- merring has refuted it in the third vol. of Blumenbach’s Me- dicinifche Bibliothek, p. 87. The tranfmiffion of the femen, from its duéts or veficule, into the urethra, takes place under the influence of a parti- cular {tate of mind ; and its expulfion from the body is effect- ed, inall animals which have a penis, by means of what is called the ereétion of that organ. Inthe human fubjec, this is an increafe of volume produced by the diftention of the three corpora cavernofa, Among the exciting caufes of this procefs, wwe may enumerate, in the firft place, the prefence of a fufficient fupply of feminal fiuid: when this is prefent, any additional flimulus eafily produces the eifeét. Hence, we obierve, that the venereal powers of animals are the greateit, when their teites are of the largeft fize; hence, too, we may perhaps explain the ereétion fometimes obferved after a full meal. A fecond and more powerful excitement is derived from mental eaufes. <“ Altera canfa,’’ fays Haller, « in fano homine eft imaginatio, five cupido veneris, que ex quacunque causa orta, leftione, vifa pictura, memoria voluptatis priftine, con- fabulatione, tactu, et aliis caufis, in fano homine continuo in erectionem erympit. Tadem noéturnam illam et folitariam venerem fola abfolvit, qua fe natura nimii feminis onere libe- rat variis, pro varia feminis abundantia, et fenfa acriori aut obtufiori, intervallis. Nam pueris facillima, fenibus-ea venus rarior eft, aut nuila. Soli homini data eft, forte quod homo potiflimum memoria et imaginatione valeat.. Imaginationem folam, non ereétionem, fed plenam venerem, etiam in vigilan- tibus perfecifle adfunt teftimoaia, Neque poteit abfque ima- ginatione excitata unquam hoe opus perfici; ut turpi, ne- que hatenus adamata in femina venus vix exerceri posit. Tnde ill impoteatice ex verecundia, ex imaginaria debilitate, quo fafcinum revoco, aut ex odio, que quidem {pecies cum elativa poteftate conjuncta elt. Hine manifelta iniquitas ejus legis, que ex congreiiu oe virilitate mariti judicabat, quem in exofa uxore, poft fummam injuriam paffam, in con- {peétu tot hominum, ferreum oporteret effe, ut lis cum im- pedimentis venerea jura perficiat. Quare in Gallia anno, 1677, die 18. menfis Januarii, ridicula lex abolita fuit, cum Marchio de Langey, ajudice poft congreftum pro impo- tente damnatus, diffoluto matrimonio, cum alia uxore multos filios generaffet.’’ (Element. Phyfiol. 7.557.) ‘Fhe pecu- liar odour exhaled from the female organs, particularly at certain feafons, is a very powerful incentive of venereal feel- ings in the animal kingdom. Haller confiders that this caufe acts in the human race alfo. Propius partes genitales ipfas adficit, et excretionem extorquet, auget et perficit, friétio glandis, et potiffimum colliculorum, qui fant fub ortis urethra, quocunque fere modo ea fri€tio adminiftretur. Sed ea cum voluptate peculiari, fumma, pene nimia, conjun- gitur, agitque iterum manifelto in rervos, ut vel ex acuto fenfu glandis conjicere licet.’’ Elem. Phyf. ibid. Erection of the penis takes place from various caufes, not enumerated under the foregoing heads ; and then it has no concern with the expulfion of the feminal fluid. When a perfon wakes in the morning, with the bladder tolerably fuil of urine, the organ is commonly ereét ; but it fubfides when the water is evacuated. Striking the nates with a rod is well known to produce erection; and has fometimes been reforted to to roufe dormant paflions. Calculus, itrangu- ry, and hemorrhoids are fometimes attended with this fymp- tom; which has been occafionally obferved alfo in other af- feétions. It is often particularly troubleforne in gonor- rheea ; and has been obferved many times after death, parti- cularly in thofe who have been hanged. (See Morgagni de Sed. et Cauf. Ep. xix.) Mechanical obftruGtion to the re- turn of blood from the part will produce ereétion, and even fuch a {welling as ends in gangrene, 1f the obftacle be con- fiderableand long continued. Ligatures,thoughtlefsly placed on the penis by children, and the ftridure produced by the retracted glands in paraphymoiis, come under this defcrip- tion. In the fame way dangerous {welling has been produc- ed by drawing a ring over the penis. ‘The effe&t of inter- cepting the return of blood is clearly fhewn, in an experi- ment made by Mr. Hunter on the dog. “ In April 1760, in the prefence of Mr. Blount, I laid bare the penis of a dog, almoft threugh its whole length ; traced the two veins that came from the glans (which in this animal makes the largett part of the penis), and feparated them from the arte- ries by diffeGtion, that I might be able to comprefs them at pleafure, without affeCting the arteries. I then compretied he two veins, and found that the glans-and large bulb ke- came fulland extended ; but when I irritated the veins, in cre der to fee if there was any power of contraétion in them, which might occafionally ftop the return of the blood, no fuch appearance could be obferved.’? Animal Economy, P- 40, note a. ‘nat erection is produced by blocd being fent into the penis fatter than it can be returned, and that the encreafed fize of the organ is entirely produced by this fanguineous diitention, are points clearly afcertained. The obitacle to its return is fo complete, that no mechanical preflure applied to the body of the penis can force the blood on into the veins. ‘The exact mode, in which this objeét is accomplith- ed, has not, we believe, been as yet afcertained. ‘There cer- tainly 1s no power capable of directly comprefling the veins: and the erector penis in particular, by drawing the organ away from the fymphyfis pubis, would rather free them from preffure. The accelerator urinz, by {queezing the blood for- wards from the bulb, may make the front of the corpus {pongiofum and glans rather more firm when they are erect, but can produce no effect on the penis in general. Neither GENERATION. Neither is the phenomenon at all like thofe produced by mufcular contraction : it is a quiet and gradual increafe, and it often laits for hours. Mufcular aGtion is fudden, and not of fuch long duration. There are other examples of analo- gous effects, which are totally inexplicable by mufcular ac- tion. .The nipple, when left to itfelf, like the penis, is foft and flaccid, fhort, and retraéted: when excited by gentle friction, it rifes into a cylindrical form, {wells, grows red and warm: yet there is nothing like a mufcle in the part. The red flefhy organs about the head and neck of fome gallinaceous birds undergo a fimilar procefs. It appears, therefore, that the change termed erection, may take place in animal ftru&tures, without the affiftance of any mufcular power; and it is by no means certain, that any mufcle is concerned in the particular cafe now under confi- deration. All that we can afcertain on the fubject is, that the blood is fent into the corpora cavernofa in much greater quantities than it can return. If a mechanical obftacle does not produce that rigid ftate of the organ, which is created by the immediate action of defire, we conclude, that a more fudden and complete congeftion is produced by the latter than by the former caufe. We cannot explain how the proportion of blood, which arrives, is thus altered in relation to that which returns, any more than we underftand the analogous phenomenon in inflammation. It does not feem pofiible to afcertain the mechanifm of the procefs by a¢tual obfervation. The circumiftances already mentioned render it probable that the nerves are materially concerned. Erection varies confiderably in its degree. The organ at firft fwells, but continues foft ; it then grows confiderably longer, thicker, more firm and warm ; and the glands become redder. The corpora cavernofa penis are firft diftended, and the glands fubfequently. In the ttate of greateft rigidity, it is proved, by ridiculous experiments, that confiderable weights can be fupported by the organ. The mere aét of ereétion is not attended with thofe remarkable effe€ts on the frame which accompany emiffion ; it may be repeated or continue for any length of time without any injurious operation on the animal economy: hence, it is much more frequent than the latter at. Under the influence of certain feelings of the molt acute kind, excited in the a€t of copulation, the femi- nal fluid is expelled from the ejaculatory ducts into the ure- thra, The pleafurable fenfation is raifed to its higheft pitch, and is attended with a convullive agitation of the whole frame, before this effect follows. ‘“ Maxima certe eft in venere convulfio, et late patens tremor, ut femina, cui clitoris titillatur, neque fe fuitinere poflit, neque genua coercere, ne tremant, et in aliis resin plenam epilepfiam erumpit :, nihil audit neque fentit animal m venerea tentigine. Sunt, qui anime in venere linguantur, etiam femine ; {unt non rari, qui in grato nimis opere perierint. Eft autem, omnino major maris voluptas, etiam in pleri{que animalibus; nam mares, r pauca exempla, feminas feqnuntur, et nonnunquam at: cit in viris glans, fenfus venerei precipua fedes, multe quam clitoris major, et-certe ia ve- idior. Et fi aliquis fenfus eft in oltio uteri interiori, quanc femen eo pervenit, manifefto tamen mas in egerendo femine majoribus, quam femina in toto venere, furiis agitatur. Quz omnia fapientiffimis confiliis ita fata fant, ut virum robore armatum, amoris dulcedo femine redderet aquiorem. Demum et cordis vires vehementer mejtantur, et pulfus ac- celeratur, et cor palpitat, et refpiratio laborat, et eadem, que in nixu, phenomena oriuatur.’ Element. Phyfiol. 7. 67; After this tumultuous agitation of the whole frame, and when the {welling of the penis and glands has reached its greateft extent, the feminal fluid is thrown into the urethra. , pene invitas vi The anus is clofed by its fphinéter, and it is faid that the levatores ani, by their mechanical preffure, fquceze out the contents of the proftate and veficule into the urethra Probably the coatsof the veficule and vafa deferentia poflefs fome contractile power, by which their evacuation is affifted, The contents of the proftate and veficule are colle&ted in’ the bulb of the urethra, which is enlarged fo as to form a kind of refervoir for them; and are expelled with fome force, by fucceflive {pafmodic contra@ions of the accelerator urine. As foon as this is finifhed, the temporary agitation fubiides, the blood returns from the ceils of the penis, and that organ regains its original magnitude. A degree of lan- guor follows, proportioned to the previous excitation ; the palpitation of the heart goes off, the hurried refpiration 4s quieted, and the ftrength flowly returns. ‘The fubfequent weaknefs is greater, in proportion as the a&t has been more frequently repeated, and at fhorter intervals. In many animals, where the fexual appetites are only exerted at a particular feafon, and where the powersare exhibited and exer- cifed on a much grander fcale than in man, the debilitating influence is very it-ongly marked. ‘The venereal powers of the human fubjeét certainly appear very limited, when com- pared to thofe of moft animals : witha due regard to health, he cannot much exceed the limits afligned by Haller. « Hv- mini adeo modicz {unt vires, ut non multo plus, quam bis ia feptem diebuS coire poflit, et fi forte acri amore percitus, poft' longam caftitatem, femina concupita potitus, aliquoties polit femenemittere. Sed ea neque multem repeti poffunt, neque durare.”? An attention to the di€tates of nature will certainly enjoin temperance in thefe enjoyments. The! performance of a funétion, fo neceflary to the continuance of the fpecies, has been enfured by the phyfical pleafure affociated with it: but the effects of too frequent repetition: produce thofe ferious confequences which the uniyerfal and violept influence of the aé on our bodies would naturally lead us to expeG&t. Severe nervous affections, impaired men- tal faculties, and premature death, are the fure concomitants of exceffive venereal enjoyments. Whether the convulfive agitation of the body, or the emilfion, be the moft injurious under thefe cireumitances, cannot, perhaps, be decidedly afcertained. ‘ Omnia ifta majora et celeriora, et minus medic manui obtemperatura, eveniunt ab illa deteftabili ju- venum circe, a qua amor abeft, ct in qua femen, multo quam in nature opere difficilius, elicitur. Ab ea enim cor- ruptela impotentia infanabilis {upervenit, et feminis firxus involuntarius perpetuus, obilipa rigiditas, tabes intra trien- nium funefta, amiffa judicti vis, et omne fere malorum genus, quod votis velis avertere.”” Elem. Phyfiol. 7. 573. Thefe circumftances render it very plain that polygamy is not fuited to the organization and powers of man; and afford a much ftronger argument againit the praétice, than the alleged fuperior numbers of females in Eaftern countries would be in favour of it, even if the fa@t were well proved; which we by no means admit. the foregoing account, that the fexual functions ought not to be exercifed, until the growth and {trength are complete ; and that all attempts at exciting the venereal appetites,’ before the natural period of their developement, muft be prejudicial. On this fubje&t we fhould bear in mind the obfervation of Tacitus concerning the ancient Germans ; ¢ Sera juvenum Venus, eoque inexhaufta pubertas.”? ; i Man is capable of exerciling the generative fun@iens threugh a certain portion only of his life. We have ex- plained that the organs are-in a-ftate of very imperfeét deve- lopement during the early periods of his exiftence. Boys have ere¢tions, but they are net produced by thofe ftimuli’ which a& at a more advancedage. In the middle of Europe, a feere- We may. colleé alfo, from’ -cated that Thomas Parre GENERATION. a fecretion of femmal fluid generally takes place about the twelfth or fourteenth year, informuch that it 1s commonly ’ difcharged from the effect of dreams. Soon after this time there is a complete capacity of performing the fexual func- tions; and there is a well-known initance of a prince who begot twins in his 16th year. The approach of puberty is regulated confiderably- by the climate, and alfo by manners ; in swarnt countries it comes on earlier than we have men- tioned, and later in colder regions. Jn the higher ranks of fociety, where the feelings are prematurely and artificially excited, and encoura aged “by a copious and generous ae: and toni morality, the generative functions may be called into exercife more early, than under the oppolite circum- ftances. As the individual approaches to the soth year,~ -the venereal fuiceptibility is confiderably diminifhed. Semen is ftill fecreted, but hardly ever emitted during flecp, even after fhe longelt ablftinence. ‘Dhe venereal aét is more flowly performed, but is equally efficacioug in producing i impreg- nation. From this time the powers are gradually. diminithed ; But a man of Go may flili become a father, although fome legiflators have cholen to determine otherwife.. A longer continued and more power: tul irritation is required to pro- duce erection and ermiflion at thisage. In rare examples men have been known to retain their powers of propagation even to the age of ico years; and it 1s very well authenti- married at 120, “and performed the duties of a hufband until the age of r40. Thefe latter examples muft, however, be regarded as deviations from the ordinary courfe ; and we lage “equally remarkable inftances of the generative fun€tions being performed at an unufually early age. Perhaps the moft remarkable cafe of this kind is a boy now living in London, of whom an account is given in the Medico-Chirurgical TranfaQions, vol. i. p. 2765 & feq. At the time of birth this child had much long hair on Sbhe head, and the futures of the cranium were perfectly elofed. At the end of the frit year thofe changes took place which ufually happen at-puberty. ‘The penis and teftes increafed in fize, hairs appeared on the pubes, and the tone of the vwice was evidently altered. From this ‘time his body grew very rapidly, and the expreffion of his fea- tures, as well as the general organization, had a completely manly character. The prominence of the thyroid cartilage and the voice, refembled thofe of a youth of 16. “ The pubes and {crotum are covered with black curling hair. ‘The penis and teftes are as large as I have feen in nae adults. The latter are firm and perfect in their formation, and the cord may be diftinétly felt. ‘The ufual brown appearance of the integuments of thefe parts is here to be obferved.”” There has been a fecretion of femen from the end of the fecond year. This account was drawn up when he was three years old. In his “* Anecdotes de Médecine,’? Borden mentions three boys who had {trong venereal defires between 10 and 11 years of age: the generative organs were unufually large in thefe individuals. and were fully capable of exercifing their ordinary functions at this Re « Ils ne penfaient quwau plaifir phyfique de lamou: ; 1s ne femblaient avoir autre fenfution que celle de cette paflion ; ils fe fondaient, pour ainl dire, en {perme ;_ ils tiraient leur caractere indi- viduel de l’organiSne feminal.’ The mofi fntable and natural flate after the ageof pubert ty, is that of marnages Tf the defigns cf nature are not fulhilled ; if, by refufing to fatisty the imperious callsot love, we prevent ee excels ci vital energy, which foon animates the genera- tive organs, from being carried off in its natural channel, the accumulated irritability of thefe organs will frequently difturb the whole frame by its re-action. The phyfical feeling of love, the impulfe of reprodaétion, has generally a remarkable character of violence and energy in animals. The phenomena of the rutting feafon fhew the effects of this powerful appetite in a much flronger point of view than they are feen in the human fubject ; as the influence of the pafiion is here heightened by its being reduced within a fhort period of time. Great fiercenefs, impetuous motions, and often even convulfions, are the effects ot the new want in many animals. Parrots, Eanaby Pinos and bull- ghee, ex- perience attacks apparently of an epileptic kind, when fepa- rated from their females. The phyfical appetite is rarely accompanied with fuch phenomena i inman. With many in- dividuals, the obfervance of the laws of chattity hardly re- quires an effort. However, if the influence of the genera. tive organs fhould predominate.fo far as to conftitute a well- charaéterized erotic temperament ; if an ardent imagination and a forced ftate of celibacy thould {trengthen this tempe- rament, its influence on the conftitution may be exceflive, and caufe various kinds of general diforder. Under the influence of fuch circumitances, a foldier feized and attempted to vio- late a girl in public at Montpe lier. Neither the publicity of the fasione nor the cries ofthis victim, nor the exclamations and blows of the furrounding perfons, could prevail with himto relinquifh his attempt, for which he was hanged. (Borden, Anecdotes de Médecine.) The unnatural abftinence obferved from miltakennotions of religion, has produced very remark- able effets in fome cafes. Anecclefafiiementioned by Buffon, in whom the feelings were very ftrong, fearing he fhould be tempted to break his yow, cut away the organs. The fame pit relates the fufferings of another individual during a kind of erotic delirium, which latted for fix months, and feems to have amounted nearly to mental derangement. Female Organs of Generation—Woman contributes more largely thanman to the bufinefs ofreproduction ; andtheappa- ratus deftined to this funétion includes the generative organs, properly fo called, and the breafts. Thefe ifolated parts are appropriated to the execution of a common object, to which each contributes in its own way, and their developement 1s regulated by a common law. They are called into aivity at the fame epocha, and their refpective functions ceafe, or at lealt their capacity of fulfilling them ceafes at the fame time. The clofe fympathy which conneéts them has been remarked at all times. The breafts, however, are mani- feitly PoE on the generative organs ; while the former exereife but a very flight influence on the latter. As the male organs are calculated by their formation to convey the prolific fluid, fo the female are conftruéted with a view to its reception ; and the two differ completely from-each other. Yet there is a confiderable refemblance in fome parts of the apparatus in both fexes. Thus the clitoris, which is con- cealed under the pubis in the fuperior commiffure of the labia, refembles the penis in many points; differing frem it by having no conneétion with the urethra, and confequently being imper forate, alfo in being very {mall in well-formed individuals, ‘The moft convenient See pee of the fubje@, for anatomical deferiy ion, is that in which the organs are divided into the external and internal. ‘The latter include the cilential agents of the generative procefs in the female ; viz. the vagina, ith the uterus and its appendages. ‘The former confit of a longitudinal flit, placed between thé thighs, containing the termination of the urethra and vagina, and certain prominent parts compofed chiefly of folds of the intezuments. The external organs, which can be fee n without the aid of difle€tionm, are the ava yeneris, the vulva or pudendum, the labia, freaulum, foffa navicularis, clitoris, nymphe, meatus urinarius, and opening of the vagina. A. broad prominence, plac ed in front of the pubes, and between GENERATION. between the groins, is called the mons veneris. At the time of puberty, this part becomes more convex, and is covered with hairs, of which the number, length, and colour, vary in different individuals. Thefe very feldom advance along the middle line of the abdomen, towards the navel, as in man. Their eminence is formed fimply by the accumula- tion of an adipous cellular fubftance at this particular point, and it confequently varies in fize, according to the embon- point of the individual. A longitunal fiffere, or flit-like cavity, extends from the mons veneris, between the thighs, to within an inch of the anus; this is called the vulva, or pudendum, (which names fometimes include, in a more large application, the external organs,) or finus pudoris. - This excavation is larger in women who have had children, than in virgins. The fpace,left between the poiterior end of the vulva and the anus, which may be about one inch in length, is the perineum, in which the raphé can hardly be traced. The labia, or ale majores, are two elongated cutaneous eminences, filled with adipous fubitance, defcending from the mons veneris towards the anus, and forming the lateral boundaries of the cavity juft mentioned. They have been named, from a comparifon with the lips of the mouth; but the fiffure between them is vertical, inflead of being tranf- verfe, as in the other inftance. Their length, whichis nearly the fame in all inftances, and may be fomewhere between two and three inches, determines the extent of the vulva. Their fize and prominence vary according to the general embonpoint of the individual. Thefe iolds are thicker above than below ; their external furface, which correfponds to the upper and inner fide of the thighs, is covered with hairs fimilar to thofe of the mons veneris, and poffeffes fome febaceous «lands. The internal furface, formed by a mucous membrane, is fmooth, foft to the touch, is contiguous to that of the oppoiite ide, and to the nymphe. In virgins the colour of this furface is red ;, it acquires afterwards a pale and rather livid caft. “ The upper edge of the labia is adhe- rent, and continues externally with the integuments, on the infide with the covering of the nymphz: the inferior margin is unconnected, convex, rounded, and covered with hairs, and exhibits the continuity of the intezuments with the mucous membrane. The anterior, or fuperior extremity, is con- founded with the mons veneris: the poiterior, growing gradually fmaller, ends in a point, and is united with that of the oppofite fide behind the fofia mavicularis. From this union a fharp prominent ridge refults, called the commiffure of the labia, or frenulum, and in French la fourchette. The following parts enter into the compofition of the labia ; x{t, a continuation of the fkin forming their external furface and inferior or convex edge, provided with febaceous glands, inthe feeretion of which the diftinguifhing odour of thefe parts refides: 2dly, a mucous membrane covering their internal furface, continuous on one fide with the integuments, and on the other with the mucous covering belonging to the whole vulva: 3dly, an adipous tiffue filling the interval between thefe layers, and giving to the parts their various. degrees of thicknefg and prominence. ‘The latter texture refembles on the whole that of the mons veneris, with which it is con- tinuous, but it prefents, in addition, fome membranous la- minz defcending from the ifchium and pubes to theloofe edge of the labium. It does not contain fo much fat as the mons veneris, and hence, like the fcrotum of the male, it is a part in which anafarcous depofitions are frequently obferved. The labia cover all the other external organs of generation, which, by this means, are conitantly moiltened with a mucous fluid, preventing the effe&s of friction, and preferving the acute fenfibility of the parts. In the ordinary attitudes of the body, thefe organs are in a ftate of mutual contact, and therefore completely conceal the parts which we are pro- ceeding to defcribe: they are feparate only when the thighs are thrown widely apart ; they receive an extraordinary deve= lopement during parturition, and thereby increafe the capa- city of the vulva. When the labia are feparated, the fol- lowing parts may be cbferved in fucceffion from above downwards: 1. The clitcris, which appears as a {mall tu- bercle, more or lefs prominent, feparated from the upper commiffure of the labia by a fmali {mooth furface: 2. The nymphz, ale minores, or petites levres, arifing from the in- ferior lateral parts of the clitoris, defcending and diverging as they defcend, and loft on the fides of the opening cf the vagina: 3. AL triangular furface flightly concave, bounded above by the clitoris, below by the meatus urinarius, on the fides by the nymphx, and fometimes called veltibulum ; 4. The meatus urinarius, fituated about ane inch helew the clitoris: 5. The orifice of the vagina, with the hymen, or caruncule myrtiformes, placed immediately underthe meatus; 6. The fofia navicularis, a {mall tranfverfe deprefiion, fepa- - rating the entrance of the vagina from the frenulum; 7. The frenulum, or pofterior commiflure of the labia; behied a which is the perineum. ‘The clitoris occupies the spper |” part of the vulva, and forms a reddifh flightly elevated tu- bercle, which ordinarily. does not exceed the level of the labia. _ Its figure is obtufely, conical, fomething like that of the end of the penis; this is called the clans clitoridis, and is covered by a loofe fold of the mucous membrane lining the vulva, and named preputium cliteridis. Befides, the difference of its fize, the want of a_ perforation at the. extremity, fufficiently diftinguifhes it from the penis. A {mall part only of the organ appears on external examination; the larger portion, which is concealed, and can be brought into view only by difiection, lies ever the vagina, and under the arch of the pubes, and bears a great analogy to the penis, as 1t confiils of two crara or corpora cavernofa, with erector mufcles. Thef& arife from the ‘inner and even pof= terior furface of the rami of the offa innominata; afcend, approaching to each other, and unite into a {mall cylindrical body, terminating in an obtufe extremity, called the glans. Thefe crura are made up of a firm fibrous membrane, con- fufed with the periofteum, forming a tube filled with a cellular or fpongy fubftance, into which blood is effufed from the ar- teries, to be again taken up by the veins, as in the penis. There isa complete feptum between the two crura, fo that they are diftinét throughout. The fpongy fubftance of ‘the crura is more denfe than in the penis, and confequently admits of lefs diftention ; hence the fize of the organ is not greatly increafed in the erect fate. The eredor clitoridis mufcie is analogous in every refpec&t — to the crector penis of the male; its origin, termination, and probably ufe, are fimilar, but the fize is fmaller in propor- ticn to that cf the crus. It arifes from the inner furface of - the fichium, afcends and pafles forwards, and is implanted in a tendincus form, in the inferior and pofterior extremity of the crus clitoridis. The fubitance of the glans is not different from that of — the body of the clitoris, as there is no urethra in this: organ; and confequently no pecvliar corpus cavernofum. It is. rounded above and flightly bifid below. The leofe and: folded prepuce covers it above and at the fides, but not be- ; low, being attached to the two fides of the flit, by whichthe part is marked in this fituation. A white, friable, febaceous, and concreting fub{tance, fimilar to that formed by the glan- dulz odoriferz of the penis, is depcfited under the preputium clitoridis. Fa This {ecretion, being liable to accumulate, and becoming ir. ritating in warm countries, as is the cafe with the analogous fubftance | | GENERATION. fubitance in the male, has given rife to a fimilar operation of circumcifion in girls ih feveral parts of Africa and Afia. Niebuhr énjoyed the very rave opportunity of f{eeing the pudenda of an Arabian girl, eighteen years of age, who had been circumcifed; he drew the parts from the life, and brought the reprefentation home with him. See his Befch- reibung von Arabien, p. 77. ct feq. The clitoris correfponds above to the arch of the pubes, to which it is fixed by a kind of fufpenfory ligament ; below to the urethra, to which it is united by a loofe cellular tiffue. It refembles the penis in its acute fenfibility: ‘fenfus mire vehemens eft, ut tota crura ab ejus particule follicita- tione contremifeant, femineeque tote extra feponantur, ni- hilque poflint proco negare. Qua extra venerem,in catta femina parva fuerat, fed etiam modo arrigit et intumefcit, ut prepoftere veneri infervire poflit, multoque ufu ejus tur- pitudinis denique moles ejus augetur, ut omnia membra fe- Tent, quibus multum utimur. Que caufa videtur fuiffe, cur orientales populi, accurati caftitatis muliebris cuftedes, hance particulam in nuper natis puellis amputaverint, aut.certe ferro decurtayerint.’’ Element. Phyfiol. lib. 28. § 20. We have made fome obfervations, concerning the occafional increafe in fize of this part, in the remarks on hermaphrodites. _ The nymphz are two membranous folds, connected above to the preputium clitoridis, and defcending about as far as the middle of the aperture of the vagina. ‘They are thin and flattened, broadeft in the middle, and narrower at the two extremities. ‘Their external furface correfponds,to the in- fide of the labia, while the internal, approximating above to that of the oppofite fide, correfponds below to the meatus nrinarius and orifice of the vagina. Their adherent edge is tolerably thick ; while the loofe margin is thin and convex: thelatter is fometimes wrinkled or notched, fo as to have oc- cafioned acomparifon of the part to acock’scomb. The fuperior extremity arifes from the preputium or glans cli- toridis: the inferior ends at the fide of the vagina. They are fmooth and of a red colour in young women, and acquire a darker hue in older fubjects, and particularly fuch as have had children. They are formed of duplicatures of the mem- brane lining the vulva, filled internally with a cellular fub- ftance, free from fat: and they contain febaceous glands, the excretory duéts_of which form very obvious pores : they differ very much in fize. Ordinarily, they are com- -pletely covered by the labia, when approximated. Some- times they form fcarcely perceptible prominences, while at others they are yery large, and hang down between the la- bia, fo as to form an inconvenient obftruétion to the fexual funétions ; in this cafe their furface is irregular, being grooved and tuberculated. Such formations are more fre- quent in the inhabitants of warm climates, where it is not unufual to cut off fome part of them; and the operation is even occafionally practifed in European countries. Fre- quently one is larger than the other. They poffefs confider- able fenfibility. ‘The chief ufe afligned to them is that of affifting, by their developement, the enlargement of the vulva during parturition: the diftention of the parts by the paf- fage of the child deftroying the fold. The name of nymphx was given to them from a fuppofition that they regulate the jet of urine; but as women evacuate this fluid with the thighs apart, and as the direction of the ftream feems to de- pend fo entirely on that of the urethra, we cannot adopt this fuppofition. And weare further confirmed in rejecting the opinion by the exiftence of thefe folds in many animals where they can have nothing to do with the ftream of urine. We have nothing further to fay concerning the veftibu- lum, except that the furface is fmooth, and that it is termi- nated below by the opening of the urethra, which is about Vor, XVI. three quarters of an inch, or aw inch from the clitoris. The defcription of this canal, and its termination, will be found, together with that of the female bladder, under the article Kopney. Immediately under the orifice of the urethra is the en- trance of the vagina, called fometimes the os externum uteri ; the diameter and appearance of which vary very confiderably in different individuals. In virgins this ¢ pening is very narrow,; it is broader after the fexuel a has been performed, and moff ample in women who have had many children. The narrownefs in the firft cafe arifes from the prefence of a duplicature of the mucous membrane, called the hymen, which contra€ts the-opening fo confiderably, that marriage cannot be confummated without its being ruptured ; hence, after this laceration, the entrance of the canal is more free. As the parts are vafcular and fenfible, more or lefs bleeding and pain generally attend this dilatation of the aperture; and thefe circumftances are expected in fome countries as the neceflary proofs of virginity in the bride. However, they do not always attend the firft coition; and it fhould feem, by the following quotation, that the exiftence of the hymen hangs by avery flender thread; “* L’?hymen, pendant le premier age, eft tres mince, fe rompt tfacilement et fe de- truit, lorfqu’on effuie avec trop peu de ménagement les par- ties éxtérieures de la génération, foit lorfque Venfant lui- méme, avec ou fans intention, contracte des habitudes Lef- biennes, prépare et difpofe ainfi aux plaifirs folitaires, des organes qui font 4 peine ébouchés.’’? Moreau Hilt. de la Femme, tom. 1. p. 53. The hymen isa duplicature of the fame membrane which lines the entrance of the vagina, and has the fame texture and properties. Itis foft, red, vafcular, and fenfible. The potterior furface is reticulated, as the columns of the vagina terminate on it. Its fize and figure vary very confiderably. Generally it has the fhape of a crefcent, with the concavity turned upwards or forwards. The convex edge is attached, the concave loofe; the former is fixed to the inferior part and fides of the vagina, the latter is turned towards the urethra. ‘The orifice of the vagina, in the virgin, is the {pace bounded in front or above by the meatus urinarius, below or behind, and at the fides, by the loofe concave edge of the hymen. he dimenfions of this opening muit depend therefore on the breadth of the hymen, which differs much in different individuals: ordinarily, it will admit the little finger without any ftretching.. ‘This crefcented or fal- ciform figure of the hymen is feen only when the labia are drawn apart, and the fides of the vagina gently itretched ; for in the ordinary attitudes, the membrane is thrown into longitudinal folds, the fides of the vagina coming into con- taé with each other, fo that the entrance of the canal is completely fhut. However, the fpace left between the urethra and the edge of the membrane will always allow the efcape of the meni{trual difcharge. The lower part of the hymen is the broadeft, and the horns of the crefcent, where they advance along the fides of the aperture, grow gradually narrower, until they are completely loft. Sometimes the hymen is continued under the orifice of the urethra, fo as to form a complete membranous circle, per- forated in the middle, inftead of acrefcent. Indeed Haller, and many other very accurate anatomifts, have found the fold, when the parts were carefully examined in water, ge- nerally continued under the urethra ; but very narrow at that part. In more rare cafes the hymen is an imperforate circular membrane, attached to the edge of the orifice of the vagina in every part, fo as to clofe the canal completely. Such females have been termed atrofe, by a word derived from the Greek, and fignifying imperforate, As there is G ne GENERATION. no aperture in fuch cafes for the difcharge of the menftrual fluid, it accumulates in the uterus and vagina, and muit be evacuated by a furgical operation, confiiting of a puncture of the hymen. For the various appearances which this art exhibits in different individuals, the reader may confult . G. F. Tolbeng, de varietate hymenum, Hal. 1791, 4to. It has generally been afferted, that the hymen does not exift in quadrupeds; but the ftatement of Cuvier, in his Legons d’ Anat. comparée, tom. 5; leon 29, fect. i. art.2, renders this point very doubtful. The general opinion of its non-exiftence in the other mammalia befides maz, and the circumitance of its being found in women only, at a par- ticular period of life, and even then not univerfall;, have led many anatomiits to deny its exiftence in the human fub- ject. But the fa& is fo clearly proved by the concurrent teltimonies of all modern anatomifts, who have'enjoyed con- fiderable opportunities of diffetion, that we wonder to find Buffon {till contefting the point; any of his anatomical friends might furely have convinced ‘him by ocular proof. Though we are fully convinced, by repeated obfervation, that Buf- fon’s opinion is incorreét in point of faét, we cannot help admiring the eloquence with which he inveighs againft the difgraceful opinions and practices which have prevailed on this fubje@. « Les hommes,’’ fayshe, “ jaloux des primautés en tout genre, ont toujours fait grand cas de tout ce quwils ont cru pouvoir poffeder exclufivement et les premiers: c’eft cette efpéce de folie, quia fait un étre réel de la virginité des filles. La virginite, qui eft un étre moral, une vertu qui ne confifte que dans la pureté du cceur, eft devenue un objet phyfique dont tous les hommes fe font occupés ; ils ont établi far cela des opinions, des ufages, des cérémonies, des fuperftitions, et méme des jugemens et ‘des peines ; les abus les plus illicites, les coutumes les plus défhonnétes ont &é autorifées ; on a foumis 4 l’examen de matrones igno- rantes, et expofé aux yeux de médecins prévenus, les par- ties les plus fecrétes de la nature, fans fonger qu’une pareille indécence eft un attentat contre la virginité; que c’eft la violer que de chercher & la reconnoitre ; que toute fituation honteufe, tout état indécent, dont ime fille eit obligée de rongir intérieurement, eft une vraie défloration. Je néfpere pas rénffir a détruire les préjugés ridicules qu’on s’eft formés fur ce fujet; les chofes, qui-font plaifir a croire, feront toujours, crues, quelque vaines et quelque déraifonnables qu’elles puiffent étre ; cependant, comme dans une hittoire on rapporte non feulement Ja fuite des evenemens, et les cir- conftances des faits, mais auffi origine des opinions et des erreurs dominantes, j’ai cru que dans l’hiftoire de Phomme je ne pourrois me difpenfer de parler de idole favorite a la- quelle il facrifie, d’examiner quelles peuvent étre les raifons de fon culte, et de rechercher fi la virginité eft un étre réel, cu fice n’eft qu’une divinité fabuleufe.”’ It is not fo eafy to explain the ufe or purpofes of this membrane, as to eftablifh the fa&t of its exiitence. The partifans of final caufes have been much puzzled in attempt- ing to difplay the wifdom or goodnefs of the Creator, as evinced in this» part of our anatomy, and have as yet affigned no rational explanation of it. We fubjoin from Haller a ftatement of the commonly received notions, which, however, appear to ourfelves entirely unfatisfactory. «© Vix tamen dubites, cum folo in homine fit repertus, etiam ad morales fines ei effe conceflum fignum pudicitiz, quo et yitium illatum cognofeatur, et pura virgo decus fuum poflit tueri, et ipfe manitus de caftitate {poniz facile convincatur, co facilius, quod preterea in illibata virgine vagina anguita fit. Etfi enim poffit fieri, ut laxus, ut parvus fit hymen, atque prima venus aliquando abfque fanguine abfolvatur, neque hymen rumpatur ; et! artifictl porro in param pudica femina fanguis poffit elici; etfi tenere virgines aliquando etiam in altero coitu fanguinem reddant, et menfes fiuentes vaginam laxant; tamen in univerfem debet prima venus cruenta effe, eoque’figno pudor virgineus adferi, cum: vix poffit plena venus obtineri, quin fuperior margo partis ma- joris hymenis laceratur. Quare et mofaice leges, et mul- torum populorum confuetudo, hoc fignum fervate cailitatis et requirunt et oltentant, et de exemplis in virginibus etiam pene trigenartis certus fum, que infignem in prima venere fanguinis jaéturam funt pafiz.’’ Elem. Phyfiol. lb. 28, feé&.2, §—27. E After the hymen has been torn, the entrance of the vagina prefents fome flefhy prominent tubercles, called carunculz myrtiformes, and varying in number and fize. Thefe are generally confidered to be the remains of the lacerated mem- brane; “‘ et corrupte adeo pudicitie indicia.?” The caruncule are generally largeft at the fides of the vagina, where the hymen is narroweit ; fo that all thefe prominences cannct well be referred to the ‘origin juft mentioned. Some are found behind the hymen, and exiit previoufly to the laceration of that membrane: thefe are the prominent, obtufe, and callous apices of the columns of the vagina. ~ Laitly, there are projections at the termination of the mu= cous ducts, which may be enumerated among thefe carun- cule: and warts are fometimes formed in this fituation. Whatever their ezigin may be, we find from twe to five or fix rounded and firm, or thin and loofe prominences, of a. red or livid colour, about the entrance of the vagina. The frenulum, or fourchette, is a cutaneous feld of a cref— cent fhape, with the concavity upwards, placed behind and below the entrance of the vagina, vifible m the virgin fate, when the fides of the vulva are drawn apart, but not well” marked when the parts are collapfed. It lies between the two labia, not quite at the lower extremities, and is ex-. tended almoft to the nymphz, protectmg in fome degree the entrance of the vagina. It is near to the hymen, which it refembles in fome refpe€ts.. The a& of copulation does not injure it, but repeated parturitions entirely efface it. AL very manifeft traniverfe cavity, named the fofla navicularis,. is intercepted between the frenulum, the hymen, and the. labia ; and this cavity is loft of courfe when the frenulum.. difappears, fo that it may not be recognizable in married. women. “ bein s A mucous membrane, by which the genital and urinary organs are united in the female, is continued over all the parts contained in the vulva, and even forms many of them. It arifes on the loofe convex edges of the labia, and at their commiffures 3 covers the internal furface of thefe folds, the {pace below their anterior commiffure, and the foffa navi- cularis, then forms the nymphez and preputium clitoridis, covers the veftibulum, is continuous with the lining of the urethra, and with that of the vagina, after forming the hymen or caruncule myrtiformes. It is connected to the fubjacent parts by a copious and loofe cellular texture, im which, generally fpeaking, there is very little fat. Its: colour is of a tolerably bright red in young women; but it affumes darker fhades in more advanced ages, particularly. when the fexual funétions have been much exercifed. The texture of the integuments changes gradually into thismu- cous furface, fo that there is no abrupt line of diftinGtion,. and an epidermis can be diftin@tly dementirated at its origin. The colour proves that it is copioufly fupplied with blood. The membrane is foft on its furface, and plentifully bedewed- with a mucous fluid, poured out from {mall tubes, which commence by open orifices, and run into the fubftance of the membrane, where they terminate by cul-de-facs.. Thefe,. which are called. lacunz, are fimilar to what we have de- _ feribed. GENERATION, {eribed in the male urethra, and they have‘been very minutely inveitigated by Haller. He defcribes fome fmall ones, to the number of feven or eight, between the clitoris and ure- thra; and others conliderably larger, on each fide of the urethra, admitting a fine probe for the length of fome lines. There are alfo two or three large lactine on each fide of the vagina, admitting briltles for half an inch or more. Nothing of a glandular itruéture can be detected about thefe parts ; the lacune feem to produce the mucus here as in the male urethra. Thefe parts, together with other lacune fituated in the urethra, are the fources of the fluid by which the female organs are Inbricated : the circumftances, under which it is effufed, are thus mentioned by Haller; ‘¢ mucus, quam feminz in venerem ardentes profundunt, aut in coitu, aut a turpi fri€tione, aut demum, nam reperiuntur mulieres ejus nature, ad confpéétum formofi amatique juvenis.’’ lem. phyfiol. lib. 28. p. 88. ; if This membrane enjoys a high degree of fenfibility, and appears in part to be the feat of that peculiar modification of fenfation experienced in coition. Its extraordinary dila- tation in parturition, and the recovery of its former lize, fhew that it poffefles extentibility and contractility. Sometimes the labia are united at their convex edges, and the urine efcapes by a {mall opening towards their upper end. The line of feparation can be ealily recognized in fuch a eafe, and a very flight incifion is fufficient to bring the parts to their ordinary flate. ‘The nymphe may be fimilarly cir- cumttanced. We have mentioned already, that the women of hot coun- tries generally have large nymphe ; it would not be right to pafs unnoticed the peculiarity of formation afcribed to the Hottentot women. ‘Travellers have related that the fexual organs are covered, in thefe females, by a natural kind of apron, #. e. by an extenfion of the fin from the pubes. ‘Ten Rhyne, who had opportunities of perfonal obfervation, ex- plains the fact by an unufually large fize of the nymphx (de promontorio bone fpei, p. 33.); but this does not agree with the ftatement of Le Vaillant, who feems to have taken confiderable pains to afcertain the truth. He reprefents it as an enlargement of the labia, produced by artificial means, from a whimfical notion of beauty. ‘ Thefe organs,’’ fays he, ‘may be extended to the length of nine inches, according to the age of the individual, or the perfeverance with which fhe endeavours to bring to perfection this very fingular per- fonal decoration. I {aw a young girl, fifteen years old, in whom they were already four inches lorg. They are brought to that fize by rubbing and drawing them, which is the beginning of the procefs; the affair is completed by fufpending weights from the parts. I have faid that it is a peculiar taite, a “range kind of whim ; in the horde, where I was, there were only four women, and the young girl, whom [have juit-mentioned, in this ridiculous ftate.”’ ‘Phe account given by Mefirs. Peron and Lefucur, in a memoir addrefled to the national inflitute, feems to differ fomewhat from the {tatement of Le Vaillant, but this perhaps arifes only from the mode of defcription. They fay that the part is an appendage of the labia, 8.5 centimetres in length in an adult, adhering above, where it is narroweft, to the fuperior commiflure of the labia, in front of the clitoris, and divided imto two lobes, which, approximated to each other, cover the vulva. It confifts of a foft, wrinkled, and very ex- tenfile fkin, entirely free from hair, rather redder than the re{t of the integuments, and fufceptible of corrugation, like the ferotum of man.” (Cuvier, tom. 5. p.125.) Steller mentions fome peculiarity, fimilar to that of the Hottentots, in the Kamtfchatkan women. See his Befchreibung~ von Kamtkhatkan, p. 300. The internal Organs of Generation.—The vagina, or canalis uteri, is a membranous canal, extending with a very flight ob- hquity from below upwards, and from before backwards, from the vulva to the neck of the uterus. Its anterior pofi- tion is nearly tranfverfe ; the pofterior afcends towards the uterus. It hes in the middle of the inferior aperture of the pelvis, between the urethra and bladder, which are in front of it, and the rectum which is behind. The ordinary length of the canal is from five te fix inches, and the breadth one inch ; “but as it is ve y extenfile, thefe dimenfions are fubje& to change. It is narrower, but at the fame time longer in the virgin, than in married women; during parturi- tion its fize is equal to that of the child’s head; it is very capacious after delivery, fo as to be three inches in diarneter ; but it foon regains its previous fize, never however returning to the narrownefs of the virgin ftate. Its form is nearly cylindrical, but formewhat flattened towards its anterior ex- tremity. It is lightly bent towards the pubes; its two ex- tremities are obliquely truncated, fo that the anterior fur- face is fhorter than the pofterior. We fhall defcribe in it an external and an internal furface, and two extremities. The external furface may be divided into an anterior, a polterior, and two lateral regions. The anterior, floping upwards and flightly concave, correfponds to the bladder and urethra, being connected to the former by a loofe cellular texture, and very intimately united with the latter by a denfe and firm fubilance. above and behind downwards and forwards, is gently con- vex, and correfponds to the reCtum ; its fuperior halt, bane covered by the peritoneum, is imply contiguous to the intef- tine ; while the inferior part, poffefling no {uch covering, is conneéted to the inteftine by cellular fubftance. This con- necting medium is much loofer above than below ; and in the latter fituation it is difficult to feparate the two organs without cutting one or the other. ‘he lateral regions are narrower than the parts jutt defcribed, and furrounded by much cellular fubftance. "They correfpond to the ureters, to the plexus formed by the blood-veflels of the uterus and va~ gina, and below to the levatores ani. The internal furface of the organ prefentsa vaft number of folds and promi- nences, which make it irregular throughout. Thele callous rugofities exhibit a moft elegant arrangement in the foetus and in the virgin ; they are confufed and partially obliterated by parturition, but are very foon reftorec, ant may often be very diflin@ly cbferved even in old women. In fome fubjects, however, the whole vagina 1s nearly fmooth. The half of the-canal next to the uterus contains the feweft and leaft remarkable irregularities ; the folds here are foft, moftly tranfverfe, but fometimes partly oblique. Thefe promi- nences are jagged laminz, ending in a thin edge, turned to- wards the opening of the vagina, differing in fize and va- rioufly interwoven with each other. On the anterior half of the canal are raifed two prominent columns; an anterior and a poiterior one. hefe are befet with hard and nearly cartilaginous warty prominences, clo‘ely arranged, of a roundith figure, and circumicribed by grgaves. ‘The ante- rior column is the largell, and correfponds to the orifice of the urethra. Frequently this is bifid towards the front, and its two portions, joined by tranfverfe ruge, end in the hy- men, ‘The front end of this column fometimes projects like a papilla at the orifice of the vagina. ‘I'he pofterior finaller column is exaétly oppofite to the anterior, and correfponds to the rectum ; fometimes it is hardly diftincuifhable. 'Vhis ends alfo in the hymen, and in fome initances projects an- teriorly like the anterior column, but lefs contiderably. From each of thefe columns, hard, cartilaginous, tranfverfe or oblique folds are extended; they projeét downwards, G2 have The poiterior region, floping from GENERATION. have a jagged edge, and are mixed with verruce and other lefs prominent laminz in various direGtions. Between the ltwo columns is a reticulated furface, formed from the tranf- verfe productions. The ufe of this firucture does not fcem very obvious. It may poffibly facilitate the dilatation of the organ. ae Voluptatemn et ateritum augere crederes, mili In uteri cervice fimiles valvule redirent. Arétant tamen emi- nendo vaginam; et inferior columna parti glandis frenulo vicine occurrit. Senfilem. vaginam etianr facere credas, que ob has valvulas et ipfa magis confricetur. Infenfilem tamen fuiffe lego.” Haller, Elem. Phyfiol. lib. 28. All the generative apparatus abounds with mucus, and this moifture is abvioufly convenient in many of the functions of the part. In the foetus it appears as a whitifh milky kind of fluid; and it isa true mucus in the adult. The fluor albus and gonorrhoea feem to be merely a difeafed ftate of this fecretion. Round livid {pots are frequently obferved on the fmooth part of the vagina, -near the uterus; their caufe and nature are unknown. Numerous pores are ob- fervable among-the folds and ruge of the vagina. Enutta- chius*noticed finufes in the membrane; 7. e. tolerably large flits, fometimes ramified, and containing mucus. No glands ean be difcovered in the organ. The fuperior extremity of the vagina is united to the in- ferior part of the neck of the uterus. It embraces the lat- ter organ obliquely, fo that the anterior furface of the vagina is nearer to the os uteri, and the pojterior is more re- mote from it ; and the vacuity between the vagina and the neck of the uterus extends higher behind than before. The inferior extremity occupies the lower and pofterior portion of the vulva, in front of the anus, and ends there by the orifice which we have already defcribed. The fides of the vagina poffefs confiderable thicknefs and ftrength. The upper half of its pofterior furface is covered by peritoneum. ‘The chief fubftance of the canal is a thick, clofe, and firm texture of a greyifh colour, poffeffing large veffels, and having fibres in various directions, fo as to give it fomewhat of a mufcular appearance. It appears to be continuous above with the fubitance of the uterus. Below it is fur- rounded by a kind of corpus cayernofum, of about an inch in breadth, and two lines in thicknefs, compofed apparently of veins, and called the plexus retiformis. A determination takes place to this part at the time of copulation, and it experiences a kind of {welling analogous to erection. On the whole, the membrane of the vagina is not fo thick, as the diftention which it experiences in parturition might lead us to expect. Excepting where it is covered by the perito- neum, and by the plexus retiformis, the furface 1s furrounded by a copious cellular fubftance, containing many vafcular ramifications. The vital properties of the fides of the vagina are not well underftood. Some afcribe to it a contractile power, exercifed, as it is faid, in coition, and felt by the hand when introduced in the proceffes of midwifery. The phenomena of parturi- tion fhew that it poffeffes ina high degree the powers of ex- tenfion and fubfequent contraétion. The internal furface of the canal is lined by a mucous membrane, to which the peculiar tiffue of the vagina already mentioned adheres very clofely. It is continuous with the membrane of the vulva; and, after lining the vagina, is ex~- tended over that portion of the cervix uteri, which projects into the canal, and communicates, at the os tincz, with the lining of the uterus. This mucous lining forms all the ine- qualities already defcribed ; it is thicker near the vulva, and grows manifeftly thinner towards the uterus. At the en- trance of the canal it has a red colour, which. changes farther-into a grey or whitifh caft, diverfified near the cervix uteri by the livid fpots already mentioned, which give it a marbled appearance. The almoft cartilaginous hardnefs of the membrane in fome parts is peculiar to the vagina, as well as the permanent folds in its ftruéture ; in other mucous mem- branes the inequalities are occafioned by fome external caufe, and difappear by extenfion. Some anatomifts aferibe an epidermis to the vagina; but this point is doubtful. The organs, by which its mucous fluid is fecreted, have been already mentioned. The place of the accelerator urine of the male fubjeét is occupied in the female by the /phin@er vagine, which covers the plexus retiformis. It defcends on each fide from the body of the clitoris, behind the erector ; furrounds the an- terior extremity of the vagina, immediately behind the’la- bium, where it pofleffes confiderable breadth, and terminates below, on each jide, in the lateral fibres of the fphinéter ani. It mu{t have the power of contraCting the front orifice of the vagina. The arteries of the vagina come from the internal iliac ¢ its veins join the venous plexus, which furrounds the canal. The lymphatics are not well known; the nerves come front the facral trunks. The werus is the organ in which the foetus and its coverings: are contained until the time of parturition. It is almoit always fingle ; in fome rare cafes there have been two uteri There is fome variety in thefe inftances ; either there may be two uteri and two vagine ; or a fingle vagina divided by a feptum in its whole length, or only inits upper half; or one of the uteri may open into the rectum, and the other into- the vagina. In fome cafes the uterus is divided internally by a longitudinal feptum, either confined to the neck, or prolonged to the orifice of the vagina. Sometimes the uterus is altogether deficient. A vaft number of references to au- thors who have related examples of all the above-mentioned unufual formations may be feen in Voigtel’s Pathologifche Anatomic, b. ili. p. 452—456- : ‘This organ is fituated in the pelvis, behind the urinary- bladdew, before the re&tum, below the convolutions of the ilium, and above the vagina. Its fituation is oblique, the fundus being placed upwards and rather backwards, the neck downwards, and flightly inelined forwards. Twos broad folds of peritoncum, named the ligamenta lata uteri, fix it to the fide of the pelvis. Other ligaments affift in: maintaining this vifcus in its fituation; wiz. the round, the: anterior, and the pofterior ligaments. The broad Hgaments extend from the fides of the uterus to the fides of the containing eavity. Together with the uterus they form a complete tran{verfe partition, dividing: the pelvis into an anterior and a pofterior cavity, of which- the former and fmalleft contains the urinary bladder, the latter and Jargeft, the reCtum. Thefe ligaments are flat-- tened from before backwards and quadrilateral. Their two» furfaces are fmooth, and unattached; the anterior being turned direétly forwards, towards the bladder,. the pofterior direétly backwards, towards the retum.. The upper edge is: divided into two prominent lines ;: of which the anterior and higheft contains the Fallopian tube, the polterior, the ovary and its ligament.. The three other margins are adherent ;, the inferior, to the lower part of the pelvis ;. the external, to. the fide of the cavity ; and the internal to the lateral margin of the uterus, peritoneum, between which are placed the veifels and nerves of the.uterus, the ovaria and their ligaments, the Fallopian, tubes, and fome cellular fubftance.. They fix the uterus in. its fituation, and give it a covering, in proportion as it in-- creafes in fize during pregnancy ; they confequently become much narrower at.the time; in the latter months, sg vi 4 ‘ Thefe ligaments are formed by.two layers of - GENERATION. they are almoft entirely effaced, fo that the tubes and ovaries, which they contained before the enlargement of the uterus, are now applied immediately to the lateral and inferior parts of the uterus, in confequence of the manner in which this organ has feparated the two layers of peritoneum. The anterior ligaments are two {mall folds formed by the peritoneum, as it is reflected from the back of the bladder to the front of the uterus. They are vifible only when the two vifcera are feparated from each other, and they appear under the form of crefcents, with the con- cavities direGted upwards. The pofterior ligaments are two other folds of the fame membrane, where it is conti- nued from the back of the uterus to the rectum. They refemble’ the former in every re{peét. The round ligaments are two whitifn cords, extended from the upper angles. of the uterus, in front and rather below the Fallopian tubes, to the groins. They pafs firft outwards and rather upwards, in the broad ligaments, on the front furtace of which they form a remarkable prominence, they then pafs on the inner furface of the iltac veffels, behind the peritoneum, to the upper opening of the abdominal ring. ‘They traverfe that canal in a direction obliquely. downwards and_ inwards, juft as the fpermatic cord docs in the male fubjet, and efcape at the lower orifice. ‘They then feparate into feve- ral threads, which are loft in the cellular fubftance of the mons yeneris and labia. Thefe ligaments. are flightly flattened in their whole extent, and broader at their two extremities, than in the middle. They are arched, fo as to defcribe altogether a femicircle. The round Hgaments are compofed of longitudinal fibres, coniifting apparently only of a denfe cellular tiffue, very flightly filcepeible of extention, of blood-veffels and lym- phatics, and nerves. As they are fwelled in pregnancy, and in fome affections of the uterus, this circumitance has been employed to explain the pains in the groins experienced hy females on fuch occafions. They con- tribute to fix the uterus in its pofition, and to hmit its mations. . The ligaments, which we have juft particularized, are fo difpofed, as to allow to the uterus, in its natural ftate, acertain degree of mobility. Hence its fituation may be flightly changed in all the confiderable motions of the abdominal vifcera in general; coming to the ground on the feet with much force, a violent exertion in raifing a con- fiderable weight, a deep, forcible, and long continued in- fpiration, all tend to force the uterus downwards into the vagina, and thereby to produce the affection termed pro- fapfus or defcent of, the uterus. Diftention of the bladder, or of the rectum, occafions changes in the pofition of the uterus. But age and pregnancy produce the moft fignal effects in the pofition of this organ. In an adult and unimpregnated female, its length is about 21 inches, its thicknefs one inch, its breadth at the fundus x4 or 2 inches, and at the cervix about 10 lines. Although jt returns after parturition to its original fize, it never becomes again fo {mall as it was in the virgin. Its figure on the whole is triangular, with the bafe upwards, and the apex downwards, and flattened from before backwards. It is divided into two parts, afuperior and broader, named the body ;. an inferior: and narrower, called the neck. The body of the uterus is nearly oval externally, with the greatett diameter tranfyerfe.. We obferve init at anterior and. a pofterior furface, a fuperior, an inferior, and two lateral fides. The anterior furface, flightly convex, flopes gently downwards and forwards,.and correfponds to the bladder, The pofterior; more convex, is inclmed in the fame di- rection, and is contiguous to the rectum. The fuperior edge, which is named the fundus, and which extends from oné Fallopian tube to the other, is gently convex, and fup- ports the convolutions of the {mall inteftine. At the ends of this upper edge angles are formed between the furdus and the lateral fides of the vifcus. To thefe angles of the uterus the round ligaments, the Fallopian tubes, and the ligaments of the ovaries are attached. The inferior edge, much fhorter than the fuperior, is continuous with the neck of the organ; and indeed the line of feparation is imaginary. The lateral fides are very fhort, flightly con- vex, and converging: they give attachment to the broad ligaments, and are concealed by them. The neck of the uterus refembles a cylinder, flightly flattened from before backwards, and continued down- wards from the body. Its long axis is perpendicular to the tran{verfe diameter of the body. We defcribe in it an an- terior and pofterior furface, two lateral margins, and a fupe- rior and inferior extremity. The two furtaces are convex and {mooth; the former correfponds to the bladder, and the latter to the retum. To the fides, which are itraight, the broad ligaments are attached. ‘The fuperior extre- mity is continuous with the body of the organ; the in- ferior is obliquely embraced by the vagina, in which it projects, more confiderably on the interior than on the poiterior part.. This extremity is perforated by an oval opening, with its long diameter placed tranfverfely, named the os uteri, os internum, or os tince. The latter name has been given to it from a comparifon to the mouth of the tench; the end of the uterus is obtufe, and as the aperture is tranfverfe, there is fome refemblance to two thick lips. In a newly born child, the length of the open- ing is two lines; in a girl of twenty years, three lines; in women, who have had children, five to eight lines. The orifice is always naturally gaping, but it is more or lefs fo, in proportion as women have had many children, or none. Inftead of being exaétly in the middle it is rather behind ; fo that the anterior lip of the orifice is the thicket. That portion of the cervix uteri, which projects into the vagina, and forms the os tincz, is about four or five lines long in front, and rather more behind: it meafures about eight or nine lines tranfverfely, and fix or eight from before backwards, being flightly flattened in that diretion. This part of the uterus is fometimes much longer and thicker, without any difplacement of the organ, or {welling of its neck. In women who have had many children, the neck of the uterus is generally thicker, and more rounded. Its orifice is almoft always very gaping, and the lips more or lefs irregular, prefenting generally one or more grooves or chops, feparated by a kind of tubercles. The os uteri may however be as regular in its figure in women who have had children, as in others: and, on the contrary, it may prefent in the latter thofe irregularities which are more ufual inthe former. Hence the” inferences drawn from the ftate of this part, in inftances where infanticide is fuf- pected, or where parturition is fuppofed to have been concealed, are very liable to uncertainty. The cavity of the uterus is proportionate to the bulk of the organ when it is empty ; the parietes are contiguous, and leave between them no farther vacuity than iuffices to hold a little mucous fluid. In this hollow the menftrual difcharge flows, and the produce of conception is received. It is divided into two parts, one belonging to the body, the other to the neck of the organ. Of thefe, the former is the largeft: its figure is nearly triangular, efpecially when the uterus has experienced no alteration in its bulk, We have to notice in it an anterior and.a polterior furface, three edges and three angles. The two furfaces are fmooth and contiguous to each other. On each of them a flightly prominent longitudinal line may be obferved, dividing GENERATION. divt'ing them into equal right and left parts. Of the three margins one is fuperior, and two lateral: they are flightly concave, particularly in women, who have had many children. The fuperior, which makes the bafis of the tri- angle, and is continued fram one Fallopian tube to the other, is ufually the fhorteft : fometimes, however, it is the longeft. Of the three angles, tyo are {uperior, and one inferior. The former may be confidered as two flender appendages of the cavity, terminating at the Fallopian tubes. The inferior angle prefents an opening of about four lines in extent, communicating with the cavity of the The cavit cervix. ity of the body of the uterus is lined by a mucous “membrane, on which the veffels that furnifh the menfirual bleod terminate. The cavity of the ‘cervix uteri is a kind of canal, flat- tened from before backwards, and mere capacious at the middle than at the two extremities ; fo that it has the figure of two cones, joined by their bates. Such is the figure which it conftantly exhibits in women who have never borne children ; but, from the time of conception, that ex- tremity of the canal, which opens into the yagina, is dilated ; and aiter parturition has once taken place, it is always found much wider than before. It then reprefents a cone, with the bafis towards the vagina, and the apex towards the uietus. The cavity of the cervix uteri has an anterior and potterior furface, and a fuperior and inferior orifice. A great nitmber of hard, and as it were callous rugofities, differently difpofed in different fubjeGts, may be obferved on each of the furfaces. In order to fee their arrangement to advantage, the uterus of a newly-born child, or of one not’ very old, fhould be feleéted. They will then be obferved in at& arborefcent form (arbor Morgagni) on each furface. A hard ridge extends along the middle of each furface, and ends above ina flattened point, which is often continued with-the line dividing the correfponding furface of the body of the uterus. The inferior end is prolonged to the os tince. From this kind of trunk lamine are extended laterally on each fide; the fuperior ones forming nearly half right angles, and the inferior more open angles. The number of thefe plates may amount to about 15. They are continued outwards, deferibmg a curve, of which the convexity is always towards the uterus, and the concavity towards the vagina. heir margin is grooved, except to- wards the outer end, which is fmooth. The breadth -of the laminz diminifhes infenfibly, and they difappear on the fides of the cavity, where the anterior and polterior ones are confufed with each other. The fuperior are broader than the inferior. Thefe laminz are not fimple, they pro- duce other fmaller ones. More or lefs deep grooves fepa- rate the plates from each other: in the bottom of thefe are obferved fimall eminences, like the teeth of a comb, pafling from one lamina to another. The difpofition of thefe wrinkles is regularly fuch as we have defcribed in newly-born infants; but, when the cervix uteri is enlarged in pregnancy, the eminences are flattened, aad the whole ftruéture is confufed ; this is {till more re- tharkably the cafe juit after parturition ; the laminz are then neatly deftroyed, and the arboreicent appearance almott entirely effaced. The fuperior opening of the cavity communicates with that of tie body, fo that they form indeed but one. ‘The infer:or has been alxeady defcribed under the name of os tincz. In the cervix uteri we may notice the openings of nume- rous lacune or fhor: duéts ending in cul-de-fzes, concealed among the rugofities already defcribed, Mof of thefe aye {mall; fome are larger and longer. There are fix or- thicker in the middle than ‘towards the angles. feven juft above the os tincw, the fundus of which is to- wards the inferior end of the uterus. Thefe are large, and receive the terminations of feveral fmaller ones. They are filled with a mucous fluid, which can be fqueezed out, and they will often admit of a fine briitle for a certain length. They are beft feen in a woman who has juit been delivered, or who has died in the latter periods of utero-geftation ; the prominences being flattened, the lacune are more expofed. Thefe organs fecrete the mucous fluid, with which the cervix uteri is moiftened. We fee alfo fometimes in this cavity a confiderable number of round “or oblong, larger or fmaller fellicles, formed of a thin membrane, filled with a clear mucous fluid, and not poffefling any excretery duét. They adhere to the trunk or branches of the arborefcent ttrvéture already defcribed, and their number is not conftant. Somes times they are half buried in the fubftance of the uterus, fometimes they are completely ifolated, and held only by a pedicle. Their nature and ufe are not known. Probably they are one fource of the mucous fecretions of the part althcugh we cannot explain how the fecreted fluid is evacuated. 4 ‘ The thicknefs of the fides of the uterus varies from four or fix lines to fifteen ; but it is not uniform in all parts of the organ. [It is much the fame on the furfaces and edges. The fundus is generally the thickeit; and this is The neck is rather thinner than the body. The fubftance of the organ is of a greyifh colour, anda firm confiftence, efpecially towards the neck, which is more compact than the reft of the organ. It confifts of an external membrane, of a proper tiflue, of an internal membrane, of arteries, veins, lymphatics, and nerves. : : ~The external membranous covering is contributed by the peritoneum, which is refle€ted from the pofterior furface of the bladder over the uterus, of which it covers the anterior furface, the fundus, and the pofterior furface, is continued to the upper half of the potierior furface of the vagina, and is rcHeéted from that vifcus tothe retum. It adheres every where to the proper tiffue of the ute*us by means of a very fine and clofe cellular texture, without any fat. It,ie yery difficultly feparable, particularly at the fundus. _ The proper tiffue forms nearly the whole thicknefs of the organ. Itis agreyifh, denfe, and very compact fubitance, very refifting to the fcalpel or f{ciflars, cutting almof like cartilage, and containing numerous {mall veflels. This fub-— ftance, whichappears cellular, fpongy, and to contain fluids, is manifeflly fibrous: but the order and arrangement of .the component fibres cannot abfolutely be determined in the un- impregnated flate, on account of their being fo inextrica- bly interwoven: ‘hey are paler and more condenfed in the cervix than in other fituations, where they are fofter and more red. Although in the empty ftate of the organ thefe fibres have fearcely any of the characiers of muicularity, their nature feems to be fufficiently pointed out by the con< traétile powers which they exhibit in parturition. oe The external membrane of the uterus is continuous on one fide with the mucous lining of the vagina; and gives origin, on the other, to two prolongations, which enter ~ into the Fallopian tubes. it is extremely thin, and: fo clofely united to the proper tiffue of the organ, thatit feems to form one fubftance with it. It is reddifh in the body of the uterus, and whiter inthe neck. It is perforate ed by an infinite number of pores, which are merely the ex= tremities of exhaling veffels, and give iffue to the menftrual: difcharge. ; : Appendages of the Uterus.—Under this name are included _ I th ~GENERATION. the round ligaments which have been already defcribed, the evaries, and the Fallopian tubes. The Fallopian ov uterine tubes are two (a right and left) conical, tortueus, and vermiform canals, arifing from the fu- perior and lateral parts of the uterus. They float loofely in the cavity of the pelvis, being enveloped in the upper and anterior edge of the broad ligament, and fixed by their inner extremities. Their length is four or five inches ; and the direction of their courfe very uncertain: it may be {tated in general that they go tranfverfely outwards, and that they bend backwards at their outer ends, fo as to turn towards the ovaries. But, as they are in great meafure laofe, and as the edge of the broad ligament reftrains them but flightly, the inteftines, when diftended with air or aliment, may dif- place them in different direCtions. The calibre of the tube is fo narrow towards the uterus, that the orifice by which it communicates with this vifcus will only admit a hog’s briftle. It enlarges gradually to the middle, where it is flightly con- tracted, and dilates again to terminate by an aperture which communicates with the cavity of the abdomen. ‘The tube is confiderably broader at its end than at the uterus, but ra- ther narrower than in the portion immediately preceding. The internal membrane of the tube, together with the ex- ternal, which is formed of peritoneum, is produced to fome leneth beyond this orifice, and forms round it a fringed and radiated kind of ornament, called the fimbriz (pavillon de la trompe ; morceau frangé). When this part is examin- ed in water, it has a very beautiful appearance, and feems compofed of {mall feparate leaves, like fome flowers. The breadth of this membranous fringe is not equal at all parts : its circumference has fomewhat of an oval figure. All the portions into which it is divided are not of the fame length : the longeft extends to the ovary, and is firmly fixed to its outer extremity, fo that the fringed end of the tube is con- ftantly retained near to that body. The fimbrie are con- ceived to poffefsa mufcular ftructure. The Fallopian tube is compofed: 1ft. Of an external membrane, furnifhed by the peritoneum, which covers. it-as it does the inteftines; 2. Of an internal, foft and pulpy membrane, the furface of which prefents every where more or lef{s prominent longitudinal lines, confidered by fome authors to be mufcular fibres. Indeed the office of the tubes feems to re- quire the exiftence of contractile fibres in their compofition ; 3. OF a fpongy tiffue, compared to that of the urethra and corpus cavernofum, but the real nature of which is not un- deritood. Wery numerous blood-veffels are diftributed in this fubftance, which appears to {well and experience ‘a kind of erection in the act of copulation: in confeqnence of this the fimbriz are applied to the furface of the ovary ; 4. Of blood-yvefels, derived from the fpermatic arteries and veins, of lymphatics, and nerves furnifhed by the renal plexufes. That the office of the tubes is immediately connected with the bufinefs of generation, and that they convey the germ from the oyarium to the uterus, cannot be doubted: but we do not underftand how they execute thisfunétion. We may obferve that they form a communication between the uterine cavity and that of the abdomen: and, as the former commu- nicates externally through the medium of the vagina, the ferous membrane of the abdomen has thus a continuity with the furface of the body :—a circumftance that is obferved in no other in{tance. The ovaries, called by the ancients the female tefticles, are two oblong, flattened, and whitifh bodies, placed at the polterior furface of the broad ligaments, in which they are included. ‘They nearly equal the fize of {mall pigeons’ eggs an theadult ; but their fattened form gives them a different figure. ‘Vheir long diameter is placed tranfverfely. . They prefent two furfaces, two edges, and two extremities. Th? furfaces and the upper edge are loofe, and prefent nothing remarkable except flight tubercular rifings. The inferior margin adheres to the poiterior edge of the broad ligament. The external extremity is connected to the longelt of the Fallopian fimbriz ; and the ligament of the ovary is attach- ed to the internalend. ‘This lizament is a {mall fibrous cord, about 14 inch leng, contained in the pofterior part of the broad ligament, and fixed to the angle of the uterus behind the Fallopian tube. Some old anatomilts regarded it asa canal deftined to convey into the uterus the iemen, which they fuppofed to be fecreted by the ovaries ; but it is in reali- ty a folid fafciculus, fimilar in its nature to the round liga- ment, and having no other office than that of fixing the ova- rium inits place. Yet the latter organ poffefles confiderable mobility ; its fituation in the broad ligament, which is itfelf moveable, gives it a power of motion. ‘The inteftines and the urinary bladder may inake it change its pofition; and we know that it has fometimes been contained in a rupture. The ovaria are compofed; 1ft. Of an external membrane, derived from the peritoneum forming the broad ligament ; 2. Of a proper membrane, of a white colour, and firm fibrous texture, hardly feparable from the proper tiffue of the organ ; 3. Cfa flefhy fubfltance, which is denfe on the outfide, more foft on the infide, where it is greyifh, and in. fome degree cellular and fpongy. In this fubftance are lodged fome fmall, roundifh veficles, amounting in number to between fifteen andtwenty. Scarcely vifible im mnfancy ; thefe are very apparent in adult and fruitfal women. Ge- nerally, in old women, thefe velicles are no longer vilible, and their place is occupied by hardifh tubercles. » The vefi- cles are not all of the fame fize : thoie which are near the fur- face of the organ are as large as hemp-feeds; while the others, being more deeply feated, are confiderably {maller. Thefe bodies are placed in the ceilular or fpongy. fubitance of the ovary, in which they may_be faid tobe enchafed ; but they form for the moft part fmall prominences under the ex- ternal membrane. Others are completely. elevated on. the furface of the organ, and others again are concealed in the interior. They are not fufpended by flalks, ‘nor: do) they form any particular cells different from the cellular matter compriling the parenchyma of the ovary.’ They were very particularly defcribed by De Graaf, and have ‘often been. called, after him, ova, or ovula Graafiana. They are gene- rally regarded as fo many germs, or rudiments. of new beings. They are compofed of a fimple and very thin mem- brane, {mooth internally, and containing a clear, fometimes yellow or reddifh liquor, coagulable by heat and alcohol, and forming white threads, like the albumen of anegg. The arteries of thefe parts are derived from two fources ;; viz. the fpermatic branches of the aorta, and the uterine branches of the internal iliacs. The former are more tor- tuous than the correfponding veffels in the male ; they pads between the two layers of peritoneum, which forin the broad ligaments, and are chiefly diftributed to the ovaries. But they fend numerous ramifications to the Fallopian tubes ; others to the fides of the uterus, and fome along the round. ligaments, which communicate with fmall branches of the epi- gattrics. ‘he chiefarteries of the uterusare the uterine branches of the internal iliac trunks; the right and left. This artery firth runs downwards, then turns up at the neck of the uterus, and enters between the layers of the» broad ligament. It gives large branches to the vagina, then runs. along the fide of the uterus, trom the neck towards the fundus, pro- ducing numerousarteries, whichramify overthe organ in every dire€tion. ‘hefe have a tortuous courfe, and communicate freely with each other, and with thofe of the oppefite fide. Some: GENERATION. Some afcend tothe upper edge of the broad ligament, are diftributed in the Fallopian tube and round ligament, and communicate with the fpermatic. The veins, like the arteries, may be referred to two divi- fions ; the fpermatic and uterine. -Numerous branches come from the uterus, ovary, and Vallopian tube, and form a large venous plexus in the upper part of the broad ligament ; under the name of corpus pampmiforme, this afcends to- wards the loins, and terminates in forming a fingle vein, which has the fame termination in the male fubject. A great number of venous ramifications accompany the arte- ries all over the vifcus, but are in general lefs tortuous. They communicate freely with the fpermatics. They form a large plexus running along the fide of the uterus, with the uterine artery, and end in one or more confiderable venous trunks, which join the internal iliac. The uterus poffeffes numerous lymphatic veflels, which are divided into three orders : one of thefe afcends with the round ligaments, and goes to the inguinal glands ; another joins thofe of the vagina, and pafles to the pelvic glands ; and the third, together with thofe of the ovary and tube, ’ afcends with the {fpermatic veffels, to terminate at the glands in front of the aorta and vena cava near the kidneys. The nerves come from the great fympathetic (the hy- pogattric and fpérmatic plexufes), and from the, facral pairs. Vital Properties of the Uterus. —Until the period of impreg- nation, this organ feems to poffefs only that modification of fenfibility and contractility, which are neceflary for the pur- pofes of nutrition, and the menftrual evacuation. It feems doubtful whether or no it is endowed with animal fenfibility - in its healthy ftate. It has been imagined, and afferted, that the contaét of the glans penis with the os tince, in copulation, is one fource of the phytical fenfation experienced by the fe- male on that occafion: this we conceive to be problematical. Haller flates, that a wound of this organ by a leaden bullet produced very violent fymptoms; wz. repeated faintings, and {peedy death. It muft be doubtful how far this could be referred to the uterus merely, as much other injury muft have been infli€ted in fuch a cafe. Animal fenfibility is cer- tainly developed inthe uterus by difeafe, whether it exift in the natural ftateorno. The fame ebfervations may be ap- plied to the vital properties of the Fallopian tubes and the ovaries. However obfcurely the vitality of thefe organs may be exhibited, when not immediately engaged in the ex- ercife of their important funCtions, it is manifeited ina much more ftriking point of view by the fympathies_eftablifhed between them and other parts of the body. We have al- ready fhewn, that the removal of the ovaries at an early age entirely changes the fubfequent charaéters of the animal; affecting even the organization of the bony and mufcular parts of the frame. From the time of puberty, when the organs now under confideration acquire a fitnefs for exercif- ing their particular funétions, we fhall find that their condi- tion and various changes affect in the moft ftriking manner all the other vital phenomena of the female conititution. The previous fymptoms, the commencement and periodical returns of menftruation ; the firft impulfes of love; the change to a new temperament ; pregnancy and its various epochas ; parturition and its confequences ; laftly, the cefla- tion of the fexual life, and the fymptoms of the critical age, are fomany remarkable changes in the organization of the female, keeping up a conftant alternation of fuffering and difeafe, of lively impreffions, nervous and f{pafmodic affec- tions, the influence and general refult of which muit be carefully attended to in appretiating the nature of woman, and the part which fhe has to fill in fociety. When we con- fider thefe faéts, and refle&t that the inclinations, the appt- tites and taftes, in a word, all thofe qualities which imprefs the diftinGtive chara¢éter on any animal, flow from the con- formation and predominating influence of certain organs, and are modified by their degree of perfection, and the energy of their functions, we fhall have little hefitation in referring the peculiarities of the female frame and conftitutibn to the ac- tion of the generative organs taken altogether ; an opinion which is exprefled in a more limited way by Van Helmont, “ propter uterum folum, mulier eft id quod eft.”’ Developement of the female Organs of Generation—Thefe, like the correfponding parts in the male, are very early in their original formation ; but they grow lefs rapidly in pro- portion towards the latter periods of geftation. This muft be underftood of other internal parts; for the vulva, which beftows the ditindtive extérnal fexual charater, affumes a more decided figure towards the time of birth. From the various parts compofing it we mutt except the clitoris; for although it poffefs in a foetus at the full time a confiderable fize compared to its magnitude, when the formation of the generative apparatus is complete, it is neverthelefs much lefs developed at the time, in proportion, than at the third or fourth month: and we may obferve, in general, that it is more prominent in proportion as the fcetus is younger. Although the female organ prefent no phenomenon ana- logous to the defcent of the teftis in the male, the round liga- ment is fometimes accompanied by a {mall cul-de-fac of peri- toneum, fimilar to that which forms the tunica vaginalis. The exiitence of this canal was firft recognifed by Nuck, who called it a diverticulum, defcribed it as being about half an inch in length, and by no means conftant: (Adenographia curiofa, cap. 10. De peritonzi diverticulis novis.) The faé was quettioned by fome; but the fame circumftances have been obferved by other accurate anatomifts. Camper found the canal in'three out of fourteen newly born children: and Le Cat obferved, in a woman of 46, a canal of the fize of a goofe’s quill, leading through the ring into a {mall canal that would admit the finger. (Phil. Trans. v. 47.) Wrif- berg has particularly inveitigated thefe diverticula. In nine- teen out of two hundred female fubjeéts, he found an open- ing, generally on both fides, but fometimes on one only, lead- ing through the ring into the groin or labium, lined by pe- ritoneum, and placed over the round ligament. Thefe canals, in different initances, would admit a probe, a quill, or the finger. (De tefticulorum defcenfu, &c. in the Gottingen Commentaries for 1778.) We do not know that this canal is clofed before birth, asthe tunica vaginalis is in the male, nor that its exiftence in the adult at all favours the occurrence of hernia. At the time of birth, there is a confiderable proportion of fat under the integuments of the pubes; the labia are very well formed, and the clitoris is proportionally larger than it will be in the fequel. The latter circumftance, which is very fingular and unaccountable, has fometimes occafioned mis- takes in the fex of newly born children. The nymphe are fo broad as to exceed the level of the labia, and are remark- ably thick and long ; they do not in general end by a point, as in the adult, but by a rounded extremity. The foffa navi- cularis is large. ‘The entrance of the vagina, although the hymen exift conftantly at this time, is larger in relation to the diameter, which it prefents at puberty, when the parts have experienced no unnatural violence. The opening does not appear to participate in that developement which the reft of the vulva undergoes after birth. The vagina, confidera- bly advanced in its formation in comparifon with the uterus and its appendages, is particularly remarkable for its length. Its inner membrane, of which the rugofities are very well 5 marked, GENERATION. markéd, is nearly white, and does not exhibit thofe fucceffive fhades which, at a more advanced age, diftinguifh its orifice, its middle, and its pofterior_extremity. In the newly born child, and during the firft years of life, the uterus does not occupy the cavity of the pelvis: together with the ova- ria and tubes, it is placed above the fuperior aperture. At this time it is very {mall, and has a very different figure from what it prefents when perfecily developed. ‘he neck is larger and thicker than the body, which narrow, and elon- gated, has not the triangular figure. The parietes of both are thin, and the cavity very {mall. The tubes are propor- tionate in length to their future ftate. From birth till puberty, the generative organs of women experience {till fewer changes than thofe of men : yet they grow in proportion as the body encreafes ; and thofe, which at firft were remarkable for their fize, as the clitoris and nymphex, gradually lofe this diitinétion. The uterus ap- pears le{s elevated above the pubes, in proportionas the pelvis changes its form and proportions, and as the fuperior aper- ture becomes lefs inclined. It encreafes principally in breadth and thicknefs, but its growth is not very rapid. The changes which occur at the time of puberty, confidered in an anato- mical point of view, are not conliderable : there is a remark- able revolution in the vital powers of the generative fyttem, rather than any confiderable increafe of the organs. The internal parts, however, at this time, have acquired their eomplete fize, and the external organs become covered, in the fituations already particularized, with hairs. In extreme old age, the generative organs of the female, already reduced for a confiderable time to complete inaction, bear the marks of decrepitude common to the whole frame. ° The vulva prefents the moft remarkable changes ; this is the part mott affected by the performance of the fexual func- tions, and many parts of it partake the general emaciation. The prominence of the mons veneris is nearly effaced, anda great part of the hair, which covered it, is loft ; the remain- der becoming grey and ftraight. ‘The labia and nymphe are foft and flaccid; the latter fometimes can fearcely be faid to exift: the mucous membrane is whitifh, or at leait-very pale ia its colour. The ftate of the vagina prefents nothing very remarkabie. ‘The volume of the uterus is diminithed, its parietes having become thinner. ‘The tubes and round ligaments are alfo in fome degree reduced. The ovaria do not exceed half the fize which they had in the adult age ; they are fometimes very denfe, and marked with deep grooves, fo as to reader the furface tubercular ; in other in- ilances, their fubftance is removed, fo that they are reduced to a very thin appearance. ‘The veficles contained in their parenchyma are no longer difcernible. » State of the Generative Organs during Pregnancy. —The uterus, intended to ferve as a receptacle for the fetus, di- lates after it has received the germ from the ovary, and en- larges in proportion as this is developed: its blood-veffels bring an additional quantity of fluid, from which the foetus Graws its fupport: laitly, at a certain period, fixed by the laws of nature, it difcharges the praduce of conception by virtue of the vital properties, with which it has been endow- ed, during the remarkable change of its organization. Such are the threefold objects, to the attainment of which are direGted the new difpofitions acquired by this organ during geftation. j + The anatomy of the: gravid uterus has been moft fully elucidated by Dr. William Hunter, whofe fplendid and beau- tatul piates form an epocha in the hiftory of our knowledge -of this fubjeét. ‘¢ The anatomical Defcription of the human gravid Uterus and its Contents,’’ London, 4to. 1794, drawn up by Dr. Baillie, from the papers of Dr. Hunter, contains Vou. XVI. avery clear account of the fubje&t; this, with the plates already mentioned, is the fource from which the following defcription is principally derived. The obfervations, unle{s where it is otherwife expreffed, apply to the ftate of the organ as it is found in the gth month, Confiderable variety exilts in the fize of the-organ. The child and placenta may be twice as large in one cafe as in anotHer : there may be fix or eight times more water in one cafe than in another: not to mention the differences arifing from there being only one child or twins, &c. The developement of the uterus appears to be immediately produced by the general diftention of the liquid furrounding the foetus, and not by the foetus itfelf, fince the latter does not come in contact with the organ. The fize of the part depends principally upon the quantity of the liquor amnii. For, though women who have twins, or a very large child, are commonly obferved to be very big, yet the greateft num- ber of thofe who are really very much fwelled out, are fo only from a valt quantity cf water. In fuch cafes there is frequently but one child, and that very often a {mall one. The general figure of the uterus is oviform; the fundus anfwering to the largeft extremity of the egg, and the cer- vix and os uteri to the {mall end: but the fundus is larger and more flat, or lefs pol..ed, in proportion to the lower extre- mity of the uterus, than one end of an egg is to the other ; and the whole uterus feems more or lefs compreffed, fo as to be broader from right to left, than it is from the forepart backwards. Befides thefe more conftant deviations, the fi- gure of the uterus differs from the regular oviform, from a variety of accidental caufes, as it adapts itfelf to the neigh- bouring parts, to the attitude of the body, and to the pofi- tion of the contained child) In erder to conceive thefe va- rieties more eafily, we muft remember that in moft cafes the uterus is not fo completely filled as to be upon the full ftretch, Were it out of the body, and filled artiliciaily, it would eafily contam more than it actually does. Thus the uterus, like a bladder of water not quite full, is plaftic, and moulds itfelf into various fhapes from accidental circumftances. The figure of the organ, in particular fituations, is modified by the preffure of the furrounding parts : the brim of the bony pelvis has the effect of a belt girding the lower part of the organ, and the projections of the fpine, and of the pfoe muf- cles and iliac veffels, mould the outtide of the uterus into cor- refponding cavities. The attitude of the body influences the figure of the uterus, as the parts againft which. it refts vary in different poftures. The pofition of the child is an- other caufe influencing the figure of the uterus. Not only in dead bodies do we fee the parts of the child making various different projections on the outfide of the uterus; but we can frequently obferve the fame variety in the living flate, by examining the outiide of the abdomen. ‘The round project- ing ball, made by the child’s head or buttocks, is commonly very perceptible, and in many initances {maller parts, as the knees or elbows, can bediftinétly felt. Dr. Mackenzie met with a cafe of twins, where the uterus, initead of making one compacted oval body, had firetchegéinto two diftinct bags, for containing the re{pe@live feetufes ; fo that its outfide was marked by a notch, dividing it inte two apartments, as deep and diftiné in proportion, as that in the heart reprefented on cards. The organ often {tretches unequally in the corre- {ponding oppofite parts; fo that either the right er the left half may be confiderably larger than the other. It may: {well unequally on the front or.back part, fo that the dii- tance between the infertions of the Fallopian tubes may be much f{maller either before or behind than in the-oppofite di- rections. Inthe unimpregnated itate, it has commonly one triangular cavity : but it is fometimes fubdivided, at its upper part, GENERATION. part, into two hateral cavities, fo'as to bear fome analogy to the two horns of the uterus ina quadruped. This peculiar conformation may explain the unequal extenfion of the two fides in fome cafes of pregnancy ; and may elucidate the above-mentioned cafe of Dr. Mackenzie. The {mall or lower end of the organ is placed in the ca- vity of the pelvis. This generally contains the greater part of the child’s head, and fills up the cavity fo com- pletely, as to prefs the bladder againft the pubes, and the reftum againft the facrum. The os uteri is directed againft the coccyx, or the lower part of the facrum. The body and fundus, which contain the reft of the child and the placenta, are fo placed in the front of the abdomen, from the brim .of the pelvis upwards to the epixaftric region, as to be un- der and before all.the other bowels, and in immediate con- tat with the pdrietes abdominis, and to occupy the whole fpace from one hip-bone to the other, and a proportional extent from thefe bones upwards. As it rifes up from the cavity of the pelvis into the hypogaitric and umbilical re- gions of thé abdomen, the ioofe connections of the inteflines andomentum eafily account for thefe parts being pufhed up before it. The axis of the uterus is oblique, its lower end being turned backwards, andthe upper pi_portionally forwards. This obliquity is changed by the attitude of the body, and by many other caufes. Inthe erect poiture, the weight of the uterus preffes the forepart of the organ into a greater rotundity, and its axis then approaches the nearelt to a tranfverfe or horizontal line. In the recumbent pofture, the contrary fituation is exhibited. In a firft pregnancy, the uterus ftretches itfelf higher up in the epigaitric region, and its axis comes nearer to the longitudinal or vertical di- rection, becaufe the parietes of the abdomen do not eafily give way: but in a woman who has had many children, the abdomen, by repeated diftention, is rendered more loofe and pendulous, and the uterus extends forwards rather than upwards. This pofition is more remarkzble in very fhort fubjeéts ; becaufe in them the cheft is fo near the pelvis, that the uterus is ftopped in afecent. The fame circumftance happens, and for a fimilar reafon, when the pelvis is very narrow: as no part of the organ, in fuch a cafe, can be lodged in the pelvis, it mutt be placed proportionally higher. In a very fhort and crooked woman, on whom the ce- farean feétion was performed, the fundus uteri was not only turned forwards, but even a little downwards. As fhe lay upon the table, the navel could not be feen, as it was placed on the pofterior and inferior part of the abdominal tumour. Iu order to expofe that part of the abdomen to the furgeon, it was neceflary to lift up the fundus uteri, without which the hypogaftricregion would have been inacceflible. The devia- tion of the organ towards the right or left fide cannot, in ge- neral, be very confiderable ; as it poffeffes nearly the whole {pace between the hip-bone, and its lower extremity is fixed to the pelvis. A fmall lateral obliquity is very common ; and we can eafily fuppofe, that in a reclined pojture, the pro- jeGion of the lumbar vertebra will throw rather more than one-half of the uterus into the lateral cavity between the fpine and one hip-bone. We know, indeed, that inall the laft months, the abdomen is often more full on one fide than onthe other. Women fay in fuch a cafe, that the child lies on one fide, and they judge rightly. Where the child lies the bulk muft be both more confiderable and more permanent, but where there is only uterus, placenta, and water, the fwelling will be fofter, and project lefs. The prefflure of the child, when it les more in one fide than in the other, makes the limb of that fide weaker, more 4 benumbed, and more liable to cramps, and cedematous fwell- ings. Of the Ligaments, Tubes, and Ovaria of the Pregnant Uverus.—It has been commonly obferved that the ligaments and tubes of the pregnant uterus are attached lower upor the fide of the organ than they were in the unimpregnated {tate ; and the aeafon is very obvious. The peritoneal coat of the uterus makes the broad ligament on each fide, much in the fame manner as the analogous membrane of the intef- tinal tube makes the mefentery. When the woman is not pregnant, the ligament is of confiderable breadth, the fper- matic veffels pafs between its two laminz, the round ligament runs downwards and outwards, on its anterior furface, and the tube runs in loofe ferpentine turns on its upper edge- But in proportion as the circumference of the uterus grows. larger, the broad ligaments become narrower, their polterior lamella covering the pofterior furface, and their anterior la- melia the, anterior furface of the uterus itfelf. We obferve now, that the round ligaments do not run down on the fore- part of the broad ligaments, but upon the forepart of the body of the uterus itielf. In proportion as the fundus rifes upwards, and increafes in ize, the upper part of the broad ligament is fo itretched, that it clings clofe to the fide of the uterus, fo that in reality the broad ligament difappears, no more of it remaining than its very root; namely, its upper and outer corner, where the group of fpermatic veflels paffes over the iliacs, to the fide of the uterus. In this ftate, although the {mall end of the tube opens into the fame part of the uterus, as before impregnation, yet the tube has a very different diretion ; initead of running horizontally outwards, it pafies downwards, clofely attached to the fide of the uterus. Behind the fimbrie lies the ovarium, alfo conneéted to the uterus. The fimbriz and ovarium are commonly placed upon the iliac veflels, or flefhy brim of the pelvis, behind the group of f{permatic vedlels. The round ligaments run alimoit perpendicularly down- wards from the fundus uteri to their paflage through the mufcles; they are confiderably enlarged in thicknefs, ané are fo vaicular, that when injecied they feem to be little more than a bundle of arteries and veins. ‘Their arteries are alk convoluted. Both their arteries and veins proceed princi- pally from the {permatics, and anaftomofe evidently with the external veffels in the groin or upper part of the labia. Even in this enlarged ftate of the round ligaments, it is very difficult to fay how they terminate in the groin; they appear to be infenfibly loft. The tubes are more flefhy, vafeular,, and foft in their fubftance, and are lefs convelauted than in the unimpregnated ftate. The fimbrie and mternal rugat are larger and‘much more beautiful, efpecially when their » veffels are well injected. The ovaria, excepting that which contains the corpus luteum, feem to have undergone no re- markable change. The latter body can be diftingnifhed by a rounded fullnefs, and frequently @ confiderable promi- nence, fenfible both to the fight and touch, upen the mid- dle of which there is a {mall pointed cavity or indentation, like a cicatrix. pon flitting the ovarium at this part, the corpus luteum appears a round body, of a very diftiné nature from the reit of the ovarum. Sometimes it is oblong or oval, but more generaliy round. Its centre is white, with fome degree of tranfparency ; the reft of its fubftance has a yellowith caft, is very vatcular, tender and friable, like glandular fiefh. The larger veffels appear round its circumference, and fend fmaller branches inwards. A few of the larger veflcls are fituated at the cicatrix or indentation on the outer furface of the ovarium ; and are there fo little covered, as to give that part the appearance of being bloody, when GENERATION. swhen feen at a little diftance. When there is only one child, there is only on2 corpus luteum ; and two in cafe of twins. There may be, in the latter cafe, two diftinct ones in one ovarium, or one ineach ovarium. The fex of the feetus has no relation to the corpus luteum being formed in the right or left ovary. Thicknefs of the Uterus.—Thofe who fay that the uterus rows thicker in proportion as its bulk is increafed, have pro- bably been deceived by examining the uterus of a woman who died fome hours or days after delivery. In that con- - traéted ftate the uterus is often found even two inches thick : but in the natural diftended ftate, though there may be fome difference, the thicknefs, in general, is but little more con- fiderable than before impregnation. When not injected, its ordinary thicknefs is from one to two-thirds of an inch; when its veffels, and particularly the veins, are pretty well filled with wax, its thicknefs is thereby confiderably increaf- ed, more efpecially where the placenta is fixed, on account of the number and fize of the veffels at that part. Tor this reafon only, perhaps, the uterus is thickeft at that part, and for the fame reafon it is thicker towards the fundus than near the cervix. Much variety may be obferved with refpect to thicknefs: and fuch inequalities in the fame individual, that even where the placenta did not adhere, the uterus may be almoft twice as thick at one part asat another. On open- ing the organ, its thicknefs is generally found more confi- derable than external examination would have led us to ex- peat. For its fubftance is foft, and a fluctuation, like that of water in a thin bladder, may be felt. Blood-veffels.—There is no circumftance, in which the gravid uterus differs more from the unimpregnated, than in the fize and termination of its veflels. The arteries, both fpermatic and hypogaitric, are very much enlarged. There are infinite numbers of anaftomofing arteries through the whole fubftance of the part, fo that the whole fyftem makes a general net-work, and the branches are convoluted or ferpentine in their courfe. None of the larger rarnifi- cations are feen for any length of way upon the outfide of the uterus. As they branch from the fides, they difappear by phinging deeper and deeper into the fubftance. The arterial branches, which are much enlarged, are thofe which run towards the placenta; fo that, wherever it adheres, that part appears evidently to receive by-far the greateft quantity of blood; and the greateft number, both of the large and {mall arteries at that part, pafs through to the placenta, and are neceflarily torn through upon its feparation. The veins of the uterus appear to be ftill more enlarged, in propor- tion, than the arteries. From the fides of the uterus they ramify through its fubftance, running deeper and deeper as they go on, and without following precifely the courfe of the arterial branches. They form a plexus of the largeft and moft frequent communications which we know of among the veffels of the human body. And this they haye in common with the arteries, that their larger branches go to, or rather come from that part of the uterus to which the placenta adheres ; fo that, when the venous fyitem of the uterus is well injected, that part is evidently the chief fource of the returning blood. Here, too, both the large and {mall veins are continued from the placenta to the uterus, and are always neceflarily broken upon the feparation of thefe two parts. The veins are without valves, and are therefore eafily injected. In injecting them, we obferve that at firft they become turgid, and project on the outer furface of the uterus; but in proportion as we throw a greater quantity of wax into thefe veflels, they grow more flat and obfcure ; becaufe the uterus itfelf be- comes more filled and tenfe, which has the effect of com- prefling the veins that run in its fubftance. On account of the large fize ot thefe veilels, and the appearance of cavities, which they exhibit on a fection, the name of finu/es has fometimes been given to them. The /ymphatics are more -numerous, and many of them larger than could have been imagined. They pervade the fubitance of the organ univerfally. Its peritoneal coat ap- pears, like that of a calf’s fpleen, to be interwoven with a crowded plexus of thefe veffels ; and where they get to the fides of the uterus, when filled with mercury, fome of them are even larger than a goofe’s quill, Some are remarkably varicous, or enlarged at particular places. We do not know that any change takes place in the nerves of the uterus during pregnancy. MMufcular Fibres of the Uterus.—The fubftance of the or- gan is rendered remarkably foft and loofe in its texture by pregnancy; fo that, when an incifion is made into it, the wound can be eafily made to open wide ; or if a narrow ftrip be cut out, it can readily be extended-to at leaft twice its original breadth. ‘This laxity appears to depend on two caufes; viz. the great quantity of large veffels in its com- pofition ; and the loofe conneétion between the fafciculi of its fibres. When we fpeak of the mufcular fibres, it is dif- ficult to treat the fubje& with precifion. We neither know their external appearance, nor their internal compofition. They only manifeft themfelves to our fenfes, where numbers of them are colleéted into bundles, and make what we commoaly call mufcular fafciculi, In the quadruped, as, for inftance, the cat or rabbit, the mufcular action of the uterus is feen as evidently as that of the inteftines, when the animal is opened immedi- ately after death. In many parts, particularly of the internal furfaceof the uterus, thefe fibres have the fame ftriking fafcicu- lated appearances as we obferve in common znufcles; yet they are of a paler colour and harder texture. Dr. Hunter exa- mined the fibres very carefully in a woman who died feven days after delivery. He ftretched it gradually in warm water, and then inverted it, to have a full view of the inner furface, The remains of the decidua had paffed off with the lochia, fo that the fafciculated ftratum of mufcular fibres appeared to be bare, and to make the internal furface of the uterus. In many places, but particularly where the placenta had been fixed, the fafciculi left oval fpaces between them, forthe paflage of arteries and veins, fomewhat like thofe fepara- tions in the tendinous fibres of the abdomen and loins, where veffels pafs out to the cellular membrane and integuments. The cervix uteri, where the ruge are fituated, had not fuch regular nor fo large fafciculi as the reft of the uterus. In the body of the organ the fibres were very regularly circular. The fundus was ade up of two planes of concentric fibres, at the very centre of which was the orifice of the Fallopian tube. When this internal itratum was removed, the fafci- culated appearance and regular dire€tion of the fibres was lefs and lefs apparent, in proportion as the diffe€tion was continued outwards; which fcemed to be owing in great meafure to the infinite number of branches and communica- tions of the large veins. Afterwards, fays the doétor, I had the moft favourable occafion that could be detired, for examining the fibres on the infide of the uterus. It was in a woman who died at the end of the ninth month, without belag in labour, and without haying any flooding om dif- charge of waters. When I had examined, and taken out all the contents, I attended particularly to the internal furface of the uterus. I found it every where covered ‘with a thin ftratum of the decidua, through which the mufcular fibres appeared, but with fome degree of obfeurity. Upon rubbing off this tender membrane with a cloth, it gave me H 2 pleafure GENERATION. pleafure to fee how exactly the above defcription agreed with the appearances. The exiftence of mufcular fibres in this organ has not, however, been univerfally acknowledged. <<‘ Refpeéting the alleged mufcular texture of the uterus,” fays Blumenbach, «T muft obferve that all the human uteri, which I have care- fully examined both in the pregnant and unimpregnated con- dition (and I have had opportunities of fuch inveitigations, not merely in preparations, but in the most recent ftate after death) have not exhibited any thing that could be taken for genuine mufcular fibres. The advocates for the mufcula- rity of this organ mutt allow that the fibres differ moit re- markably from all others in the body. I am more and more convinced every day that the uterus poffefles no true irrita- bility ; but that it poffefles, if any part of the body can be faid to poffefs, a peculiar modification of vitality (vita pro- pria) correfponding to its peculiar motions and funétions, and not referrible to the common laws of irritability. Thefe funétions appeared fo fincular and peculiar to the old phyfi- cians and philofophers, that they called the uterus an animal contained inan animal.’’ Inftitut. Phyfiolog. p. 422. The mouth of the uterus differs confiderably in the dif- ferent times of utero-geftation. For the greateft part of the nine months, that is, till the cervix uteri be fully dif- tended, there is a projection of both the anterior and pof- terior lip of the os tince ; and in fomé women this continues till the very time of labour. But in moit women, when they are at their full time, or very near it, the os uteri is flat, and makes only a {mall rugous hole, often not readily difco- verable by the touch on the lower er pofterior part of the rounded lower end of the uterus. The border of this ori- fice, and the internal furface of the uterus, for an inch or more all around, is full of little irregular cavities. Thefe contain a tough gluten, which fhoots acrofs, and plugs up the inner part of the orifice. This gluten is commonly fqueezed out from all the lacun, by the dilatation of the os uteri in the beginning and progrefs of the labour; and fo lofing its hold, it falls out. In the dead body, when the part is kept fome days in water, the gluten fwells out more and more from all thefe cavities, and then feparates entirely. Then the innumerable lacune, which contained it being empty, are very wifible. And if the gluten be thus carefully taken away, and be floated in water, its external furface is feen beautifully ornamented with all the procefles which were drawn out of the innumerable lacune. Dr. Hunter gives us the following account of the uterus in the earlier months of pregnancy. ‘In the third and fourth months, the fubftance of the uterus is become more foft than before conception, and all its veffels being propor- tionably enlarged, it appears to be much more vafcular. We may, therefore, reafonably believe, even if we knew no- thing from diffections of quadrupeds, that the uterus changes its mature in that refpeé& trom the time of conception, and receives a greater quantity of blood. Its thicknefs is only a little increafed in its natural ftate, but confiderably when the veins and arteries are artificially diftended with any fluid. t this time the conception is lodged entirely in the fundus uteri, or in that part which in the unimpregnated ftate has a f{mooth internal furface ; no portion of the conception ftretch- ing then down into the cervix uteri, or that part of the ute- rus, which is narrow and rugous within. -* The cervix uteri remains contracted and hard in its fub- ftance, and contains a tough and firm jelly, which ce- ments and fills up its cavity fo completely, that upon at- tempting to pufh a probe through it, the probe will as rea- dily force its way through the Tag fubftance of the uterus itfelf, as through the cementing jelly. When the uterus is 2 kept a confiderable time in water, fix or eight days perhaps, this cementing jelly fwells, grows in proportion fofter, and at laft comes away, or falls off inone mafs. Then the inter~ nal furface of the cervix exhibits a moft beautiful appeatance; being variegated with projecting ruge, and innumerable intermediate narrow, but deep cavities, which lodged fo many procefles of the jelly. In feparating the jelly, when by previous maceration it had been fit for fuch an operation, I have feen thofe proceffes drawn out of the little cavities as diftinétly as we can fee a hand drawn out of a glove: and when the jelly is carefully feparated and floated in clear wa- ter, it preferves its figure, and exhibits a moft elegant ap- pearance, produced by the procefies that fhoot out from its furface all around. “¢ The os uteri, or very extremity of the uterus, is in fome women narrow or pointed, with a very fimall orifice, that will juit admit the point of a very fmall finger ; and in fome it is large, foit, or fpongy to the touch, granulated upor its furface, and the orifice fo wide as to admit the end of the finger full half an inch up with great eafe. There the paffage becomes narrow, and is clofed with the gelatinous cement. The os uteri, all around ity paflage, is crowded with fmall cavities, containing the fame fort of jelly, which by maceration fwells, pufhes out from the cavities, and comes away, leaving the cells void. This, no doubt, is part of the jelly which naturally comes away in labour. Some. women have much more of it than others ; and, in companing different diffeGtions, I have obferved more of the jelly within’ the cervix uteri, and more likewife in the cells round the as’ uteri, in one fubje& than another. «¢ The uterus, at the time of three or four months, Is by no- meais fo tightly filled but that it would eafily contain more. It is like a bladder therefore, fo filled with water, that it would eafily contain a third part more. Hence it is foft and fwagging, and eafily changing its fhape, accommodates itfelf to the neighbouring parts. « The fituation of the uterus, which at frftis in the cavity of the pelvis, but afterwards gradually mfes up into the ca- vity of the abdomen, and the changes which its ligaments undergo, may be eafily conceived by any perfon acquainted with the ftate of thofe parts before conception, and who has confidered what has been already faid about the fame things in the ninth month of pregnancy. . «¢ The peculiarities of the ovarium are very different at the different. periods of utero-geftation. - In the earlier menths’ the corpus Inteum is confiderably larger and more vafeular ; and within it there is a confiderable and evident cavity con-— taining a fluid. When the uterine yeffels have been injeGted, I have obferved that the wax very eafily extravafates into that cavity. On the outfide of the ovarium there is a little pit, which looks like a hole, leading into the cavity of the ovarirm. But in the cafes which I have feen, no briftles” woul pafs ; it appeared to be an obliterated du, or paiage grown together.” The ferous covering of the uterus, derived from the peri- toneum, undergoes very confiderable extenfion during the enlargement of the uterus in pregnancy. We have already fhewn that the broad ligaments nearly difappear at this time, ” but there is no acceffion of the fame kind either before or be- hind, as the bladder and reétum ftill continue to be covered tothe ufual extent by that membrane. The increafed fur- face of the peritoneal coat muft be aicribed therefore te an_ extenfion of the membrane. ; As the mucous furface of the organ is the medium of com— munication between the uterus and the fecundines, its changes refer to the purpofes accomplifhed by this conneCtion. In the natural ftate, it exhibits merely the fine crifices of ex- haling » a etn i, GENERATION. haling-veffels, but after conception a large number of confi- derable arteries and veins pafs froma it to the furface of the evum ; and thefe are more numerous and large in the fitua- tiorr of the placenta than elfewhere. Thefe communicating veffels have been defcribed already in the article Empryo. Towards the latter periods of gettation the vulva becomes {woln and relaxed, affuming aftate which favours its dilata- tion in the a&t of parturition. The vital properties of the uterus, as well as its organiza- tion, are confiderably altered after conception. ‘lhe organ acquires animal fenfibility ; hence women feel the motions of the child, and even experience very confiderable pain in particular pofitions of the fcetus; hence too the fharp pains felt in parturition. We do not knoe whether much pain is experienced by the incifion of the uterus in the cefarean fection. But, fup ppoting that it is not, the faét would not prove that the organ is not pone of animal fenfibility. Its powers may render it fufceptible of fome ftimuli and not of others. When no circumftances interrupt the ordinary henomena of pregnancy, wwe have no proof, until the natural period of this condition arrives, that the organ pofleffes fo trong: a contractile power as that which we fee exerted in parturition. We might even believe that this property is not developed until she end of pregnancy ; but there is no epocha of geftation, from the firlt prefence of the germ in the ute- rus, at which this contraction may not be excited by the action of particular caufes, which, under certain circum- ftances, are powerful enough to produce the expulfion of the child. Violent contufions of the abdomen, and penetrating wounds affecting the uterus, are frequently followed by abortion. Violent Benen may caufe this premature expulfion of the foctus. The fame effect is produced by the evacuation of the waters of the See independently of any other eaufe ; the uterus, when no longer diftended, contraGs, and abortion enfues. This contractile power, w ith which the uterus becomes endowed on the change of its organiza- tion, partakes of the chara€ters of animal contractility and of irritabi ality. The inactivity of the uterine parictes, until the termination of utero-geitation, refembles, in fome re- fpeéts, the quiefcent ftate of the voluntary mufcles, when they are not excited by the influence of the brain; and the contraction, by means of which this organ expels its contents, can be compared only to the exertion of thofe mufcles. On the other hand, the contractility of the uterus is independent of the cerebral influence, and its exercife 1s abfolutely invo- Juntary ; this circumiftance particularly characterizes irrita- bility in thofe organs which poffefs it in the moft remarkable degree, as the heart. Like the latter power, it may be fym- pathetically roufed, when the a¢tion of the, uterus is fuf- pended during or after parturition; and it continues for fome time after apparent general “eath. The attention of phyfiologifts has been much occupied in inveltiga iting the immediate caufe of parturition ; that is, thé cauie which calls into ation the contratile power of the uterus at the end of utero-geftation. Many adopt the following explanation. They admit a fpecies of oppofition between the body and neck of the uterus, during geftation, the refittance of the latter overcoming the tendency of the’ former to contract.. As the neck is gradually obliterated, its Bppou oy is diminifhed, and it then gives way to the con- trations of the body and fundus. Againit this explanation we may urge that the fuppofed ft-uggle between two op- pofing forces is purely hypothetical, that there is no evidence of any contraction or attempt at it during pregnancy, a: ad- that it comes on quite fuddenly at the expiration of the term. Itis this fudden exercife of the contractile power, at the end of the ninth month in the human f{pecies, that marks the term of geftation, and for which we can affign no other caufe than the immutable laws by which the operations of nature are regulated. However this queftion may be decided, itis clear that the contraction of the uterus alone does not accomplifh the expulfion of the fetus. The diaphragm and abdominal mufcles affift in the opevation ; and hence parturi- tion is in fome degree voluntary, is accelerated in fome cafes by the courage of the individual, while in others it cannot be concluded without the affiftance of art, in confequence of. the ftrencth being exhaufted. Yet this aétion of the abdo- minal mufcles is not fo indifpenfible, but that the uterus can get rid of its contents without fuch aid. We know the ex- traordinary facility with which parturition takes place 1 in fome women, who, in confequence of particular circum- ftances in their condition, exert themfelves even to retard the procefs; and the expulfion of the child is fometimes com- pleted at the approach of death, when thé abdominal muf- cles can hardly be fuppofed to contribute. After the expulfion of the child, and of the fecundines, the aGtion cf the uterus fill continues, and the or rgan 1s gra- dually reduced in its bulk. For a fhort time its parietes are ina flate of increafed thicknefs ; the veflcls, being com- prefied by this permanent {tate of contraction, pour out but a very {mall quantity of blood, notwithitanding the preceding dilatation of their orifices. This blood, effuied very flowly, is foon fucceeded by an abundant eration of mucus from the furface of the uterus, conftituting a fpecies of difchargé pecuhar to women recently delivered, and known by the name of lochia. ‘This evacuation lafts for a longer or fhorter time, and probably does not ceafe altogether, until the uterus has regained its original flate. The contraétion of the organ is owing at firft to the evacuation and’ contraétion of its veffels ; ; but foon nutrition 1s-carried on in it with lefs. activity, hile abforption proceeds vigoroufly until the excefs of matter depofited for its developement has been re~ moved. Phyfiology of the Female Organs of Generation. Puberty and Menftruation.—From the-uterus of every healthy woman (at leaft with very rare exceptions): who is not pregnant, or who does not give fuck, there is a difcharge- of blood at certain periods, from the time of puberty to the approach of old age (during a period in general of about 30 years) ; which, from the periods or returns.of the dif-: charge, 1s called the menfes or catamenia, and, from the ge-’ neral regularity of its appearance, is termed in French les’ regles. ‘lhe commencement of menftruation is coéval with tha 1t ficnal revolution in the female conflitution, which in-. dicates the power of executing the generative functions, and may be regarded as the developement of the fexual life. Tt is: therefore one of thofe circumftances which, taken altogether, mark the period of puberty in females. At the fame time their complexion 1 is improved, their countenance is more ex= preffive and animated, their attitudes graceful,: and their converfation more intelligent and agreeable’; the tone of their voice becomes more HnrNoHenie: their wviiole frame, but. particularly the breafts, are expanded and enlarged, and their minds are no longer engaged in childifh puriuits and! amufements. Thefe’ phenomena have been deferibed very elegantly by Harvey: “nec minus notum eit, quanta vir-- gini alteratio contingat, increfcente primum et tepefacto utero ; pubefcit nempe, coloratior evadit, mamme protube— rant, pulchrior vultus renidet, fplendent oculi, vox canora, inceflus,, vettus,. fermo, omnia decora fiunt..” The w hole Hutwan race is fubject to this law,. and the ac-- counts of fome travellers, {tating that the Brafilian or Sa-. moied women are exempt, have not been confirmed by more: recent: GENERATION. P recent and accurate inquiries. It is a general and effential phenomenon in the life of woman, and if different climates, or the varicties of the favage and civilized flates, are capable of modifying the phenomenon, their influence is not fuffi- cient to annihilate it altogether, even in the frozen and in- hofpitable regions, where fome writers have fuppofed that it does not occur ina conftant andregular manner. It is hardly neceflary to refute an opinion, which has prevailed very ge- nerally, that whole nations, particularly Americans, are not liable to this difcharge. In their vifits to thofe countries, Europeans faw numerous females in a ftate of nakednefs, without obferving any figns of the difcharge, which may be accounted for by two circumftances. The women at that time are generally fuppofed to ben an impure ftate, and to communicate a malignant influence; they are confequently compelled to fhun fociety while the difcharge lafts, and to avoid the fight of man by hiding themfelves in folitary huts. Travellers have alfo obferved that their {crupulous attention to perfonal cleanlinefs, and to the modeft attitude of the lower extremities, would prevent the {peCtator from difco- vering any traces of the catamenia. The difcharge is peculiar to the female of the human {pecies, which, in the language of Pliny, is the only “animal meniiruale.” | Many naturalifts, fays Blumenbach, and among others Buffon, have afcribed a periodical flux of this kind to fome other animals, particu- larly of the monkey kind. But having had the opportunity of obferving feveral individuals for many fucceffive years, I difcovered that thefe fuppofed catamenia did not exitt at all infome, while in others there was a imal! occafional uterine hemorrhage appeariag at no regular intervals. (Inftitut. Phyfiolog. feét. 37.) There isa great determination of blood to the organs in animals when they are in heat ; this is attended witha mucous fecretion, and fometimes even blood has been difcharged, fo as to give rife to the erroneous notion of their being fubjeét to the menitrual flux. Sucha cafual and unfrequent occurrence can by no means be compared to the regular periodical difcharge obferved in women almoit without an exception. On the other hand there are exam- ples of women who have never menilruated, and of others, in whom this difcharge has not appeared throagh long periods of their lives, without any ill confequence. Dr. Denman knew two inftances in which the menfes had never been difcharged; the individuals married, but had no children. (Introd. to the Pract. of Midwifery, gto. p. 115.) Some continue to men({truate during the time of fuckling, and the circumttance is not very rare, although it is the general rule that the difcharge fhould ceafe at this time. _The vital powers are differently employed, and their exercife hasa dif- ferent object and direction. Pregnancy almoit isvariably interrupts the procefs. The important functions carried on in the uterus at this time require all the powers of the mo- ther ; and the adhefion of the ovum to the uterus feems to form an infuperable mechanical obftacle to the difcharge. Hence Mr. Denman ftates that he has never known an in- ftance of menttruation during pregnancy. The ceffation of the difcharge without the prefence of any unhealthy caufe, is the only fign by which women know that they have con- ceived. Authors relate many examples, however, where the catamenia have flowed during geftation ; but very ftrong evi- dence would be neceffary to prove a circumftance fo unlikely in itfelf. The menfes may appear prematurely in fome women, from peculiarity of organization, as the phenomena of pu- berty have occurred at unnaturally early periods in men ; and the circumftance muft be referred to original difference of conititution. Haller knew a girl of good family, nine years of age, well conitituted both in mind and body, who had been fubjeét to the regular periodical return of the catamenia for fome years, without any other apparent difadvantage than that of being rather fhort and delicate in her make. He sientions another inftance in Switzerland of a girl having a child by her uncle at nine years. Many of the accounts of menitruation in early infancy muft be deemed morbid or fymptomatic diicharges, and cannot be referred to the cata- menia. When the female coniftitution from any caufe is dif- pofed to, or requires a fanguineous difcharge, it is com- monly made from the veflels of the uterus. The early or late appearance of the menfes may depend upon the climate, the conititution, the delicacy or hardinefs of living, andupon the manners of thofe with whom young - women conyerle. In general, the wariner the climate the fooner the menfes appear. In Greece, and other warm countries, girls begin to menftruate at eight, nine, and ten years of age. According to Thevenot and Chardin they even marry and bear children at eight and nine years of age in fome parts of Afia. The difcharge does not appear in Europe until the female has nearly attained her full growth. Haller mentions the twelfth and thirteenth years as the ufual periods in Switzerland; the difcharge appears fooner in the more fouthern countries of Europe, and later as we approach to the north. According to Linnzus, in his ‘“ Flora Lap- ponica,’’ the women of Lapland do not menftruate until a maturer age, and then in fmall quantities, at long intervals, and fometimes only in the fummer. But if the procefs does not go on according to the general prevailing rule in the country, they fuffer equal inconveniences as in warmer climates, where the quantity difcharged is much greater, and the periods fhorter. Inthis country girls begin to men- itruate from the fourteenth to the eighteenth year of their age, and fometimes at a later period, without any figns of difeafe ; but if they are luxurioufly educated, fleeping upon down beds, and fitting in hot rooms, menftruation ufually commences at a more early period. The variety in the time at which women arrive at puberty has given rife to fome moral dedu€tions. It has been affign- ed as the reafon why women in hot climates are almoft uni- verfally treated as flaves, and why their influence is fo power- ful and extenfive in cold countries, where perfonal beauty is in lefs eftimation. In hot climates, women are at the height of their beauty when they are full children in underftanding ; and, when their underftanding is matured, they are no longer the objects of love. In temperate climates their perfons and their minds acquire perie¢tion at the fame time, and the united power of their beauty and fa- culties is irrefiftible. At the approach of old age women ceafe to menftruate, but the time of the ceffation is commonly regulated by the original early or late appearance of the merfes. About the fortieth year, a little fooner or later, the regular periods of the catamenia are interrupted; and before the fiftieth year, profufe difcharges occur followed by long intervals ; about the time juft mentioned, the catamenia generally ceafe, and the power of reproduétion is loft. With thofe who began to menttruate at ten or twelve years of age, the difcharge will fometimes ceafe before they arrive at forty ; but if the firlt appearance was protracted to fixteen or eichteen years of age, independently of difeafe, fuch women may continue to men- {truate until they have pafled the fiftieth, or even approached the fixtieth year of their age. In this country, the moft frequent time of the ceffation is from the forty-fourth to the forty-cighth year, after which women never bear children. By this conftitutional regulation of the menfes the propaga- tion of the fpecies is, inevery country, confined to the moit vigorous Mums os GENERATION. vigorous part of life, and, had it been otherwife, children might have become parents, and old women might have had children, when they were unable to fupply them with proper or fufficient nourifhment. Yet the rules juft mentioned are not free from all exceptions. The catamenia, with powers of fecundity, have continued in particular inftances much beyond the age we have fpecified. Some of thefe have had regular catamenia; in others, after a long fup- preffion, the difcharge has returned. We mutt be careful, however, here, as in the cafe of premature appearance, not to confound with the menfes accidental and morbid hemor- rhages. A relation of Haller’s had two fons after her fiftieth year, and in colder countries, where the accefs of puberty is late, children have been born when the mother was even above 60. The proper menftrual blood is generally preceded, fome- times even for fome months, by a whitifh ferous fluid. Symptoms of more or lefs violence, indicating the accumulation of blood about the hypogaitric veflels, fuch as pain in the loins and about the pelvis, laffitude with painful affection of the lower extremities, and various nervous and hyiteric feelings, are then obferved. Pains in the head, flufhing of the cheeks, and even pimply appearances in the face fometimes take place. In younger virgins thefe fymptoms are milder, and in the firlt inftances often go off f{pontaneoufly : but they return with greater intenfity, at- tended with confiderable colic pains, and quick and {trong pulfe, until a bloody ferum, and then more genuine blood flows more or lefs rapidly from the vulva. The duration of the flux is uncertain ; itmay be accomplihed in three or four days, or be protraéted till the feventh or eighth. The quantity is fubjeét to no fettled law: it is greater in warm countries, where it may amount toa pint or more; while in colder regions it does not exceed five, four, or three ounces. *¢ Yet,”’ fays Dr. Denman, lib. cit. p. 118, * there is a com- mon quantity, to which, under fimilar circumftances, women approach, andit may be eftimated in this manner. Suppof- ing the quantity to be about eighteen ounces in Greece, and two ounces in Lapland, there will be a gradual alteration between the two extremes, and in this country it will amount to about fix ounces.’? Manners and way of life make a confiderable difference. Luxurious and lafcivious women have a more copious difcharge : while thofe who take much exercife, or are weak or infufficiently nourifhed, fur- nifh a more {paring quantity, The pain fubfides as the dif- charge proceeds ; the inflammatory fymptoms about the uterus go offas the determination to that organ ceafes, the pulfe is diminifhed, and the blood is followed by a ferous fluid. Signs of debility fucceed, with a hollownefs about the eye, anda dark circle furrounding the organ. ‘The firft appearance ina young girlis generally followed by an interval of fome months, and this period approaches gradual- ly toa folar month ; fo that a healthy woman, in whom the difcharge is eftablifhed, will have it return on the fame day of the month for many fucceeding years. If feven or eight days are occupied by the flow of the catamenia, there is an interval of twenty-two or twenty-three, making up the menftrual period. Such is the courfe obferved in healthy temperate fubjects, whofe bodily and mental powers are not abufed or overitrained. Improper regimen and manners may precipitate or retard the difcharge. Luxurious manners, with high living, may occafton returns after fifteen days : un- der various other circumiftances there is a fimilar protraétion of the period, which recurs however at regular intervals. Similar fymptoms to thofe which attend the firft men{trua- tion, but in a milder form, accompany. each return. In tis refpe&t confiderable varieties are obferved; the affectioa recurring with confiderable violence, at every period, in fome women,’ while others do not feem to fuffer at all. The nature of the difcharged fluid has not been afcertain- ed by any accurate inveftigations, but its obvious charaéters are fo exactly like thofe of blood, that it hasbeen generally confidered and called blood. This remarkable difference, however, at leaft, feems to diftinguifh the two fluids; viz. that the catamenia do not coagulate. They are blood de- prived of fibrine. Coagula are fometimes feen, but are con- fidered to denote unhealthy menitruation, as they occur when the procefs is obvioufly difturbed, and attended with great pain, &e. Opinions have been very generally received that the menttrual difcharge poflefles fome peculiar malignant properties. Thefe notioas feem to have-originated im the Fait ; they appear in all their force in the ordinances of the Jewith legiflator, were adopted by the Arabian phyficians, and have been credited in moft countries. The fevere regu- lations which have been made in fome countries, for the con- duét cf women at the time of menftruation, the expreffions ufed, the difpofal of the blood difcharged, or of any thing centaminated with it, the complaints of women attri- buted to its retention, and the effects enumerated, by grave writers, indicate the moft dreadful apprehenfions of its banefulinfluence. The following quotation exhibits thefe abfurd notions in very elegant language. * Penis cum men- {truata concumbentis excoriatur ; fi novella vitiseo tangatur, in perpetuum Ieditur ; fleriles fiunt ta¢tw fruges ; moriun- tur infite ; exuruntur hortorum germina ; fi mulier preg- nans alterius menitrua fupergrediatur, aut illis circumlinatur, aboxtum facit ; eiautem, que ultro non geftat, concipiendifpem adimit ; purgantis fpiritus, et vaporab ore,fpecula atque eboris nitorem obfcurat. Gurtatus hic fanguis canes in rabiem agit, homines vero diris cruciatibus afiligit ; comitialem morbum, pilorum effuyina, aliaque elephanticorum vitia inducit ; id- circo a veteribus inter venena relatus; pari malignitate exiftimatur, atque fanguinis elephantici potus.’’ De Graaf. Under peculiar circumftances of health, or ftates of the uterus, particularly in hot countries, if cleanlinefs be not ob- ferved, and the evacuation take place flowly, the difcharge nay eafily become acrimenious and offenfive. But there is nothing of this kind belonging to healthy menflruation ina cleanly woman, where the efiufed fluid differs from any other blocd only in the cireumitances already mentioned. Nay, when the catamenia are retained in the body for many months, in cafes of imperforate vagine, they produce no ill effect whatever, and are diflinguifhed by no particular odour or offentive qualities when difcharged by an operation. We have, therefore, no reafon for thinking otherwife than that this difcharge is of the moft inoffenfive nature. That the catamenia come from the uterus is telerably evi- dent from the change in the lining of that organ during the pericd of their flow. Its mucous furface is rendered fofter and more villcus ; and exhibits bloody {pots, with numerous pores, from which the fluid may be expreffed. The ap- pearance of tlie menftrual blood in its cavity during the pe- riod is a further proof: to which we may add the fuppreffion of the difcharge in various morbid conditions of the uterus, and’in pregnancy, where its furface is occupied by the adhe- fion of the ovum. Dire&t evidence of the fac is furnifhed in cafes of prolapfus, where the fluid may be actually feen diflilling from the os tinee. 'Tothefe arguments we may add the ebyious connection cf the menftrual flux with the funétions of the uterus. Some have contended that the va- gina is partly or wholly the fource of the catamenia ; but the opinicn refts on no fulicient ground; the ftructure end funétions GENERATION. fun€tions of the-vagina, as well as the dire& evidence of fa&ts, ftrongly oppofe the opinion. Whether the menfes come from the arteries or ‘veins of the uterus has been a point of difcuflion with phytiologilts ; and alfo whether it be a fimple eflux of blood from the yeflels or a fecretion. "The ftru€ture of the organ refembles that of glands, and the appearance of the Huid, on many occafions, differs widely from mere blood ; which indeed it never refembles entirely in the healthy ftate; fo that we are difpofed to confider it as a fecretion performed by the uterus like fuidsthatareformedbyany other glands. A circumftaqce is fometimes obferved in this procefs, which mutt be referred to the feeretory aCtionof the uterine veilels. This is the difcharge of a membranous fubitance, of the figure of the uterine cavity, {mooth on one furface, and flocky on the other, and much refembling the decidua on the whole. The fact is mentioned by Dr. Denman, who firlt faw it in mar- ried women, and afterwards in unmarried ones under circum- ttances which proved undoubtedly that it was formed inde- pendently of connubial communication. The men{truation has been painful in all thefe cafes, and conception has never occurred while the habit remained. The efficient cacfe of menftruation has afforded an ample field for thofe who delight in fpeculations and hypothefes. A\s the periods of the moon agree nearly with thofe of the difcharge, the influence of this body has been reforted to in explanation of the occurrence. If we admit the folution, the effect of lunar attraGtion ought to be very different in the various relative pofitions of the moon and earth: but the obfervation of feveral individuals will immediately fhew that there isno day of the month in which feveral do not begin to menttruate, and that the moon’s apogee or perigee has no in- fluence atall in this refpe&. We thall fee, too, that the dif- charge begins in fome, is diminifhed or entirely ended in others, at the very fame time ; confequently that the moon can have nothing to do with the matter. Moreover, as the menitrual period rather follows folar time, the fame woman menftruates at one time in the new moon, and at another in the full moon. The exiftence of fome ferment, caufing an inteftine motion in the veffels of the ,part, meets now with no advocates. Local or general plethora have been affigned as the reafons of the menfes, and many of the circumftances which accelerate er increafe, or on the contrary retard and diminifh the flow, favour thefe opinions. But we {till cannot adopt the opinion ; the lofs of feveral times the quantity of blood previous to or in the very act of menitruation, from the arm, er any other part of the body, does not prevent or interrupt the flow- ing of the menfes; and in thofe complaints which arife from their obftruction, greater relief ig afforded by a few drops of blood from the-uterus itfelf, than by ten times the quan- tity from any other part. A curious ‘Lircumftance mult be noticed refpecting the effects fometimes produced by obftrucét- ed menfes ; viz. that their place is fupplied by periodical emiffions of blood from various other parts of the body, as the nofe, lungs, ears, eyes, breafts, and almoft every other part. Thefe probably fhould be deemed in mawy cates rather ay difcharges belonging to fome difeafe under. which the pa-" tient may labour, than as conne¢ted with menftruation, He- morrhages of every kind, in either fex, are frequently »b- ferved to be periodical. That the eatamenia are a fecretion from the mucous lining of the uterus, of which. we cannot underftand the. direct mechanifm, any more than the method in which any other fecretions are performed ; and that we are ignorant of the caufes which determine their appearance to the monthly pericd, feem to b nearly thedum of eur knowledge on this fubje&t. It is clear that the procefs, being a part of the healthy operations of the organ, and therefore indicating its general condition, is neceffary to preferve the uterus in’ {tate fit for conception. Obfervation has fully proved that women, who do not menftruate from the uterus, or who are not ina ftate difpofed to menftruate, cannot conceive, even though they should have a periodical difcharge of blood from any other part of the body. All animals, at the time of their being falacious, orin a ftate fit for the propagation of the fpecies, have a difcharge, analogous and perhaps equi- valent to menftruation, which is generally mucous, but in fome inftances, inany hot feafons and climates, becomesfanguineous. That the menitruous blood contributes to the formation or nutriment of the fcetus may be reafonably doubted. The time of the difcharge is not the moft favourable to conception, which occurs moft readily juft after the period. Since all'animals, whether they meniiruate or not, fupply the offspring of conception with nourifhment of a proper kind, and in a fufficient quantity to bring it to perfection, we may conclude that the end is accomphihed by fome more common principle. The mucous difcharge from the generative organs of animals, proves that they are in a ftate tavourable to the propagation of their fpecies, and the cata- menia prove the fame circumftance in women. From the time when the phenomena of puberty announce the aptitude of the female for the exercife of her fexual funGtions, the generative organs exert an influence which modifies the whole organization, and beftows on woman the moit itriking traits of her phyficai and moral character. The varieus revolutions to which her conftitution is fubjeé, the nervous affe€tions, the frequent returns of indifpofition and fuffering, the ftrange and unaccountable anxieties and caprices, and fometimes the increafed acutenefs of the ima- gination and judgment ; all depend on this influence ; and if it be true that man is male only at certain times, while woman is female during her whole life, it muft be attribu- ted chiefly to this caufe. It is this that conftantly recals woman to her fex, and marks her whole exiftence with fo charaéteriftic a phyfiognomy. We fhall not be furprifed to find, that a caufe of {uch power and extenfive influence is liable to irregularities which have very marked effeéts on the con{titution. When the new powers with which the organs are endowed exceed the juit ftandard, and deviate into a kind of unnatural irritability, they affect fympathetically the whole frame, and particularly the nervous fyftem. This, in an extreme degree, conftitutes furor uterinus. Generally, however, this exceflive vitality of the fexual organs, without going to fuch an extent, produces various f{pafmodic and nervous fymptoms, conftituting what are called hyfterical diforders, and arifing evidently from the artificial and forced ftate of celibacy. Thefe affections-are removed by marriage, which re-eltablifhes the balance of the various functions by giving its natural employment to an organ, whofe excef- five fenfibility deranged the whole fyftem. Other and very various phenomena may be referred to the fame caufe ; and thofe phyficians who have colleéted, in particular works, obfervations on the difeafes occafioned by celibacy, or by the imperfect and unnatural enjoyments of the cloiiter, pre- fent us with an alarming catalogue. “ Ut reliqui ftimuli a natura dati inobfequiofos puniunt, ita et veneris abftinen- tiam, ut nature inimicam, hee ipfa ulcifcitur. Ipfa ani- maliaex defiderio veneris languent et pereunt. Cyprini ex retentis ovis laborant. In facris edibus, de quibus fevera religio yenerem arcet, multa, parum cognita, neque fanabilia morborum genera vigere idoneus auétor exttat. Frequenter ee potifimum, que veneris dulcedinem deguitarunt, qua nune privantur, in chlorofin, in hytterica mala, in convul- fionesy GENERATION. fiones, in maniam, in furorem uterinum incidunt ; quam nec femel vidi; inque earum feminarum apertis cadaveribus {chirri, et fteatomata, & hydropes ovaril reperiuntur. Quare, nifi morum cuftodia vetuerit, ea mala pleraque, et fu- ror utermus, et vera mania, veneris ufu folyuntur.”? Haller, Elem. Phyfiol. t. 8. p. 14. We may affirm, in fhort, that from the time when the organs, which characterize tliefe amiable and fenfible beings, are fully endowed with all their vital powers, woman is conttantly fubjeét to their influence, until the period arrives when fhe is no longer capable of the life of the fpecies, when fhe has pafled through the revolu- tion of her latter age, and enjoys quietly her individual hfe, during the remainder of which women differ much lefs, in every refpect, from the other fex. A delineation of the effects, which the phyfical changes occurring at the time of puberty produce on the moral cha- raéter and ideas ef women, may be feen in the eloquent work of Cabanis, ‘“‘ Rapports du Phyiique et Moral de YHomme."’ The various morbid derangements of the men- ftrual procefs will be confidered in the medical department of this dictionary. The generative procefs is fubject to very different laws in animals and in the human fpecies. In the former, particu- ar feafons of the year are appropriated to thefe functions, and the organs undergo certain phyfical changes, by which they are rendered fit for the proces. It is a peculiarity be- longing to the human race, that they are confined to no featon in exercifing thefe funétions. . Moft animals, and particularly birds, copulate in {pring : and that warmth has much influence in the affair is evident from this, that animals of warmer countries feldom copulate or are fecundated in Europe. Perhaps women conceive rather more frequently in {pring ; at leaft accoucheurs have obferved that there are moftlabours in the months of December and January. _ As the effect of fexual communication is fo important, it cannot be indifferent to the defign of nature to what part of the uterine fyftem the femen fhould be conveyed. It admits of no doubt, that it either remains in the vagina, pafles into the uterus, or elfe extends its courfe along the Fallopian tubes to be applied to the furface of the ovaries, which it ftimulates, and from which the new animal derives its exift- ence; but the queltion whether it be one orother of thefe, has given birth to more phyfiological controverfy than perhaps any other operation of a living animal. Thofe who have en- tered the lifts have ranged themfelves either on the fide of application. of the femen to the ovaries, by means of the tubes; or on that of the inutility of this procefs. Thefe latter contend for an abforption of this fluid by the vagina, and a peculiarexcitement of the whole frame asa confequence, of whiclr excitement the changes produced on the ovaries are to be regarded as the local effects. The advocates for the firft opinion allege, that the femen has been feen both in the wterus and tubes, and quote as their authority the obfervations ef Morgagni for the former, and Ruyfch for the latter. When {een in this laft fituation, fome have thought that it was conveyed thither by the mufcular power of thefe parts, jn the manner of a periftaltic motion, beginning at the ute- rus, and ending at the imbriated termination of the tube’; and whien at this laft, it was fuppofed that the femen was applied to the furface of the ovaries, and impregnated them by ac- tual contact. Various analocies, drawn from the animal and vegetable kingdoms, have been adduced for and againit thefe different opinions :’ but {uch “arguments mult be received with caution. Where different inftruments are employed to produce the fame, ultimate effeét, we may reafonably conclude that the means ufed are eflentially different. On this principle no direct conclufions can be drawn refpeGing VoL. XVI. the human f{pecies, from obfervations either on vegetables, or even on frogs, toads, and newts. ‘The impregation of birds, being effected by femen conveyed into the body, re- fembles that of the human fubject more than the former; but they differ fo widely in the mode of perfecting the foetus from the ovum, that we cannot reft with much conii- dence on their general analogy. ; To the obfervations of Morgagni and Ruyfch a nume- rous train of facts has been oppofed, afcertained by the ex- perimental labours of Harvey, De Graaf, Haller, and others, in which no femen was ever feen beyond the yagina in animals, examined at various periods after coition. One experiment of Haller, on a fheep, conflitutes a fingle excep- tion to this obfervation : he aace faw femen in the uterus forty-five minutes after coition. Thefe facts bring the ad- vocates for the neceffity of a contact of femen with the ova- ries into a dilemma, from which they attempt to extricate themfelves by contending, that fecundation does vot require the application of femen to the ovaries in a palpable form ; but that there is exhaled from it a fubtile fluid in a vaporific ftate, called aura feminalis, and that the conta&t of this vapour is fully fuficient to impart to the ovaries their due quantity of itimulus. The opinion, that the prefence of the femen in the vagina alone was fufficient to account for impregnation, was defend- ed by the flatement of cafes, in which, from fome anatomi- cal peculiarities, it feemed almoit impoffible-that the fecun- dating fluid could be conveyed into the uterus ; yet in feve- ral of thefe cafes impregnation really took place. Thofe who hold a contrary opinion either cavil at the accuracy of the ftatement, or draw a different conclufion. In order to throw fome light on this fubject by direét arguments, Dr. Haighton undertook a feries of experiments, the refults of which are detailed inthe 87th vol. of the Philofophical Tranfactions. He divided the tubes which form the cor- nua uterl in rabbits, and admitted them to the male, when they had completely recovered from the experiment ; but this operation feemed to deftroy entirely not only the power of conception, but alfo the difpofition to employ the means. After feveral ineffectual trials, he varied the experiment by dividing one tube only, and in many inftances the animals conceived afterwards. Corpora lutea were found on both fides of the body, but ® fectufes only on the found. fide. If the former bodies are produced only after conception, which the doctor affumes, then conception muft have taken place here, although the direct accefs of femen to the ovarium was interrupted; for the operation in quetftion completely obli- terates the tube. It mutt be acknowledged that the proof is incomplete in thefe cafes ; we cannot juftly affert that conception has taken place, when no foetus was formed. Dr. H. attempts to elude this objeétion, by fhewing that the divifion of the tube at any period after coition, but be- fore the paflage of the germs from the ovary, will equally prevent the appearance of feetufes; gccordingly no fatufes were feen inthe tube, when it was divided as Iate as forty- eight hours after coition. But if tha operation be deferred until the time at which the rudiment’ of the new animal have paffed into the tube, the actions of the parts fuffer no interruption, and foetufes are formed in the tube of the mu- tilated fide. “if, adds the Dr. ‘the ovaries are fut ceptible of their proper excitement only from the contaé of femen, how did it happen that the effects of that excite- ment were not more obvious where nothing had been dane to intercept its courfe for 48 hours, than in thofe where all communication between the uterus and ovary had been cut off before the means of impregnation had been employed? I think it muft appear, on tracing nature's fteps \ GENERATION. fteps through the different ftages of this work, that they are the product of that law in the conititution, which is called fympathy or confent of parts. ‘That the femen Arft ftimulates the vagina, os uteri, cavity of the uterus, or all of them. By fympathy the ovarian veficles enlarge, project, and burft. By fympathy the tubes incline to the ovaries, and having embraced them, convey the rudiments of the for~ tus into the uterus. By fympathy the uterus makes the neceflary preparation for pertecti the formation and growth of the fetus. And, by ympathy the breaits fur- nifh milk for its fupport efter birth.” Phyfiologifts have certainly not yet afcertained, by direct obfervation, whether or no the femen enters the uterus and tubes; and confequently all explanation of the mode in which it co-operates in conception mutt be, ina great mea- fure, hypothetical. If we cannot fpeak from attual know- ledge on a point, which muft be fo important as the prefent, in the generative procefs, and the determining gf which mu{t be fo effential towards forming right notions of the nature of the bufinefs, how uncertain muft our reprefenta- tion be of the more intricate and ob{eure parts of the fub- ject! | Haller’s work furnifhes us with the following account of << que feminis in coitu accidant.’”” Primum voluptas eft. Eam pleraque nullam fatentur, et etiam ex, que poffunt abfque dedecore fateri, confirmant, fe abfque grato fenfu concepiffe. Sinceriores alie et appetunt venerem, et fe ea deleGtari agnofeunt. Poteft autem is fenfus in alia et alia muliere major efle minorve. Cum ea voluptate congeltio humorum ad partes genitales & calor conjungitur. Dixi oftium internum uteri fentire. Clitoris fenfu eft acerrimo, fed in venere parum afficitur. Vagine columnas putes effe fenfu acriori; neque carent papillis, ut neque vulve oftium, neque nymphe. Poteftin his partibus voluptas locum habere, et ab ea fanguis in organa genitalia concieri, ut caleant, tur- geant & acrius fentiant. Certum eft tamen in iis puellis, que cum voluptate coeunt, vaginam tumefcere, ut maritum propius amplectatur. Id poteft partim mufculi {phin¢teris officio fieri, quem vis nervofa ad contraCtionem irritat, pur- timex tumentibus vafis plexuum venoforum, et corporum cavernoforum yagine et clitoridis."" Elem. Phyfiol. 8. Pe 230 : ! The circumftances juft defcribed do not appear to be effential to the bufinefs of fecundation ; they contribute to the important objet of reprodution in a fecondary manner. ‘The ftrong defire implanted im ell animals, and the phyfical gratification experienced in its indulgence, en- fure the union of the fexes, and confequently the continua- tion of the {pecies. The celebrated Spallanzani has given to the world a very interelting feries of experiments, by which it is proyed that impregnation in many cafes may be effected by artificial means. He proved the firft in the cafe of various amphibia, as the frog, newt, and toad: and after- wards in the bitch. He experimented on a fpaniel bitch, which had before had whelps. He confined her very clofely until fhe was in heat, and then proceeded in the.following manner; ‘ A young dog, of the fame breed, furnifhed me, by a fpontaneous emiflion, with 19 grains of feed, which were immediately injected into the matrix, by. means of a {mall fyringe introduced into the vagina. As the natural heat of the feed in ahimals of warm blood may be a condi- tion neceflary to render fecundation efficacious, I had taken care to give the fyringe tlie degree of heat which man and dogs are found to poffefs, which is about 30%. Two days after the injection, the bitch went off her heat, and in twenty days her belly appeared fwollen, which induced me to fet her at liberty on the twenty-fixth. Meanwhile the {welling 5 of the belly increafed ; and fixty-two days after the injection of the feed, the bitch brought forth three lively whelps, two male, and one female, refembling in colour and fhape not the bitch only, but the dog alfo from which the feed had been taken.” (Differtations, vol. ii. p. 250.) _. The experi- ment was repeated with fuccefs by Dr. Roffi, ibid. 476. We have an account of a fimilar trial in the human fubject, made at the fuggeftion of Mr. Hunter. It was in an in- {tance of malformation, where the urethra opened in the perineum. Under thefe circumftances the perfon married. When he had conneétion the emitiion was*complete, which proved that the teflicles were perfeét, but the femen always paifed out at the perineum. The late Mr. Hunter was confulted te remedy, if poffible, this inconvenience, and to’ enable the perfon to beget children. He adviled that the hufband fhould be prepared with a fyringe fitted for the purpote, previoufly warmed; and that, immediately after the emiffion had taken place, it fhould be taken up by the- fyringe, and injeGed into the vagina, while-the female, organs were flill under the influence of the coitus, and in the proper ftate for receiving the femen, ‘This experiment was actwa!ly made, and the wife proved with child. On a fubject of this kind it is proper to fpeak with caution ; but, from all the attending circumftances, no doubt was - entertained by Mr. Hunter, or the hufband, that the impregnation was entirely the efle& of the experiment.”” Home on Hermaphrodites, in Philof. Tranfaét. for 1799- Various circumftances have been enumerated, as proofs that conception has taken place ; as peculiar feelings duri coition, horripilation, and even firidor dentium, &c. Hialler’s fenfible remarks on this fubjeét feem to us to be nearer the- truth. ‘ Fiec omnia quidem mihi nimia videntur, et dif- ficillima expertu. Neque enim femina, dum maritum ad- mittit, otiofo eft ad experimentum animo; neque, nifi lengo. abhinc tempore norint fere fe concepiffe, quandc jam ejuf-. modi phenomena de memoria elapfa funt. A feminis eerte, a quibus verum poteram expeétare, nihil de horripilatione,, neque de dolore potui difcere.”’ Ibid. } The opinions concerning the effufion of a feminal fluid by the female, and its mixture with that of the male, are- altogether imaginary. That a mucous fluid is fometimes. poured out in coition, from the apparatus already, deferibed in the external organs and the vagina, is undoubted; but this happens only in lafcivious women, or fuch as live lyxu— rioufly; it confifts merely of mucus, and is. diicharged exter- nally, initead of paffing inte the uterus. : Circumftances do not admit of the internal changes which: accompany and follow copulation and conception, being ac- curately afcertained in the human fubje&@ ; and, confequently,. thefe have been invettigated in various animals. Mr. Cratk— fhank gives the following defcription of the parts in a rabbit at heat. ‘The orifice and internal furface of the vagina are as black as ink from the great determination of blood. The ovaria had, under their external furfaces, a great number of black, round, bloody fpots, fomewhat lefs than muftard- feeds. Thefe black fpots are the calyces or cups which fecrete the ova; they are extremely vafeular; the ova. themfelves are tranfparent, and carry no vifible blood-veffels. Thefe calyces, on the expulfion of the ova, enlarge and be- come yellow, projeGting above the external furface of the ovaria, and form the corpora lutea: a certain mark of con~ ception in all quadrupeds, and in women themfelves, whether the embryo is vifible or not. ‘The ufe of the corpora lutea, is not yet made out; but the orifice, through which the ovum burfts into the Fallopian tnbe, is often extremely manifeft, and always has a ragged border, as lacerated parts, ufually- GENERATION. ufually have. The Fallopian tubes, independent of their black colour, were twilted like wreathing worms, the peri- ftaltic motion ftill remaiming very vivid; the fimbrie were alfo black and embraced the ovaria (like fingers laying hold of an object,) fo clofely and fo firmly, as to require fome force, and even laceration, to difengage them. - Haller and other obfervers fupport this {tatement of the erection of the tube, and its clofe application to the furface of the ovarium. But Dr. Haighton feems not to have found it fo until a later period. He examined a female rabbit in high feafon a few minutes after coition, and found the fimbriz in their natural fituation. He found, moreover, from a regular feries of obfervations made on different rabbits, at every hour between the firft and the ninth, that the fimbriz remained nearly in their ufual fituation; and the only difference he noticed in the laft hours wasa greater turgefcency of veffels, as if preparatory tofomeimportantaction. That the prominent veficles or calyces of the ovaria, already mentioned, burit, and allow fomething to efcape into the Fallopian tube, which conyeys it into the uterus, is what all obfervers feem to agree in: and they concur, moreover, in reprefenting the corpora lutea as produced by a particular procefs carried on in the empty ovarian calyces, and confequently, as exhibiting in- conteltible proofs of impregnation havirg been effected. Thefe circumftances have all been afcertained by the ob- fervations of animal bodies, and transferred by analogy to the human fubject ; in which, indeed, the formation of a corpus luteum is very evident, although the earlier ftages of the procefs have not been traced. Obfervers by no means agree as to the time at which thefe changes are effeted. Mr. Cruikfhank reprefents the burfting of the calyces as follow- ing a fruitful coition very {peedily. ‘ I opened,’ fays he, «a female rabbit two hours after fhe had received the male : the black bloody fpots juft mentioned now projeéted much above the furfaces of the ovaria, /ome of the ruptured orifices were juft vifible; but in many of thefe fpots there was not the leait vellige of an orifice ; whence I conclude that they Teal very quickly in general.’’ The narrative of Dr. Haighton’s experiments would lead us to conclude that this efcape of the germs from the ovarian calyces does not take place till a much later period. In twelve hours after coition ‘“ feveral of the veficles evidently projected; they had loft their tranfparency, and were become opaque and red. When punctured a fluid of the fame colour efcaped. The corpora lutea, which are formed by the thickening of the parietes of the veficles, were not very evident.” At 24 hours after coition the fluid in the veficles was fimilar to that of the laft experiment. They projeéted more evidently, and their thickened parietes, manifelting the commencement of corpora lutea, were become more apparent. At 48 hours paft coition, the weficles feemed to be in the very a of burfting, and a femi-tranfparent {ubfance of a mucus-like confiitence was beginning to protrude from fome of them; others, indeed, were lefs advanced. The fimbriated extremities cf the Fallopian tubes were preparing to receive their contents, as appeared by their having quitted their ufual pofition, and embraced the ovaries in fuch a degree, that only a fmall portion could be feen until the tubes were taken away. Sections being made into the thickened veficles, the form- ation of corpora lutea appeared to have made further ad- vances. rom the appearance of an incipient rupture of the veficles in this experiment, it was but reafonable to ex- pect that their contents would foon have efcaped. In two days and twelve hours after coition the foetal rudiments had efcaped ; but the cavity of the ovarian veficles had fuffered but little diminution. Briltles were eafily introduced by the ruptured orifices. In this experiment the advances to- wards the formation of a perfe& corpus luteum were fuch as the period of examination would naturally lead us to ex- pect. ‘The contents of the veficles having efcaped, it was but reafonable now to look forwards to a fpeedy oblitera- tion-of the cavity. [therefore examined thefe parts, under fimilar circumftances, on the 3d, 4th, and 5th days. In the laft experiment there was but little veltige of cavity, confequently the corpora lutea might be confidered as per- fectly formed.”’ That a fomething, which is the germ of the future animal, and is fuppofed to be of a veficular figure, efcapes from the ovarium after conception, is received into the Fallopian tube, and conveyed by it into the uterus, is rendered highly probable by the faéts juft related: and various additional proofs may be adduced on this fubje&t. Almoft the whole animal kingdom poffefs ovaries, in which the rudiments of the future being are obvioufly contained previoufly to im- pregnation ; and it is the development of thefe rudiments after impregnation that forms the future animal. The formation of the germ in the ovary, and its paflage into the oviduét, are particularly clear in birds and reptiles; and analogy ftrongly leads us to aflign to the ovaries of the mammalia the fame funétion of producing thefe germs. The removal of thefe bodies renders the woman completely fterile ; and Mr. Hunter has fhewn that the extirpation of one has a very marked effect on the fecundity of the animal. In the Philofophical Tranfactions for 1787 he has detailed the refult of “ an experiment to determine the effe@ of ex- tirpating one ovarium on the number of young produced.’’ He felected two fows of the fame colour and fize, and one — boar from the fame farrow, and removed one ovarium from one of the fows. About the beginning of the year 1779, they both took the boar; but the one which had been {payed earlier than the perfect female. The diftance of time, however, was not great, and they continued breeding at nearly the fame times. The {payed animal continued ta breed till Sept. 1783, when fhe was fix years old, which was a {pace of more than four years. In that time fhe had eight farrows, confilting of 76 pigs; but did not take the boar afterwards. ‘I'he perfect animal continued breeding till December 1785, when fhe was about eight years old, a period of almott fix years, in which time fhe had thirteen farrows, confifting of 162 pigs. « From this experiment,” fays Mr. Hunter, ¢ it feems moft probable, that the ovaria are from the beginning deftined to produce a fixed number, beyond which they cannot go, though circumftances may tend to diminifh that number; that the conftitution at large has no power of giving to one ovarium the power of propagating equal to two; for, in the prefent experiment, the animal with one oyarium produced ten pigs lefs than half the number brought forth by the pig with both ovaria. But that the conttitution has fo far the power of influencing one ovarium, as to make it produce its number in a lefs time than would probably have been the cafe, if both ovaria had been preferved, is evident fromthe above recitedexperiment." Certain irregularities in the procefs throw much light on the fubject, and tend to ftrengthen-the argument juft ad- duced. Fetufes may be detained in the ovarium, and deve- loped there to a certain point. Or, the germ may efcape from the ovary, and not be admitted into the Fallopian tube ; in which cafe it has often become attached to fome part of the abdominal cavity, inftead of the uterus, confti- tuting what is termed a ventral extra-uterine foetus. After it has attained a certain degree of developement, labour pains come on, but parturition cannot be effected; and the bones of the child are, perhaps, difcharged through an ab{cefs, or gain admiffion into the alimentary canal, and are Iie yoided GENERATION. voided per anum. Laftly, the germ may be detained in ‘the Fallopian tube, without arriving at the uterus. The ftruc- ture of the part does not allow it to dilate fufficiently to contain a full-fized child, and it accordingly burfts, in ge- neral, long before that time, and the patient perifhes from bleeding. We mutt allow, that the efcape of any thing from the ovarium in the human fubject, or ether mammalia, i is rather inferred than dire@ly proved ; : and that we cannot fee the rerms in the Fallopian tube, on their paffage to the uterus ; ia fo obfcure a ftate are the rudiments of the future animal at the time, and immediately after conception. We have reprefented the cor rpus luteum as_ the confe- quence of a fruitful copulation ; but there is fome doubt w hether the latter circumiflance be an effential condition of Sits production. It is well known that birds lay ezgs w ith- out the concourfe of the male, and fuch eggs are unproduc- tive. - Valifneri aTEnS: that he has feen corpora lutea in the ovaries of virgins 5 ; and Blumenbach appears, in the follow- ing quotation, to agree with him in opinion on the fubject. « Porro autem non minus verum eft innuptas aves ejuimodi eva fubventanea ex mechanica titillatione genitalium conci- pere pofie, quod quidem phyficlogic Salto adeoque omnis zoologix vere {cientifice parens Ariftoteles, et prete- rito fecuto oculatiffimus Harveius animadvertit, quorum hic adeo libidinofas interdum aves effe afferuit, ut dorfum earum manu folum leniter tangas, fiatim procubant, et ori- ficium uterinum nudent et exporrigant, quod fi blande digito demulferis, vago murmure, alarumque gelticulatione, gra- tam veneris dulcedinem eafdem exprimere; quin etiam fe- mellas ova inde cone in turdo, merula, aliifque fe effe expertum. Idem de pfittaco refert, quem uxor ejus diu in dftitiis habuerat, fepe unc ludibundum et lafcivum fedentis gremivm adiifle ubi dorfum fibi demulceri geftiverit quaffa- tifque alis et peg ftrepitu fammam animi fui letitiam teftatus fuerit. Non diu autem pot blandas has contreéta- tiones eundem eee crebri{que tandem convulfronibus obortis ex{piraffe. Diilecto itaque cadavere ovum fere per- feétum fe in utero ejus reperiifle; fed, ob defectum maris, corruptum. Ignofeunt mares ifs irum virginum, fi Jutea in earum ovariis cc srpora non abfimilem originem agnoviffe fuf- picor ; utpote qui in puellari corpore, non minus quam in > turdis et merulis eundem xitri venerei in ovarii veficulas effeGtum effe reor, fitve is viri amplexu, fitve lefbio quodam artificio excitatus. © Quadrant in eam fufpicionem, quas diximus circumftantia, fub quibus corpora lutea in innuptis obfervarunt auctores; zxtas {cilicet, a decimo quarto mde anno, hyfterica quarundam affectio, &c. Num climati quo- que aliquid tribuen@um, decidere non audeo, annotans tan-~ tummodo, quotquot mihi hactenus apud auctores occurre- runt ejufmodi haud inficiandi cafus, eos non nifi in Italicis virginibus obfervatos fuifle.”” Specimen phyfiologix com- parate, Goetting, 1789, p. 4—9. Phyfiologifts have queftioned whether a fecond : impregna- tion can take place after a fruitful eopulation. Inftances of twins, born with different degrees of developement, have been confidered as proofs of fuperfetation. The reafoning does nat feem very conclulive, the fact does not clearly prove that the two feetufes were conceived at different and diftant periods, fipce the growth and developen ment of one germ may have been prevented by various caufes. The queltion is, whether a woman, having only a fingle uterus, can con- ecive two or more months after a fruitful copulation; and at prefent we have no faéts to prove the affirmative, while pre- fumption is ttrongly againit it. The thing appears more ealy, if we fuppote the two conceptions to be feparated by a very fhort int terval. Thus we can conceive that the Ame- rican lady mentioned by Buffon, who received the embraces of her hufband, and of a negro flave, in the fame morning, may have brought forth twins of different colours. On the fubjects of the preceding paragraphs, the reader may refer to the ample colleétion of facts, in the eighth volume of Haller’s Elementa; to Spallanzani’s differtations relative to the natural hiftory of animals and vegetables, yol-2d.; to Haighton’ Ss experimental inquiry concerning animal impregnation, in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for 1797; to Cruikfhanks’s experiments, in which, on the third day after impregnation, the ova of rabbits were found in the Fallopian tubes, and on the fourth day after impregnation in the uterus itfelf, with the firft appearances of the fostus 5 ibid. The various opinions concerning the fource from which the new animal is derived, and the manner in which its forma- tion is effected, form the laft fubje& of the prefent article. In the fcience of life, as in all others, the {peculations and hypothefes concerning any matter are in an inverfe ratio to the number of afcertained facts; and perfonsare difpofed to talk more, in proportion, as they know lefs. Hence the vaft abundance of theories of generation, which almoft exhaufted the patience even of Haller, and extorted from him the fol- Jowing very fenfible ob‘ervations. <* Iterum ingratiffimum mihi impendet opus, feribere de iis, que multis a natura cir- cumjectis tenebris velata, fenfuam luci inaccefia, hominum agitantur opinionibus ; erit de iis ferenda fententia, im qui- bus quod difpliceat, quod infirmum jit, ubique fe offert, id autem parciflime, in quo animus, tenquam in firmo aliquo fundamento, adquiefcat. TErunt libranda cum phenomenis contraria phenomena, cum argumentis contraria argumenta, ut demum nihil doceam certius, quam nihil me docere. Et eft tamen etiam in defperatione de problematis folutione fua utilitas, proximumque eft vero, nihil docere, quod falfum fit.” The firft fubject of our inquiry will be, from what - quarter the materials of the new animal are derived; then, by what caufes thefe materials are formed into an acini fuch as we have fhewn to be produced in the female by can~ ception. The opinions concerning the fource of the off- {pring may be reduced to three ; one gives to woman only the humble office of affording a proper nidus for the due evolution of the feetus, which, according to this theory, already exilts in the male femen, and requires only a a ful habitation. Another dire@ly reverfes this pofition ; puts the female in poffeffion of every requifite for the fe tion of a new animal, and confiders the male a mere ftimulat- ing engine, to call the latent powers of the female into life. The third gives not pre-eminence to either fex, but, with the mutual embrace, fuppofes a mutual effet to be pro- duced ; it regards both the male and female, as concurring effentially in the warklof reproductio: n, by each affording a fomethinz, which, when united under preper circumftances, becomes the proximate caufe of impregnation. The ancients admitted a fentinal liquor i in both fexes, and concluded, not unnaturally, that the fcetus was formed by the union of thefe. Hippocrates and Ariftotle held this opinion, and conceived that the fex of the offspring depended on fome predominance in quality of one or the other fluid, — However obfcure the mode of this mixture may feem, {pe- cious arguments are not wanting in fupport of the opinion. The neceffity of the co-operation of the two fexes, in pro-~ ducing a foetus, in almott every inftance in the animal king- dom, may be alleged in fayour of the doétrine. Alfe the exiftence of different fexesin almoft all plants; the fecundat- ing power of the male duit, and the perpetual prefence of the feed’before fecundation ; which, however, remains un- fruitful without the influence of the former. The tefem- blance * GENERATION. blanee of the foetus to both parents in the human race, in animals and even in plants, may be urged in fupport of the fame do¢irine, The old opinion, which fuppofes that males are produced by the right teftis and right ovary, and are contained in the right fide of the uterus, while females are formed on the left, is deftitute of all foundation. A male with one teftis has produced children of both fexes; and male or female fectufes are feen indifferently in the right and left cornua uteri of animals. The hypothefis of Hippocrates and Ariflotle was adopted by Buffon, and is prefented in his natural hiftory with all re advantage it can derive from his warm imagination and eloquent diétion. But figurative language recompenfes us very imperfectly in fcientific matters er want of obferva- ‘tion, and halty ¢ ceneralizations ; and the theory of Buffon is fo dettitute sine foundation, that we can hardly think it worthy of Ronee He conceives that there is a matter in nature, compofed of incorruptible molecules, always living and aétive, and deftined to the nutrition and evolution of all organized beings. Thefe particles are received in the food, and are applied to every part of a plant or animal. Every animal is an interior mould, by which thefe particles are fafhioned to nce particular fhape. When there is more of this matter than is required for purpofes of nutrition, the overplus is conveyed from all parts of the body to the tefti- cles of each fex, which are its refervoirs. It exifts here in a liquid form, and contains molecules analogous to all parts of the Fae fufficient to form a fmaller being, exactly fimilar to the large one, from which it is produced. The molecules compoting the new being are analogous to thofe of all parts of the body, from which they have been c con: veyed to the teltes, and. may be deemed a kind of extract of the old body. This matter, having paffed through iG interior mould, and finding the uterus in a favourable fate, generates a new animal. W e fhall not abufe our reader’s patience by the further detail of fuch vague chimeras ; they more than juttify the fareafm of Voltaire in his * Homie aux quarante ecus.’” “ Ah! monfieur le favant, fays the man aux quarante ecus, could not you ‘inform me how children are made? no, my triend!} replies the fayant; but I will tell you what: philofophers have imagined on ‘Mis fubject, or, in other words, how children are aoe made.’ This jeu d’efprit contains a lively ironical account of the various thee- ries of generation, which the reader will find much more entertaining, and quite as initru¢tive as the original accounts of thefe reveries. Of thofe, who confider that the father has the principal fhare in producing the child, J.eeuwenhoeck is the foremoft. He contiders the {permatic vermiculi as men in miniature ; and conceives that one of thefe crawls in fome way or other into the ovarian velicle, and is there developed. That:the foetus is produced by the mother has been more generally fuppofed ; and feems more probable on the firlt slance, fince the child mott certainly comes from the mother, although it is by no means clear that it ever went to her from the father. The analogy of almoft all animals, and of plants, favours this opinion. ‘The generation of the aphides has been adduced in its fupport ; where a fingle fe Suni ition fut- fices for feveral generations. In the frog and toad, and in the bird, it is very clear that the foetus pre-exilts in the ova- rium ; and that the contact of the femen produces at firft no perceptible change in its appearance. Indeed the wonder- fully imall portion of fecundating fluid neceffary to produce the requilite effect in the frog or toad would lead us to con- i cannot excite any very great change at the firft moments of its application ; and this Reeunaeen€ together with the obvious exiltence of the fomething, which is after- wards evolved into a tadpole, in the ovarium before copula- tion, clearly proves the pre-exiltence of the germ in the ie males of this. {pecies of animals. «* A quantity of feed,” fays Spallanzani, “ far more inconfiderable than we fhould ever have imagined, is fufficient to animate a tadpole. We have feen that it is not neceffary to cover the faetus complete- ly with this proh fic fluid: a drop will fuffice. Further, three grains mixed with twelve, and even with eighteen ounces of water, communicate to every part of it the power of fecundation, fince tadpoles placed i in any part of the mixture are fecundated. The three grains of feed mutt therefore have been diffufed through the whole mafs of water. But, what an enormous ener of its particles muft fuch a dif- How fmalla fhare cf prolific liquor mult fall to the fhare of each tadpole! Yet there are facts which prove that the femen {till retains its virtue after this exceffive divifion ; for | have found a globule 1-5o0th of a line in dia- meter, taken out of a mixture of three grains of feed with eighteen ounces of water, was often capable of fecundating a tadpole. Defirous of knowing the proportion, which the tadpole (that of a frog 1 is 2-3ds of a line in ee bears to the particles of feed Gimateds ina drop of this dimenfion, I have found, on calculation, that it is as 1064777777 tO I- How infinitely fmall, therefore, is the quantity of feed in comparifon with the bulk of the foetus, which it fecundates ! This deduction led me to calculate the weight of the parti- cles of femen difperfed in this drop of water: it. is rovisc7 ze, Of agrain, That I might view thefe particles under every poflible afpect, T reduced’ their bulk to cubie lines, when it appeared to be about equal to 552 4,5g20 of acubic. line.’ Differtations, vol. ii. p. 212. The re- fearches. of Haller, and of others on the formation of the chick, have clearly proved the pre-exiitence of the foetus i in the female of birds. But, although this hypothefis appears to be fupported by the moft numerous and fatisfa€tory proofs, there are difficul- ties oppofed to its adoption: «It is very certain,’’ fays Haller, « that children often refemble the parents in the human race ; fo that you may diftinguifh one brother by his retemblance to another, or know afon by his likenefs to the father or mother, or even grandfather or grandmother. All a individuals of fome families are characterized by particu- lar lines of countenance. My own Family have now been diftinguifhed for tallnefs of ftature for three ge enerations, sriEhout excepting one out of many arasidtons defcended from one grandfather. Families of red-haired perfons are not uncommon; the difagreeable colour bemg derived from the father or mother or gr: andatothen! But His refemblance of children to parents is difcerned moft plainly when there is any detect or peculiar formation tranfmitted from one to the other. The tranfmiffioe of difeafe may perhaps not be deemed fo furprifing, fince nobody denies ‘that the mafs of fluids is derived from the mother ; but the father contributes the fmalleft drop pofhble, if anys, Yet we find various dif- eafes, or Sheth eh to difeafe, palling from either parent to the offspring. ‘This is matter of common notorie ty with refpeét to gout, rheumatifm, infanity, {erofula, confump- tion, &c. but there is more doubt of fome others, as cata- ract, hernia, aneurifm, fquinting, harelip, clubfoot, fas tuity, &c, of which, however; authors relate many exam- ples. We know avery remarkable inftance of two noble females, who got hufbands on account of their wealth, al- though they were nearly ideots, and from whom this mental} detect clude tha firfion occation ! GENERATION. defeétextended fora century into feveral families, fo that fome of all their defcendants {till continue ideots even in the fourth and fifth generations. Perhaps the refemblances of the mother are rather the moft common. The ill-made Per- fians have improved themfelves into a very beautiful nation by their repeated marriages with the celebrated Georgian fe- males. The offspring of Negroes and Europeans partakes of the charaGters of both parents in colour, form of the lips, nofe, &c.; and we may obferve in general, of all fuch mixed breeds, that the children produced feem to conftitute a mean between the father and mother. Peculiarities of for- mation are not uncommonly tranfmitted-; as a very hollow palate, which I myfelf have feen, and many others. A man ccvered uniyerfally with hard, elafic, cylindrical, warty excrefcences, begot fons and daughters with the fame defor- mity. An excels in the number of thumbs (four) paffed from the father to the children : and there are curious exam- ples of fimilar fats in individuals pofleffing five fingers on each hand. Pliny mentions that Q. Horatius, who had this ftructure, begot two daughters refembling him in this refpect. A family mentioned by Reaumur is-moce remarkable : the grandfather had a fupernumerary finger on each hand, and a toe oneach foot. His firft fon produced three children with the fame peculiarity: the fecond, who had the ufual number of fingers, but in whom the thumb was very thick, and appeared as if compofed of two united together, had three daughters with the fupernumerary members: the third had the natural ftruGture. A daughter, with a very thick thumb, brought forth a boy with the additional finger. That too much influence may not be attributed in this cafe to the influence of the male, it may be obferved that another daughter, who had large thumbs, produced fome fons with fupernumerary members. Maupertuis has alfo recorded a family of children-diftinguifhed by this charaéter, produced by amother with the fame peculiarity. The thick lip ‘in the Auttrian family was introduced by the marriage of Mary of Burgundy with Maximilian. It is afferted that cafual muti- lations, as blindnefs, &c. have been tran{mitted to the off- fpring, inhorfes: and fome complain of the plan of em- ploying Arabian ftallions rather than mares for improving the ‘breed. ‘There is a peculiar breed of four-horned fheep, de- {cendiny from the female ; and another of pigs with undi- vided hoofs. The difficulty of the fubjeét is increafed by the circumftance that thefe defeéts and peculiarities do not in general pafs to the offspring. Blind, lame, or mutilated parents have perfect children. In the family with the fuper- numerary fingers, already mentioned, feveral individuals had the ordinary formation. Fowls without the rump breed with the common kind of chicken, beth with and without that particular formation; and the fame mother has children like herfelf andthe father, and others without fuch refem- blance."’ Elementa Phyfiologix, lib. 29, fect 8. The phenomena afforded by hybrid generations are cu- rious. It is only in the cafe of animals very nearly allied in their general characters that any hybrid offspring is produced : and this has the mixed characters of both parents. ‘The re- lations of women in Africa breeding with monkeys are not fufficiently authenticated. ‘« The mule (produced from the mate by the afs) does not,’ fays Haller, «¢ feem to me to be an afs, which however it refembles in its tail, ears, and obftinacy, fince the form of the body, the ftrength and fize, the hocks, the hair, and colour are thofe of the mother. Vhe voice is more like that of the father, and there isa farther refemblance of the afs in the peculiar hollow of the jarynx. As the mule feems to be ftronger and more lively than the afs, fo the hinny begotten by the ftallion on the fhe-afs, feems rather to follow the mother: it is faid to have the ears of the horfe, the mane and tail of the afs; and tobe fmaller than the mule. he offspring of the com- mon fhe-goat with the Angora he-goat has the long hair of the father; while that of the Angora female with ‘he European male has not that charaGter. The fine hair of the former breed was continued in Sweden to the third generation. This fact fhews the prevalence of the male, which, being born in awarmer region, exceeds in fiature the European animal. The pheafant breeds with the common hen: the offspring has the mother’s colour, with the form of the father, whom on the whole it mottrefembles. If the animal produced from fuch a conneétion breeds again with the male pheafant, the young are complete pheafants. When thefe and various other analogous faéts are compared, we remain in as much doubt as before. It appears that the offspring is affected by both parents, in fome cafes more by the father, and in others more by the mother. And I think, that where the father is greater in fize, his charaéters prevail, and vice verfa.’’ Ibid. Neitheris it merely the form and external appearance that are changed in the cafes of hybrid animals ; we have already obferved that the mule has the peculiar laryngeal cavity of the afs; and it is further known that this animal, and all other hybrids, very rarely propagate: fo that we may con- clude that fome general internal change is effected in thefe cafes. A more accurate anatomical defcription of hybrid animals would probably contribute to illuftrate the fubject : the faéts at prefent in our poffeffion lead us to conclude that the foetus is not produced entirely by the mother or father, that beth parents contribute fomething to the offspring, and that the new being is rather generated de novo than evolved. In confidering the powers by which the admirable ftruéture of the animal frame is raifed, we encounter a vaft hoft cf the moft wild and vifionary hypothefes: we defcend, to ufe the expreffion of Haller, from twilight into regions of utter darknefs. In the firft place we reje& entirely the operation of fortuitous caufes: the notions concerning equivocal ge- neration have been fufficiently refuted by modern natal, even in the lower orders of animals, where the phenomena, on a fuperficial view, tend to confirm the vulgar opinions, and there is not'eventhe fhadow of probability in favour of fuch explanations in any of the higher claffes. In thefe times, however, men of confiderable reputation have not been wanting to defend opinions very much refem- bling the hypothefis of equivocal generation. Buffon has contended that all the parts of an animal are not formed at once, but fucceffively, by epigenefis. His obferyations concerning the organic molecules of the femen have been al- ready noticed: he even admits the formation of new beings” by putrefaétion and by the fortuitous concourfe of particles. His affociate, Turberville Needham, does not allow of equi- vocal generation, but fuppofes the exiftence of a power, which Bae the body from the fmalle& germ by the affimila- tion of aliment. He thinks that the primitive germs alone are created at once, but that there are no compound germs at all refembling animals. He quotes the phenomena ob- fervable in vegetable infufions ; and conceives that animal and vegetable fubftances are the fame-in their origin, and admit of being changed into each other. The firft germ of an organized bedy is very fimple, and not yet organ- ized, nor poffeffing any lineaments of the animal. Hence the {malleft animalcula, as confifting of the feweft germs, are formed the fooneft; and thofe of a more compound {truGture, more flowly. The whole affair of vegetation confifts of an expaniile force refiding in matter, and a refitting power. he former is perfeétly elaftic, and exiits , in Po in every fenfible point of matter; it is affifted by heat. There is a power, in every point of vegetable matter, to pro- duce filaments, from which microfcopic animalcula may be formed. A real generating caufe exifls in nature. ‘The expanfive force is increafed, and the refiftance diminifhed, when matter is clevated to a flate of vitality. This is effected by the developement of the active principles; it returns again to a vegetable nature, when the contrary eaufes obtain. He does not, however, admit of equivocal generation, but conceives it neceflary, that the feminal fluids, both of the male and female, chara¢terized by their peculiar properties, fhould be prefent. In this hypothefis the power of the femen is not neglected, Nor is any attraction er fortuitous concourfe of atoms admit- ted. But the experiments on infufion animalcula are em- ployed to authorize conclufions, which cannot be very eafily admitted. We finda great dilficulty in admitting how any blind force, not regulated by deSign, can form animals de- fiened for certain purpofes, and fit to fill their place in the chain of beings. Hence we find that thefe animalcula are not produced when the experiments are fo conducted as to remove all poffibility of the introdu€tion of ova from without. The experiments of Spallanzani clearly prove this point. The fyftem of epigenefis met with an able defender in C. F. Wolf : fee his Theoria Generationis, Halle, 1759, 4to. He explains the mode of growth, and the formation of parts in animals and yegetables, by the a&ticn of a power which he calls vis efentiahs, without any mould or model. This power, together with the fixation cr coagulation (foli defcentia) of juices, accomplifhes the whole work of formation. The heat of the air in-plants, and the heart in animals, are acceflory caufes of generation. The primordia of animals are glo- bules, which cannot be reduced into fmaller component parts; neither arteries, veins, nor heart exift in the egg at 24 hours. The vis effentialis, different from the power of the heart, now begins toad, and, inthe globular matter of the area umbi- licalis, forms grooves,which gradually grow red, and conflitute veffels. Thefe at firft are large intervals of the globular matter, but gradually become fmaller. Membranes are formed round thefe paflages. All parts are firft fluid and inorganic, and then formed into veflels. Trunks are formed to the branches, and at laft the great trunk of all, the heart. New parts are formed, from the juices of the firlt ; and thus the organs appear in fucceflion, one after the other. Haller refutes this theory from his accurate obfer- vations on the formation of the chick; he fhews that in fa& parts exift, diftinguifhed by their form and other charaCters, when fuperficial obfervation would lead us to infer that there _was only an inorganic homogeneous mafs. The tranfpa- rency of the whole prevents the outlines and diftin¢tion from being vifible, but coagulation by acids brings thefe di‘ter- ences into view. Becaufe the original gelatinous mafs, which forms the animal, feems to have no obvious ftructure or imaller diftinguifhable component parts, we are not therefore to conclude that it has none. Spirit of wine, poured on this jelly, hardens it fo, that we can fee fibres, veflels, and vifcera, where there feemed at firft to be a mere tranfparent concrete. There is no effential power in the alcohol to model rude mat- terinto an organic ftracture; but the deftruction of the tranfparency allowed the outlines of parts to be diftinguifhed; fimilar explanations may be given of all his obfervations on this fubject. Moreover, we can by no means under{tand how this fingle power can form fuch different parts always in the fame place in one animal, and according to one arche- type, if the materials be inorganic, mutable, and fufcepti- ble of any configuration. Why fhould this matter always produce, without any error, a chicken in the common fowl], GENERATION. a pea-chick in the pea-fowl? Nothing is affumed but a di- lating force acting progreflively ; this might give origin toa vafcular net-work, growing conftantly larger as long as the expanfive force exceeded the refiftance ; but how does it produce a heart, a head, brain, and kidneys? Why isa pe- culiar order of parts formed ineach animal ? Some again have explained the formation of the body ac- cording to mechanical principles, by the power of fermenta- tion, &c. Wecannot, fays Haller, conceive that any power, unlefs guided by intelligence, can aét on matter in a manner conttantly changing, and fo dire&ted, that inorganic materi- als are formed into, bones, mufcles, veffels, and vifcera, ars ranged in a certain order with refpe& to each other. All fpontaneous produétions, as for inftance the beautiful figures feen in fnow, are arranged in an uniform and invariable man- ner. Let any perfon, in order to eftimate the value of fuch hypothefes, refle& merely on the eye. How can this organ be moulded by any expanfive force into fuch various fuccef- five layers, all differently fabricated, where the light paffes through tranfparent bodies, every where furrounded by others perfectly opaque, and fo arranged, that in the millionsof men and animals the rays of light conftantly converge upon the retina ? Yet this blind material caufe knows nothing of light, nor of the laws by which it is refracted, although we mutt fuppofe it to have adapted all the’ parts fo accurately, even to the hundredth part ofa line, in order to the collection of the rays in the retina. Again, this unintelligent caufe has fur- nifhed the eye with eye-lids and eye-brows, and has given to the iris a power of contra¢tion and dilatation, by which the organ is accommodated to too great or too imall a quantity of light. Buffon fuppofes the nutritive matter to penetrate all parts ofthe body, andtobe formed in them, as in an internal mould ; and he conceives that the fuperfluous particles are carried back to the femen, conveying into that fluid every thing neceflary to the production of a new being, fimilar to the former. The feminal fluid of either fex contains the par- ticles neceffary for forming an individual of the fame fex. Thefe muft be mixed for the produétion of a new being. The generative organs are the bafis of the new animal, and thefe are firft formed of themfelves: the other organic par- ticles of the body are arranged round them as.a centre, according to the order, which they held in the body, from which they were produced. That fex prevails, of which the particles are the moft numerous. The author of this hypo- thefis confiders that it explains completely the refemblance of the offspring to either or both parents, the formation of twins, &c. The illuitrious name of Buffon can hardly induce us to animadvert ferioufly on fuchdreams. Inthe firft place, what is an internal mould or model? The authors of the -hypo- thefis are fo far from fatisfying us on this fundamental point, that they confefs we could not underitand it,- unlefs we had afeventh fenfe. How then came they to know it? So far from underftanding what this model is, we have no hefita- tion in afferting that its exiftence is purely ideal. But if we fhould grant this, there are {till infuperable difficulties re- maining. . Many children are unlike both parents, and they fometimes have parts which both the father and the mother wanted, and with which, therefore, neither parent could have fupplied them; this is the cafe with the offspring of mutilated individuals, and particularly with the male chil~ dren of fathers who had loft one teftiss, a cafe which was not. uncommon when caftration was an ordinary mode of treating ruptures. ‘The mother cannot beftow on her daughter the hymen, which fhe has loit ; nor can we fee the fource from which the foramen ovale, the ductus arteriofus, and venofus,, the: GENERATION. the umbilical veffels, the placenta, the cord, &c. are derived. The teeth too muit puzzle us greatly. The various trans- formations, and every other phenomenon in the lower ordersof animals, are altogether irreconcileable with the hypothefis. The adult frog has no branchiz, which are yet feen in the tadpoles. , In the bee kind, the males, females, and working bees differ in ftruéture. The offspring might refemble the father or mother, but whence do the working bees come, which refemble neither parent, and have no generative organs. How entirely does the caterpillar differ, in all points of its organization, from the butterfly! How can the particles unite, when the male and female are fo entirely different, as in the cafe of many infects, where one is winged, and the other not, &c. The fuppotition of the fuccefiive fixation of parts round ‘the generative organs is quite inadmifible ; for thofe very parts cannot be recocnized until a comparatively late peried, and after others have been fome time formed. This fact was confirmed, fays Blumenbach, by an obfer- vation which I lately made on abortive twins of different fexes, about fisteen weeks old. Although thefe were re- markable for the beauty of their proportions, and were mott perfectly formed according to the itandard of their tender age, the difference of the fexual organs could be afcertained only by the moit careful inveftigation: in every other refpect, asin the figure, phyfiognomy, meafurement of the lines, &c. they refembled each other completely. Inftitut. Phyfiolog. p. 387- In reply to fome of thefe objections it has been affirmed, that thofe parts of the futus, which the parents have net, are formed by intelligent nature from the fuperfluity of the or- ganic molecules : that fhe adds a fecond tefticle from the excefs furnifhed by the fingle gland ofthe father; and that the placenta and fetal coverings are produced in the fame way from the excefs of nutritious molecules ; but if nature can make wings, inteftines, nerves, feet, teftes, placenta, and membranes, &c. without any mould, why fhould fhe not form the whole body in the fame way: and, whence arifes this al-sundance of particles, produced by the teftis ofa man, who has only one gland, when the mould muft be one half lefs than in a perfec individual ? How came this intelligent nature to be fo fuddenly produced in a mere machine, when we had before heard nothing of her? Can any one underitand how particles tranfmitted from fo vaft an extent as the father’s whole bedy, can occupy fo {mall_a fpace, even when united to thefe of the mother, as to be invifible for feveral days after conception ? In fhort, there is no female femen, no_ corpus Iuteum before copulation, and confequently no fluid from the mother to be mixed with that of the father, and convey to the foetus the female generative organs, the mamme and the other diltinétions of the female fex. A very different theory from that which we have juft - eontidered, and a very old one, afcribes the formation of the foetus to a formative power of the mind or fowl (anima ftructrix, vis plaftica).: and fome conceive that the object is effected by the mind of the fectus. The partifans of thefe opinions rely much on the effects faid to be produced on the body of the fcetus by caufes operating on the mother’s mind. ‘They alledge that the ftructure of the offspring is often materially changed and impaired by the longing of the mother, er by various violent emotions: that thefe effets are produced, not from any corporeal caufe, but from the aétion of the mind on the anima ftruétrix of the fectus: that there is a harmony between the mind of the mother and her body, and between the bodies of the mo- ther and child. Various attempts have been made to explain the manner and nature of this influence and con- 4 nection. But it would have been better to have eftablifhed the fact_incontrovertibly in the firft place. The records of medicine abound with inftances of aloft all imaginable effects produced on the foetus from the caufes aboye-men- tioned :—of the likenefs of fruits or flowers, &c. on the body, of various animals, of bruifes ;—of parts being cut, deftroyed, or otherwife injured, &c. &c. That credulity and ignorance have given birth to moft of thefe narratives, cannot be doubted. Our faith inthem muft be mott ferioufly fhaken, when we obferve that there are endlefs examples of the moft vehement mental difturbances, as terrors, longing, paffion, occurring repeatedly during pregnancy, particu- larly in delicate and hyfterical women, without any thing unnatural appearing afterwards in the child, even when the mother has expreffled her ftrong perfuation that her child would be mutilated. Nor can women foretel when the marks above alluded to (nevi) will appear. Deformed and monftrous children, and others marked with nevi, have been repeatedly obferved by the moft judicious and ac- curate obfervers, when the mother was not confcious of any fuch caufe as thofe akove alluded to. Children are born blind of healthy parents without the circumftance being confidered as extraordinary or requiring any thing accidental to account for it. When women obferye any deformity in their offspring, they recal to their memory every thing which has happened during ‘their pregnancy ; and if they can remember any fall or fright, or fuddenly feeing any uncommon animal, the carcafe of a beaft opened, or a wound, &c. they immediately fet it down as the caufe of the phenomenon. And, from the various turns which fuperftitious and whimfical fancies take in different countries, the fame appearances are afcribed to very different caufes. In weighing the teitimonies of authors, we fhall find that the moft experienced and judicious indulge the common notions about nzvi much lefs than others. In the nume- rous colleétions, where monfters and extraordinary produc- tions of all kinds are carefully collected and preferved, we fee no example of a genuine nevus, according to the com- mon notions, that is, of. the refemblance of a faufage, or a pig’s foot, or a wound, &c. in any part of the body of a foetus. In further fupport of our opinions we may quote the numerous inftances of monifters, vegetable produéticns. which cannot be afcribed to any power of imagination, er any mental affection whatever. We cannot doubt that the feed and the ovum contain the caufe of the future ftru@ture, which is always preferved uniform in the fame aed That various external circumftances, as a copious or defi- cient fupply of nutrition, and many caufes of a nature entirely unknown to us, may have an effect in altering or varioully modifying the original fabric, within certain li- mits, we do not pretend to deny. If the phenomena of nevi afford no proof of a plaftic foul; if we acknowledge that the beautiful ftruéture of an animal body cannot be reared by chance, nor by any blind force with which inorganic parts may attraét each other, it remains for us to confider whether the fetus is formed before the time of conception, according to the hypothetis of evolution, This opinion has been chiefly held in modern times: itis ably defended by Haller, and has been fupported by the experiments and writings of Spal- lanzani and Bonnet. Ii, fays Haller, the germ or original of the fectus be con- tained in the mother, if it be already formed in the ovum, and fo far~perfected as to require merely a fuppl of nourifhment for its growth, the grand difficulty of au. ing fuch an artificial and complicated ftruéture from ig. organic matter is overcome, In this hypothefis, the Creator, with GENERATION. avith whom nothing is difficult, forms the machine: he has arranged dead matter, in conformity: with his -previous defigns, and according to the archetype fixed by ms wif- dom, before the acceffion of the influence furnifhed by the male. In the fame way you may have in plants a perfec flower, capfules, and well-formed feeds, differing from fruit- ful feeds only in the ‘cireumttance, that they would not grow into a new plant. The metamorphofes of infects have been adduced in fupport of this notion of evolution : the butterfly, fo entirely different from the chryfalis, was entirely contained in the former, and needed only to be difengaged by the removal of the fkin, and have its parts unfolded. The rudiments of the trachee, which are to contain air in the bee, cxift i the fatty fubitance of the worm from which the perfect infeG is formed, and nu- merous examples of a fimilar defcription might be adduced. The phenomenon of incubation, and the fuccelflive ap- pearance of various parts until the whole animal is com- pleted, afford a convincing argumert for the hypothefis of evolution, After recounting the gradual and progref- five unfolding of the body of the chicken, Haller obferves, that the progrefs is nearly the fame in quadrupeds. “ In the human foetus, which at firft feems a mere unorganized mafs, Leeuwenhoeck already difcerned, by means of his microfcopes, diftinct organization. Thus it is clear, that an ammal without any limbs, or difcernible arrangement of parts, is gradually changed by various ftages into a pertec&t being, nourifhed by food, and fufceptible of yolun- tary motion, It may be inquired, whether the animalcule, before it can be recognized by the fenfes of the diffeétor, exiits in the father or the mother: whether it were formed by epigenefis, or the fucceflive union of particles; or fuddenly produced. LEpigenefis is altogether impoffible. Whoever has contemplated the ftru€ture of the body with a little attention, muft be convinced that an animal could not exift without a heart, fince the principle of life and motion exifts in that organ. But the heart muft be furnifhed with arteries to carry the vital fluid to all parts, and with veins to carry it back again. It is eafily proved that the foetus does not confift of a mere fleleton of blood-veffels. Vifcera muft accompany thefe, of which, with fome cellular fubftance, they are entirely compofed. But no one has feen the vifcera com- pofed by particles fucceflively depofited: they are perfect, although fmall, as foon as they can be difcerned. Muf- cles muft haye been prefent from the firft: for the young animal, in the incubated egg, is capable of motion, and from its ftraight ftate bends the body. It is moreover irritable, and mult confequently have mufcles, although they are concealed under the appearance of a mere gelatine. The head is large, and the eyes are vifible among the firft parts, ‘together with the heart. The mufcles require the prefence of nerves, the brain muft have been prefent with the head and heart.’’ The hypothefis then, to which thefe argu- ments lead, is, that the perfect animal exiits previoufly to concepticn; that nothing now is generated, but that the parts, which were folded up, and contracted into a {mall fpace, are expanded, unfolded, enlarged, and rendered confpicuous. In this mode cf explication, we muit, it feems, admit, that the germs of all the human race, as well thofe who have already lived, as thofe who may here- after be born, were contamed in the ovaria of Ive: a propoiition of fo itrange a nature, and fo completely un- fufceptible of proof, that we cannot value very highly the hypothefis, which renders it neceflary. "The pre-organized germ would remain in a kind of torpid ftate in its ovarian receptacle, were it not fimulated by the VourXv I. male femen. This fluid roufes it from its lethargy, and caufes its growth and developement. The ftimulating properties of the femen are fuppofed by Haller to excite the ‘motion of the heart; and he conceives that the fubfequent developement of the new being is eafily under- flood. _ The great reputation of Haller has not however gained to his opinions on this fubje& univerfal affent. The accu- rate and well-informed Blumenbach of Gottingen has oppofed the liypothefis of evolution with great efieét, and has arrayed againft it a number cf objections, which its advocates wiil not eafily eludes His opinions on this fub- ject are, on the whole, the mot rational that have been hitherto promulgated: the following flatement of them is derived from his manual of natural hiftory, and his infti- tutes of phytioloe “© The hypothefis of evolution has been employed, pa ticularly in modern times, in order to ex- plain the origin of organized bodies; it has ben flated that no man, no other animal, and no plant is generated, but that - they have all exifted in their parents and anceftors, in the ftate of complete previoufly formed germs, fince the firft creation. The various generations have been continued, one within the other, like a feries of pill-boxes, and have been only gradually unfolded and brought to light by fecundation, in their refpective turns.’ Haller, who was the leader of the modern evolutionitts, roundly afferted, “¢ that the vifcera, and all the bones of the future foetus, exilt before conception in the maternal germ, but nearly in a fluid ftate, and therefore invifible.’’ This opinion muft be deemed, on the firft view of it, irreconcileable with reafon, on.account of the fuppofition involved in it, of the ufe- lefs creation of innumerable germs, which are never to be evolved ; and it is utterly at variance with all chafte and found phyfiological reafoning, on account of the great aid which it requires from preternatural agency, and the ~ufeleis complication of natural powers. which it fuppofes in oppolition to all the laws of philofophical inveitigation. According to the unanimous reprefentations of the moft ce- lebrated and zealous advocates -of evolution, the pre-organ- ized germs lie ready in the mother, are roufed at the time of fecundation, and proceed to their developement by this agency of the male feminal fluid. What we call conception is, therefore, nothing but the excitation of the torpid germ by the affufion of the male liquor. Here then, in the firtt place, we muft fuppofe an exciting power. But children often refemble moft ftrikingly their father only: bitches, after copulating with different dogs, often have’ puppies re- fembling their different fathers: two individuals of different races, asa Negro and an European, produce together off- {pring of a middle charaéter, or a mulatto: and, where the {pecies of animals or plants is different, mongrels are pro- duced, having as many characters of the father’s formation as of the mother’s. All thefe facts’ cannot be overlooked ; and, in order to account for them, the evolutioniits fuppole in the femen, in addition to its exciting influence, a forma- tive power, by which it can change the pre-organized germ contained in the mother into fomething of the form of the fa- ther. _ Thus we find two powers in the femen, an exciting, and a formative one. But, by means of an artificial hybrid impregnation, repeated through feveral generations, we can, at laft, change one fpecies of organized bodies entirely into another, One fpecies of plant, fecundated with the male duit of another, produced feeds, from which hybrid fe- cundable plants were produced. Thefe were again fecun- dated with duit of the fame male plant ; andj after this had been repeated four times, a complete metamorpholis had taken place, by which the charaéters of the male were ful. K fituted GENERATION. . ftituted for thofe of the female plant. The fame circum- flances will occur in the human fpecies if the offspring of an European woman by a negro be fecundated by a negro ; and the produce of that conception again by a negro, &c. Thus, at laft, the preformation of the maternal germ, which has been preferved fince the creation of the world, avails nothing, but yields entirely to the formative power of the male fluid, which, according to the hypothefis of evolution, fhould merely excite it toaGtion. Wemay affirm, in fhort, on the whole, that of all the phenomena adduced in fupport of this hypothefis, not one can be eltablifhed fufficiently clear to be admitted as a proof; while there are numerous unexceptionable obfervations direftly oppoling: it. But, in proportion as this hypothelis of evolution is in- confiftent with the phenomena, and with the rules of philo- fophifing, fo, on the contrary, the opinion, not that any fic- titious germs are evolyed by means of conception, but that the new being is in fa@ generated, and gradually and fuc- ceflively formed from the generative fluids, commends itfelf to our approbation by its fimplicity, and its accordance with the other procefles of nature. Since this affair of a true generation by fucceffive forma- tion has been varioufly explained by phyfiologiits, I con- ceive that we fhall approach moft nearly to the truth, by adopting the following propofitions. 1it. The materials, of which organized bodies, and confequently the human frame is compofed, differ from all other matter in being re- gulated fimply and exclufively by vital powers. 2d. Of thefe the moft remarkable, and that, whofe exiftence and agency can be the Jeaft queftioned, is the force which aéts on organized matter, when prepared for its deftination, but not yet moulded into fhape, and beftows on it, according to its various natures, various but determined and definite forms. In order to ditinguifh this vital power properly from all others, I give it the name of nifus formativus. 3d. This nifus formativus is imparted to the materials of genera- tion, when they are contained ina mature ftate, under the requifite conditions, in the uterine cavity, builds up in it the rudiments of the embryo, and gradually forms its organs to correfpond to their pre-ordained purpofes: it preferves the fame ftruture by the procefs of nutrition, as long as life continues ; and it obviates the effets of cafual mutila- tion, as far as that can be accomplifhed, by means of re- production, This gradual formation of new organized bodies can be moft manifeftly difcerned in thofe, which combine, with a confiderable magnitude, a rapid growth, and fuch a kind of delicate femi-tranfparent texture, that they can be clearly feen through, particularly in a fufficient light, and with moderate magnifying powers. This is the cafe in the vegetable kingdom, with fome fimple aquatic produc- tions, as the conferva fontinalis, which is propagated in the early part of fpring; in the bloodlefs divifions of the ani- mal kingdom, with the polypes (hydra) ; in the animal king- dom, with the incubated egg, on the firft appearance of the chicken, and its fubfequent daily developement. ‘It muft be obferved here, that the expreffion nifits forma- tivus is employed fimply for the purpofe of diftinguifhing this from the other kinds of vital powers, and by no means with any intention of explaining the caufe of generation. I believe the latter to be concealed by no Jefs impenetrable darknefs than that which involves the caufes of gravitation and attraGtion, which are only names for effects, recognized like the nifus formativus, a pofteriori. I have employed the word nifus chiefly in order to denote that the nature of this force is truly vital, and to diftinguifh it as clearly as poffible from the merely mechanical powers, by means of which fome philofophers formerly endeavoured to éxplain the bu- finefs of generation. ‘The very point on which the whole of this doétrine concerning the nifus formativus hinges, and which alone fufficiently diitinguifhes it from the vis plaftica of the ancients, the vis effentialis of Wolf, and other hypothefes of the like nature, confilts im the combina- tion of the two principles, by which the nature of organ- ized bodies is explained, viz. the phyfico-mechanical and the teleological. I hold it moft probable, that in the firft place, a definite time is required for the various fluids of each fex, which feem to be united in the cavity of the uterus after a fruit- ful copulation, to be mcre itimately mingled, and brought to maturity. When the period of this preparation is com- pleted, the mature and intimately blended fluids become animated by the nifus formativus, by which the hitherto unformed materials of generation are partly moulded into the elegant coverings of the ovum, partly into the figure of the contained embryo. Hence wé can underftand, why the finalleft veftige of a formed foetus cannot be difcerned, even with the affiftance of the excellent modern diop- trical inftruments, during the firlt week after conception, excepting the unformed fluids contained in the uterine cavity ; while the embryo appears as it were on a fudden in the third week. I fhould exceed the limits of thefe inftitutions, if I were to recount at greater length thofe arguments drawn from nature herfelf, by which the influence of the nifus forma- tivus in generation feems to me to be rendered very highly probable. I fhall advert very fhurtly to a few of thefe points, the force of which will be eafily difcovered by a more at= tentive confideration. On this principle I explain the me- morable experiment in the hiftory of hybrid productions, where prolific hybrids, fecundated during feveral genera- tions, by the male feed of the fame fpecies, have produced an offspring gradually deviating from the original ma- ternal form, and affuming the chara¢ters of the father, until at laft the former has been completely changed into the latter by a kind of arbitrary metamorpholis. The well-known fact of the great frequency of mon- ftrous produétions in fome fpecies of dometticated animals, particularly {wine, and their rarity in the wild condition of the fame animals, can only be explained on the principles already ftated. ‘The evolutionifts are compelled to affert that all thefe monftrofities muft have exifted in the germs from the firft creation of things. The phenomena of re-pro-. duGtion, taken altogether, can be much more aptly explain- ed by the agency of the nifus formativus, than on the notion of pre-exiftent germs; and fome particular examples, as, for inftance, of nails growing on the middle, after the lofs of the firft phalanx, cannot well be folved on any other principle. After confidering, and carefully weighing the arguments on both fides of the queftion, it appears, that even thofe who aflume pre-exiftent germs, muft allow to the male femi- nal fluid a confiderable formative influence, in addition to the exciting power, which they recognize in it, and con= fequently that the doétrine which they defend requires, in faét, the affitance of the nifus formativus; while the lat- ter fufficiently explains the phenomena of generation, with- out the aid of pre-exifting germs.”? Whatever theory of ge- neration we adopt, w3 mut ultimately afcend to the agency of the Creator, the primary cauife of all exiitence. The cireumtltances belonging to the ftate of pregnancy 5 the period and phenomena of parturition and its confequences, are treated under thofe articles of the Cyclopedia which relate to the fubject of midwifery. fa GENE- ot GEN Geveration of Birds, Fifhes, Foffils, Infeds, Metals, Minerals, Mufhrooms. See Brrp, Visi, Fossizs, Insects, &c. GENERATION of Plants. See Fecunpation and GEMMA. GENERATION of Shells. See Sues. GENERATION of Stones. See Stones, Span, TROCHITES, and CRYSTALS. Generation, in Theology. The, father is faid, by fome divines, to have produced his Word, or Son, from all cter- nity, by way of generation; on which occafion the word generation raifed a peculiar idea: that proceffion which is really effected in the way of underitanding, is called gene- ration, becaufe in virtue thereof the Word becomes like to him from whom he takes his original; or, as St. Paul ex- preffes it, is the figure or image of his fubftance, i. e. of his being and nature. See Triniry and Prrson.—And hence it is, they fay, that the fecond perfon in the ‘Trinity is called the Son. Generation is alfo ufed, though fomewhat. improperly, for genealogy, or the feries of children iffued from the fame ftock. Thus the gofpel of St. Matthew commences with “the book of the generation of Jefus Chrilt, &c.’" The latter and more accurate tranflators, inftead of generation, ufe the word gensalogy. Geveration is alfo ufed to fignify a people, race, or nation, elpecially in the literal tranflations of the {cripture, where the word generally occurs wherever the Latin has ge- neratios and the Greek Vevey 58 Thus, ‘* A wicked and perverfe generation feeketh a fign,’’ &c. ‘ One generation pafles away, and another cometh,’ &c. Generation is alfo ufed in the fenfe of an age, or the ordinary period of a man’s life. Thus we fay to the third and fourth generation. In this fenfe, hiftorians ufually reckon a generation the {pace of thirty-three years, or thereabouts. See Acar. Herodotus makes three generations in an hundred years ; which computation appears, fyom the latter authors of po- litical arithmetic, to be pretty juit. See CuronoLocy and PowrricaL arithmetic. 3 GENERATOR, in Mufic, fignifies the principal found or feunds by which others are produced. (See GenERATE.) Thus, the lowelt C for the treble of the harpfichord, be- fides its octave, will ftrike an attentive ear with its twelfth above or G in alt, and with its feventeenth above, or Ein alt. The C, therefore, is called their ‘ generator,” and the G and E its produéts or harmonies. But in the approxi- mation of chords for G its o¢tave below is fubitituted, which conttitutes a fifth from the generator, or lowett C ; and for I ts likewife fubftituted its fifteenth below, which, with the above-mentioned C, forms a third major. Uo the lowefl notes, therefore, exchanged for thofe in alt, by fub- ftitution, the denominations of products or harmonies are likewife given, whilit the C retains the name of their “ ge- nerator.”’ But ftill, according to the fyftem of Tartini, two. notes in concord, which, when founded, produce a third, may be termed the “ concurring generators” of that third. GENERICAL Name, in Natural Hiffory, the word ufed to fignify all the fpecies of natural bodies, which agree in certain effential and peculiar charaéters, and therefore all of the fame family or kind ; fo that the word ufed as the gene- rical name equally exprefles every one of them, and fome other words expreffive of the peculiar qualities or figures of each are added, in order to denote them fingly, and make up what is called a fpecific name. ‘Thus the word rofa, or rofe, is the generical name of the - GEN whole feries of flowers of that kind, which are ditincuifh- ed by the f{pecific names of the red rofe, the white rofe, the apple rofe, &c. The ignorance of former ages, in the true principles of natural hificry, has occafioned the bo- dies, which are the objects of it, to be arranged into very unnatural feries under the name of genera; and thefe have been called by names as improper as the characters they were diftinguifhed by. Linnzus has done a great deal in exploding the bad generical names in botany, and Ar- tedi has applied his rules about the formation of thefe names with very little difference to the fubjects of ichthyo- logy. Many of the generical names of fifh, till the time of this author, were fo barbarous and olfcure, that if was not eafy to trace them to their original, or to find whether they were truly Teutonic, Englifh, Dutch, Swedifh, French, Toe Spanith, Portuguefe, Latin, or Indian.—The ig- norance of the writers on thefe fubjeéts, or their too feru- pulous adherence to the cuftoms of their predeceffors, feem to have been principally the caufes of this, and often an en- tire negligence. Arrtedi’s rules for generical names for fifh are thefe: whatever fifh there are which agree in the fame generical characters, and are properly of the fame genus, thefe ought all to be called by the fame gencrical name, their differences being only exprefied by {pecific ones. This ap- pears fo plain, fo jult, and fo neceffary a rule, that it is al- moft a fhame to lay it down; yet the writers on fifh, tili the time of this author, had very feldom cbferved it. Another barbarifm and impropriety in the generical names of fifh among the old authors, is the ufing of the fame words to exprefs them, which are alfo the names of other animals, quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles. ‘Thefe are fub- jet to great objection ; becaufe when they are ufed, it is not eafy to fee, in fome cafes, whether the author is fpeak- ing of a bird, a beaft, ora fifh. It is therefore one of the general rules of Artedi, that all thefe names to abo- lifhed, as alfo all thofe which are common to fifh, and to plants, minerals,.and to the tools of hufbandry, or other fervices. Another rule of this excellent author is, that’ generical names that are compoied of two whole words, unnaturally tied together, are to be abolifhed, it being eafy to contrive names lefs barbarous, and as expreffive: next to thefe are to be exploded thofe names which are formed of two gene- rical words before in ufe,- the one breken or cut fhort, the other preierved entire. , Another general rule in regard to thefe names is, that all fuch as are not of either Lat or Greek origin, are to be proferibed and wholly rejected, This rule cuts off a pro- digious number of barbarous words, with which we find the books of authors of former ages on thefe f{ubjects crowded. A fixth rule for the regulating gencrical names is, that all fuch are to be abolifhed as terminate in ofdes, as expreff- ing a refemblance often imaginary, and often alluding to fomething unknown, or rendered difficult to trace from the changes which the raines of other things have under- gone fince the time when it was formed. Thefe words con-~ vey no idea-of the character of the genus exprefled by them, except that they are like the other thing alluded to in fome external, though perhaps not effeptial, character: of this kind are the rhomboides, fcorpoides, &c. A feventh rule in regard to thefe names is, that all fuch are to be rejected as are barely diminutives, and terminate in ulus or ula. Thefe convey no other idea, but that of the fifh being like fome other fifh, only lefs: now bignefs is no generical character ; therefore if this genus, and that re~ Kz ferred be are oe are GEN ferred to, differ only in fize, they have no generical dif- ference at all; if they do differ otherwife, they fhould be expreffed. What makes many of thefe names alfo more intolerable is, that they allude not to fifh, but to other things fo different in their nature, that there mult needs be many other more eifential varieties between them, befide fize. Another general rule is, that fuch generical names as are pure Latin, but are mere adjeétives, are to be exploded, there being no-reafon for ufing them as fubftantives A ninth general rule is, that fuch names as are formed of Latin words, unknown to the ancient Romans, and formed by the later writers, are to be expelled as barbarous, and others of better credit placed in their f{tead. Finally, fuch generical names as have been given to fifh from the places where they are caught are to be rejected ; of this kind are the fardella and fardina from the ifland of Sardinia, and the fturio from Afturia, a province of Spain. Thefe forts of names can convey no idea of the nature of the fifth, and may belong as well to ene genus as to another. Artedi, Ichthyolog. p. 10. 69. 73. 79. Thefe rules of profeription banifhed fo many of the re- ceived generical names of fifh, that it might be fuppofed the whole. number was exhaufted, and all the fihh in the world to be named anew. But this is not the cafe; the genera are in reality mucly fewer in number than they have been ufually fuppofed, and therefore fewer words will ferve to exprefs them, and there yet remain many truly Latin words ufed by the ancient Romans, by which the far greater part of the genera may be exprefied, and the few remaining may be beft denominated by compound Greek words, ex- preffive of their real characters. Among the true and genuine Latin, and Greco-Latin names of the genera of fith, are thefe: accipenfer, amia, anthias, balezna, blennius, clupea, cobites, cyprinus; del- phinus, elops, efox, exocotus, gobius, labrus, lamia, lipa- ris, mugil, mullus, murana, perca, phyfeter, priflis, raja, falmo, falpa, fearus, {comber, filurus, fparus, {qualus, thyn- nus, torpedo, triton, turfio, uranofcopus, xiphias, zeus. Thefe will go a great way toward the naming of the true ge- nera. Arted: has merited greatly of the world, in thus re- forming the names of fifth; and the rules he has laid down, thus given at large, may, with little variation, be made to ferve for any other author, in whatever branch of know- ledge he has occafion te write. GENERIS Ssecunpr. See Secunptr. GENEROSA, a Genileqwoman. See GEXTLEWOMAN and SPINSTER. GENEROSITY, Order of; an order of knighthood, eftablithed in 1685, by Frederick III., eleGtor of Branden- burg and king of Pruilia, whilit he was elettoral prince. The badge was a gold crofs of eight points enamelled azure, bearing in the centre this infcription’ “141 Gentrosité,’” and pendent to a blue ribband. GENESAN, in Geography, a town in the Arabian Irak s. go miles S. of Bagdad. GENESAR, or Genesarern, called alfo Cinreth, and afterwards Tiberias, a town of Paleftine on. the lake of the fame name, call enchymonites.. This was the fpar-incrufted' on the tops and: fides of fubterranean caveris,. which they fuppofed daily te bring forth more,. and therefore gave the powder of it to women at the time of their lying-in, to promote their [peedy: delivery. ; GENETTAS To ride a lay is*to ridé in the: Spanith fafhion, ze. with the ftirrups io fhort, that the {purs bear upon the flanks of: the horfe.. 'Fhissis deemed a piece of: gallantry m Spain, but not-among us. ; GENETTA, m Zoology, a f{pecies of Viverra, which fee. GENETTE, inthe Manege, a Turkith bit, the curb of which is all of one piece, and made like a large ring, and placed above the liberty of the tongue. When they bridle a-horfe, they make his chin pafs threugh this curb, which: furreunds his beard.. his fort of*bit was much ufed at the court of France when Guillet wrote.- GENETYLLIS, rsduaac, in Antiquity, asfolemnity celebrated by women, in honour of Genetyllis, the goddels of that fex. GENEVA, or Gr, a popular name for a compound watery GTN EVA. water, which is, or ought to be, procured from the berries tf the juniper-tree, diftilled with brandy or malt-fpirits. Sce JUNIPERUS. The word is formed from genevre, the French name of the iper-berry. } : 1¢ beit geneva we now have, 1s made from an ordinary , diftilled a fecond time with an addition of fome juni- per berries; but the original liquor of this kind was pre- : a very different manner.! It was a cultom in the Rilling of fpirits from wort, or other fermented liquors, to udd in the working fome aromatic ingredient, fuch as ginger, cortex Winteranus, or grains of paradife, to take off the tad flavour, and to give a pungent tafte to the {pirit. Among other things ufed with this intent, fome tried the funiper-berries, and finding that they gave not only an agree- ur, but very valuable virtues alfo to the {pirit, ht it to a general cultom, and the liquor fold name. The method of adding the berries was to the malt in the grinding ; a proper proportion was allowed, and the whole was reduced to meal together, and worked in the commen way. The fpirit thus obtained was flavoured ah oricne with the berries, and exceeded all that could be made by any ether method, Our common diltillers leave out the juniper-berries entirely from the diquor they now make and fel under that name. Our chemiits have let them into the feeret, that the oil of juniper-berries, and that of turpentine, are very much alike in flavour, though not in price: and the common method of making what is called geneva in London, is with common malt {pint, and a pro- per quantity of oil of turpentine dittilled together. Shaw’s Effay on Dittill p. 7. See Distitrer. Gryeva, in Geography, a city of France (fince the re- yolution), principal place of a diftrict, and capital of the department Leman, but formerly capital of a republic, in alliance with the Swifs; fituated on the confines of Savoy, France, and Switzerland, at the fouthern extremity of the s* lake of Geneva,’”’? or “ Leman lake,” upon the narrowelt part'of it; where the Rhone iffues in two Jarge and rapid itreams, which foon afterwards unite, and, pafiing through the city, divides it into two unequal parts. The adjacent country is uncommonly picturefque, and abounds in magni- dicent views, formed by. the town, the lake, the numerous hills and mountains, particularly the Saleve and the Mole, rifing fuddenly from the plain in a variety of fantailic forms, backed by the glaciers of Savoy, with their frozen, tops gliftening in the fun, and the majeltic Mont Blanc rearing its head far above the reft. Geneva, wnich ftands partly in the plain, upon the borders of the Jake, and partly upon a gentle afcent, is irregularly built : the houfes are high, and many in the trading part of the city have arcades of wood, which are raifed even to the upper ftories. Thefe arcades, fupported by pillars, give a gloomy appearance to the treet, but are ufeful to the inhabitants in protecting them from the fun and rain. This is.the moft populous town in Switzer- land; and the inhabitants are eimated to be from 23,000 to 25,000. This population is owing to the induitry and activity that prevail in this place, to its extentive commerce, to the facility of purchafing the burgherthip, and to the pri- vileges which the government allows to all foreigners. The members of this city are diflinguifhed into citizens and burgeffis, inhabitants and natives, belides a fifth clafs, etta- blified after the revolution in 1782, and called * domiciliés,” avho receive from the magiltrates an annual permifiion to refide in the city. The citizens and burgeffes were, under the old police, admitted to a fhare in the government; the inhabitants are ftrangers allowed to fettle in the town with certain privileges, and the natives are the fons of thefe inha- bitants, who poffefs additional advantages: thefe two laft clafles form a large majority of the people. The liberal policy of this government, in receiving ftran- gers, and conferring the burgherfhip, is the mere remark- able, as it is contrary to the fpirit and ufage of the Swifs. Here it is peculiarly neceffary ; as the territory of this flate is fo very {mall, that its very exiftence depends upon the number and induitry of the people; for, exclufively of the city, there are {carcely 16,c00 perfons in the whole diftri& of the Genevois. Geneva boafts, and not without reafon, of its antiquity. The precife time of its commencement is not known; but it exilted before the Chriftian era, and is particularly men- tioned by Czfar. (De Bell. Gall. lie. 1.) It belonged to the Allobroges (fee this article), and flourifhed under the fucceflors of Czfar. The Chriftian religion was introduced among the Genevans in the third century, and about the middle of the 4th century Geneva appears to have been the fee of a bifhop. It fuffered, however, in a confiderable de- ree, and in common with other parts of the weftern empire, Ban the incurfions and ravages of the northern barbarians, About the middle of the fifth century the Vandals, who, having fettled inthe country of Vaud, and built feveral bo- roughs, affumed the name of Bourguignons, or, according to modern orthography, Burgundians, had poffeffion of it ; and in the year 620, it was transferred to the Franks. To- wards the end of the 8tk ceatury, Charlemagne convened an afiembly of his ftates at Geneva, to confult about a war with the Lombards, and confirmed both the civil and religious pri- yileges of this city. In the year 1032, it was annexed to the German empire ; but the authority of the emperor was little regarded in diftant provinces, and they found it expe- dient to protect affociations of the common people, and to enlarge their liberty, in order to counteraét the tyranny of the lords and clergy. In procefs of time, the clergy acquired a great degtee of fecular power and jurifdiction m connec- tion with their fpiritual authority ; and thus the bifhops of Geneva had obtained of the emperor the title of princes and fovereigns over the town and the adjacent country. On the other hand, the counts of the Genevois, or of the diftriG ia the vicinity of Geneva, who were originally officers of the empire, though afterwards they became vaflals of the bifhops, afpired to an exclufive adminiftration of juftice both in the town and the country. The people availed themfelves of the conteft between their fuperiors in rank and power te’ confirm and extend their own privileges. In the mean time, the liberty of the city was menaced by a third power, no lefs formidable than either of the other two. The counts of Savoy became powerful by the fucceffive pofleffion of fe- veral provitices ; and among the reft the Genevois favoured the pretenfions of the ancient counts, and afpired to the fo- vereignty of a flourifhing town, which was alfo a convenient and {trong frontier. dt would not be very interefting to recite, in minute detaile the contefts that were from time to time renewed between the Geneyefe and the counts of Savoy. We fhall content ourfelves with obferving that in the yéar 1415, the emperor Sigif- gnund vited Geneva, and that two years afterwards he erect- ed Savoy into a dukedom in favour of Amadeus, the 8th count, who, in the year 1420, petitioned the pope, for the foyereignty of the city. The duke’s fuit was referred mi the pope to the bifhop, who fummoned a general aflembly of the people, to deliberate upon the duke’s requeft, which had obtained the approbation of the pope. The inhabitants unanimoufly rejected it, and at the fame time required the bifhop to be true to his charge, affuring him of their con- Z currence GENEVA. eurrence in maintaining his juft rights, and thofe of the city. This noble fpirit encouraged the bifhop, and produced a molt excellent act in favour of liberty ; for he entered into a for- mal agreement with the people and the fyndics, never to alter the conttitution without their confent. This act, having been engrofled in Latin, and the obfervance of it {worn to by the bifhop, the fyndics, and the council, was fubfcribed by all the magiftrates, commonalty, and clergy of Geneva; and in the following year was confirmed by the emperor Sigifmund, who declared Geneva to be an imperial city, under the title of “ Nobile Imperii Membrani,’”? and took it into his immediate protection againtt all powers, the duke of Savoy in particular. The Genevefe, however, maintain- ed their liberties againlt the repeated attacks made upon them by the dukes of Savoy under very great difadvantages. Never- thelefs, they perfevered till about the beginning of the 16th century, when an alliance was entered into between Geneva and Friburg, the conteit continued, and was the occafion of many acts of oppreffion and perfecution. When the treaty was concluded, in confequence of the active interference of a young citizen ef Geneva, named Berthelier, two parties arofe in Geneva, one of which retained an attachment to the intereft of the duke of Savoy, and the other declared itfelf on the fide of liberty. Tote’ of the latter defcription were called “ Eignots,” which in Swifs, er High German, fig- nifies ‘ confederates by oath,’ and from which the term “ Hugonots’’ is probably derived ; whilft thofe of the former were denominated ‘* Mamalukes,”’ in reference to the Egyptian foldiery, who being originally Chriftians, renouneed both their religion and liberty, to become flaves to the fultan. The duke, irritated by this conduét, entered Geneva with an armed force, and compelled the people to renounce their new alliance, whil{t he perfuaded Friburg to withdraw from the treaty, promifing not to injure the liberties of the Genevefe. Berthelier, the Genevan patriot, was however facrificed to his vengeance, and the magiltrates of the city were depofed by the bifhop. In the year 1526, a new alliance was formed between the towns of Bern, Friburg, and Geneva, which the duke of Savoy was not able to prevent, and occafioned wars of long continuance between the republic and Savoy.” This alliance was confirmed by the bifhop ; and may be confidered as the true era of the independence of Geneva. Soon after this period, viz. in 1533, the doctrines of the reformation were preached at Geneva by William Farel, a native of Gap in Dauphiné, and Peter Viret, of Orbe ; and the people, ani- mated by the enthufiafm of liberty, determined to emanci- pate themfelves from the yoke of bondage, both ecclefiatti- cal and civil. The bifhop, who had always acted a weak and deceitful part, became defpicable both to the Genevefe and to the duke ; and by his imprudent menaces and precipitate retreat, ferved to ftrengihen the caufe of the reformation. In 1535, the doctrines of the reformation were adopted in full council ; and in confequence of this decifion, the canton of Friburg renounced the alliance. In the following year, the famous John Calvin, driven from France by perfecution, arrived at Geneva, and completed the reformation, that had been already begun by Farel and others. So great was the afeendancy which Calvin, though a foreigner, acquired over the citizens, that he poffeffed confiderable influence even in civil matters ; and was eminently inftrumental in fettling the political conftitution. To this end, as well as to encourage theological erudition, he prevailed upon government to elta- blifh a public academy, the prefidentihip of which he obtain- ed for his friend and fellow labourer, Theodore Beza. In this new feminary, Calvin, Beza, and others, eminent for their fuperior knowledge, read le€tures with fuch uncom- men reputation and faccefs, as attracted ftudents from all It had alfo a public library, which owed its ori- prior x af- quarters. gin about this period to the liberality of Bonnivard, of St. Vitor, whe was twice imprifoned for having ferted, againft the dukes of Savoy, the independence of Geneva. He was a principal promoter of the reformation by gentle means aid gradual inftru€tion. He clofed his bes nefactions to his beloved city, by the gift of his valuable ma- nufcripts and books, and by bequeathing his fortune towards the eftablifhment and fupport of the feminary. Geneva was now regarded as the afylum of the reformed religion ; and by the acceflion of perfecuted proteftants from other cities and countries, its arts and commerce flourifhed, and its popula- tion increafed. In 1584, Geneva concluded a treaty of perpetual alliance with Zuric and Bern, by which it formed a part of the Helvetic confederacy. The laft attempt of the houle of Savoy againft Geneva took place in 1602, when Charles Emanuel attacked the town during a profound peace. ‘The inhabitants, however, nobly defended themfelves, repulfed the enemy, and obliged him to abandon his treacherous defign. This perfidious attack was followed by a war, which was terminated in the following year by a folema treaty. Since that period, uniaterrupted peace has been maintained be- tween Geneva and the duke of Savoy ; although the king of Sardinia did not, till the year 1754, formally acknowledge the independence of the republic. From that period, the hiftory of Geneva contains little more than a narrative of contentions between the ariftocratical and popular parties. The conttitution of Geneva, which had then been eflablifhed, and which continued for feveral years, under a certain modi- fication and improvement of the year 1768, was a kind of mean between thofe of the ariftocratical and popular cantons ; more democratical than any of the former, as the fovereign and legiflative authority were velted in the general aflembly of the citizens ; but more ariftocratical than the other, be- caufe the powers entrufted with the great and little councils were very confiderable. The falaries of the magiltrates were fo inconfiderable, as not to offer any temptation of pe- cuniary emolument ; and the revenues of government, at the higheft calculation, generally amounted to 30,000 pounds a year. ‘Their conftitution, indeed, was defective, as they had no precife code of penal law ; but that of civil law was the molt perfect part of their government. In Geneva, as well as in all the other principal towns of Switzerland, a public granary was eftablithed, and they had always in referve a fufficient quantity of corn to fupply the inhabitants during a year and a half. Geneva was the only republic in Switzer- land which had no regular companies of foldiers in any fo- reign fervice. Geneva was always more or lefs diftracted by internal diffenfions and tumults. In 1782, thefe had pre- vailed to fuch a degree, that the kings of France and Sardinia, together with the canton of Bern, interfered, and threatened to befiege the city. The peafants of the territory joined the Genevefe, and offered to ferve in their caufe with- out pay, to mount guard, and work at the fortifications. M. de Jaucourt, the commander of the French troops, threaten- ed, in cafe of refiftance, to enter the town by force, and in- filted that no perfon fhould appear in the itreets, that all arms fhould be delivered up, and that the chief of the « repre- fentants,” as tke popular party was called, fhould retire from Geneva, and that the depofed magiftrates fhould be rein- ftated. Refiitance in thefe circumtiances muft have been al- together unave iling, and muft, indeed, have terminated in the deftruction of the city. The reprefentants, therefore, rettored the confined magiltrates to liberty, and left the city in a body. The Sardinians, who firft entered the gates, found the city almoft deferted ; and foon after the two other commanders GENEVA. wommanders made their entry at the head of their refpedtive troops, with drums beating and colours flying. The arifto- cratical party celebrated their triumph with balls, feafts and every {pecies of public diverfion. A committee, appoint- ed by the great and little councils, prepaved,.in concert with the three generals, an ‘edict for new modelling the conflitu- tion, which, heing approved at the.courts,of Verfailles and Turin, and by the canton of Bern, was confirmed by the great and‘hittle councils. Much as the'Genevans feemed .to deplore the-confequerces of this revolution, the change that was made in-their .conititution, and the diminution of that ‘Jiberty to which they had’been accuftomed, and to which they afcribed the increafe of their population and riches,.the ferment foon fubiided.; aud excepting the principal leaders, thofe of the popular party who were banifhed, and fome few others who renounced their country under the influence of their political principles, the greater number of the emi- grants returned, andagain fettled in the place of their nati- vity. According to Mr. Coxe, this revolution caufed {earcely 600 perfous to leave Geneva. The emigrants prin- -cipally eftablifhed themfelves at Bruffels and Conftance ; where they introduced manufactures of linen and of watches. A plan wasalfo formed for giving an afylum to the Ge- nevan emigrants in Jreland. (See New Grnrva.) The form of government eltablifhed in 1782 underwent another very Conliderable change in confequence of the revolution in 1789. The ariftacratical party was obliged to yield, on this occafion, to the tumultuous demands of the people ; and when the folicitor-general, in the name of the citizens and burghers, requeited the recoyery of their ancient liberties, the permiflion of bearing arms, the re-eftablifhment of the militia, and of their circles or political clubs, the removal of the garrifon from the barracks, and the recal of the repre- fentants banifhed in 1782; fuch moderate demands were received with fatisfaétion ; and the new edict of pacification, under the title of “¢ Modifications a ?Edit de 1782,’? was approved by the Senate, Great Council, and General Coun- el. Inthis latter council, the “ Modifications’? were car- ried by 1321 fuffrages again{t 52. The publication of the new edict was followed by loud acclamations and general rejoicings. ‘This new conflitution was judicioufly modelled into a mean between the teo popular form. eftablifhed in 1768, and the too ariftocratical.torm eftablifhed in 1782. It is natural to imagine that the widely extended influence of the French revolution would very foon reach the Gene- van republic. Many, feduced:by the principles of infidelity actively diffeminated by Voltaire, and fafcinated by-the fy{- tem of general equality Jaid down in the “ Social Contraét”? of Roufleau, whom they proudly ftyled the philofopher of Geneve, became the apoitles of irreligion and democracy. Accordingly, a-large party was pre-ditpofed to admit the french doGirines ; and in the beginning of 1791, a club, called the “¢ Circle of Light,” gave energy and diretion to the adyocates of general equality. Their efforts were op- pofed by all the friends of the conftitution, and two parties were again formed, which threatened the renewal of patt commotions. Inthis crifis, emiffaries from France excited an infurrection among the peafants of the Genevyois, and a Jarge body of them:marched towards Geneva, to demand the extenfion of the burgherfiip. Although this firft hof- tile attempt proyed unfuccefsful, the government, appre- henfive of another infurreGion, and anxious to remove every caufe of complaint, granted-additional privileges to the na- tives, and particularly general admiffion to the burgherihip for the {mali fum -of fix. guineas. (March 1791.) Seon after the abolition of monarchy, the Briffotine party, in conformity with their plan of furrounding France with a é chain of petty republics, propofed to feparate Geneva from the Helvetic confederacy, and cither form it into a {mall de- pendent commonwealth, or incorporate it with the French republic. \though this attempt failed, the independence ef Geneva wasat length annihilated, and it was incorporated, together with its territory, with the French republic in 1798; and now forms part of the department of Leman, (which fee.) Geneva, according to this new divifion, comprehends three cantons, 22 communcs, on a territory cf 125 kiliome- tresy. N.lat..46° 12! 17". _E. long. 6° 8'30".. Mod. Un. Hif. vol. xxxii. Coxe’s Travels in Switzerland, vol. ui. GENEVA, a polt-town of America, in the county of On- tario, andftate of New York, in the great road from Alke- ny to Niagara, fituated on the bank of the N.W. corner of Seneca lake, about 74 miles W. of Oneida caftle, and 92 W. of Whiteltown. 52/. W..long. 74°.6- Geneva, Lake of, or Lake of Leman, a large lake of Switzerland, which firetches from Geneva to Villeneuve, being in length 54 mules, in the fhape of a crefcent; the hollow is formed-by Switzerland, and the convex part by Savoy ; the greatelt breadth, from St. Sulpice to Grande Rive, isi2 miles. Savoy affords arude and awful boundary of a{piring Alps, craggy and covered with ice of long iianding. From Geneya to the environs of Laufanne the country flopes for,a confiderable diftance to the margin of the lake, and is enriched with all the varieties which nature can beftow: the long ridge of the Jura, fertile in pafturage, and varied with woods, backs this beautiful traét. Near Laufarne the banks rife very confiderably, and form a moft charming terrace. A few miles beyond is a rapid defcent. Near Vevay begins a plain, which is continued far beyond the end of the lake, but contracting, by the approach of the mountains, towards the lake. The colour of the water is extremely beautiful, clear, and at a diffance feems of a moft lovely blue. Near Geneva the coaft abounds in fmall pebbles covered with a brown incruftation ; from thence, as far as Laufanne, the fhores are fandy ; between that town and Chillon appear ledges of rocks, hard and calcareous ; and the extremity of the lake is a marfh formed by the collected mud of the Rhone. The depth is various; M. De Luc afferts, that on founding it, he had found the greateft depth to be 160 fa- thoms. [he furface of the lake is faid to be 1230 feet, and its deepeit part 837 feet above the Mediterranean ; like all in- land lakes enclofed within high mountains, it is fubjeét to fudden ftorms. ‘The fkins of the tippet grebes, which. ap- pear in December and retire in February, becaufe this lake is almoit totally deititute of reeds and rufhes, in which they form their floating neft, are an elegant article of luxury, and fell for about 12 or 14 fhillings each. fifth, remarkable both for their quality and fize. Geneva is alfoa lake in Upper Canada, which forms the weftern extremity of lake Ontario, to which it is joined by a fhort and narrow ftait. GENEVA, about 18 miles N. of Morgantown ; this town is rendered fa- mousasa place of much bufinefs, partly by the glafs-works . _ in its vicinity, which not only fupply the neighbourhood with window-glafs bottles, &e. but fend large quantities down the river. muikets. Small boats are alfo built in this place. : Geneva, New, a village of the county of Waterford, Ireland, nearly oppofite to Duncannon fort, where many - ood houfes were erected feveral years ago by government or the reception of the expatriated citizens of Geneva, but they ‘ {t has nearly 100 houfes. N. lat. 42°. This lake abounds in | lew, athriying poft-town of America, on the - bank of the Monongahela river, juit below George’s creek,- Here is alfo a paper-mill, and a manufa@tory for . GEN “they having relinquifhed the defign of fettling in Ireland, the place remains uninhabited. Soon after the revolution of 1782, amemorial, figned by more than 1000 Genevans of both fexes, who were either perfons of fome property, or verfed in trade or manufac- tures, exprefling a detire of fettling in Ireland, was prefented to earl Temple (marquis of Buckingham) then the lord- lieutenant of Ireland. His excellency, apprized of the ad- vantage which would redound to Ireland from the reception of fo many induitrious artifts, many of whom pofleffed pro- perty in the Englifh, Irith, and French funds, communicated, in September 1782, the propofal to the privy-council of Ireland for giving an afylum to the Genevan emigrants. This propofal, patronized by the lord-lieutenant, and unani- moufly confented to by the privy-council, was approved by the king. The Irifh parliament yoted 50,0co/. towards defraying the expences of their journey, and building a town for their reception; lands were purchafed for 800o/. and part of the town was actually completed at the expence of 10,000/. ; a charter was granted, with very confiderable privileges ; the ftandard of gold was altered for the accom- modation of the new manufacturers ; the foundation of an academy, approved, upon an ufeful, extenfive, and econo- mical plan ; in July 1783, feveral Genevans landed in Ire- land; and when the nation had expended near 30,000/. the project was fuddenly relinquifhed, and the fettlement finally abandoned. The failure has been attributed to delays in the arrangement of fo complicated a plan, occa- ‘fioned by the high demands of the Geneyan commiffioners, who, in preparing the charter, required many privileges, that were contradictory to the laws of the land, and by the building of New Geneva. In confequence of thefe delays, and the refentment of the Genevans, many returned and took the oaths of allegiance to the new government. The project became gradually lefs popular ; the few Genevans, who prematurely landed in Ireland, were difcontented, at not finding the new town ready for their immediate recep- tion; and the emigrants who poffefled moft property, having withdrawn their names, the reft wanted fufficient capital to fettle in a foreign country, and to eflablifh an ex- tenfive manufacture without ftill farther affiftance. In con- fequence of this deficiency, the Genevan commiffioners peti- tioned to appropriate 10,000/. of the 50,000/, for the purpofe of forming a capital. But, as that fum had been voted by parliament for other purpofes, the petition was rejeéted ; and the Genevans, in an addrefs to the duke of Rutland, who fucceeded lord Temple as lord-lieutenant, relinquifhed the fettlement, and foon afterwards quitted Ireland. GENEVIEVE, Sr., a town of France, in the de- partment of Paris; 6-miles W. of Paris.x—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri of Efpalion; 27 miles N. ef Rhodez. The town contains 1241, and the canton 6077 inhabitants, on a territory of 175 kiliometres, in 17 com- munes.—A Ifo, a town, or village, of America, in Louifiana, on the weitern bank of the Miffifippi, 12 miles foutherly of fort Chartres. It contained, fome years ago, more than 100 houfes, and 460 inhabitants, befides negroes. N. lat. 377 35’. W. long. go 44'.W—Alfo, a town of Canada, on the Batifcan. N. lat. 46° 38’. W. long. 72° 14’. GENEVIEVE, St. Genevieve, or St. Geneviefve, fathers or religious of St. Genevieve, the name of a congregation of regular canons of the order of St. Auguttine, eitablifhed in . France. The congregation of St. Genevieve is a reform of the Auguitine canons. It was begun by St. Charles Faure, in Vor. XVI. ie GEN the abbey of St. Vincent de Senlis, whereof he was a mem. ber, in the year 1618. In the year 1634, the abbey was made eleétive ; and a general chapter, compofed of the fuperiors of fifteen houfes who had now received the reform, chofe F. Faure coadjutor of the abbey of St. Genevieve, and general of the whole congregation. | Such was its beginning. It has fince increafed very much, and has confifted of above a hundred monatteries ; in fome of which the reli- gious are employed in the adminiftration of the parifhes and hofpitals; and in others, in the celebration of divine fervice, and the inftruétion of ecclefiaftics in feminaries for the purpofe. The congregation takes its name from the abbey of St. Genevieve, which is the chief of the ord2r, and whofe abbot is the general of it. The abbey itfelf took its name from St. Genevieve, the patronefs of the city of Paris, who died in the year 512. Five years after her death, Clovis erected the church of St.Genevieve, under the name and invo- cation of St. Peter, where her relics have been preferved, her fhrine vifited, and her image carried with great proceffions and ceremonies, upon extraordinary occafions, as when fome great favour is to be intreated of heaven. : Genevieve Bay, in Geography, a bay on the W. coaft of Newfoundland, in the ftraits of Belleifle ; 20 miles N. of St. John’s bay. GENEVOIS, or Ducuy of GENEVA, a province of Savoy, bounded on the N. by the Swifs territories, on the E. by Faucigny, on the S. by Savoy Proper, and on the W. by France, from which it is feparated by the Rhdne. Geneva and its territory formerly made a part of it. itis now annexed to France. GENEVRAY, a town of France, in the department of the Ifere ; 10 miles S. of Grenoble. GENEURO, a mountain which divides Piedmont from the ancient Dauphiny, in the road from Briancon to Sufa. GENGA, Giroramo, in Biography, a painter of very confiderable celebrity in his day. He Hourithed at the carly period of the revival of the art, eing born at Urbino in 1476. At the age of 15 he ftudied under Luca Signorelli of Cortona, then in great efteem, and affifted his mafter in moft of his undertakings in different parts of Italy, but par- ticularly at Orvieto, being acknowledged the beft difciple of that {chool. He afterwards {pent three years with Pietro Perugino, at the fame time that Raphael was under the tuition of that artilt ; and that intercourfe laid the foundation of a moft cordial friendfhip between Raphael and Genga, which never was impaired. He was highly encouraged by Guido-Baldo II., and his fucceffor, Francefeo Maria IIJ., dukes of Urbino, in their palaces and theatres, and in defigning triumphal arches. In Rome, Sienna, Forli, Pefaro, and many otl er places, he left behind him an incalculable number of works, both in painting and archite€ture, which were held in great efteem, and which procured him honour and riches. He died-of a fever in 1551, aged 75, leaving two fons, one of whom, Bartolomeo, followed the profefiion of his father in the fame {tyle, and was moreover an eminent fatuary and archite&. Genca, Bernarpin, a door in philofophy and medi- cine, was born in the duchy of Urbin. He was a teacher of anatomy and furgery at Rome about the middle of the 17th century ; and, according to Mangetus, furgeon to the hofpital of the Holy Ghoft in that city. He was a man of firm under{tanding, and maintained the doétrine of the cir- culation of the blood, when it was not generally admitted in Italy ; but he attributed me difcovery of it to Paul Sarpi, Fi He GEN He alfo ventured to accufe Hippocrates of committing fuch errors, in the cure of feveral furgical difeafes, as would not be pardoned in a ftudent. His works are, 1. “ Anatomia Chirurgica ;” or ‘ Iftoria dell’ offa e mufcoli del corpo umano, con Ja defcrizzione de” vafi;?? Rome, 1675, 1687. 2. Anatomia per ufo ed intelligenza del defigno ;’” Rome, 1691. This work contains fome good figures of the ancient ftatues. Genga prepared the bodies, by difpofing the bones and Seles in the forced attitudes of the gladiators in their combats: and Lancifi added explanations of the figures. « Commentaria Latina ct Italica ad Hippo- cratis Aphorifinos, ad Chirurgiam pertinentia ;” Rome, 31694, 8vo. Bonon. 1697, 8vo. Eloy. GENGENBACH, in Geography, an imperial town of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, fituated on the Kinzig, in the Ortenau : in this town is an abbey, whofe prelate was a prince of the empire. Among the indemnities agreed a at Ratifbon in 1802, this town and abbey were given to the margrave of Baden; 15 miles S.E. of .Strafburg. N. lat. 48 27’. E. long. 8? 1’. GENGOU-LE-ROYAL, Sr., a town of France, in the department of the Sadne and Loire ; celebrated for its wine; 11 miles N. of Cluny. GENIAL, Gewia.is, an epithet applied by the ancients to certain deities, whom they fuppofed to prefide over gene- ration. They were thus called @ gerendo, fram bearing ; or, ac- cording to the cofreétion of Scaliger and Voffius, a genendo, to yean, produce: yet Feftus fays, that they were alfo called geruli, which feems to require the former reading. M. Da- cier, in a note, fhews that gevere has the fenfe of rpaviu:. Among the genial gods, di geniales, fays Feftus, were water, earth, fire, and air, which the Greeks called elements. The twelve figns were fometimes alfo ranked in the number ; as alfo the fun and moon. GENICULATUS, Curmus, in Botany, a ftraw bent like the knee, as in Alopecurus geniculatus ; fee CULMUS 3 and CAULIs, n. 19. GENICULI, the joints or knots which appear in the fhoots of plants; whence botanitts call thofe marked there- with geniculate plants. GENIE. See Genius. GENIE’, Sr., in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t of Efpalion; 18 miles E.N.E. of Rhodez. N. lat. 44° 28. E. long. 3° 3’. The place contains 3333, and the canton 7988 inhabitants, on a territory of 2025 kiliometres, in 8 cormmunes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Gard ; 9 miles N.W. of Nifnes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Alps ; 6 miles N.E. of Siferon. GENILI, in Mythology. See Gentus. GENILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Indre and Loire ; 3 miles N. of Loches. GENIO-GLOSSUS, in Anatoniy, (from YFVELONy the ehin, and yawcoro, the tongue,) a large mufcle belonging to the tongue. See DeGLurT:Tion. GENIO-HYOIDEUS, from ye, the chin, and vosion-, an epithet given to the bone of the tongue, is a mufcle be- Jonjing to the os hyoides.s See Decturirion. GENIO-PHARYNGEUS, from yeoy and ¢apuy’, 2 name given by Winflow to a particular flip of the con- ftriftor pharyngis fuperior. GENLIOSTOMA, ia Botany, from yetor, a beard, and eous, the mouth, becaufe the orifice of the flower is befet with a denfe fringe. Fort. Gen. t. 12. Schreb. 131, a GEN Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 993. Mart. Mill. Did&. v. z., Juffe 420. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 133, merely copied from Forfter.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat Ord. “ uncertain,”’ Juff. ocinee ? Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, turbinate, permanent, with five acute fegments. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube dilated upwards, longer than the calyx, its orifice bearded ; linth {preading, in five deep, ovate, rather pointed fegments, as long as the tube. in the tube of the corolla; anthers oblong, prominent. Piff, Gecrmen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the tube; ftigma cylindrical, obtufe, furrowed. Perie~ Capfule? oblong, of two cells. Seeds numerous, fomewhat angular, ranged along a thread-fhaped receptacle. Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped, bearded at the mouth. Calyx inferior, with five fegments. Stigma cylindrical, abrupt, furrowed. Pericarp of two cells, with many feeds. 1. G. rupefris. Forft. Prod. 17. Native of rocky places: in the ifland of Tanna. Stem fhrubby, elimbing without tendrils, branched in an oppofite manner, round, with a fmooth grey bark. Leaves oppofite, about three inches long, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, entire, fMightly wavy, fmooth, opaque, with one rib, and a few remote, curved, interbranching veins. F zof/falks flender, {mooth, channelled, half an inch long. Stipules intrafoliaceous, united, fhort, acute, rather membranous. Flowers fmall, in folitary, forked, oppofite, fomewhat downy, axillary panicles, rather longer than the footftalks. Braéfeas fhort, acute, united at their bafe, in pairs under each fork of the panicle. Calyx minutely fringed. Corol/a apparently reddifh.—From one of Foriter’s own dried fpecimens. Juffieu probably never faw the plant, or we think he would have referred it to his Apocine. No figure has been publifhed, except of the: fructification. GENIPA. (See Garpenta.) The name is barbarous, of Weit Indian origin, and appears to be fometimes called Genipat. See Tournefort, 658. GENIPABU, in Geography, a river of Brafil, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 5° 35’. W. long. 34 46’ GENIS, Sr. a town of France, in the department of the- Lower Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Jonfac; 24 miles S. of Samtes. The place contains 862, and the canton 12,600 inhabitants, on a territory of 212% kilometres, in 17 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Chambery, near the conflux of the Rhone and Guiers; 15 miles W. of Chambery. The place con= tains 1550, and the canton 7960 inhabitants, on a territory of 1124 kiliometres, in 12 communes. Genis Ja Val, St. a town of France, in the department of the Rhone, and chief place of a canton, in the diitri@ of Lyons; 4-miles S. of Lyens. The place contains 2400, and the canton 15,522 inhabitants, on a territory of 97 kiliometres, in 10 communes. GENISTA, in Botany, Green-weed, or Dwarf Broom. The etymology feems not very clear, either from genu, a knee, in allufion to the bending of the twigs, or from geno, to produce, becaufe it grows wild in abundance; yet fuch are propofed by the learned, and we have no better to offer.. Linn. Gen. 368. Schreb. 488. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 936. Sm. Fl. Brit. 754. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2. Juif, 353. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 619, Gertn. t. 151. Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Legu- minofe, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall, tubu- - lar, two-lipped ; the upper lip with two teeth, more deeply : divided 3. Stam. Filaments five, fhort, | GEN ‘ divided ; lower with three nearly equal teeth. Cor. papi- Yionaceous: ftandard oblong, remote from the keel, entirely reflexed; wings oblong, lax, fhorter than the other petals ; keel ftraight, emarginate, longer than the ftandard, Stam. Filaments ten, all united, emerging from the keel ; anthers fimple. Pi. Germen oblong, enveloped by the common filament ; {tyle fimple, directed upwards ; fligma acute, in- volute. Peric. Legume roundifh or oblong, turgid, of one cell and two valves. Seeds feveral, moftly kidney-fhaped, with a {mooth elevated border round the f{car. Eff. Ch. Calyx two-lipped, the upper lip with two teeth, lower with three. Standard oblong, bent backwards from the reft of the flower. A genus of fhrubs, almoft entirely European, with tough angular ftems and branches, either ternate or imple leaves, and yellow flowers. Willdenow has twenty-five {pecies, eighteen of which are unarmed, the other feven furnifhed with fpines, in many inftances remarkably compound. ‘The fpinous ones have all fimple leaves. Three Genie are na- tives of Britain. G. tin@oria. Engl. Bot.t. 44. Dyer’s Green-weed. So called from its ufe in dyeing yellow, and, with the addition of woad, green. Ray fays it gives a bitter flavour to the milk of cows that feed upon it. G. pilofa. Eng). Bot. t. 208. Hairy Green~ Found only on high fandy ground about Bury, Suitolk, at the foot of Cader Idris, North Wales, and on foap rocks near the Lizard point. It grows quite proftrate, and is ditiicult to find except in May, when it flowers copioufly and forms arich golden carpet. Mr. Rofe firft defcribed this as an Englifh plant, and figured it in his lutroduction to Botany, appendix 452. t. 3. G. anglica. Engl. Bot. t. 132. Needle Green-weed, or Petty Whin. This is our only {pinous {pecies, and its {pines are very confpicnous, long, fimple,.and {preading. Stem of humble growth, but nearly erect. Flowers not inelegant, furniag green when dried. It is frequent on moill turfy or fandy heaths, bloffoming in May and June. G. candicans, fibirica, florida, and triquetra, are hardy gar- den plants, worthy of cultivation for their beauty or fingu- larity. he firft efpecially has a fhowy appearance when trained againft a wall. G. canarienfis, and [inifolia, Curt. Mag. t. 442, are rather greenhoufe thrubs, and the latter is very elegant on account of its filky filvery leaves. It grows in Switzerland as well as in Spain, but like many other alpine plants, does not well bear our winters. Genista, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the low fhrubby evergreen and deciduous kinds, of which the fpecies chiefly cultivated are, the common dyer’s broom (G. tinc- toria) ; the jointed broom (G. fagittalis) ; the Spanifh dyer’s broom (G. florida); the hairy broom (G. pilofa) ; the Eng- ‘tifh genifta petty-white, or needle furze (G. Anglica) ; the hoary genilta, or Montpelier cytifus (G. candicans) ; and the Canary geniita or cytifus (G. canarieniis. ) Method of Culsure—The fix firk forts are all of the hardy kind, and capable of being increafed by fowing the feeds in beds of common mould, and, which is better, in the borders or clumps where they are to remain; but which thould be done in the early autumnal or fpriag feafons, though the former is by much the better, asa great deal of time will be faved. In cafes where they are raifed in beds, the plants fhould be carefully taken up aad removed, as foon as they ‘have attained about twelve months’ growth, into the fituatiors in which they are to continue, In the latter mode of culti- vation, they however require no other management than that of properly thinning them out, and keeping them free from all forts of weeds. 1 GEN The laft, or Canary fort, may likewife be raifed by fowing -the feeds in pots of good garden mould in the {pring feafon, but the aid cf a moderate hot-bed is neceflary to bring them forward. As foon as the plants have acquired a little growth they fhould be remoyed into feparate {mall pots, and be im- mediately replunged in the hot-bed. — In their after-manage- ment they demand the fame fort of attention as other lefs ’ tender kinds of green-houfe plants. Each of the firft fix forts are proper for the more for- ward parts of the clumps and bordérs in ornzamented grounds, and have a good effect from the fine appearance of their flowers. The laft kind produces a variety among other evergreen plants in the green-houfe colleétions. GENITA Brincg, in Geography, a town of America, in Powhatan county, Virginia, 166 mile’ from Wafhington. Genita-mana, in Mythology, a goddefs who prefided over child-birth, to whom the Romans facrificed a dop. GENITAL, Geyiratis, in Anatomy, fomething that relates to generation ; which fee. GENITAL gods, dii genitales, are fometimes ufed in the an- cient Roman poets for thofe we otherwile call indigites. Aufonius, in the argument of the fourth book of the ZGneid, takes the word in a different manner: the di geni- tales, he obferves; were fuch as were not bern of human parents, and were not thus called qua/i geniit ex hominibus, but rather becaufe they themfelves had begot human chil- dren. GENITALIA, or Gentrores, in Anatomy, a name fometimes given to the teftes or teiticles of a man, on ac~ count of their office in generation, which fee. GENITE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Correze; 18 miles W. of Brive. GENITED, in Geometry. See GuxeRATED. GENITES, Venrn-, or Genelei, among the Hebrews, thofe that defcended from Abraham, without any mixture of foreign blood. The Greeks diftinguifhed by the names of genites fuch of the Jews as were iffued from parents who, during the Babylonifh captivity, had not allied with any gentile fas mily. GENITIVE, in Grammar, the fecond cafe of the declen- fions of nouns. When one thing is reprefented as belonging to another, in the relation of caufe, origin, or author, its Lely has a ter- mination given to it, called the genitive cafe; and as the au- thor is properly the owner of a thing, the genitive is alfo called the poffffive cafe. In Englith, the genitive cafe is made by prefixing the particle of; or it is exprefled by an apoitrophe, with the let- ter s coming after it, as ‘ thy father’s houfe :’’ when the plural ends ins, the other s isomitted, but the apoftrophe is retained, as “ on eagles’ wings :’” fometimes alfo, when the fingular terminates in /, the apoitrophic s is not added ; as “ for righteoufnefs’ fake.’’ In French the genitive is exprefied by de, or du,’ &c. though, in ftrictnefs, there are no cafes at all, or at moft only two, in either of thefe languages, inat- much as they do not exprefs the different relation of things by different terminations, but only by additional prepoil- tions. (See Case.) An ingenious grammarian obferves, that though the ter- mination called the genitive cafe be rendered by of, it means invariably fram, beginning, motive ; and this, he fays, feems to be the true fignification of of, if we regard its etymology, it being ‘taken from a, #70, ab, from 3 and though cuftom feems to have affigned it fome dif- ferent undefinable meaning, it is in all cales refolyable into bz the GEN the fenfe of from. ‘Thus, a table of wood is a table from wood, wood being the origin or beginning of it. Again, he is fick of love, t.-c. fick from love, love being the caufe of his ficknefs ; and fo in all other inftances. And this is the reafon why fome prepofitions which fignify origin or begin- ning in Greek, Latin, and French, are rendered in our tongue by of Jones's Greek Grammar, p. 194. In the Latin, this relation is exprefled in divers manners, thus'we fay, caput hominis, the head of a man ; color rofe, the colour of a rofe ; opus Det, the work of God, &c. As the genitive cafe ferves to exprefs very different, and even oppofite relations, there fometimes arifes an ambiguity from this circumftance ; thus, in the phrafe, vulnus Achillis, the qwaeund of Achilles, the genitive, Achillis, may either fig- nify paflively the wound Achilles has received, or a€tively the wound Achilles has given: thus in that paflage of St. Paul, Certus fum quod neque mors, neque vita, Fc. nos poterit fe- parare a charitate Dei in Chrifto, Sc. the genitive Dei has been taken by interpreters in two different fenfes; fome, giving it the relation of object, underftand the paffage of the love which the eleét bear to God in Jefus Chrift ; whereas others give it the relation of fubje&, and explain it from the love which God bears the eleét in Jefus Chrift. In the Hebrew tongue, the genitive cafe is marked after a manner very different from that of the Greek and Latin: for whereas in thofe languages the noun governed is varied, in the Hebrew the noun governing undergoes the alteration. GENITO, Sr. in Geography, a town of Naples, in Cala- bria Citra; 21 miles N. W. of Bifignano. GENIUS, in Mythology, a good or evil {pirit, or demon, whom the ancients fuppofed fet over each perfon, to dire& his birth, accompany him in life, and be his guard until death. Thofe that attended women were females, and called Junonés, but thofe that attended men were males, and called Genii. They feem, in their original, to be nothing elfe but the particular bent and temper of each perfon deified ; and as every one’s own temper is ina great meafure the caufe of his happinefs or mifery, each of thefe were fuppofed to fhare, and have an equal feeling in all the enjoyments and fufferings of the perfons they attended. (See Horace, lib. ii. ep. ii. ver. 189.) The ancients had their Genii of nations, of cities, of provinces, &c. | Nothing is more common than the following infcription on medals : GENIUS POPULI.ROM. * the Genius of the Roman people :’? or, GENIO Pop. ROM. ‘¢ to the Ge- nius of the Roman people.” . The ancient Gauls acknow- ledged Genii, who took care of each particular province and canton: but the foundation of the worfhip, which they paid to their deified cities, or rather to the genius who protected them, and became their tutelar divinity, was to engage fhem to take care of them, to defend them againft enemies, and to remove from them all evils, with which they might be dif- treffed ; fuch as epidemical diftempers, and other calamities. The names of thefe tutelar Genii were kept fecret, left, if they fhould be known, they fhould be conjured away, and forced to abandon the cities that were committed to their charge, and pafs into others, where they were promifed a more folemn worthip. In this fenfe, genius and Jar were the fame thing ; as, in effe&, Cenforinus and Apuleius affirm they were. Of thefe genii or demons, Plato fuppofes that every man has his own, who is his guardian, and the witnefs, not only of his ations, but of his very thoughts; but that, at death, the genius delivers up to judgment the perfon who had been committed to his charge; and if, when the perfon is inter- rogated by the judge, his anfwer be found not agreeable to truth, the genius cenfures and reprimands him very feverely, as, on the other hand, he pronounces an encomium upon him - tween angels and men} of a grofler fabric than the GEN when what he fays is true ; amd it is upon the approbation of the genius, that the doom is pronounced; for this demon knows whatever paffes in the man, even his moft fecret thoughts. Although Plato and Jamblichus were of opinion that every individual had but one of thefe genii to condu@ him, and to prefide over all his a€tions, other philofophers of the fame {chool were perfuaded, that he had two, the one good, the other bad. To this purpofe Servius upon Virgil (A£n. 1. vi. c.743-) fays, ‘ Volunt unicuique genium oppofitum, Demo- nem bonum et malum ; hoc eit, rationem quz ad meliora fem- per hortatur, et libidinem quz ad pejora ; hic eft Larva et genius malus ; ille bonus genius et Lar. They will have it that every one has two genii, the one good, and the other bad; that is, reafon, which always excites men to good, and luit, which prompts them to ill: the latter is what they call “« Larva,”’ or evil genius : the other good Genius, or «¢ Lar.” The Platonifts, and other eaftern philofophers, fuppofed the Genii to inhabit the vaft region, or extent of air, between earth and heaven. They were a fort of intermediate powers, who did the office of mediators between gods and men. They were the interpreters and agents of the gods ; commu- nicated the will of the deitiesto men; and the prayers and vows of men to the gods. As it was unbecoming the ma- jefty of the gods to enter into fuch trifling concerns, this became the lot of the genii, whofe nature was of a middle kind between the two; who derived immortality from the one, and paffions from the other; and who had a body framed of an aerial matter. Moft of the philofophers, how- ever, held that the genii of particular men were born with them, and died. Thus Plutarch attributes the ceafing of oracles partly to the death of the Gemii. The heathens, who confidered the Genii as the guardian fpirits of particular perfons, believed that they rejoiced and, were affliGed at all the good and ill fertune that befel their wards, ‘They never or very rarely appeared to them ; and then only in favour of fome perfon of extraordinary virtue or dignity. ‘They likewife held a great difference between the Genii of different men; and that fome were much more powerful than others; on which principle it was, that a wi- zard in Appian bids Antony keep at a diftance from O@a- vius, becaufe Antony’s Genius was inferior to, and ftood in awe of, that of OGavius. There were alfo evil Genii, who took a pleafure in perfe- cuting men, and bringing them evil tidings: fuch was that in Paterculus, &c. which appeared to Brutus the night before the battle of Philippi. Thefe were alfo called larvae, and lemures. According to the theogony of Hefiod, the men of the golden age became demons, or good genii; thofe, according _ to him, are the guardians of men, the earth having fallen to their lot. Thote of the filver age were changed into manes, or fubterraneous genii, happy though mortal. Thofe of the brazen age went down to the infernal regions. Thofe of the heroic age took poffeffion of the Fortunate iflands, or the Elyfian fields, fituate at the extremities of the world. See Dmoy, and Dxnmon of Socrates. The Mahometans alfo admit the exiftence of Genii, fuppofed by them to be a clafs of intermediate ae be- ormer, and more ative and powerful than the latter. Some of them are good, and others bad ; and they are, like men, capable of future falvation or condemnation. Gemivs is more frequently ufed for the force or faculty of the foul confidered as it thinks or judges. Thus, we fay, a happy genius, a fuperior genius, an ele- vated genius, a narrow confined genius, &c. in like fenfe we ~ alfo fay, a work of genius, a want of genius, &c. Genius a — GEN Genius is alfo ufed, in a more reftrained fenfe, for a na- tural talent, or difpofition to one thing more than another. In which fenfe we fay, a genius for verfe, for the fciences, &c. Dr. Blair, in his “* Lectures on Rhetoric, &c.’’ (vol. i.) diftinguifhes between Tafte and Genius. Tate, he fays, confiits in the power of judging: Genius, in the power of executing. One may have a confiderable degree of tafte in poetry, eloquence, or any of the fine arts, who has little or hardly any genius for compofition or execution in any of thefe arts. But genius cannot be found without including tafte alfo. Genius, therefore, deferves to be confidered asa higher-power of the mind than tafte. Genius always im- ports fomething inventive or creative ; which does not reft in mere fenfibility to beauty, where it is perceived, but which can, moreover, produce new beauties, and exhibit them in fuch a manner, as {trongly to imprefs the minds of others. Refined tafte forms a good critic: but genius is further ne- ceflary to form the poet, or the orator. Befides, genius is aword, which, in common acceptation, extends much fur- ther than to the object of tafte. It is ufed to fignily that talent, or aptitude, which we receive from nature, for excel- ling in any one thing whatever. Accordingly, we fpeak of a genius for mathematics, as well asa genius for poetry ; ora genius for war, for politics, or for any mechanical employ- ment. This talent or aptitude, for excelling in any one par- ticular, is received from nature; and though it may be great- ly improved by art and ftudy, it cannot by them alone be ac- quired. As genius is a higher faculty than talte, it is more limited in the {phere of its operations. Whilft we find many perfons, who have an excellent tafte in feveral of the polite arts, fuch as mufic, poetry, painting, and eloquence, all toge- ther; it is much more rare to meet with one who is an ex- cellent performer in all thefe arts. Indeed, an univerfal ge- nius, or one who is equally and indifferently turned towards feveral different profeffions and arts, is not likely to excel in any. The rays muft converge toa point, in order to glow intenfely. A genius for any of the fine arts always fuppofes tafte ; and the improvement of tafte will ferve to forward and correct the operations of genius. But genius, in a poet or orator, may fometimes exift in a higher degree than. taite ; that is, genius may be bold and ftrong, when tafte is neither very delicate, nor very correct. ‘his is often the cafe in the infancy of arts; a period when genius frequestly exerts itfelf with great vigour, and executes with much warmth ; while tafte, which requires experience, and improves by flower degrees, hath not yet attained its full growth. Homer and Shakfpeare may be referred to as ex- amples in proof of this affertion. (See Tastx.) Longi- nus, in his “ Treatife on the Sublime,’’ remarks, that li- berty is the nurfe of true genius: it animates the fpirit, and invigorates the hopes of man ; excites honourable emulation, and a defire of excelling in every art. It is obfervable, that writers and artifts moit diftinguifhed for genius have gene- rally appeared in confiderable numbers at the fame period. Befides the moral caufes which have been alleged to account for this phenomenon, fuch as favourable circumftances of government and manners, encouragement from great men, and emulation excited among men of genius, the Abbé du Bos, in his “ Reflections on Poetry and Painting,’’ has col- le€ted a great many obfervations on the influence which the air, the climate, and other natural caufes, may be fuppofed to have upon genius. The opinion of the Abbé du Bos, that genius chiefly depended on foil, food, air and climate, has been favoured by Montef{quieu in his “ Spirit of Laws :? and it occafionally occurs in other writers. Mr. Hume, however, has attacked this hypothelis with great ingenuity and ftrength of reafoning in his ‘* Effay on National Cha- A GEN racters.”” In that Effay he has clearly proved, that the dif- ferences we obferve in nations, with regard to genius, fcience; and manners, arife from moral, and not from phyfical caufes. (See Crimate.) The fact, however, is unqueftionable, that fome periods or ages of the world have been much more diftinguifhed than others for the extraordinary produétions of genius. (See AGE, in the Hiftory of Literature, &c.) IF we inftitute a comparifon between the ancients and moderns in this re{peét, Wwe muft allow, that while the advancing age of the world brings along with it more feience and more re- finement, its earlier periods may lay claim to more vigour more fire, more enthufiafm of genius. Among the ancients, we find higher conceptions, greater fimplicity, more original fancy : among the moderns, fometimes more art and cor- rectnefs, but feebler exertions of genius. Admitting this to be in general a mark of diitin¢étion between the ancients and moderns, it cannot be admitted without exceptions ; for, in point of poetical fire and original genius, Milton and Shak- {peare are not inferior to any poets in any age. Genius, is not a mufical term, nor does it appertain.to one of the polite arts more than another; but Ronfleau (Dict. de Mus.) has volunteered an article for it among mufical terms, and has written it with peculiar eloquence and enthufiafm. Rouffeau, paradoxical on almoft all other fubjeéts, is fometimes not only capricious, but mifchievyous; yet his bittereft enemies admit, that mufic is his bright fide: and though he is not allowed by the prefent French mufical critics to be a profound contrapuntitt, yet his tafte in mufic and poetry was refined, and of the higheft clafs ; and his views concerning dramatic mufic were enlarged, rational, ingenious, and free from all caprice and paradox. GENLIS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Céte d'Or, and chief place of acanton, in the diftrict of Dijon. The place contains 707, and the canton 8599 inhabitants, on a territory of 1874 kiliometres, in 27 communes. GENNABA, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan, in the Perfian gulf ; 15 miles N.W. of Bender Rigk. GENNADIUS L., in Biography, patriarch of Conftan- tinople, was elected to that dignity, having been fome years an ordained prefbyter of the church, in the year 458, on the death of Anatolinus. In the following year, in a coun- cil of 73 bifhops, he procured the pafling of a canon againft fimoniacal ordinations, and eftablifhed the equitable regulation, that the oblations made in the chutches, which it had been cuftomary to claim for the patriarch’s treafury, fhould thenceforward belong to the officiating clergy. He died in 471, leaving behind him a high character for great zeal and difintereftednefs in correcting the relaxed ftate of difcipline which prevailed in his fee. He is placed by thofe who lived about the fame period ameng the ecclefiafti- cal writers of the day, and is applauded for the extent of his learning and the elegance of his ftyle. The proofs of this have not come to us, excepting in “¢ A fynodal Epif- tle’’ againft fintony, inferted in the fourth volume of the Colleét. Concil. ; and fragments againft the anathemas of Cyril of Alexandria, quoted by Facundus, bifhop of Her- miana, and another from a treatife addrefled to Parthenius, and quoted by Leontius. Moreri. Gennapius I1., another patriarch of Conftantinople, in the fifteenth century, aflumed the name upon embracing the ecclefiaftical life, having, prior to this, the name of George Scholarius. He was a natiye of Conftantinople, where he was educated, and attraéted“huch notice by his talents and remarkable progrefs in the different branches of learning. He became fecretary to the emperor John Palxologus, and CN and aft-rwards chief judge of the Greeks. In 1438 he accompanied the emperor to the council at Florence for the purpote of bringing about an union between the Greek and Latin churches: it is, however, a matter of much doubt whether Scholarius was in favour of the meafure which his duty to his mafter required him to fanétion and fupport. After his return to Conftantinople he united with Mark of Ephefus, in oppofing the reception of thofe terms of union to which the emperor had acceded, as well by his influence as by his writings, which brought on him for a time the difpleafure of the emperor. After the death of Palxologus in 1448, Scholarius was as violent as evér again{t the pro- pofed union, and finding that his oppofition muft fubject him to danger with the new emperor, Conftantine, he re- folved to relinquith his civil employments, and to embrace the ecclefiaftical life. He accordingly, in 1459, after fend- ing a valedictory oration to the emperor, entered into a mona{tery adjoining Conftantinople, and lived a fecluded life for two years, which is fuppofed to have been the refult of the emperor’s orders, to prevent him from taking part againft the propofed union. During his retreat from the world he compofed feveral homilies, which could offend no one; but he did not engage in any controverfy until the union was completed. This called forth his zéal in behalf of the Greek church: he wrote letters to al] the ecclefiaftics of Conitantinople, and to the different monaftic orders, ex- horting them to adhere to the faith of their anceftors, and not to fubmit to the Floreitine union: he alfo remonftrated avith the emperor on the fubjeét, but the monarch was not to be turned from his plan, and made every effort, by per- fuafion' and by threats, to bring over Gennadius. The attempt was futile; he had gone too far to retract, and had obtained a multitude of adherents whom he had converted by his writings and exhortations, which reprefented the union to be a detertion of the caufe of God and his truth, The emperor fubfcribed the act of union at Conftantinople, as it had been ratified in the council of Florence. On the 12th of December 1452, the two nations, in the church of St. Sophia, joined in the communion of facrifice and prayer. But the drefs and language of the Latin prieft who officiated at the altar were objects of fcandal; and it was obferved, with a feeling of horror, that he confecrated a wafer of un- leavened bread, and poured cold water into the facramental cup. From the dome of St. Sophia, the inhabitants of either fex, and of every degree, rufhed in crowds to the cell of Gennadius to confult him, as the oracle of the church. He was invifible, and entranced, as it fhould feem, in deep meditation, or divine raptare ; but he had expofed en the door of his cell a tablet, on which were written thefe words: “ O miferable Romans, why will ye abandon the truth ; and why, initead of confiding in God, will ye put your truft in the Italians? In abandoning your faith, you will lofe your city. Have mercy on me, O Lord! I pro- telt, in thy prefence, that I am innocent of the crime. O miferable Romans, confider, paufe, and repent! At the {me moment that you renounce the religion of your fathers by embracing impiety, you fubmit to a foreign fervitude.” This was the fignal for infurreétion, (fee CoxsTanTINo- PLE) ; and, after the capture of the city, the fultan Maho- met, defirous of conciliating thofe inhabitants who had furvived the immenfe flaughter made by his army, and of recalling the Greeks, who had efcaped, to their deferted houfes, ordered Gennadius to be fought for, and offered him to the choice of the clergy and people, by whom he was immediately elected thei patriarch. In the eleétion and inveltiture of Gennadius, the ceremonial of the Byzan- tine court was revived and imitated. With a mixture of GEN fatisfa€tion and indignation, they beheld the fultan on his throne, who delivered into the hands of Gennadius the paf- toral ftaff, the fymbol of his ecclefiaftical office, who con- ducted the patriarch to the gate of the feraglie, prefented him with an horfe richly caparifoned, and direéted the vizirs and bafhaws to lead him to the palace which had been allotted for his refidence. The churches of Conftantinople were fhared between the two religions: their limits were marked, and till it was infringed by Selim, the grandfon of Mahomet, the Greeks enjoyed above fixty years the benefit of this equal partition. Gennadius prefided over the fee of Conftantinople between five and fix years, when he refigned his dignity, and retired into a monaftery. He died about the year 1460. the Chriftian Faith, delivered before the Turkifh emperor Mahomet.” This work was the refult of a long converfa- tien which he had with the emperor, foon after tis inftalla- tion, when Mahomet fuffered him to produce ail the argu- ments he was able in fupport of the truth of Chriftiamity. It is to be found in Crsfius's Turco-Grecia ; and is alfo in David Chytreus’s “* De fatu Ecclefiarum in Grecia.”’ Gennadius wrote likewife a treatife concerning predeftina- tion, and another on the trinity. He compofed many ho- milies in the early part of life, which were delivered before the emperor, as orations, which laymen were, in that age, accuftomed to pronounce in the imperial dining-room. Moreri. Gibbon's Hitt. GeENNApIvs, an ecclefiaflical writer, flourifhed towards the clofe of the fifth century, and became prief of Mar- feilles. He was a great writer, and is faid to have com- pofed eight books again‘t all herefies, fix againft Neftorius, three again Pelagius, and a treatife concerning the millen- nium and the book of Revelation; but the ony works re- maining of this author are entitled *¢ De viris illuftribus,” which is a continuation of St. Jerome's catalogue of Ec- clefiaftical Writers ; and a treatife «« De Fide, feu de dog- matibus Ecclefiafticis Liber ad Gelefium Papam miffus.” This lat was for a confiderable time attributed to St. Au- guftine, and was generally inferted in the editions of his works. The time of Gennadius’s death is not known, but it did nat take place before the year 395. GENNARI, Cesare and Bexeperro, two brothers who both made painting their profeffion. They were ne- phews, heirs, copyifts, and imitators of Guercino; they frequently repeated his pictures, but not with adequate fweetnefs or force. At firft they wrought together at feveral places in Italy: but feparating, Cefare remained at Bologna, and Benedetto went to England, where there are many of his works, particularly at Windfor Cattle, difco- verable by a laboured, dry imitation of Guerciuo; with a mixture of the flutter and parade exhibited by the French painters of that period. He was made painter to James II. and executed a pi€ture of that prince and his familys At their expulfion he returned to Itely : and as his manner, by the mixture of French art he had introduced, was novel, he obtained applaufe and employment. He died in 1715, aged 82. eGENNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Maine and Loire, near the Loire; 9 miles N.W. of Saumur. GENNEP, a town of France, in the department of the Roer, fituated on the Niers, near the Meufe. It contains two churches, one for Roman Catholics, and another for Proteftants ; 9 miles S.S. W. of Cleves. N. lat. 51° 47’. E. long. 5? 50’. GENNES, a town of France, in the department of the Maine and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- tri& y He was author of « An Explanation of, GENOA. @ri& of Saumur; 5 miles N.E. of La Guerche. The place contains 14.55, and the canton 8248 inhabitants, on a territory of 190 kiliometres, in 15 communes. GENOA, and fince the French revolution the Ligu- rian republic,’ is a fmall, mountainous territory, in the northern part of Italy, forming a kind of crefcent along the Mediterranean fea on the fouth, and covered on the land fide by the Apennines, which feparate it from the countries of Milan, Piedmont, the Montferrat, the Milanefe, and Par- mefan. Its length from the town of Vintimiglia on the welt, almoft to the territory of the republic of Lucca on the eaft, isabout 150 miles, and its greateft breadth, from the fea to the interior of the country, is not more than 20 miles. The mountains that enclofe it are, in fome places, covered with forefts, in others they are barren rocks, and in fome few parts they yield excellent pafture. There is but a fmall quantity of arable land in this country, fo that it is under a necellity of feeking a fupply of corn from Naples, Sicily, and other places; but the inhabitants avail them- felves of every fpot which is capable of cultivation. They are furnithed throughout the year with excellent legumes and vegetables for the table; they alfo make a confiderable quantity of wines, and are amply provided with various Kinds of fruit, efpecially citrons, oranges, pomegranates, almonds, and figs. They raife a great number of mulberry trees for feeding filk-worms, and olives grow in great plenty, particularly round the gulf of Spezzia. Salt is produced for exportation. The Apennines, and fome other hills, fupply them with excellent marble, while Polzevera, in the Bocchetta, yields the beautiful ftone fo called, being ferpen- tine of various colours veined with marble, which is eafily conveyed by a magniticent road formed, in 1778, from the Bocchetta, or mountains to the north of Genoa, through the Polzevera, by three years’ labour of from five to eight hun- dred men, at the expence of one patriotic and noble family, the Cambiafi. The inhabitants of this country, amounting to about 400,000, are Roman Catholics, though the papal power is not much venerated; the people being devoted to commerce, and difpofed to receive monied heretics, without any religious feruples. The manufactures were formerly very conliderable, but they have of late declined; the prm- cipal are velvet, pluth, damafk, different kinds of filk,.for which they are fupplied with the raw material from Met- fina and other places; gold and filver flufis, lace, gloves, ftockings, ribbons, foap, paper, &c. Other articles of commerce are, oil, fruit, macaroni, confectionary, Par- mefan cheefe, anchovies, &c. Although Genoa is a free port, Leghorn, which is likewife free and ‘indulged with greater liberty, interferes with its trade, and diminifhes it. This country is part of the ancient Liguria (fee Liguria); which, in the feeond Punic war, efpoufed the intereft of the Carthaginians ; but the city of Genoa, which was then a eelebrated emporium, taking part with the Romans, was plundered and burnt by Mago the Carthaginian. It was afterwards rebuilt by the Romans, and continued under their dominion, together with the reft of Italy, till the conclufion of the fifth century, about A. D. 498, when Theodoric, king of the Goths, having defeated the ufurper Odoacer, was proclaimed by the army king of Italy, even with the confenat of the emperor Zeno. Genoa was after- ‘wards recovered by Belifarius, when he entirely fubdued the Goths; and when the Lombards invaded Italy, this city remained for fome time unmolefted, deriving an acceilion of wealth and inhabitants by the refugees who fled from the vieinity of the Po, in order to efcape the fury of the in- waders. At length, in the feventh century, Genoa was plundered and burnt by the Lombards, and remained under their power till Italy was conquered by Charlemagne, when the territory of Genoa, diftinguifhed by its wealth and populoufnefs, was erected into a marquifate. It foon after- wards became fo powerful, under the Genoefe empire, and after it had obtained a kind of independence, that, in 806, it reduced the ifland of Corfica, and in 935 defeated the Saracens, who had plundered and burnt the city, in their return to Africa, on the coaft of Sardinia. About the year 950, when the Franks having loft all authority in Italy, the Genoefe began to form themfelves into a kind of ariftocratical republic, under a chief called doge, (fee Doar, ) ele&ted every two years, and to be governed by their own magiftrates, who were freely eleéted, and took the name of confuls. In order to maintain their indepen- dence, they applied, with great affiduity, to navigation and commerce, and thus became rich and powerful. Their commerce extended from Spain to Syria, and from Egypt to Conftantinople, and was carried on in veflels, that were fitted for war as well as traffic. In the year 1017 they united with the Pifans in an expedition againit Sardinia > and about 33 years after this expedition, the Genoefe and Pifans were engaged in a deftructive war, which lafted’ nearly 18 years; but when a treaty of peace and ailiance was concluded between them, they concurred in a fuccefsful expedition againft the Moors, in Africa. What contributed more. than any other circumftance to the opulence and grandeur of the Genoefe, was the part they took in the crulades, and the important fervices they rendered to the religious warriors, towards the ‘clofe of the eleventh and’ commencement of the twelfth centuries. During the latter century, they fubjegted the half of Sardinia, and the city of Syracufe; they alfo made themfelves mafters of the Black fea, formed eftablifhments in the Crimea and in the fuburbs of Pera, at Conftantinople, where they remained till the Turks took that city. In the thirteenth century, they added to their conquefts the. towns of Albengo, Savona, Vintimiglia, and others in their neighbourhood ;. and for the fuperiority of the fea, they engaged in a long and obttinate conteft with the Venetians, which did not terminate till the year 1381. In their various conflicts with neighbouring powers, their ftrength was enfeebled, fo that, in 1471, they were expelled from the Crimea; though their maritime power itill continued refpeétable. Exhautted: by the Venetian war, in particular, Genoa offered yolun- tary fubje&tion to France and to Milan; but after many revolts «ind confli€ts, with a view of recovering their inde- pendence, they were at length, v7z. in 4528, refcued from the dominion of foreign princes, by the vigorous exertions of Andrew Doria. Doria, having driven out the French, and gained poflefiion of Genoa, aflembled the nobility, and rettored the government into their hands, declaring that he pretended to no greater fhare in it than became him as a nobleman. He re-eftablifhed the ancient form of the re- public, aad received from his country all thofe teitimonies of gratitude, which a conduét fo difinterefted feemed to deferve. (See Doria.) Towards the end of the fixteenth century, Genoa was diltracted by a civil war; but after a reconciliation had been effected between the two contending parties, diftinguifhed by the appellations of the old and new nobility, the republic enjoyed peace and felicity for an interval of 48 years, during which period fearcely am inci- dent, domettic or foreign, occurred, that is werth recording. In the year 1624, a difpute arofe between the republic and “harles Emanuel, duke of @axony, in which Lewis XIII. bore a fhare; and atreaty was concluded between France and Savoy, that was lroltile tothe Genoefe. Un this ocea= fion- the Spaniards declared in favour oF Genoa; and a peace GEN peace with France and Savoy reftored the republic to its former fituation, at the commencement of the war. In 1636, the Spaniards attempted to furprife the city ; but their enterprife was fruftrated; and from this time till the year 1656, Genoa enjoyed all the bleflings of peace and commerce. In the following year Hippolito Centurion, the Genoefe admiral, gained feveral advantages over the corfairs of Barbary, which paved the way for a treaty of commerce that was concluded with the piratical ftates, and the grand fignior. The treaty with the Porte was confiderably extended by the marquis Du- razzo, who went in quality of ambaflador to Conftanti- nople in the year 1666. The refult of this treaty re- newed the vigour of the Genoefe trade, to a pitch beyond what any of the maritime towns had experienced fince the Dutch founded their commercial republic, and extended their trade not only to the Levant, but to every quarter of the globe. T'or fome years Genoa lived in peace with all the neighbouring powers, enjoyed domeitic harmony, and affiduoufly cultivated commerce, and whatever fhould render the republic powerful and hap; y. Sone little jealoufies and differences arofe between her and Venice, the filter and rival republic ; but they were fuch as terminated amicably, and never cauied any difturbance to the repofe of Italy. In the year 1684, the Genoefe unfortunately incurred the refentment of Lewis X1V., who looked with jealoufy on their attachment to Spain; and could not bear to fee the republic under the protetion of that crown. His attempts for humbling them proved too fuccefsful; but in confe- quence of their fubmifiion, and the interpefition of the pope, peace was obtained. ‘The terms {tipulated by the French were peculiarly fevere and oppreflive ; among others, they required that the doge and four counfellors fhould appear in perfon at Verfailles, in order to fue for pardon; and that the ftate fhould difarm all their gallies, fix excepted, with a promife not to fit out more, without the knowledge and confent of the king. During the enfuing war, kindled by the ambition of Lewis, which embroiled the: greateft part of Europe, the republic of Genoa adhered wifely to a neutrality, and enjoyed the advantages of peace and com- merce, while the dominions of their neighbour, Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, underwent all the calamities of war. In 1713, Charles VI. fold the marquifate of Finale to the republic for a confiderable fum of money. In 1743, the queen of Hungary, having at the treaty of Worms ceded to the king of Sardinia all her rights to the town and mar- quifate of Finale, and demanding that the Genoefe fhould deliver up the marquifate, they entered into an alliance with France, Spain, and Naples; and, in 1745, declared war againit the king of Sardinia who had made himfelf matter of a great part of the fate ;. feveral Genoefe ports were bombarded by an Englifh fleet ; and the Imperialifts feized upon the city of Genoa; but after a dreadful flaughter on both fides, they were again driven out by the inhabitants ; and, in 1747, mifcarried in their attempt to recover it. The treaty cf Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, reftored its tranquillity. ‘The ancient nobility confilt of 28 families, whom Andrew Doria, in 1528, feparated from all the reft, and declared to be only capable of holding the chief offices and dignity of doge ; all the other iniabitants being reduced by him to the clais of commoners. Since that time it has been found necef- fary to create other nobility. The nobility of Genoa were allowed to keep manufactures of velvet, filk, and cloth ; to farm the duties, and to havefhares in merchant veffels ; but all other bufinefs and handicrafts were forbidden. The form of government in this republic was ariftocratical ; the chief being called doge. This government continued till GEW the year 1798, when the French form was chofen, and thé new ftyle allumed of the Ligurian republic, confirmed by the more recent treaty of February 1801. The troops of this ftate, including the militia, may amount to about 30,0c0; and the fleet, aneiently fo celebrated for its vic- tories over the Saracens, the Pifans, the Venetians, Spaniards, and Turks, and for maintaining during a long period a con- fiderable dominion over Sardinia, Cortica, Malta, Majorca, Minorca, Candia, Cyprus, and many other places in and near the Mediterranean and Archipelago, and even the Black fea, the Crimea and other parts, is now reduced to a few gallies. ; Genoa, or Janua, frequently, though corruptly, called by the Latin writers Januta, is the capital of the country defcribed in the preceding article. It is fituated partly on a level ftrand near the fea, and in part rifes gradually to the top of the hill. It is about 10 miles in circumference, and is defended towards the land by a double wall. Several baltions are erected along the fea-fhore, on rocks which appear above the water. ‘I'he ftreets are in general narrow, but clean and well paved ; two of which, called the “ Strada Nuova” and “ Strada Balbi,”’ are filled with magnificent palaces, fronted with marble. It is the fee of an archbifhop. ‘Vhe cathedral is built in the Gothic ftyle, and paved with black and white marble; in the treafury is preferved a curious hexagonal difh, faid to be made of a fingle emerald, found at Cxfarea in the time of the Crufades, which the Genoefe received as their fhare of the plunder. Befides the cathedral, it contains 32 parifh churches, fome of which are magnificent, and adorned with fculptures and pictures by the beft mafters. The doge’s palace is large, without deco- ration, except two ftatues of John Andrew Doria, and Andrew Doria, larger than life, at the entrance. The arfenal contains arms for 34,000 men, models for bridges, the armours worn by a number of the Genoefe women in the crufades, a fhield containmg 120 piltols, made by Julius Cxfar Vacche, for the purpofe of affaffinating the doge and fenate at one time. Other public buildings are the Albergo, which ferves as a poor-houfe, and houfe of correction, where is a beautiful relievo, the Virgin fupporf- ing a dead Chrift, by Michael Angelo, and the affumption of the Virgin, in white marble, by Puget, an inimitable piece of fculpture; a large hofpital for tke fick of all nations and religions; the conferyatory, for educating and portioning 300 poor girls; and a great number of palaces belonging to the nobility ; and the number of convents for men and women is reckoned to be 6g. Such was the ftate of Genoa before the late revolution ; what devaftation it has fuflered by its new matters, we are not able to fay. - It is certain, that the fiege in 1799 was very deitru€tive. The harbour is large and deep, but expofed to the fouth-weft wind ; but it has a mole for the fecurity of gallies and {mall veffels ; neverthelefs the city is much expofed to a bombard- ment. The number of inhabitants is eftimated at 80,000. N. lat. 44° 25". E. long. 8° 58’. ; ; Genoa Bar, a reef of rocks, extending fome miles from the north coaft of the ifland of Bahama. N. lat. 26° 204 W. long. 79° 36’. ; : Genoa Balfam, in Medicine, the name of a famous com- pofition, called alfo the balfam of Aquapendente. Its great virtues are the curing pains in the extremities of the bedy, and allaying the violent pains in the bowels, to which many women are fubject after delivery. The prefcription is given at large in Velf{cius, but the medicine is now out of ufe. GENOLA, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- _ partment of the Stura ; three miles N. E. of Savigliano. GENOLHAC, a town of France, in the department of _the a me GEN the Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t of Alais; 15 miles N. W. of Alais. The place contains 1,502, and the canton 9,59 inhabitants, on a territory of 195 kilio- metres, in 13 communes. GENOPLESIUM, in Botany, from y:0:, a genus, and oAnciny nearly akin, indicating its great affinity to Prafophyl- dum, another new orchidean genus of Mr. brown’s. _ The name is but too expreffive of many genera recently eftablithed, infomuch that it is wonderful no writer has hit upon it be- fore. Brown Prod. Noy. Holl. y. 1.319. Clafs and order, Gynandria Monandria. Nat. Ord. Orchidee. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth ringent, helmet-like in front, its two lower or pofterior leaves longer and fpreading. Cor. Petals, (inner calyx-leaves of Mr. Brown,) attached below to the columa. Nedtary, or lip, afcending, undivided, hooded at the bafe, without a fpur. Siy/e, or column, cloven half way down, without any lateral membranous feg- ments, in which laft particular alone it differs from Prafo- phyllum. Anther parallel to the ftigma, permanent, its cells clofe together. Maffes of pollen not obferved. The only {pecies is G. Baueri, feen by Mr. Brown growing near Port Jack- fon, New South Wales, but the above character was drawn up by him from Mr. Ferdinand Bauer’s coloured figure. GENOSA, in Cee ly, a town of Naples, in the pro- vince of Otranto ; 10 miles S$. E. of Otranto. GENOVESI, Anruony, in Biography, a man of letters, and philofopher, was born of parents of very moderate cir- cumftances, at Caftiglione, a {mall town in the diftrict of Salerno, in the year 1712. He was intended for the church, and received an education fuitable tothe purpofe. An early attachment tothe daughter of a neighbouring peafant in- duced his father to place him, ata diftance from home, under the care of a lay ecclefiaftic, who was an able claflical fcho- lar, ag well as deeply {killed in theology and jurifprudence. Here the young man made fuch progrefs in learning as aitonifhed all about him. His refolution to marry the object of his love created in him a zeal and diligence that fut- mounted all difficulties ; before, however, he was ina fitua- tion to maintain a wife, fhe, at the inftigation of his father, married. This difappointment made him refolve to devote himfelf to the church, and he was in due time confecrated a prieft, and obtained the patronage of the archbifhop of Conza. Unfortunately for Genovefi the prelate died, which made him repair to Naples, to follow the pra¢tice of the jaw, an employment highly lucrative in that city. He was foon ‘diffatisfied with his bufinefs, and after diligently ftu- dying the elements of modern and ancient philofophy, he obtained the office of extraordinary-profeflor of metaphyfics. He began his lectures in November 1741, and his fchool was crowded with pupils; the boldnefs of his manner, and the Pier of many parts of his fyftem, excited his enemies, who accufed him not only of infidelity, but of opening the door of free-thinking in Italy; merely, it is faid, becaufe he recormmended the works of Galileo, Grotius, and: New- ton, Hie friends, however, powerfully {upported him, and by the influence of Galiani, the direétor of the Neapo- ‘ jitan uniyerfities, he was appointed to the office of pro- feflor of ethics, which afforded him ample field for combat~ ‘ing the ignorance and prejudices of the {chools. ‘Che principle of his fyftem was, that the happinefs of man is the only objeét of the philofophical doGtrine of morals, and he deduced his duties from analytical confiderations. He in- terwove in his leétures the hiftory of the buman paffions, Vou. XVI. GEN and enlivened them by a boldnefs and {pixit peculiarly his own. He compofed a new fyftem of logic, which he dictated in his le€tures, and which was afterwards publifhed in 1745, under the title of ‘* Elementorum Artis Logico-critice, Libri quinque.”. This might be confidered as an introduc- tion to his metaphyfics, the firft part of which had been publifhed before this period, but the fecond and third parts made their appearance inthe years1747—1751. In 1748, he put up for the vacant chair of theology, but, as this was always conneéted with the epifcopal dignity, he was imme- diately regarded as unfit for fo high an office in the church, on account of his heretical notions. His enemies now dif- covered the moft ferious and alarming do€trines, in the pub- lithed and unpublifhed pieces of which he had been the author. He was obliged therefore to renounce the {cience of theology, and to fupprefs fome valuable works on this fubje&. He now turned his attention to political economy, and in a few years he not only made himfelf mafter of every thing deferving of notice on this {cience, but ftruck out fome new lights. He publified, in 1753, the firft fruits of his re~ fearches, entitled «‘ Effayson Agriculture, with confidera- tions on the true Object of the Sciences.” He was now, at the inftance of his friend Intieri, made profeffor of political economy, with a coniiderable falary. ‘The office had been inftituted folely for him, and it was agreed that the lectures fhould always be delivered in the Italian language, a circum~ ftance, at that time, wholly unknown at Naples. His lecture room was crowded, and in a fhort {pace of time he was obliged to take a {till larger place for the difplay of his talents, which alfo was isfufficient to contain all who came to be benefited by his inftru@ions. His chief and avowed object was, while he taught the principles of political eco- nomy, to infpire the Neapolitan youth with the focial and civil virtues, and above all with a public fpirit of patriotifm, without which no nation, he contended, could attain to that height of profperity of which it is fufceptible. He caufed to be tranflated Carey’s Hiftory of the Englif: Trade into the Italian, and then publifhed it with ufeful notes. After this he pointed out in a fhort treatife the caufes of the decline and negle& of agriculture in the kingdom of Naples. In 1765 he publifhed another work, in which he examined the queftion, “« Why countries, the mo fruitful by nature, are often expofed to the miferies of fcarcity.’’ He was author of many other works, but his mafter-piece was the « Italian Syitem of Morality,’’ of which the firit part was publifhed in the year 1767, under the title of ‘ Dicofyna.”” His health now gave way, and he was unable to profecute his ftudies, and, in 1768, he was obliged to difcontinue his lec- tures, and in the following year he expired, in the fifty- feventh year of his age. He had attained, as a man of {cience, a very high reputation, and his moral character was in every re{pect worthy of a true philofopher. He poflefled a mott ardent love of truth, and a defire to extend its dominion, in which he was aware the happinefs of his fellow-creatures was deeply concerned. ‘ He was,’’ fays his biographer, << an irreconaileable enemy to injuitice and deception ; his countenance difplayed cheerfulnefs, tranquillity, and invin- cible courage. He was too proud to ftoop to flattery in order to become rich, and was contented with a very mode- rate income.” He died poor, and would have been in diftreffed circumftances in the latter years of his life, had not the fovereign fupported him unfolicited, He was held in high eftimation by pope Benedi& XIV. and many of the cardinals ; and by infpiring in the breafts of his pupils an ardent love of their country, with a well regulated zeal for M its GEN its heft interefts, he was the means of introducing them to offices-of diftin&tion, which they filled with honour to them- felves, and high advantage to the beit interefts of the ftate. Gen. Biog. GENOUILLAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Creufe; nine miles W. of Bouffac. GENOUILLE, a town of France, in the department of the Charente ;. 10 miles W. of Jean d’Angely. GENOWTI, a town of Africa; fix miles N. of Sen- naar. GENSACG, a town of France, in the department of the Gironde ; nine miles S. E. ef Libourne. GENS D’ARMES. See GenpaRMEs. GENSERIC, in Biography, a famous king of the Van- dals, fucceeded his brother Gonderic in his Spanifh domi- nions in the year 428. He had already fignalized his courage and fkill in war, and was enured to toil and hard- fhips of every kind. Soon after his fucceflion he invaded Africa, at the head of 50,000 men, and made himfelf matter of the greater part of the country on the fea-coaft. The perfecution of the Donatifts was an event highly favourable to the defigns of Genferic. Seventeen years before he had landed in Africa, a public conference was held at Carthage by order of the magiitrate, which ended in a moft fevere perfecution. Under thefe circumftances, Genferic, himfelf a Chriftian, but an enemy of the orthodox faith, avowed himfelf the vindicator of the rights of the Donatifts, who, in their turn, looked up to him as their deliverer, from whom they might reafonably expeét the repeal of the odious and oppreflive edits of the Roman emperors, Genferic obtained the moft fignal victories over his enemies, but notwith{tand- ing his fuccefs, he agreed to a treaty with the emperor Valentinian, whom he confented to leave in pofleffion of the three Mauritanias. He delivered to the Romans his own fon Hunneric, as a holtage for the obfervance of his treaty ; but they, trufting to his good faith, fent back the youth. Genferic abufed this indulgence by, feizing upon the city of Carthage in 439, at a time when the empire was engaged in a war with the Goths. From Carthage he failed with a large fleet, and landed in Sicily. He ravaged almoft the whole of that ifland, and made a vaft booty, but was unable to effect the conqueft of Palermo. The object of this prince was to render himfelf formidable by fea; and he fuc- ceeded fo completely, that the eaftern and weftera emperors, Theodofius and Valentinian, thought it neceffary to join againit him. ‘They fitted out a powerful fleet, with a large army, deftined for the recovery of Africa; but Genferic deluded them by propofals of accommodation, and the irruption of the Huns obliged Theodofius to recal his forces. When Maximus afcended the weftern throne, he compelled Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian III., to marry him; fhe in a fhort time fecretly applied for the dan- gerous aid of Genferic to free her from his tyranny.. He, feizing the cccafion, appeared at the mouth of the Tiber with a numerous fleet; and in the conteft Maximus was flain, which afforded Genferic an opportunity of marching to the gates of Rome, where he was admitted almoft without’ oppolition. For fourteen days the city was abandoned to all the licentioufnefs of a barbarian foldiery ; and on his‘ return he carried away an immenfe quantity of treafure, befides multitudes of captives, chiefly of the female fex, among whom were the emprefs and her two daughters, one of whom he married: to his fon Hunneric; and after the tapfe of feveral years, he reftored'the other and her mother wp their native place. Genferic continued to annex to his GEN dominion the remaining Roman provinces in. Africa; and then fent a fleet, confifting of fixty gallies, into the Italian fea, which was deftroyed. But the lofs of his fhips did not prevent him from renewing his ravages on the coaft of Italy, till his power received a fevere check from the em- peror Majorian, who now began to a& on the offenfive, and formed the fpirited refolution of attacking the Vandals, in Africa. He fitted out a formidable fleet for the purpofe, which obliged Genferic to fue for peace. His fuit being rejected, he fent out a {quadron, which coming unawares upon the Roman navy, in the bay of Carthagena, almoft de- ftroyed it. Peace was now made between the two warriors, the terms of which were obferved till the death of Majo- rian, in 461. After this, Genferic prepared to repeat his aggreffions, and he again ravaged the coafts of Italy and. Sicily, and even took poffeffion of Sardinia. He extended his hoftilities to all parts of the Mediterranean, and fre-" quently indulged in aéts of the moft brutal atrocity. At one time he is reported to have maffacred five hundred noble citizens of Zacynthus, and to have thrown their dead bodies: into the fea. effort to free his dominions from this terrible fcourge, and’ made va{t preparations for the invafion of Africa. The: conduét of the expedition was given to Bafilifeus, who. might have extinguifhed for ever the kingdom of the Van- dals, had he feized the moment of confternation, and boldly. advanced to the capital. Genferic beheld the danger with: firmnefs, and eluded it with his veteran dexterity... He profefled himfelf ready to fulsmit his perfon and dominions: to the will of the emperor; but requefted a trace of five- days to regulate the terms of his fubmiffion. Bafilifeus confented to the fatal truce ; and during the fhort interval,. the wind became favourable to the defigns of Genferic. He manned his largeft fhips of war with the braveft of the Vandals and Moors ; and they towed after them many large~ barks filled with combuftible materials. In the obfcurity of the night thefe deftructive veflels were impelled againit the. unguarded and unfufpeCting fleet of the Romans, who- were foon awakened to a fenfe of their inflant danger. “Their clofe and crowded order,’ fays the hiftorian,. “ affifted the progrefs of the fire, which was communicated: with rapid and irrefiftible violence ; and the noife of the wind, the crackling of the flames, the diffonant cries of the’ foldiers and mariners, who could neither command, nor obey, increafed the horror of the no@turnal tumult.’’ Bafilifeus- returned inglorioufly to Conftantinople with the remainder~ of his fhattered fleet ; and thus the fruits of all this mighty effort were loft. Genferic put to fea, recovered Sardinias, which had been taken from him, reduced Sicily and all the’ iflands between Italy and Africa, and became a greater- terror to the empire than ever.. In 476, he made a peace- with Odoacer, king of Italy, to whom he reftored Sicily,. but on condition of receiving tribute. The emperor Zeno: likewife relinquifhed to him and his fucceffors all claims to. the African provinces. Genferic died in the year 477. In. his early youth he had renounced the orthodox communion; and as an apoftate he could: neither grant nor expect a: fincere forgivenefs. He was exafperated to find that the Africans, who had fled before him in the field, ftill prefumed to difpute his will in fynods and churches ; and his ferocious -_ mind was incapable of fear, or of compaffion.. His catholic fubje&s he oppreffed with intolerant laws, and arbitrary punifhments. The language of Genferic was furious and: formidable ; the knowledge of his intentions might juftify the moft unfavourable interpretation of his actions; a 7. the: Leo, the eaftern emperor, refolved to make an: ~ I GEN the Arians were reproached with the frequent executions which ftained the palace, and the dominions of the tyrant, Gibbon. Univer. Hitt. GENTIAH, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the country of Affam; 370 miles E. of Patna. N. lat. 25° 10’. E. long. 92° 10'. GENTIAN, in Gardening, the common name of a large hardy perennial herbaceous plant, which has a root that affords an extremely {trong bitter. See GENTIANA. GENTIANA;3 in Botany, YEvTION of the Greeks, named after Gentius, a king of Illyria, who is faid to have difcovered it, or at leaft to have firft experienced its virtues asa cure for the plague, which infected his army. Gentian, or Fell-wort. The latter name, we prefume, is derived from fel, gall, alluding to its extreme bitternefs, and not from fell, the north-country appellation of a mountain. It there- fore ought to be, as Gerarde writes it, Fel-wort.—Linn. Gen. 126. Schreb. 175. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1331. Mart. Mill. Di. v. 2. Sm. Fl. Brit. 284. Juff. 141. Lamarck Tlluftr. t. 109. Gertn. t. 114. Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. (Monogynia; Lamarck.) Nat. Ord. Rotacee, Linn. Gentiane, Juil. Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, in five deep, oblong, acute, permanent fegments, Cor. of one petal, tubular in the lower part, without pores; in the upper five-cleft, re- gular, various in form and direCtion, withering. Stam. Fi- laments five, awl-fhaped, fhorter than the corolla, connected with its tube; anthers oblong, fimple, fometimes united intoa cylinder. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, ovate or oblong, cylindrical, as long as the ftamens ; ftyles none; ftigmas two, ovate, recurved. Peric. Capfule oblong, roundifh, _ pointed, flightly cloven at the fummit, of one cell and two concave inflexed valves. Seeds numerous, {mall, flattifh. Receptacles two, affixed longitudinally to each valve. Eff Ch. Corolla tubular at the bafe, deftitute of ne¢ta- riferous pores. Capfule fuperior, of one cell and two valves, with many feeds. Obf. The figure of the fruit is conflant, but the corolla is very different in different fpecies, being either wheel- fhaped, bell-fhaped, or funnel-fhaped. In fome there are fmall intermediate fegments, in others a fringe to the corolla; in fome it is plaited, in others plain. A few fpecies have a four-cleft tetrandrous flower ; but the remark jn Linn. Gen. 176, that there is a fpecies with three addi- tional parts of the flower, alludes to Chlora, once reckoned a Gentiana. Linneus has erafed the line from his own copy, ‘and his editors might eafily have made the fame correction. G. lutea, and fome others, however, have frequently a fu- perabundance of divifions and ftamens in a few of their bloffoms—The upper part of the germen fo much refembles a ftyle, that Lamarck has perhaps offered no great vio- lence to nature, or the Linnean fyftem, in confidering it fuch. This very noble and beautiful genus of herbaceous plants _ is chiefly of alpine origin, where the lovely blue flowers of many fpecies enamel the turf in a moft fplendid manner. Moft are perennial, ‘fome few annual. All are intenfely hitter in flavour, efpecially the roots of the larger perennial kinds, G. /utea, Woody. Med. Bot.t. 156, which is the officinal Gentian ; purpurea, Fl. Dan. t. 50, which is the Curfuta of the Edinburgh Pharmacopeceia; pannonica, Jacq. Auttr. t. 136; punéata, ibid. app.t. 28; and campanulata, t. 29. Thefe are fcarcely even feen in gardens, except the firft, which is not eafily ettablifhed ; but few plants are more GEN ftately and ornamental. The North American G. fapona- tia, Curt. Mag. t. 1039; and the alpine afclepiadea, t. 1078, are both very handfome, and we have found the latter thrive for many yearsin a bed of peat, earth and loam, as well as on its native mountains. See Curt. Mag.—G. acaulis, Curt. Mag. t. 52. Engl. Bot. t. 1594, is one of the moft common in gardens, but requires rather a pure air. (CG, ver- za, nearly allied to it in habit and beauty, fee Engl. Bot. _t. 493, though wild in the mountainous parts of Durham, and abundant on the Swifs and Italian Alps, will fcarcely live in a garden at all. G. Pueumonanthe, ibid. t. 20, found’ on turfy heaths in many places, is likewife very handfome, and rather impatient of culture. We have never feen the cul- ture of the annual kinds attempted; fuch are xivalis, Engl. Bot. t. 896; Amarella, t. 236; and campeffris, tees Linnzus was by no means well acquainted with the differ- ent fpecies of this genus, having never vifited the more fouthern alps of Europe, where alone they are to be ftudied to advantage. Hence his verna and bavarica are one {pecies, and he confounded with /utea, which he feems never to have feen, or at leaft to have afterwards forgotten, the G. ffori- bus terminantibus diaphanis, Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 106; G. algida, Pallas. Roff. t. 95. Hence the erroneous remark under lutea, ‘¢ petala punétis {parfis creberrimis, flava.’’ ‘There is fome doubt whether G. /¢ptemfida, Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1229, be the fameas Pallas’s t. 92. f. 3. In the former the flower appears to us very rarely, if ever, with more than five divifions, nor do the habits of the two figures accord. Willdenow has fifty-fix fpecies of Gentiana, fome of which among the annual kinds we are not able to determine to our fatisfaction, He quotes amonograph by Froelich, which appears to have great merit, but which has not come to our hands.—Six fpecies only of this genus are wild in Britain, the Chlora and Chironia being now, with the greatett pofflible propriety, feparated from it. GenTIAnA, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the hardy, herbaceous, perennial, flowery kind; of which the fpecies cultivated are the yellow gentian (G. /utea) 3 {potted flower- ed gentian (G. pundata) ; {wallow-wort-leaved gentian (G. afclepiadea) ; and the dwarf gentian, or gentianeila. Method of Culture.—In the three firft forts it is eafily ef- feted by fowing the feeds in pots foon after it is ripe, as when kept till {pring it will not fucceed ; the pots fhould be placed in a fhady fituation, and kept clean from weeds. Some ad- vife their being fown where they are to remain, but the firft is probably the beft method. In the {pring the plants ap- pear, when they muift be duly watered in dry weather, and kept clean from weeds till the following autumn ; then be carefully fhaken out of the pots, fo as not to break or in- jure their roots ; and a fhady border of'loamy earth fhould be well dug and prepared to receive them, into which they fhould be put at about fix inches diftance each way, the tops of the roots being kept a little below the furface of the ground, and the earth preffed clofe to the roots. If the fol- lowing {pring prove dry, they fhould be duly watered to for- ward their growth. The plants may remain here two years, by which time they will be fit to tranfplant where they are defigned to grow, removing them in the autumn as foon as their leaves decay ; great care being taken in digging them up not to cut or break their roots, asthat greatly weakensthem. They require afterwardsno other culture but todig the ground ‘about them early in the {pring before they begin to {hoot, and in the fummer to keep them clean from weeds. ‘Che roots continue many years, but the flalks decay every autumn ; Mz the GEN the fame roots not flowering two years together, of feldom oftener than every third. When they flower ftrong, they have, however, a fine appearance amang other fimilar plants. In refpe& to the laft fort it is moftly propagated by off- fets or parting the roots, and planting them where they are to remain in the early autumn ; but in order to have the plants flower well, they fhould not be often tranfplanted or parted. Amd they are alfo capable of being raifed from feeds ma- naged in tke fame way as in the firft kinds. All thefe plants fuccced the moft perfectly in moift loamy foils, where there is adegree of fhade afforded. They are ufeful as ornamental plants, for the clumps, bor- ders, and quarters of pleafure-grounds ; thofe of low growth being planted towards the fronts, and the latter kinds more backward in them. Gesttana, Gentian, in the Materia Medica. The root, which is the only medicinal part of the plant, Ras hittle or ell, but to the taite it mantfeits great bitternefs 5 a uality which is extraéted by aqueots, fpirituous, and vinous menftrua, though not info great a degree by water as by fpirit ; and the extra& of this root, prepared from the watery infufion, is lefs bitter than that made from the {piri- tuous tinéture. Gentian is the principal bitter now employ- ed by phylicians ; and as the intenfe bitters are generally ad- mitted to be not only tonic and ftomachic, but alfo anthel- mintic, antifeptic, emmenagogue, antiarthritic, and febri- fuge, ‘this root has a better claim to the poffeffion of thefe powers than moft of this kind. Many difpeptic complaints, though arifing from debility of the ftomach, are more effec» tually relieved by bitters than by Peruvian bark ; and hence may be inferred their fuperior tonic power on the organs of digeftion ; but we are told by Dr. Cullen (Mat. Med. vol. ii.) that the gentian, joined with equal parts of tormentil or galls, conftantly fucceeded in curing intermittents, if given in fufficient quantity. As a fimple bitter the gentian is ren- dered more grateful to the ftomach by the addition of an aro- matic : and for this purpofe orange-peel is commonly employ- ed. ‘The officinal preparations of this root are, the ‘ in- fufum gentiane compofitum,” and “ tin¢tura gentiane com- polita,” (Ph. Lond.) and the “ infufum amarum,’’ “ vinum amarum,” tinétura amara,” five “ elixir ftomachicum” (Ph. Ed.) which latter is faid by Dr. Cullen to be the fame as Stoughton’s elixir, (fee Stomachic Exrxir) and by both Pharmacoperias the extract is direéted. The “ compound in- fufion” is prepared by taking gentian root fliced and orange- peel dried, of each a dram, of frefh lemon-peel two drams, and boiling water twelve ounces ; and macerating for an hour in a covered veflel, and then {training the liquor. For the “ tin@ture,”’ take of gentian root dried, two ounces, orange-peel dried, anounce, cardamom feed bruifed, half an ounce, and proof fpirit two pints; macerate for four- teen days, and ftrain, For the “extract,” take of gentian- root Miced, a pound, and boiling water, a llon ; macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four pints; {train the hot liquor, and evaporate it to a proper confiftence. The extracts are made into pills, with or without aromatic additions. Wines and malt liquors are likewife impregnated with the virtues of this root in diffesent proportions. An ounce of the gentian root, the fame quantity of frefh le- mon-peel, and two drams of long pepper, communicate by maceration, without heat, a grateful warmth and bitternefs toa quart of mountain. There is an Indian gentian brought from America by the Portuguefe, of a pale yellowith colour, jointed and marked with knots and circles like ipecacahuna, GEN more intenfely bitter than any of the officinal bitter drugs. This root is greatly commended in obitinate intermittentsy and other diforders ; a fcruple is faidto be more effectual than repeated half drams of bark. There was a mixture of henbaze root brought over fome years ago with the common gentian, which occafioned vioe lent diforders, and in fome inftances proved fatal. This root is of a paler colour than gentian, and its longi- tudinal wrinkles finer and clofer ; the poifonous root, when cut, appears white, without any degree of the yellow hue, which is deep in gentian ; and its tate is not bitter, but mu- cilaginous. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. p. 240. Lewis’s Mat. Med. Woodville’s Mat. Med. GenTIAN Water. See WATER. GENTIANA,, the forty-fixth natural order of plants in Juffieu’s fyftem, or the thirteenth of his eighth clafs, fe named from the principal genus contained in it. The cha- racter of this eighth clafs is Cotyledons two. Flowers of one petal, inferted below the germen, regular or irregular. €a- lya of oneleaf. Stamens of a definite number, inforted into the corolla, and ufually alternate with its divilions, when they agree in number. Geraen fuperior, fimple ; ftyle one, (fometimes none in the Apocinee, with a double germen) ; ftigma fimple or divided. Fruit fuperior, confiiting either of naked feeds, or for the moft part enclofed, either in a pulpy er a capfular feed-veflel, of one or many cells, Tne characters of the Gentiane are thefe. Calyx divided, sermanent. Corolla regular, often withering betore it falls, with a limb equally divided, whofe fegments agree in num- ber with thofe of the calyx and are moft commonly five, fometimes oblique. Stamens as many, inferted into the mid- dle or upper part of the corolla; anthers incumbent. Style one, or rarely, by {plitting, double ; ftigma fimple or lobed. Capfule fimple or of two parts, of two valves, and one or two cells, the valves inflexed at the margin, involute where there is but one cell, flat and conftituting the partition where there are two. Seeds numerous, fmall, inferted into a mare ginal receptacle conneéted with the valves. Stem herba- ceous, rarely fomewhat fhrubby. Leaves oppofite, moftly undivided and feffile; floral ones occafionally fmaller, re- fembling bra¢teas, the flowers in fuch cafe becoming, as it were, doubly braéteated.—The firft fection has a fimple cap- fule, of one cell, and contains Gentiana, Lita of Schreber (Vobiria of Aublet,) Picrium of Schreber (Coutoubea of Au- blet), Swertia and Chlora; the fecond, with a fimple cap- fule of two cells, contains Exacum, Lifianthus, Myrmecia of Schreber (Zachia of Aublet), Chironta and Nigrina ; the third with a didymous or two-lobed capfule of two cells, contains only Spigelia and Ophiorrhiza. In a fourth feétion ftands as a kintothis order, by itfelf, Nicandraof Schreber (Po- talia of Aublet.) Theplants of this natural order are chiefly remarkable for their intenfe bitternefs, and confequent fto- machic virtues. Their flowers are ufually beautiful, either blue, yellow or red, fcarcely white, except by oceafional variation of the blue or red. GENTIANELLA, in Gardening, the common name of the dwarf gentian, and which properly fignifies the /ittle gen- tian, which has a broad leaf and large flower, See GenTia- NA. GENTILE, Gentixts, a pagan, or perfon who adore falfe gods. The Hebrews wiped the ree | exaa by Je ee nations, to all the people of the earth who were not Ifraelites or Hebrews. ‘ Some will have it that the gentiles were thus called in con-- tradiftin@ion to the Jews, becaufe the latter sad a politive kaw » GEN TILE. Yaw to obferve in matters of religion, whereas the gentiles had only the natural law : hence they are called “ gentiles, quia funt uti geniti fuerunt,’”? becaufe they remain asin a {tate of nature. The Jews apply the denomination gentiles much as the Chrittians do that of infidels. St. Paul is called the dodor, or apofile of the gentiles, which appellation he firft gave him- felf, Rom. xi. 13. “ As I am the apoftle of the gentiles, I magnify mine office.”’ The calling of the gentiles to Chriftianity had been pre- diétedin the Old Teftament, as it was accomplifhed in the New. See Pfal. ii. 8. Ifa. ii. Joel ii. 29. Matth. viti. rr. xii. 18. Ads, xi. 18. xiii. 47, 48.xxvill. 28. Rom. i. 5. iti. 2px ZZ.) 25, pho. EI. REV. Xte/2—)XXil. 2. Some account may not be improperly given in this place of the ftate of Chriftianity both before and atter the time of Con- tantine’s converfion. The oppofition of the Jews to its reception and prevalence appears in the Acts of A poitles, and the epifttes of the New Teftament. Our prefent objeé& is to confider, firft, the ftate of its progrefs in yentile countries, and under heathen emperors, from about the middle of the firft century, when it began to be preached among the gen- tiles, and to make fome progrefs among them, to the period when Conftantine embraced the Chriftian religion ; and, fe- condly, its ftate under the Chriitian emperors, and their treatment by the gentiles. In the former period, we find from St. Luke’s account in the Aéts of the Apoftles (ch. xiv. 1g, 20.ch. xvi. 1g—24.) that St. Paul met with fome diff- culties in preaching the gofpel in gentile cities ; but no impe- rial edicts were iflued againft the Chriftians, before that of Nero in the year of Chrilt 64 or 65, at which time the two apoitles, Peter and Paul, were put to death. For an ac- count of the fen perfecutions, as they have been ufually reckoned, which the Chriftians fuffered under heathen empe- rors, we refer to the article Persecution. Thefe perfecutions were ordered by ediéts of emperors, beginning with Nero’s and ending with Dioclefian’s. During the whole of this period Chriftianity had been in a ftate of perfecution. At the commencement of the fecond period, in 313, Conftan- tine and Licinius iflued a law or ediét, giving liberty to all men, Chriftians and others, to follow that way of worfhip which fhould be moft agreeableto them. However, it ap- pears that Conttantine did not itri€tly obferve his own edict ; tor, according to the utmoft of his power, by various me- thods, by laws, inftitutions, rewards and encouragements, he endeavouredto root out the ancient religion, and to promote the Chriftian dotrine. Conceiving that neither he nor the Ro- man empire could be fafe, as long as the ancient fu- peritition fubfifted, he openly oppofed the gods of the gen- tiles, and their worfhip, as dangerous to the public welfare. After the death of Conftantine in the year 337, the whole empire was divided between his fons. Conftans, with whom his brother Con{tantius concurred, paffed a law in 341, or- dering fuperitition to ceafe, and the madnefs of facrificing to be abolifhed ; under the menace of a proper and convenient punifhment. This law was followed by another law of Conftans in the next year, 342, forbidding the demolition of temples, which ftood without the walls of the city of Rome. Another law, which was the firft of Conftantius, and paffed, as it has been fuppofed, in the year 353, ordained that in all places, and in all cities, temples fhould be imme- diately thut up, and that the people fhould abftain from fa- erifices, under the penalty of death and the confifcation of their eftates tothe treafury. The fecond law of Conitan- tius, inthe fame year, prohibited noéturnal facrifices ; and a law, publifhed by the fame emperor in the year 356, ap- pointed capital punifhment to fuch us were conyicted of per- forming facrifices or worfhipping images. ‘Three other laws of Conftantius were alfo publifhed in the year 356 or 3575 with the penalty of death againft all who eased any of the mafters of divination, who are enumerated under their feveral titles of harufpices, mathematicians, Chaldzans, ha- rioli, augurs, vates, and magicians. The emperor Julian is well known for his zeal in favour of gentilifm, and for his in- jurious treatment of the Chriitians. At his acceffon we may reafonably fuppofe, that all the laws of preceding Chriftian emperors againft gentilifm and its rites, were abrogated, and that it was actually eftablifhed by imperial ediéts ; whilit Chriftians were deprived of magiftracy, and all honours and dignities, as well as alfo of equal rights of citizenfhip. The emperors Jovian, Valentinian, and Valens were Chriftians ; and they encouraged their fubjeéts in the profeffion of Chrif- tianity, and protected them in the enjoyment of the privi-« leges conferred upon them by Conftantine : but it does not appear that during this period any new laws were iffued again{t gentiles and their facrifices. Jovian, indeed, pub- litheda law of univerfal toleration ; and Valentinian was re- markable for the moderation of his government. In the year 381 was iffued a law of Theodofius, with the joint autho- rity of Gratian, and the younger Valentinian, ena¢ting, that apoftates from Chriftianity to paganifm fhould lofe the power of making a will. This law was afterwards ratified, and followed by other laws of Theodofius the Great, Valen- tinian the Younger, Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodofius IT., with the addition of other claufes. Inthe fame year, 381, and by the fame authority, was ena¢ted a law, for- bidding all facrifices in the way of divination, either by day or by night, in the temples or elfewkere, upoz the pain of pro{cription. By another law of Theodofius, in the following year, the magnificent temple in the province of Ofrhoené, or Edeffa, was allowed to be open, and to be fre- quented, provided no facrifices were performed there. In 385 Theodofius publifhed another law, forbidding facrifices, . efpecially fuch as were made in the way of divination, and for difcovering futurities, upon pain of death. In 391 was publifhed a law of Theedofius, in which all facrifices of inno- cent victims, and aceefs to the temples, and the worfhip of fenfelefs images, are prohibited. This law was particularly defigned for Rome and Italy ; and in the fame year a fini- lar law was publifhed for Egypt, forbidding facrifices and accefs to temples. In 392 was publifhed a fevere law of ‘Theodofius, forbidding to men of all ranks every kind of heathenifh worfhip ; and in 399 Arcadius publifhed a law for deftroying temples in cbuntry places. Several other laws were publifhed by Theodofius the younger againtt all Pagan oblations and facrifices, and ordering the deilruétion of chapels, temples, and confecrated places. Neverthelefs gentilifm {till fubfilted. Upon the whole it may be obferved, that the period of 20 or 25 years, from the death of Con- {tantius to the acceflion of Theodofius, or thereabout, is re- markable for the mildnefs with which the gentiles were treated, and the few laws that were iffued againft them ; and thefe laws againft gentilifm were not rigoroufly executed but many gentiles were admitted into civil offices of great truit and profit ; and many inftances occur, whichevince the modera- tion of Chriftian magiftrates under Chriftian emperors; and, indeed, it is true both with refpeé to Chriftians and gentiles, that all wife and underftanding men, of every fe& and religion, recommended moderation, and concurred incondemning Fate and compulfion in religious matters. See more on this jubje& in Lardner’s Works, vol. ix. g83—z218. ; GENTILE, Gentilis, in the Roman Law and Hiflory, a name which fometimes expreffes thofe whom the Romane otherwife call Barbarians ; whether they were allies of Rome, or GEN ornot. In which fenfe the word occurs in Ammianus, Au- fonius, and the Notitia Imperii. Gentitis was alfo ufed, in a more peculiar fenfe, for all {trangers, or foreigners, not fubject to the Roman empire ; as we fee in the Theodofian Code, in the title «* De Nuptiis Gentilium ;"’ where the word gentiles ftands oppofed to pro- vinciales, or the inhabitants of the provinces of the em- ire. s , The word is likewife ufed, in this fenfe, in the Greek ; but it was not introduced either into that, or the Latin tongue, till after Chriftianity was eftablifhed ; it being taken from fcripture. See Esquire and GenTLEMAN. GENTILESCHI, Orazio, in Biography, a painter, born at Pifain 1563. His parental name was Lomi, but he chofe to adopt that of his maternal uncle. He firft learnt the art under his half brother Aurelio Lomi, but afterwards ftudied at Rome. After diftinguifhing himfelf at Florence, Turin, and Genoa, he pafled to Savoy and France, and thence was ‘invited into England by Charles I. who gave him lodgings, and a confiderable falary ; and employed him in printing ceil- ings, &c. at Greenwich. He was alfo employed by Villiers, duke of Buckingham, at York Honfe, on a picture of him- felf and his family. After refiding here about twelve years, he died at the age of 84 in 164.7. The clearnefs and bril- liancy of the ftyle in which he painted may be feen to the greateft perfection in a picture at Hampton Court of Jofeph and Potiphar’s wife. He made king Charles a prefent of a large book of drawings, and was defervedly refpected and admired for his abilities. Gentivescnt, Artemisia, daughter of Orazio, and his pupil, who obtained almoft as much fkill and credit as her father. She followed him to England, where fhe prac- tifed in portraits with great fuccefs. She alfo exercifed her talents in hiftorical painting, and has left many highly credit- able works behind her. Her picture of Judith with the head of Holofernes at St. James’s palace, isin the fame ftyle of defign as her father’s, but though very fkilful, is not fo bright, or fo finely wrought as his pictures ufually are. After the death of Orazio, fhe retired to Naples, where Graham fays fhe became as famous for her amours as for her {kill in painting. She died in 1642. GENTILI, Axserico, was born in 1550, at Caf- tel S. Genefio, in the marche of Ancona. He ftudied the law, and took his degrees at the univerfity of Perugia, and was pretor at Afcoli, when his father, becom- ing a convert to the reformed religion, determined to quit Italy, and take with him his fons Alberico and Scipio. The former, the fubjeét of this article, came to England, and in 1582 was chofen profeffor of jurifprudenee in the uni- verfity of Oxford, which he held with much reputation till his death in 1608. He wasaman of great learning, and publifhed various works. One, entitled « Six Dialogues on the Interpreters of Law,’’ he dedicated to his patron the earlof Leicefter. He is author of three books “ De Jure belli,”’ which are highly applauded by Grotius: of three others «* De Legationibus,”’ and feveral traéts relative to antiquities. His “ Letiones Virgiliane’’ prove that he had cultivated polite literature very fuccefsfully. Bayle. GeEnNTILI, ‘Scipio, brother of the preceding, was born in 1563, and, while a child, was fent’ to Tubingen for his education, Here he diftinguifhed himfelf in the {tudy of the claflies and jurifprudence, which he afterwards purfued with increating fuccefs at the univerfities of Wittember. and Leyden. In 158g he took his degree of doctor at Bafil and then went to Wittemberg as a public expounder of the Jay. Shortly after he removed to Altdorf, and became prin. GEN cipal profeffor of law. His fame extended very far, and he received invitations to fettle at feveral univerfities, and one from pope Clement VIII. to fettle at Bologna, which he declined. Ile died at Altdorf in 1616, leaving behind him many works as monuments of his deep erudition. Thefe were after. wards collected and printed in 8 vols. gto. ; they are chiefly on fubjeéts conneéted with jurifpredence. As a teacher, his manner was clear and interefting. He wasa good Latin poet, and tranflated feveral of the Pfalms, and the firft two cantos of Taffo’s Jerufalem. Bayle. — GENTILIS, Genrizis, was born at Foligni, in Italy, about the year 1230. He itudied medicine under the tui- tion of Thaddeus of Florenee, with great diligence and re- putation, fothat on his return to hisnative place he was re- garded by his fellow-citizens as the firft phyfician of the time ; and his fame foon extended through Italy. He was alfo efteemed one of the beft commentators upon Avicenna, whofe writings were them held in high veneration in moft of the univerlities of Murope. Gentilis died at Bologna about the year 1310, and left feveral treatifes, which were colle@- ed and publifhed at Venice, in four volumes folio, in 1484, 1486, and1492. The following works were likewife print- ed feparately: 1. ‘ Expofitiones in textu Avicenne.’’— 2. © De Febribus,’? Venice, 1484,—3. “¢ Expofitio cum Commento Aigidii Monachi BenediGini Libri de Judiciis Urinarum, et Libri de Pulfibus.” Ibid. 1494,—4. “ Confi- lia peregregia ad quevis morborum totius corporis genera,’? with fome other traéts, Venice, 1503'—~5. “ Quettiones et Tractatus extravagantes.’’ Ibid. 1520.—6. ‘ De Lepra Trattatus.”” Ubid, 1536, with the furgery of Dinus de Gar- bo.—7. ‘* De proportionibus Medicinarum,’’ with different differtations upon the fubject of dofes of medicines by the moft celebrated phyficians, Padua 1556, &c. See Eloy. Dia. Hift.—Several other individuals of the family of Gen- tilis were diftinguifhed for their knowledge of medicine and the {ciences, GenTILIis, JouN-VALENTINE, was born at Cofenza in Calabria. Educated in the principles of the Roman Catho- lic religion, and becoming a convert to the principles of the Reformation, he was obliged to quit his native country, and take refuge in Geneva, where feveral Italian families had al« ready formed a congregation. His enquiries did not ftop by the open renunciation of papal errors ; he became diffatisfied with the orthodox doétrine of the Trinity. He was required to fubfcribe to the articles of faith which the perfecutor John Calvin had eftablifhed againft herefy, to which a promife was annexed, never to do any thing, directly or indireétly, that fhould controvert the doétrine of the Trinity. At firit Gen- tilis refufed the teft, but was afterwards prevailed on to com- ply, dreading probably, in cafe of his refiftance, a fimilar treatment to that which Servetus had experienced. What his hand-had figned, and his tongue confeffed, his heart ab- horred, and in private he did not fcruple to avow the truth, which coming to the ears of the magiftrates, they commit- ted him to prifon. From the dungeon he attempted to ex- poftulate with his perfecutors, fhewing the inoffenfivenefs of his opinions, but their hearts were fteeled againft the fuppli- cations of a heretic, till he offered to abjure his errors, con- fented to throw his writings into the fire, and take an oath not to quit Geneva without leave of the magiftrates. Being thus, in a meafure, freed from fufpicion, and feeling confcious that he would be juftified in breaking an oath which had been ex- torted by terror, he withdrew from the city, but finding no place of fafty he returned, was again imprifoned, but ina fhort time liberated. From this period he feems to have_ wandered from place to place, and we find him at Lyons, in various partsof Polandand Germany, in Savoy, and at laft at GEN at Bern, where he was accufed of herefy. He underwent a long and tedious trial, and being convicted of obftinately oppugning the myftery of the Trinity, he was fentenced to lofe his head. ‘This fentence was carried into execution, but death, which, ata greater diftance, feemed fo formida- ble to him, was now difarmed of his terrors, and by a manly fortitude he was enabled to triumph over his enemies, who expe€ted that his mind was ill-adapted to fo trying a fcene ; his laft moments were probably the happieit of his life. He died exulting that he was thought worthy of fuflering for the caufe of truth, and that he was admitted to feal, with his blood, the doétrine of the fupremacy and unrivalled glo- ry of the Father. Moreri, Bayle. GENTILITIA, Sacra, among the Romans. SAcRA. GENTILITIUS, an epithet ufed by fome authors to exprefs difeafes propagated from father to fon, and running through whole families ; fuch as are more ufually called here- ditary diforders. Such are the gout very frequently, and often many others. GENTILLET, Varenrins, in Biography, a native of Dauphiné, who flourifhed in the fixteenth century... He had in early life ftudied jurifprudence, and was a civilian by pro- feffion. He was an advocate in the parliament of Touloufe, and afterwards a fyndic of the republic of Geneva, and at ene period of his life he was prefident of the parliament of Grenoble. He became diftinguifhed by his writings againft popery, but by the edits publithed in France againit thofe ef the reformed religion, he was driven into exile. His principal works are, * An Apology for the Proteftants,”’ which went through feveral editions in the French, and was . afterwards tranflated into Latin and enlarged, under the title of “ Apologia pro Chriftianis Gallis Religionis, Evangelice feu Reformate, qua docetur hujus Religionis fundamenta in Sacra Scriptura jacta effe :”’ and «¢ Le Bureau du Concile de Trente, &c.’’ This was printed in French in 1586, and in the fame year a Latin tranflation of it was publifhed, which was frequently reprinted at different places. Its defign is to fhew that many of the decrees of that council were contrary to the ancient councils and canons. He was author alfo of s© Anti-machiavel,” and the “¢ Anti-focinus.”? Bayle. GENTIMANETOUR, in Geography, a town of Hin- dooftan, inthe Carnatic ; 30 miles W. of Cuddalore. See GENTIOUX ef Pauiier, a town of France, in the’ department of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton in the diffi of Aubuffon ; 9 miles S.W. of Felletin. The place contains go7, and the canton 6,507 inhabitants, on a territory of 3274 kiliometres, in 8 communes. GENTLE Pir Ors, in Mineralogy, a name given by our miners in Suffex, to a kind of iron ore found in confiderable plenty in that county, and very readily running in the fre, though not over rich in metal. It is a ftrong fubitanee, and lies in feveral parts of that county in form of a moderately thick ftratum. It is of a dufky brown colour, and in fome places much paler than in others. It has al- ways a great number of glittering fpangles in it, and very often. contains foffile fhells, and other extraneous fub- ftances in it. GENTLEMAN, a perfon of good family, or defcended of afamily which has long borne arms, the grant of which adds gentility to a man’s famuly.. . The word is formed of the French gentilhomme, or rather of gentil, fine, fa/bionable, or becoming ; and the Saxon mon, q: i honeftus, or honefto loco natuss "The fame fignitication has the Italian genti/bucmo, and the Spanith Aidalgo, or hijo- dalzo, that is, the fon of fomebody, or of a perion of note. If we go farther hack, we hall fad. gentleman originally GEN derived from the Latin gentilis homo, which was ufed among. the Romans for a race of noble perfons, of the fame name,. born of free or ingenuous parents, and whofe anceftors had never been flaves, or put to death by law. Thus Cicero, in his Topics, ‘ gentiles funt, qui inter fe eodem funt nomine ab ingenuis oriundi, quorum majorum nemo fervitutem fervivit, qui capite non funt diminuti, &c.’? Some hold that it was formed from gentile, i. e. pagan ; and that the ancient Franks, who conquered Gaul, which was then converted to Chrif- tianity, were called gentiles by the natives, as being yet hea- thens. Others relate that towards the declenfion of the Ro- man empire, as recorded by Ammianus Marcellinus, there were two companies of brave foldiers; the one called gen- tifium, and the other Jfeutariorum ; and that it was hence we derived the names gentleman and efquire. ‘This fentiment is confirmed by Pafquier, who fuppofes the appellation gentiles and ecuyers to have been tranfmitted to us from the Roman foldiery ; it being to the gentiles and /cutarii, who were the braveit of the foldiery, that the principal benefices and por-- tions of lands were affigned. (See Benerice.). The Gauls obferving, that during the empire of the Romans,.- the feutarii and gentiles had the beft tenements, or appoint- ments of all the foldiers on the frontiers of the provinces, became infenfibly accuftomed to apply the fame names, gez-- tilhommes, and ecuyers, to {uch as they found their kings gave the beft provifions or appointments to. Pafgq. Rech. lib. ii.- cap. 15. : In ftriétnefs, Chamberlayne obferves, a gentleman is one whofe anceftors have been freemen, and have owed obedience to none but their prince: on which footing, no man can be a gentleman who is not born fo. Among us, the term gentleman is applicable to all above yeomen ; fothat noblemen may be properly called gentle-- men. In our ftatutes, gentilis homo was adjudged a good addition: for a gentleman, 27 Edw. III. The addition of knight is very ancient: but that of efquire, or gentleman, was. rare- before 1 Hen. V. We read that J. Kingfton was made a gentleman by king’- Richard II. Asit may juftly be afked what conftitutes a: gentleman: with us? the reply is eafy ; being a gentleman, is being en- - titled to bear arms. And Mr. Camden obferves, that the diftinGtion of a gentleman of coat-armour, oran upftart, and a gentleman of blood, is the bearing of arms from the grand- father ; and that he who bears arms from his grandfather is. to all intents and purpofes a gentleman of blood ;- for which caufe it is requifite by the itatutes of the Bath that every knight, before his admiffion, proves himfelf to be fo qualified, which done, it carries with it, if his merit be equal, a paff- port alfo to the order of the Garter. Notitia Anglicana,. p- 24. See alfo Doddridge’s Honour’s Pedigree, p. 147 - Smith, De Republ. Angl. & Fortefcue, fol. 82. Guillim, in his chapter of gentlemen, fays, that they have their beginning either of blood, as being born of wor- fhipful parents ; or that they have done fomething, either in- peace or war, whereby they deferve to bear arms, and be ac- counted gentlemen. He farther fays, chap. xxiv..if a gen- tleman be bound apprentice to a merchant or other trader, - he hath not thereby loft his gentility ; and he defires it may be remembered,. for the honour of trade,.that king Henry VIL. thought it no difhonour to him, when he: quitted his queen, to take to his wife Anne, the daughter. of Thomas - Bullen, fome time mayor of London. 'l’o which may be added the thought, that the firft William, who fownded our. royalrace, was the grandfon of a tanner. Sir Edward Coke fays, that efquires and gentlemen, are= only y GEN only names of worfhip, and not of dignity. And before thefe the heralds rank all colonels, ferjeants at law, and do&tors in the three learned profeffions. See Precr- DENCE. Sir Thomas Smith (ubi fupra) fays, that whofoever ftu- dieth the laws of the realm, or ftudieth in the univerfity, or profeffeth the liberal fciences ; and (in fhort) who can live idly, and without maoual labour, and will bear the pert, charge, and countenance of a gentleman, fhall be called matter, and fhall be taken for a gentleman. GestLeman Ujher of the Black Rod, is the chief gentle- man usher to the king, cafled in the black book “ Lator vir- gz nigre, et haftiarius,” and elfewhere “ Virgz bajulus.”? His duty is to bear the rod before the king at the feaft of St. George at Windfor ; he has alfo the keeping of the chapter- houfe door, when a chapter of the order of the garter is fitting ; and in time of parliament attends the houfe of peers. His badgeisa “black rod,” witha lion in gold at top. This rod has the authority of a mace; and to his cuftody all peers queftioned for any crime are firft com- mitted. GenTLeMAN of the Bed-chamber. See Bep-CHAMBER. GenTLemeEN of the Chapel, are officers whofe duty and at- tendance are in the royal chapel, being in number thirty ; ten whereof are priefts, and the other twenty called clerks of the chapel, who ailift in the performance of Divine fervice. One of the firft ten is chofen for confeffor ofthe houfhold, whofe office it is to read prayers every morning tothe houf- hold fervants ; to vifit the fick, examine and prepare com- municants, and adminifter the facrament. Another, well verfed in mufic, is chofen firft organift: who is matter of the children, to inftru& them in mufic, and what isneceflary for the fervice of the chapel: a fecond is likewife an organift; a third a lutenift; and a fourtha violiit. There are likewife three vergers, fo called from the filver rods they ufually carry in their hands ; being a ferjeant, yeo- man, and room of the -veftry: the firft attends the dean and fub-dean ; finds furplices and other neceflaries for the chapel : the fecond has the whole care of the chapel ; keeps the pews, and feats the nobility and gentry ; the groom has his attendance within the chapel-door, and looks after it. GENTLEMEN Penfioners. See PENSIONERS. GENTLEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Magdeburg ; 30 miles N.E. of Magdeburg. GENTLEWOMAN, Genenosa, is a good addition for the eftate and degree of a woman, as genero/us is for that of a man; and if a gentlewoman be named fpinfter in any original writ, appeal, &c. it hath been held that fie may abate, and quafh the fame. (z Inft. 668.) But it feems that {pinfter is in general a good addition for an unmarried wo- man, as fingle woman is for one who, being unmarried, hath had a battard. GENTOOS, in Modern Hifory, accordiag to the com- mon acceptation of the term, denote the profeffors of the religion of the Bramins (fee Bracumans), who inhabit the country called Hindooftan, in the Eaft Indies, from the word flan, a region, and hind or hindoo ; which Ferifhteh, as we learn from colonel Dow’s tranflation of his Hiftory, fuppofes to have been a fon of Ham, the fon of Noah. It is obferved, however, that Hindoo is not the name by which the inhabitants originally ftyled themfelves, but according to the idiom of the Shanfcrit, which they ufe, jumbodcep, from jumbo, a jackall, an animal common in their country, and deep, a large portion of land furrounded by the fea, or Bhertekhunt, from khuat, i. e. a continent, and bherrut, the GEN name of one of the Arft Indian rajahs. It is alfo obferved, that they have afflumed the name of Hindoos only fince the era of the Tartar government, to diftinguifh themfelves from their conquerors, the Muffulmen. The term Gentoo, or Gent, in the Shanferit diale&t, denotes animal in general, and in its more confined fenfe mankind, and is never appro- priated particularly to fuch as follow the do¢trines of Brhima. Thefe are divided into four great tribes, each of which has its own feparate appellation ; but they have no common or colleétive term that comprehends the whole nation under the idea affixed by the Europeans to the word Gentoo. Mr. Halhead, in the preface to his tran{lation of the « Code of Gentoo Laws,”’ conjeétures that the Portuguelfe on their firft arrival in India, hearing the word frequently in the mouths of the natives, as applied to mankind in general, might adopt it for the domeftic appellation of the Indians them- felves, or, perhaps, their bigotry might force from the word Gentoo a fanciful allufion to gentile or pagan. The Hindoos, or Gentoos, vie with the Chinefe as to the antiquity of their nation. They reckon the duration of the world by four jogues, or diftinc&t ages; the firft is the Suttee jogue, or age of purity, which is faid to have laited about 3,200,000 years, during which the life of man was 100,0co years, and his ftature twenty-one cubits ; the fecond, the Tirtah jogue, or the age in which one-third of mankind were reprobate, which confifted of 2,400,000 years, when men lived to the age of 10,000 years; the third, the Dwapaar jogue, in which half the human race became depraved, which endured to 600,000 years, when mens’ lives were reduced to 1,000 -years ; and fourthly, the Collee jogue, in which all mankind were corrupted, or rather diminifhed, which the word colle imports. This is the prefent era, which they fuppofe will fubfift for 400,000 years, of which near 5,000 are- already paft, and man’s life in this period is limited to 100 years. It is fuppofed by many authors, that moft of the Gentoo /haffers or fcriptures, were compofed about the beginning of the collee jogue or cal jug, of which, according to Mr. Dew, the year of Chrift 1769 was the 4887th; but ar objec- tion occurs againft this fuppofitien, viz. that the fhaiters take no notice of the deluge; to which the Bramins reply, that all their {criptures were written before the time ef Noah, and the deluge never extended to Hindooftan. Neverthe- - lefs it appears from the fhaiters themfelves, that they claima much higher antiquity than this; initances of which are re- cited by Mr. Halhead. After all, it muit be allowed, that perfons of fagacity and ood judgment have made it appear with fufficient me fi that the oldeft accounts of the Hindoo natien do not, in re- ality, go further back than to the deluge mentioned in the books of Mofes, and that their religious inftitutions were confequently poiterior to that event. Sir William Jones fays, (Differtations relating to Afia, vol. i. p. 199.) that the firft corruption of the pureft and oldeft religion, which con- fifted in the worfhip of one God, the maker and governor of all things, was the fyftem ef the Indian theology, invented by the Bramins, and prevailing in thofe territories, where the book of Mahabad, or Menn, is at this time the flandard of all religious and moral duties, In his preface to the * In- ftitutions of Menu,”’ (fee Mrnv) he fays, they are fuppofed by the Bramins to have been promulgated by Menu, the fon or grandfon of Brahma, or the firit of created beings, This work he fuppofes to have been written about 3co years after the Vedas, or about 1280 years B.C, Sir Wr. jeoey is of opinion, that the origin of the Hindoo nation and govern. ment is to be looked for in Jran, or Perfia, where a great . monarchy was eftablifhed before the Affyrian, called by the oriental hiftorians the « Pifhdadian dynaity ;” and they fay, that GENTOOS. that the firft of thefe ancient monarchs, whom they. call Mahabad, or Menu, received from the creator a facred book, in a heavenly language, meaning the “« Vedas,” (Diff. relat- ing to Afia, vol. ii. p. ry1.) This firft monarch, they alfo fay, divided the people into four orders, the religious, the military, the commercial, and the fervile. (Diff. &c. vol. i. p- 197. 206.) Inthe reign of Hufhang, the third of the Pifhdadian race, a reformation, he fays, was made in the re- ligions {yftem, when the complex polythei{m of the preced- ing times was rejected, and religion was reduced to what is called «¢ Sabaifm,” which confitted chiefly in the worfhip of the fun, moon, and ftars; but it is probable, that fabaifm, being a more fimple form of religion than that of the Hin- doos, muft have preceded it. The laws of Mahabad, how- ever, were retained, and his fuperftitious veneration for fire. Upon this change, the favourers of the old religion retired to Hindooftan, and their oldeft exiting laws forbad them ever to return, or to leave the country they now inhabit. Another reformation, or change, in the fyitem, was made, he fays, under Guthtafp, in the next, or “ Kaianite dy- nafty,’’ thought to have been the fame with Darius Hyttaf- pis. This was effected by Zeratufht, or Zoroalter ; he in- troduced gent, or angels, prefiding over months and days, new ceremonies in the veneration fhewn to fre, and gave out a new work, which he faid came from heaven, but at the fame time eftablifned the adoration of the Supreme Being. This work was loit at the conqueft of Perfia by the Maho- metans; but the priefts of that religion have compofed another from what they were able to recollect of their initi- tution. It is called “* Zendaveffa,’’ which fee. "The follow- ers of Zeratufht, now called “ Gebres,”” or Parfis,’’ perfe- cuted thofe of the religion imntediately preceding, and thefe alfo took refuge in India, where they wrote a number of books, which are now very fcarce. They refemble, accord- ing to the account of fir William Jones, the Hindoo fedts of “ Sauras,’’ and ‘* Saguinas,’’ of which the latt is very numerous at Benares. Another innoyator in the religion of the Eaft, before the Chriftian era, was “ Budda,’’ (fee Boop), generally fup- pofed to have been the fame with the Fo (fee Fo) of the Chinefe, the * Somorocodom”’ of Siam, the “ Kaca’’ of Japan, and the ‘* Odin’’ of the north of Europe. Ac- cording to fir W. Jones, he difapproved of the Vedas, be- caufe they enjoined the facrifice of cattle ; and made his ap- pearance in the year 1027 B.C. His diiciples are thought to have been the fame with the <¢ Sammanes,’’ who were op- pofed to the Brachmans of the Greek hiltorians. But thefe Sammanes were, it is probable, of much greater antiquity, as was alfo Somonocodom. ‘The followers of Budda gave great umbrage to the Bramins, who never ceafed to perfecute them till they had effe€ted their extirpation from Hindooftan by fire and fword, about 500 years ago. ‘There is, however, a great refemblance between the fyitem of the Hindoos and that of Budda; and perhaps with a view to conciliate thefe people, the Bramins of Cafi make Budda the 9th avatar or transformation of Vichnow. This religion is that which prevails in India beyond the Ganges; it was received in China A. D. 65, and is eltablifhed in Japan. A religion, very fimilar to this, is alfo that of the Lamas of Thibet. Indeed, all deviations from the original Hindoo fy{tem, re- tained the fame general principles. The advocates of them all held the doétrine of the pre-exiftence of fouls, their fub- fitting and atting independently of bodies, and their tranfmi- ration into other bodies after death.. They had the fame fee opinion of matter, and the fame veneration for the ele- ments of fire and water, as purifiers of the foul. They had fimilar reltrictions with refpeét to food, the fame addiGi- Vou. XVI. ednefs to divination, and the fame idea of the ufe of corpo- real autterities for the expiation of fin. There can be no doubt of the very high antiquity of the religion of the Hindoos, and it is not improbable that the commencement of all thofe fyftems which deviated from the religion of the patriarchs, preferved in the writings of Mofes, was prior to the general difperfion of mankind. A fyftem fo ancient as that of the Hindoos muft have been formed about the fame time with that of the Egyptians, from which that of the Greeks, and other weftern nations, was in fome meafure derived; and accordingly many points of refemblance have been obferved between them; too many, and too ftriking to have been altogether fortuitous. Even fome of the inha- bitants of Ethiopia appear to have been of the fame origin with thofe of Hindooitan (fee Diff. relating to Afia, vol. 1. p- 112.) ; and both the Egyptians and Ethiopians feem to have had {ome conne€tion or intercourfe with the Hindoos$ but of what kind it was, or when it fubfifted, we have no certain aceount ; and they have been fo long feparated, that at prefent they are in total ignorance of each other. Ac- cording to Eufebius and Syncellus, fome people from the river Indus fettled in the vicinity of Egypt in the reign of Amenophis, the father of Sefoitris, and many Egyptians, banifhed by their princes, fettled in other countries, and fome went fo far as India. It is alfo fuppofed, that many of the priefts of Egypt left the country on the invafion of it by Cambyfes. But fuch circumftances as thefe are not of themfelves fufficient to account for the great refemblance be- tween the two fyftems. The Hindoos themfelves fay, that their facred books came from the weit, (fee Ezourvedam, p-15—17-) But the Hindoos, as well as their books, moft probably came from that quarter, and their facred books were compofed while the feat of the empire was in Perfia. The affinity of the Egyptians and Hindoos may be inferred from the fimilarity that fubfifts between fome Egyptian words and thofe that occur in the ancient language of Hin- dooftan. The names and figures of the 12 figns of the zodiac, among the Hindoos, are nearly the fame with ours, which came from Egypt through Greece, and each of thefe is divided into 30 degrees. Moreover, both the Egyptians and Hindoos had alto the fame divifion of time into weeks, and they denominated each day by the names of the fame planets. ‘The refemblance between the oriental and occiden- tal fyftems extends much farther than Egypt. The office and power of the Druids in the northern parts of Europe did not differ much from thofe of the Bramins; and the Etrufcans, from whom the Romans derived the greateft part of their learning and religion, had a fy{ftem very much refera- bling that of the Perfians and Indians, and they wrote alter- nately to the right hand and left. (See Erruscans.) Seve- ral remarkable ‘ general principles’’ were held alike by the ancient Egyptians and the modern Hindoos. They both believed that the fouls of men exifted in a prior ftate, and that they go into other bodies after death. They had the fame ideas of the body being a prifon to the foul, and ima- gined that they could purify and exalt the foul by the mor- tification of the body ; and from the idea of the great fupe- riority of {piritual to corporeal fubftances, they held all mat- ter in great contempt. ‘They alfo both believed that plants had a principle of animation, Several religious ideas and cuf- toms were common to both countries. ‘The Egyptians of Thebais reprefented the world under the figure ot an egg, which proceeded from the mouth of Cneph ; and this refem- bled the firit production according ta the Hindoo fyitem, Several of the Egyptian deities were both male and female, which correfponds to the figure of the ‘ lingam’’ with the Hindoos, This ob{cene is or at leait the ‘ phallus,” was GENTOOS. was much ufed in the Egyptian worfhip, and from Egypt it was carried into Greece, where it was ufed in the myiteries of Bacchus. Befides, the lafcivious poftures of the Egyp- tian women before their god Apis, were the fame with thofe of the Hindoo women, before their idols, (fee Bracn- MANS): and, moreover, the Hindoos chufe their facred bulls by the fame marks that were ufed by the Egyptians. The Egyptians worfhipped the Nile, as the Hindoos do the Ganges: the pyramidal or conical form of the Egyptian temples refembled that of the pagodas: and the onion, which was held in veneration by the Egyptians, is not eaten by the Hindoos, Befides this refemblance of general prin- ciples, and religious cuftoms, it is obfervable, that the Hin- doos, Egyptians, and Greeks adopted the fame gods, and paid homage to them under fimilar reprefentations or images. The Egyptians held cows in much greater veneration than any other animal: they were facred to Ifis, and never facri- ficed. ‘That the cow was refpeéted by the Hindoos is well known. Upon the whole, it is undeniable that a fyftem, very fimilar to that of the prefent Hindoos, muft have been of very great antiquity, and prior to the general difperfion of man- kind. For though fimilar fituations may lead to fimilar fen- timents, and correfponding practices, the above-mentioned fimilarity, which might be traced in a much ¢reater number of inftances, extends to too many particulars, to admit our accounting for it in this way: neverthelefs, it is impoflible that a fyitem, fo extenfive and complex, and implying fuch abftrufe metaphyfics, as that of the Hindoos, fhould have been completed at a very early period. This muit have been fubfequent to the rudeft age of mankind ; and, therefore, we may well imagine, that it could not have had its origin long before the time of Mofes. Whether the Jewifh law-giver was acquainted with it or not, it will appear to any candid as well as accurate examiner of the one or the other, that he was far from deriving any advantage from it ; nor is there in his writings any allulions to books pretended to be facred, fuch as the Vedas, but only to fuch praéices as were common to the Hindoos and other heathen nations. The Hindoos feem to have preferved the knowledge of the Supreme Being, when the Greeks, and other more po- lifhed nations in the weftern parts of the world, had loft fight of him ; their attention being ingrofled by inferior objects of worfhip. Some of their deferiptions of the deity are jut, and truly fublime. In the “< Inftitutes of Menu”’ he is faid to be “fone whom the mind alone can comprehend, whofe eflence eludes the external organs, who has no vifible parts, who exifts from eternity, the foul of all beings, whom no being can comprehend.” ‘They alfo fay, that “ goodnels is the very eflence of God.” (See Bracumans.) Never- thelefs, the moft fublime conceptions of Deity entertained by the Hindoos fall far below thofe that were formed of him by the Hebrews, and which are recorded in the facred writings. In the Hindoo fyftem: the firft production of the Supreme Being was fomething fimilar to the chaos of Mofes, an earth covered with water ; and they {peak of the “‘{pirit of God” as moving upon it. One of the Hindeco fables, related by father Bouchet (Ceremonies of Religion, p. 38.) bears fome refemblance to the mofaic hittory of Paradife. The Hindoos fay that the firft man was called ** Adam,” and the firft woman «* Manan-iva.’”” The Hindoos have alfo a pecu- liar day of the week, which they appropriate to acts of re- ligion, as prayer and fafting : and in agreement, at leaft in part, with the account of Mofes, the Hindoos fay that in the firlt ages of the world men were greatly fuperior to the prefent race both in the length of their lives, and in the powers both of body and mind; but that, in confequence of vice, they gradually declined. The Hindoos have alfo pre- ferved an unequivocal traditien of an univerfal deluge; and according to the * Puranams,’’ books which are faid to con- tain a faithful account of their doctrines, eight perfons ef- caped the general deluge. A curicus account of the in- toxication of Noah, and of the behaviour of his three fons on the occafion, is given us from the Hindoo writings in the third volume of ‘Afiatic Refearches.”’ The 4th and 5th “ avatar’ of the Hindoos, as fir W. Jones fays (Difl. &e. vy. 1. p. 110.) relate to the punifhment of impiety, and the humiliation of the proud; and refer, as he thinks, to the difperfion from Babel. In the “ Bagavadam’’ there are, befides the mofaic account of the deluge, the principal cir- cumitances of the hiftory of Ifhmael, and the facrifice of Ifaac. Several things occur in the Hindoo traditions, which greatly refemble fome in the hiftory of Abraham; and Brahma, the Hindoo law-giver, very much refembles this ancient patriarch. The feveral inftitutes contained in the collection of the Gentoo laws, which we fhall prefently notice, are inter~ woven with the religion of the Gentoos, and revered as of the higheft authority. The curious reader will difcover an aftonifhing fimilarity between the inflitutes of this code and many of the ordinances of the Jewifh law, between the character cf the Bramins or priefts, and the Levites; and between the ceremony of the fcape-goat, under the Mofaic difpenfation, and a Gentoo ceremony, called the afhummeed jug, in which a horfe anfwers the purpofe of a goat. In this code we find fome of the more ex- traordinary laws and cuftoms of the Hebrew nation, fuch as were never received in the weftern part of the world; as that of aman taking the widow of his brother, in order to keep up his family. Polygamy appears alfo to have been allowed to the Hindoos, as it was to the Hebrews. Many obfolete cuftoms and ufages, alluded to in many parts of the Old Teftament, may alfo receive illuitration from the in{titutes of this code. It appears from the code, that the Bramins, who are the priefts and legiflators of the country, have refigned all the fecular and executive power into the hands of another caft or tribe ; and no Bramin has been pro- perly capable of the magiftracy fince the time of the futtee jogue ; the only privilege of importance which they have appropriated to themfelves is an exemption from all capital punifhment ; they may be degraded, branded, imprifoned for life, or fent into perpetual exile; but it is every where exprefsly ordained, that a Bramin fhould not be put to death on any account whatfoever. Among the Hindoos thereis a confiderable difference of opinion on the fubject of creation; but in the followin general outline they feem to be all agreed. They fay, that after the Supreme Being had exifted alone from all eternity, he refolyed to produce other beings. But this production was wholly “from his own fubftance ;” and after a certain period, they believe that every thing will be abforbed into him again, when he will exift alone as before. ‘There wall, however, be a fucceffion of thefe creations and abforptions withouc end. At what time the firft creation teek place they do not fay ; but according to them, every thing that now exiits has exifled before, and will hereafter exift again. The great fuperiority of the fpiritual to the corporeal part of manis the fundamental doétrine of the Hindoo fyftem ; and hence fpring'ss the fatisfaétion which the Hindoos always exprefs on the feparation of them. From the Indian philo- fophy it is probable that the Manicheans had their idea of an original difference in fouls, fome being neceffarily good, and others bad. That all nature is animated, and that the fouls which animate the loweft forms of things are capable — of rifing to the higheft ftate, is afferted in the “ Inftitutes of 1 Menu.” GENTOOS: Menu." Thus itis faid, the fouls that animate worms and infects, ferpents, moths, beatts, birds and vegetables, attain heaven by the power of devotion.” The dodtrine of tranfmigration is one of the diftinguifhing tenets of the Gentoos. With regard to this fubject it is their opinion, according to Mr. Holwell, that thofe fouls which have attained to acertain degree of purity, either by the in- nocence of their manners, or the feverity of their mortifica- tions, are removed to regions of happinefs, proportioned to their refpective merits; but that thofe who cannot fo far furmount the prevalence of bad example, and the powerful degeneracy of the times, as to deferve fuch a promotion, are condemned to undergo continual punifhment in the animation of fucceflive animal forms, until, at the ftated period, another renovation of the four jogues fhall commence, upon the diflo- lution of the prefent. ‘l‘hey imagine fix different {pheres above this earth, the higheft of which, called futiee, is the refidence of Brhima, and his particular favourites. This fphere is alfo the habitation of thofe men who never uttered a falfhood, and of thofe women who have voluntarily burned themfelves with their hufbands; the propricty of which prattice is exprefsly enjoined in the code of the Gentoo laws. ‘This code, printed by the Eaft India company in 1776, is a very curions colleétion of Hindoo jurifprudence, which was {elected by the moit experienced pundits, or lawyers, from curious originals in the Shanferit langvage, who were em- ployed for this purpofe from May 1773 to February 1775 ; afterwards tranflated into the Perfiun idiom, and then into the Englih language, by Mr. Halhed. We have already oblerved, that-the Hindoos are divided into four great and original tribes, which, according to the Gentoo theology, proceeded from the four different mem- bers of Brhima,. the fuppofed immediate agent cf the crea- tion under the {pirit of the Almighty. Thefe tribes are the Bramins, which proceeded from his mouth, and whofe office is to pray, read, initruét, and conduct the facrifices; the Chehteree, which proceeded from his arms, whofe office is to draw the bow, to fight, and to govern: the Bice, pro- ceeding from the belly or thighs, who are to provide the ne- ceffaries of life by agriculture and traffic ; and the Sooder from the feet, which are ordained to labour, ferve, and tra- vel. See Cast. Few Chriftians, fays the tranflator of the Gentoo Code, have expreffed themfelves with a more becoming reverence of the grand and impartial defigns of Providence in al! its works, or with a more extenfive charity towards all their fellow-creatures of every profeffion, than the Gentoos. It is, indeed. an article of faith among the Bramins, that God’s all-merciful power would not have permitted fuch a number of different religions, if he had not found a pleature in be- holding their varieties. Mr. Holiwell, and alfo Mr. Dow, attempt to exculpate the Hindoos from the charge of polytheifm and idolatry. Let us reft affured,’’ fays the latter, ‘ that whatever the external ceremonies of religion may be, the fame. infinite being is the object of univerfal adoration.”? But though the Hindoos acknowledge one Supreme Being, from whom all power is derived, they fuppofe that the immediate go- vernment of the world is placed by him in other hands. To thefe inferior deities their prayers and religious fervices are externally addreffed ; and this worfhip is encouraged and en- joined in their facred books. According to their fyitem, there fprung from the Sapreme Being, as emanations of his divinity, an infinite number of fubaltern deities and genii, of which every part of the vilible world was the feat and tem- ple. Thefe intelligences did not barely refide in each part of nature; but they directed its operations, each element being under the guidance of fome being peculiar to it. “Thele inferior gods, being of various and oppofite difpofition and character, their worfhippers adopted differeat methods of deprecating their anger, and foliciting their favour. _ Hence proceeded a great variety of whimfical and abfurd, and alfo of cruel and dreadful, as wellas impure, rites. The ve- neration of the Hindoos for the images of their gods fubjects them juftly to the charge of idolatry and polytheifm; al- though the learned Bramins pretend, that they do not wor- fhip the vifible idol, but the invifible being reprefented by it. Mr. Sonnerat fays that, befides thofe whom the Hindoos place in the rank of gods, they have alfo < faints,” whofe pictures they place in their temples, and that they addrefs prayers to them as well asto the gods. Nor let it be faid, that thefe are the accounts of travellers. In the facred books of the Hindoos mention is made of various divinities befides the Supreme Being. ‘The worfhip of the fun, fays fr W. Jones (Diff. &c. v. 1. p. 481.) is principally recommended in the Vedas. ‘The “ Inititutes of Menu’? fay, that ‘ the Supreme Being created an aflemblage of inferior deities, and divine attributes, and pure fouls, and a number of genii ex- quifitely delicate.” In this work mention is alfo made of “orders of demi-gods that are wafted in airy cars, genii of the figns and lunar mantions, &c.””? The worfhip paid to the manes, or anceftors, is a great article in the fyitem, and is mentioned almoft in every page of the “ Inftitutes.” All the neighbouring nations whofe religions have fome affinity to that of the Hindoos are polytheiits. he ancient-reli- gion of the northern European nations was, in feveral re- {pects, fimilar to that of the Eaft; and we find among them the acknowledgment of one Supreme God, with the worfhiy of feveral inferior ones. Thus, their deities, Odm the god of war, Frea his wites and Thor the god of thunder, were the principal objects ot worthip to all the Scandinavians. It has been faid that the polytheifm of the Hindoos, and others, was mild and tolerant in its nature; but the faé is, that like the ancient Egyptians, they quarrelled with one another on accout of their attachment to different deities, ef- pecially in Malabar ; and mild as the religion of the Hindoos appears to be, and gentle as are their general manners, they can aflume avery diferent chara€ter when their religion is concerned. ‘The Bramins exterminated the Sammanians; and the followers of Budda, with fire and fword, leaving none of them on the weft fide of the Ganges, under a pre- tence of their being atheifts; and when any Hindoo is con- verted to Chriflianity, he is not only banifhed from his tribe, but abandoned to the infults of the whole nation. Such alfo was the treatment of thofe who were excommunicated by the Druids. ‘The Hindoos regard all Chriftians with the utmott abhorrence and deteftation, as much below the loweft of their own fects. The Bramins themfelves can be cruel and malignant, where their religion is concerned. ~Never- thelefs, when the Hindoos converfe with Chrifhians on the fubject of religion, they profefs to believe, as we have al- ready obferved, that the Supreme Being is equally pleafed with all religions, and intended that all the different modes of it fhould be adopted by different nations. Although there are many points of refemblance between the religion of the ancient Egyptians and that of the Hin- doos, yet in many refpects they are execedingly different ; fo that though they may have gone together at the firft, they muit have feparated at a very early period. The Hine doos never worshipped living animals, which is a ‘principal feature in the religion of the Egyptians ; and the names, the characters, and the images of their deities have very little refemblance to each other. But between the religion and mythological fables of the Greeks and thofe of the Hindoos, Nz there GENTOOS. there is a very remarkable refemblance; though we are unable to trace any connection that ever fubfifted between them. The religion of the Hindoos feems to be much too com- plex to have been, as fir W. Jones fuppofes, the oldeft fyftem of polytheifm and idolatry. It is evidently a refinement on fomething much more fimple, and this feems to have been the fyftem of the “ Sammanes,’’ whom the Greck writers mention as a fect of philofophers in India, oppofed to the «« Brachmanes,”’ and to be the fame with thofe who are now called “‘Schamans” in Siberia. See SAMANCANS. Nothing can be more humiliating than the fituation to which the Hindoo inftitutions reduce the female fex. Ac- cording to the Vedas, the fouls of women, as well as thofe of all individuals of the inferior cafts, are condemned to con- tinual tranfmigrations, till they are regenerated in the bodies of men. The fame unfavourable chara&er is amply jultified by the reprefentations that occur in the “ Inftitutes of Menu,” and the Code of Gentoo laws.”? Such being, in the opinion of the Hindoo law-givers, the natural charaéter of women, it is no wonder that little regard is paid to their evidence in courts of juftice; nor can we be furprifed, that the birth of a female is no caufe of rejoicing in a Hindoo family. In perfect agreement with fuch degrading ideas of the female charaG&er, the women mutt always be under the abfolute controul of men; nor has the fubjection of the wife to her hufband any bounds. As women are treated in this difrefpectful manner, and confidered as unqualified to read their facred books, they are in general very ignorant, fo that few of them can either read or write. The devotion of the Hindoos is fuppofed to comprife all other duties ; but their devotion confifts in the frequent repe- tition of the names and attributes of God. ‘The firit thing in their prayer is to pronounce the word oxm, then excluding all fenfible objects, even forbearing to breathe, and to think only on God. This kind of prayer ferves for the pardon of fin and purification. This word gum, on the pronunciation of which fo much is fuppofed to depend, fignifies, according to fir W. Jones, Brahma, Vichnou, and Seva, or the three powers of creation, prefervation, and deftru€tion. This myftical word, he conceives, may be the Egyptian on, com- monly fuppofed to mean the fun, and by the ancient idolaters the folar fire. The religion of the Hindoos confifts princi- pally in oblations to the gads, 7. e. to the inferior deities, and to the manes of their anceftors; and thefe oblations are ac- companied with many frivolous ceremonies. Moreover, a great part of their religion confifts in the auiterities to which they fubje& themfelves. Among other things, all fermented or fpirituous liquors are forbidden, and they fubmit to va- rious reftritions with regard to their food. To a genuine Hindoo nothing appears more heinous than the killing, and rouch more the eating of any thing that had life. The Hindoos are much devoted to pilgrimages for the purpofe of bathing in diftant rivers; and they generally prefer the Gan- ges. In thefe pilyrimages, they practife fingular aufterities. Their falts in honour of different deities are of long duration, and are very [triGtly obferved ; and they are thought to have fingular efficacy in effacing all-fins. See Faquirs. It is not uncommon with the Hindoos to devote them- felves to certain and very painful death, under the influence of their wretched fuperitition. They throw themfelves on the large iron hooks that are faftened to the wheels of the carriages, which carry the images of ther deities in precefe fio. Others lie fprawling on the ground for the wheels to pafs over them, and crufh them to death. But the molt affecting inftances of involuntary death are thofe of the Hindoo women, who burn themfelves alive with the 2 bodies of their deceafed hufbands. In this way of termi- nating life they indulge the hope of attaining the fame ftate of happinefs with them after death. ‘This is deemed a kind of religious duty, though it is not regarded as of univerfal obligation. On the deaths of perfons cf high rank and celebrity, thefe victims of fuper‘tition, voluntary, or involuntary, are fometimes very numerous. At the death ef a king of Tanjore, no lefs than 3co of his con- cubines leaped into the fiames, and goo burned themfelves at the funeral of a naique, of Madura. (Maurice's Ind. Antig. vol. ii. p. 165.) The Hindoo religion, which has been extolled as the mildeft of all religions, formerly en- joined and countenanced human facrifices ; and fir William Jones fays, that the ancient folemn facrifice of the Hindoos was that of a man, a bull, and a horfe. Among other fuperftitious notions and praétices prevalent among the Hindoos, we may menticn their exceffive veneration for the cow, and alfo for the elements of fire and water. Pe- nances of a fingular and fevere nature were enjoined for killing cows without malice; and if this crime was mali- cioufly committed, it admitted of no expiation whatever. Mr. Wilkins informs us, (Sketches relating to the hiitory, &c. of the Hindoos, vol. i. p. 234.) that the Bramins are enjoined to light a fire at certain times, and that it muft be produced by the friétion of two pieces of wood of a par- ticular kind ; that with a fire thus procured their facrifices are burned, the nuptial altar flames, and the funeral pile is kindled. Their veneration for water, efpecially that of the Ganges, has already been mentioned ; and perfons chufe to die in rivers from an idea, that the foul paffing through the water, as it leaves the body, is purgedarom its im- purities. : The Hindoo religion is little, if at all, more vnexception- able than the ancient Egyptian, with regard to the extrava- gance and indecency of many of its ceremonies. Inftances occur at their pagodas, which we have already noticed under the article BRacHMANS, and which it is needlefs here to repeat. (See alfo Pacopa.) Charms are alfo held mn efti- mation among the Hindoos ; a regard to them is authorized by their facred books, and the practice of incantation is profeiled by their learned Bramins. From a veneration for the elements of fire and water, and an opinion of their pof- {effing fomewhat of divinity, they have been deemed proper tefts of guilt, or of innocence. Hence has proceeded the trial by Ordeal; which fee. With regard to the Hindoo dotrine of a future ftate, Mr. Dow fays, that men firft atone for their crimes in hell, where they remain for a {pace of time proportioned to the degree of their miquities ; then they rife to heaven, to be rewarded for their virtues, and thence they will return to the world to re-animate other bodies. The more learned Bramins, he fays, affirms that the hell which is mentioned in the ‘ Bedang’’ is only in- tended as a bug-bear to the vulgar; agreeably to the doc- trine of the Greek philofophers. On the other hand, Mr. Holwell, contrary to all other accounts, which reprefent future punifhment as in all cafes finite, fays, that whofoever fhall free himfelf by violence from this mortal body, fhall be plunged in “* Onderah’’ for ever. According to another account of the religion of Malabar, they who deitroy them- felves go neither to heayen nor hell, but ftroll about, and become what are called “ Spirits,” under the power of the chief of the devils. Sometimes they enter into men, and then they become demoniacs, and go about naked and mad, to difturb the neighbourhood, eating grafs and raw ficth. According to the Indians, fays P. Della Valle, fome very wicked men become devils. To conclude our account of © the Hindoos, or Gentoos, we obferve, that notwithttanding the ae = GEN the unreafonable ftrefs which they Iay on mere external obfervances of various kinds, there are not wanting in their writings fome excellent moral maxims, fimilar to many in the books of the Olid Teftament, which reprefent every thing of this kind as infignificant, without moral virtue. A peculiar flrefs, we find, even too great, is laid on the duties to parents ; fo as to fuperfede the obligation, and to depretiate the importance of other duties. Upon comparing the Hindoo fyftem with that of Mofes, the abfurdity of the former is as apparent as the fuperior wifdom of the latter. With the Hindoos we perceive the rudiments, and more than the rudiments, of moft of the arts and f{ciences, efpecially that of aftronomy, of which moft other nations are wholly ignorant. And yet while the Hebrews made no difcoveries in fcience, they had a religion perfeétly rational ; and that of the Hindoos was abfurd in the extreme. This, furely, is an argument of the internal kind in favour of the divine origin of the Hebrew religion, almoft as irrefiftible as any argument from miracles. From the preceding fketch of the Hindoo religion, we muft be led to acknowledge the neceflity and utility of a divine revelation. ; Thole who are defirous of being farther acquainted with the principles, manners, and various inflitutes of the Gen- toos, may confult Holwell’s Interefting hittorical Events, &c. 1766. Dow’s Hiftory of Hindooftan, 4to. 1768. and the Code of Gentoo Laws. Prieftley’s Comparifon of the In- ftitutions of Mofes with thofe of the Hindoos and other Ancient Nations, 8vo. Northumberland, in America, 1799. For a further account of the religious tenets and practices of the Gentoos, fee BracumMans. See alfo SHasran and ViepAM. GEN-TSING, in Geography, a town of China, in Se- tchuen; 87 miles N.W. of Hoei-li. GENUFLEXION, of genu, knee, and fleco, I bend, the act of bowing, or Lending the knee; or rather of kneeling down. The Jefuit Rofweyd, in his Onomafticon, fhews, that genuflexion, or kneeling, has been a very ancient cuftom in the church, and even under the Old Teftament difpenfa- tion; and that this practice was obferved throughout all the year, excepting on Sundays, and during the time from Eafter to Whitfurtide, when kneeling was forbidden by the council of Nice. Others have fhewn, that the cuftom of not kneeling on Sundays had obtained from the time of the apoitles; as appears from St. Ireneus and Tertullian ; and the /Rthi- opic church, ferupuloufly attached to the ancient ceremo- mies, {till retains that of not kneeling at divine fervice. The Ruffians efteem it an indecent pofture to worfhip God on their knees. Add, that the Jews ufually prayed ftanding. Rofweyd gives the reafons of the prohibition of genu- flexion on Sundays, &c. from St. Bafil, Anaftafius, St. Juftin, &c. Baronius is of opinion, that genuflexion was not efta- blifhed in the year of Chrift 58, from that paflage in Acts xx. 36. where St. Paul is exprefsly mentioned to kneel down at prayer: but Saurin fhews, that nothing can be thence concluded. ; The fame author remarks, alfo, that the primitive Chrif- tians carried the practice of genuflexion fo far, that fome of them had worn cavities in the floor where they prayed: and St. Jerome relates of St. James, that he had contrated a hardnefs on his knees equal to that of camels. Mog GENUS, in Algebra. The ancient algebraifts diftri- buted that art into two genera, or kinds; the /ogi/fic, and fpecious 5 which fee. . GEN Genus, in Syfematic Botany, from yme mention of the peculiar characters of each; but he not profit, as he ought to have done, of the great prin- inle firit inculeated by Conrad Gefner, that the parts of the flower and fruit afford the only clue to a {cientific diftri- bution of vegetables; a principle to which ‘ the very ex- iftence of botany, as a fcience, is owing.’ 'Tournefort at Iength, adopting this maxim, undertook the arrangement of all known plants into genera, illultrating each by a figure of the parts of fruétification, fo as to difplay their diftinguifhing characters ; but it was referved for Linnzus to define thofe characters in words, and thus to perfeé the plan of Tournefort, as well as to reform it in many points, and correét fome fundamental defects. He extended more- over his improvements to the clear definition and nomencla- ture of the {pecies, which Tournefort had, without diferi- mination, merely colle&ed, by their old appellations, under each of his genera, except indeed that he preferved an uni- formity in their generic names. Linnzus did not at once hit upon the beft manner of de- fining his genera. His firit aim was to defcribe all the feven paris of fructification in each, fo that their differences might appear, which is the plan of all the editions of his Genera Plantarum. At length, in the fixth edition of his Svflema Nature, publifhed in 1748, he undertook a fynop- tical table of the fhort effential charaGers of the genera, and in the tenth he carried this plan nearly to the perfe@tion in which he left it at his death. It has been adepted, not only by his pupils, and the followers of his fyftem of claffi- fication, but even by the celebrated Juffieu and his {cholars, who have widely differed from the learned Swede as to other principles of arrangement, and who have certainly not im- proved upon his ftyle of definition, terminology, or nomen- elature. Juffieu indeed has, like Gouan, fubjoined to the weneric chara¢ters taken from the fructification, very ufeful indications of the habit, which invention of the latter botanift was highly applauded by Linnzus. Linnzus termed the full defcriptions in his Genzra Planta- rum, the natural character of each genus. They ought to accord with every fpecies of each, but in large genera, many f{pecies of which have been difcovered fubfequently to their eltablifhmment, this is Ycarcely poflible. Such cha- racters as ferve merely to diflinguifh cach genus from every other in its artificial order, in the Linnean, or , other artificial, fyftem, are called faéfitious ; thefe are better extended fo as to include fufficient marks of difcrimination between the genus under confideration and every other, and they then become the efénsial charaers above-mentioned, which ought in every fyltematic botanical work to ftand at the head cf each genus, or at leat to be in- dicated by a referezce. Lamarck, though much difpofed to criticile the great Swedifh botanift, and differing totally. from him refpecting his opinion of natural genera, very can- didly allows that ‘* thefe effential charaéters are the refult of one of Linnxus’s moft happy ideas, and cannot but contri- bute greatly to the perfection of Botany.’’ The fame able writer aflents entirely to the Linnean maxim, founded on the good fenfe and penetration of Conrad Gefner, that “ generic charaéters ought always to be taken from the parts of fructification alone; at leaft,” fays Lamarck, “if that be always praéticable.’’ When it is not, he would borrow characters from any thing very decided in the habit ; nor does he perceive that any inconvenience would refult from it. To this we objet the uncertainty of fuch charac- ters, even when taken from what is leaft exceptionable, the inflorefcence. Of this no more ftriking example can be found than the Umlellate, as diftributed by Linnzus after the principles of his friend Artedi, in which, however it may be difguifed by fophiftry, the inflorefcence makes a leading part. Thole who jultly, like Lamarck, complain of the errors, unjuftly termed by him arbitrary and voluntary errors, which are found in this part of Linnzus’s fyftem, cannot but allow that they all originate from his having had refpect to the inflorefcence, that is, to the umbels and in- volucrums, inftead of the flowers and feeds, which if truly obferved are fully fufficient in this, as, we believe, in every other natural order. Indeed the more we confider the fub- ject, the more we are convinced that, although the inflo- refcence ought, like every part of a plant, to enter into our general contemplation before we decide upon a genus, it ought never to form a part of the technical or effential character. It is tempting enough to botanifts who are not endowed with clear mathematical powers of difcrimination and definition, to amplify their generic chara¢ters with any thing that, as they fuppofe, may give them additional ftrenzth. But characters, when too long, rather indicate feeblenefs in themfelves and in their authors, and endanger a return towards barbarifm in a fcience, which’ has been raifed to its prefent pitch of perfection by the didaétic pre- cifion and decifive brevity of Linnzus. S. - Genus, Kind, in Logic and Metaphyfics, is that which has feveral fpecies under it; or it is the origin and radix of divers {pecies, joined together by fome affinity, or com- mon relation between them. See CLASSIFICATION. Genus isa nature, or idea, focommon and univerfal, that it extends to other general ideas, and includes them under it. Thus, animal is faid to bea genus, in refpeG of man and brute ; becaufe man and brute agree in the common nature and character of animal; fo a right-lined figure of four fides. is a genus in refpe€t of a parallelogram, and a trape- zium ; and fo, likewife, is fubftance in refpeét of fubftance extended, which is body ; and thinking fubitance, which is mind. A. good definition, fay the {choolmen, confilts of genus and difference. In the general, genus may be faid to bea clafs of a greater extent than {pecies; and which is not convertible therewith : for though we may fay, that all body is fub- {lance ; yet it cannot be faid all fubftance is body. Add, that whatever may be faid of the genus may likewife be faid of the fpecies under it: e gr. whatever is faid of ens, being, will equally hold of the body. ‘The fchoolmen define the genus /ogicum to be, an univerfal which is predicable of feveral things of different fpecies ; and divide it into two kinds; the one, the /ummum, which is the higheft, or moft general; and has nothing above it to re{pect as a genus: the other, the /ubaltern, which they likewife call medium. Genve fummum is that which holds the uppermoft place in its clafs, or predicament; or that which may be divided into feveral fpecies, each whereof is a genus in refpect of other {pecies placed below it. Thus, Eee GEO Thus, in the predicament of things fubfiiting of themfelves, fubftance has the place and effect of genus /ummum, and is predicated of all the things contained in that clafs; for Plato, and man, and animal, and even fpirit, are pro- perly called fubftance. Accordingly there are as many /wmma genera, as there are clafles of predicaments, or categories. Genus, /fubaliern, is that which, being a medium be- tween the higheft genus and the lowett {pecies, is fometimes confidered as a genus, and fometimes as a {pecies. Thus, bird, when compared with animal, is a {pecies ; when to a crow, an eagle, or the like, itis a genus. Genus, again, is divided into remotum, remote, where be- tween it and its fpecies there is another genus ; and frozi- mum, or next, where the {pecies is immediately under it ; as man under animal. Genus is alfo ufed for a chara&er, or manner appli- cable to every thing of a certain nature or condition. In which fenfe it ferves to make capital divifions in divers {ciences ; as mufic, rhetoric, botany, anatomy, &c. e. gr. Genus, in Mufic. See Genera. Geyus. By the word genus, in Natural Hiffory, we underftand a certain analogy of a number of {pecies making them agree together in the number, figure, and fituation of their parts in fuch a manner, that they are eafily diftin- uifhed from the fpecies of any other genus, at leaft by fae one article. ‘This is the proper and determinate fenfe of the word genus, whereby it forms a fubdivifion of any clafs or order of natural beings, whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms, all agreeing in certain com- mon and diftinétive characters. See GENERICAL name, and CLAss¥FICATION of Animals. Gewnus,in Rhetoric, is one of the common places or topics, and contains under it two or more forts of things differing in nature. Fror this head logicians reafon thus: Becaufe every animal is mortal, and man is an animal, therefore man is mortal. (See Genus, in Logic.) But orators make a further ufe of this argument, which they call afcending from the hypothefis to the thefis, that is, from a particular to a general. As ifa perfon, {peaking in praife of juitice, fhould take occafion from thence to commend and fhew the excel- lency of virtue in general, witha view to render that virtue mere amiable. For fince every fpecies contains in it the whole nature of the genus to which it relates, befides what is peculiar to itfelf, whereby it is diftinguifhed from it ; what is affirmed of the genus mutt, of neceflity, be applica- ble to the fpecies. Befides, authors diftinguifh the art of rhetoric, as alfo orations, or difcourfes, produced thereby, into three genera, or kinds; demonffrative, deliberative, and judiciary. See each term. GENUSIUM, in Ancient Geograghy, a town of Italy, in that part of Magna Grecia called Meffapia. It was fituated a little S. of the road that led to Tarentum. GENZANO, in Geography,a town of Naples, in Bafili- cata; 12miles E. S. E. of Venofa —Alfo, a town of Cam- pagna di Roma, in Italy; 3 miles W. of Veletri. GENZINGEN, a town of France, in the department of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 5 miles N. E. of Creutznach. GEOCENTRIC, of yx, carth, and xepo, centre, in Aftronomy, 1s applied to a planet, or its orbit, to denote it concentric with the earth ; or, having the earth for its centre, or the fame centre with the earth. All the planets are not geocentric: the moon, alone, is properly geocentric. Gerocentric Jatitude of a planet, is its latitude feen from the earth ; or the inclination of a line connecting the planet GO and the earth, to the plane of tic. Or it is the angle which the aforefaid line (conne@ting the planet and the earth) makes with a line drawn to meet a perpendicular let fall from the planet to the plane of the ecliptic. See Larirupr. Thus in Plate XIII Affronomy, fig. 116, the angle 2 Teis the meafure of that planet’s geocentric latitude when the earth isin 7; and the angle e¢ 9 the meafure of it. when the earth is in ¢. Grocentaric place of a planet, is the place wherein it ap- pears to us, from the earth, fuppoling the eye there fixed : or, itis a point in the ecliptic, to which a planet, feen from the earth, is referred. Grocentnic /ongitude of a planet, is the diftance meafured on the ecliptic, in the order of the figns between the geocen- tric place and the firft point of Aries. GEOD/AESTA, that part of praGical geometry which teaches how to divide, or lay out, lands, or fields, between feveral owners. The word is Greek, yswdzsoiz, formed of y, terra; earth, and deix, divide, I divide. Grop#sia is alfo applied, by fome, to all the operations of geometry which are performed in the field. This is more ufually called fwrveying, (which fee,) when employed in meafuring of lands, grounds, roads, coun- tries, provinces, &c. Vitalis defines geodefia the art of meafuring furfaces and folids not by imaginary right lines, as i8 done in geometry, but by fenfible and vifible things: as by the fun’s rays, &e. GEODES, in Natural Hiftcryy a genus of cruftated bodies formed into large, and in great part, empty cafes, inclofing a {mall quantity of earthy or arenaceous matter. See Smperocuira. Of this genus are five known fpecies. GEOFF, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied to amow of hay, corn, &c. See Sracx. \ GEOFFR AEA, in Botany, fo named by Jacquin, in memory of Stephen Francis Geoffroy, M. D. of Paris, author of a Materia Medica, in which a chemical analy fis is given, to little purpofe indeed, of every officinal plant ; and of feveral ingenious chemico-botanical effays in the Memoires de l’Acad. des Sciences. Jacquin feems to con- found him with his brother Claude Jofeph Geoffroy, author of an eflay on the ftructure and ufe of the principal parts of flowers, and of fome other phyfological papers, printed in the fame Memoires.—Jacq. Amer. 207. t. 180. f. 62. Linn. Gen. 378. Schreb. 500. Willd. Sp. Pl. vy. 3. 1129. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 2. Juif. 363. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 604 —Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Suit.” Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, bell-fhaped, five-cleft half way down ; its two upper fegments diverging, {preading. Cor. papilionaceous ; ftandard roundi{h, emargi- nate, flat, reflexed ; wings equal to it in length, obtufe, con- cave ; keel comprefied, the length and thape of the wings. Stam. Filaments in two fets (fingle and nine-cleft), the length of the keel ; anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, round- ith ; ftyle awl-thaped ; ftigma obtufe. Peric. Drupa nearly ovate, large, with a longitudinal furrow at each edge. Seed, Nut nearly ovate, fomewhat woody, a little com. prefied, with a furrow along each edge, acute, of two valves. Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Drupaovate. Nut comprefled. 1, G. jpinofa, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1043. Swartz. Prod. 106. (Umari 5 the earth’s (or true) eclip- G2E:O (Umari ; Marcgr. Bras. 121.) —“ Spinous. Leaflets oblong, obtufe.”’—Native of Braiil, and the country about Cartha- ena, in woods on a fandy foil near the fea. Jacquin de- {cribes it as an inelegant éree, twelve feet high, with a few fpines on the trunk and larger branches, which are awl- fhaped, and generally an inch long. Leaves pinnate, about feven pair, with an odd one, of oblong, obtufe, fmooth, entire leaflets, on a ftalk four inches in lensth. Cvuffers nearly as long, axillary, fimple, denfe. Flores on fhort par- tial talks; their colour a dirty orange, and their {cent ex- tremely powerful and offenfive. Fruit like that of an al- mond in its coat, flightly downy, preenifh-yellow ; the pulp foft, fweet, but ofa naufeous fmell, yellowith, ftaining the hands with arufty hue, very difficult to wath off. This coat adheres firmly to the nut, whofe kernel is white, mealy and aftringent. Jacquin was juftly furprifed at meeting, for the firft time, with a drupa to a papilionaceous flower, but he juftly fo named it, in {pite of any preconceived theory. 2. G. furinamenfis. Willd. n. 2. Bondt. Monogr. 13, with a igure —* Without fpines. Leaflets oblong, obtufe, emarginate.’’—Native of Surinam. Wrl/denow. 3. G. inermis. Swartz. Prod. 106. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 112. (Cabbage-bark tree of Jamaica; Wright in Phil. Tranf. v. 67. 507.t. ro.) — Without fpines. Leaflets lan- ceolate.’?—Native of Jamaica and Martinico. A tall sree, whofe wood is white, and fo tough as to be preferred be- vondall others for the fhafts of carriages. The bark isa ce- lebrated remedy for worms in the inteftines, adminiftered in a decoé¢tion, fyrup, powder, or extraét, and given in gradually increafed dofes, till a naufeais produced. The /eaves confit of five or fix pair, with an odd one, of elliptic lanceolate, pointed leaflets, about three inches long. Flowers light-red, in very large much-branched, terminal, downy panicles. Fruit the fize of a {mall plum. Grorrrxa, or GEorrroya, inermis, cabbage-bark tree, or worm-bark tree, in the Materia Medica, isa native of Ja- maica. (See the preceding article.) The bark of this tree, which has a mucilaginous and fweetifh tafte, and a difagrce- able fmell, was firft noticed as a vermifuge by Mr. Peter Du- uid. (Ef. and Obf. Phyfic. and Liter. vol. 2. page 264.) et the fulleft information concerning this tree, in refpect to both its medical and botanical characters, has been com- municated by Dr. Wright, who refided a long time in Ja- maica. According to his account, the bark of this tree is powerfully medicinal, and its anthelmintic effects have been eftablifhed in Jamaica by long experience. It may be given in different forms, as in decoétion, fyrup, powder, and extraGt ; and the manner of preparing, and exhibiting thefe, are particularly ftated by Dr. Wright. For the de- coétion, take frefh dried or well-preferved cabbage-bark, one ounce: boil it in a quart of water, over a flow fire, till the water is of an amber colour, or rather of a deep-co- Joured Madeira wine ; flrain it off, fweeten it with fugar, and Jet it be ufed immediately ; as it does not keep many days. In order to obtain the /yrup, adda double portion of fagar to any quantity of the above deco@tion. ‘This fyrup will retain its virtues for years. The extrad is made by eva- porating the flrong decoétion in balneo marie to the proper confiftence ; it muft be continually ftirred, as otherwife the refinous part rifes to the top, and on this, probably, its efficacy depends. The powder of well dried bark is eafily made, and looks like jalap, though not of equal {pecifie gravity. As this anthelmintic has alfo a nar- cotic effeét, it is proper to begin with fmall do es, which may be gradually increafed till a naufea is excited, when the dofe for that patient isafcertained. A aA oath grown perfon may at firft take four table-fpoonfuls of the decoc- GEO tion or fyrup, three grains of the extra, or thirty grains of the powder for a dofe. The dofe muit be diminifhed for younger perfons: and children two or three years of age, may take a table-fpoonful of. the decotion or fyrup, one grain of extract, or ten grains of the powder ; and chil- dren of a year old, half the quantity. Cold water muft not be drank during the operation of the medicine, as it is apt to occafion ficknefs, vomiting, fever, and delirium. In this cafe the ftomach mutt be wafhed with warm water, cafter oil muft be adminiftered, and lime juice beverage ufed plenti- fully for common drink. The bark purges pretty brifkly, efpecially in powder ; thirty or forty grains working as well as jalap by ftool; but in this mode of adminiftering it, it does not feem to kill worms fo well as in decoGtion. The cabbage-bark isa valuable remedy when ufed with proper caution; but fome fatal accidents have attended the im- prudent ufe of it, chiefly from overdofing the medicine. Phil. Tranf. vol lxvii. p. 597. GEOFFREY of Monmouth, in Biography, an early hif- torian of our own country, who flourifhed about the middle of the 12th century, was firlt archdeacon of Monmouth, and then bifhop of St. Afaph. On account of tumults in Wales he quitted his diocefe, and obtained the abbacy of Abing- don in commendam. His clergy applied to him to return, which he refufed, thinking he might ftill keep his abbacy ; in this he was difappeinted, and was left without any prefer- ment. As an_hiftorian he is known by his * Chronicon five Hiftoria Britonum.’’ his work has been cenfured for its fabulous narrations; the author is, however, entitled to much applaufe asa polite fcholar. His Latin ftyle rifes greatly above mediocrity. He was author of many other pieces, among which is a poem on Merlin, which is much commended by Leland. The Chronicon is fuppofed to be tranflated from an ancient hiftory in the Welfh language, and it contains a pretended genealogy of the kings of Britain, from the time of Brutus the “Trojan, and enumerates up- wards of feventy illuftrious monarchs before the invafion of Julius Czfar. This work has been frequently reprinted. Bayle. Moreri. New Annual Regifter, vol. iv. GEOFFROY, Erieyne FRAncots, a phyfician, was born at Paris on the 13th of February, 1672. His father was an apothecary, and had held the offices of fheriff and conful. While the young Geoffroy was purfuing his ftudies under his paternal roof, his father held regular {cientific meetings, at which Caffini attended with his planifpheres, Sebafhien with his machines, and Joblot with his magnets, and at which Du Verney performed his diffe€tions, and Homberg his che- mical experiments. After an excellent foundation of general fcience was thus laid, his father fent him, in 1692, to Mont- pellier, to itudy his own profeffion of pharmacy under an experienced apothecary. Here he attended the courfes of the moft celebrated profeffors of the univerfity, and after- wards travelled through the fouthern provinces before he returned to Paris, A'lready he had acquired confiderable reputation ; and, although not yet a phyfician, he was appointed to accompany the duke de Tallard, as his medical attendant, on his embaffy to England, in 1698. In London he was much eiteemed by fir Pads Sloane, and other men of fcience, and was elected a member of the Royal So- ciety. From England he went to Holland; and afterwards to Italy in 1700, with the abbé de Louvois. Natural “hif- tory and the materia medica were among the principal objects of his enquiries; for his father intended him for his fucceffor in his eftablifhment at Paris: but he aimed at the higher walk of the profeflion, and with the confent ~ of his father at length took the degree of batchelor in 1702, and that of do@er in 1704. His difpofition oN mild CEQ mild and kind to his patients, who, on his outfet in practice, were alarmed by the folemn air which his fympathy for their fufferings occafioned him to affume; but his reputation foon increafed, and he was called in confultation even by the moft diftinguifhed members of the profeffion. In 1709, he was appointed by Louis XIV. to the profefforfhip of medi- cine, vacant by the death of Tournefort. In his new office he undertook to deliver to his pupils a complete hiftory of the materia medica, upon which fubject he had ‘been for a long time collecting information. He com- pleted his account of the mineral fubftances employed in medicine, of which he gave a moft corre& and ample hiltory : ‘and was employed on the vegetable kingdom, which he treated alphabetically, and carried no farther than the article Meliffa: on the azimal kingdom he had not touched ; but the whole of what he had delivered in his leCtures was found among his papers in good order, and afterwards publithed. In 1712, he fucceeded Fagou as profeffor of chemiftry in the king’s garden. In 1726, he was elected dean of the faculty, in the exercife of the funCtions of which he was led into fome aétive and anxious difputes, which, together with the duties of his profeffion, and of his other offices, deftroyed his health, which was naturally very delicate. He lingered from the beginning of the year 1730 till the 6th of January, 1731, when he died. Notwithftanding his malady, however, he had the refolution to complete a work, which had been deemed neceflary by preceding deans, but never accomplifhed ; namely, a pharmacopeia, containing a colleétion of the compound medicines requifite to be kept by apothecaries, “le Code Medicamentaire de la Faculté de Paris,” of which two editions, enlarged and correcied, were afterwards publifhed. His papers on the materia medica were publifhed under the following title: «'Tradéta- tus de Materia Medica, five, de Medicamentorum fimpli- cium hiftoria, virtute, delectu, et ufu,’’ Paris 1741, 3 vols. 8vo. under the infpection of Antoine de Juffieu. Several editions have been fubfequently publifhed. It was tranf- dated into French by Ant. Bergier, who publifhed 7 vols. ¥2mo. in 1743, and the remainder in 3 vols» in 1750. Arnault de Nobleville, and Salerne, phyticians of Orleans, publifhed a continnation of this work, under the title of «© Hiftoire Naturelle des Animaux,” Paris 1756, 1757, in 6 vols. r2mo, which is deemed not unworthy to be ranked with the production of Geoffroy. Eloy. Dict. Hitt. GEOGLOSSUM, in Botany, from yx, the earth, and yaAwesz, the tongue, Perfoon Syn. Fung. 607. Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi.—Sett. cloveformes. Eff. Ch. Receptacle club-fhaped, flefhy, generally com- preffed, fhort, with a prominent*margiu next to the ftalk. This genus of Fungi is founded by Perfoon on the Cla- varia ophiogloffoides of other authors, with fome different {pe- ‘cies which refemble it, and which have the appearance of a little tongue, growing out of the earth upon a ftalk. He enumerates and defines feven.fpecies, His G. hin/itum is Clavaria aphioglaficdse of Sowerby’s Fungi, t. 83; his G. gabrum is a{maller and {mooth fungus, very like the fructi- fying {pike of the fern Ophiggloffum, except in being nearly black. GEOGNOSY. © See Grotocy and Mixrratocy. GEOGRAPHICAL Mice is a minyte, or the fixtieth part of a degree of a great circle. See Decrer and Mivz. GerocrarmicaL Table. See Mar. GEOGRAPHY, formed of yx, terra, earth, and ypxOx, Seribo, I write, I deferibe 3 the doétrine or knowledge of the earth, both as in itfelf and as to its affections ; ora defcrip- tion of the terreftrial globe, and particularly of the known Vou. XVI, GEO habitable part thereof, with all its fubordinate divifions, Geo- graphy conttitutes a branch of mathematics, of a mixed kind ; becaufe it confiders the earth, and its affeCtions, as depending on quantity ; and confequently, as meafurable : viz. its figure, place, magnitude, motion, celeftial appearances, &c. with the feveral circles imagined on its furface. Geography is diftinguifhed from cofmography, as a part from the whole; this latter confidering the whole vitible world, both heaven and earth. From topography and chorography, it is ditinguifhed, as the whole from a part. Golnitz confiders geography as either exterior or interior : but Varenius more juftly divides it into general and _/pectal ; or univerfal and particular. GEoGRAPHY, general or univerfal, is that which confiders the earth in general, without any regard to particular countries, or the affections common to the whole globe; as its figure, magnitude, motion, land, fea, &c. And this may be fubdivided into ab/olute geography, which refpeéts the body of the earth itfelf, its parts and peculiar properties, &c.; relative, which accounts for the appearance and accidents owing to celeftial caufes; and comparative, which explains thofe properties that arife from comparing different parts of the earth together. Grocrarny, /pecial or particular, 1 that which confi- ders the conftitution of the feveral particular regions, or countries, their bounds, figure, &c. with the mountains, fo- refts, mines, waters, plants, and animals, &c. therein; as. alfo their climates, feafons, heat, weather, diftance from the equator, &c. and their inhabitants, arts, foods, commodities, cuftoms, language, religion, policy, cities, &c. Special geography may be fubdivided, with regard to the feveral periods of its progrefs, into ancient, including a defeription of the earth, conformably to the knowledge which the ancients had tili the decline of the Roman em- pire; of this kind Cellarius’s Ancient Geography is an excellent fummary : the geography of the mean age, which extended from the fall of the Roman empire to the refto- ration of learning ; and modern geography, comprehending” the actual defcription of the earth {ince that time. With regard to its objects ard ufes, fpecial geography may be divided into natural, which treats of the divifions and dif- tinétions which nature has made in the furface of the globe, and the complexion, language, &c. of its inhabitants + hiftorical, comprehending the different revolutions which any country or town has undergone ; cial, or political, including the government of any country ; Jacred, defcribing thote countries and places that are mentioned. in feripture and ecclefiaftical hiftory ; ecclefiaflical, giving an account of the ecclefiaftical jurifdiGtion eftablifhed and exercifed in various countries ; and phyfical, which confiders not only the fur- face of the globe, but alfo its intrinfic nature and fub- ftance. Geography is very ancient, at leaft the fpecial part thereof; for the ancient writers {carcely went beyond the defcription of countries. Of this kind is the geography which we find in the books of Mofes, written about the year 1452 B.C. and that of Homer, in his Tliad and Odyffey, who flourifhed, according to the Arundelian marbles, go7 years B. C. The geographical knowledge we derive from Herodotus, who flourifhed about 445 years B. C., is very partial and imperfect. It chiefly relates to cer- tain parts of Afia, and divers others unknown, as well as the northern and weltern parts of Europe; and alfo Africa, Egypt and Lybia excepted. It appears (fee Ptol. Geog. J. i. c. 9.) that the early geographers, being deftitute of maihematical in- flrumenta GEOGRAPHY. fruments and of aftronomical obfervations, began firtt to determine the fituation of places according to cli- mates ; and they were led to fix upon thefe climates from the form and colour of eertain animals which were to be found in thofe different countries. The appearance of negroes, or of thofe called by them Ethiopians, and of animals of the larger fize, fuch as the rhinoceros and elephant, fuggefted to them the line of divifion, where the limits of the Torrid Zone began towards the north, and ter- minated towards the fouth. This groffer manner of di- viding their climates matt be conlidered as the firft rude outline of geography in the more illiterate ages of the world. However this be, the Chaldeans and Egyptians, who were diftinguifhed by their kill in geometry and altronomy, were of courfe the firft perfons that paid any particular attention to geography ; and it is faid that the firit_ map was made by order of Sefoftris I. who conquered Egypt. This Egyptian king, fays Enftathius in his epif- tle, prefixed to his commentary on Dionyfius’s z:gsiyucsc, having traverfed great part of the earth, recorded his march in maps, and gaye copies of his maps not only to the Egyptians, but to the Scythians, to their great afto- nifhment. The Jews alfo feem to have had furveyors among them; and hence fome have imagined that they had nale a map of the Holy Land, when they gave the dif- ferent portions to the nine tribes at Shiloh. (Jofh. xviii. 4. 8. 9.) And Jofephus tells us (1. v. c. 1.), that when Jofhua fent out people from the different tribes to meafure the Jand, he gave them as companions perfons well in- ftructed in geometry, whofe {kill would prevent their de- viating from the truth. We may therefore reafonably pre- fume that a geometrical furvey was then made of the Holy Land; though we cannot abfolutely determine whether their menfuration was only taken Cown in numbers, or re- gularly projected and digefted into a map. Befides the method of dividing countries by climates, already mentioned, the Egyptians and Babylonians adopted another, which was that of determining the fituation of places, or their diftance from the equator, by obferving the length of their longett and fhortelt days. This they per- formed by means of a gnomon, erected upon a horizontal plane, by which they were enabled to meafure the length or fhortnefs of the fhadow in proportion to the height of the gnomon. For an account of this invention, and of the method of applying it, fee Gxvomon. From the days of Thales,and his immediate fucceffors, who flourifhed in the fixth century before Chrilt, geography feems to have received little improvement for 200 years, till the eftablifhment of the famous fchool of Alexandria ; although Pythagoras and his difciples were rightly in- formed with regard to the true fyitem of the world, as they placed the fun in the centre, and afcribed to the earth both its diurnal and annual revolutions. During this period we have an aftronomical obfervation of contliderable import- ance to geography, and the firft Greek obfervation upon record ; which is that of Meton and Euétemon, who ob- ferved the fummer folttice at Athens on a day correfpond- ing to the 27th of June, 432 years B.C. This fol- ftitial obfervation mult have given them an opportunity of determining the latitude of Athens at the fame time, if they had known the fimple manner of deducing the conclufion : for as the length of the fhadow of the gnomon was attentively watched at the moment of the folftice, the proportion of that to the gnomon’s height was eafily known, by which the angle of the fun’s altitude would be given; and though the fun’s greateft deslination was not then accurately known, yet {till the latitude of Athens might have been deter- mined within the limitations of the error refpecting the declination. We have reafon to believe that Timocharis and Ariftillus, who began to obferve 295 years B.C, were the firft who introduced the manner of determining the pofition of the Rars, according to their longitudes and: Jatitudes taken with refpect to the equator. This we know from Ptolemy, who has preferved many of their obfervations in his * Almageit ;’’ and particularly one, which gave rife to the famous difcovery of the Preceffior of the Equinoses: which fee. It was after the preceffion of the equinoxes was fully eftablifhed by Ptolemy, that the longitudes and latitudes of the ftars were uniformly referred to the ecliptic inikead of the equator. It was. therefore, by an eafy tranfition, that Hipparchus would be led to affort and difpofe the different parts of the earth: according to latitude or longitude: this being only a new application or tranfpofition of that artifice, which had been already fo happily introduced in the arrangement of the conttellations, and therefore equally proper to be adopted in tracing the meridians and parallels of the earth. Hip- parchus muit be univerfally allowed to have firit fixed the folid foundation of geography by uniting it to aflronomy,. and thus rendering its principles felf-evident and invariable. Pliny (N. H. I. ii. c. 12.) confirms this, when, after mentioning Thales and Sulpicius Gallus, who had both predicted eclipfes, he adds, “ that Hipparchus had foretold: the revolution (of the eclipfes) of the fun and moon for 600 years, comprehending the months, days, and hours of different nations, and the fituation of places,”? by which it would feem that the latitudes and longitudes of thefe places were particularly given. But the fulleit and ftrengelt au- thority for appropriating this invention te Hipparchus, is that of Ptolemy in his. ‘ Geography,’ (1.1. c. 4.) who fays, “ that Hipparchus was the only author who had given the elevatims of the north pole of a fez Cities, in pro- portion to the great number that were to be delineated, and fuch too as lay under the fame parallels, &e. &c.’? And yet it is fomewhat remarkable that though latitudes. and longitudes were in this manner “introduced and pointed out by Hipparchus, yet they were fo little at- tended to till the days of Ptolemy, that none of the in- termediate authors, fuch as Strabo, Vitruvius and Pliny, all of whom minutely deferibed the geographical fitua- tion of places according to the length and fhadows of the gnomon, have ever given us the leait hint of the latitude or longitude of any one place whatever in the language of degrees and minutes. When the true principles of geography were thus. pointed out by this new invention of latitede and longitude, it was no wonder that maps were from thence made to affume a new form of projection effentially different from thofe in ufe prior to this period. Vor the hiftory of the contruction of maps, fee Map. It was a conftant cuflom among the Romans, af- ter they had conquered and {ubdued any province, to have a map, or painted reprefentation thereof, car- ried in triumph, and expofed to the view of the {pectators. Thus the Romans, as they were the conquerors, became the furveyors of the world. Every new war produced a new furvey and itinerary of the countries where the feenes of action occurred ; fo that the materials of geography were accumulated by every additional conquett. Pan (1. 3 p- 123. ed. Cafaub.) when he tells us, that at the beginning of the fecond Punic war, Hannibal was preparing his expedition againft Rome, by crofling from Africa into Spain, and fo through Gaul into Italy, fays, “that all thefe places were Gi OFG_ Bi Ay Pst Yi. svere meafured or furveyed with the utmoft care by the Romans.” . Vegetius De Re Mil. (1. iit. c.6.) has well deferibed the furveys of particular provinces, with which every Roman general was regularly furnifhed before his march. “ ZEthi- cus, in the preface to his ‘¢ Cofmographia,”’ further informs us, that Julius Ciefar ordered a general furvey to be made of the whole Roman empire by a decree of the fenate : feleGting for this purpofe perfons well initruéted in every branch of philofophy. The three furveyors were Zeno- doxus, Theodotus, and Polyclitus, each of whom was appointed to furvey a different divifion of the empire. This furvey commenced in the confulfhip of Julius Cefar and Mare Antony, in the year 44 B.C, and continued for twenty-five years one month and ten days, to the con- fulfhip of Sentius Saturninus and Lucretius Cinna, in the year 19 B.C. The Roman itineraries that are ftill ex- tant, evidently thew with what accuracy their furveys were made in every province ; and Pliny has filled the 3d, 4th, and sth books of Ins Natural Hiltory with the geographical diftances that were thus meafured. Before the Romans engaged in this bufinefs, Neco, king of Egypt, ordered the Pheenicians to make a furvey of the whole coaft of Africa; which they accomplifhed in three years: Darius procured the Ethiopic fea, and the mouth of the Indus, to be furveyed. Thales of Miletus, Anaximander his difciple, who is faid to have conftructed the firit map ; emocritus, Eudoxus, &c. who made the ufe of maps common in Greece ; Ariftagoras of Miletus, who prefented to Cleomenes, king of Sparta, a table ef brafs, on which he had deferibed the known earth, with its fess and rivers; and other Greeks, availing them- felves of the ailiftance derived from the Chaldeans and Egyptians, profecuted the ftudy and enlarged the extent of this fcience. It appears that in the time of Socrates geographical maps were ufed at Athens ; for this philofo- pher humbled the pride and boatt of Alcibiades, by detiring him to point out bis territories in Attica in a map: and Pliny relates, (1. vi. c. 17.) that Alexander, in his expedition into Afia, took two geographers, Diognetus and Beeton, to meafure and deferibe the roads, and that from their itineraries the writers of the following ages took many particulars. Indeed, this may be obferved, that whereas moft other arts are fufferers by war, geography and forti- fication have been improved thereby. We alfo learn from Strabo, that a copy of Alexander's furvey was given by Xenocles, his treafurer, to Patrocles the geographer, who, as Pliny informs us, was admiral of the fleetsof Seleucus and An- iochus. His book on geography is often quoted both by Strabo and Pliny: and it appears that this author fur- nifhed Eratofthenes with the principal materials aud autho- rities for conftructing the oriental part of his map of the then known world. For the voyages of Patrocles under Seleucus, upon the Cafpian fea, and elie where, were a kind of fupplement to thoie meafurements given by Bocton and Diognetus already mentioned, and by Nearchus and Oneficritus,the two admirals who were employed under A lex- ander, and therefore Pliny quotes them immediately after. It appears likewife from the fame paffage, that Megaf- thenes and Dionyfius were two furveyors fent into India by Ptolemy Philadelphus, for the purpofes of geography : oppolition to upon. Eratof- n.) From the and their authority was fometimes Patrocles by Hipparchus, “in hits c3 thenes’s geography. (Strabo, hb. 3 memorable era of Alexander's expedition and conguett, and thofe of his immediate fuceeflors, geography began to aflume a new face and form: Jor Fratolthenes, who is de- I, pa > fervedly confidered as the great father of chronology, dif- tinguithed himfelf by the cultivation of the feience of geo- graphy. (See the article Erarosrnenes.) We fthall now recite the names of fome of the principal perfons who have contributed to the improvement of geogra- phy. Pytheas, the famous geographer ot Marfeilles, fourith- ed in the time of Alexander; and Ariftotle feems to have been no lefs conyerfant with geography than philofophy : after Alexander, Seleucus Nicanor, Theophraftus the difciple of Arittotle, Eratofthenes, who publithed three books of geo- graphical commentaries, and correéted a chart of Anaxi- mander, Hipparchus, who correéted the obfervations ot Eratoithenes, and thus furnifhed oceafion for a difpute which greatly contributed to the improvement of geogra- phy, Agatharcides of Cnidus, who lived under Ptolemy Philometor, and Mnefias, who, about hity years after him, publithed a defcription of the whole world, Artemi- dorus ef Ephefus, who gave a defcription of the earth in eleven books, often cited by Strabo and Pliny, and many others, whofe names it would be tedious to enumerate, diftinguifhed themfelves by the cultivation and improvement of this fcience. Geography was tranfmitted, with the other arts, from Greece to Rome, as we have already men- tioned... Varro’s works contain many geographical _ re- marks: Zenodoxus, Theodorus and Polychtus were em- ployed under the confulfhip of Julius Cxfar and Marc Antony, in furveying and meaiuring the globe. (See the preceding part of this article). The commentaries of Cxfar are well known. Ptolemy encouraged Pofidonius, who made an imperfect menfuration of the ez-th by celeftial obfervations, in different places under the fame meridian. (See Decrer). Auguftus was a diltinguifhed patron and promoter of this feience ; under whom Strabo publifhed his geography. And the tafte for the ftudy and advance- ment of geography was greatly encouraged under Tiberius, Claudius, Vefpafian, Domitian, and Adrian. Ifidore of Charax, who lived to the commencement of the fir{t century of the Chriftian era ; Pomponius Mela, who publifhed 2 book entitled * De Situ Orbis ;°? Metius Pompofianus, who, having depicted the earth on a parchment, fell a facrifice to the jealoufy of Domitian, the emperor fufpecting that he aimed at the empire; Pliny the naturaliit, who has de- {cribed the countries known in his time in the third, fourth, fifth and fixth books of his Natural Hittory; Marinus the Tyrian, who correéted and enlarged the difcoveries of preceding geographers; and the emperor Antoninus, de- ferve particular mention. This ab{traét of the hiftory of ancient geographers, notwithitanding whofe fucceflive la- bours geography was {till in a very imperfect ftate, brings us to a period, about the 150th year of the Chriftian era, in which Ptolemy of Alexandria contributed greatly to the improvement of this fcience, by amore ample and accurate defcription of the terreitrial globe than any had yet given of it. He availed himfelf of numerous obfervations and ancient charts; he corrected the miftakes and fupplied many defects of others; and by reducing the diftances of places on the earth to degrees and minutes, after the man- ner of Pofidonius, making ufe of the degrees of longitude and latitude, and fettling the fituation af places by aftro- nomical obfervations, he reduced geography into a regular fyflem, and laid a foundation for thofe farther difcoveries and improvements, which naturally refulted from the pro- greflive, and at prefent advanced ftate of geometry, attro- nomy, navigation, and commerce. In order to forma proper judgment of the benefits ac- craing to geography from the labours of Ptolemy, we ought te take into account the materials that were extant in his O2 time, GEOGRAPHY. time, and which he had aétually in his pofleffion. Thefe confilted of various particulars, fome of greater and others ofa lefs degree of authenticity. The principal were the “* proportions of the gnomon’” to its fhadow, taken by dif- ferent aftronomers at the times of the equinoxes and folftices ; «‘ calculations”? founded upon the length of the longeft days ; “the meafures’’ or computed diftances of the principal roads contained in their furveys and itineraries, and the various reports of travellers and navigators,’’ who often determined the intervals of places by hear-fay and guefs- work. All of thefe were to be compared together, and digefted into one uniform body or {yftem, and after this, were conyerted and tranflated by him into a new mathematical lan- guage, exprefling their different degrees and minutes of latitude and longitude, according to the invention of Hippar- chus, but which Ptolemy had the merit of carrying into full practice and execution, after it had been neglected for upwards of 250 years. We have no reafon to fuppofe, that Ptolemy had in his poffeffion real aftronomical obfervations fufficient to determine all the longitudes and latitudes which be has given; fo that we ought always to remember, that their degrees of accuracy depended upon the veracity of the fa&t or fuggeftion communicated to him, from which they were afterwards deduced. We have therefore no reafon to be aftonifhed at the multitude of errors that are to be found in it, when his original materials were fo imperfect for exe- cuting fo large a work, as that of fixing the longitudes and latitudes of all the places, coafts, bays, and rivers of the then known world; an undertaking which, even im our days, has not hitherto been brought to any fufficient degree of ac- curacy. The miltakes of Ptolemy ought to be regarded with candour, as they arofe frem the ignorance of the age in which he lived, which could give him no better mforma- tion, and not from ignorance or inattention on his own part. Neverthelefs, Rieciolus, Cellarius, Paul Merula, and Sal- mafius have been too fevere in their criticifm and cenfures ; as if they were difappointed in not feeing this {cience in its full maturity in the writings of Ptolemy, at a time when it was evidently but juft beginning to advance beyond the verge of its earlieft infancy. ‘They might with equal juftice con- demn the modern geographers for giving no better account of Nova Zembla, or New Holland, or of thofe continents and iflands that lie on the northern or fouthern extremities of the great South fea towards the two Poles ; of which the knowledge which they could obtain was very imperfect. The principal miftakes in Ptolemy took their rife from cer- tain aftronomical obfervations and furveys, which were fup- pofed to have been made with accuracy in a prior age, and which were adopted by this great geographer as genuine 5 and they have been, for want of better information, copied by fueceeding geographers and inferted in their maps, as being, in their opinion, of acknowledged and undoubted authority. Thefe miftakes, thus introduced, maintained their places in.all maps, by a kind of unquettioned prefcrip- tion, even to the commencement of the laft century, and it unfortznately happened that thefe errors related to that part of the world which was beft known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Thus, Ptolemy ftates the latitude of Byzantium to be 43° 5/inftead of 41’ 1', the latitude according to mo- dern obfervations. In this particular Ptolemy was mifled by Hipparchus, who is mentioned by Strabo (1. i.) as having vilited Byzantium, and made this obfervation in perfon. The latitude of Marfeilles, which was fuppofed to be under the fame parallel with Byzantium, was not, however, fo much miftaken, as by modern obfervations it has been found to be 43° 17/45"; and allowance being made for the now acknowlkedged diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic, (fee Ecriptic,) the refult will be nearer the truth, Another error of Ptolemy relates to the latitude of ancient Carthage, which he has placed in 32° 20 inftead of 36° 52’. the true latitude according to the -beft obfervations- This erroneous latitude feems to have been copied or tranflated. from a paflage in Strabo (l,ii.), in which it is ftated that at Carthage the gnomon has the fame proportion to the equinoétial fhadow, which 11 has to »7, whence by plain trigonometry we fhall have the latitude of 32° 28, very near that of Ptolemy, The third capital miftake of Ptolemy. relates to the length of the Mediterranean, which is generally meafured from the ftraits of Gibraltar to the bottom of the bay of Iffus, where Alexandretta, or Scanderoon, now ftands, whofe ancient name was Alexandria ad Iiffum. ‘The difference of longitude of Alexandria ad Iffum and Gibraltar, according to Ptolemy, is 62° o'; whereas the difference of longitude between thefe two places, according to the lateft obfervations, is 44° 28, and Ptolemy’s error is 20° 32!, This error, which continued in all our maps, more or lefsy, till the beginning of the laft century,. took its rife from the fuppofed furveys of perfons of reputation, recorded by Strabo. (See Decrer, EartH, and Loncitupe.) But to return from this digreffion :—many valuable geographical. works appeared under Dioclefian, Conflantius, and Maximian, &c. Under the emperor Theodofius the pro~ vincial and itinerary chart er table, fince known under the name of Peutinger, was digefted and formed ; and the laft work, that ought to be clafled with thofe of the ancients, was the Notitia Imperii, attributed to /Ethicus,. who lived between the years 400 and 450 of the Chriftian era. The ages of barbarifm fucceeded the fall of the Roman empire ;: and the arts and fciences were obliged to feek refuge and pro— tection from the Arabians and Orientalifts. in Afia; the principal of whom, diftinguifhed by their attention to geo- graphy, were Almamonm, caliph of Babylon, and Abulteda, a Syrian prince. (See Ducree.) After the revival of learning in Europe, and particularly during the two laft cen- turies, geography has derived very confiderable acceffions- from travels, voyages, and a variety of nautical. and aftro-- nomical obferyations. The great misfortune of ancient geography, and which indeed confined it to fuch a lingering ftate of infancy, was, that the true method of determining with accuracy the dif-- ference of longitudes was a matter of fuch difficulty, and: remained fo long unknown. One of the firft attempts to- rectify the length of the Mediterranean was made under the aufpices of M. de Peirefk in 1635 5, and he alfo, with a di- rect view of correCting the errors in the longitudes of dif- ferent places, took particular pains to get obiervations made. at Marfeilles, Aleppo, and Grand Cairo, of an eclipfe of the moon, which happened Auguit the 27th 1635. Before that time the difference of longitude between Marfeilles and Aleppo had been fuppofed to be 45°, but by thefe obfer- vations it was found only to amount to 30° (the real differ-. ence has been fince found to be 31° 58’) s, fo that by thisa. very confiderable correction was made in the length of the: Mediterranean, by taking off the difference of one whole hour, or 15°, at once. About this time eclipfes of the fur and moon were thought fufficient to determine the longitudes. of all places with a tolerable accuracy. But, in the event, the ableit aftronomers foon found that from thefe eclipfes,. however carefully obferved, no clear deduction could be made of the longitude of any one place to any fufficient de« gree of exattnefs. Hence feveral eminent aftronomers,, fuch as Fournier, Kircher, and even Ricciolus, who had collected the obfervations of no lefs than 56 eclipfes of the fun and moon, between the years 1560 and 1658, eaeuip the GEO the correGion of geography by the application of eclipfes ef the fun and moon alone, as a fruitlefs and defperate undertaking. At length recourfe was had to the eclipfes of the fatellites of Jupiter, and they were found effectual for the purpofe. It was fome time, however, before the theory of the fecondary planets was regularly reduced to tables; and though Simon Marius firit, and after him Baptifta Ho- dierna, compofed ephemerides of their motions, yet nothing of that fort was found to be fufficiently accurate for the pur- poles of longitude, till M. Caffini publifhed his tables of the revolutions and eclipfes of the fatellites in 1668. The firit opportunity of effeCtually applying this theory to the rectifying of geography was fugeeited by M. Caffini, and taken by M. Picard in 1671 and 1672, who, at the obferva- tory of T'ycho Brahe at Uraniburgh, obferved two immerfions and three emerfions of the firft fatellite of Jupiter, which were afterwards compared with the fame obferved by M. Caffini at the obfervatory at Paris, This firft experi- ment grave at once the difference of longitude in the cleareft manner beyond the poffibility cf a- doubt; and it hkewife afforded the certain profpeét of rectifying the whole extent of geography as to longitude, upon principles that were felf- evident, and not hable to any miftake whatever. In confe- quence of this fuccefs, M. Picard and M. De la Hire, were immediately employed in correcting the map of France ; in doing which they were obliged to contract it every where within Jefs boundaries than it was fuppofed, according to their former maps, to have occupied; infomuch that Lewis XIV. jocofely faid, that he found by their journey he had fuffered a lofs of part of his kingdom. Other academi- elans determined by the fame method the longitude of the ifle of Gorée, near cape Verd, on the coait of Africa, and of Guadaloupe and Martinico in the Welt Indies. And when M. Caffini had corrected his tables of the {atellites of Jupiter, and publifhed a new edition of them in 1693, M. Chazelles was fent up the Levant, to obferve the longitudes and Yatitudes ot Scanderoon, Alexandria, and Conttantinople, in order to determine the length and breadth of the Medi- terranean, which he executed with great ability. Since the correction of longitudes has been introduced by means of the fatellites of Jupiter, other methods have been alfo adopted and devifed, which are proper and effectual for that purpofe ; fuch as ‘the tranfits of Mercury and Venus” ever the body of the fun; ‘occultations’’ of the fixed itars by the moon ; and fince the lunar tables have been improved by M. Mayer and others, another mode, equally applicable to this important obje&, has occurred, by meafuring from time to time the exaét “ diltances of the moon from the fun,’ and ‘froma fixed ftar’’ of the firft and fecond mag- nitude. Imnthis mode there is a limitation of error, which fo far gives a degree of fatisfaction, and prepares the way for bringing the point that is thus unfettled to a more {peedy and certain determination. Inftruments of obfervation have alfo been improved ; and time-pieces have been conftruéted, free ina great degree from the error and uncertainty of thofe that were formerly in ufe. See CirroNOMETER and CLocK. See alfo Epnemeris and LoncIrupE. For a fuller account of the hiftory of ancient geography? fee the preface to Bertius’s edition of Ptolemy’s Theatrum Geographie Veteris, fol. For a brief hiltory of the rife and progrefs of geography, fee Varenius’s Geog. and the Introduction to Blair’s Tables of Chronology. The art, however, muft needs have been exceedingly de- fective 3 as a great part of the globe was then unknown: particularly all America, the northern parts of Europe and Afia, with the Terra Auftralis, and Magellanica ;, and as GEO they were ignorant of the earth’s being eapubie of being failed round, and of the torrid zones being habitable, &c. The principal writings on this art, among the ancients, are Ptolemy’s eight books ; among the moderns are, Johannes De Sacrobofco De Sphzra, with Clavius’s comment; Ric- ciolus’s Geographia and WHydrographia Reformata ; Weigelius’s Speculum Terre ; Dechales’s Geography, in his Mundus Mathematicus ; and above all, Varenius’s Geo- graphia generalis, with Jurin’s additions ; to which may be added, Leibnecht’s Elementa Geographiz ceneralis; Stur- mius’s Compendium Geographicum ; Wolfius’s Geographia, in his Elementa Mathefeos; the preface to M. Robert’s Atlas; the introduction to Bufching’s Geography ; the works of Duval, Briet, Delifle, D’Anviile, Bonne, Bi- rache, Mentelle, the Sanfons, Homann Morvilliers, Marti- niere ; Pinkerton’s Geography, Gordon’s, Salmon’s and Guthrie’s Grammars, &c. Hornii Orb. ant. delincatio, Cluverius, Cellarius, Pomp. Mela, &c. &c. The reader will find under the appropriate terms in this Cyclopedia, fuch information concerning the fubjeéts which they exprefs, as is confiftent with the nature and limits of the work ; and it would be, therefore, altogether fuper- fluous to detail them in this place, and, in fo doing, to tran{cribe articles that will be found in their proper places. See Atrirupe, Ampuiscul, ANTiPopEs, ANTXCI, Cir- CLES, CuimaTE, Cotures, Decrer, Eartu, Ecuieric, Equaror, EqurnocriaL, GLosr, Herexoscu, Horizon, Larirupe, Loneirupr, Mar, Mexripran, Mountain, Ocean, PARALLELS, Perici, Periscil, Pore, Seuere, Sphere OBLiquE, PARALLEL, and Ricut, Tropvics, Zones, &e. &c. Ke. GEOLOGY, ina ftri& fenfe of the word, or Groc- Nosy, is the fcience which illuftrates the flru¢ture, relative pofition, and mode of formation of the different mineral fub- {tances that compofe the crutt of the earth. This intereiting part of mineralogy principally owes the diftinguifhed rank it now holds among the fciences to the celebrated proteffor of Freyberg, who has however feparated geognofy, or the feience to which the abovye-given definition applies, from geology in the fenfe in which the wordis taken by him ; con- fidering the latter asa merely fpeculative branch of know- ledge, and as having nearly the fame relation to the former whtch aftrology has toaftronomy. While geognofy, lefs in- tent upon enquiring into the primordial flate of the globe, is contented with the merit of obferving, of collecting and arranging fimple facts in order to afcertain what can be known refpecting the relative fituation and ages of mineral fub{tances. Geology (in the fenfe in which the word is taken by Wer- ner) afpires to the higher merit of recording the events of periods, when the planetary fyftem of which the earth forms a part was yet uncreated, and of affigning caufes to effects, and explaining phenomena, before it 1s aicertained whether they really have exiftence, or are merely the offspring of fancy andignorance. The framers of mo(t of thofe tiffues of extravagant notions, known by the appellation of theories of the carth (fee Eantu and Turoriss of the Earth,) have been fatisfied with a very moderate fhare of materials for their ftructures, not to mention that molt of them were utterly unacquainted with the nature of the fub{tances, the origin of. which they undertook to elucidate. Nothing is better cal- culated to flatter felf-love than to be mentioned as the crea- tor of a theory of the earth ; nothing eafier, with a moderate fhare of imagination and lefs knowledge of facts, than to frame a new theory fufficiently diftin& from all its precurfors to be noticed; and nothing fafer than to broach opinions which, though they cannot be proved true by their authors, 1 are GEOLOGY. are certain to be left unrefuted by others. And who would be defirous to wafte his time in refuting, or even remembering, all the theories of the earth now extant? Their number, amounting already to above half a hundred, ap- pears to be daily increafing, and {lands in need of claffifica- tion to aflift the memory ; which, it mult be allowed, might be more profitably employed in retaining thofe general obfer- vations which, unconneéted with any theory of the earth, or with the Mofaic account, have in latter times been prefented to the world by a few unprejudiced geognofians. Inttead of prematurely endeavouring to accommodate the little geog- noltic knowledge we poflefs to the events hinted at in the fa- cred hymn of creation, which was by no means intended for a fyftem of geology ; we fhould commence our refearches in this field of knowledge with fubjecting toa careful examina- tion what nature produces as it were under our eyes, fuch as the manifold alterations that have taken place in the phy- fiognomy of tracts of country almoit within the memory of man. How little are we acquainted with the means which nature employs to form the very foil on which we tread, by converting into mould the various animal and vegetable exuvie ! How feanty are the genuine obfervations we pof- fefs on the procefs of alluvial depofition! on the detritus ae- cumulated at the foot of mountains by means of the decom- pofition of the various rocks! how httle do we know of the procefs employed to produce petrifactions ! and how little of the circum{tances under which the latter occur! And yet many of thefe, and other phenomena within the {phere of human obfervation, will admit of confiderable elucidation, and may lezd to very interefting refults,sby applying to them found principles of logic and induction. But refearches of this naturerequire what few are inclined to beftow upon them, the patient obfervation of many years ; and, what falls to the lot of few obfervers, a facility of combining and gene- ralizing infulated facts. As an inttance both of the difficul- ty and utility of fuch refearches, if properly conducted, and of the little attention that has hitherto been paid to con- fiderations that fhould precede any attempt at framing a fyftem of geology, we advert only to the highly interefting difeoveries made within the laft twelve years, by Cuvier in the neighbourhood of Paris. It is inthe confined {pace of the well known gyps-formation of that part of France that this incomparable naturalift has found the offeous remains of no lefs than fifteen quadrupeds, unlike any {pecies now known to exilt. Haye thefe organized beings, 1t may be afked, lived in the places where their remains are found, or have they been carried thither ? and are they {till to be met with living, or to be contfidered totally or partly deftroyed? It is obvious that the caufes to be affigned for the occurrence of thofe petrifaétions mult be diametrically oppolite according as thefe two fimple quettions are anfwered in the affirmative or negative ; and yet fomebody has thought it werth while to fatisfy himfelf refpeéting this circumitance ; nor have any of the authors of the ten or twelve hypotheles that profefs to explain the formation of the bafin of Paris, been aware that ina folitary {mall corner of that balin, namely, at Grig- non, there have been difeovered by Lamarck, in the courfe of feveral years, about fix hundred unknown fpecies of fhells, befides forty or fifty, of which the prototypes are {uppoted to be {till exiting. ; We fhall not attempt in this article to give a hiftory of geology, which would be nothing more thana chronological expofition of the different theories of : the earth tiie Eanru, and Turontes of the Earth):. nor is it to natura its of earlier periods than the latter end of the Jaft century, that we are indebted for genuine obfervations in this depart- ment of fcience. But much as we owe to the exertions of a Lehmann, Deluc, Dolomieu, and particularly Sauffure, who, in his celebrated agenda, has proved how well he knew the defiderata of geology, and what remained to be done to give this branch of knowledge all the perfection it is fuf- ceptible of ; yet the merit oF arranging, into a harmonious whole, a multiplicity of m&terials fareithed by an intimate acquaintance with the internal ftructure of a confiderable and highly interefting traét of country, is entirely due to Werner ; who, being affilted by the moft profound know- ledge of the various mineral fub{tances, and gifted with a happy facility of generalizing facts, has produced a fy{tem of geognofy, at once fimple and practical, and much more free from gratuitous affumption than all the reft. Proteffor Jamefon is the firft in this country who has given an expofi- tion of the Wernerian geognofy, conftituting the third volume of his “ Mineralogy.’ The following is intended only as a brief fketch of that fyftem, fuller details of which will be found under the various articles referred to. The furface of the globe, confidered relative to its in- equalities, is divided into highland, lowland, and the bottom of the fea. The highland comprizes, 1. Alpine land, com- pofed of mountain groups or feries of mountain chains; 2. Mountain chains, formed by a feries of thofe till more fimple inequalities, called 3. Mountains: in the former we confider their length, height, form, and connection; the parts of the latter are the foot, the acclivity, and the fummit. See Mounrarys, and Mountain Groups. Lowland we call thofe extenfive flat tracts which are almoit entirely deftitute of {mall mountain groups, which latter, if they occur in them, generally occupy the middle part of the lowland. The principal lowland in Europe is the eaitern part of Great Britain, the north of France, the cideyant Netherlands, the northern part of Germany and Silefia, the whole of Poland, the N. W. part of Ruffia, towards the Ural mountains, a very {mall part of Sweden, namely, Gothland. The fecond extenfive lowland plain is in the centre of Afia; it is known by the name of the Steppes, and includes almoft the whole N. E. part of Ruffia; fome {maller ones are in Arabia. The extent of the low- land of Africa is not known. America has two contiderable lowland plains: the one, in its northern half, is traverfed by. the Miffifippi and Mifouri, and borders towards the eatt by the Apalachian mountains, and the Weft India iflands ; the fecond, in South America, borders on the Andes. With thefe plains of the lowland are connected the river- cour/es, or river valleys, in which we have to confider the bed of the river and the holm or haugh land, the high and low bank of the river. (See River-courfe.) The incon- fiderably rifing ground with which the lowland plains are frequently marked, is, by German geognofians, called Land-hoben when they are nearly of equal length and breadth, and Land-riicken when they have an elongated form. 1 The bottom of the fea, or that part of the globe which is ftill covered by water, may equally be confidered with a view to its depreflions and elevations; to the latter belong the flat, the rocky bottom, the fhoals, reefs, and iflands, See Sea and Istann. It is only after a diligent fludy of the inequalities juit pointed out, that we can with advantage undertake to explore the means employed by nature to produce them ; and the firft flep is to proceed to the exaniination of the phyfical caufes of the flow, but uncealing changes of the globe. Obiervation teaches us, that motl of the elevations and hollows we meet with on the furface of the earth owe their origin to the action of the atmofphere, to that of the ocean, and to volcanic fire. Thefe powerful agents may" be confidered GEOLOGY. eonfidered with regard to their defroying, and, in confequence of this Bedeneuan with regard to their forming effects. T he waters of the ocean poflefs the former of thefe powers in a fuperior degree ; ; whole maritime diltricts are known to have been overwhelmed by their irregular action upon the land; but alfo the regular motien of the fea, ebb and flood tide, currents, &c. confiderably contribute to gradu- ally changing the face of the bottom of the fea, and of the fhores on which they act. The deftroying effects of the atmofpheric waters are both mechanical and che- mical; the former are produced by long continued rain, water-[poats, ice, fnow, thaws, and confequent floods, by which confiderable pertions of rocks are detached and carried, together with other loofe materials they meet, to more or lefs diltant places, according as the bulk of thefe materials or the nature of the country, either fayours or impedes their progrefs. The chemically dettroyi ing effects of water are lets rapid, and depend on the folubility of the different rocks over which they flow. The forming effects of water, both mechanical and chemical, are the natural confequence of its dettructive effects; examples of the former are fandbanks, changes of coaits, &c. Of the latter, beds of falt, calcareous, and other depofitions, &c. See Waters, Atmo/pheric, and Ocray. The effects of woleanic fire are deftroying by means of the confumption of the inflammable materia ils, by deficcation and fulion ; and forming by fublimation, and by the pro- duction of lavas and other volcanic ejections, by fublima- tion, &c. See VOLCANo. From the defcription of the inequalities of the furface of the e earth, and of the means employed in forming them, the Wrernerian {chool proceeds to the confideration of the internal ftruéture of the earth, the knowledge of which we derive from a careful examination of the order which nature has followed in the depofition of the mountain maffes, and which is principally laid open to view in the chafms and fections produced by floods, &c. in natural cayerns and in the interior of mines. By thefe means we may become acquainted with four different {tructures, beides that of the fimple foffil, which is the object of Oryétognofy; 1. The itructure ae rocks or mountain re ; thefe are Sees imple (fuch as lime- ftone, clay-flate, ferpentine), or aggregated, in which cafe the principal kinds of texture of the component parts are granular, flaty, porphyritic, and amy¢daloidal. (See Rocks. ) 2. A more general {tructure is that” of mountain maffes ; thele have either a fimply ilratified ftructure, viz. when a moun- tain, or mountain mafles are compofed of one fpecies of rock divided into parallel tabular maffes or ftrata; or they confift of alternating flrata of different rocks, which in this cafe are called beds. Mountain maffes alfo difplay what is termed /eamed ftructure, in which diftin@ concretions on a large feale are obfervable, fuch as the columnar, the large globular, and the club- thaped {tructure, feveral modifications of which are obferved in bafalt. | Another variety of this ftru@ure is called tabular feamed ftru€ture, which is not unlike itratification. (See MounTain Masses, and Srra- ra.) A ftill more general ftrudture is 3. The frudure of ormations, which term Werner applies to a determinate aflemblage of feveral fimilar and diflimilar rock mafles which sonftitute an independent whole. If the mafs is uniform throughout ; if, for inflance, it confifts entirely of fand- ftone, granite, &c. it is termed /imple, whereas it is a com- ound formation, if it exhibits diflimilar mafles, fuch as black coal with fletz-trap, &c. Some formations conftitute the principal mais of a mountain in which they occur, (gneifs, clay-flate, porphyry, &c.) while others occur only imbedded (porphyry, lime-one, ee ); and thefe beds, if they occur in different principal formations, and always under the fame circumi{tances, notwithftanding the difference of the rocks in which they are found, and if, moreover, they form members of a feries of formations, are confidered as, and deno- minated independent formations. If the reverfe of all this is obferved in fingle beds, they are called Subordinate to the formation in which they are imbedded, as is the cafe with the beds of roe-{tone, in the fecond fand-ftone, &c. For fome further diftinétions, fee Revosirories, nineral. The -moft general of the ftructures we know is, 4. That of the ‘cruft of the earth, compofed of rock formations, which cover each other in certain directions, and ina regular manner. As to the original extent of formations in general, Werner terms univerfal iescisians thofe which, without great inter ruption, furround the whole globe, and thus conititute the greater part of its cruit; to it belong almoit the whole of the pri- mitive, tranfition, and fletz-formation. Partial formations, on the other hand, are thofe that appear only in detached fpots, and exhibit characters diftinct from ‘thofe of the univerfal formation: thus the depofition at Wehrau in Lu- fatia (which Werner fufpects to be the refult of a {mall and partial flood) is compofed of faud-flone, lime-ftone, bitu- minous fhale and iron-clay, which all reft on loofe fand. The prefent extent and continuity of formations are fo far different from the original, that thofe called uaiverfal often appear broken into {mall detached portions, frequently refembling partial formations, and they receive different names according to their different fhapes, and the fituations in which they are found. Other confiderations relative to the ftructure of the cruft of the globe are derived from the pofition and di- rection of the trata in regard to the fundamental or fub- jacent rock, from the direction of the ttrata without reference to the fundamental rock, and from the relation cf the ous- goings (i. ¢. the upper extremities of the different ftrata as they appear at the furface of the earth), to the exterior of the mountain ; for which fee Srravra. A comparifon of the different claffes of rocks, and their fucceflion and ftratification, points out the following dif- tinctions. The clafs of rocks on which all others re{t, and which, on that account, is confidered as the oldeft, is the clafs of the primitive rocks, whofe texture is often more or lefs cryftalline, a quality denoting previous che- mical folution, They comprehend granite, eneifs, mica- flate, tale-flate, Heuer flate, fyenite, pee V5 ferpen- tine, and lime-ftone. T'hefe rocks are moltly difpofed i in conformable and unbroken tlratification, each newer {tratum with lower level, as is the cafe with encils, mica-flate, and clay-flate, while the granite beneath will fometimes appear to rife up through them, encompafled, in various manners, by the other rocks. (See Rocks, Primitive.) The rocks next in fucceflion are fuch as are likewife principally com- pofed of chemical productions, but in which mechanical depotition is obferved more abundantly the nearer they ap- proach tht following clafs ; the rocks conftituting this in- termediate clafs are called tranfition-rocks. Lime-ltone occurs more frequently in this than in the preceding clafs : the other rocks it contains are principally grey-wacke, grey-wacke flate, and clay-flate. (See Traxsition-Rocks). To this fucceeds, as of {till later origin, the clafs of fletz- rocks, in which the mechanical depofits occur in greater abundance, at the fame time that the chemical precipitation difappears. (See Frerz-Rocks.) The next clafs which bears the character of {till more recent formation, is en- tirely compofed of mechanical depofits, fuch as fand, clay, &e. (See Rocks, A//uvial.) But, befides thefe formations, the outgoings of which fhow gradually diminifhing levels from the older to the newer, there are two others, the {trata 8 of GEO of which, inftead of having parallelifm with, are fuperincum- bent on, the outgoings of the other ftrata: they are called the newse/? fletz-trap, and the newer porphyry formation, and are feen to reft both on fletz-ftrata of very recent formation, and on elevated primitive mountains. ‘The former of thefe formations is particularly interefting, as including rocks, whofe origin has been, and continues to be, a fubject of controverly between the Neptunifts and Volcaniits, fuch as bafalt, wacke, &c. all of which, according to Werner, are the refults of a deluge, or fudden rife of the water at a more recent period than that in which the fletz-mountains were formed. (See Frerz-Rocks and ‘TRap-Formation.) The fecqnd of thefe great formations, occurring in the {ame unconformable {tratification, confifts of porphyry, fyenite, and pitch-ftone, and is fuppofed of much older origin than the neweit fletz-trap-formation, with which, however, it agrees in many refpeéts. See Porpnyry. No geologilt before Werner has pointed out the fuccef- fion in which the different fuites of formations have been depofited from the water at different periods ; a fucceflion which fhows the alterations that fluid has undergone with regard to the. {fubitances it held, at different times, either chemically diffelved, or mechanically floating. Thus the oldeft of the primitive rocks contain metals almott peculiar to them, and which, therefore, were not again depofited in fucceeding periods, fuch as tin, molybdena, and tungfteen 5 and in feverat cafes, one and the fame fubftance, ({uch as lime-ftone,) though it be repeated at confiderable intervals, ftill adopts in each of them a peculiar character. Thefe fuites are, 1. That of the /ime-ffone formation, beginning with the primitive cryftalline granular lime-ftone, and paffing, by infenfible gradations, through the tranfition, and fietz-lime ftones, into the lowermott Tinks of the feries, wiz. chalk and calcareous tuf. 2. That of the /late form- ation: its central point is clay-flate (from which this formation derives its name), paffing, on one hand, aeoee mica-flate into gneifs, when the flaty flruéture gradually difappears, and a paflage is formed into the oldeft member, namely granite ; and, on the other hand, through tranfition- flate, grey-wacke flate, and grey-wacke, into the feries of fletz fand-itones, and from thence into the alluvial feries, confifting of flate clay, loam, fand, and gravel. 3. The ¢rap- formation fuite pales from the primitive hornblende-flate, charaéterized by its cryftalline nature, and from the primi- tive green-itone, and green-ftone flate, through the tranfition green-{tone, into the fletz-trap, formed chiefly of amygdaloid, and from thence into the neweft fletz-trap formation, con- jifting principally of bafalt and wacke, unconformably fuper- incumbeat on rocks of various antiquity. 4. The porphyry formation futte is equally characteriltic in its different mem- bers, from old primitive porphyry down to that mentioned above, as of fimilar origin with the newett fletz-trap form- ation; the nature of the different members of this formation (See third are fletz-zypfum, the former of them aveambaayag the eries, farther invelligation. (See Fret2-Rocks, andCoat.) 8. The forpentin: Sarmation faite is compofed, as far as we know, of two cE oO members, the firft or older occurring with primitive rocks, efpecially primitive lime-ftone, in conformable ftratification ; and the fecond or newer, found in an unconformable and overlying pofition on the older rocks. See SERPEN- TINE. P For further particulars rélating to the Wernerian fyftem of geognofy, we refer to the articles Srrara, Vrin, and Waters, Diminution of. GEOMANCY, Geomantia, akind of divination, per- formed by means of anumber of little poiats, or dots, made on paper at random: and confidering the various lines and figures which thofe points prefent: and thence forming a pretended judgment of futurity, and deciding any queftion propofed. The word is formed of the Greek yx, terra, earth; and yoxf, divination; it being the ancient cuftom to caft little pebbles on the ground, and thence to form their sonic stres ; inftead of the points afterwards made ufe of. Polydore Virgil defines geomancy a kind of divination performed by means of clefts, or chinks made in the ground ; and takes the Perfian Magi to have been the inventors thereof. GEOMETRICAL, fomething that has a relation to geometry. p Thus we fay, a geometrical method, a geometrical genius, geometrical ttri€tnefs, geometrical conitruction, geometrical demonttration. Geometry itfelf feems to lead us into errors; after once reducing a thing to geometrical confideration, and finding that it anfwers pretty exaCtly, we purfue the view, are pleafed with the certainty and agrceablenefs of the demonflrations, and apply the geometry farther and farther, till we often out- run nature. Hence it is, that all machines do not fucceed: that all compofitions of mufic, wherein the concords are the moft ri- gidly obferved, are not agreeable: that the moft exaé aftro- nomical computations do not always foretell the precife time and quality of aneclipfe, &c. - The reafon is, that nature is not a mere abftraét ; mecha- nical levers and wheels are not geometrical lines and circles ; as they are often fuppofed tobe: the talte fortunes is not the fame in all men ; nor at all times in the fame man: and as to aftronomy, as there isno perfect regularity in the mo- tions of the planets, their orbits hardly feem reducible to any fixed, known figure. The errors, therefore, we fall into in aftronomy, mufic, mechanics, and the other fciences to which geometry is ap- plied, do not properly arife from geometry, which is an in- fallible {cience, but from the falfe ufe, or the mifapplication of it. GxromETRICAL Conflruétion of an equation, is the con- triving and drawing of lines and figures, whereby. to demonftrate the equation, theorem, or canon, to be geometrically true. See Construction of Equations. GeometricaL Lineor Curve, called alfo algebraic line or curve, is that wherein the relations of the abiciflas to the {emi-ordinates may be expreffed by an algebraic’ equation. See CuRVE. Geometrical lines are diflinguifhed into claffes, orders, or genera, according to the number of the dimenfions of the equation that expreffes the relation between the ordinates. and the abfeiffas: or, which amounts to the fame, accords ing to the number of points in which they may be cut by a right line. . ; Thus aline of the firft order will be only a right line: thofe of the fecond, or quadratic order, will be the circle, and GEO and the conic fe€tions; and thofe of the third, or cubic or- der, will be the cubical and Nelian parabolas, the ciffoid of the ancients, &c. But the curve of the firft gender (becaufe a right line cannot be reckoned among the curves) is the fame with a line of the fecond order ; anda curve of the fecond gender, the fame with a line of the third order ; and a line of an in- finitefimal order is that whicha right line may cut in in- finite points; as the fpiral, cycloid, the quadratrix, and every line generated by the infinite revolutions of a ra- dius. However, itis not the equation, but the defcription, that makes the curve a geometrical one; the circle is a geometri- cal line, not becaufe it may be expreffed by an equation, but becaufe its defcription isa poftulate : and it is not the fimpli- city of the equation, but the eafinefs of the defcription, which is to determine the choice of the lines for the con- ftruétion of a problem. The equation that exprefles a parabola is more fimplethan that which expreffes a circle ; and yet the circle, by reafon of its more fimple conftruction, is admitted before it. The circle and the conic fe€tions, if you regard the di- menfions of the equations, are of the fame order; and yet the circle is not numbered with them in the conftruction of problems ; but by reafon of its fimple defcription is de- prefled to a lower order; viz. that of a right line; fo that it is not improper to exprefs that by a circle, which may be exprefled by a right line, but it is a fault to conftruGt that by the conic fections, which may be conltruéted by a circle. Wither, therefore, the law muft be taken from the dimen- fions of equations, as obferved ina circle, and fo the diftinc- tion be taken away between plane and folid problems : or the law mutt be allowed not to be itrictly obferved in lines of fuperior kinds ; but that fome, by reafon of their more fimple defcription may be preferred to others of the fame order, and be numbered with lines of inferior or- ders. In conftru€tions that are equally geometrical, the moft fimple are always to be preferred: this law is fo univer- fal as to be without exception. But algebraic expreflions add nothing to the fimplicity of the conttruétion ; the bare defcriptions of the lines here are only to be confider- ed; and thefe alone were confidered by thofe geometri- cians, who joined a circle with a right line. And as thefe are eafy or hard, the conftruction becomes eafy or hard: and therefore it is foreign to the nature of the thing, from any thing elfe to eftablifh laws about conilructions, Either, therefore, with the ancients, we mult exclude all lines befide the-circle, and perhaps the conic fections, out of geometry ; or admit all according to the fimplicity of the defeription: if the trochoid were admitted into geometry, we might, by its means, divide an angle in any giyen ratio : would you therefore blame thofe who would make ufe of this line to divide an angle in the ratio of one number to another ; and contend, that this line was not defined by an equation, but that you muft make ufe of fuch lines as are de- fined by equations ? If, when an angle were to be divided, for inftance, into yoor parts, we fhould be obliged to bring a curve defined by an equation of above a hundred dimenfions to do the bufinets ; which nobody could defcribe, much lefs underftand ; and fhould prefer this to the trochoid, whieh is a line well known, and defcribed eafily by the motion of a wheel, or circle: who would not fee the abfurdity ? Either, therefore, the trochoid is not to be admitted at allin geometry ; or elfe, in the conitruction of problems, it Vou. XVI. GEO is to be preferred to all lines of a more difficult defcriptiog and the reafon is the fame for other curves. Hence, the tri- fe€tions of anangle by a conchoid, which Archimedes, in his Lemmas, and Pappus, in his Colleétions, have preferred to the invention of all others in this cafe, mult be allowed to be good ; fince we mutt either exclude all lines, befide the circle and right line, out of geometry, or admit them according to the fimplicity of their deferiptions ; in which cafe the eonchoid yields to none except the circle. Equa- tions are expreffions of arithmetical computation, and pre- perly have no place in geometry, except fo far as quantities truly geometrical (that is, lines, furfaces, folids, and pro- portions) may be faid to be fome equal to others : multipli- cations, divifions, and fuch fort of computations, are new- ly received into geometry, and that apparently contrary to the firft defign of this {cience : for whoever confiders the conftruétion of problems by a right line anda circle, found by the firft geometricians, will eafily perceive that geometry was introduced that we might expeditioufly avoid, by drawing lines, the tedioufnefs of computation It fhould feem, therefore, that the two f{ciences ought not to be confounded together : the ancients fo induftrionfly diftinguifhed them, that they never introduced arithmetical terms into geometry ; and the moderns, by confounding both, have loft a great deal of that fimplicity, in which the elegance of geometry principally confilts. Upon the whole, that is arithmetically more fimple, which is determined by more fimple equations ; but that is geometrically more fim- ple which is detersined by the more fimple drawing of lines; and in geometry, that ought to be reckoned beft which is geometrically moft fimple. GromerricaL Locus, or Place called alfo fimply /ocus. See Locus. GrometricaL Medium. See Mrpium. GeromernicaL Method of the Ancients. It is to be ob- ferved that the ancients eftablifhed the higher parts of their geometry on the fame principles as the elements of that {cience, by demonilrations of the fame kind; and that they feem to have been careful not to fuppofe any thing done, till by a previous problem they had fhewn how it was to be per- formed. Far lefs did they fuppofe any thing to be done that cannot be conceived, as a line or feries to be actually conti- nued toinfinity, or a magnitude to be diminifhed till it be- comes infinitely lefs than what it was. ‘The elements into which they refolved magnitudes were finite, and fuch as might be conceived to be real. Unbounded Itberties have been introduced of late, by which geometry, which ought to be perfectiy clear, is filled with mytteries. See Maclaurin’s Fluxions, Intr.p. 39; feq. GromMETRICAL O/¢uluin. CULUM. GEOMETRICAL Pace, is a meafure confifling of five feet. See Paces, and oor. GpometrRIcaL Plan, in ArchiteGure. SEOMETRICAL Plane. Sce PLANne. GromerricaL Progreffion. See Geometrical Procres- SION. GromerricaL Proportion, called alfo abfolutely, and fim- ply, proportion, is a fimilitude or identity of ratios. See Ratio, Thus, if A beto B, as C to D, they are in geometrical proportion : fo 8,4, 30, and 15, are geometrical propor- tionals, See Proporrion. GrometnricaL Solution of a problem, is when the pro- blem is direétly folved according to the tint. principles and rules of geometry, and by lines that are truly geometri- cal, i : See Curve, EvotuTe, and Oss See PLAN. ? Ix GEO ’ In this fenfe we fay, geometrical folution in contra- diftin&tion to a mechanical, or inftrumental folution, where the problem is only folved by ruler and com- pafies. The fame term is likewife ufed in oppofition to all indire& and inadequate kinds of folutions, as by infinite feriefes, &c. We have no geometrical way of finding the quadrature of the circle, the duplicature of the cube, or two mean pro- portionals ; but mechanical ways, and others, by infinite fe- riefes, we have. The ancients, Pappus informs us, in vain endeavoured at the trifection of an angle, and the finding out of two mean proportionals by aright line, andacircle. Afterwards they began to confider the properties of feveral other lines; as the conchoid, the cifloid, and the conic fections ; and by fome of thefe endeavoured to folve thofe problems. At length, having more thoroughly examined the matter, and the conic fections being. received into geometry, they diftinguifhed geometrical problems into three kinds ; viz. 1. Plane ones, which, deriving their original from lines on a plane, may be regularly folved by a right line, and a circle. 2. Solid ones, which are folved by lines deriving their original from the confideration of a folid; that is, of a cone. 3. Linear ones, to the folution of which are required lines more compounded. Accordingto this diftin@tion we are not to folve folid pro- blems by other lines than the conic fe&tions ; efpecially if no other lines but right ones, a circle, and the conic fections, muft be received into geometry. But the moderns, advancing much farther, have received into geometry all lines that can be expreffed by equations ; and shave diftinguifhed, according to the dimenfions of the equations, thofe lines into kinds; and have made it a law, not to conftru& a problem by a line of fupe- rior kind, that may be conftru&ed by one of an inferior kind. GEOMETRICAL Square. See SQUARE. Grometricau Table. See PLain Zable. GEOMETRICALLY ProporrtionaLs, are quantities in continual proportion ; or which proceed in the fame con- ftantratio: as 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, &c. They are thus called, in contradiftin@tion to equi-different quantities ; which are called, though fomewhat improperly, arithmetically proporticnals. GEOMETRY, the feience, or doGrine of extenfion, or extended things; that is, of lines, furfaces, or fo- lids. The word is Greek y:scerps~y formed of sx or yn, earth, and yerpew, meafure ; it being the neceflity of meafuring the earth, and the parts and places thereof, that gave the firft occafion to the invention of the principles and rules of this art ; which has fince been extended and applied to numerous other things; infomuch that geometry, with arithmetic, is now the general foundation of all mathematics. Herodotus, lib. ii. p. 102. edit,. Wefielingii, Diodorus, lib. i. § 81, or vol. i. p. ot. edit. Amft. 1746. and Strabo, lib. xvii. vol. ii. p. 1139. edit. Amft. 1707. aflert, that the Egyptians were the firft inventors of geometry; and that the annual inundations of the Nile were the occafion of it; for that river bearing away all the bounds and landmarks of men’s eftates, and covermg the whole face of the country, the people, fay they, ‘were obliged to diftinguifh their lands by the confideration of their figure and quantity ; and thus, 3 GEO by experience and habit, formed themfelves a method, or art, which was the origin of geometry. A farther con- templation of the draughts of figures, of fields thus laid down, and plotted in proportion, might naturally enougit lead them to the difcovery of fome of their excellent and wonderful properties; which f{peculation continually im- proving, the art became gradually improved, as it continues todo to this day. Jofephus, however, feems to attribute the invention to the Hebrews: and others, among the an- cients, make Mercury the inventor. Polyd. Virgil, De In- vent. Rer. lib. i. cap. 18. From Egypt geometry paffed into Greece, being carried thither, as fome fay, by Thales ; where it was much cul- tivated and improved by himfelf, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras of Clazomene, Hippocrates of Chios, and Plato, who tetti- fied his conviétion of the neceffity and importance of geome- try in order to the fuccefsful itudy of philofophy by the following infeription on the door of his academy, 23a; olswperperos eircitwy let no one ignorant of geometry enter here. Plato, conceiving that geometry was too mean and reftriéted an appellation for this fcience, fubftituted for it the more extenfive name of “ Menfuration;’’ and others have denomi- nated it * Pantometry.’’ Other more general and compre- henfive appellations are more fuitable to its extent, more efpecially in the prefent advanced ftate of the fcience ; and accordingly fome have defined it as the {cience of inquiring, inventing, and demonttrating all the affections of magnitude. Proclus calls it the knowledge of magnitudes and figures, with their limitations; as alfo of their ratios, affections, pofitions, and motions of every kind. About fifty years after Plato, lived Euclid, who eolleGted together all thofe theorems which had been invented by his predeceffors ia Egypt and Greece, and digefted them into fifteen books, entitled the Elements of Geometry ; and thofe propofitions which were not fatisfactorily proved, he more accurately demonttrated. (See Evcim.) The next to Euclid of thofe ancient writers, whofe works are extant, is Apollo- nius Pergeus, who flourifhed in the time of Ptolemy Euer- getes, about two hundred and thirty years before Chrift, and about a hundred years after Euclid. (See his biographical article.) The third ancient geometer, whofe wnitings re- main, is Archimedes of Syracufe, who was famous about the fame time with Apollonius. (See ArcuimepEs.) We can only mention Eudoxus of Cnidus, Archytas of Taren- tum, Philolaus, Eratofthenes, Ariftarchus of Samos, Dino- {tratus, the inventor of the quadratrix, Menechmus, his brother and the difciple of Plato, the two Arifteufes, Conon, Thrafideus, Nicoteles, Leon, Theudius, Hermotimus, and Nicomedes, the inventor of the conchoid; befides whom, there are many other ancient geometers, to whom this feience is indebted. The Greeks continued their attention to geometry even after they were fubdued by the Romans. Whereas the Romans themfelves were fo little acquainted with this fcience, even in the moit flourifhing time of their republic, that they gave the name of mathematicians, as Tacitus in- forms us, to thofe who purfued the chimeras of divination and judiciary aftrology. Nor were they more difpofed to cultivate geometry, as we may reafonably imagine, during the decline, and after the fall of the Roman empire. The cafe was different with the Greeks; among whom we find many excellent geometers fince the commencement of the Chriftian era, and after the tranflation of the Roman empire. Ptolemy lived under Marcus Aurelius; and we have extant the works of Pappus of Alexandria, who lived in the time of Theodofius ; the commentary of Eutocius, the Afcatonite, who lived about the year of Chrift 540, on Archimedes’s GEOMETRY. _Archimedes’s menfuration of a circle; and the commentary on Euclid, by Proclus, who lived under the empire of Anattafius. ; ; ‘ Thé confequent inundation of ignorance and barbarifm was unfavourable to geometry as well as to the other {ci- ences; and thofe few who applied themfelves to this fcience, &c. were calumniated as magicians. However, in thofe times of European darknefs, the Arabians were diitinguifhed as the guardians and promoters of fciencey and from the ninth to the fourteenth century they produced many aftrono- mers, geometers, geographers, &e. from whom the mathe- matical {ciences were again received into Spain, Italy, and other parts of Europe, fomewhat before the beginning of the rsth century. Some of the earlieft writers after this period are Leonardus Pifenus, Lucas Paciolus or de Burgo, and others between 1400 and 1500. After this period appeared many editions of Euchd, or commentaries upon his Elements ; ¢. g. Orontius Fineus, in 1530, publifhed a commentary on the fix firlt books ; as did James Peletarius in 15573 and about the fame time Nicholas ‘Tartaglia pub- lifhed a commentary on the whole 15 books. We might here mention other editions or commentaries ; fuch are thofe of Commandine, Clavius, Billingfly, Schéubelius, Harli- nus, Dafypodius, Ramus, Herigon, Stevinus, Saville, Bar- row, Tucquet, Dechales, Furnier, Scarborough, Keill, Cann, Stone, and many others. (See ELemen’s. ) At the revival of letters, there were few Europeans capable of tranflating and commenting on the works of the ancient geometers; and geometry made little progrefs till the time of Des Cartes, who publithed his Geometry in 1637. However, not to mention all thofe who extended geometry beyond its elementary parts, fuch as ‘Theodofius in his Spherics, Se- renus in his feétions of the cone and cylinder, Kepler in his Nova Stereometria, &c.; in 1635, Bonaventure Cavalerius, an Italian of the order of Jefuits, pubhithed his «¢ Geometry of Indivilibles ;*? Torricelli his «« Opera Geometrica ;” Viviani, his **Divinationes Geometricz,’’ **Exercitatio Mathematica,”’ «De Locis Solidis,”’ “De Maximis et Minimis,’’ &c.; Vieta, his “ Effectio Geometrica,” &c.; Gregory St. Vincent, in 1647, publithed his treatife, entitled ff Quadratura Circuli & Hyperbole,” a work abounding with excellent theorems and paralogifms; and Pafcal, about the fame time, pub- Jithed his treatife of the cycloid. Geometry, as far as it was capable of deriving aid and improvement from the arith- metic of infinites, was indebted to the labours of Fermat, Barrow, Wallis, Mercator, Brounker, J. Gregory, Huy- gens, and others, to whom we may add Newton and Leib- nitz. (See Fiuxions.) But fir Ifaac Newton contributed to the progrefs of pure geometry by his two treatifes, “ De Quadratura Curvarum,” and “ Enumeratio Linearum Tertii Ordinis” (fee Curve): and fhill farther by his incompara- ble and immortal work, entitled ‘¢ Philofophie Naturalis Principia Mathematica,’’ which will always be confidered as the moft extenfive and fuccefsful application of geometry to phyfics. We cannot forbear tranfcribing in this place the compliment paid to this author by the editors of the Encyclopedie, who, confidering the various monuments of the author’s genius, and that he had made his principal difcovery before the age of twenty-four, are tempted, they fay, to fubfcribe to the words of Pope, that the fagacity of Newton aflonifhes even celettial intelligences, and that they contemplate him as a being occupying a kind of middle {tation between man and themfelves ; or at leaft they cannot forbear exclaiming, homo homini quid preflat! what a diltance does there fubfitt between one man and another ! . The modern geometers are innumerable ; and the names of Cotes, Maclaurin, R, Simfon,{T. Stewart, T. Simpfon, &e. not to mention living writers, will always be held in efteens and veneration by thofe that are devoted to the ftudy of geometry and mathematics. See ELemEnts. The province of geometry is almoft infinite; few of our ideas but may be reprefented to the imagination by lines, upon which they become of geometrical confideration: it being geometry alone that makes comparifons, and finds the relations of lines. Aitronomy, mufic, mechanics, and, in a word, all the {ciences which confider things fufceptible of more and lefs, i.e. all the precife and accurate f{ciences, may be referred to geometry ; for all {peculative truths confifting only in the relations of things, and in the relations between thofe rela- tions, they may be all referred to lines. Confequences may be drawn frem them; and thefe confequences, again, being rendered fenfible by lines, they become permanent objects, which may be conitantly expofed to a rigorous attention and examination : and thus we have infinite opportunities both of enquiring into their certainty, and purfuing them farther. The reafon, for inftance, why we know fo diftinétly, and mark fo precifely, the concords called e@ave, Sith, fourth, &c; 1s that we have learnt to exprefs founds by lines, i. e. by chords accurately divided ; and that we know, that the chord, which founds oétave, is double of that with which it makes octave ; that the fifth is the fefquialterate ratio, or as three to two; and fo of the reft. The ear itfelf cannot judge of founds with fuch a nice precifion; its judgments are too faint, vague, and variable, to forma fcience. The fineft bett-tuned ear cannot diftinguifh many of the differences of founds; whenee many muficians deny any fuch differences ; as making this fenfe their judge. Some, for inftance, admit no difference between an o¢tave and three ditones: and others, none between the greater and lefler tone; the comma, which is the real difference, is infenfible to them; and much more the fchifma, which is only half the comma. It is only by reafon, then, that we learn, that the length of the chord which makes the difference between certain founds being divifible into feveral parts, there may be a great number of different founds contained therein, ufeful in mufic, which yet the ear cannot diftinguifh. Whenee it follows, that had it not been for arithmetic and geometry, we fhould have hadnofuch thing as regular fixed mufic ; andthat we could only have fucceeded in that art by good luck, or force of imagination ; i.e. mufic would not have been any fcience founded on inconteftible demontitrations : though we allow, that the tunes compofed by force of genius and imagination, are ufually more agreeable to the ear than thofe compofed by rule. So, in mechanics, the heavinefs of a weight, and the diftance of the centre of that weight from the fulcrum, or point by which it is fultained, being fufceptible of plus and minus, they may both be expreffed by lines: whence geometry becomes applicable to this fcience ; in virtue of which, infinite difcoveries have been made, of the utmott ufe in life. Geometrical lines and figures are not only proper to re- prefent to the imagination the relations between magnitudes, or between things fufceptible of more and lefs; as {paces, times, weights, motions, &c. but they may even reprefent things which the mind can no otherwife conceive, e. gr. the relations of incommenfurable magnitudes. It mutt be obferved, that this ule of geometry among the ancients was not ftriétly {cientifical, as among us; but rather fymbolical: they did not argue, or deduce things and pro. perties unknown, from lines; but reprefented or delineated by them things that were known. In effect, they were not ufed as means or inftruments of difcovering, but as images or characters, to preferve, or communicate, the -difcoveries that were already made, P2 « The GEOMETRY. “The Egyptians,” Gale obferves, “ ufed geometrical figures, not only to exprefs the generations, mutations, and deftru€tions of bodies; but the manner, attributes, &c. of the fpirit of the univerfe, who, diffufing himfelf from the centre of his unity, through infinite concentric circles, per- vades all bodies, and fills il fpace. But of all other figures they moft affected the circle and triangle; the firft, as being the mott perfect, fimple, capacious, &c. of all figures : whence Hermes borrowed it to reprefent the divine nature; defining God to be an intelleétual circle or fphere, whofe centre is everywhere, and circumference nowhere.” See Kirch. CEdip. Egyptiac. and Gale Phil. General. lib. ii. cap. 2. The ancient geometry was confined to very narrow bounds, im comparifon of the modern. It only extended to right lines and curves of the firft order, or conic fe¢tions; whereas into the modern geometry new lines of infinitely more and higher orders are introduced. Geometry is commonly divided into four parts, or branches ; planimetry, altimetry, longimetry, and ftereome- try ; which fee refpeStively. Geometry, again, is diftinguifhed into theoretical or /pecu- lative, and praéical. The firft contemplates the properties of continuity ; and demonftrates the truth of general propofitions, called sheo- rems. The fecond applies thofe fpeculations and theorems to par- ticular ufesin the folution of problems. Geometry, /peculative, again may be diftinguifhed into elementary and fublime. Geometry, clkmentary or common, is that employed in the confideration of right lines, and plane furfaces, and folids generated from them. Geometry, Aigher, or fublime, is that employed in the confideration of curve lines, conic feétions, and bodies formed of them. : The writers who have cultivated and improved geometry may be diftinguifhed into elementary, practical, and thofe of the fublimer geometry. The principal writers of elements, fee enumerated under ELEMENTS. Thofe of the higher geometry are Archimedes, in his books De Sphera, Cylindro, and Circuli Dimenfione ; as alfo De Spiralibus, Conoidibus, Sphzroidibus, De Quadra- tura Parabole, and Arenarius: Kepler, in his Stereometria Nova; Cavalerius, in his Geometria Indivifibilium ; and Torricellius, De Solidis Sphezralibus ; Pappus Alexan- drinus, in ColleGionibus Mathematicis; Paulus Guldinus, in his Mechanics and Statics ; Barrow, in his Lectiones Geo- metrice ; Huygens, De Circuli Magnitudine; Bullialdus, De Lineis Spiralibus ; Schooten, in his Exercitationes Ma- thematice ; De Billy, De Proportione Harmonica; Lalo- vera, De Cycloide, For. Erneft. Com. ab Harbenttein, in ‘Diatome Circulorum ; Viviani, in Exercit. Mathemat. de Formatione & Menfura Fornicum ; Bap. Palma, in Geomet. Exercitation. and Apoll. Pergzus, De Setione Rationis. For praétical geometry, the fulleft and completeft trea- tifes are thofe of Mallet, written in- French, but without the demonttrations ; and thofe of Schwenter and Cantzlerus, both in High Dutch. In this clafs are likewife to be ranked Clavius’s, Tacquet's, and Ozanam’s Praétical Geo- metries; De la Hire's Ecole des Arpenteurs; Reinholdus’s Geodzlia ; Hartman Beyers’s’ Stereometria; Voigtel’s Geometria Subterranea ; all in High Dutch: Hulfius, Ga- lileus, Goldmannus, Scheffelt, and Ozanam, on the Seéor. &e. &c. Ke. The {cience of geometry is founded on certain axioms, or felf-evident truths (fee Ax1om) ; it is introduced by defini- tions of the various objects which it contemplates, and the properties of which it inveftigates and demonftrates, fuch as points, lines, angles, figures, furfaces, and folids :—lines again are confidered as ftraight or curved; and in their re- lation to one another, either as inclined or parallel, or as per- pendicular :—angles as riglit, oblique, acute, obtufe, external, vertical, &c. :—figures, with regard to their various boun- daries, as triangles, which are, in refpe€t of their fides, equilateral, ifofceles, and fealene, and in reference to their angles, right-angled, obtufe-angled, and acute-angled; as quadrilaterals, which comprehend the parallelogram, in- cluding the reétangle and f{quare, the rhombus and rhom- boid, and the trapezium and trapezoid ; as multilaterals or polygons, comprehending the pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, &c.; and as circles:—and as folids, including a prifm, parallelepipedon, cube, pyramid, cylinder, cone, {phere, and the fruftum of either of the latter. We fhall not here at- tempt to compile a complete fyftem of geometry, as it would occupy too many of our pages, in a work from its nature protraéted and enlarged to a very great extent ; and this is the lefs neceffary, becaufe the reader will find under the titles above enumerated, and others naturally conneéted with and derived from them, the moft effential and important principles of geometry, together with the operations that are founded upon them; and becaufe any perfon who is de- firous of acquainting himfelf with the fcience of geometry, in its whole extent and application, will have recourfe to one er other of thofe numerous treatifes, ina more enlarged or more compendious form, which may be eafily procured. The Elements of Euclid by Dr. R. Simpfon occur firlt to our recolleétion, and deferve particular recommendation ; but the object of the geometrical ftudent may be fatis- factorily attained by T. Simpfon’s Geometry, or by the trea- tifes of Emerfon, Hutton, Bonnycattle, Leflie, &c. &c. But as the analytic method of treating geometrical quef- tions is lefs eenerally known, and as complete treatifes on this fubjeét are only to be found in foreign works, we have been induced to devote a confiderable fpace to this part of the {cience ; the fellowing treatife is chiefly compiled from the « Feuilles d’ Analyfe’’ by Monge, which were publifhed in feparate portions for the ule of the polytechnic {chool, and afterwards colle@ted in a quarto volume. A more elemen- tary work has lately been publifhed by Garnier in o€tavo, to which the reader 1s referred. Grometry, Analytic—Method of defining the pofition of a pointin a plane. , A point M (Analyfis, Plate VIII. fig. 1.) is defined by re- ferring its pofition to two lines, as A Y, A X, enerally at right angles to each other, but they may be sdeltaedt at any iven angle. If MQ be drawn perpendicular to A-Y, and M P per- pendicular to A X, then QM, MP, are called the co-or- dinates of the point M; the diftance of the point from AY is ufually denoted by «, and its diftance from A X by y. ‘ "Phe point of interfeétion ef the two lines AY, A X is called the origin of the co-ordinates, and the lines A Yy A X, produced each way to Y' and X’, are called axes. If the diftance of the point M from thefe axes is given, viz. MQ =a, MP=4, then « =a, y = bis the equation to the point M. : But if the point M be fituated in any other of the angles, the fign of a and é will vary, and thefe variations are governed by the fame rules, as the fines and cofines in trigono- metry. For inftance, if the point M is fituated in the angle 3 ; RAVES GEOMETRY. y YA X, then x = +ay= + The equation of M’! isw = —a, y= +6 M" is « = = [25 9e— er Mis a= +ay= oy} If the point M is fituated on the line A X, theny = 0, z= a. If it is fituated on A Y, then «=0; y = 4, and at the point A, x= 0; y= 0. The point M may likewife be defined by the length of the line A M, and by the angle ?, which it makes with the axis AX. If this length be expreffed by z, and the angle by 9, Beal eo A° being the number of degrees contained in the angle ¢, and c the value of z. The pofition of a ftraight line is determined in a plane by the co-ordinates of two of its points, or by the co-ordinates of a fingle point, and the angle which it makes with one of its axes: the latter is the method moft ufually employed. If the line paffes through the origin of the axes, its pofi- tion is determined by the angle which it makes with the axis. We fhall firft confider this cafe as being the moft fimple. Let it be propofed to determine the relation between the co- ordinates of any point in fucha ftraight line. Let us take, for example, a point M/ (fg. 2.) whofe abiciffa is A P! = a’, P'M’=y’': thefe co-ordinates, like thofe of the other points, making an angle ¢ with each other, which is that of the axes, we fhall have this equation ; y! fin. « : eo. fin. (¢ mee a) id and for the points M', M’", &c. whofe co-ordinates would be x", y"5 2%, yl", &c. we have Wie L® fin. « » a fin. x gy BC aay aS ha (Ge yt If x, yreprefent the co-ordinates of any point in A L, the general equation will be yo fin. « a TG =) By) sidusblistsacsacvsascecemitl)) thus x becoming fucceffively x’, 2, &c. y changes to the correfponding ordinates y’, y”’, &c. The formula (1) is called the equation of a ftraight line ; it is the algebraic enunciation of a property common to all its points, and is thus written ; fin. « Petia (Ga) The abfcifla x being given, the ordinate y may be deduced. When the angle « varies, the line changes its pofition, turning round the point Aj; thus another ordinate y cor- refponds to the fame abfcifla x, which alfo happens if ¢ varies, but it is effential to obferve that for all the values both of « and ¢, the equation (2) retains the fame form. If it fhould be required to find the relation between the co-ordinates of the point of a ftraight line R’ L, fituated in any manner whatever, then if A L be drawn parallel to RL’, pafling through the point A, we thail obferve that for the fame abfcifla x. every ordinate of A L, for example ; P/M will be augmented by the fame quantity AR = 4; let y + 4 be reprefented by y, equation of R’ L! will be ac- cording to (2) ; fin. a y= fa. (6-8) PINE cc ctastduecreesvessvavel (2) 4) Here « and @ give the pofition of the ftraight line R! L’; when thefe quantities are known it may be conftructed, but if the line is fubjeét to any particular conditions, as, to pafs through a giyen point ; to be either parallel or perpendicular toa given line; to pafs through two points, &c. x and } become unknown quantities, as we fhall fee immediately. Let us fuppofe the quantities g, €, and 4 given, and that fin. & fin. (¢ —a) x + 6; the problem is reduced to finding two of thefe points ; we endeavour to find the points ia which the line cuts the two axes AX, AY, (fig. 3.) the interfetion R being the only point of the line in which x = o, and R! the only point of the fame line in which y = 0; we fup- pofe, fucceffively, « = 0, y = 0, and we fhall find y = 4 = fm: (¢ — a : AR, x= — ee 5= AR’; taking, then, A R! in. @& on the other fide of the point A, if it is negative, and AR on A Y if it is pofitive, the line drawn through thefe two points will be that belonging to the equation. If the equation to a ftraight line y = w + 1 be fuppofed to refer to two axes, making an angle of 45° with each other, and the inclination, «, which the line makes with the axis X ; fin. « A be required; fince pe ee = 15 fin. oS fin. 45° — VW 2 fin. » ; confequently, tang. « : / 2 ‘ Hee Mie core praia The value of 4 remaining conftant, the line takes every poflible pofition round the point R (jg. 2.) for every poflible angle from o to 360 ; for every angular value of a, taken with every ordinate 4, pofitive and negative, the line will pafs through every point of the axis YY’. There exilts, therefore, no line in the fame plane that cannot be defined by equation (3), provided and « are taken of a pro- per value. The angle £ has no influence on the pofition of the line 5 the variations of this angle only affeét the inclination of the ordinate upon the axis of the abfciffe ; fo that for the fame abfcifl, the ordinate correfponds with another point in the line. But, in general, the co-ordinates are fuppofed retangular ; in which eafe, fin. 8 = fin. 90? = 1, and fin. (@ — «) = cof. «; and equation (3) becomes y =x tang.a + 6= ax —-b, a being fuppofed the. tang. «. t When the ftraight line pafles through the origin of the co-ordinates, its equation becomes y = ax. This equation is conftruéted by taking AP =1 = radius, and then fetting off from a feale of equal parts the value of a on the perpendicular P M (fig. 4.); PM being equal to «, M will be a point in the required line. We may now conitrué the equation y= a + 1, y = me ty adie Thefe two lines cut the axis A X in the fame point, and are fituated fimilarly to it, one aboye, the other below ; they are moreover perpendicular to each other. The ftraight lines y = — vw — 1, y = — w + 1, are pa- rallel, becaufe they make the fame angle with the axis, having the fame tangent, — 1. The ftraight line expreffed by the equation y = x V — 1 — 1 is reduced to a point on the axis Y below the origin, and diftant from it by a quantity equal to unity, fince, for every other value than zero, the ordinate is imagi- nary. The it is required to conftru& the ftraight line y = cof, « GEOMETRY. The problems relatiing to a ftraight line, in general, re- quire the unknown quantities a and 4 to be determined, fo that the required line y = a + 6 (1) may have the re- quired pofition. ProsieM I. To make a ftraight line pafs through two given poitts. Let the co-ordinates of one point be 2’, y', and of the other x", y"; which fignifies that when the ordinate generally ex- preffed by y becomes y’', the ordinate » becomes '; and when x = x", y = y", we have therefore two equations of condition : (2) seeseeseneee y= ax! + by y" = ax" $B ssserrereere (3) from whence we obtain bia all — a! y= J x " C= = ; x a! ess x! Or equation (2) may be fubtraéted from equation (z), then y —y' =a (x — x’); and fub{tituting for @ in this equation its value, as found above, the equation of the line required is — yl" " (2¢ — x!) essesnssenes (4) in which equation we may obferve that when x becomes x's the fecond term becomes equal to zero, andy = y'. If y' = y", then y = y', or y = y", which denotes that the Jine is parallel tothe axis A XK. y = y" =e makes with the axis is in this cafe a right one. pg HZ x! — ' Jie = 2,20 = = t, the angle which the line ProsieM II. ‘To determine the diftance between two given points in a plane. The diftance M’ M"” fs 5.) is the hypothenufe of the right-angled triangle M' M" m'': if it be reprefented by D, then D = “Mini? + Mn = VG"—9) + Oe) If the point M is at the origin, the co-ordinates x! y' become nothing, and the preceding expreffion is reduced to D? = Sy + x! — x!' / 1 + a’, becaufe then the equation to the ftraight line is y = ax; and as this alfo takes place when x = x,y = y's it gives y" = ax". Prosiem III. Too determine the equation of a ftraight line that fhall pais through a given point, and be parallel to a given ftraight line. T’hefe two conditions are {ufficient to determine the two elements of pofition for the required ftraight line. Let the equation of the given ftraight line be y = ax +B sseeee (1), and that of the line required y = ax + 6 guesses (2) 2 @and bare, in this cafe, given, and a' and J’ re- quired. Let x’, y' denote the co-ordinates of the given point; and fince this point is in the required line, we have y! = ax! +B sme (3)- : From equation (1) take equation (3), and y — y'= a! (x — x!) aseereeee (4)- The fame refult may be obtained by taking the value of jf! in equation (3), and fubftituting it in equation (2): More- oyer, the two ftraight lines being parallel, their trigonometric tangents are the fame, that is, a =a’: introducing this condition in equation (4), that of the line required will be y — yl = a (% — 2’) srcrreee (5)- If the given point be taken on the given line, then y' is the value of y, which correfponds to x = x’; and equation (1) becomes jy =ax' +b. Subftituting this value of y' in equation (5), we obtain yz axNt+ b which fhews that the required line and the given line are identical, which is, indeed, felf-evident. | Prozsiem IV. The equation of two ftraight li ing of mine ‘her angle which they Phe aie Pie C of i The angles C A X, C BX, are given, the angle to be found is ACB: Put CA =e, © B & alae tang. « = a, tang. «! = a'; thena! =a + V, and tang. _ a2 = ; Baal: are parallel, tang. V = ©, and a' = a; if they are per- V =tang. (2 — 2) If the ftraight lines pendicular, tang. V oo, or = 0; therefore 1 aa =o. Prosiem V. To determine the equation of a ftraight line that hall pafs through a given point, and make a given angle with a given ftraight line. Let the equation of the given ling be and that required - y=a'x a and 5 are givens from whence a’and bare to be determined by the conditions of the problem. Since the required line is to pafs through a point whofe co-ordinates are x’, y', ite equa- tion muit fubfift when x = x’, and y = y’; hence gl = ax! + 8 scseee (3), and confequently 4 — 9! =14'i(x/— x!) sarees (AS ' being determined from one of the conditions, it remains to determine a! from the other. Now, m being the trigono- metric tangent of the angle which the two lines make with ie each other (by Problem IV.), m = Pash TS 3; hence a! = 1+aa' a+m pelle : . . sprig Subftituting this value of a’ in equation (4), we have the equation required, i gh ear ae pS SS (ae = 4) cissseacn Lays Prosiem VI To determine the condition under which three lines, drawn from the angles of a triangle, will meet in a fingle point. Let x, y's 2%, y"3 2", y"' be the co-ordinates of the angles D, B, C (fg. 7.) 3 the equations to the three ftraight lines drawn from thefe angles will be y— y'= @! (x —2')3y —y" Sa" (2@—x") 5 yy" =a" (x —2'")5 a’, a", a'" being the trigonometrical tangents of the angles which they Sos with the axis A X. For thefe hnes to meet in a point, it is requilite that the fame fyitem of values of x, y, fhould fubfilt for the three equations, which is equiva- lent to finding the value of x and y by means of any two of them, and making the refult of their fubititution in the ~ third GEOMETRY. third equal to. zero; we thus find the equation of condi- of the oppofite fides, the trigonometrical tangent will be tion aly! —y") +a"l(y"—y') +2" (y'— 3") 4 a' a" (x'— 2") =0(1) ci ala" (x! —2'") + al'a' (soil! xa x!) Let us fuppofe the required ftraight lines to be perpendi- cular to the fides of the triangle, and then examine if, upon this fuppofition, the equation (1) fubfitts, yt — yl = ean gt (x me x") ; and that of the ftraight line drawm through D is y — y! =a! (a — x). Now as this latter ftraight line fhould be perpendicular to I The equation to BC is y—y" the other, the equation aa’ + 1 = 0, from whence a! = — a ought to exift between the trigonometrical tangents ;. but ear eth a alll here a = ee therefore a’! = ———— . el! — xl y= The ftraight line drawn through B being perpendicular te DC, we conclude et: ‘_ ——s4 J iy x! ee and the ftraight line drawn through C being perpendicular to D B, we have likewile (x = at) x =—y"= a" (x — xt") ' gh ' yn " " yr Sas wit mtd ae HY a Hence the values of a", a'", are Sees meh Mie oo Soars Tj eee, Gai CSS a i "> ¥, J DS ae) and likewife stair hy 2 AME me eas hemes ie ale ala" (3! —2"") = Coly't) emg Tae oe Ore J N and D being the numerator and denominator of the frac- tion which multiplies y'— y”. By the fubttitution of all thefe values the equation of condition is fatisfied, for it be- comes — (el — gel be agll! wl a!— an exprefiion is obtained for the perpendicular contained be- tween the given point of the {traight line, of which the co- ordinates are X', Y',Z'. When theitraightline pafles through the origin of the co-ordinates, its equations become x = az, = the ftraight line, drawn from the origin of the co-ordinates to its interfeGtion with the perpendicular let fall from the point 2’, 7’, z', upon it: on this fuppofition, « = o, 2 = o Z! aw + by! + 2) and the radical expreffes tle length of Us bx'; X' = az’; there- ax +by'+2' fore \f7 XP? 4 YP a ——————r BO, Sve A ae eee This expreffion is ufed in finding the angle which two {traight lines make with each other. 4. The equation of two ftraight lines being given to find the angle which they make with each other, and if they do not interfeét each other to determine the angle which their projections form on a plane that is parallel to them, let the equations of the given lines be ft e>=azt+e 2 ly=ba te et er 20 Fr Ae eee! If they interfea, the angle which they make is equal to the angle formed by their parallels which pafs through the origin of the co-ordinates ; the equations to their parallels : oy Oe 2 being } Se ea Te be If a point be taken on the fecond parallel, whofe co-ordinates are 2", y', =’, and a per- pendicular be let fall from this point to the firft parallel ; then in the right-angled triangle formed by this perpendicu- lar, and by the ftraight lines drawn from the origin of the co-ordinates to the two extremities of this perpendicu- lar, there are given the two fides which contain the re- quired angle; the exprefflion for one of thefe fides is aoe f ad GEOMETRY. VJ x? + y + 2", the other, as found in the preceding ax' 4 by! + x! problem, is —= MoT) pay 4G Therefore the cofine of the required angle is equal aw'+ by! + 2' A erage | a eT ET But «! = a'2', y = 6! z's; therefore the cofine of the angle formed by the two given ftraight lines Lig a+b5! A RE Sy aL ibs ake Veer tig Bs Sid Ae It appears from this expreffion, that when two ftraight lines have for their equations Wanchisacciesseo ts =< GNzon i= Use Diatatovedesvanve X12 ial sim Mens if they are perpendicular to each other, the following equa- tion of condition will be obtained, 1 +aa’ + 4 b' = 0, which equation may be likewife obtained direéily as follows: the plane perpendicular to the firft line drawn through the origin of the co-ordinates has for its equationaw + by + x = 0. But the perpendicular to the firit ftraight line muft be con- tained in the plane perpendicular to it; therefore the equa- tions to the perpendicular x = a! z', y = b' x, and the equation of the plane muit fubfift at the fame time; there- fore 1 +aa'+bb'=o0. Theangle of the two planes may bethus determined. Letax + by +2=C,a'u + by + 2 = C be the equations of the planes; thefe make with each other the fame angle as the ftraight lines which are per- pendicular to them, and which are drawn from the origin of the co-ordinates; therefore the cofine of the angle formed by the two given planes, is 1+aa'+bb! A/ Tague xX Thea giea sep 2 If the angle be required between one ftraight line and one plane, then fuppofe a parallel drawn to the given lines through the origin of the ordinates, and a perpendicular to the plane, the angle contained between thefe two ftraight lines will bethe complement of the required angle; and confe- quently, the cofine of the angle of the two lines is the fine of the angle required. The {traight line, whofe equations are x = a%, y = bx, makes with the axes x, y, x, angles whofe cofines are x S aN zs ae) a/ ae y rae nl x? + #7 4% a b i Vie eae Ce ee Peele The fame expreffions are the values of the cofines of the angles which a plane perpendicular to the ftraight line, and whofe equation isax + by +.% = 0, makes with the co- erdinate planes xy, zy, vx. If the equation of the plane is Ax + By + Cz + D=C, the cofines of the angles which it makes with the co-ordinate planes are A B and the expreflion found above for the perpendicular, let falk from the origin of the co-ordinates on the plane, becomes D * TROP EC It has been already remarked,, that if T be the tri- angle formed by the three lines, which join, two and two, the three given points, and 4, 7', z!' its projeétions on the co-ordinate planes, then¢ = YA, ¢¢ = 1B, te" =1C; S being the folidity of a pyramid which has for its bafe the triangle T, and whofe vertex is the origin of the co-ordinates, Now the folidity of this pyramid is the product of the bafe T, by one third of its height ————-——— VAG AEB a C2 ; there- D wre fore a= TE ex ya ee or fubftituting for A, B, C their values 24, 2 ¢/, 2¢", T? =v? +e + #7. If S be the area of another triangle whofe projeGtions are sy s', s", and fituated in the fame plane as the triangle T; then S? = S- + S? + S/? a See Tt Bate Br gace : wh ( ES a 2 2 in like manner Z 2 SS ow T = He ( B ) 2 7! RY + Bee I -_—- — -- SE which fignifies that any triangle is ( VA A? 4+ B: dt Cc to its projection on one of the co-ordinate planes, as radius is to the cofine of the angle which the plane of the triangle makes with the plane on which it is projected. But thetriangle S being inthe fame plane with the triangle T t jie SHeMeS cu Tid SS? if the equation T? = # + ¢* + ¢'? be put i! Audie nates ac a ete - t', it will become TS Sfs $ 7s 17s"; but (I? + SP=T?+2TS + Sar + MP +P 42ts +2ts + 27s" 4 gr 4 s? 45? therefore (T +5)? = (¢+5)? + (4 5)? + (+ st) Taking in the fame manner in the fame plane a third tri- angle R, whofe projections on the rectangular planes are r, r', r', it may be fhewn that (R + S + T)? (r+s4+t)? 4 (+0 4 #)P + (rl + 5" + 1); hence if any plane figure whatever be projected on three reétangu- lar planes, the fquare of the area of this figure will be equal to the fum of the {quares of the areas of its three projections, therefore under this ferm, T = a & Propiem V. Two ftraight lines being given, rft, to determine the equations to a ftraight line perpendicular to each of them on which their fhorteft diftance is meafured; 2d, to find an expreffion for this fhorteft diftance. The direction of a plane parallel to two ftraight lines given in pofition may be determined: this plane being drawn through any point in fpace, we may conceive a plane to pafs through each of the ftraight lines perpendicular to it : the interfection of thefe two planes is evidently the line required, therefore the equations to thefe planes will be thofe of the line required. Let « = 2% + 4,9 = bz + B, be the equations to the firft line, it will meet the plane xy ina pomt P, of which the co-ordinates 2 = 0, y= fy w= a. The fecond flraight line having for its equations 4 = a's + a!, y = b's + @, it meets the plane xy in a point P’, whofe co-ordinates are = 0, y =f, x= a. The equations of the planes drawn through the points P and P’ parallel to the two given ftraight lines ave of the form Q2z A (x — «), GEOMETRY. eoneee following equations ttAa-— Bis =o 3 Bey pe Ba = eT hence 6-— bes, a WF) @) a! a B= b! ab (2) The perpendiculars to thefe parallel planes drawn through the points P, P! have their equations woes a. gee Pas) = b= FP 2d - - - x= Aztoasy=—B2+ BF The plane drawn through the firft of thefe perpendiculars, and the firft given line, has for its equation L(x —¢) +M(y—@)+2=0 (E) L and M being given by the two equations 1+ LA + MB =o (3) 1+La+Mésé=0 (4) The equation of the plane drawn through the fecond perpendicular, and the fecond ftraight line is Li! (« —«') + M (y—#') + 2=0 (E’) L! and M’ being determinable by thefe equations re A ivi se Srerel! a SMa , : Now each of thefe lait planes contains the required line, therefore the equations of their line of interfe¢tion will be thofe required. The equations (1) (2) give the values-of A and B, and combining them with equations (3) (4) the following values are obtained for L M, L’M'; a—a'+b(ab'— ab) Ya (aa )ee OS a Lta2 eRe (ab' — a'b) ~ a (a —a) +b (b'— 4) Se 6 — b'— a (ab'—a'b) ~ a (a'—a) + b(b' — b) M 6 — b'— a' (ab' — ab) =a(a'—a) +5(8 — 6) Subftituting thefe values in equations (E) (E') we have 9) fama ts (2s —ah} 4 y- fo — —a(et— dsb +2 fa(a'—a) +5 @—a)} fa —alt b' (abt — a'b) t + (y—P) {s- B — a! (ab! — at) } +2 {a (2 — a) + # (ai — Bi yt ced from the firft by changing a,b, «,@ into a', b!, a', 6’, and a', b into-a, b. From thefe two equations which reprefent the’ required kne, its projections on the planes y x, xz, may be found by fucceffively eliminating 2 and y. It remains now to determine the abfolute length of the fhorteft diftance between the two lines. If from the origin of the co-ordinates a perpendicular be let fall on each of the parallel planes, thefe, having the fame dire&tion, will become one and the fame ftraight line: their difference, or the diftance between the two planes, will be the fhorteft diftance required. The length of thefe perpendiculars wil, by the laft problem, be Aa oa Bs VO 4B = 0; (* — a’) = 0; where the fecond equation may be dedu- for the plane A (@—al+B (y— 6) + 2=0; Dbeng = Ao eet eae for the plane Az 5 e') + B(y—8) + x= 0, where D'’ = Aw Bi. The difference P! — P = A aL fubftituting for A and B their values pr pa (el a) Oy Ma = ByIGahraye v {(@ —ay + (bb)? + (wtb — ab) } When the ftraight lines meet each other,this diftance being nothing, (a! —«) (6'— 6) — (8! — 8). (2’— a) = oF the fame equation, as has been already found, exprefling two right lines which interfect each other. On the transformation of the Co-ordinates —Given the co- éclinates of a point in relation to three re€tangular planes, to determine the co-ordinates of this point, mrefpeét to three other planes. Thefe three new planes being given in pofition in refpect to three primitive planes, their equations are giver. Let thefe be, for the it, A xt BytCzLD =o 2d, As Boy + Cl Ds 3d, Ala +. BYy 4 C’z + D!' =o Thefe three planes interfect each other two by two ip three ftraight lines which are the new axes. “The new co-or- dinates of the point are meafured on the lines drawn through this point parallel to the new axis. ‘The length of any one of thefe co-ordinates is the part of one of thefe lines contained between the point, and the plane of the co-ordinates to which this line is parallel. Let 2,y,2, bethe co-ordinates of the point in relation to the primitive planes, and z, v, w, its co-ordinates in relation to the three new planes. For concifenefs let (A (C'B" — C’B!) + B (AIC! ANC) 4S (Fz A" “= BUAT? L* = (Br CiBiy AIC" AC) + (BAN BAN (A'(C BY — GB) + BI (ACL AMG sc re (BY AN BY A)* = (CB"_ CB) + (A C’— A"C)*+ (BA B’AY A" (CB! — C’B). +B" (A C! — A'C)? + er z (BA'— Bi A) "= EBICBy +(A CAC) + (BA BAP The values of the new co-ordinates willbe Ax+ By +Cz+D a Ales + By + Cz + D a Als + Bly + C2 + D! a If the three new planes be fuppofed perpendicular to eact other, then AA! + BB’ 4+ CC’=o0'; AA’ + BB! 4+ CC" =0; A'A" + BB" + CO C'=o. Multiplying the firft of thefe three equations by B", the fe~ cond by B’, and fubtraéting, we have C (C BY — C’B) — A (BYA"— BY’ A) =o. Multiplying the firft by A”, the fecond by A’, and fubtraéting, we have, B (Bi A” — B’ A’) — C (A'C'— A'"C) = 0. Multiplying the firft by C", the fecond by C’, and fub- rating, ye have tracting, we ACA wg = GEOMETRY. A (A’ C= Alc’) — B (C’ BY — C" B’), = o. By means of thefe three equations the expreffion for L is teduced to VA? + Be + C. By a fimilar calculation, Tits of Ala BACT, MEMES A Re 8, which gives for the new co-ordinates u,v, w, w= Avrt+By4+C x4+D VA? +B 4C oS Alnt Bly +Ch24 Di = VA” +B" + C? w= A" sx + Bly + C'’sx + D'= VA" + BYP TCP The values of u,v, cw, might have been determined direGily, fince they are the perpeadiculars drawn from the points #,y, x, upon three planes, whofe equations are known. If it be required to transform one fyftem of rectangular co-ordinates into another fyftem likewife reCtangular, and having the fame origin as the firft, the three new axes may be given by the equations of the three new rectangular planes. Of the fix conftant quantities which enter thefe equations, three are determined by the condition that the planes are’ perpendicular to each other, and their values are to be caleu- lated from that which is affirned to the three others; but this calculation may be avoided by determining the pofition of the new axes by means of any three angles J, 6, . This transformation is ufeful in the application of analyfis to me- chanics. The following method is that ufed by La Place in the “Mechanique celette.” Let the primitive planes be defignated by two of the three co-ordinates x, y, x, which they contain, and the new planes by two of the co-ordinates x”, 9", ='”. Let § be the angle of the two planes x y and x’” y’”. a the angle which the axis « makes with the line of in- terfeCtion of the plane a’” y’” with the piane w y. ¢ the angie which this line makes with the axis x”. Tt is now required to find the values of «””, y’”, x”, in terms of x, y, x, and of the three angles 1, 4, ¢. Let x’, y’, z', be the co-ordinates of a point referred to the rectangular axes, reckoned upon the three following lines. 1. The interfecting line of the plane »'" y!’ with the plane wy. 2. The projection of the axis 2!" on the plane wy. 3. The axis z ; then’ v= x' cof.) + y! fin. L g=y' col.) =x! fim ) B=lz' Let x', y', 2", be the co-ordinates of a point referred to the rectangular axes, reckoned upon the three following lines; 1. The interfe&ting line of the plane x y'!! with that of x y. 2. The perpendicular to this line on the plane «x''’ ge 3- The axis\z!!; then C5 ees Fl y= yt cof. 9 + 2 fin. 6 z' = x! cof. 8 — y' fin. 0: xl, y’", 2!!! being the co-ordinates of the point relative the three axes x!", y!’, 2”, we have wll = ow cof. 6 — yl fin. gy = y" cof. O + a" fin. g gz! = aN, x" (cof. 6 fins. fin. @ + cof. J cof. ¢) Hence x = + y!' (cof. 6 fin.) cof. ¢ — cof. J fin. 9) + gill! fin, @-fins bp 2” (eof..6 cof.) fin. — fin. J cof. ¢) + yl" (cof. 6 cof. L cof, ¢ + fin.) fin. ¢) + 2! fine @ cof. J = = =" cof. 9 — y fin. 6 cof. o — x!’ fin. 9 fin. @- Multiplying thefe values of «, y, xrefpectively by the co- efficients of x/"in thefe values, we have 8 to J= / tl wv (cof. 6 fin. J fin.¢ + cof. Jt eof. ) +y (cor § cof. fin. ? — fin. } cof. ¢) zs fin. 4 fin. '?. And by multiplying thefe values of x, y, = the co-efficients of y'’ in thefe values, co-efficients of z'!', we have x (cof. 4 fin.) cof. 2 + y (cof. § cof. 1 cof. ? — z fin. 6 cof. ¢. zl" = fin. 6 fin.) + y fin. Ocof. | + x cof. 6. Another transformation is fometimes ufed; a point being referred to three rectangular planes by the co-ordinates wv, y, %, a ftraight line is drawn from this point to the origin of the co-ordinates; the length of this line is given, as like- wife the angles which it rake s with the three retangular axes. If 7 reprefent this line, and 2, 6,7, the three angles, then « =7col. @, y= 7 col. 2, % =/r cof. y(1)). Of thefe three angles two only are neceflary ; becaufe cof, «7/4. cof. 6* + cof. y? = 1: When the pofition of a point is thus determined by a line ry and two angles, r is called the radius veor, and the ori- gin of the co-ordinates becomes a pole, from which preceeds the radii vefores of different points in {pace. re{pectively by and afterwards by the — cof..).fini.) + fin. J fin. 9) APs Dire Sometimes the radius vector is projected upon one of the reCtangular planes, fuppofe on xy: the angle of the radius, with its projection, is given, as likewile the angle of the pro- jection with the axis aa, or y, if ¢ reprefent the firft, and 1 the fecond of thefe angles, z2=riin.?;y=riin.¢ fin.) 524 = rfin. Pcof-L. (1) If the point, referred to three re€tangular planes by the co-ordinates x, y, x, belongs to a furface, we have between thefe three co-ordinates an equation, F (x,y, 2,) = 0. If the co-ordinates. are transformed, and the new ones become u,v, w, we mutt fubititute in F = o for ‘x, y, z, their values in terms of u,v, w, and the refulting equation will belong” to the new furface referred to the new planes. If in the equation F = 0, for x,y,z, we fubftitute the values given in equations (1) and (2), it will become what is termed the polar equation to this furface. When a curve is given by two equations f (2, y,2%)'= O> £ (x, y, %) = ©, in fubitituting in thefe equations the values given by equation F (x, y, x) = 0, we obtain an equation to the curve, relating either to three new planes by the co-ordi- nates u,v, w, or to a pole, by the radii vedores,and their angles. Of the centres of furfaces, and of their diametral planes.— The centre of a furface is defined to be a point, in which: all the chords pafling through this point are divided into two equal parts. A diametral plane is that which divides a fyftem of parallel. chords, each into equal parts. Hence,\ if a furface has a centre, all the diametral planes which it can have, neceflarily pafs through this centre. Having given the algebraic equation of a furface, to deter- mine, 1ft,ifit hasacentre ; 2d. if it has a diametral plane. If the propofed furface has.a centre, let it be referred to three planes, the origin of whofe co-ordinates is the centre itfelf. Any ftraight line drawn through the origin of thefe co- ordinates will bea diameter, and will cut the furface in two points, the co-ordinates of the firtk being 2, y, 2, and of the fecond — x, — y,; - x. Therefore, the equation to the fur- face muft fubfilt in taking a, y, x, pofitive or negative; to fatisfy this condition, the fum of the exponents oF the three co-ordinates in every form muft be the fame in every parity as the number which expreffes the degree of the equation propofed, that is ; if-even, even, if odd, odd. tae i GEOMETRY. if ¢ (r,s, t,) = © be the equation to the furface referred to, any three planes, then, in this equation make -as=y+b,t=% and an equation of the furface will be obtained in terms of x,y,z referred to three new planes parallel to the firit, and pafling through the point fuppofed to be the centre of the furface: if, by the three particular values affigned to a, b, c, the terms cun be made to difappear, in which the fum of the exponents of the three co-ordinates are of a dif- ferent denomination as to even or odd, then the degree or dimenfion of the equation 9 (r,s, #) = 0, the propofed fur- face’ will have a centre. Of diametral Planes —When, in all the terms of an equa- tion of a furface, the exponent of one of the co-ordinates is an even number, the plane of each of the other co-ordinates divides the furface into two equal and fimilar parts. The equation being ¢ (x, y, z,) if in all its terms the expo- nent of z is an even number, the plane of x and y will be r=2 eis a diametral, for it will give for z a value z, function of x, y, and conftant quantities, and z = & will fatisfy this equation ; therefore, to the fame values of a and y, two values of x will correfpond, differing only in the fign; therefore the plane of «, y will be diametral, and for the fame reafon the two other planes of the co-ordinates will be diametral ; when in each term the exponents of x, y are even numbers. Let ¢ (r,s, ¢;) = 0 be the equation of the propofed fur- face ; by the transformation of the ordinate, the furface may be referred to three new planes, then Ar + Bs + Ce + D—o; Ar = Biss Cer Dos Ai ee bigs C"¢ + D!'= 0; in which equation there are nine conftant quantities. The furface propofed has diametral planes, when, by af- figning real and particular values to thefe conitant quantities, the terms in which the exponents of the co-ordinates which are odd numbers,, may be made to difappear. The real root of the equation, obtained by making the co-efficients of thefe terms equal zero, determine the number of diametral planes. In confidering furfaces of the fecond degree, great ufe may be made of thefe principles, in determining the centres and diametral planes of thefe furfaces. Of Surfaces of the fecond Degree.—Let the general equa- tion of the fecond degree, between three variable quantities xy, %, be ax + by’ + cz + dxy+ eyu+ fxz + oat hy--kz+1=0. To determine if the furface to which this equation belongs has a centre. Making x= c+ 2,y =y' + 0,2 = 2 + 9%, y be- ing fuppofed the co-ordinates of the center, the equation becomes a! x* +B’ y” tex? + d'a'y' + ely'al + flx'al+ gixlt hy + k2' 4+ 1=0. : In this equation, which is likewife of the fecond degree, there are only three terms in which the fum of the exponents of the co-ordinates is an odd number; thefe terms may be made to difappear, by making their co-efficients equal to zero, which gives g' = 0; b' = 0; k!= o, making this fub- ftitution and taking only the terms multiplied by x’, y', z', 2zaz+dB +fy+tg=o0,2bB+datey+h=o, 2ey+eBt+fetk=o. te Thefe equations being linear in <, f, 75 thefe quantities have real values; therefore, furfaces of the fecond degree have a centre. If a certain relation be eftablifhed between the conftant quantities a, b,c, d, &c. this centre may be placed at an infi- nite diftance from the origin of the co-ordinates. In effe&, the value of 2, @,y are fractions whofe common denominator jsac+bfi+cd'— 4abe— de f, therefore, when the fol. Jowing equation fubfitts between the conftant quantities of the general equation of a furface of the fecond degree, vix. ae +bf?+cd +4abc 4+ def; the co-ordinates of the centre of this furface are infinite. The furface of the fecond degree has likewife diametral planes, for by tranfpofing the ordinates it may be referred to three new planes, containing nine conttant quantities; taking u, uv, w for the new co-ordinates, the general equation becomes A u? + Bo 4+ Cw*4+ Duv+Euw+ Fuw+Gu+He + K w + 1 = 0; exterminating thofe terms in which the ex- ponent of any one of the co-ordinates is odd, the fix follow- ing equations are obtained ; D = 0, E=0,F =0, G=o0, H=o0, K=0; (A). Of nine conftant quantities, fix only are determined by thefe equations ; hence it follows, that three planes may cut a furface of the fecond degree in four equal and fimilar parts in an infinite number of ways ; it has therefore an infinity of diametral and conjugate planes, and of thefe three perpendicular ones, which interfeét each other on the three ftraight lines on which are reckoned the axes of the furface. This property is analogous to that of curves of the fecond degree, which have an infinity of conjugate diameters, and in thefe curves there are two conjugate diameters perpendicular to each other, called axes. The three equations which exprefs that the new planes of the co-ordinates are re€taagular joined to the fix equations (A), determine the nine conftant quantities which enter into the equations of thefe planes. Taking for granted what however may be demonitrated, - that thefe conftant quantities have always real values, we may fuppofe, that referring the furface of the fecond degree to its re€tangular co-ordinates, its general equation will always be of this form, Lx*+ My'+Nz’—i1=0. We fhall firft contider the furfaces comprehended under the general equation, and next the cafe where the centre is removed to an infinite diftance from the origin of the co-ordinates. Every furface of the fecond degree interfected by a plane, has for its feétion a curve of the fecond degree ; for whatever be the planes, it may become, by the tranf- formation of its co-ordinates, one of the planes to which the furface is referred, fo that after this transfor- mation, the equation to the furface is ftill of the fecond degree ; moreover, the equations of the feétions made on a furface by the planes of the co-ordinates cannot be of a higher dimenfion than the equation of the furface, therefore every furface of the fecond degree cut by a plane has for its feétion a curve of the fecond degree hkewife. If the interfecting plane moves parallel to itfelf, the fection remains always fimilar to itfelf: its axes remain always parallel, and its centre is always on the fame diame- ter of the furface, which may be thus demonitrated. - The equation of a curve of the fecond degree may always be reduced to this form, Ix? + my +nxy +p=o0. If in this equation fx and fy be fubftituted for x and y, f being a conitant quantity, the new equation which refults from this fub{titution belongs evidently to a curve fimilar to the firft, and fimilarly fituated ; it only differs from the firit in the conltant term, for after having divided all the terms by F's) it becomes Let my taxyt 5 =o. r Therefore all curves of the fecond degree, whofe equations are of this form, differing only in the conftant term, will be fimilar and fimilarly fituated. The general equation to a furface of the fecond degree being “7 Let L#¥iMy+N2*—1=0, GEO Let the equation of any interfecting plane be z=Ax+By+C. The projection of the interfeGtion of the curve with the fur face on the plane x y will have this equation, x*(L+NA’) + 9° (M+ NB) + 2ABNxy +2ACNx+2BCNy+NC—1 If the interfeGting plane be fuppofed to change its pofi- tion by moving parallel to itfelf, A and B will remain con- ftant, and C only will change its value; hence it follows that the co-efficients of x’, y’, x y,in the equation of projection, will remain the fame, whatever be the value of C. But by the transformation of the co-ordinates this equation may be reduced to this form ; Vue +m'vt+anuv+p'=0; in which equation the co-efficients / m' n' only contain A and B; p' alone being fome function of C. If C be made to vary, the value of p! may be fuppofed to become p", and the preceding equation to become le+m'v+n'unv+p"=o0 which as it only differs from the former in the conftant quan- tity, evidently belongs to a fimilar curve ; hence it may be demontftrated that all parallel fections are fimilar, and fimi- larly fituated. Moreover, the locus of the centres of thefe feétions is in a diameter of the furface. If in the equation La* + My? +N2?— 1=0 we fubftitute for the co-efficients L, M, N, the conftant quan- = O(1) tities ar = 5, a being greater than 4, andb > ¢; it be- Faas comes Pex teoaey + ab zx =a bc (E) The advantage of this fubftitution is to render the fign of each term of the equation independent of the particular values of the co-efficients, and to introduce as conitant quantities (in the equations of the fections of the furface by the planes ofthe co-ordinates) only the principal axes of thefe fections. From the different combinations of the figns three diftin& cafes arife from equation E ; fora full inveftigation of which we mutt refer our reader to the original work from which this article was principally extracted. (Vide Application de P Analyfe a la Geometric, par M. Monge.) The three equations are Bexttcoayt+@b 2=e@b'c,or La*+ My?—Ne?=1 bexttoay—a@he2t=abc,orLe« +My —Nz=1 Bexeicay —abs =a hcjorlLes —My -Nz=1 The former belongs to the ellipfoid and the two others to two different fpecies of hyperboloids. Geometry, Chara@ers in. See CHARACTER. Geometry, Spherical. See Spuerica. GEOMORY, Pexuozo, in Antiquity, the divifion or clafs of the ancient Athenians employed in agriculture. GEONOMA, in Botany, from yew, a fetter out, or diflributor of land, alluding to the mode of growth ot the firft {pecies of the genus in queltion, as hereafter defcribed. —Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 593.—Clafsand order, Monoecia Mo- nadelphia. Nat. Ord. Palma. Geni@himserr «ales ate Eff. Ch. General Spatha double, of two valves. Calyx in three deep fegments. Petals three. fix, united into a cylinder. Female, Calyx and Corolla like the male. Style one, lateral. Stigma of two lobes. Drupadry, with one feed. 1. G. pinnalifrons. Fronds pinnate ; the pinne ab- ruptly jageed.’’—Native of the Caracas, in fhady woods on the lofty mountain of Buenavitta. Bredemeyer.—The trunk is fimple and flender, an inch in diameter, {mocth, rifing to 3 Male, Filaments LCG, the height of fifteen feet, when, by the power of the wind on its ample foliage, it is blown down, but foon produces new fhoots and roots from the top, whence a new trunk fprings up to the fame height of about fifteen feet, and in its turn is quickly laid proftrate like the fermer. The fronds (rather leaves) are pinnate, their pinne irregular, fomewhat folded, jagged abruptly at the fummit. Spatha double, of two valves, wedge-fhaped, fomewhat comprefled, acute, three inches long. Spadix fifteen inches in length, branched at the top, the branches round, bearing each from feven to nine alternate, cylindrical {pikes, of the length of three inches each. /*/owers conftantly three, funk ina little hollow of the fpike, two of which are male, one female. Drupa dry and fibrous, the fize of a pea. Nut globofe, black. 2. G. fimplicifrons. ‘* Fronds fimple, wedge-fhaped, cloven.’’—Found at the Caracas with the former. Brede- meyer.—The trunk of this is permanently upright, ten feet high, an inch thick. ’ronds (or eaves) a foot long, fimple, wedge-fhaped, taper at the bafe, cloven,and divaricated at the fummit, fupported on very long ftalks. Spatha double, of two valves. Spadix bearing at its extremity three or four cylindrical fpikes. Flowers immerfed in little cavities, like the former. Wailldenow. GEOPONIC, fomething defcribing or relating to agri- culture. Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius, and Pliny, are fometimes called geoponic writers. GEORG, Sr., in Geography, a town of Germany, at the conflux of the rivers Teya and March, formerly a royal city, but now much reduced; 24 miles N.N.E. of Pref- burg.—Alfo, a town of Hungary; 7 miles N.N.E. of Prefburg. GEORGE, in Biography, furnamed the Cappadocian, was made bifhop of Alexandria when Athanafius was driven from that fee by the perfecutions of the emperor Conftan- tius, about the year 355. (See ATHANAasIUs.) He was 2 native of Epiphania, in Cilicia, where his father purfued the bufinefs of a fuller. From this obfeure fituation the fon raifed himfelf, it is faid, not by the moft honourable means, to the ftation ofa prelate in the church, At firft he obtain- ed a lucrative appointment as purveyor of bacon to the army : not contented with the regular profits of his office, he made ufe of every art, however bafe and corrupt, in the accumulation of wealth ; foas to render a mean employment truly infamous. His depredations on the public purfe be- came fo notorious, that he felt it extremely dangerous to wait the iffue of a fuit commenced againft him. He fled from the purfuit of juftice, and contrived to take with him his ill-gotten wealth. The place of his retreat was Alex- andria, where he profeffed great zeal for the Arian fyitem of theology, and being a man of {uperior talents, he acquired contiderable influence with his difciples in that city. Here he collected a large and very valuable collection of books, which the emperor Julian afterwards made the foundation of the noble library eftablifhed by him in the temple erected in honour of the emperor Trajan, but which was burnt by the connivance of the emperor Jovian. When Athanafius was driven from Alexandria, George was elected bifhop by the prevailing party. In this {tation his condu& was in the higheit degree cruel and oppreffive. He perfecuted the Ca- tholics with an unrelenting hand, and the other inhabitants of this valt diocefe were objects of his tyranny and ayarice. The merchants he impoverifhed by unjuft monopolies and cruel taxes; the Pagans, who had been excited with the hopes of freedom and toleration, did not efcape his rapacity, and the rich temples of Alexandria were either pillaged or mfulted by him, who exclaimed, in a haughty and threaten- ing tone of voice, “ How long will thefe fepulchres be per- GEORGE. vaitted to ftand."* The people endured all thefe aéts of oppreffion till their patience was exhaufted ; they then rofe as one man, and expelled him the city. With much difficul- ty he regained his authority, which he held till the year 362, when the acceffion of Julian to the empire was the fignal for the downfal of the bifhop. He, and two other perfons, who had been minifters of his atrocities, were ignominioufly dragged in chains to the public prifon. Here, after a con- finement of a few days only, they were attacked by the Pagan populace, who forced open the doors of the dungeons, and with cruel infults maffaered the vile wretches. Their lifelefs bodies were carried in triumph through the ftreets on the back of a camel, and after having fuffered every indignity, they were thrown into the fea, with the avowed intention of difappointing the devotion of Chriftians, who, they fore- faw, would gladly canonize the tyrant as a martyr and faint. The fears of the Pagans were juft, but their precautions ineffe&ual. The meritorious death, as it was denominated, of the prelate, obliterated the memory of his life, and the infa- mous George of Cappadocia has been transformed into the re- nowned St George of England, thepatronof arms, of chivalry, and of the garter. ‘The faints of Cappadocia, Balfil, and the Gregories, did not acknowledge their companion, and pope Gelafius, about the year 494, is the firlt Catholic who acknowledges St. George, and who placed him among the martyrs of the churches. He rejects his a¢ts as fpurious, and as the compoiition of heretics. His fame and popularity in Europe, and eipecially in England, proceeded from the érufades. Gibbon, vols. i. and iv. Moreri. Gronce of Trcbifond, a learned modern Greek, was bern, in 1395, in the ifle of Crete. of a family originally from Trebifond, from which he derives his name. He came to Italy about 1420, and obtained the patronage of Francis Barbaro, a noble of Venice, through whofe means he was invited to a profeflorfhip of Greek at Vicenza. Thence he removed to Venice, where he acquired great reputation as a grammarian and inftruétor in Grecian eloquence. After this he obtained an invitation from pope Eugenius IV. to fettle at Rome, and, during the life of the pontiff, he was occupied in teaching rhetoric and philofophy, and in tranf- lating feveral ancient Greek authors into Latin. He was engaged in a fimilar manner by pope Nicholas V., under whofe patronage George might have lived happily, had not this own temper involved him in many difputes with the earned men about the papal court. Wath Poggio he came to blows, and it was neceflary to refort to the authority of the apoftolic fecretaries to part them. His own conduét at length forced him from Rome, and he took refuge, in 1452, at Naples, where he was gracioufly received by king Al- phonfo, but he did not partake of his liberality, and had great difficulty, at this period, in maintaining hisfamily. It is fuppofed, that by the interference of his friend Filelfo, h2 was reconciled to the pope, and that he returned to the papal city : but in 1459 he was at Venice, where he pre- dented to the doge his verfion of Plato’s book on laws, and was then engaged asa profeffor of belles lettres. In 1464 he went to Crete, and pafled thence to Conftantinople. On his return he found his own fcholar Paul II. on the papal throne, which led him to vifit Rome, but his treatment there did not, probably, correfpond with his expectations ; he was, for fome offence not known, caft into prifon, where he was kept during afpace of four months. He died about the year 1480. He lived to a good old age, and was author of many works on rhetoric and fubjects connected with polite literature ; and he tranflated many others, par- ticularly of the fathers, from the Greek into the Latin. He is efteemed very highly for the fhare which he had in intro- ducing Greek literature into the Weft. His Latie ftyle was far from pure; and in controyerfy he dealt much in invective. The comparifon which he inftituted between Ariftotle and Plato gave great offence to the adherents of the latter, particularly to cardinal Beflarion, who wrote an anfwer to him, Gen. Biog. Georcg, called alfo Amira, flourifhed about the clofe of the r6th century, and was at Rome under the pontificate of Clement VIII. He publifhed “* A Syriac and Chaldee Grammar”’ in 4to. in 1596. He was, after this, eleéted pa- triarch of the Maronites, among whom he introduced the ufe, and explained the principles, of the Gregorian calendar. He. died about the year 1641. Moreri. Grorce Lewis L., king of Great Britain, and ele&tor of Hanover, the fon of the eleétor Erneft-Auguitus, by Sophia, daughter of Frederick ele¢tor-palatine, and grand. daughter of James I., king of England, was born «in 1660, and trained to the profeflion of arms under his father. When he had arrived to the ftate of manhood, he engaged in the fervice of the emperor againft the Turks, and became illuitrious as a warrior in three campaigns in Hungary. He next diftinguifhed himfelf in the war be- tween the empire and France, and in the year 1700 he fuc- ceeded, on the death of his father, to the eleGtorate. In the following year he marched to the affiltance of the duke of Holttein, who was attacked by the king of Denmark, and obliged the Danes to raife the fiege of Tonningen. He joined the alliance againft France in the fucceflion war, and forced the princes of the houfe of Wolfenbuttle to quit their alliance with the French. The command of the army of the empire was conferred upon him in 1707, but after the duties of three campaigns, in which he had been able to aét only on the defenfive, he refigned his command, and left his own troops in the feryice of the allies. At the peace of Raftadt, Lewis XIV. recognized the eleGoral dig- nity in the honfe of Lunenburg, as he had before, at the peace of Utrecht, the fucceflion of the fame houfe to the crown of Great Britain. This event happened on the death of queen Anne in 1714, when the prince, now George I., was in the fifty-fourth year of his age. He was already celebrated for the wifdom and juitice. of his government, and his perfonal qualities, though limited in his views by the interefts of a German prince, and but little acquainted with the character of the nation he was about to rule. It is evident,’’ fays an hiftorian, “ that the title of this prince was founded folely on the choice of the parliament, that is, of the people, and that the ufual order of fucceffion was entirely fuperfeded. For, admitting the male line of the houfe of Stuart to haye been extinguifhed in the perfon of James II., the right of blood refted in the houfe of Savoy, defcended from Henrietta, duchefsof Orleans, daughter of Charles I.’’ Thus the rights of the people were fully exercifed, and the family on che throne is in truth an elected family, though the general law of fucceffion re- mains unaltered. The king threw himfelf into the arms of the Whig party, who, indeed, alone openly maintained thofe principles upon which the right of his crown was founded. Of thefe the fundamental one was the fuperiority of the national will, in appointing a chief governor, to any claim derived from hereditary right. Such a principle had been already affumed, and was the only one that could juftify the nation in fetting afide the more immediate heirs to the crown, on the plea of difference of religion. (See WuiGs.) As foon as this prince was fettled on his throne, the late Tory miniftry were called to account for their condu&, particularly with refpect to the treaty of Utrecht, and feveral of the heads of it were impeached, and either im- prifonedy GEO;RG'E.: prifoned, or driven inte exile, 'Thefe meafures were the caufe of great diffatisfaction; tumults were excited in various parts of the kingdom, and at length, in September 1715, the earl of Marr fet up the ftandard of rebellion, and proclaimed, with due honours, the pretender. ‘The plan was ill concerted, and very weakly fupported, and early in the following year it was entirely quelled, but feveral of the leaders loft their lives on the {caffold. Still a large body of the people were difaffetted to the new family, and the power of the Tory party was fo formidable, that the miniftry, to eftablifh their authority, had recourfe to feptennial par- liaments, inftead of triennial ones, according to the law of the land. It was agreed by men of all parties, who were not perfonally interefted in the change, that this inno- vation was a molt grofs violation of the principles of the conftitution, which no temporary neceflity could juttify. The king had, about this period, acquired by purchafe the duchies of Bremen and Verden, in order to extend his power as elector of Hanover. By the acquifition he was involved in a quarrel with Charles XII. of Sweden, who threatened to inyade Scotland in favour of the claims of the pretender. The czar Peter alfo concurred in the {cheme. To obviate the danger, the king entered into a triple alliance with Holland and France, a fleet was fent up the Baltic to awe the Swedes, and all commercial intercourfe with that nation was fufpended: but the death of Charles XII. in 1717, and the fubfequent changes in the politics of Sweden, put an end to the alarm in that quarter, and fecured George in the quiet pofleffion of his newly acquired continental ac- quifitions. The ambition of the court of Spain, governed by cardinal Alberoni, difturbed the peace of Europe, and occafioned a quadruple alliance between the three powers above-mentioned, with the acceflion of the emperor. ‘The feizure of Sardinia, and invafion of Sicily by the Spaniards, gave a pretext for fending a powerful Englifh fleet into the Mediterranean under fir George Byng, who fell in with, and almott totally deftroyed the Spanith fleet. This fuccefs was followed by the recovery of Sicily and Sardinia, and Spain was under the neceffity of acceding to a peace dictated by the allied powers. A pacification of the north of Europe was alfo effected by the mediation of England, The na- tional delufion and calamity in the year 1720, (fee Busgxe,) recalled the king from a vilit to his German dominions, and the prudent meafures of parliament produced the reftoration of public credit. In 1722 a new con{piracy againft the government was difcovered, and feveral perfons were ap- prehended in confequence of it, among whom was Dr. Atter- bury, bifhop of Rochefter, who was punifhed with perpe- tual banithment. The minifters of France and England, Fleury and Walpole, being friendly to peace, preferved a good underftanding between the two countries for many years. Several treaties were negociated under the pretence of maintaining the balance of power, but ufually other pri- vate ends were to be anfwered by them. The leading principle of George I. was the fafety and profperity of his German dominions, to the interefis of which, thofe of Great Britain were, on various occafions, faid to. be facri- ficed. In 1725, a treaty between the emperor and the king of Spain excited the jealoufy of king George fo much, that he counteraéted it by another at Hanover, comprifing moft of the other European powers, and he fent a fleet to the Weft Indies under admiral Hofier, in order to block up the Spanifh galleons at Portobello. The death of the ad- miral and moit of his crew from difeafe, was conlidered as one of the moft inglorious difafters of the reign. ‘The Spa- niards then befieged Gibraltar, but all differences were finally fettled by a negociation. The king of Magland feemed at Vou. XVI. length to have furmounted all his political difficulties, and a profpeét of permanent peace and tranquillity appeared to open upon him. The toils, and dangers, and anxieties which he had felt during his whole reign feemed at lait to be rewarded with glory, happinefs, and repofe. He thought every circumftance was favourable to his vifiting his elec- toral dominions, and embarked for that purpofe at Green- wich, June 3, 1727. He landed in Holland oa the 7th, but in his journey from thence to Hanover he fuffered a paralytic feizure, and feeling that he was near the end of his long journey, he exclaimed to his attendant, “ C’eft fait de moi.’’ He reached the palace of his brother, the bifhop of Ofnaburg, but could not advance farther. He died June 1 I, 1727, in the fixty-eighth year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. He has been charatterized as plain and fimple 1a his appearance, grave and fedate in his manner, but eafy and familiar among his intimates, in whofe fociety he was fond of relaxing from the cares of the ftate. He poffeffed much natural prudence and good fenfe, and well underftood his interefts, at leaft as far as the objeis neareft his heart were concerned. Acceding to the crown of Great Britain when far advanced in life, he feemed ever to confider himfelf rather as elector than as king, and the influence and power of Great Britain were of little eftimation in his eyes when directed to any other end than the aggrandizement of his native country. In the view of Europe at large, he fuftained the charaéter of a prudent, able, and fortunate prince. His government was not without defects in the adrainiftration, but he was unqueftionably a zealous friend to civil and religious liberty. He had female favourites, but was not governed by them. He had little or no tafte for hterature and fcience, and was unable to appreciate their value, yet he founded in each univerfity a profefforfhip of modern hiftory. He was, however, a lover of mufic ; and foo after his acceffion eftablifhed regulations for the condu& of this part of the fervice in the royal chapel. He had married in 1681, his coufin Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke of Zell, a match that was attended with little domettic happinefs. He left behind him one fon, who fucceeded him in his crown. Georce Aucustus II. king of Great Britain, fon of the preceding, was bern in 1683, and came to England with his father in 1714, where he received the rank and title of Prince of Wales. In 1716, he was appointed regent during the king’s abfence. Afier this, on account of fome private difference between father and fon, the latter lived for fome time in a ftate of eftrangement from the court. He fucceeded to the throne in 1727, and adopted the fame minifters and meafures which had governed the nation during the life of George I. He inherited alfo, in full force, the attachment which his father {hewed to his German intereils, which {wayed the councils of his cabinet, though it was frequently obliged to give way to other confiderations. Europe, for fome time, was ina late of peacs, through the influence of the treatics of Seville and Vienna, the latter of which guaranteed the Pragmatic fanétion, or the law by which the female heirs of the emperor Charles VI. were to fucceed to the hereditary dominions of Auftria. In 1732 Walpole introduced into parliament the financial fcheme of a great extenfion of the excife ; but the violent oppoiition it met with from the nation obliged him to relinquifh the objet. What the people refuied to fubmit to at that period has been fince adopted almoft without a murmur, In the year 1737, complaints were made againit the govern- ment for abridging liberty, by a bill for hmiting the number of playhoufes, and fubmitting dramatic writings to the infpeCtion of the lord chamberlain. Difputes had long pre- R yailed GEORGE. vailed between Spain and England, on account of the trade carried on in the Weit Indies by their refpedtive fubjeéts. In 1739, the matters in debate were compromifed by a con- vention fettled by the refpeétive courts, but its terms were fo little fatisfa€tory to the traders, that Walpole found him- felf obliged by their clamours to prepare for hottilities. War was declared, and Portobello taken by admiral Vernon. The war, however, did’not turn out fo fuccefsful as the peo- ple expected, fo that a clamour was raifed againit the mimiter, and fir R. Walpole was obliged to refign in the year 1742. At the fame period France, and the other powers in league with her, feemed determined, on the death of the emperor Charles VI., to ftrip his daughter Maria Therefa of her inheritance, which had been guaranteed to her by the Prag- matic fanction. In defence of her juft rights, George fent an Englifh army to the continent, and alio a large body of forces from his eleGtorate, who were taken into Britifh pay- The king. himfelf joined the army, which was under the command of the earl of Stair, and difplayed great, bravery. Victory declared itfelf in favour of the Britifh, but they were forced to leave their wounded to the care of the enemy. Soon after, the command of the allied army devolved on the king’s fecond fon, the duke of Cumberland, who. was reckoned very deficient in talents as general of a great army. Under him was loft the bloody battle of Fontenoi in 1744, and the French maintained an undoubted fuperiority in Flanders during the remainder of the war. In the fol- lowing year the adherents of the pretender encouraged him to try his fortune by a defcent, in the northern part of the kingdom, where he might expect an immediate and decifive declaration to be made in his favour. His fon, accordingly, under the proteétion of the court of France, landed on the coaft of Scotland, in the month of July. He was received with much refpe& aud affeGtion, and was immediately. joined by feveral of the clans, with whom he proceeded to the fouth, enlarging his {mall army with all thofe who would join in his caufe. At Perth he proclaimed his father king, and immediately after took pofleffion of Edinburgh, de- feated a body of the royal troops at Prefton Pans, and marched into England, where he had the ftrongeft affurances of being powerfully reinforced. He proceeded to Derby, but found the people no where zealoufly inclined to fupport his caufe ; at length the duke of Cumberland arrived from Flanders, with feveral Englifh regiments, engaged and de- feated the rebels, and thus put an end-to the hopes of the pretender, who could no longer be confidered as an object of terror or alarm. The government of the houfe of runfwick was from this period more firmly eftablifhed ; and it appeared that the greater part of the nation had in- diffolubly conneéted the interefts of religion and liberty with the fupport of thofe principles which called the family of the reigning prince to the throne: In 1748, peace was nego- ciated, and eftablifhed by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; this treaty did not correfpond with the expectations of the people, but it was welcomed as a relief from the burthens neceflarily impofed by a ftate of warfare. In 1751, the king loft his eldeft fon Frederic, who had lived a confider- able time at variance with his father, but who had made his peace with the court after the difmiffion of Walpole. This prince, the father of our prefent fovereign, was amiable and well difpofed, and the fondeft hopes had been entertained of the patriotifm which he would bave exhibited on the throne to which he was heir, and of which he was deprived by an early death. In 1755, a war broke out between Great Britain and France, the events of which, though truly im- portant to the kingdom, are in no great degree connected wath the charaéter of the king. To his apprehenfions for the fafety of his German dominions, was imputed the alliance” formed with the king of Pruffia, and the employment of a large force in continental warfare. This was the leaft glorious part of the public tranfaGtions: and during the early years of the conteft events were very unfavourable to England; but when, at the demand of the people, the king fummoned to his councils the great William Pitt, after- wards earl of Chatham, the tide of fuccefs fet full in upon the meafures of government. The French power in the Eaft Indies was annihilated ; and in America the redu@tion of Louifburg was followed by that of Canada. The ifland of Guadaloupe, and the Britifh fettlement of Senegal, fell under the Britifh dominion, and the famous battle of Min- den exalted the reputation of the Britifh foldiery. The navy of England reigned triumphant over the feas, while that of France was reduced to infignificance, from which it never after completely recovered. Notwithftanding all this fuecefs the German war was unpopular, and minifters were reproached for the facrifices which they had made, or were fuppoted to have made, to the perfonal wifhes of the king. In this ftate of affairs George II. fuddenly died from a rupture of the right ventricle of the heart, which, without any previous illnefs or fuffering, terminated his life on the 25th of October'1760, in his feventy-third year, and in the thirty-third of his reign. During this long period he had experienced many viciflitudes of fortune, but he lived to fee himfelf the moft fuccefsful of all the Enclifh monarchs. He was endowed by nature with an underftanding by no means comprehenfive, and he had taken little pains to improve and expand his original powers by intelle€tual cultivation. Equally a ftranger to learning and the arts, he faw the rapid’ increafe of both under his reign, without contributing in the’ remoteft deyree to aceelerate the progrefs by any mode of encouragement. He was hafty and obftinate in his temper, yet a natural goodnefs of heart, a love of juftice, and an honeft opennefs of difpo‘ition, conciliated the affetion of his people, and have infpired refpe€t and veneration for his memory. He was a firm friend to the eltablifhed laws and. liberties of the kingdom, and it muft be admitted, highly to his honour, that the general principles of his adminiftration, both civil and religious, were liberal and juft. Many of the penal itatutes, which ftill remain unrepealed, were in the reign of this prince meliorated, and virtually fufpended, by the mildnefs and equity of the executive government. And he will long be remembered for his declaration, “ that during his reign, there fhould be no perfecuticn for con- fcience fake?” On various occafions he had given fignal demonftrations of perfonal bravery, nor did the general tenour of his conduct afford proofs lefs {triking of his recti-- tude and integrity. If he cannot be ranked among the greateft, he is certainly entitled to be claffed with the moft re{pectable princes of the age in which he lived. Grorce, Sf. a name whereby feveral orders, both military - and religious, are denominated. It took its rife from a faint famous throughout all the Eaft, called by the Greeks MeyxAoucerve, Q. d. great martyr. On {ome medals of the emperors John and Manuel Com- neni, we have the figure of St. George armed, hold- ing a fword or javelin in one hand, and in the other a buckler, with this infcription; an O, and therein a little F A, and TE—TrI02, making O APOE TEOPTIOS, O Holy oO George. He is generally reprefented on horfeback, as being fuppofed to have frequently engaged in combats in that manner. He is highly venerated throughout Armenia, Mufcovy, 3 aud GEO and all the countries which adhere to the Greek rite: from the Greek, his worfhip has long ago been received into the Latin church ; and England and Portugal have both chofen him for their patron faint. See GrorGe of Cappadocia. Grorer, St. is particularly ufed for an Englith order of knights, more commonly now called the order of the Garter. See GARTER. . Groner, knights of St. There have been various orders under this denomination, moft of which are now extinét. The order of St. George, at firft called the order of the «¢ Golden Angel,”’ is faid to have been in{tituted by Con- ftantine the Great, in the year 312. The collar is compof- ed of fifteen oval plates of gold, richly chafed on their edges, and enamelled blue. On 14 of thefe plates is the cypher of the name of Chrift, compofed of the Greek capital letters X and P between the two capitals A and Q, fignifying that Jefus Chrift is the beginning and end ; but on the centre oval, which is edged with laurel leaves, the cypher X P 1s placed on a crofs patence gules, edged or, and having on its points the letters 1. H. S. V.; and pendent from the bottom was the figure of St. George killing the dragon. The habit of the knights was a long cloak of fky blue velvet, lined with white filk, tied at the neck with a cord of crimfon filk and gold inter- mixed, terminating at each extremity ina large tafiel ; on the left breaft of the cloak was embroidered the crofs of the order. The order of S¢. George in Auftria and Carinthia was infti- tuted, as fome fay, by Rodolph, count of Habfburg, the firft emperor of the houfe of Auftria, about the year 1273 or 1290; or, as others fay, by the emperor Frederic II]. in order to guard the frontiers of Germany, Hungary, Auftria, Carinthia, and Styria, from the inroads of the Turks. The badge of the order was a plain purple crofs edged with green. The order of S/. George in Burgundy was founded, in the year 1400, by Philbert de Miolans, a gentleman of Bur- gundy, on account of his having brought from the Eaft fome relics of St. George, which he depofited in a chapel ereéted for the purpofe, near to the parifh church of Rougamont. The badge of the order is a St. George on horfeback, overthrowing a dragon, fimilar to that on the collar of the order of the garter. It was worn pendent to a blue mb- band tied to a button-hole. Women were admitted into this order. The order of St. George in Auttria was refounded by the laft emperor Maximilian, who direéted that the badge of the order fhould be a crofs croflet botonnée gules, encircled on the upper part witha ducal coronet or, and worn pendent from three chains of gold. The order of St. George at Genoa was inftituted in 1472. The doge of Venice is perpetual grand mafter of the order. The enfign of the order is a plain red crefs, worn round the neck, pendent to a ribband. The order of St. George in Rome was founded by pope Alexander VI. in the year 1492. The collar of the order was a gold chain, to which was pendent, in enamel, the figure of St. George on horfeback, throwing down a dragon, and piercing it with alance. The badge wasa gold crojs within a circle of gold, like an open crown. The order of St. George at Ravenna is fuppofed to have been inftituted by pope Paul III. in 1534. It was abolifhed by pope Gregory in 1572. ’ The order of S¢. George, defender of the immaculate con- ception of the bleffed ‘Virgin Mary, was inftituted at Mu- nich by Albert, eleGtor of Bavaria, in the year 1729, and con- firmed by the pope. The perfon admitted into this order mutt prove his gentility for five generations both on his mo- ther’s and father’s fide. The badge of the order is a ftar of eight points; on the centre is enamelled the image of St. RGE. George on horfeback, flaying a dragon; the crofs is ena- melled blue, and edged with white, and cantoned witha {maller crofs, enamelled blue and white; which, pendent to a {ky-blue watered ribband, edged with white, is worn fcarfwife. On the left breaft the knights alfo wear the fame ftar embroi- dered, having on the centre a red crofs. On fettivals they wear a collar compofed.of oblong plates with crowns at each end, and columns furmounted with globes; each column fupported by two lions, holding in their anterior paws {ey- mitars, joined together with lozenge-chains enamelled blue and white: on the oblong plates is the following motto :— “ In fide, juftitia, et fortitudine.” The military order of St. George in Ruffia, called alfo the order of * Merit,’ was initituted by the emprefs Catha- rine II. in 1769, has the precedence over that of St. Anne of Holftem, and was divided into four claffes. — The badge is a crofs of gold, enamelled white, on the cen- tre of which is a medallion, with the figure of St. George flaying a dragon. This is worn pendent to a black ribband edged with orange colour, and two ftripes of orange on the black. Thofe of the firft clafs wear it under their coat, -pafling from right to left ; and on the left breaft of their coat is a ftar wrought in gold, in the fhape of a lozenge: on the centre of the {tar are embroidered the figure of St. George and the dragon. Thofe of the fecond clafs wear the badge pendent to a ribband paffing round their neck, and a ftar on their left breaft. Thofe of the third clafs wear the badge pendent to a narrow ribband which paffes round their neck ; but they have no ftar. Thofe of the fourth clafs wear the badge pendent at the button-hole of their coats. Each knight of the firft clafs receives an annual falary of 700 roubles = 140/ : each of the fecond clafs has 400 roubles = 80/. per annum: each of the third clafs 200 roubles or 40/. per annum ; and each of the fourth clafs 100 roubles or 2o/. per annum. The fund of this order, affigned by the emprefs for the payment of their falaries, and other expences, is 40,000 roubles = Sooo/. per annum. Of this 1,680 is de. ftined for the firft clafs ; and 2000 for each of the remaining three. The number of knights is unlimited. In 1778, the firit clafs, which is confined to commanders in chief, contained only four ; the fecond clafs comprized only eight knights 5 the third, forty-eight ; and the fourth two hundred and thirty- four. No perfon can obtain this order without having performed fome gallant exploit, or having ferved in the rank of an officer 25 years by land, or 18 by fea. The order of St. George of Alfama, or the order of AZon- tefa, an order of knighthood in Spain. When the order of knights-templars became extinét in Spain, an order was infli- tuted, about the year 1317, to fupply their places, in confe- quence of a permiffion for that purpofe obtained from pope John XXII. at which time Montefa in Valencia was felecied as a proper place for the refidence of the knights. Inthe fol- lowing year, James, king of Arragon and Valencia, built at Montefa a noble college for their habitation, and dedicated it to St. George: and hence the order affumed its appellation of the order of St. George of Montefa. The habit of this order is a white mantle, on the left breaft of which is embroidered a plain red crofs.. The badge of the order is a plain red crofs, enamelled on gold, whichis worn fearfwife, pendent to a broad red watered ribband. The order of St. George of Alfama, was infltituted about the year 1201, at a town of that name in the diocefe of ‘Tortofa. In 1399 this order was united to that of Montefa, by pope Benedict XiI 1. and that union was confirmed in the council of Conftance. GrorGeE, Religious of the order of St. Of thefe there are divers orders and congregations ; particularly canons regular af St. George in Alga, at Venice, eftablifhed by authority R2 ot GEORGE. of pope Boniface IX. inthe year 1404. The foundation of this order was laid by Bartholomew Colonna, who preached, in 1396, at Padua, and fome other villages in the ftate of Venice. Pope Pius V. in 1570, gave thefe canons prece- dence of all other religious. Another congregation of the fame inftitute in Sicily, &c. St. Grorce’s Crofs. See Cross. GrorGE noble, a piece of gold, current at fix fhillings and eight-pence in the reign of king Henry VIII. Georce Bank, in Geography, a rocky fhoal, near the weft eoait of Sumatra. N. lat. 3’ 48’. E. long. 96° 12’. GeorGE, Cape,a cape on the S. coait of Kerguelen’s Land. N. lat. 49° 54’. E. long. 70° 134— Alfo, a cape on the W. coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 48° 28’. W. long. 59° 17'.—Alfo, a cape on the N. coaift of the ifland of South Georgia. S. lat. 54° 17’. W. long. 36) 32.—Alfo, a cape on the coaft of Peru. S. lat. 23° 50'.—Alfo, a cape on the coaft of New Holland, difcovered on St. George's day by lieutenant Cook, and fo called by him. S. lat. 35°10. W. long. 208° 51! GeorGe, St., Cafe, a cape on the W. coait of Newfound- land. N. Jat. 49° 30’. W. long. 59°.—Alfo, the fouthern extremity of New Ireland. S.lat. 5°. E.long. 152° 15’. GerorGeE Creek, a town of America, in Alleghany county, Maryland; 152 miles from Wafhington.—Alfo, a river of America, which runs into the Potowmack ; 12 miles S.W. of Fort Cumberland. Grorce J/land, an ifland of America, lying between lake Superior and lake Huron, N. lat. 46° 15’. W. long. 84° 20’. Georce’s J/lands, two iflands in the South Pacific occean, difcovered by Commodore Byron in 1765, and fo called by him in honour of his majefty. They were again obferved by captain Cook in 1774, in the paflage from the Marque- fas to Otaheite. One of thefe iflands, called by the inhabit- ants ‘ Tiookea’’ was of an oval fhape, and about 10 leagues in circuit, lying in the direCtion of E.S.E. and W.N.W., and fituated in S. lat. 14° 27’ 30”, and W. long. 144° 56’. The imhabitants of this, and probably of the other low ifles, are of a much darker colour than thofe of the higher iflands, and feem to be of a much more ferine difpofition; which captain Cook attributes to their fituation. Nature not having beftowed her favours on thefe low iflands with that profufion fhe has done to fome others, the inhabitants are chiefly indebted to the fea for their fubfiftence ; confequently they are much expofed to the fun and weather, and thus become more dark in colour, and more hardy and robuft ; for without doubt they are of the fame nation. They were obferved to be ftout, well-made men, and on their bodies was marked the figure of a fifi ;—a very good emblem of their profeffion. The other ifland was fimilar to the former, extending N.E. and S.W. near four leagues, and from five to three miles broad. It lies S.W. by W. two leagues diftant from the weft end of Tiookea; and the middle is fituated in S. lat. 14° 37’. W. long. 145° 10'. The natives of thefe iflands appeared to be armed with long {pears and clubs ; their afpect and movements were hoftde: fome of them, however, appeared to captain Cook to manifelt a friendly difpofition ; but they feemed to have no inclination to maintain any intercourfe with him. They fupplied him with dogs, which were plentiful, and cocoa-nuts, which were the only fruit they faw. Thefe furnifhed them with almoft all the neceffaries of life, particularly food, fails, cordage, timber, and veffels to hold water ; and with a view to this: ufe of them, their habitations, which were mean low hovels, thatched with cocoa-nut branches, were feleéted near groves of thefe trees. Scurvy-grafs was obtained in great abundance. Their canoes, which they are cextrous- in navigating, are large and curioufly con{ftru@ed. Com- modore Byron obferved the fhore to be covered with coral, and the fhells of very large pearl-oyfters ; and he conceived that a very profitable pearl-fifhery might be eftablifhed on thefe iflands. The women had a piece of cloth, appearing to be fabricated of the fame ftuff with their fails, which hung from the waift as low as the knee; but the men were flark naked. Near the huts of thefe people were buildings, that appeared to be burying-places, from the ftru€ture of which it was inferred that they had great veneration for the dead. Frefh water is fcarce. Each of thefe iflands has in it alagoon, or large falt-water lake. The people are much addicted to theft. Georce Lake, alake of Eaft Florida, which is an en- largement of the river St. Juan, or St. John. It is alfo called “ Great Lake,’’ being about 15 miles wide, and generally about 15 or 20 feet deep, except at the entrance, which has a bar with 8 or g feet of water. This lake is beautified’ with two or three fertile iflands, the largeft of which is about two miles broad, commanding an extenfive profpe&,. bearing evident marks of a large town of the Aborigines, and appearing to have been the chofen refidence of an In- dian prince.—Alfo, a lake that lies to the fouthward of lake Champlain. The portage between the two lakes is one mile and a half. ‘The water of this lake is very clear, and was formerly ufed by the French in Canada for facramental purpofes, whence the Iake was denominated lake « Sacra ment.’”? This lake is about 36 miles long, and from one ta feven wide. It embofoms more than two hundred iflands ¢ or, as fome fay, three hundred and fixty-five ; moft of whick are barren rocks, covered only with heath and a few cedary {pruce, and hemlock trees and fhrubs, and abounding with rattle-fnakes. The remains of Fort George ftand at the fouth end of the lake, about 14 miles N. by W. of Fort Edward, on Hudfon river. The famous fort of Ticonde- roga, which ftood on the north fide of the outlet of the lake, where it difcharges its water into lake Champlain, is now in ruins.—Alfo, a lake in Upper Canada, fituated be- low the Falls of St. Mary, and N. of Muddy lake; it is about 25 miles long, with very fhallow water. GerorGeE’s Sound. See Noorxa. Grorce, S?., the largeit of the Bermudas iflands, about 15 miles in length and three in breadth, conta about 500 houfes, furrounded and defended by a chain of rocks, which extend fome way into the fea, fo that fhips can ap- proach it only in two places, and not without the affiftance. of an experienced pilot. It is divided inte nine parifhes or diftrifs. It has a town of the fame name, containing x town-houfe, where the governor, council and magiftrates affemble, a handfome church, and a library. N. lat. 32° 40’. W.. long. 64° 32’. (See BrrmupAs).—Alfo, a town, or- rather village, nearly in the centre of Newcaftle county, in the ftate of Delaware, N. America; fituated on a creek of the fame name, which falls into the Delaware river four miles below it, and a little above Reedy ifland ;; 45 miles. S.W. of Philadelphia.—Alfo, a town. and capital of the ifland of Grenada, and alfo one of its fix. parifhes, formerly called by the French “ Fort Royale.” It is fituated in # {pacious bay, on the weft fide of the ifland, not far from: the fouth end, and poffeffes one of the fafeft and moft com- modious harbours in the Englifh Welt Indies, which has been lately fortified at a great expence, and being one of the ports of entry belonging to the ifland was made a fea- port by 27 Geo. III. c.27.. The town of St. George is built chiefly of brick, and makes a handfome appearance.. It is divided by a ridge, which, running into the fea, forms. om GEO Om one fide the carenage, and on the other the bay.—Ac- cordingly here is the “ Bay-town,’’ which has a handfome fquare and market-place, and the “ Carenage-town,’’ in which the priacipal merchants refide ; the fhips lying land- locked, Ae in deep water clofe to the wharfs. On the ridge between the two towns ftands the church, and on the promontory above it is a large old fort, which was probably conitructed by the firft French inhabitants. It is built of ftone, and is large enough to accommodate an entire regi- ment. N. lat. 12° 4'. W. long. 61° 31’. Edwards's Weft Indies, vol. iii—Alfo, one of the Azores lands, about. 10 leagues in length, and two in breadth. ‘The foil is generally level, except towards the north, where it isrocky and barren; it is elfewhere fertile in corn, and the other neceffaries of life. It is chiefly remarkable for a great number of lofty and full-grown cedars, with which the natives carry on a confiderable trade. N. lat. 38° 39. W. long. 28°.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, on the coatt of Malabar; eight miles S. of Cochin.—Alfo, a fea-port on the ifland of Sciro. N. lat. 38° 58’. E. long.24° 37/. —Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, three miles E. of Milo.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Grecian Ar- chipelago, at the entrance of the gulf of Sandarlick. N. lat. 38° 48’. E. long. 26° 42'—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the coaft of Hindooftan ; four miles from Goa.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; 20 miles 5.S.W. of Angers. —Alfo, a large and deep bay on the W. fide of Newfound- land. N. lat. 48° 12'—Alfo, a river of America, or rather an arm of the fea, in Lincoln county and ftate of Maine, lying about two leagues S.W. of Penobfcot bay. This river is navigable for brigs and fhips of a large burden up to the narrows; and from thence about four miles higher, to nearly the head of the tide, for floops and {chooners of 80 or go tons. It is about half a league wide up to the narrows. The navigation is in winter. This river abounds with all kinds of fith—Alfo, a river of St. Mary's county, in Maryland, which is a broad but fhort ereek, having its mouth between Piney point and St. Mary’s river on the north bank of the Potowmack; oppofite to the ifland of the fame name. St. Grorce’s Bank, a fifhing bank in the Atlantic ocean, in the Maffachufetts, E. of cape Cod. It extends from north to fouth between 41°15’and 42” 22'N. lat., and between 67° 50! and 68° 40! W. long. St. GrorGe’s Bay, a bay of the Pacific ocean, on the S.E. coaft of New Ireland, between cape St. George and cape Orford. St. Grorcr’s Channel, that part of the Atlantic ocean which is fituated between Ireland and Wales.—-Alfo, a {trait of the Pacific ocean between New Britain and New Ireland, 300 miles in Jength.— Alfo, a ftrait between the little Nico- bar and Sambelong ifles, in the Eaft Indian fea. St. Grorce’s I/land, a {mall ifland in the mouth of the river Potowmack. N. lat. 38° 13'. W. long. 76° 34’. St. Gronce’s. [/lands, a clufter of {mall iflands near the eoalt of Eaft Florida, oppofite to the mouth of the Apala- chicola.—Alfo, {mall iflands in the Atlantic, near the coait of Maine in America. N. lat. 43- 50’. W. long. 68° 10. St. GrorGe's Key, was one of the principal Britith fettlements in the bay of Honduras, taken by the Spaniards during the American war, but retaken by the Britif foon after. The Britith fettlements on the Mofquito fhore, and in the bay of Honduras, were furrendered to the crown ef Spain at the Spanifh convention, figned at London on the 14th of July, 1786. N.. lat. 17° 35°. W. long. 88° 43, GEO St. GrorcGe d’ Albora, an ifland in, the Grecian Archi- pelago, about feven miles in circumference. N. lat. 37° 28’. E. long. 23° 20’. St. GrorGE de Comiers, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ifere; nine miles S. of Grenoble. St. GrorGce d’Elmina. See Etmina. St. GEorGES-en-Coufans, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Montbrifon, 9 miles N.W. of Montbrifon. The place contains 1020, and the canton 7271 inhabitants, on a territory of 207} kiliometres, in 8 communes. St. Grorce d’ E/peranche, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ifere ; 18 miles S.E. of Lyons. St. Grorces de Lévéfac, a town of France, in the dee partment of the Lozére, and chief place of a canton in the diftric&t of Florac, 18 miles S.W. of Mende. The place contains £000, and the canton 2600 inhabitants, on a territory of 137% kiliometres, in 5 communes. St. Grorces fur Loire, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Angers; 9 miles S.W. of Angers. The place contains 2,320, and the canton 9951 inhabitants, on a territory of 205 kiliometres, i g communes. St Grorces-les-Baillargeaux, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton in the diltrict of Poitiers. The place contains 1119, and the canton 6027 inhabitants, on.a territory of 190 kiliometres, in 7 communes. St. GEORGE d’Orque, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Herault ; 4 miles W. of Montpellier. St. GeorGE de Rantambaut, a town of France, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine ; 9 miles N. of Fou- geres. St. Guorce in Reith, a town of Auftria, 6 miles-S,E. of Waidhoven. St. GEORGE am Sec, a town of Germany, in the princi- pality of Culmbach, feated ona lake, called the pond of Brandenburg ; 24 miles N.N.E. of Bayreuth. St. GrorGEs des Sept Voies, atown of France, in the department of the Maine and Loire; rz miles N.W. of Saumur. St. Grorces-du-Viévre, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Eure, and chief place of a canton in the dif- trict of Pontaudemer; 25 miles N.W. of Evreux. The place contains 830, and the canton 11,733 inhabitants, on a territory of 954 kiliometres, in 14 communes. GEORGENBERG, a town of Siletia, in the principa- lity of Oppeln ; 40 miles E.of Oppeln. N. lat. 50° 30'. E. long. 18°52’. GEORGENIFELD, Sr., a town of Saxony, in the eircle of Erzgebirg ;, 18 miles S. of Pirna. N. lat. 50° 40’. E. long. 13° 44'. GEORGENTHAL, a town of Saxony, in the princi- pality of Gotha ;, 6 milesS of Gotha ‘ GEORGENZELLS, a town of Germany, in the coun- ty of Henneberg > 5 miles S.S.E..of Salzuncen: GEORGE-LTOWN,.a town of America, being the chief and poft-town of Sufiex county, in the ftate of Delaware, fituated. ¥o3 miles S. of Philadelphia, containing about 30 houfes,.and lately made the feat ofthe county-courts.— Alfo,a polt-town in Maryland, in Kent county, on the eait fide of Chefapeak bay, containing about 30 houfes ; 9 miles from the mouth of the river Saflafras, 65 miles S.W. of Phila- delphia. Alfo, a poft-town of Beaver county, Pennfylva- nia, on the S.E, fide of Monongahela river, at the mouth of George’screek ; 16 miles S.W. of Union. In this place are annually built many boats, forthe trade and emigration A ta, GEO to the weilern country.—Alfo, a poft-town and port of en- -try in Montgomery county, Maryland, and in the territory of Columbia, pleafantly fituated on a number of {mall hills, on the northern bank of Potowmack river, feparated eaft- ward by. Rock creek from Wafhington city, and diftant 4 miles from the capital, and 8 N. from Alexandria. The houfes, which are about 250, ave elegant and commodious. The Roman Catholics have eftablifhed a college in this place, which is ina flourifhing ftate. The town carries on a fmall trade with Europe and the Weft Indies; 46 miles 5.W. by W. from Baltimore, and 148 S.W. from Philadelphia. N. lat. 38° 55'.—Alfo, a town and townfhip of Lincoln county, in the ftate of Maine, fituated on both fides of Kennebeck river ; Incorporated in 1716, and containing 1534 inhabitants. It is entirely furrounded by navigable waters, excepting about two miles of land, which divides the waters of Win- nagance creek, apart of the Kennebeck, from an arm or influx of Cafco bay, called Stephen's river. This townfhip con- tains about 28,000 acres of land, and falt-marfh. Upon this pot the Europeans firft attempted in 1607 to colonize New England. Itis a part of what was called “ Sagadahock ;”’ and the patentees of the Plymouth company began here to lay the foundation of a great ftate. They fent over for this purpofe a number of civil and military officers, and about 100 people. Several misfortunes ‘obliged them to give up the fettlement, and in 1608 the whole mumber who furvived the winter returned to England. Seorge-town is 15 miles S. of Powralborough, and 170 N. by E. from Bofton—Alfo, a poft-town of Georgia, inthe county of Oglethorpe, 50 miles S.W of Auguita, in the midft of a poor country, but indicating pro- fperity.—Alfo, a large maritime diftrict in the lower coun- try of South Carolina, fituated in the N.E. corner of the State. Horry and Marion diftricts have lately been taken from this territory, leaving 20,332 inhabitants, of whom 16,860 are flaves.—Alfo, a poft-town, and port of entry, and capital of the laft-mentioned diftriat, fituated ona fpot near which feveral itreams unite their waters, and form a broad. water called «* Winyaw’’ bay, 13 miles from the fea. It contains 3 or 400 dwelling-houfes, built chiefly of wood. The public buildings are a court-houfe, gaol, and academy ; four churches for epifcopalians, baptiits, prefbyterians, and methodifts refpe€tively. The place carries on a {mall trade with the Weft Indies ; 60 miles N.E. by N. from Charlef- town, and 681 from Philadelphia. N. lat. 33° 24’. W. long. 79° 35'—Alfo, a town of Kentucky, on the Eik- ‘horn ; 20 miles E. of Francfort. N. Jat. 38° 7’. W. long. 84°.50°.—Alfo, a town of New Brunfwick, on the river St. John. N. lat. 45° 48’. W. long. 66° 12'W—Alfo, a town on the eaft coatt of the ifland of St. John, on the gulf of St. Laurence.—Alfo, a town of the {tate of Geor- gia; 20 miles N. of Waynefborough—Alfo, a town of Scotland, in Perththire, with fome barracks, at the end of Loch Rannock ; 31 miles N.W. of Perth. N. lat. 56° 41’. W. long. 4° 25’. GEORGIA, in Botany, Ehrhart Beitr. v. 1. 176, fo named by that author after his majefty George III. king of Great Britain, when he eftablifhed, as anew genus, the mofs called by Linneus Mnium pellucidum. AM botanilts, never- thelefs, have preferred the name Terraphis, given by Hed- wig. See Frince of Mosses, n. 1. It feems, however, that there ought to be a Georgia after Georgi the Ruffian traveller and botanilt. See GeorGina. Georeta, in Geography, a country of Afia, between the Cafpian and Black feas, and particularly appropriated to the territory that lies between the Cafpian fea and Mingrelia, ancieotly known by the name of © Iberia”’ The ancient GEO Iberia, which lies to the weft, is now chiefly the “ Immere- tia’ of European Turkey, on the other fide of a branch of the Caucafus. Georgia, or more properly “ Gurguftan,” including Dagheftan and Schirvan, may be confidered as con- flitutine the Albania of the ancients; a name, however, that has been applied in different quarters to mountainous re- 10ns. - The whole country, which is known by the name of Geor- gia or Grufinia, is divided into two confiderable Chriftian itates. One of thefe, bounded by the Black fea, confifts of the kingdom of « Immeretia,’’ and the principalities of « Mingrelia”’ and “ Guriel.” (which fee refpeGtively,) and is now governed by a common prince, who bears the title of tzar or czar. Each of thefe countries had formerly its own ruler, all acknowledging the fupremacy of the Grand Sultan, till ezar Solomon united them under his authority, and freed them from the paramount Ottomans. Solomon, having upon his acceffion forbidden the fcandalous traffic prattifed by the nobles of felling their peafants, greatly offended the Turks, who gained by that fpecies of commerce. Being by their intrigues driven from his throne, and compelled ty find an afylum in the woods and mountains, he lived like a wild man for fixteen years, in caverns and holes, and frequently, by his perfonal courage, efcaped aflafiination, until he was re-inftated in his dominions by the Ruffians. This prince, on ordinary occafions, was diftinguifhed from his fubjeG&ts by riding on an afs, perhaps the only one in Immeretia, and b wearing boots. He had no regular troops, but collected a defultory army of 6000 men, without artillery. Thefe troops were drawn together by the found of the trumpet ; in other refpects the prince’s orders were iffued at the mar- kets, which are held every Friday. One of his feryants afcended a tree near the place of meeting, and proclaimed the edi&t with aloud voice. His fubjeéts were of the Greek religion. Solomon died of the plague in 1784, and was fucceeded by his nephew David, who threw himfelf under the protection of Ruffia. In 1784 his embafladors were in- troduced to the emprefs at Peter{burg, and, in the eaftern ftyle of homage, threw themfelves on the ground at her feet. The fecond Georgian ftate confifts of the principalities of “ Karduelia” or « Carduelia,” (Kartalinia) and “ Kak- hetty,”’ which have been long governed by Chriftian princes, in fubmiffion to the Perfian empire, but, fince the fhock fuftained by the throne of the Sophis, have rendered them- felves independent. Each of thefe two provinces formerly compofed a diflin@ flate ; but they have both lately been re- duced under the fole fovereignty of prince Heraclius of the Kakhettian dynafty. The ftate of Karduelia and Kakhetty borders northwards on the Kabarda, eaftwards on Dagheftan and Schirvan, (which fee refpeétively,) fouthwards on the Perfian Armenia, and weftwards on Immeretia. The capi- tal is Yeffis (which fee). The czar, or prince Heraclius, who is celebrated for his bravery and other great qualities, as well as by the important part which he aéted during the dif- turbances that agitated Perfia after the death of Tamas Kuli- Khan, fubmitted in the year 1783 to the Ruffian empire, thus voluntarily facrificing an independence which he feemed to have fecured by his exploits ; but the advantages of which were richly compenfated in the proteétion he procured by this fubmiffion. However, notwith{tanding his clofe alliance with Ruffia, he was compelledin 1787 te renounce his con- nection with it, and to acknowledge himfelf tributary to the Porte; but he died foon afterwards. Within a few years pa{t the Ruffian intereft revived, and prevailed ; and m February 1801, Georgia was by a public ukafe united to that empire. The Georgians or Grulinians, as they are fome- times GEORGIA. _times called, avoided all commixture with the Tartars, and have diltinguifhed themfelves as the moft numerous and powerful body of the mountaineers of Caucafus, now for the greateit part fubjet to the protecting authority of Ruffia. The inhabitants of Georgia, when it was one king- dom, were Chriftians, but fince the year 1639, they were blended with Mahometans ; the king of Perfia having con- quered and divided the country into two proyinces or king- doms, and having obliged the people to embrace the Maho- metan religion. But tincethey have been under the protec- tion of Ruffia, they have again avowed themfelves Chrif- tians, following in partthe rights of the Armenian, and in part thofe of ‘the Greek church. They are reprefented as the moft tractable Chriftians of the Eaft. The Georgians excel in the ufe of the bow, and are reputed to be the beft foldiers in Afia. ‘The women are celebrated for their beauty, but though they are very handfome they love to adorn them- felves with paint, and are not iw high eftimation for their mo- deity. As the country produces {trong wine, the Georgians are addicted to intoxication, andthe women, as well as the men, indulge freely in the ufe of brandy. The men, it is faid, have no virtue but courage ; fathers fell their children, and fometimes their wives. According to the laws of war in Turkey, any province which revolts is given up to pillage, and the inhabitants are reduced to flavery. In confeguence of this cuitom, which prevails throughout Afia, Georgia and Circaffia fupply the market of Conftantinople with flaves ; though itis faid, that the Circaffians alone have the honour of being admitted intothe bed of the fultan. This fupply of female flaves is continually furnifhed by the Lefgues Tartars, who, fituated between the Cafpian and Black feas, between Georgia and Circaffia, are perpetually at war with thefe two provinces... They carry over to the eaftern coaft or the Black fea the flaves they have taken, and fell them to the Turkifh merchants, who come thither at ftated times for this traffic. The inhabitants of this fame coaft, likewife, feize on their countrymen in the neighbour- ing villages, and fell them; and children have been fome- times fold by their parents. See Circassia. The air of Georgia is dry, very warm in fwummer, and very cold in winter. Fine weather commences in the month of May, and continues till the end of November. The foil is extremely fertile, provided the ground be watered. The bread and fruits are excellent ; and the paftures feed a great number of cattle; fat and lean. The game is of excellent flavour, and the wild hogs are delicate. The in- habitants make wine, which they fell into Armenia and Per- fia, efpecially to Ifpahan, for the king’s table. Silk forms a confiderable branch of trade to Erzerum; though the in- habitants are unacquainted with the beft methed of winding it. In this province there are only four confiderable towns ; wiz. Lefflis, Gori, Suren and Ali. See Persra. Gerorecia, one of. the United States of America, fituated between 31° and 35° N. lat. and between 5° and 16 W. long.; extending in length about 600 miles, and in breadth 250; and bounded on the eaft by the Atlantic ocean; S. by Eaft and Weft Floridas; W. by the river Miffifippi; NE. and N. by South Carolina, the Tenneffee ftate, or by lands ceded to the United States by South Caro- lina. Its population is eftimated, by the cenfus of 1790, at 82,548 perfons ; of whom 29,264 were flaves ; but the num- ber has fince been much augmented. The fettlement of a colony between the rivers Savannah and Alatamaha became the fubjeét of contemplation in England in the year 1732, with a view to the accommodation of poor people in Great Britain and Ireland, and for the farther fecurity of Carolina. The benevolent and humane propofed to raife a fund for con- veying indigent emigrants to this part of America, free of expence. ‘Their generous project was encouraged by letters patent obtained from his majefty George II. in June 1732's and, in honour of the king, the new province was called ** Georgia.’”’? A corporation was eftablifhed for fettling the colony, which was to be feparated from Carolina by the Savannah; and a large fum of money was raifed for the pur- pote of carrying the liberal and humane defign into execu- tion. General Oglethorpe was felected for conducting the emigrants, about 116 in number, to their new abode; and foon after their arrival, in the commencement of the year 1733, they marked the fpot, on which Savannah now ftands, as the molt proper for the foundation of their fettlement. Accordingly they proceeded to ereét a fort, and a number of {mall huts, for their defence and accommodation. A treaty of amity was concluded between the fettlers and their neighbours, the Creek Indians ; and various regulations were framed, for their future government. The number of new fettlers from the Highlands of Scotland and from Germany gradually increafed ; fo that in the courfe of three years, Georgia received above 400 Britith fubjeéts, and about 170 foreigners. Afterwards feveral adventurers from Scotland, Germany, and Switzerland followed their countrymen, and contributed to encourage the hopes of the truftees as to the permanence and profperity of the colony. Several towns were built, and, in 1739, more than 600 people were em- ployed in trading with the Indians for furs and fkins. Never- thelefs, in 1741, the Englifh government received informa- tion that fearcely a fixth part remained of the number of per- fons who had migrated to Georgia; and thofe that continued were fo much difcouraged, that they feemed to be defirous of fixing ina more favourable fituation. It was thus found that the fyfem of government, which had been formed for this colony, was highly injudicious and altogether inconfiftent with its profperity. The firft ufe which the proprietors of Georgia made of the unlimited powers with which they were inveited, was to eftablifh a fyftem of legiflation that made them abfolute mafters, not only of the police, juftice, and finances of the country, but even of the lives and eftates of the inhabitants. As great inconveniences had been found to arife in other colonies from large pofleffions, it was thought proper in Georgia to allow each family only 50 acres of land; which they were not permitted to mortgage, or to difpofe of by will to their female iffue. This laft regulation, - however, which made the males only capable of inheritauce, was foon abolifhed ; but other reftriGtions of a difcouraging nature ftill remained. No man was permitted to leave the province without a licence. If any of the lands granted by the truftees were not cultivated, cleared, and fenced round with a wooden fence, or pales fix feet high, within 18 years from the date of the grant, fuch part was to revert to the truftees for the benefit of the colony. It was forbidden to ufe negroes, to import rum, and to trade with the Indians without a fpecial licence obtained for this purpofe. Under thefe reftraints the province languifhed, and the people complained ; till at length the truftees, m the year 1752, furrendered their charter to the king, and it was made a royal government. From this time, till the peace of Paris in 1763, the province ftruggled under many difficulties ; arifing from the want of credit with friends, and from the frequent moleftations of enemies. The good effeéts of this peace were fenfibly felt, and its annual exports, which in 1752 amounted to no more than about 10,000). fterling, were very much avgmented ; andits population and agricul- ture proportionally increafed ; though under fome checks and interruptions from difputes and wars with the Creek Indians. But fince a treaty of peace and friendfhip with the Creek nation was concluded in 1790, the ftate of Georgia-has been rapidly advancing in every kind of improvement. Since: GEORGIA. Since the revolution, Georgia has been divided into coun- ties, comprehended under two diltri&ts, viz. the Upper and the Lower ; the former includes 15 counties, viz. Montgomery, Wahhington, Hancock, Greene, Franklin, Oglethorpe, Elbert, Wilkes, Lincoln, Warren, Jefferfon, Jackfon, Bullock, Columbia, and Richmond ; the latter contains nine counties, vz. Camden, Glynn, Liberty, Chatham, Bryan, M‘Intofh, Effingham, Scriven, and Burke. The principal towns are Auguita, formerly the feat of government, Sa- vannah, the former capital of the itate, Sunbury, Brunfwick, Frederica, Wathington, and Louvifville, which is the metro- polis of the tate, and where its records are depofited. The principal rivers which water Georgia, are Savannah, which feparates it from South Carolina, Ogeechee, which runs parallel with the former, and Alatamaha, which runs parallel withthe others. Befides thefe and their numerous branches, we might mention Turtle river, Little Sitilla, Great Sitilla, Crooked river, and St. Mary’s, which forms a part of the fouthern boundary of the United States. The rivers in the middle and weltern parts, belonging to the “ Georgia Wett- ern territory,” will be noticed in another place. All thefe rivers contain a plentiful fupply of various forts of fifh, as rock, mullet, whiting, fhad, trout, drum, bafs, cat fifh, whiting, brim and iturgeon ; and the bays and lagoons afford oyiters, and other fhell fith. The chief lake, or marfh, in this ftate, is Ekanfanoka, called by fom2e Ouaquaphenogaw, which is 300 miles in circumference. The eaitern part of the flate, between the mountains and the ocean, and the rivers Savannah and St. Mary’s, comprehending a traét of country more than 120 miles from N. to S., and from 50 to 80 E. and W., is level without a hill or tone. Att the diftance of about 40 or 50 miles from the fea-board, or falt-marfh, the Jand gradually rifes to mountains. The vaft chain of the Alleghany or Appalachian mountains terminates in Georgia, - 60 miles S. of its northern boundary. From the bafe of this mountain {preads a widely extended plain, of the richeft foil, and in a latitude and climate well adapted to the culture ef moft productions either of the fouth of Europe or of the Eaft Indies. In the low country, near the rice fwamps, bilious complaints and fevers are very general during the months of July, Auguft, and September; and at the ap- roach of this fickly feafon, the rich planters, with their Fmilies, remove either to the fea-iflands or to a more elevated fituation, for the benefit of the air. In the winter and {pring, pleurifies, peripneumonies, and other inflammatory diforders, produced by colds, are common, and frequently fatal. The winters in Georgia, however, are mild and plea- fant ; {now is feldom feen, nor is vegetation interrupted by fevere froits. In the hilly country, commencing about 50 miles in fome parts, andin others about 100 miles from the fea, the air is pure and falubrious, and the water good and abundant. From June to September the mercury in Fahren- heit’s thermometer fluctuates from 76° to go ; and in winter from 40° to 60°. The moft prevailing winds are S.W. and E.; and in winter N.W, The E. wind) is warmeit in winter and cooleft in fummer; the S. wind in fummer and autumn is damp, fultry, and infalubrious. In the S.E. parts of the ftate, the trade winds impart their agitation to the atmofphere, and ferve to purify and meliorate it. In the lowlands rice is cultivated ; and in the interior and hilly parts, wheat and Indian corn, and the other produétions common to the northern {ftates, are the obje¢ts of agricultural attention. Rice is at prefent the ftaple commodity of this ftate; and the other chief articles of produce are tobacco, wheat and indigo. Seine alfo yields cotton, filk, corn, potatoes, oranges, figs, olives, pomegranates, &c. The foreits confilt of oak, hickory, mulberry, pine, cedar, &c. The whole ooatt is bordered with iflands, of which the principal are Skid- away, Waflaw, Offabaw, St. Catherines, Sapelo, Frederica, Jekyl, Cumberland, &c. Thefe iflands are furrounded by navigable creeks, between which and the main land is a large extent of falt-marfh at a medium four or five miles broad, fronting the whole itate, and interfeGted with creeks, which admit a general inland navigation, between the iflands and the main land, from the N.E. to the S.E. corners of the ftate. The entrances of rivers flowing between thefe iflands, form capacious harbours from three to eight miles broad ; communicating with each other by ~ parallel falt creeks. The iflands in their natural ftate aré covered with pine, oak, hickory, live oak, and red cedar. The foil is grey, formed by a mixture of fand and black mould ; and a confiderable part of it is very rich, and yields, by cultivation, good crops of indigo, corn, cotton, and po- tatoes. The foil of the mainland, adjoining the marfhes and creeks, refembles that of the lands 5 except that, which borders on the creeks and river that penctrate far into the interior of the country, and which furnifhes the valuable rice {wamps. The foil between the rivers, at a greater diftance, changes from a grey to red colour; and ftill more remotely, into the mulatto kind, confifting of a black and red earth. This fort of land is generally ftrong, and yields large crops of wheat, tobacco, corn, &c. This foil is fucceeded by another, ‘nearly black, and very rich, This fucceflion of different foils is uniformand regular, intermixed with occa- fional veins of different forts ; and ftretches, in the order above-mentioned, acrofs this ftate nearly parallel with the fea-coaft, and extends through the feveral ftates, nearly in the fame direGtion, to the banks of Hudfon river. Thecul- ture of cotton is now fo much an objec of attention in this {tate as to afford a reafonable expectation, that the ftates of South Carolina and Georgia may, ina few years, be able to raife more than 10 millions of pounds annually for exporta-~ tion. With proper attention, moft of the tropical fruits would flourifh in this ftate. The fouth-weftern part of this ftate, and the adjoining parts of E. and W. Florida, will, it is conje¢tured, at fome future period, become the vineyard of America. The chief articles of export are rice, tobacco, indigo, fago, lumber, naval itores, leather, deer fkins, fnake roet, myrtle and bees wax, corn, and live ftock. The value, in fterling money, of the exports of Georgia, in the year 1755, was 15,744/.; in 1772, 121,677/.; in 1791, value in dollars, 491,472 3 in 1792, 458,973; in 17935 501,383; in 1794, 676,154; in 1796, 950,158; and in 1801, 1,854,951. In 1790, the tonnage employed in this ftlate was 28,540, and the number of American feamen was 11,225. In return forher exports, Georgia receives Weft India goods, teas, wines, clothing, and dry goods of all kinds: from the northern ftates, cheefe, fifth, potatees, apples, cyder, and fhoes. ‘The imports and exports are principally to and from Savannah, which has a fine harbour, and is the chief emporium of the tate. The difpofition and charater of the inhabitants, colleG@ed from various parts of the world, are very much diverfitied ; they are charged with indolence, which is attributed partly to the relaxing heat of the climate, and partly to the want of motives, neceflary for exerting indultry ; they are praifed for their friendlinefs and hofpitality to ftrangers. Their diver- fions are dancing, horfe-racing, cock-fighting, and chief hunting. They are reproached with an addiéednefs to gaming. 5 The different religious feéts of this flate are Baptilts, Methodiits, Prefbyterians, Epifeopalians, Roman Catholics, Quakers, and Jews. ‘The two firit are the moft numerous, and inhabit the upper part of the fate. The Epifcopalians and Prefbyterians are about equal in number; and the Ca- tholics and Jews have each of them one church. The civil con- GEORGIA. conititution of Georgia was adopted and ratified by a con- vention of delegates trom the people, on the 6th of May, 1789, andis formed upona plan fimilar to the federal con- flitution of the United States. All legiflative power is veited in two diftinét branches, a fenate and houfe of repre- fentatives, both chofen by the people at large, and {ftyled the General Affembly. The members of the fenate are chofen forthe term of three years, and thofe of the houfe of reprefentatives are chofen annually. The fenate confilts of one member from each county, and the houfe of reprefentatives of thirty-four members. The executive power is vefted in the hands of a governor, who holds his office during two years. Freedom of the prefs and trial by jury fhall remain inviolate, and all perfons fhall be entitled to the writ of habeas cor- pus.”” All perfons fhall have the free exercife of their religion, without being obliged to contribute to the fupport of any religious profeflion but their own. In each county a fuperior court is holden twice in every year, in which all caufes, civil and criminal, fhall be tried, thofe excepted, which may be fubject to the federal court, or fuch as may by law be referred to inferior jurifdictions. The judges of the fupreme court, and the attorney-general, fhall have a falary eftablith- ed by law; and hold their commiffion for three years. In the adminiitration of juftice, this ftate is divided into two diftriéts, called the upper and lower circuit ; and there are only two judges appointed to fit in the fuperior court ; each of thefe judges being appointed to try caufes in each circuit. Betides the fuperior court, there is an inferior court, a court of common pleas eftablifhed in each county, which fits twice in a year, with five judges, appointed by the le- giflators. The county courts have a jurifdi€tion of crimi- nal caufes, which can be tried only in the fuperior court. Belides thefe there are the fheriff’s court, and courts held by the juftices of the peace, in every part of the ftate. The literature of this {tate, which is yet in its infancy, is gra- dually advancing towards higher degrees of improvement. For this purpote a college is inftituted at Louifville, with liberal endowments ; and in fubordination to this it is propo- pofed to found academies in every county of the ftate ‘This inftitution is denominated the ¢ Univerfity of Georgia.” The funds for its fupport confift of about 50,000 acres of valuable land, together with nearly 6000/. fterling in bonds, houfes, and town lots in Augufta. Other property alfo, to the amount of rooo/., has been fet apart in each county for erecting and furnifhing their refpective academies. The fund originally defigned to fupport the literary orphan fchool, founded by the Rev. George Whitfield, a few miles S. of Savannah, confilt chiefly of rice plantations and negroes. On the death of the countefs of Huntingdon, to whom Mr. Whitfield bequeathed this property as truttee, the legiflature, in the year 1792, pafled a law, vetting it in thirteen com- miffioners, with power to carry Mr. Whitfield’s original de- fign into execution ; and in compliment to the countefs, the feminary is denominated “ Huntingdon college.’ The middle parts of this ftate are inhabited by the Muf- kogee or Creek Indians, the moft numerous tribe of Indians within the United States. See CRErEks. The “ Georgia Weftern Territory”? confifts of an ex- tenfive tract of land, a principal part of which belongs to, and is inhabited by the Creek, Chattaw, Chickafaw, and Cherokee nations of Indians. Itis wafhed by the Miflifippi river on the weft, and may be confidered as extending eatt- ward as far as the Appalachicola and Flint rivers. It is interfeGed by a great number of ftreams, which run in every direction; the principal are the Yazoo, and Loofa Chitto, which difcharge themfelves into the Miffifippi, Pearl, Pafcagoula, Mobille, Alibama, Tembeekkee, Efcam- bia, and Chatta Hatcha, which fall into the gulf of Mexico; Vou. XVI. and the Tenneffee Bend, with Chuccamaga river, which falls into it from the fouth-eaft, water its northern part. ‘Twenty millions of acres of this territory was fold in confequence of an aét of the legiflature, paffed in 1795, to certain companies ; and the purchafe money, amounting to 500,000. dollars, was paid into the ftate treafury. This land was afterwards fold at an advanced price, by the original purchafers, to various perfons, principally of the middle and eaftern ftates. This tranfaétion produced a great degree of difcontent ; but the ferment has fince fubfided ; and the termination of the difpute has been a general fatisfation on the part of the purchafers, that the difcordant proceedings of the legif- lature cannot affect their title, which they conceive to be good againtt all claims on the part of Georgia. Morfe. Grorcia, New, or South Grorera, an ifland in the South Atlantic ocean, difcovered by La Roche in 1675, feen by Mr.Guyot, in the fhip Lion, in 1756, and more parti- cularly defcribed by captain Cook, who explored it with atten- tion in 1775, defcribed its extent andtrue pofition, and named it Georgia, in honour of his majeity. Itis fituated between 53° 57' and 54° 57/S. lat., and between 38° 13! and 35° 34! W. long. It extends S. E. by E.and N. W. by W., and in that diretion is 31 leagues long, and its greateft breadth is about 1oleagues. It feems toabound with bays and har- bours, efpecially on the N.E. coaft ; but they are rendered inacceflible for the greateft part of the year by the vait quantity of ice; or, at leaft, it muft be dangerous lying in them, on account of the breaking up of the ice-cliffs, by which the coaft is bounded, and which rife up perpen- dicularly in maffes of very confiderable elevation. When thefe fall they float about in the fea like detached iflands, and in falling make a noife like that of a difcharged can- non. ‘The inner parts of the country exhibit an appear- ance no lefs favage and horrible than the coaft. The rocks raifed their lofty fummits, till they were loft in the clouds, and the vallies lay covered with everlafting fnow. The lands, or rather rocks, bordering on the fea coaft, were not covered with {now like the inland parts. The rocks feemed to contain iron. They are of blackifh horizontal flate, probably approaching to hornblende. Not atree was to be feen,nor a fhrub even big enough to make a tooth-pick. The only vegetation that could be feen was that of a coarfe ftrong-bladed grafs growing in tufts, wild burnet, and a plant like mofs, which fprung from the rocks. Seals or fea-bears were numerous, but fmaller than thofe at Staten Land. Seve- ral flocks of penguins ofa large fize were obferved, and be- fides thefe, the oceanic birds were albatroffes, common gulls, and that fort called by Cook Port Egmont hens, terns, fhags, divers, the new white bird, and a {mall bird like thofe of the Cape of Good Hope, called yellow birds, which were found to be moft delicious food. “All the land birds that were feen confifted of a few {mall larks; but our navigators found no quadrupeds. The dung of one was feen, fuppofed to have belonged to a fox or an animal of that kind. Onthe whole coaft our voyagers obferyed neither a river nor a ftream of frefh water. ‘They thought it highly probable, that the country has no_ perennial {prings ; and that the interior parts, as being much elevated, never enjoy heat enough to melt the fnow in fuch quantities as to pro- duce a river or ftream of water. The coaft alone receives warmth fufficient to melt the f{now, and this only on the N. E. fide; for the other, befides being expofed to the cold fouth winds, is in a great degree deprived of the fun’s rays by the uncommon height of the mountains. On the ap- proach of our navigators to Georgia, they firft difcoyered an ifland in S. lat. 54° and W. long. 38° 23', which was called «¢ Willis’s ifland,”’ which was a high rock of no great extent: eait of this, between it and the main, they obfery- - ed GEO ed another ifland, to which, on account of the number of birds they faw upon it, they gave the name of “ Bird Ifland.” This ifland is of larger extent than the former, lies clofe to the N. E. point of the main land, which was called «¢ Cape North.” After having cleared the paffage between thefe two iflands, they purfued their coafting voyage to ‘Cape Buller,”’ and at length arrived at a bay, which they deno- minated ‘ Poffeffion bay,’ fituated in S. lat. 54” 5 W. long. 37° 18', 11 leagues E. of Cape North. The and in which this bay lies, was at firft judged to be part of a great continent; but upon coaiting round the whole coun- try, it was found to be an ifland, about 70 leagues in cir- cuit. Between this bay and Cape Buller lies the “ Bay of Iiles,’’ fo named on account of feveral {mall ifles lying inand before it. The next projecting point was called ‘ Cape Saunders,’ and beyond this is a large bay, which was named “Cumberland Bay.’’ The next projecting land, which was an ifland appearing to be the extremity of the coaft to the ea{t, was called “ Cape Charlotte,’’ and on the weft fide of it lay a bay, which was named the “ Royal Bay,’ the W. point of it being called «Cape George.” Thefe two capes are diftant from each other fix leagues. The ifland above mentioned, diftant in the direCtion of S. by E. eight leagues from Cape Charlotte, was denominated << Cooper’s Ifle,”? which is a rock of confiderable height, about five miles in circuit, and one mile from the main. The coaft between them forms a large bay, named ‘ Sand- wich Bay.’’ At Cooper’s Ifle the main coait takes a S. W. dire&tion for the fpace of four or five leagues to a point which Capt. Cook called Cape Difappointment. Off this are three {mall ifles, the fouthernmoft of whichis green, low, and flat, and lying one league from the Cape. Advancing towards the S.W., land opened beyond the Cape, which proved to bean ifland, and was called “ Pickerfgill ifland.” In failing round this ifland, our navigators were almoit con- tinually involved in a thick mil, which led them to appre- hend that they might be furrounded with dangerous rocks. — Cook’s Second Voyage, vol. ii. Georcia, a townfhip of America, in the ftate of Ver- mont and county of Franklin, containing 1068 inhabitants. It is fituated on lake Champlain, oppofite to the north end of South Hero ifland, and joins Milton on the fouth and St. Alban’s onthe north. The river La Moille traverfes the §. E. corner of this townfhip. Groreia, Gulf of, alarge gulf of the North Pacific ocean, between the continent of North America and Quadra and Vancouver's ifland; about 120 miles in length from north to fouth; the breadth varying from 6 to 20 miles. It contains feveral clufters of iflands, and branches off into a Time of obfervation . . «© © 6 ee Right afcenfion GMerved’. co tt 2 tae North declination obferved . Longitude . SPlagesimGeynorthie x) eet a a re a a eecaemetece | Nutation inlongitude . . . . 2 2 se Axberration in longitude . . . . . = - Sun’s longitude from the meanequinox . . . . . « GEO great number of canals, moft or all which were examined by Capt. Vancouver and his officers. ¢ GEORGIAN Pranet, or Gerorcium Sidus, in Affronomy, the name given by Dr. Herfchel, the dif- coverer, to the feventh primary planet of the folar fyftem. It is now generally known, particularly on the continent, by the name of Uranus. This planet was difcovered by Dr. Herfchel on the 13th March, 1781. It is fuppofed that other aftronomers have obferved it, and inferted it in their catalogues as a fixed ftar, But Dr. Herfchel, when he firft faw it, was ftruck with its appearance, which feemed to differ from that of the neighbouring {mall ftars. He happened to be accidentally en~ gaged in examining the fmall flars near'the feet of Gemini, and he obferved one confiderably larger than the reft, but it not being quite fo brilliant, he fufpected that it might be a comet ; in confequence of which he obferved it with different magnifying powers, from 227, with which he dif- covered it, to 2010, and found that its apparent magnitude increafed in proportion, contrary to what takes place in the fixed ftars. He therefore meafured its diftance from fome of the neighbouring fixed ftars, and comparing its dif- tance for feveral nights he found that it moved at the rate of about 24” inan hour. Dr. Herfchel wrote im- mediately to the Royal Society, that other aftronomers might join in obferving it; upon which it was found and obferved by Dr. Matkelyne, who almoft immediately de- clared that he fufpe¢ted it to be a planet ; and en April 1, he wrote an account of this difcovery to the aftronomers at Paris, fo that it was foon obferved by all the aftronomers in Europe. Mr. Lexell was then in England, and applied himfelf to compute the orbit upon the fuppofition that it was acomet; he therefore, accordmg to the ufual manner in fuch a cafe, fuppofed the-orbit to be a parabola, and af- fumed feveral perihelion diftances, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, and 18 times the earth’s diftance from the fun, and found that any perihelion diftance between 14 and 18, would anfwer very well to the obferyations.. Bofcovich printed a memoir on the fubjeét, in which he fhewed that there were four different parabolas in which a body might move, and yet the computed places would agree with the obfer- vations which had then been made. Other aftronomers, however, found that a circular orbit, whofe radius was about 18 times the diftance of the fun from the earth, would agree better with the obfervations; and con- firmed Dr. Mafkelyne’s opinion that it was a planet. Upon the fuppofition, therefore, of a circular orbit, M. de la Lande proceeded to invefligate its magnitude from the following obfervations. Mem. de l’Acad. Roy. des Sci. 1779« April 25,1781, at 9" 47' July 31, 1781, Dec. 12, 17815} at 15° 33' ; at 10" 10’ 2 ROE ez 23°35, 34 oot 2-25) oe rate : II 36 aid + 10 +8 Li + 19 + 21 Js [1 5 5853 [4 9 7 39 [8 21 an go oe 0.003196 0.006272 enaee Log. of the fun’s diftance Pewee ces. “eae 2 From GEORGIUM SIDUS. From thefe data, M. de Ja Lande calculated the elements of a circular orbit; but it having been found that the motion did not agree with any poffible circle, it became neceflary to salotate the elements of an elliptic orbit. When a fufficient number of oppofitions had been obferved for this purpofe, profeffor Robifon of Edinburgh undertook this inveltigation, a full account of which is given in Edinb. Tranf. vol. i. 1788. The obfervations on which this inveltigation is founded are as follows : N. lat. True Time at Edinburgh, Longitude. Dec. 21,1781; 17° 44! 33"| 3° 0° 52! x1” | 15! 9" 26,1782,. 8 56.56 | 3 5 2029 | 18 56 3151783, 0 46 24 | 3.9 50-52 |.22 10 Jan. 351785, 17 28 56 | 334 23 2 | 25 40 8,1786, 1039 31 |3 18 57 5 | 28 52 From which the following elements were obtained : Mean diitance - 2 = = 19.08247 Eccentricity - - - - - 0.9006 Periodic time - - - - - 83.359 years Mean anomaly at the sth oppofition 4° 0° 32! 51! Long. of aphelion? forepochDec. $11 23 9 51 Long. of the node 31, 1783. } 2-12 46 14 Inclination of the orbit = - © 46 25 Equation of the centre - - 5 26 56 6 The elements, as given by La Place, are as follows : Years. Days. Ifours. Min. Seconds. Sidereal revol. > - 845129. 0.1 0):50:0 Semi maj. axis or mean diftance - 19.183620 Proportion of eccentricity of femi maj. 0.046683 axis for beginning of 1750. - Secular variation (—indicates diminu- P — 0.000026228 tion) ea 2 5 al =I Deg. Min. Sec. Mean longitude at beginning of 1750 - 228 33 53.6 Long. of perihelion'1750 = - 166 36 48.8 Sidereal and fecular motion of perihe- 6 Beets Pa thane vavbve go oor, Oni aes Inclination of orbit to ecliptic 1750 - © 46 26.0 Secular variation of inclination of orbit Bale is to true ecliptic - is lg 3: ones aed node on eau 42 37 52.8 Sidereal and fecular motion of node on i apes true ecliptic - - - a The diameter of this planet is about 45 times that of the earth, or 35,112 Englith miles nearly. When feen from the earth, its apparent diameter, or the angle which it fub- tends at the eye, is 3.5, and its mean diameter, as feen from the fun, is 4’. As the diftance of the Georgian from the fun is twice as great as that of Saturn, it can fearcely be diftinguifhed by the naked eye. When the fky however is ferene, it appears like a fixed ftar of the fixth magnitude with a blueifh white light, and a brilliancy between that of Venus and the Moon; but with a power of 200 or 300, its dife is vifible and well defined. Its arc of retrogradation is 3° 36', and the duration.of its retrograde motion 151 days. This planet is accompanied by fix fatellites, all of them Gifeovered likewife by Dr. Herfchel. The two firit, which he faw for the firft time in the month of Jan. 1787, proved afterwards to be the fecond and fourth, the others were dif- covered fome few years later. The mott remarkable circumftance attending thefe fatel- lites is, that they move in a retrograde direction, and revolve in orbits nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic, contrary to the analogy of the other fatellites, which phencmenon is extreme- ly difcouraging when we attempt to form any hypothefes relative to the original caufe of the planetary motions. According to La Place, if we take for unity the femidia- meter of the planet, equal to 1''.9, fuppofed feen at the mean diftance of the planet from the fun, the diitance of its fatel- lites will be as follows : il 13.120 Il. 17.022 Tlf. 19.845 IV. 22.752 Vv. 45-507 Vi. 1.008 And the duration of their fidereal revolutions D. Days. hrs. min. fec. I. 5.5926 Be Zdenka oe If. 8.7068 SB IGr si) Pay III. 10.9615 FOW 231 on 2hevAy IV. 13-4559 13 10 56 29 V. 38.0750 B80 Maley EB O VI 107.6 107 16 6 La Place conceives that the firft five fatellites of ee Geor- gian may be retained in their orbits by the adtion of its equator, and the fixth by the a¢tion of the iatevior fatellites ; hence he concludes that the planet revolves about an axis very little inclined to the ecliptic, and that the time of its diurnal rotation cannot be much leJs than that of Jupiter and Saturn. Ufe of the Tables—The general conftruétion of this kind of tables will be explained under PLaner. The man- ner of calculating the mean longitude of the planet is as fol- lows. Vince's Aitronomy, vol. iii. From Table I. take out the mean longitude, the aphelion, and node, together with the arguments [1., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIIEI., and place them in an horizontal line. But if the given year be not found in that table, take the neareft year preceding the given year as an epoch, and take out as before. Under which, from Table II. place the mean motion in longitude of the aphelion and node, with the arguments an- fwering to the number of years elapfed fince the epoch, to the given year. Gade: thefe write down (Table III.) the mean motione of the fame, for the given month. Under thefe write down (Table IV.) the mean motions of the fame, for the given day of the month. Under thefe write down (Table V.) the mean motions of the fame, for hours and minutes. Add together the numbers in the feveral columns,’ reject- ing twelve figns, or any multiples thereof, if they occur; and in the arguments, rejecting 10,000 in the arguments IV., VI., and 1000 in the arguments II., III., V., VII., VIII., or any multiples eee and you get the mean longitude, the aphelion, and node, and the arguments for the given time. From the mean longitude of the Georgian fubtra& the longitude of the aphelion, and you have argument I., or mean anomaly. With argument I. take out the equation of the orbit in Table VI., together with the fecular variation, with their proper figns, except the time be dcfore 1780, in which cafe the fecular yariation is to be taken out witha contrary fign, making a proportion for the minutes and feconds of the ar- gument, and you firft get the equation ; and doing the fame for the fecular variation, you get the fecular variation ; then fay, 100 : the number of years from 1780 to the given time S2 33 fecue GEORGI :: fecular variation above found : fecular variation required. Before 1780 the {ecular variation muit be taken with a fign contrary to that found in the table. With argument IT. take out the equation in Table VII., making a proportion in this and in the following equations, for the intermediate numbers of the arguments. With argument III., take out the equation in Table VITI. With argument IV. take out the equation in Table 1X. With argument V. take out the equation in Table X. With argument VI. take out the equationin Table XI. With argument VII. take out the equationin Table XII. With argument VIII. take out the equation in Table XIII. Take the fum of all thefe equa- tions, regard being had to the figns of the firlt equation, and of the fecular variation, the figns of the others being pofitive ; and from it fubtraé& 7/20", and you get the value of thefe eight equations; and this applied with its proper fign to the mean longitude already found gives the longitude of the Georgian in his orbit. UM SIDUS. From the longitude thus found, fabtraé& tbe longitude of the node, and you have argument IX. ; With argument IX. enter Table XVII. and take out the reduction to the ecliptic, with its proper fign, making a proportion for the minutes and feconds of the argument : and this applied to the longitude of the Georgian in his orbit,’ oie his true heliocentric longitude on the ecliptic, reckoned rom the mean equinox, With argument 1X. enter Table XVI., and take out the latitude, making a proportion for the minutes and feconds of the argument, and you have the true heliocentric latitude of the planet. With the mean anomaly enter Table KIV., and take out the radius vector, and correét it by the following Table XV. and you have the true diftance of the planet from the fun, that of the earth being unity. Example. —To find the heliocentric Latitude and Longitude of the Georgian, on Nov. 26, 1789, at 16° 14', mear Time at Greenwich. Longitude. Aphelion. | D. M. S. S.D.M. S. |S. Epoch for 1789 4 6 12 41.4|11 17 11 8 November | 3 34 39-8 44 26' 18 21.6 4 16" 28.2 14! 4) | Sum - - - IO 66 1.4111 17 II 56 Sum of eight equations — 3 21 45.5, 4 10 6 11! Longitude in orbit 4 6 44 25.91 4 22 54 35: ReduGtion - - } — 8.9) re erat eliocentric longitude [4 6 44 17 | | Node. | Arguments. 5D. M. §.( 1. |01.| Iv. | V. | VI. |WILJVEII S) } 212 48 5| 618) 232) 0139 | 885) 0825 | 949 563 13, 18} 8 85 | 27| 15 }.60, 50 File Wed We eh 7 Z I Gi uea 2 12 48 19) 638) 241, 0231 | gIq O841 14 617 4 6 44 26) LB I I 23 56 Arg. 1X Arg. I. = Heliocentric latitude This is the true heliocentric longitude from the mean equi- nox ; and if we wantit from the true equinox, we mutt ap- ply the equation of the equinoxes. - In this operation the firft five lines are taken out imme- diately from the tables, and the fums of all the columns give the mean longitude of the aphelion, the node, and the ar- guments for the given time. Argument I. is immediately found according to the rule, the equation to which is thus found. ‘The equation (‘Table VI.) for 422° is—3° 26' 59".6, and the variation or 60!is 4'31!'.1 ; hence 6o': 54! 15"2:4°33".1 : 4! 5.1, which (asthe equation is decreafing) fubtracted from 37' 2.9 Secular variation Arg. II. Arg. ITT. Arg. IV. Arg. V. Arg. VI. rg. WII. Arg. VIII. Sum of equations — 3°26'59".6.gives— 3 22'54".5, theequation required. And to find the fecular variation, that variation is + 7.44. for 4 22°, and it decreafes 0.16 for 60’; hence 60': 54/15": = o".16 : 0.15, which taken from + 7.44 leaves +- 7:29", the fecular variation .correfponding to the given argument. Now this fecular variation is reckoned from 1780, and from thence to November 26, 1789, there has elapfed g 9 years ; hence, 100:99::+ 7' 29": + 0.7 the fecular variation for 9 9 years. With argument IT, 638, take the equation from Table VIL. Now the equation for 630 is 4'.7, andit changes o".7 for 10; hence 10: 8:: 0'.7: 0'.6, which as the equa- 4 tion GEORGIUM SIDUS. tion decréafes, fubtracted from 4”.7 leaves 4.1, the equation required. By proceeding thus to argument VIII. we get all the equations, and by taking the difference of the poti- tive and negative parts, we get 3° 21'45".5 for the value of the firft eight equations ; which applied to 4" 10’ 6! 11.4 gives 4 6° 47/ 25".9 the longitude of the Georgian in his orbit. From this longitude fubtra& 2* 12/48/19" the longitude of the node, and we get 1° 23° 56/7", which is argument IX.; with which enter Table XVII. and take out thereduétion, which is— 8".9,and thisapplied to 4°6 '44'25".9 gives 4° 6° 44°17", the heliocentric longitude of the Geor- gian on the ecliptic from the mean equinox. Alfo with ar- ument IX. enter Table XVI. andtake outthe latitude. Now & 1° 23” the latitude is 36! 57", and it increafes 28".8 for 60'; hence 60! : 56.7 :: 28.8 ; 26.9, which added to 36! 57" gives 37’ 23'.9, the heliocentric latitude of the Georgian. Taste, I. Epochs of the mean Longitude of the Planet, with the Arguments of the Equations. Mean Longitnde ; : r Arg.|Arg.| Arg. | Arg.) Arg. | Arg. | Arg Years. sftheGeorsian. RO SEES eS: ime ate | IV, Vv. Vi. VII. | VII S. D. M. S Se DAMS S-Di Mins: B. 1680 | 0 17 41 1.4 11 15 35 13 | 2 12 19 34 |B. 1680| 215 | 126 | 9068 | 376 | 8907 057 969 1690 | 2 0 39 48.2 | 11 15 44 1] 2 12 22 11 || 1690] 435 | 228 | Co85 | 698 go84 | 781 574 1700 | 3 13 38 34.9 | 11 15 52 49 | 2 12 24 48 ||C. 1700| 656 | 329 | 1100 | O20 | 9200} S05} 179 1720 | 6 9 36 50.9 | 11 16 10 25 | 2 12 30 2 |'B. 1720 | 096 | 532 | 3132 | 664 | 9612 |. 953 | 389 1740 | 9-5 35. -6.8-| 11) 16 28 -1-|- 2-12-45 107) |B. ryqor§37-| 735°) 5162 308 | 9963 | 401 597 1756 | 11 14 21 43-5 | 11 16 42 6 | 2 12 39 27 ||B. 1756 | 890 | 898 | 6788 | 823 | 0245 | 560 | 567 B. 1760 | o 1 33 22.7 | 11 16 45 37 | 2 12 40 30 ||B. 1760 | 978 | 938 | 7194 | 951 | 0315 | 849 | 809 F769 | 1 10 14 24.2 | 11 16 53 32 | 2 12 42 51 1769 | 177 | 029 | 8108 | 241 | 0473 | 501 | 353 B. 1780 | 2 27 31 38.6 | 11 17 3.13] 2 12°45 44 ||B. 1780 | 419 | 141 | 9225 | 595 | 0666 | 297 | O19 L790-| 4. 10 30 25.3 | 11 17 12-1 | 2°12 48°27 1790 | 640 | 242 | o241 | 917 | 0842 | O21 | 624 C. 1800 | 5 23 29 12.1 | 11 17 20 49 | 2 12 50 58 1800 | 860 | 344 | 1256 | 239 | 1018 | 745 | 229 USLON|* 7. (6 2705 8:7 rr 17629) 37%) 2 12) 531-35 1810 | o80 | 445 | 2272 | 561 | 1194 | 468} 834 WOH Foo) Agazig |-1r 17130 Zo) | 2 125331 1811 | 103 | 456 | 2373 | 593 | 1211 | 541 | 804 B. 1812] 735 4 9.5 | 11 17 31 23 | 2 12 54 6 |/B. 1812 | 125 | 466 | 2475 | 625 | 1229 | 614 | 955 7 86 | Io1 TOG e-7eLO 2.7) wr 17) a2) 16) ||"2"12) 54 22 1813 | 347 | 476 | 2577 | 657 | 1247 | 6 5 TOMAS 7-23 (30837 -ON LL 17S3) (QO) 2e02)54. 37 1814. | 169 | 486 | 2678 | 689 | 1264 759 1076 COU5 | 67 27 ease i Ik 1734 1)| 22) hay 53 1815 | 191 | 496 | 2780 | 721 |.1272 |. 831 1136 B. 1816 | 7 32 15 48.7'| 11 17 34 54 | 2 12 55 «gp ||B. 1816] 213 | 507 | 2881 | 754 | 1299.) 904 | 1197 1817 | 7 36 33 32-9 | 11 17 35 47 | 2 12 55 14 1817 | 235 | 517 | 2983 | 786 | 1317 | 976 | 1257 1818 | 7 40 51 17-0 | 11 17 36 40} 2 12 55 40 1818 | 257 | 527 | 3084 | 718 | 1334 | 1048 | 1318 TOTO) FOG) Oleg smn 17 7b sah 2 e255! 56 1819 | 279 | 537 | 3186 | 750 | 1352 | 1121 1378 8 2 GEORGIUM SIDUS. Tasir I1.—Mean Motion of the Planet for complete Julian Years. rg. IV. .| Arg. | Arg. | Arg. vi. | vir. | Vitti. Years. |MeanLongitude.| Aphelion. 'S. D.M. S. is 1] 0 417 44.2 |0 0 0 53 1 | 022 | o10 | o1o2z | 032 | 0018 | 072 | O60 2|0 8 35 284|0 0 1 46 2 | 044 | 020 | 0203 | 064 | 0035 | 145 | 121 3 | 012 53 12.6}0 o 2 38 3 | 066 | 030 | 0305 | o97 | 0053 | 217 | 181 |B. 4 | 088 | o41 | 0406 | 129} 0070 | 290 | 242 0508 | 161 | 0088 | 362 | 302 6 | 132 | O61 | 0609 | 193 | C105 | 434 | 363 om23 | 507 | 423 O14t | 579 | 484 o158 | 652 | 544 4.| 0 17 11 39:2 |0 © 3 31 5 | 0 21 29 23.4 |0 0 4 24 6] 02547 7510 © 5 17 7 tO e4tee ao}, Oma £0 B. S| or 4 2358-1) \0 mH 2 9{ 1 8 4r''2.6 | 0 10} 1 12 58 468|;0 0 8 48 Ir] 117 16310]0 0 9 41 Bo. 6 02) 2 2ERR AE Onl (0. FO; 34. 7-| 154 | 071 | o711-| 225 iB. 8 | 176 | o81 | o812 | 258 ovo 12) 25 9 | 198 | 091 | og14 | 290 Ovo! 2"37 10 | 220 | ror | 1016 | 322 00. 2 53 |i II | 243 | 112 | 1117 | 354 | 0193 | 796 | 665 oo 3 8 IIB. 12) 265 | 122 | 1219 | 386 | o211 | 869 | 726 [ome] 1 an n or76 | 724 | 605 13| ‘1 25 52 41.7 |0 O11 26/00 3 24 13 | 287 | 132 | 1320 | 418 | 0229 | 941 | 786 14| 2 0 10 26.0 |0 01219 |00 3 40 14 | 309-| 142 | 1422 | 451 |-0246 | o14 | 847 is | 2 14.28 10.210. © 1S IZ) sO7O 55 15 | 331 | 152 | 1523 | 483 | 0264 | 086 | 907 16}.2 8 46 36.7 |0 0-14 5 I7-} 2 13 4 20.9'| 0 O14 58 oo 411 ||B. 416] 353 | 162 | 1625 | 515 | 0281 | 158} 968 oO 427 17-| 375-| 172 | 1727 | 547 | 0299 | 23¥ | 028) 00 4 43 18 | 397 | 183 | 1828 | 579 | 0316 | 303 | 089 SS SS | eee eee Oe 19 | 2 21 39 49-3 |0 0 1643/00 4 58 19 | 419 | 193 | 1930 | 612 | 0334 | 376 | 150 20 | 2 25 58 15.9 |.0 017 36/00 5 314 |B. 20 | 441 | 203.) 2031 | 644-| 0352 | 448 | 210 40 | 5 21 56 31.8|0 0 35 12 | 00 10 28 ||B. 40 | 882 | 406 | 4062 | 288 | 0703 | 896 | 420 60 | 8 17 54 47-7 | 0 0 52 48|00 15 42 |\B. 60 | 323 | 609 | 6094 | 931 | 1055 | 344 | 630 80 |11 13 53 3-6/0 1 10 24] 00 20 56 ||B. 80 | 764 812 | 8125 | 575 | 1406 | 792 | 840 100 | 2 9 51.195 |0 128 0} 0 0 26 10 ||B. 100} 205 | o15 | 0156 | 219 | 1758 | 240 | O50 B. 200] 4 19 42 39-1 |0 256 0} 00 52 20 B. 200 | 410 | 030 | 0312 | 438 | 3516 | 480 | 1co B. 300] 6 29 33 §8.6|0 4 24 oO} or 18 30 |/B. 300 | 615 | 045 | 0468 | 657 | 5274 | 520 | 150 B. 400| 9 9 25 181] 0 5 52 ©} 01 44 40 ||B. 400} 820 | 060 | 0624 | 876 | 7032 | 960 | 200 — = —— ————— | | -——- | B. 500 |11 19 16 37-7|0 720 0| 02 10 50||B. 500 | o25 B. 600] 1 29 7 57.2|0 8 48 0} 0 2 37.0]|B. 600 | 230 | ogo | 0936 | 314 |-0548-| 440 | 300 B. 700| 4 8 59 16.7|01016 0,03 3 10|B. 700 | 435 | 105 | 1092 | 533 | 2306 | 680 | 350 —— | ———— B. 800] 6 18 50 36.3 | 0 11 44 © | 0 3 29 20 ||B. 800 | 640 120 | 1248 | 752 4064 | 920 | 400 B. goo | 8 28 41 55.8 | 0 13 12 0 | 0 3 55 30) B. goo | 845 | 135 | 1404 | 971 | 5822 160 450 B. 1000 }11 8 33 15.4 | 0 14 40 0 | 0 4 21-40 |'B. 1000 | 050 | 150 | 1560 | 190 | 7580 | goa | 500 Tasve I1J.—Mean Motion for Months. Months. | Mean Longitude. |Aphel.| Node. Arg. | Arg.) Arg. | Arg. | Arg. Arg. | Arg. Some fame joawe | ve | vi vie | vane 1; wi} 45: Ss. S. [nte tir See January. ° ° 0.0 fo) fo) ° ° fo} | {e) fe) ° | fe) February. 2Y 6304. 4 I 2 I 9 3 I 6 5 Marche | > gn 307 1] 9 (ns ae ga April aie Gn Ce la 4 6 2 ati ag a || "188)) ae May. i ize) Aa2 17 5 7 3 33 11 Oral) 22 zo Jones: fn $40 75 ze VP OEE ob ee ee eae a ierrs bab ARE | 25 July 2. 4 48.6 26 8 11 5 50 | rOy. |! ig) A 300M ome Augutft. 2 129 | 42-0 31 9 13 6 59 19. sk TO. pega He Bs September. | 2 51 35-4 | 35 | 20 | 35 | 7 _68 | 22 12 | 48 40 O€ober. 3 32 46.4 39 12 17 8 76 2 ig" RT ae November. 3 34. (390.6 44 13 18 8 85 27 U5 (fo) | 50 355 50.8 48 15 20 9 93 20 16 66 5 GEORGIUM SIDUS. Tarte I[V.—Mean motion for Hours and Minutes. aa Hours. ; g. || Minutes. Long. Minutes.| Long. re | 2 | | SS Th the Biffextiles a day mult be fubsracted for the months of January and February. SG Ar Arg, Long Aphel. | Node, | “78 | “08 vu. Moo. 'S. S. S. O 42.4 ° ° ° ° ° Danced ° fo) ° ° ° hea a ° ° ° ° ; 2d Gals I ° fo) fo) 1 3 31.8 fo) fo) fo) I 4, 14.2 I ° ° <) ; 4 56.6 ° ° fo) I 5 38-9 0 g 2 : 6 21.3 ° ° fo) 2 1 37 0 2 ° 3 : z 7.46.0 2 ° I ° 3 3 : = 28.4 25 | Ret 1 ) 3 ; < 9 10.8 2 I ° 4 x t m 9 53-1 2 I ° 4 3 2 3 19 35-5 2 : 3 4 : : 3 ri 17-0 2 I 2 4 : i 3 120.2 2 I ° 5 I I 3 12 42.6 3 1 O° 5 : 3 13 25-0 3 I I 5 2 I 4 14. 7-4 3. I Z 5 2 4 14 49-7 B I 1 I 6 2 I 4 Tighe AGE 3 I I I 6 2 I 4 16 14-5 3 I I I 6 2 I 4 16 56.8 3 I I I 6 2 I 5 17 39-2 ‘ i 2 : 7 : : : 18 21.6 4 2 I 7 2 5 19 3-9 4 1 2 : 7 ? 2 19 46.3 4 1 2 z 4 a : 3 ey eH) 4 I 2 I 8 3 I 6 sie GBS) 4 I 2 I 8 3 I 6 21 53-4 4 I 2 I 9 B I 6 mini | ppp [RPP Wow GEORGIUM SIDUS. Taste VI. Equation of the Orbit for 1780, with the fecular variation to be applied to the longitude.—Before 1780, this fecular variation muft be applied with a contrary fign. Ane. I = (Mean long. — aphelion) or mean anomaly. 0. | i. - I z ae hei om pn eS Dagens roe, Equation. Difference. | Sec. Var. | Equation, | Difference. | Sec. Var.| Degr. As sae eR EE | 8 Beetle? Fa > = | = + = =F Ms-—8:-"] M-+8 s | Da Mes: MS S: fo} 0.0 = 0.00 2 32 42.3 4:97 } 30 Pe mae ae aces | eee A ee IO 34.9 5 Ts 0.34. Be Ain sor 4 37-5 5-28 28 ap as armel le A fe oN reese 2 FORE Aso Or Ae sone eh \08; ae zee 34 5-43 27 21 9-4 5 pits 0.68 2) 25H 762 4 ae 5-58 26 2626.1 5. Gah 6.85 || 2 55 36:9 aes 5-73 25 -——-——-| 5 16.3 |—~—-——|| ——| 4 27.0 |——+— Rr 42.4: FO2 Fail 3 ° 3:9 5-88 24 36 «5 8.2 5 15:5 Tero || 3 ar 2779 4 aon 6.02 23 A235 ae 1.36 3 8 49.0 4 é 6.17 22 - 5 14.6 |—~—-——|| —— -———-——| 4 181 |—~-—— 47 «28.1 1.53 ae 513 7-1 6.31 21 52 42.0 5 a a de | SE 2 M. S.| S. M. S.| S. 5 © | 3. 10 | 6. I T (eG. 250015. Shas 10,| Le eeaeBe ocligieney 42° Sepa 4004 59- (0.9 A, |. aaa eee xe ; II §200) (0: 23/6) lie 1/3 20. | 3a SPF j 4 37-4 1.7 |_5300 0 10.3 |1-7 5 30 | 4.0 | 540 | 5.8 A 29°74) | dda! Glee 40 | 4.2 | 550 | 5-6 4 27.6 27 pa oed ihe pe ae al 580155 a 3.1 | 5600 0 18.2 bee 19004 49.4! >" 4-5 | 579 | 5.3 4 20-2 Neb oo © 21.8 | 3- 1800/4 45-7| 3.5 7° 4-7 | 5a 5-1 tip 4 oe Ae 00 © 26.0 | +2 Rison Cees p AnD 259. | eo + tO | 4.5 | 5900 © 30.5 | 4-5 16004 36.6, : go 5% | 600.) 4.7 goo; 4 09.5 5.0 6000 0 35.5 5.0 350015004 31-4) hoe pat Ee 1000) 4 45 154 | 6100 0 409 | 54 Ds) | 4:3. |_3_ 59-4 5.8 | 6200 0 46.7 58 7 | 65a) Hes 1200) 3 53:3 161 | Gz00-0 528 | O7 1 5:9 || 40 | 3-9 1300)" 3" 47-2 : 140 | 6.1 ! 650 | 3.7 1400| 3 40.7 2 es - sas ae | 6.3 | 660 | 3.6 | 1500! 3 33.9 | Fan 6.4 | 670 | 34 1609| 3 26.8 Se rice : 57 74 OP 8e | 82 1799) 3 19-4 |, 6 | Boo! 1 28.2 |7-6 6.8 || 690 | 2.9 1800) 3.11.3 158 Iasi aaeakaal ; 7-3 || 700 | 2.5 1900, 3 40 “a ie heme sae ; tl Le al a ins ra 56,9. Sr aed IT re 8.1 RE 7.6 | 720 | 2.4 2100] 2 47-9 |9'4 I naogl a oa | 83 Me | 7-6 || 730.1} 2.3 2200| 2 39.6 ae eels aes 8.3 123 7.6 | 740 | 2.3 2300] 2 31.3 ee ee " ae 8.4 oadiaebe Panel ot 77 | 750 | 2. ran oa werieae wl> 509 A088 tow 17 || 760 | 23 2y00| 2 146 |23 | 7509 2 25-4 154 5 1egae 2 Z0.6 oe plas | pe iS yhey 8.3 7700! 2 roe $3 sacaytoos Ha 2 28) 8 [a res) 1 329/82 | eo] 3 50 |82 540096001 52.7) 9°? 7-9 || 800 | 2.0 2900| 1 41.6 8.1 | 7900) 2 58-4 550095001 43.6 9-1 8.0 || 810 | 2.0 3000| I 33.7 oy Ses He hate = hp tens | ‘7197 || 8100] 3 14.0] f° 5600.9400)1 34-8 8.7 om te 2.0 3100) I ane 7.6 || 8200 : ato 7-6 570019300)1. 2 ale -1 || 830 | 1.9 Jo. 18 ede 83001 3 28.9 |7-3 5800920011 _17.7/ 94 8.1 || 840 | 1.9 3300| 1 11.1 er iow. Ico! 6 ap 8.1 | 850 | 1.9 34co) I 4.1 7:0 1 8400) 3 35-9 6. pee I 2 gs 8.1 || 860 | 20 00] © 57. Giz Bsco) 3 43:6) 57 ian 2} pss it || Wes ae Re We 6.4 | 8600) 3 49.0 6.4 360 | 80 || 870 | 2.1 3600) © 51.0 | 6, | gp, me he I || 8700) 3 55-1 |. 8.0 || 880 | 2.1 3700] O 44.9 5.7 88co in 5-7 6300)8760)0 40-7 _7-9 || 890 | 2-1 3800] 9 39:2 |” | | 89c0 pa 40o\8600|\0 34.5 7-9 || goo | 2.2 3900] © 34.0 es \“o000! 4 10.9 49 B5coo 28.6 7.8 || 910 | 2.3 40cc] © 29.1 byt ! grool 4.153 4-4 7 owes APO) S, 2F as | gz00! 4 19 3 | 40 7-7 || 930 | 2-5 4200] 0 20.7 |*° | re ~23. 3-5 7-5 || 940 | 2.6 43CO| O 17.2 aa | aed 25.8 re) 7-4 I): 9528) 2.7 4400) 0 142, 2.c | 9500| 4 28.3 | 2-5 7-3 || 960 | 2.8 4500] O 11.7 a ORod\ 4 toa asl 970 3.0 gore) ° 97 ail aed pes 154 ete Bo 3E ereapceea ; IS: | "g |O4 | 9900] 4 33.2 |o ad pe 35 4900) 0 6.8) or 10000 ‘4. 33.1 lou 5 ‘ ' GEORGIUM SIDUS. Taste XIL Taste XIII. Argument VIII. Argument VII. Equation || Arg.} Equation || Arg. ; Equation Arg. Eq. | Vil. We | Vin VII. VII. VILLIVIIL GEORGIUM SIDUS. Taste XI1V.—Radius Vector for 1780, with the Secular Variation. 7 ; | Argument J. Mean Anomaly. | oO. | t | Ir, | & eS SS ee | te ce Sec. Var. | Sec Var. | Sec. Var. e 2 (Rad. Ved. Diff. Rad. Veéts Dif, | Rad. Veet. Dift.|~ | # | | 0.0 | 0.0 | | 0.0 } O | 20.0722 005.2 || 19.9620 004.5 4 19.6547 | 0029 | 39 | Z I | 73 | 130 t | 20.0721 005.2 |} 19.9547 004.5 || 19.6417 131 002.9 | 29 2 | 20.0717 4 | 005.2 || 19.9472 73 004.5 | 19-6286 | 002.8 | 28 =e | 6 ieee a 78 Efe ne = of! Palle wagngt 3 | 20.0711 005 2 || 19.9394 0044 4 19.0153 pind 7 | 20.0702 | ss | 005.2 || 19.9314 | so 004. 4 | 19.6019 oe 002.6 26 20.0691 | 005 1 || 19.9232 | 004 3 i 19.5884 | 002.5 — 14 ———~ ——_——— _ 84 —————| 136 | 34 5748 | O02. | 2 UP AEN Ce A ey eS ay Lee | 20.0677 | 005.1 || 19.9148 p26 | x 62 | 19.90 | ' 20.0643 | | 005.1 || 19.8973 | eS | 004-2 |] 195470 =| 21! ————| gl ; 20.0622 foal 005.1 || ne wee | a 004.2 || 195330 | 20.0598 | 26 | 005-0 || 19.8790 94. 004.1 || 19 5189 | 20.0572 | | 005.0 || 19.8696 | 004.1 || 19.5047 Som a seks epics |e aes ae al DOT Rake | 20-0543)" 47 | 005 O'} 19 8599) | og |: OG4On!| 19-4004 20.0512 | | 0050 || 19.8501 | 12, | C040 || 19.4759 20.0479 | 33 005.0 || 19.8400 | 003.9 i 19.4613 ——-——, 36 |—— — ————- 102. ——— —— 20.0443 | 105 003.8 | 19.4467 20 0404 | 39 005.0 || 19.8193 106 | 0038 | 19-4319 20.0364 | 40 | 005.0 | 19.8087 005 0 | 19.8298 003.8 | 19-4171 43, ———— 108 / 20.0321 45°| 005 © | 19.7979 | 145 | 003 7 || 19.4022 20.0276 | 72 | 0050 || 19.7869 | 112 | 2003-6 || 19.3872 20.0228 | + 004.9 || 19-7757 003.5 || 19.3722 20.017 53 | 115 003.5 | 19.3570 200125 56 | 0048 || 19.7528 117 | 003-4 19.3418 20.0069 | 0048 |) 19.7411 | 003 3 || 19.3266 57 —_, 18 ——— ——____ 20.0012 | 004.8 || 19.7293 ray | 0032 | 19.3113 19.9953 | 32 | 004.7 | 19.7172 | 122 | 003.1 | 19.2959 19.9891 4 004-7" || 19-7050 es 003 dad 19.2804 19.9827 i 004.6 | 19.6926 | Be 003.1 || 19 2650 19.9760 69 004 6 | 19.6801 | 136 | 003.0 { 19 2495 19.9691 m1 {- 0046 | 19.6675 128 | 003° | 19.2340 19.2184 GEORGIUM SIDUS. TABLE XIV.—Continued, Argument I. Mean Anomaly. IIL. IV°. | 8 | —— —-——_ —c-—--__-_ — 03 (Sec. Var. | Sec. Var. | & |Rad. Veet! Diff. T= |Rad. Veet Diff. —— Rad. Vee : oo | 0.0 H a | he 141 eae H fone 000.3 |) 18.7472 140 02.2 | 18.403 000.1 || 18.7332 002.3 || 18.3957 18.7194 ; 002.4 || 18.3879 | 18.7057 37 | CO2.5>|| 18.3803 | 18.6921 002.6 || 18.3729 rc ReORRET IS es eeches Gol csSeois 18.6787 | 5, | 002.6 | 18.3659 18.6655 3 002.7 || 18.3591 18.6524 737 | 902 8-| 18.3526 ——_—_— 130 —— 18.6394 128 | 092.9 || 18.3463 18.6266 | 136 | 003-0 || 18.3403 18.6140 003.0 || 18.3346 000.6 || 18.6016 | we 003.1 | 18.3292 000.7 || 18.5893 | 157 | 003.2 | 18.3240 coo 8 |} 18.5772 003.3 | 18.3192 000.9 |} 18.5653 | 003.4 | 18.3547 000.9 || 18.5536 115 003.5 | 18.3103 COLO || 18.5421 003.5 || 18.3063 OO1.1 }| 18.5308 001.2 || 18.5197 003.6 |) 18.2992 01.3 || 18.5088 003.7 | 18.2961 Oo1.4 |} 18.4981 003.7 || 18.2932 cor.5 || 18.4877 603.8 || 18.2907 001.6 |} 18.4774 003-9 || 18 2884 003.6 || 18.3026 001.7 || 18.4674 g | 203-9 || 18 2865 oo1.7 || 18.4576 ae 0040 || 18.2849 001.8 |} 18.4480 9 004.0 || 18.2835 001.9 002.0 002.1 002.2 | 18.8335 18.8188 18.2824 004.1 || 18.2817 604.2 || 18.2813 004.3 }/ 18.2811 GEORGIUM SIDUS. Taste XV. Equations of the Radius Vedtor. | “ Argu- | Equation ment. | Il. 30 42 0.0069 50 0.0068 60 | 0.0067 70 | 0.0066 80 | 0.0065 90 | 0.0063 1co | 0.0061 110 | 0.0060 120 0.0058 130 0.0056 140 0.0053 0.0051 0.0049 0.0046 0.0044 0.0042 0.0037 0.0034 0.0030 0.0020 0.co16 Equation {II. — -. —_—— 0.0029 0.0028 0.0027 —— 0.0027 0.0026 0.0025 0.0024 0.0023 0.0022 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019 0.0018 0.0016 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.0010 0.0009 0.0008 0.0007 0.0006 Argument. | Equation Equation | Argu- agama Of Vil. | ment. | c | | ©.0000 0.0098 1000 0.0000 | 0.0098 990 | 0.0000 0.0098 980 O.0001 0.0097 970 | | 0.0002 0.0096 960 0.0003 0.0096 950 0.0004 0.0095 940 0.0006 0.0093 930 0.0007 0.0092 920 0.0009 0.0090 gio 0.0011 0.0089 gco 0.0014 0.0087 890 0.0017 0.008 5 880 0.0019 0.0082 870 0.0022 0.0080 860 Argu- | Equation. 0.0025 0.0078 850 0.0028 0.0075 840 0.0032 0.0073 830 —-—_ - -- 0.0035 0.0070 820 0.0039 0.0067 810 0.0043 0.0064 800 —__— ——_— | ——__ -— 0.0046 0.0061 790 0.0050 0.0058 780 SBI 0054: 779 —_ --—— — ~ 0.0058 0.0052 760 0.0062 0.0049 7150 0.0058 0.0046 740 —_ — 0.0054, 0.0043 0.0050 0.0040 0.0046 0.0037 0.0043 0.0034 —— 0.0039 0.0031 0.0035 0.0028 0.0032 0.0025 0.0028 0.0023 660 ment. Argu- | Equation | Equation. | Argu- ment. | il. Iii. ment. 350 ©.0009 0.0005 65 360 0.0007 0.0665 640 370 0.0006 | 0.0004 630 | 380 0.0005 0.6003 620 390 0.0004, 0.0003 610 400 0.0003 0.0002 600 410 9-c002 0.0002 590 420 0.0001 O.CCOI 580 430 | 0.0001 O.COOl 570 | “eter fe = 440 0.0001 0.0001 560 450 0.0000 ©.00c0 550 460 0.0000 | 0.00C0 540 | | 470 0.0000 0.0000 480 0.0000 ©.0C00 490 ©.0000 ©.0000 500 0.0000 ©.00C0 IV. 35° 360 0.0025 0.0022 370 0.0019 380 0.0017 390 O.COl4 0,0011 400 O-OO11 0.0009 410 0.0009 0.0008 420 0.0007 0.0006 0.0000 Vou. XVI. O*. N. It 58.4 12 45.1 13 31.6 14) 17.8 15 3.8 By peas 16 34.8 17 19.9 18. 4.7 Taste XVI. GEORGIUM SIDUS. Latitude. —— *QIUIIO IC, 45-1 44:8 Variat. for Latitude. 32 42.9 33. 16.9 33 50.2 34. 23.0 34 55-1 Bin e2055 35. eres 36 27.5 36 57-0 Chel @ § Argument IX. Long, of the Planet — long. of Node. Variat. | for PS i | Ww Ne ~“I~3I~ SO ons OwO wo Latitude. Heliocentric Latitude for 1780, with the Secular Variation. “SDUSIOYIC, 44 41 44. 53- 45 4s 45 1543 45 25.0 45 33-8 45 41.8 45 49.0 GEORGIUM SIDUS. TasLe XVII. Reduétion to the Ecliptic and Logarithm of the Cofine of the heliocentric Latitude, eS Arg. IX., or Argument of Latitude. i] tl Redue. Redu&t. to the | to the Ecliptic. | Ecliptic. (0), | Log. cofin. | is vase cofin, Dewees of | i Bae ae Heilocen. lat. || VII’. | Heliocen. lat. aa ozs e | | S: Pte ° i 0.0 ro.occo0c0 «| Ba 9-999999 1 0.4 10.000000 8.3 9-999999 2 0-7 10.000000 | 8.4 9-999989 ——EEE z| ae eS 3 1.0 10.000000 8.6 9-999988 4 tag 10.000000 8.7 9-999988 5 1.6 10.COC00O 8.8 9-999987 Gils odio 9-999999 8.9 9-999986 7 2.3 9-999999 9.0 9-999985 8 2.6 9-999999 g-1 9-999984 9 2.9 9-999999 9-2 9:999984 Se) 3-2 9-999999 9.2 9-999983 rH 355 9-999999 || 9:3 9.999982 12 38 | 9.999998 9-3 9-999982 13 4.1 9-999998 9-3 9-999981 14 4d 9-999998 9:3 9-999980 15 47 9-999993 || 93 9-999980 16 4-9 9-999997 933 9-999979 17 5.2 9-999997 9:3 9-99997 18 555 9:999997 || 93 9-999978 19 5.8 9-999996 9:3 9-999977 20 6.0 9-999996 || 9-2 9-999976 21 6.3 9-999995 9.2 9:999976 22 6.5 9-999995 gt 9-999975 23 6.7 9-999964 9-0 9-999974 24 6.9 9-999993 8.9 9-999974 25 7.2 9-999993 8.8 9-999973 26 7-4 9-999992 8.7 9-999972 27 7-6 9-999992 8.6 9:999972 28 7.8 9-999991 8.4 9:999972 29 8.0 9-9$9991 8.3 9-999971 30 8.1 9:999990 8.1 9-999971 + XI. + x’ + vies + IV. | Redu&. to the Ecliptic. iD Ge Log. cofin. as | of Deg. VIL. | Heliocentric lat. S. 8.1 9-999971 30 8.0 9-999979 4h 78 9-999969 28 7-6 9-999969 a 7-4 9.999969 26 7-2 9-999968 25 6.9 9-999967 24, 6.7 9-999967 23 6.5 9-999 6 ee 6.3 9: 999966 2 6.0 9: 999965 z2 5.8 9-999965 19 5-5 9-999965 18 5:2 9999964 ap 4:9 9-999964 16 4:7 9-999963 eS) 4-4 9-999963 1 4. 9-999963 ug 3-8 9-959962 12 355 9-999962 7 3-2 9-999962 ue 2-9 9-999962 2.6 9-999961 2.3 9-999961 1.9 9-999961 6 1.6 999961 5 1.3 9-999961 4 1.0 9-999961 3 0.5 9-999961 2 0.4 9-999961 a ©.0 9-999961 fe) + IX’. + ue: GlE’P Groroian Bibl. See Biove. Groreian Monks and Nuns, are religious of Georgia, in A fia, who follow the rule of St. Bafil. GEORGIANA, in Geography, a name originally given to a tract of country in the province of Maine, in North America. GEORGIC, fomething that relates to the culture or tilling of the ground. The word is borrowed from the Latin georgicus ; and that of the Greek yrwelixo-, of yn, terra, earth; and reyafouat, opero, I work, labour, of eyo, opus, work. The Georgics of Virgil are four books compofed by that poet on the fubject of agriculture. GEORGIEYV, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go- vernment of Caucafus ; 32 miles W.N.W. of Ekaterinograd. GEORGINA, in Botany, fo named by Willdenow in honour of Profeffor Georgi; fee Grorcia and Dantia. We have retained the latter name, given by Cavanilles, for this fine genus, becaufe it has been univerfally adopted in this country, where the various fpecies feem likely to come into general cultivation. A change in fuch a cafe not only fhocks vulyar prejudices and illiterate indolence, but is ma- terially inconyenient. GEORGITZ, in Geography, a town of Walachia; 18 miles N.N.E. of Bucharett. GEOSCOPY, a kind of knowledge of the nature and qualities of the ground or foil, gained by viewing and con- fidering it. The word is formed of the Greek yx, earth, and cxorw, t fee, view. Geofcopy is only conjectural; but its conjectures are very well grounded. GEOSTATICS. See Srarics. GEPHRUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria, according to Polybius, which furrendered to Antiochus. GEPHYRA, a town of Syria, in the Seleucide terri- tory, according to Ptolemy; 22 miles from Antioch.— Alfo, a town of Africa, according to Polybius, in the vicinity of Carthage, fituated on the bank of the river Macros. GEPHYR£I, a people mentioned by Herodotus, who were probably natives of Gephyra in Syria; they migrated with Cadmus into Beotia, where they occupied the territory of Tanagra; but on being driven from thence by the Beo- tians, they took refuge in Attica. GEPID&, a people of Scandinavian origin, of whofe Gothic extraction Jornandes gives the following account : the Goths, leaving Scandinavia under the conduct of king Barith, put to fea with only three fhips. One of thefe, failing flower than the other two, was thence called ‘ Ge- panta,”’ fignifying in the Gothic tongue flow: and hence the name of Gepante and Gepide, which was at firlt given them as an appellation of reproach. Procopius like- wife exprefsly affirms, that the Goths, the Vandals, the Vifigoths, and the Gepide, were originally the fame nation ; that they had the fame cuftoms, manners, religion, and language; and that they only differed in names, borrowed, perhaps, he fays, from their different leaders, They entered Scythia with the other Goths, and fettled in the neighbour- hood of the Tanais and Palus Mzotis. There they con- tinued till the reign of Arcadius and Honorius, when, their number being greatly increafed, they approached the Danube, and having afterwards croffed that river, dwelt in the neighbourhood of Singidunum and Sirmium, about the year 400, where they {till were when Procopius wrote his hiftory. They had kings of their own, and formed a diltin® nation, feparate from both the Oftrogoths and Vifigoths ; GER but perhaps not one from the Lombards, who were after wards matters of Italy. Under their king Faftida head gained a complete victory over the Burgundians about a year 245 and Faftida, elated with this vidory laid waite oe conten a ei Goths, whofe fore ‘Oltseoth: ed to grant them land for their accommodatj frie defeated by the Goths, they afterwards preter other northern nations, in the irruption which they ; d with their united forces into the empire in the eon i : of the reign of Claudius; but they were defeated b tat prince with great flaughter. In’ the year 279 Probus Baiada: eae brass upon promife of thes quiet j Hut whit the emperor was enga in war i the Eatt, they feized the Weighbodan. a and ert cut off in great numbers by Probus after his return. St Jerom mentions the Gepide among the other nations of Barbarians, who, i 407, invaded Gaul, and overran its provinces. Attila afterwards fubdued them, and ‘s they ferved under him in his famous expedition into Gaul. Upon the death of Attila, the Gepide thook off the yoke under the conduét of their king Ardaric, who obeaied 2 complete victory over the Hunns; in confequence of which the Gepide not only recovered their ancient liberty, but pained pofleffion of ‘ancient Dacia, N. of the aan rom which they had been driven by Attila. They then entered into an alliance with the Romans, who sated i pay them an annual penfion. Having obtained pofleffion of part of Illyricum, with the city of Sirmium, they con tinued quiet till the year 537, when, on account of their Joining the Heruli, and plundering the neighbourin ro vinces, they were compelled by Juftinian, after path encounters, to abandon Illyricum, and to content themfelve with Dacia beyond the Danube. In the year $50, a ae arofe between the Gepide and the Lombards: fe th latter, having obtained a reinforcement from Tultiniah a tacked the former, and gave them a total overthrow. This defeat was followed by a peace between the two nations which was brought about by the mediation of Jultinian The peace, however, was of fhort duration. Under ee refpective fovereigns, viz. Cunimandus, king of the Gepid ‘i and Alboinus, king of the Lombards, they Lies d mutual hottilities ; and determined to abide by the iffue of a fingle battle. The conteft was very fevere, and remained for fome time very doubtful; but at lait, the Gepidz were put to flight, and purfued by the victorious Lombards witl fuch flaughter, that {carcely one was left alive of the ot merous multitude that had engiged. After this victory t] i Lombards feized the whole or Dacia, and obliged the Ge. pide either to fubmit, or to retire. Henceforth the hay no king of their own, but lived in fubjetion either 4 th Lombards, who were matters of their country, or to ihe princes of the neighbouring nations, ef{pecially the Hunns fettled in Pannonia. Thus their kingdom terminated in he year 572, Juftin, the fucceflor of Juitinian, being then em- peror. GEPPE, in Geography, a river of Germany, which rifes near Neuftat in the county of Mark, and runs into th Bigge,-two miles N. of Olpe, in Weitphalia. Z pay Carr. See Acuen. ERA, a town of Saxony, in the Voc Elfter ; 30 miles 8.S.W. of Leiplic. Ni. ieee Ais t long. 12~ 6'—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of the Upper Po.—Alfo, a river of Germany, which runs into the Unftrull, fix miles N. of Erfurt. Gera, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Ptolemy. GERJEA, a town of Lufitania, Ptolemy. Ue GER&S. GER GERSTIUM, a country of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia. GERASTUS, a town and port of the ifland of Eu- bora, upon the S.W. coalt, about 15 miles from Caryttus ; now Geretto. GERALFINGEN, in Geography, a town of Switzer- land; four miles S.E. of Soleure. GERANDRUM, in Aacient Geography, a town of the ifland of Cyprus. GERANGER, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Drontheim ; 22 miles $.S.W. of Romfdal. GERANIA, in Botany, the 73d natural order in Juf- fieu’s fyftem, or the 13th of his 13th clafs. The following is his definition of this, one of his moft important and extenfive claffes. Cotyledons two. Petals many. Sta- mens inferted below the germen.—The Calyx is of one or many leaves, very rarely deficient. Petals hypogynous, or inferted below the pilftil, definite in number, very rarely in- definite, for the moft part diftinét, but fometimes connected at the bafe, into a fort of falfe monopetalous corolla; they are rarely wanting. Stamens inferted below the pill, de- finite or indefinite, the filaments often diftiné&t, fometimes united all together into one tube, more rarely collected into feveral bundles; anthers diftind, or united only in Viola and Impatiens (called Balfamina by Juflicu). _Germen fupe- rior, in many fimple, in fome multiplied; ftyle fingle, or multiplied, or deficient ; {tigma one, or feveral. Fruit fu- perior, fometimes fimple, of one or many cells ; fometimes, but more rarely, multiplied, each pericarp of one cell. The order of Gerania is thus defined by Juffieu. Calyx fimple, either of five leaves, or of one deeply five-cleft, permanent. Petals five. Stamens definite, their filaments united at the bafe, fometimes all fertile, fometimes part of them abortive. Germen fimple; ftyle one; ftigmas five, eblong. Fruit either of five cells, or of five capfules, each cell or capfule containing one or two feeds. Corculum without a perifperm, (or albumen). Stem either fomewhat fhrubby, or herbaceous. Leaves with ftipulas, oppofite or alternate. Flowers, in the former cafe, oppofite to each leaf; in the latter, axillary. : Jufficu enumerates only two genera as properly belonging to this order, Geranium, which includes Lyedium and Pelar- gonium juitly feparated from that genus by the late M. L'Heritier ; fee Eropium: and Mon/fonia, which is but too nearly akin to Geranium. He fubjoins three genera as related to this order ; 7iopaolum, whofe affinity is very ob- fcure ; Impatiens (his Bal/amina), which is perhaps full lefs akin to it; and Oxalis, which aft we would rather refer to the Rutacee, an order which Juffieu feems but imperfectly to have ftudied. He indeed, like Linneus, hints fome re- lationfhip between Oxalis and Tribulus or Zygophyllum, both which laft he ftations in the firft fe€tion of his Rutacee; but we prefume to think they are there mifplaced, and that Oxalis is not fo much allied to them as to the real Rutacee, fo many of which are found in New Holland. In all fuch doubtful cafes however, which form the difficulty and the edantry of the ftudy of natural orders, and in which our chief guide being conje&ture, humility and candour are moft becoming, we merely aim at colleéting obfervations. The unnatural combinations complained of in a fy {tem profefledly artificial, cannot be half fo hurtful as error mafked in au- thority in the details of a pretended natural one. The doubts and hints of the excellent Juffien are in themfelves inftruétive, but how few are content like him to confefs their doubts! He has at length acquired a pupil worthy of himfelf in this country, Mr. R. Brown, whofe opportuni- ties of obfervation, among the paradoxical novelties of GER New Holland, have given ample {cope to his intelligence and affiduity. Gerrania, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace.— Alfo, a town of Phrygia.—Allo, an ancient townof the Pelo- ponnefus, in Laconia, on the confines of Meffenia.—Alfo, a mountain of Greece, in the territory of Megaris, towards the ifthmus of the Peloponnefus. : GERA‘NIS, or Geranium, in Surgery, a bandage for- merly applied to fra€tured collar-bones, and diflocated fhoul- ders. The word is derived from yzexvo:, a crane, becaufe the fhape of the bandage was thought to refemble an extended crane. , GERANITES, yeezv0:, a crane, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome authors to fuch pieces of agate, or any other of the femi-pellucid gems, as have round {pots in them, refembling in colour the eye of a crane. : GERANIUM, in Botany, yeexnm of the ancient Greeks, admirably named from yzexs0-, a crane, the germen and ftyle refembling the head and beak of that bird. Crane’s-bill.— Linn. Gen. 350. Schreb. 458. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 696. L’Herit. in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 432. Mart. Mill. Dié&. y. 2. Sm. FI. Brit. 729. Juff. 268. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 573. f. 1. Gertn. t. 79, pratenfe. Clafsand order, Monadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Gruinales, Linn. Gerania, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, acute, concave, permanent leaves. Cor. regular, of five large, obovate or obcordate, equal, {preading petals. Neétary five glands at the bafe of the germen, alternate with the petals. Stam. Filaments 10, awl-fhaped, recurved, united at the bafe into a {mall cup, five alternate ones longeft, all fhorter than the petals; anthers oblong, verfatile, five of them occa- fionally abortive. fy: Germen fuperior, with five furrows, beaked; ftyle central, awl-fhaped, longer than the ftamens, permanent ; ftigmas five, oblong, reflexed. Peric. Capfules five, aggregate, membranous, globofe, lateral, feparating at their infide, each attached upwards to a long, linear, flat; pointed, rigid, fmooth awn,, at length elaftically recurved, adhering by its point to the fummit of the ftyle. Seeds foli- tary, lateral, roundifh, their furface {mooth or dotted. Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five. Netariferous glands five. Fruit beaked, of five aggregate eapfules, each tipped with a long, recurved, naked awn. Obf. This genus, as above defined, contains only thé Gerania columbina of Linneus, or what are commonly called European Geraniums, or Crane’s-bills, bearing but one or two flowers ona ftalk. (See Eropium.) Thus it is adopted by Willdenow, who has 39 fpecies, 13 of which are natives of Britain. They are tolerably naturally diftributed into three feétions. * Flower-ftalks fingle-flowered ; 4 fpecies. G. fanguineum, Eng). Bot. t. 272, a handfome inhabitant of rocky woods and abrupt gravelly ground, is an example of this feétion, though the late Mr. Davall once found in Swit- zerland an occafionally two-flowered variety. See Fl. Brit. 739. A variety found on the Lancafhire coaft, of humble depreffed growth, with white red-veined petals, is frequent in gardens. G. fibiricum, Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t. 19, an inconfpi- cuous {pecies, is, we believe, conftantly fingle-flowered: ** Flower-ftalks two-flowered. Root perennial, 24 f{pe- cies. Moft of the Crane’s-bills ufually cultivated for orna- meat are of this divifion, as G. anemonifolium of L? Heritier. Curt. Mag. t. 206. This fhowy {pecies, difcovered by Mr. Maffon in Madeira, was, as Mr. Curtis records, long known in our gardens by the name levigaium, admirably expreflive of its {moothnefs, and the ~ French botanift changed it for the worfe. We could have es GER no redrefs, as the original name had not been printed. It is a hardy greenhoufe plant, throwing out, from its fhort knotty fem, a profulion of {preading, long-italked, fhining, palmate, prinnatifid /eaves, and many {preading, leafy branches, forked upwards. The /owers are large, of a fine crimfon, broader than a half-crown. G. macrorrhizum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 953. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 134, native of Italy, isa very common hardy perennial in our gardens, remarkable for the roundnefs of its red petals, and the ftrong, but aromatic, cedar-like, {cent of its herbage. The plant is of humble growth, with a fhort knotty /lem, like the laft. Leaves foft and downy. G. phaum, Linn, Sp. Pl. 953. Engl. Bot. t. 322 ; and _ G. fujfeum, Linn, Mant. 97, two {pecies very nearly akin, are remarkable for the dark brown colour of their flowers ; as G. reflexum, ibid. 257. Cavan Dill. t. 81. f. 1, is for its reflexed petals, and G. lividum, L’Herit. Geran. t. 39, firlt well determined by Haller at his No. 935, though he was not for fome time attended to, for its flat, round, ferrated petals, of a pale livid dove-colour. Thefe four lait are often feen in gardens about London. G. nodofum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 953. Engl. Bot. t. 1091, is the moft rare Britifh fpecies, and fcarcely found elfewhere but on the mountains of Provence and Dauphiny, in fhady laces. G. firiatum, Linn, Sp. Pl. 953. Curt. Mag. t. 55, a native of Italy, very hardy with us, is generally admired for its delicately pencilled bloffoms. G. angulatum, Curt. Mag. t. 203, now frequent in gar- dens about London, but from what country imported is not known, was firft afcertained as a diftinét fuecies by the late Mr. Curtis. Its fowers are prettily veined with reddifh pur- ple on a pale ground. G. pratenfe, Linn. Sp. Pl. 954. Engl. Bot. t. 404, a very handfome blue-flowered fpecies, common in pattures in the north, is extremely remarkable, and almoft fingular in this natural order, for having fometimes double flowers, in which State it was found near Athol houfe, Scotlaad, by lady Charlotte Murray in 1793. It is often feen with white petals. G. argenteum, Lim. Sp. Pl. 954. Curt. Mag. t. 504, a native of Mount Baldus, was introduced into England by the indefatigable and intelligent Mr. Lod lige, whofe zeal and liberality as a cultivator are above all praife. Its eaves are beautifully filvery, the plant dwarf, but the flowers pecu- larly large, blufh-coloured, veined with red. ; G. pyrenaicum, Linn. Mant. 97. Sm. Fl. Brit. 735. Engl. Bot. t. 405. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 42, common about Lon- don and Edinburgh, has not been well underftood, even by Mr. Curtis, who undertook to illuftrate it. Linnzus ori- ginally confounded it with mole hereafter mentioned, from which its even capfules, perennial root, and greater magni- tude, keep it very diftinét. *** Flower-ftalks two-flowered. Root annual; 11 fpecies. G. bohemicum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 955, placed firlt in this fec- tion, well drawn in Dillenius’s Hort. Elth. t. 133. f. 160, is remarkable for its very black hairy feed-veffels, and viicid herbage. t : G. molle, Eng]. Bot. t. 778,ought to follow immediately ; with difedum, t. 7533 rofundifolium, t. 1573 and pufillum, t.385. Phefefour, long confounded, and fcarcely underftood by any botanilt, are beautifully diftinguithed, in every degree of luxuriance, by their cap/ules, which are corrugated and naked in the firft; more flightly corrugated, but hairy, with reticulated feeds, inthe fecond; carinated, even and hairy, with reticulated feeds in the third, with much more entire leaves ; even and hairy, with fmooth feeds, in the lait, whofe hairs on the part in queftion are, moreover, clofe-preffed, not fpreading GER as inthe preceding. We were obliged to thelate Mr. Davall for firft calling our attention to this part, and thus leading to one of the moft fatisfaftory difcoveries in European botany. G. carolinianum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 956. Jacq. Hort. Schonbr. v. 2. t. 140, where it is miftaken for a new plant, and called lanuginofum! follows thefe; with cohwnbinuim, Engl. Bot. t. 259. Towhich fhould fucceed lucidum, t. 75 3 then, if it be a diltinét {pecies, which we much doubt, purpureum of Will- denow, n. 39, and Villars Dauph. t. 49; and finally roder- tianum, Ingl. Bot. t. 1486. Curt. Lond. fafe. 1.t. 52. This purpureum has been a weed in Chelfea garden ever fince the time of Miller, but though Ray mentions it as a native, fee Fl. Brit. 732, G. robertianum 2, we never gathered it elfe- where. : Geranium, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the her- baceous perennial kind, of which the {pecies cultivated are, the dark flowered crane’s-bill (G. phceum); the knotty crane’s-bill (G. nodofum); the ftreaked crane’s-bill (G. ftriatum) ; the Siberian crane’s-bill (G. fibiricum) ;_ the bloody crane’s-bill (G. fanguineum); and the lons-rooted crane’s-bill (G.macrorhizum) ; but there are other forts that may be cultivated with propriety. The fifth fpecies has feveral varieties, as with fhort fpread- ing {tems and {mall leaves and flowers; with large leaves deeply divided, and with variegated or {triped flowers. Method of Culture.—Each of thefe {pecies of plants is capable of being increafed in two ways, either by fowing the feeds or parting the roots. Where the firft methcd is adopted, the feeds fhould be fown in the autumn as focn as they have become perfectly ripened, either in pots or a fhady border in the garden ground where the mould is light and fine. As foon as the plants have acquired a few inches in growth, they fhould be pricked out into other pots, or beds of firilar earth, at the diftance of five or fix inches in the latter cafe ; but where this cannot be done, they may be permitted to re- main until the following autumn or {pring, and be then put out into other pots or borders, where they are to continue, being occafionally watered in a moderate manner. In cafes where the parting of the roots is practifed, care fhould be taken not to divide them too much; planting, them out in the early part of the autumn, either in pots or where they are to continue. Mott of thefe forts of plants are of rather hardy growth, and fucceed in moit kinds of ground, demanding but little at- tention in their cultivation, befide that of their being kept clear from all forts of weeds and rubbifh. All of them are capable of affording variety in the borders, clumps, and other parts of pleafure gardens, and the potted kinds produce a fine effet in fituations about the houfes ix mixture with thofe of other forts, GERANOS, [epaso-, in Antiquity, a remarkable dance performed in the fettival called Delia. GERANZAGO, in Geography, a town of Italy ;, nine miles Ii.N.E. of Pavia. GERAR, or Gerasar, or Gerarah, in Scripture Geo- graphy, a city of the Philiftines, S. of Judeh. "The Abi- melechs were kings of this city in the time of Abraham and Ifaac. At this time it was the boundary of the Ca- naanites, fituated on the river Bezor, about fevenmiles S.W. of Debir, and fix E. of Beerfheta. It afterwards he- longed to the tribe of Simeon. Gerar extended far into Arabia Petraxa, being 25 miles from Eleu.heropolis, be- yond Daroma, the fouth of Gudah. Mof's fays, that it lay between Kadefh and Shur; ard he mentions the brook or valley of Gerar. (Gen. xxvi. 26.) Sozomen fpeaks. of a little town, called Gera, 50 furlongs from Pelufium. | Gerar GER Gerar is confounded with Beerfhieba, Athkelon, Allufh, and Arad. GERARD, Herz, in Botany. See AScoroprum. Gerarp, in Biography, who flourifhed about the end of the eleventh, and commencement of the twelfth centuries, founder and firft grand-maiter of the order of St. John of Jerufalem, was a native of the ifle of Martigues, on the coalt of Provence. While Jerufalem was in the bands of the Saracens, fome Neapolitan merchants obtained per- miffioa from the fultan of Egypt and Syria, in the year 1050, to erect a Benedictine monaftery, near the holy fepul- chre, for the convenience of the pilgrims who came to vifit it. Among others Gerard came to pay his devotions at the holy city, where he obtained a high character for piety and prudence. The monaftery foon became rich, and in .conformity with the fpirit of the times the abbot built, with the wealth poured in by the rich devotees, an hofpital for the reception of the poorer clafs, and with proper ac- commodation for the aged and the fick. The management of this he gave to Gerard. A part of the building was fe- parated for a chapel dedicated to St. John, becaufe it was faid that Zacharias, the father of St. John, had lived on the fpot where it was built. Gerard, after the -conqueft of Jerufalem, by Godfrey of Bouillon, projected the founda- tion of a new religious order, in which the ecclefiaftical and military character fhould be blended. He began, about the year 1100, to carry his defign into execution, when numbers of perfons affociated with him under the denomina- tion of the “ Hofpitalers of St. John of Jerufalem,’’ who, befides the three ufual vows of chaftity, poverty, and obe- dience, took a particular vow to devote themfelves to the relief of all Chriftians in diftrefs. The order was recog- nized, and privileges granted to it by pope Pafeal II. Gerard was the firlt grand-mafter, and fuch was the com- mencement of that order which has been fo frequently and fo Tong celebrated in hiftory: the members of it were firft denominated knights of Rhodes, and afterwards knights of Malta. Morevi. Gerarp, Jounx, a learned German Lutheran divine, was born at Jena in the year 1621, where he was educated, ‘but at the age of nineteen he went to Altdorf for the fake .of greater progrefs in the oriental languages, and in 1643 the univerfity conferred on him the degree of M.A. He was appointed profeflor of philofophy at Wittemberg in 1646, and in 1652 he was nominated profeffor of hiltory at Jena. After this he was created doctor of divinity, and made profeffor in that faculty, having devoted much of his time to biblical and theological learning. He was likewife appointed rector of the univerfity of Jena. He died in the year 1688, and left behind him, as memorials of his great learning, mzny works of very deep erudition: among thefe were “ Harmonia Linguarum Orientalium ;” “ Difputatio- num theologicarum Fafciculus;’ ‘De Ecclefie Coptice Ortu, Progreflu, et Doétrina.’’ GERARD, ALEXANDER, was born at Garioch, in the county of Aberdeen, in the year 1728: he was educated at the grammar-{chool at Aberdeen, and fo great was his pro- grefs, that he was entered a ftudent in Marifchal college when he was but twelve years of age. Here he devoted his firft four years to the ftudy of Greek, Latin, the ma- thematics, and philofophy, and was, at the clofe of the courfe, admitted to the degree of M.A. He now com- menced his theological itudies, which he profecuted at the univerfities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. Immediately on the completion of his twentieth year, he was licenfed to preach in the church of Scotland, and in the year 1750 was chofen affiftant to Mr. David Fordyce, profeflor of philofo- GER phy in the Marifchal college at Aberdeen, and in two years afte. wards, upon the death.of the profeffor, Gerard was ap- pointed to fucceed him. Here, after a fhort time, the de- partment affigned to Mr. Gerard was confined to moral phi- lofophy and logic, the duties of which he difcharged with con{cientious and unwearied diligence, and with equal fuc- cefs and reputation. He was a member of a literary fociety at Aberdeen, which met very regularly every fortnight during the winter, when the members communicated their fentiments with the utmoift freedom, and received mutual improvement from their literary difcuffions. In 1759 Mr. Gerard was ordained a minifter of the church of Scotland, and in the following year he was appointed profeffor of divinity in the Marifchal college, and about the fame period he took his degree of doétor of divinity. He continued to perform the feveral duties attached to his offices till 1771, when he refigned the profeflorfhip, together with the church living, and was preferred to the theological chair in the univerfity of King’s college, a fituation which he held till his death in 1795. Dr. Gerard’s attainments were folid rather than brilliant, the effe&t of clofe and almoft in- ceffant ftudy, and a fine judgment. He had improved his memory to fuch a degree, that he could, in little more than an hour, get by heart a fermon of ordinary length. He was author oF s An Effay on Tatte,’” which was publifhed in 1759, and which obtained for him the prize of a gold medal, from the Society of Edinburgh. This work was afterwards much enlarged and feprinted in 1780. His ‘¢ Differtations on the Genius and evidences of Chriftianity,” publithed in 1766, are well known and highly appreciated ; fo alfo are his “* Effay on Genius,’? and his fermons in two volumes. In the year 1799 his fons gave the world a pofthumous work of much merit, which had been left among the papers of his father, entitled ‘* The Paitor’s Care,’’ which made a part of his theological courfe of leétures. As a clergyman the conduét of Dr. Gerard was marked with prudence, exemplary manners, and the moft pun¢tual and diligent difcharge of his minifterial duties: his fermons were fimple and plain, adapted to the common clafs of hearers, but fo accurate as to fecure the approbation of the ableft judges. As a profeffor of divinity, his great aim was not to impofe by his authority upon his pupils any favourite fyftem of opinions; but to imprefs them with a fenfe of the importance of the minifterial office ; to teach them the proper manner of difcharging all its duties; and to enable them, by the knowledge of the {criptures, to form a juit and impartial judgment on controverted fubje&s. Poffeffing large itores of theological knowledge, he was ju- dicious in feleGting his fubje&ts, happy and fuccefsful in his manner of communicating inftruction. He had the merit of introducing a new, and in many refpects a better, plan of theological education, than thofe on which it had formerly been conduéted. Having a conftant regard to whatever was practically ufeful, rather than to unedifying fpecula- tions, he enjoined no duty which he was unwilling to exem- plify in his own conduét. In domeftic life he was amiable and exemplary ; in his friendfhips fteady and difinterefted, and in his intercourfe with fociety hofpitable, benevolent, and unaffuming ; uniting to the decorum of the Chriftian paitor, the good breeding of a gentleman, and the cheer- fulnefs, affability, aud eafe of an agreeable companion. GERARDE, Jouy, a furgeon and famous herbalift of the time of queen Elizabeth, was born at Namptwich, Chefhire, in 1545. He praétifed furgery in London, and rofe to eminence in that profeflion. Mr. Granger fays “he was many years retained as chief gardener to lord Burleigh, who was himfelf a great lover of dinate: and had the bet cel- ; lection GER FeGtion of any nobleman in the kingdom: among thefe were many exotics, introduced by Gerarde.’? ‘This is confirmed by the dedication of the firft edition of his Herbal, in 1597, to that illuftrious nobleman, in which he fays he had “that way employed his’principal ftudy, and almoft all his: time” then for 20 years. It appears therefore that ke had given up his original profefion. Johnfon, the editor of his fecond edition, fays ‘* he lived fome ten years after the pub- lithing of thiswork, and died about 1607 ;”’ fo that he fur- vived his noble patron nine years. See Crcit, WILLrAM. Gerarde lived in Holborn, and had there a large botanic garden of his own, of which he publifhed a catalogue in 1596 and again in 1599. Of this work fearcely an im- preffion is known to exiit, except one in the Britifh Mufeum, which proved of great ufe in preparing the Hortus Keaven/is of Mr. Aiton, as ferving to afcertain the time when many old plants were firft cultivated. Holborn was then in the out- fkirts of the town on that fide. The reader of Englifh hiftory will recclle& that the hypocritical Richard IIT. afked the bifhop of Ely to fend for “fome of the good ftrawberries which he heard the bifhop had in his garden in Holbourn,” by way of fhewing himfelf in good humour at the council, while he was in fact meditating the feizure of lord Haftings. The catalogue of Gerarde’s garden con- tains, according to Dr. Pulteney, 1033 fpecies, or at leatt fuppofed fuch, though many doubtlefs were varieties, and there is an atteftation of Lobel fubjoined, afferting his having feen nearly all of them growing and flowering. This was one of the earlieft botanic gardens in Europe. The great work of our author is his Herbal, or General Hittory of Plants, printed in folio in 1597, by John Norton, who procured the wooden cu‘s from Frankfort, originally done for the German herbal of Tabernzimontanus. The bafis of the text was the work of Dodonzus entitled Pemp- tad-s, for which alfo we believe the fame cuts had been ufed; fee Dopon«us. Lobel afferts that a tranflation of the Pemptades had been made by a Dr. Priett, at the ex- pence of Mr. Norton, but the tranflator dying foon after, the manufcript was ufed by Gerarde, indeed without ac- knowledgment. The intelligent reader of the Herbal will obferve that moft of the remarks relative to the places in which certain plants are found, their common ules, &c., belong to the original work, and refer to the country in which Dodonzus wrote, not to England. Gerarde is alfo accufed of having been no Latin fcholar, and of ine made many miftakes in the additional matter which he tranf- Fated from the works of Clufius, Lobel, &c. He alfo cer- tainly mifapplied zany of the cuts. Notwithftanding fuch faults, Gerarde had the great merit of a praétical know- ledge of plants, with unbounded zeal, and indefatigable perfeverance. Dr. Pulteney juftly obferves that notwith- ftanding his manifeft inferiority to Lobel in point of learn- ing, it mult yet be owned that Gerarde contributed greatly to bring forward the knowledge of plants in ee His connection with the great, and his fituation in London, fa- voured an extenfive correfpondence, both with foreigners and his own countrymen ; and his fuccefs in procuring new exotics, as well as fcarce indigenous plants, was equal to his diligence and affiduity. In fact, we owe to Gerarde and his friend’ the difcovery of many new Englifh plants ; and his name will be remembered by botanifts with efteem, when the utility. of his Herbal is fuperfeded.’? Among the perfons to whom he was indebted for the communication of exotic plants and feeds, are recorded fir Walter Ra- teigh, Edward lord Zouch, and lord Hunfdon, with many of lefs elevated rank. A fecond edition of Gerarde’s Herbal was publifhed by I GER Dr. Thomas Johnfon in 1636, which has ever fmce been a very popular book, and indeed, as Haller remarks, Ge- rarde was the claffical author of the Englifh, almoft to the time of Ray. Johnfon, like many other editors, cenfured his author with great freedom, and undoubtedly made many effential corrections. He has prefixed a lilt of his additions, which are very numerous, and a learned hiftorical preface. He was a man of far more learning than Gerarde, but by no means fo good a botanift. Among the moft valu- able of his additions are the communications of Mr. John Goodyer of Maple-Durham, Hampbhire, a man of fingular penetration and accuracy in practical botany. Johnfon added many excellent figures, either of new plants, or in the place of fuch as were badly executed in the firft edition. Among the latter is Gratiola latifolia, which Haller complains he could make nothing of. It proves to be Scutellaria minor, and is well reprefented in Johnfon’s edition, p- 581. Mr. Granger, in his Biographical Hiftory of England, ed. 4. v. 1. 275, mentions only two engraved portraits of Gerarde. “ Joun Gerarpe; engraved by William Rogers, for the firft edition of his Herbal. Ditto engraved by Paine, for Johnfon’s edition of the fame book."” The latter, dated 1636, is a {mall copy of the former. There is a {prig of the potatoe plant in the left hand. - The writer of the prefent article is poffeffed of the cop- per-plate itfelf, very much worn, of an oétavo portrait of Gerarde, without age or date, holding a fprig of Ciflus, with his arms and the Italian motto, D’affenti, buone. In one corner below is a branch of Jafmine, in the other the Buglofs. The name of the engraver feems to be Hall. Pulteney’s Sketches of the Progrefs of Botany in England. Granger’s Biographical. Hiftory of England.. Haller’s- Bibl. Bot. S. GERARDIA, in Botdny, named by Plumier in memory of the Englith herbalift John Gerarde ; fee that article. (It may alfo Rive te commemorate a botanilt of our own time, Louis Gerard,.M. D. author of the excellent Flora Gal- loprovincialis,. publithed in 1761, with a few exquifitely engraved plates, and who, we believe, is {till living, at a very advanced age, at Cottignac in Provence, where the writer of this vifited him in 1786. (See Tour on the Conti- nent, ed. 2. v. 1. 204.) — Pium. Nov. Gen. 30. t. 12. Linn. Walla Sp“ Pisivesssi 22. Gen. 307. Schreb. 403. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 2. Juff. 119. Lamarck. Iiluttr. t. 529. (Nigrina; Linn. Mant. 42 and 512. Melafma; Berg. Cap. 162. Gertn. t. 55.)—Clafs and order, Didy- namia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Scrophu- laria, Jif. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, permanent, with five upright, fharp fegments. Cor. of one petal, ringent, tube round, longer than the calyx; upper lip erect, ob- tufe, flat, broadeft, emarginate ; lower reflexed, . deeply three-cleft, its lateral fegments emarginate, the middle one fhorter, deeply divided. Stam. Filaments four, fearcely fo long as the tube, two of them rather fhorter than the reft ; anthers fmall. Pi/?. Germen {uperior, ovate, finall ; {tyle fim- ple, fhort ; ttigma obtufe. Peric. Capfule ovate, of two cells and two valves, opening at the bafe, the partition contrary to the valves. Seeds ovate ; according to Linneus folitary, which does not appear from Plumier’s works. Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla two-lipped ; the lower lip in three deep emarginate lobes, the middlemoft deeply di- vided, Capfule of two cells, opening at the bafe. me 11s GER This genus, as founded by Plamier and adopted by Linneus, entirely depends on the firft fpecies. 1. G iuberofa. Linn. Sp. Pl. 848. (G. humilis, bugule foliis, afphodeli radice; Plum. Ic. 64. t. 75. f. 2.), found by Plumter in South America, and never feen by Linnzus. We have a very bad fpecimen from that country, which agrees with Plumier’s figure, as to the leaves and habit, but nothing can be made out of the fructification. The above characters are taken from Plumier’s works. Will- denow, by miftake, we prefume, fays the capfule is of three cells, Dr. Swartz appears not to have found this, or any other fuppofed Gerardia, in the Weft Indies. Linnzus, well aware that the various plants he fubfequently referred hither might probably not well accord with the above, has given a hint that * the fruétification requires examina- tion.’ Whatever might be the refult of fuch examination, this plant muit be the true, though it were the only Gerardia, and the reft in that cafe muft have a new generic appellation and character. 2. G. delphinifolia. Linn Sp. Pl. 848. Roxb. Coromand. y. 1.t. 40. is totally diftin& in habit and character. Its an- thers have a remarkable creft, indicated but mifreprefented in Roxburgh’s figure, for what there appears the anther is the creit, and the apparent point of the filamént is the true anther, at leaft in our fpecimen. 3. G. purpurea, a North American fpecies, clofely agreeing with the laft in habit, has no fuch creft or appen- dage, but their flowers are otherwife very fimilar. G. flava and fedicularia are undoubtedly of the fame genus with thefe; but glutinofa, figured in Lamarck t. 529. f. 1, has 2 very different appearance. It was gathered in China by Ofbeck, who likewife has given a plate of this fpecies in his Travels, t.9. Lamarck’s f. 2. is G. pedicularia. Willdenow has 12 fpecies in all, None of them feem now to be known in the Englifh gardens, though highly deferving of culture for the heauty and fize of their flowers. G.. purpurea indeed is mentioned in the Hortus Kewenfis, a8 a hardy annual, introduced in 1972, by Samuel Martin, M.D., but it probably did not long remain, or at leatt has not been difperfed among colletors in general. GERARDMER, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of St. Dié, 10 miles E. of Remire- mont. ‘The place contains 4,285, and the canton 4,285 inhabitants, on a territory of 1224 kiliometres, in ont commune. GERARDS, Mark, in Biography, a painter, born at Brn- ges in 1561; who came into England not long after the year 1580, and remained til] his death in 1635. He was made painter to queen Elizabeth, as he was alfo to Anne of Denmark. His works are very numerous here, though, as he ufed no mark, they are not eafily known. He painted very thin and neat; ornamenting the dreffes of his figures with jewels and pearls ina profufe manner. The flefh he generally painted of a greyifh teint, and thefe are the beft tokens of his hands by which his piétures may be dif- covered. : He painted a proceffion of queen Elizabeth to Hunfdown houfe, which is engraved by Vertue ; and he drew the queen and the knights of the garter in proceflion; from which defign Afhmole’s print is engraved in his hiftory of that order. He alfo wrote an introduétion to the art of drawing, which was tranflated and publifhed in Englifh in 3674. GERARDSTOWN, in Geography, a {mall town of America, in Berkeley county, Virginia, coptaining about go or 40 houfes ; 10 miles from Martinfburg. G Ey GERASA, or Gereésa, in Scripture Geography, a city beyond and eaft of the Dead fea, included by fome in Ceelefyria, by others in Arabia; placed among the cities of the Decapolis, Matt. vii. 28. The Greek editions of Matthew, for Gerefenians, read Gergefenes, and fome, Gadarens. Luke and Mark have the fame reading. Origen thinks that the true reading is neither Gerafa nor Gadara; but that the city of Gergefa is meant, which lies on the lake of Tiberias, where, in his time, the people fhewed the rocks and precipices from which the fwine ran down. It is alfo called Girafa and Girgefha, and was one of the cities that belonged to the half-tribe of Manaffeh. GERAS *ORFF, in Geography, a town of Auftria; 7 miles E. of Korn Neuburg. GERAU, a {mall country of Germany, fituated near the conflux of the Maine and the Rhine, in the circle of the Upper Rhine : its capital is Darmftadt. Grnrav, Grofs,a town of Germany, in the principality of Heffe-Darmitadt ; 8 miles W. N. W. of Darmftadt. GERBA, or Jersa, a {mall ifland in the Mediterra- nean, uear the coaft of Tripoli, Its principal produce is barley and fruit. Its ancient name was ‘ Lotophagitis.”” N. lat. 33° 56’. E. long. 11° 20’. GERBEL, Nicuovas, in Biography, a native of Pfortz- heim, was known and highly celebrated in the fifteenth cen- tury as amoit learned juriit. He was profeffor of the law at Vienna, and afterwards at Strafburg. He attained like- wife toa high reputation for his deep knowledge in hiftory and antiquities. He is characterized by De ‘Thou as one equally eftimable for his erudition and humanity. His works are “ Ifagoge in Tabulam Gracie Nicolai Sophiani;"? « De Anabaptiltarum ortu et progreffu ;?’ “ Vita Joannis Cafpiniani.”” The firft of thefe was publifhed in 1545, and afterwards augmented into feven books, comprehending a complete defeription of all Greece, and printed at Bafil in 1550. Gerbel corrected Cafpinian’s * Chronicle of the Cefars,’”’ and Arrian’s ** Hilt. of Alexander.”’ GERBERA, in Botany. See Arnica. GERBERAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Oife, fortified in the gth century, to flop the incurfion of the Normans; 12 miles N. W. of Beauvais. N. lat. 49° 32'.. E.long. 1° 57!. GERBERT, or Girzerr, Pope, in Biography, was a native of Auvergne, and born of ob{cure parents in ae neigh- bourhoed of Aurillac, where he was a monk ; and may be jultly confidered as one of the principal ornaments of the tenth century. | His talents were fo various, and his afliduity in acquiring knowledge fo great, that itis difficult to fay what were thofe branches of literature and fcience in which he chiefly exeelled. He was a divine, a mathematician, and a philofopher, and he wrote upon geometry, particularly the quadrature of the circle, aftronomy, logic and rhetoric. He was eminently diftinguifhed by his knowledge of mufic, on which he compofed, in Latin monkifh rhyme, a didaétic poem, entitled ** Ars Mufica,’”’ preferved in the Rawlinfon collection of MSS. at Oxford; and in this little work is a feparate treatife, under the title of “| Rhythmomachia,’? or the battle of numbers or figures, which Gerbert compofed asakind of game, foon after the arrival of the Arabian figures or cyphers in Europe, for which the author gives rules refembling thofe for chefs. Having cultivated mufic very afliduoufly, regardingit as the fecond in rank among the liberal arts, he muft have acquired a confiderable reputation -in it, as the authors of the twelfth century gave him the title of Gerbert the ** Mufician.”? He is {aid to have been as well {killed in the conitru@tion of mufical inftruments as in the ufe of them, particularly the hydraulic organ. William i mot GER ef Malmefbury fpeaks with wonder of the perfection to which he had-brought this inftrument by means of blowing it with warm water. His extraordinary talents and attain- ments eftablifhed his claim on thofe high ecclefiaftical pre- ferments to which he was advanced. Before his exaltation to the papal chair as the fucceflor of Gregory V., in the year 999, he was, firft, archbifhop of Rheims, and afterwards of Ravenna. As pope, he affumed the name of Silvefter IL.; but hedied in 1003, after having filled the papal throne four years. The day of his death is marked in his epitaph, which was compofed by pope Sergius IV., who fucceeded him in 1009, andis ftill to be feen in the Lateran church. This pope contributed very much to the reftoration of lettersin Europe. His genius, fays Mofheim, (E.H. vol. ii.) was extenfive and fublime, embracing all the different branches of literature; but its more particular bent was towards mathematical ftudies. Mechanics, geometry, aftro- nomy, arithmetic, and every kind of knowledge that had the leaft affinity to thefe important fciences, were cultivated by Gerbert with the mnoft ardent zeal, as his various writings teftify ; and he had the merit of employing every method that was proper to animate others in the culture of the liberal arts and fciences. ‘he effects of this noble zeal were vifible in Germany, France, and Italy, both in the tenth and fol- lowing century. Gerbert was, ina great meafure, indebted for his extraordinary acquirements, more efpecially in phyfics, mathematics and philofophy, to the writings and inftruc- tions of the Arabians, who were fettledin Spain. It was in this century that the plan of the holy war was formed ; and towards the conclufion of it, the bloody fignal was given by our learned pontiff, in the firft year of his pontificate. This fignal was an epi(tle, written inthe name of the church of Jerufalem, to the church uniyerfal throughout the world, in which the European powers are folemnly exhorted and in- treated to fuccour and deliver the Chriftians in Paleftine. The ontiff’s exhortations, however, were only regarded by the inhabitants of Pifa. We fhall here add that Gerbert’s great learning induced the vulgar to fufpe& that he was addiéted to magic, and Platina has adopted this abfurd notion ; for he fays that he obtained the papacy by illarts, and that he left his monattery to follow the devil. He allows him, indeed, the merit of a fincere repentance; but mentions fome pro- digies at his death, which will claim little regard on the tefti- mony of fuch awriter. The moft cemplete collection of Gerbert’s letters is that of Duchefne. Gensert, Father Martin, a German mufical writer, who belonged to the congregation of Beneditines, at the abbey of St. Blaife, in the Black Foreft, near Friburg, in Brif- gaw, about 30 miles from Strafburg, and has been elevated to the head of his fociety under the denomination of ¢ Prince- Abbot” of &t, Blaife. In 1763 the learned abbot publifhed the plan of a “ Hiftory of Church Mufic,” from the firit century to the préfent time, under the title of “ De Cantu et Mufica Ecclefiaftica a prima ecclefie /Etate, ufque ad prefenstempus.’’ After this publication he travelled through Germany, anda great part of France and Italy, in order to collect materials in the feveral convents and public libraries of thofe countries, and in 1765 he publifhed his ‘ Itinerary,’’ informing the public of the fuccefs of his refearches. A great part of the author’s materials for the hiltory of facred mufic were unfortunately deftroyed by fire; but availing himfelf of his remaining ftock, he ref{umed the work. Though the indefatigable and pious abbot was in fearch of the mufic ufed in the Romifh mafs and liturgy, he can- didly mentions the mufic of the Proteftant churches. He had procured from England Dr. Boyce’s magnificent publi- €ation of our cathedral mufic from the time of the reforma- Vou. XVI. GER tion till the middle of the laft century, and allows the cam- pofition to be excellent ; but withes for more plainnefs and fimplicity in favour of the words ; and thinks that fugues and: learned counterpoint, though ingenious produétions, render the words unintelligible. The author has inferted at the end of the fecond yol.the whole mafs, «In coena Domini,’ in eight parts, in {cere, to be fung antiphonally as in our choirs, from fide to fide. The harmony is very pure; but we have been fo lone ac- cuftomed to more varied, expreflive, and elaborate compofi- tions in our cathedral fervice, that fuch mufie would be thought very infipid and uninterefting, if adopted in our choirs. After this, the Gloria in excelfis” is given in the fame fimple counterpoint ; where nothing is varied. Thefe two choirs.are accompanied by two organsona ground, Then the gradual, the credo, the offertorium, the fan@us, and the benedidus, all in plain counterpoint. The communion fervice is in figurate harmony, but very dry, ancient, and common, The plates given of the primitive notation of the chants and hymns, before the invention of lines and f{paces, or a time-table ; and indeed, even before counterpoint was attempted, in dots over the words are innumerable, from the Lexicon Diplomaticum of Walther, and from ancient miffals. But thefe ever remain more curious than ufeful. For to acquire a clear conception of their import would lead to no ufeful or amufing knowledge ; as the chant or, plain- fong is generally fo rude, uncouth, and unamuiing, that it would furnifh a very inadequate reward for the labour of deciphering it. GERBEVILLER, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Meurthe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Luneville ; 5 miles S.of Luneville. The place contains 2,070, and the canton 9,169 inhabitants; ona territory of 2324 kiliometres, in 23 communes. GERBIER, Sir Barruasar, in Biography, a painter in miniature, born at Antwerp in 1592. He was employ- ed by Charles I. but is far more confpicuous as having been engaged, in conjunction with Rubens, to negociate a treaty with Spain ; and for having been for a time Britifh re- fident at Bruflels. His being in the fuite of Buckingham in Spain was the means of this elevation ; for which he does not appear to have been duly qualified. He was fomewhat acquainted with architecture, and was employed by lord Craven to give defigns for Hempfted-hall, which has fince been burnt. Being neglected by the court, he, in 1648, appears as an author, and founder of an academy at Bethnal Green ; and, in 1649, publifhed his ‘firft leéture on geography. He af- terwards went to Cayenne, and fettled with his family at Surinam ; where, by order of the Dutch, he was feized ‘and fent back to Holland, from the jealoufy of that govern- ment, which regarded him fince his naturalization in England asan agent of the kiag. On the reftoration of Charles IL. he returned to England, and prepared triumphal arches for his honour. Here he practifed various means of living for fome years, with no great refpect or profit, and at lait died in 1667, having paffed his latter days in all the expediente of quackery. GERBILLON, Joun Francis, a diflinguifhed’ Jefuit miffionary, was born at Verdun in 1654. He entered inte the fociety of Jefuits when he was fixteen years of age, and having conftantly the miffion to China in view, he qualified himfelf for it by the itudy of the mathematics, and thofs {ciences that might be moft ufeful to him in his great work. He had the geod fortune to fee lis withes accomplifhed ix 1685, when he was allowed to embark for China, in com- x pas) GER pany with fix other perions, members of the fame ieciety. . On his arrival he remained at Pekin, ftudying the language. d during thi iod, being admitted frequently into the . prelepch oF, theampe : = . Italy.—Alfo, a town of the Peloponnefus, in Laconia. Ptole- prefence of the emperor, he fo ingratiated himfelf with him, as to obtain an appointment to join an embafiy fent to regu- late the boundaries with the court of Mufcovy. He con- tributed much to the fuccefs of this bufinefs, and on his re- turn to China was treated with great honour by the empe- ror, who chofe him lis inftruétor in mathematics and philo- fophy. Gerbillon is fuppofed to have enjoyed more advan- tages than almoft any other perfon, for ftudying the man- ners of the Chinefe court, and for making obfervations on the neighbouring country. Heebtained permiffion to preach the Chriftian religion in China, and had the direction of the French college in Pekin, and wasin the end made fuperior- general of all the miffionaries fent from France. He died at Pekin in the year 1707, leaving behind him curious accounts of his eight journeys into ‘Tartary, which have been printed in Du Halde’s Defeription de la Chine. He was the author of the « Elements of Géometry,”” and of a work on Per- {peétive, both printed in a very handfome manner at Pekin. Moreri. ‘ GERBOA, in Zoology.. See Dirus. } GERBSTADT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the county of Mansfeld ; 30 miles S.W. of Deffau. N. lat. 51° 40’. E.long. 11° 47’. GERDAU, a river of Luneberg, which runs into the Ilmenau, at Oldenftadt. GERDAVEN, a tewn of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen, fituated on the Omet, near a confiderable lake, which is called the ** Calendar of Gerdaven,”’ from its prog- uofticating the weather ; 30 miles S.E. of Konigfberg. N. lat.54° 16. E. long. 21° 27'. GERDEN, atownof Germany, in the bifhopric of Pa- derborn; 14 miles E. of Paderborn. GERDES, Daniet, in Biggraphy, was born at Bremen in 1698, where his father was engaged in a commercial life. Great care was taken of the education of Daniel, who made a rapid progrefs in the claffics., At fir it was intended he fhould purfue the law as a profeffion, but the ,plan was ‘changed, and. he devoted himfelf to the ftudy of theology. Tn 1722 he was admitted into holy orders, and immediately afterwards made a tour on the continent, and formed an ac- quaintance with the moft learned men of that period. In 1726 he was admitted to the degree of doctor, and im 1735 he was chofen profeffor of theology at Groningen, and upon ‘his entrance on the office he delivered an oration <¢ De unc- ‘tione que Fideles omnia docet.’’? "The fame year he was eleéteda member of the royal academy of f{ciences at Ber- lins He diedin the year 1765, leaving behind him many works that bear ample teftimony to his learnmg and zeal in ‘the caufe of literature. His writings are moftly theological, and tend to the elucidation of the difficult parts of the Old and New Teftament.. Gen. Biog. GERDIN, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go- vernment of Perm, fituated on the Colva; 152 miles N. of Perm. N. lat. 59’ 40'. E. long. 56° 14’. ‘ GERDOBA, a mountain of Africa; 80 miles E. of Augeh. GEREEK, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 12 miles S. of Bahar. GEREM, a town of Grand Bucharia ; 15 miles S.S.W. of Badakthan. : GEREMSCHANGKAIA, a tow Ruffia, in the government of Upha; 36 miles W.N.W.. of Bugul- wa. GER GEREN, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerclia, om the -- Viltula ; g miles W.S.W. of Marienburg. ; GERENIA,or Genunivum, in Ancient Geography,atownot my.—A.lio, a town of Meffenia, on an eminence, S.W. of Ala- gonia. Paufanias faysthat this town was the fame with the “ Enope”’ of Homer. It was confecrated to Machaon, an ingenious phyfician, flain by Eryphilus, whofe bones were collected by Neftor, and depofited at Rhodon, near this town. Ithadatemple dedicated to Machaon. Eait, of it was 2 mountain called « Calathéon,’? on which was a temple confecrated to Calathea, with a grotto, having a {trait en- trance, and containing in its interior many curiofities, GERENNA, or Jerenna, in Geography, a town of Spain, inthe prevince of Seville, furrounded by large ftones, fuppofed to have been the effect of an earthquake ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Seville. GERENSCHANSKOJ, a fortrefs of Ruffian-Siberia, in the government of Kolivan; 240 miles S.S.W. of Koli- van. N. lat. 50°45’. E. long. 79° 14’. GERESHEIM, a town of the duchy o E. of Dufleldorf. GE RE SOL, in Mufic, one of the clefs. a5 GERESPA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the interior of Media, fometimes called Gerepa, and. Ge-, refa. 4 “GERESTADT, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the bifhopric of Aggerhuus ; 32 miles S.W of Tonfberg. GERESTO, a town of the ifland of Negropont; 15 miles S. of Carilto. GEREUTH, atownof the principality of W 5 miles N. of Ebern. Bt ; GERFALCON, Grrratcon, or Jerfalcon, (fee Fatco). This is naturally a very bold, wild and fierce bird, and is therefore very difficult to be reclaimed; but when that is done it proves one of the very bet kinds, and will fly at almoft an thing. The beak of the gerfalcon is always blue, and t claws are remarkably long and dirong. ; : In going up to the gate, as the fportfmen exprefs it, thefe birds do not hold the fame fort of courfe that others do, but immediately climb up upon the train on fight of the bird, and as foon as they have reached her, they immediately make the attack, and generally pull her down at the firft encounter ; but if not, always at the fecond or third. This fort of hawk is to be fed and rewarded like the others. It is of a very fly and crafty nature, and is fo flothful, that it loves to keep the cafting a long time ; therefore, inftead of cotton, it is proper to give them fometimes a caiting of tow, and to keep them fharp fet. As to the reclaiming this fort of hawk, it is only to be done by gentlenefs and kindnefs ;. and when fhe has been taught to be turned loofe, fhe is net to be taught to come to the pelts of hens or other fowl, But fhe muft never be fuffered to tafte any living flefh, for that will be apt to draw away her love from the hand and voice. Whenever fhe eats, the faleoner muft be clofe to her, and muft make her eat the choiceit pieces out of his hand. There is great care to be taken in the making of thefe birds, for as they are made at firft, fo they are for ever; and it is a necef- fary caution, with birds of this bold and fierce nature, not to f Berg; 5 miles urzburg 5 -hurry over the bufinefs, but to repeat the fame thing very often till it is perfe@tly fixed. See Fatconry. GERGAR, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Grenada; 10 miles S. W. of Purcliena. GERGEFALVA, atown of Tranfilyania; 16 miles W. N. W. of Hermenttadt. GERGESA. See Gerasa, 4 - GER- GER GERGESENES, or Gincasuires, in Ancient Ecography, Francient people, who inhabited the land-of Canaan, before the Ifraelites took poffeflion of it. Theirterritory lay next above that of the Amorites, on the eaft fide of the fea of Tibe- yias; and it was afterwards poffefled by the half-tribe of Manaffeh. See Grresa. GERGETHA, or Gereairma, a town fituatedin the ‘Troade, E. of Rhetium, Ophrynium, and Dardanus, in the vicinity of the {cite of Troy or Ilium,-near mount Ida. This town appears to have been inland at fome diftance from the fea. - GERGINA, a town of Afia, in Phrygia, at the footof niount’Ida, feeming to be the fame with Gergetha. GERGIS, the name given by Steph. Byz. to the Gergetha’ of Strabo. . ~ Gerais, in Geography, a town of Africa; 80 miles W. of Tripoli. ; ‘ ~* GERGOVIA, in Ancient Geography, a trongly fortified place of Gaul, belonging to the Arverni. According ‘to Cefar (1. vii. 36.) it was fituated ona very high mountain, and every accefs to it was extremely difficult. At length. it was obliged to fubmit to the victorious arms of Rome, and it was probably fo completely deftroyed, that no trace remains from which we may afcertaia its fituation. It has been conjec- tured, however, that its fituation was in the vicinity of Clermont. GERHARDSBRON, in Geography, atownof Germany, in the principality of AAnfpach; 28 miles W. of Anfpach. N. Jat. 49°. 14’. E. long. 10°.—Alfo, a town of Wurtemberg ; 28 miles E. of Tailbron. ‘ ~GERINES, a fea-port of the ifland of Cyprus, anciently called “ Cerynia.’? The walls, which are about half a mile in circumference, appear to be ereGted on the foundation of the ancient walls. This place has one entire church, and two or threeinruins. Its chief trade is with Caramania, whither it exports rice and coffee brought from Egypt, and whence it brings back ftorax, anda great number of paflengers. Ge- rines is therefidence of an Aga and Cadi: 16 miles N.N.W. of Nicofia. GERINGSWALDA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Veipfic ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 5’. E. long. 12° 46'. ; GE RIS, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile ; 8 miles N. of A‘hmunein. -GERISA, in Ancient Geography, .a town of Africa Pro- pria, fituated between the two Syrtes. Ptolemy. GERISAU. See Grrsav. _GERKOW, Jorxow, or Boreé, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz ; 22 miles N. E. of Saatz. .GERLACH, Srupirey, in Biography, was born at a village in. Swabia in the year 1546. He laid the foundation of a learned education at Stutgard, and became diltingwithed for his diligence at the univerfity of Tubingen, where, in 1566, he took his degree, of .B. A. with creat applaufe. ortly after this he withdrew from the uniyerlity on account of the plague. He was admitted to the degree of door in philofophy, in 1567 at, Eflingen, and in 1573 he accompa- mied an embafly from the emperor Maximilian I[. to the Turkifh court. _He continued at Conflantinople about five years, acquainting himfelf with the manners and religion of the Turks and Greeks, and cultivating an acquaintance with the moft eminent. men in the latter communion. Upon: his return to Tubingen he obtained other preferment, and en- gaged in the dut es of his profeffion with fo much zeal and afliduity, as to injure his health. He died in 1612 in the 6th-year of his age. He was author of « An Epitome of. GER Ecclefiaftical Hiftory;? of «A Journal of the embafly fent to the Porte by theemperors Maximilian II. and Rodolf JI.’ abounding in curious and interefting particulars, hiftorical, ecclefiaftical, and theological: and numerous theological « Differtations,’? &c., Moreri. 7 GERLATZKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia, on the E. fide of the Irtifch, in-the governmentof Kolyvan; 212 miles W. of Kolyvan. N. lat. 54°. 20°. E. long. 757 24!. GERM, in Vegetable Philofophy. See Emsryo. Germ, in Navigation and Commerce, the name given in Egypt to {mall veffels which ferve to carry European mer- chandife from,Alexandria ‘to Rofetta, and to bring back to Alexandria the commoditiesof Egyptand Arabia. Thefe vef- fels are a kind of {trong barks, tolerably confiruted ; without decks, drawing little water ; and, according tetheir fize, hav- ing two or three mafts with very large latine fails, the yards of which are fixed to the heads of the mafts, and cannot be lowered, fo that, however bad the weather may be, the failors are obliged to climb up the whole length of them, in order to furlthe fails. They are, in general, of about five or fix tons burden. Goods are often damaged in thefe uncovered veffels, and the navigation of them is dangerous in a rough fea. Although the diftance which they have to fail is {carcely more than 12 leagues, and though the bay of Aboukir, which is in the middle of their paflage, affords them fafe fhelter, this coafting trade is not free from danger, efpecially at the mouth of the weftern. branch of the Nile, formerly called the “« Bol. bitic,’”’ now “the branch of Rofetta;”’ where is a bar formed by the fand, upon which the waves, driven by the wind from the offing, and oppofed by the ftream of the river, break with great fury. A {mall ifland, dividing the entrance of this branch, leaves.on each hand a narrow paflage, called in the language of the country « Boghafs,”’ a canai or ftrait. But there is only a narrow channel of this paffage which is fecurely navigable; for it is continually fhifting, on account of the inttability of the bottom and theagitationof the fea. Apuilox, “Reis,’’ or mafter of the ‘‘Boghals,”’ iscontinually employed in founding this changeable paflage, ard. indicating it to the “germs.’’ Infpite of all thefe precautions, they oftenget ow fhore; and, being foon overwhelmed with water and fand, perifh with their crews and cargoes. GERMA, or Germ, in Ancient Geography, a town of A fia, upon the Hellefpont ;. which, according to Piolemy, was a colony founded by the Gauls, named Voliftoboians, in Galatia. GERMAIN, Counr St, in Biography, a confpicuows perfon of a myfterious character, who refided in England a coniiderable time, and of whom nothing was certainly known, but that he was a fine performer on the violin, and an elegant, though uot a learned or original, compofer. Being here at the fame time as prince Lobkowitz, they were infeparable. He printed a book of violin folos to prefent to his friends and admirers, which he called. « La Mufique raifonnée,”’ in which there were elegant paflages, fingular movements, and amufing concetti, In his fongs, the melody was Italian, and in good tafle ; but the accompaniments were thin, and with- out carrying on any ingenious defign. It was reported, that when examined before the privy council, during the rebel- lion, he was obliged to difclofe, **fub figillo confeffionis,'? that he was originally a mufician by profeffion ; but that by play, and his Lonnes fortunes, he had realized an independent fortune; but this, like newfpaper reports, merits confirmation. »GERMATN, St. in Geography. See Si. GERMANS. GerrMAIn, St, a town of France, in the department of the Creufe, 15 milesN. W. of Gueret.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Aube ; three.miles S$. W.of Troyes, K2 ‘ —Alfo, GER —Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Orne ; fix rniles S. of Bellefme.—Alfo, a river of America, which runs into the Wabafh, N. lat. 39’ 20’. W. long. 87° 58’. Germain d’ Arce, St. a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe; fix miles S. E. of Le Lude. Germain de Belair, St.atown of France, in the department of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Gourdon ; fix miles S. of Gourdon. The place contains 1711, andthe canton 7478 inhabitants, on a territory of 155 kiiometres, in 12 communes. Germain-ks-Belles-Filles, St. a town of France, in the department of the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of St. Yriuix ; 16 miles S.S. E. of Limoges. The place contains 2015, and the canton 12,541 inhabitants, ona territory of 3124 kiliometres, in 8 communes. GerMaAin-du-Bois, St. a town of France,in the department of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Louhans. The place contains 1684, and the canton 11,316 inhabitants, on a territory of 2274 kiliometres, in 13 communes. Germ Atn-de-Calberte, St. a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Lozére, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- trict of Florac; 12 miles S.E. of Florac. The place contains 1720, andthe canton12,273, inhabitants, on a territory of 3324 kiliometres, in 14 communes. Germain des Foffes, St. a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Allier ; 12 miles N.E. of Gannat. Germ ain-l Herm, St. a town of France, in the department of the Puy-de-D6me, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- tri& of Ambert ; 10 miles S.W. of Ambert. Theplace con- tains 1725, and the canton 10,510 inhabitants, on a territory of 232; kiliometres, in 10 communes. Germatn-Lambron, St. a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Puy-de-Dé6me,and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t of Iffoire ; fix miles S. of Ifloire. The place contains 1706, and the canton 8348 inhabitants, on a territory of 130 kilicmetres, in 16 communes. GerMarn-Laval, St. a town of France, in the department of the Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié of Roanne; 12 miles S. of Roanne. The place contains 1125, and the canton 8443 inhabitants, on aterritory of 220 kiliometres, in 16 communes. GeERMAIN-en-Laye, St. atown of France, in the department ef the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- trict of Verfailles, feated on the Seine. A palace was built here by Robert, king of France, which was deftroyed by the Englifh in the year 1346 ; and another palace was erected by Francis I., which has been enlarged by feveralfucceeding kings, and particularly by Louis XIV.; 2} pofts W. of Paris. The placecontainsgooo, and the canton 14,355 inha- bitants, on a territory of 1074 kiliometres, in 11 communes. N. lat. 48° 54’. E. long. 2” 10’. Germary-du-Plain, St.a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Chalons-fur-Saone; fix miles S. E. of it. The place contains 1229, and the canton 6676 inhabitants, ona territory of 130 kiliometres, in 7 communes. GerMatn-de-Pringay, St. a town of France, in the depart- mentof the Vendée, 18 miles S.S.W. of Mortagne. GerMAain-de-Tail, St. a town of France, in the department of the Lozere ; 13 miles W. of Mende. Germain-en-Very, St.a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Niévre ; 15 miles S. S. E. of Nevers. Germatn-fur-Vienne, St. a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Charente ; four miles N. of Confolens. GERMAINMONT, Sr., atown of France, inthe depart- ment of the Ardennes ; five miles S. W. of Rethel. GER GERMAN, in Matters of Genealogy, fignifies whole, entire or own, ** Germani, quafi eadem ftirpe geniti.’” Feit. Hence, German, Brother, denotes a brother both by the father’s and mother’s fide, in contradiftinétion to uterine brothers, &c. who are only fo by the mother’s fide. German, Coufins, are thofe in the fir or neareft de being the idee oe brothers or fifters. aie Among the Romans we have no inftance of marriage be- tween coufins german before the time of the emperor Clau- dius, when they were very frequent. : Theodofius prohibited them under very fevere penalties,. even fine and profcription. See ConsANGUINITY. GERMAN acacia, bexoar, bible, black, coins, com affes, em, a empire, flute, language, meafures, monics. See the fmt fub- ftantives. German School of Engraving. Germany was probably the birth-place,and Italy the cradle, of that art of engraving which is performed with a view to its being afterward printed on paper. Engraving itfelf, as performed on me- tals, and with the inftrument which is fillin ufe for that purpofe, which in the Englifh language is termed a graver, and in French la burin, is of very remote antiquity ; the Greeks of the early ages having employed it in the decora- tions of their fhields, pateras, and other implements of war and facrifice ; and the Hebrews, and perhaps the Chaldeans and Egyptians, at aftill earlier period ; but unlefs we fup- pofe (which is by no means improbable) that the art of en- graving and printing from tablets of wood travelled from China to Europe, it was referved for the artifts of Germany or Italy, and moft probably the former, firft to perceive that ink might be delivered, and impreffions thus multiplied to an undefineable amount, both from the incifions and fur- faces, of engraved plates of metal, and blocks of wood. The precife time of the difcovery has not been afcertain- ed. The baron Heinnekin, who had excellent opportunities of acquiring information, and purfued his enquiries with zeal and accuracy, has clearly fhewn that the fabrieation of cards for games of chance was firft praétifed in Germany, by means of the art of engraving, and was in ufe fo early as” the year 1376. Not long afterward, the fame art that had been fubfervient to amufement, was employed to gratify and diffeminate fuperftition, and extremely rude outlines of faints and legendary tales, which were cut on tablets of wood, and were printed in the cities of Mentz, Strafbourg, and Haerlem, toward the clofe of the fourteenth, and begin- ning of the fifteenth, centuries, are not uncommon in the port-folios and bibliographical colleétions of the curious. Of thefe engravings, the earlieft that is known, whofe in- {cription contains a dafe, and which may therefore be efteemed a great curiofity, is now in the library of earl Spencer. It was difcovered by Heinnekin in the library of a convent at Buxheim, near Memmingen: its fubjeét is the legendary tale of St. Chriftopher carrying the infant Jefus acrofs the fea; it bears the date of 1423,and is infcribed ‘ Chriito- feri faciam, die quacunque tueris. Illa nempe die morte mala non morieris..? This rude but curious engraving is of the folio fize, and was found carefully patted withinfide the cover of an old book, with a view, no doubt, to its prefer- vation. The fame magnificent colleGtion of earl Spencer con- tains alfo one of the original engraved blocks which were ufed in the very infancy of printing, before movéable types - were invented. It appearsto be of the wood of the pear tree, and in the courfe of the three centuries and a half Since nm GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. ft was engraven, is here and there perforated by worms. Yt may be neceffary to obferve, that the earlieft printed books were impreffed from engraved blocks or tablets of this kind. To the rude reprefentations of faints and mira- cles, their names and legends, cut in the Gothic charaéter, or German text, on a fcroll or label, were added, for the better information of the unlearned fpeétator, and in aid of the la- bours of the artift, if fuch he might be termed; and from thefe explanatory {crolls, the idea was firft caught of printing books, to which the works of imitative art became in their turn merely illuftrative. Some of thefe prints are fimply gutlines, and in others, which were produced fomewhat later, fhadowing, with a fingle courfe of lines, is feebly attempted. The tablet in the colleétion of earl Spencer, is of the former kind, and originally conftituted the fecond leaf of the fecond edition (of which there is a complete copy in his majefty’s Jibrary) of the hiftory and vifions of St. John the Divine. It is, probably, therefore, one of the earlieft engravings on wood that was ever performed, excepting the prototypes for the playing cards, which have been before-mentioned, and perhaps the oldeft of which the original tablet itfelf is fill extant. Hence it appears that the art of engraving is the parent of that of printing, and that at leaft that branch of printing which delivers the ink from the furface of the engraving, and which is now termed letter-prefs printing, originated in Germany. The prefent writer conceives that a great deal too much of f{purious importance has been attached to the invention, as it has been termed, of printing; that the traffickers in its productions, by diverting the attention of thofe who might elfe have become men of tafte, from its true mark, have ftifled or intercepted much of the pleafure which the engravers’ art is capable of imparting ; and that the philo- fophy of engraving lies buried alive under a heap of rarity and early rubbifh which has been piled, and is {till piling, on it without mercy, from the fhovels of dealers, colleCtors, and thofe who have, unfortunately for fociety, nothing bet- ter to do than to labour under them. A knowledge of the era, and of the author of a great work, or an ufeful invention, is certainly defirable. Befide that it isneceffary to the truth of hiftory, it feems to affitt us in indulging the amiable fentiment of gratitude. It would call forth our fincere regret, if the name of the author of Paradife Loft, or the Cartoons, or Principia, had funk in oblivion. But at the time which we are confidering, paper and ink were in conftant and daily ufe; and impreffions from dies and from feals had for ages been taken, and were under hourly obfervation; it therefore required no protracted train of thought ; no long conne¢ted chain of caufes and ef- fe&s; no mighty genius, hike that of Homer, Michael An- gelo, or Newton, to perceive that impreffions might alfo be taken either from the furfaces or incifions of engraved blocks or plates. The art of printing, as I conceive, origi- nated in a concurrence of circumftances entirely independ- ent of the minds or ftudics of its reputed inventors. We have feen that at firft, when it yas coarfely performed, and (like the tops of ballads, and the dying fpeeches of eriminals at prefent) grofsly addreffed itfelf to the lower clafles of the community, it was regarded as of very little confequence ; and though Kotter, Guttemburg, and Fauft, cannot be ranked in the clafs of iventors, the in- ferior merit of perceiving that the arts of engraving and printing might be applied to purpofes of greater magnitude and importane2 than had hitherto been obferved, may be yultly claimed for them. It is the important confequences gradually refulting from the difcovery, that have made us attach a. degree of credit to the name, and entertain an un- a merited refpect for the fuppofed refearches, of the difcoverers to which, in point of real ingenuity, the maker of the firft pair of {peétacles or ftockings, or the firft fheet of paper, would be far more juftly entitled, Intracing effeéts to their true caufes, it ought not to be forgotten that the great benefits we have derived, and con- tinue to derive, from engraving and printing, ought, in fair- nefs, to be partly afcribed to the difcovery of the means of converting rags into paper: this probably helped to fuggeft* the idea of printing, and perhaps two centuries anda half had {carcelymore than brought this invention to the degree of per- fection neceflary for the reception of impreffions from printing types and engravings. Had the modernart of making paper been known to the ancients, we had probably never heard the names of Fauft and Finiguerra, for with the fame kind of ftamps which the Roman tradefmen ufed for their pottery and packages, books might alfo have been printed; and the fame engraving which adorned the fhields and pateras of the remote ages, with the addition of paper, might have fpread the rays of Greek and Etrurian intelligence over the world of antiquity. The procefs of printing is in- deed fo fimple in itfelf, and was fo nearly obvious in the ftate of things we have juft attended to, that a child at play, who wanted to multiply a given form, might almoft be afhamed not to have perceived it: and we ought rather to wonder it was not difcovered fooner, than that it was difcovered fo foon, The art of engraving and printing from tablets of wood, then, may be faid to have been rather difcovered than invent ed in Germany, and rather feen than difcovered. That it was little thought of at the time, may be inferred from the number of wood cuts, the production of this period, which appear without either dates or the names of their authors, who were at once the defigners, engravers, and printers of their own works, but who deemed thofe works of too little importance to claim for themfelves diftinGtion on acecunt of having performed them. For the accommodation of thofe perfons who could not afford to purchafe manufcript copies of the Old and New Teftaments, befide the apocalyptical vifions of St. John the Divine, which has been already mentioned, a {mall folio yo- lume, entitled ‘“Hiftorie Veteris et Novi7T'eftamenti,”’ (com- monly known by the name of “The Poor Man’s, Bible,’’ ) was publifhed about this time, or foon after. In the fame manner as the former, each leaf, printed froma fingle en- graved block of wood, confifted of a mixture of reading with pictorial reprefentation, fuch as it was; to which colour was in fome inftances afterwards added with the hair pencil, or fome fuch implement. The printing was perfermed only on one fide the paper, and two of het leaves being patted together have the appearance of a fingle leaf printed on both fides. Copies of thefe early wood cuts, fufficiently faithful, may be feen in Strutt’s Biographical DiGtionary of Engravers. As the title of this anonymous and undated book (the Poor Man's Bible) imports, its publication was regarded merely asa cheap contrivance for diffeminating the knowledge of holy feripture. Other books of engravings, printed in the fame manner, were foon afterward produced, among which are “ Hiftoria beate Marie Virginis,’? ‘* Ars Memorandi,’’ «© Ars Moriendi,”’ and ‘ Speculum Humane Salvationis ;’’ but we pafs over, as of minor importance, all particular men- tion of thefe and various other engravings on wood by un- Known workmen, which were apparently executed in Gere many, about the time now under our obfervation. The next work which. bears a date after the print of St. Chriftopher and the infant Jefus, and the firft engraved book which bears date at all, is called “the Chiromancy of Doétor Hartlieb.’” It confifts of twenty-four {mall folio leaves, printed on dosh fides, GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. fides. “ At the beginning of this curious book,” fays Strutt, “isa large vignette, reprefenting Dr. Hartleib kneeling and prefenting it to the princefs Anne, who is .feated upon her throne; and the names of thefe two perfonages are engraven at the bottom of their portraits. The prints in this book are exceedingly rude ; but have not, as far as one can judge from the copy of one of them, given in the “ Ideé generale. d'une Collection complete d’eftampes,’’ the appearance of eine fo ancient as thofe in the Apocalypfe, or Poor Man’s ible. ‘'his curious compilation is dated 1448, and the name of Jorg Schapff, the artift, who is, fuppoied to have. performed the-engravings, appears upon the fourth page.” Of Hans Sporer and Johan von Paderborn, whe are men- tioned among the earlieft German engravers on wood, we know nothing more than their names. . They may perhaps be the authors of fome of the works we have enumerated. Johan Schnitzer executed the geographical charts for the edition of Ptolemy, printed at Ulm in 1486. His map of the world is ornamented with ¢ez rude heads, which. are intended to reprefent the winds, and is infcribed, « Infculp- tum efl per Johannem Schnitzer de Arnfheim.’’ Sandrart indeed mentions and copies a print, which he believes to bear the date of 1455, and which is marked with, a cypher, fuch as the reader will find in ourfirft plate of the monograms, &c. of the German {chool of engravers. As Shis cypher is compo‘ed of the initials of Hans Sporer, it, may poflibly be from his graver; yet neither Sandrart, nor the author of “ The little chronological Series of Engra- yers,’? which was printed at Cambridge, afcribe it to him; the latter afferts in his preface, that the two fives in the date, or what Sandrart fuppofes to be fuch, are intended for fevens ; which makes a difference of twenty-two years. in the age of the print, and brings it down to the time when the elder Schauflein is believed to have flourifhed. The fubje&t of the above print is a young woman careffing an elderly man while fhe fteals his purfe ; a fubje& which has been often repeated by other maiters, both on copper and on wood. _ In what part of Germany, Hans or John Schauflein was born does not appear. Strutt fays, ‘‘his prints are exe- cuted ina bold {pirited ftyle, and the compofitions fhew him to have been a man of genius, though the ftiff manner which characterized the early German matters obfcures much of their merit. Befides which they are incorreétly drawn; the extremities of the figures, in particular, are very defective. Schauflein ufually marked his prints with an H and an 8; or an I and an S joimed together in various ways.’ To thefe he fometimes added a baker’s peel, which formed a un upon his name, a peel, in the German language, being called Schaufel, and the word Schaeuflein fignifying a little peel. At other times we find prints of this early period, marked with two little peels croffing each other, which perhaps. may mean the two Schaufleins, if they ever worked in conjunétion. ‘Lhe works of the elder Schauflein are chiefly very {fmall, and he is therefore claffled among “ the little mafters.’”’ “Lhe moit remarkable of them are, “ A Crucifixion, with St John, the Virgin, and two Soldiers ;'’ ‘¢ The Virgin and Child 5?” “* St Chriftopher,’? and.“ St. Laurence m Con- verfation with St. Augullin ;’’ theze are all of the .circular form, and each about two inches and a quarter in dia- meter. : The principal wood cuts by the younger Schauflein are as follow, ‘© Adam and Eye,” a {mall upright; ‘ Lot and his Daughters,’” a middling-fized. print, length-ways ; “ Chrift preaching to the Multitude from the Ship ;” a middling-fized print, length-ways, marked with an I and an S joined together, without the peel; “ The Life of Chrift;”? a fet of middling-fized upright prints, jn quarto; another fet of «* The Life of Chrift;?” in an o€tavo volume, confifting of 37 prints, entitled “ Vite et paffo Jef Chriiti,” &c. publifhed at Francfort by Chriftian Egolophus, A. D. 1537. To thefe are added, “‘ Hiftoria-Evangelio ;’? con- taining the miracles, parables, &c. of -Chrift, in_thirty-fix prints, the fame fize as the above, and printed on both fides. Thefe are marked with the I and S joined together upon the peel. This artift is prefumed by Strutt to have alfo engraved _ on copper: but perhaps “ the very free etching of a land- {cape,”’ if not the plate executed with the graver, of « Soldiers converfing,’’ of which this author treats, may be the work of a third engraver of the fame firname. The date of the latter is 1551, and Strutt has previoufly recorded of the third Schauflein, that he has feen by him q print of two men fighting, cut on wood, in a coarfe but {pirited manner, | and a very fine mafterly etching in the ftyle of a painter, reprefenting a large company at an entertainment im a garden; which prints prove him to have been a man of great abilities. He was probably of the fame family with the former two. In the year 1493, appeared the celebrated Chronicle of Nuremberg, which was compiled by Hermann Schedel,. a folio work, ornamented with a confiderable number of engravings on wood by Wilhelm Pleydenwer% and Michael Wolgemut. Thefe engravings are greatly, fuperior to all that had previoufly appeared in Europe,. and confift, for the mott part, of figures of various kinds, and land{feapes which, though profefledly views of certain cities, towns, &c. bear fo little refemblance to thofe: places refpettively, that they are probably altogether the work of fancy. ‘They are, how- ever, cut in a bold and fpirited flyle, and the characters ck - the heads are in fome initances far from being badly de- lineated, though that meagre ftiflnefs, is every where pre- yalent, which fo ftrongly marks the early art of Ger- many. - Se was a native of Germany, and perhaps of Nuremberg, but it does not appear that he ever. engraved, on copper, or ufed any monugram or other mark by which to diftinguifh his engravings from thofe: of his affociate. Michael Wolgemut, or Wolgemuth, was born at Nurem- berg in the year-1434. He is faid to have, been inftruéted in engraving by a certain Jacob Walch, but both Strutt and Huber doubt this fact, grounding their doubt on the want of refemblance between the ftyles of defign and engray- ing of thefe two mafters. Walch does not appear to have engraved at all upon wood, whereas Wolgemut did little elfe. The engravings on copper attributed to Wolgemut do not bear even a diftant_refemblance to thofe of Walch, The latter was a tame artift, or rather workman,.and his work charaéterized by labour and care, which .is generally ill, beftowed ; whereas Wolgemut may even be termed an artift of genius, a word; by the bye;. which feems to batter down, the argument of Strutt and Huber, fince if a man of genius; {tudy under a mere manual workman, as.by chance he may, he will certainly emerge from the ftyle, or want of ityle of ” his matter. ’ i Wolgemut did oceafionally engrave on copper, but his works on wood are far. more numerous, and more generally known. In Strutt’s account of this artift, he fays, “ we have fome few excellent engravings on. copper, executed about this time: thefe have much of that {pinjted flyle in’ them which appears in the woader cuts of Wolgemut ; the are marked with a-W furmeunted. by a {mall 0, and thefe, prints, I verily believe, are the production of his graver,’” ‘ 4 He GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. He proceeds to defcribe one of the rareft and beft of thefe prints which he found in the colletion of the late Dr. Monro. It is ten inches and a half high, by feven and a half im width, and reprefents an old man feated in a praying pofture. He has a ftandard refting upon his left fhoulder, and a book before him. Behind him is an armorial fhield, with three different bearings ; and, at the bottom, a cave with a gate before it. Above the figure is a feroll, upon which is written, “ fee Wilhelme Dvx Agqvitaine et Comes Pitta- vienfis.”” The head of this figure is well drawn ; the hands are marked in a {pirited manner, the folds of the drapery are broad, and boldly expreffed, and the whole is compofed in a ftyle which does much honour to the artift. With refpeét to the mechanical part, it is executed with the graver only, ina dark, clear ftyle, yet without formality, fo as to have the effect of a neat etching. It is no fmall addition to the honour of Wolgemut, that he was the tutor of Albert Durer, a name fo greatly cele- brated in the annals of engraving. Arrived at the period when engraving both on wood and en copper began to fhine forth with fuperior luftre in Germany, it is neceffary to look back a few years in order to note the intrqduc¢tion of the latter branch of the art, into that part of Europe. The reader will find under the article Trartan /chool of Engraving, the popular and perhaps the trae account of the difcovery of the mode of printing from the incifions of the graver, which, foon after the middle of the fifteenth century, was introduced into Germany. As the firft engravers on wood were the manufacturers of playing-cards, (called Form/chneiders and Briefmalers 11 Germany and in France,) fo the earlieft modern engravers on metal, both in Germany and Italy, were goldfmiths, and the firft artilt who em- nently diftinguifhed himfelf in the former country was Martin Schoen. Yet having already mentioned Jacob Walch of doubtful chronology, it may not be mproper in this place to add, that this engraver was particularly fond of introducing Gothic archite&ture into his prints, in the delineation of which he took no {mall pains; but, from a want of know- ledge in peripective, his defigns of this kind are fadly con- fufed. He drew very incorrectly, and his compofitions are in the extreme of that ftiff and meagre tafte which charag- terizes the early productions of the German fchool. His mark, confifting of the initial letter of his firname and a kind of lozenge crofs, may be {een in our firft plate of mono- grams, &c. of the German fchool of engravers; but it is to be obferved, that there are fome few prints marked with the crofs only, which have the appearance of being more ancient than thofe which are marked with the W and crofs. Of the former kind are, “ahairy, wild, Man fighting with a Bear,” and “a Woman feated, carefling a Unicorn,” both fmall, and of the upright form. Of the latter kind (marked with the W and crofs,) a Gothic ornament for a crozier, a large upright; ‘“ Phe infide of a Gothic Edifice,”? a middling-fized circular plate, * A Ship ftriking againft a Rock,” with the infcription, * Haerdze’’ in German text, a {mall plate; a‘fet of mili- tary fubjects, {mall, and another of faints ftanding in Gothic niches, imall uprights ; « Three Skulls in an Arch, orna- mented with Gothic work ;’? and “ The Genealogy of Jefus Chrilt,”” wherein faint Elizabeth appears on a throne, reading, with the Virgin Mary and infant Chrift below. On the right hand is Dawid with his harp, and on the left Aaron. Behind the throne arifes a geriealogical ftem of the lneage of Chrift from David to Jolt pl reprefented (as ufual) by halt figures. print. Martin Schoen, or Sch6n, or Schoengauer, called by the foreign writers on art, Le Beau Martin, or Hiibfe Martin, and millakenly called by Vafari Martin of Antwerp, was born at Culmbach, a {mall city in the circle of Franconia, in the year 1420- He was educated a goldfmith, and a certain Luprecht Rutt, and Francis Van Stofs, or Stohlzirs,. have been mentioned as his tutors. At the age of forty, and probably before, he diitinguifhed himfelf by his extra- ordinary powers in the arts of painting and engraving, par- ticularly the latter, and died at Colmar in 1486. His prints are without dates, but he, rather than any other man: may claim the honour of having been the firft to praétife the art of engraving on plates of metal, with a view to their. being afterward printed on paper. Schoen engraved from his own compofitions ; his plates: are numerous, and fhew that his mind was fertile and vigo- rous. Ifit was not fufficiently vigorous to burft the Gothic fetters which at that time manacled the tafte of Germany, his admirers may folace themfelves by doubting whether the unaffifted powers of any individual whatever would haye been found adequate to fo difficult an occafion. The tyranny of eftablifhed cuftom is probably not lefs flern and unrelenting in the arts of defign than in thofe of education. How the {tiff and meagre manner,—the angular draperies This laft is a large upright: -and emaciated forms which chara@erize the early produc- tions of the Germans, came to prevail among the Gothic and Celtic nations, from whom they derived them, is a curious, and perhaps not an unimportant, queition. By com- paring the early efforts in art of all nations of which we have any memorials, we may be led to infer, that man has gra- dually learned to fee objeéts as they really exift in nature ; the images pictured on the retina of the eye appear to be cefracted in their tranfmiffion to the intelleGual retina, and in- every country continue be fo refra&ed, until, as the fun of {fcience flowly afcends, the morning denfity of the mental medium is gradually rarefied ; it is not lefs ebfervable, nor a lefs curious faét, that a fimilar haggard lanknefs in the attempts of man in an uncivilized ftate, to imitate the- human form, has almoit univerfaliy prevailed, even in ages and climates the mott diitant from each other, The early art of Egypt, Perfia, and Hindoottan, agrees in meagrenefs with the rude efforts of the Mexicans and South-fea iflanders, and with the German art, derived from the Gothie and Celtic nations, which is now under our obfervation. In the time of Martin Schoen, and Albert Durer, German art was much in the fame ftate with European ethics: theory was feparated from praétice; and both art and philofophy remained perplexed with falfe analogies, metaphyfieal jargon, and occult nonienfe ; till Bacon, and the refurrection of the antique, referred them to the refults- of experience, as a criterion of principle. Neither lord Orford then, nor any other man, fhould have difpraifed cither SchGen or Durer, for not having done, what no artiit of any other fchool has of himfelf been able tu per-- form’: for, not only neither of thefe-founders of the Ger- man {chool], but none of the early Jtalian matters, has fhewn that he pofleffed the penetration to fee ‘beyond. this gloomy exhalation from the barbaric ages, till the great examples of claffic art began to re-appear, and reflect back on Nature the light they had received from her. : The works of Schoen evince a ftrone mind operating ori the co-exifting ftaté of things, brooding over the abyfs from whence the future elements of his ‘att were to be created ; and ufing with confiderable fuccefs the materials by which it was furrounded? and’ it may be regarded as fortunate for hia CERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. his claims, that in the inftance of his St. Anthony he has adopted a fubje€t that in its nature fet him free, or nearly fo, from the Gothic bondage with which, on other occafions, his genius was fhackled: he has been'the firlt boldly to venture into the regions of Chimera, and by the potency of his art has compelled thence the demons that Callot and Teniers were afterward folicitous to invoke and proud to employ ; whilethe exprefiien of undifturbed faith and pious refignation ia the countenance of the holy man whoin they are hurrying into the air, fhews that he faw and copied that portion of Nature which fhe did youchfafe to unveil to him, with a clear vifion, and delicate, though determined, hand. If his demons are more fantaitic and lefs terrible than modern art would deem it proper to introduce, we fhould recollect that the age of Schoen was that of Ariofto, and that two centuries elapfed between the grotefque montiters of Ariofto, and the fublime dzmonology of Milton. It is confonant to the progreflive improvement of critical obfervation, that more fhould be known of the human counte- nance at an early period, (or indeed at any period,) than of the reft of the figure, becaufe it isthe kind of ftudy and obferva- tion in which men are moft interefted. Accordingly, Schoen’s heads are in general by far the beft parts of his performances. Thofe of his dingle figures of St. Martin and St. John have confiderable merit ; the divine character and expreffion of that of his Chrift bearing his crofs, as it appears in the good impreffions, have rarely been furpaffed ; and feveral other heads in this extenfive compofition poflefs a propor- tional fhare of excellence. In this, as well as in feveral other of SchGen’s prints, may be traced a latent feeling exifting in the mind of their author, that the engraver’s art might be rendered fubfervient to the expreflion of the various textures of fubftances. Nay more ; this elementary principle itrongly difcoyers itfelf in the manner in which he has treated the grain of the wooden crofs ; in the various modes he has invented of defcribing the different materials of drefs in which the figures are habited, and in the fterility of the ground; perhaps the latter is as much the refult of the neceflary operation of the unedu- cated graver, as of ftudy. Yet, is it in fuch full concord with the barrennefs of the fcene, and the barbarifm of the fubject, as to be not unworthy of favourable notices while the whole together feems to fhew that a fentiment has fubfifted from the very commencement of engraving, that it was fufceptible of this particular merit, and which may there- fore be fairly prefumed to be not founded in the fallacious refinements of modern fafhion, (though perhaps fometimes run after with too much of, fafhionable avidity,) but one of the primary elements of the art. The mark which Martin Schoen affixed to his works may be feen in our firlt plate of the monograms, &c. of the German fchoolof engravers. Heinneken has enumerated an hundred and fifty of hisengravings, moft of which are much and de- fervedly fought after by connoiffeurs. We fhall begin our fele& lit with the mention of thofe of which the tubjeéts are taken from facred hiftory. A Nativity, where the Virgin.Mary is in the agt of ador- ing the infant Saviour, who is lying on a ftraw pallet ; behind the Virgin appears a bull and an afs ; and in the diftance , Si. Jofeph. Three angels appear in the air, holding a Scroll. : Another Nativity, where Jofeph is feen in profile, holding alantern. ‘T'he bull andafs are here looking at the infant Chrift; the f{cene in a vaulted ftable, where, through an opening, are feen three fhepherds in converfation, and three angels hymning hallelujahs above. On the fame plate of copper, which is ftill kept as a cue tiofity, andmay be feen inthe chapel of the hofpital at Col- mar, Is likewife engraven ‘¢ The Adoration of the eaftern Kings.” The fcene here is alfo ina ftable, where the kings are kneeling and offering prefents to the infant Saviour, who isheld by the Virgin Mary. This plate is very ficilfully exe« cuted, and is of a {mall folio fize. « The Flight into Egypt,” in which angels are reprefent- ed aflifting St. Jofeph to gather dates, and lizards are in- troduced with both local and allegorical propriety, one on the ground, and two others climbing upatree. This alfo is in {mall folio. A fet of ten plates of «* The wife Virgins,” and * The foolifh Virgins,” fmall uprights. The former bear their lighted lamps in their hands, and are crowned with garlands of flowers ; the latter are trampling on their garlands, while their lamps alfo are on the ground. A fet of twelve fmall quartcs from the life of Chrift. Jn the firft he is reprefented in prayer on the mount of Olives; in the fecond, arrefted by the government ; in the third, be- fore the high prieft; in the fourth, foldiers are f{courging him; in the fifth, he is crowned with thorns; in the fixth, Pilate is wafhing his hands ; in the feventh, he is exhibited to the multitude ; in the eighth, bearing the crofs ; the ninth is the crucifixion ; the tenth the holy fepulchre ; the eleventh the defcent into hell, and the twelfth the RefurreCtion. A large folio.of « Chrift bearing his Crofs,’’ one of the moit celebrated of the engravings of Schoen, and on which we have commented above. A Crucifixion, alfo in folio, and which has been copied by M{rael von Mecheln. The Virgin Mary and St. John are in this print reprefented at the foot of the crofs, and angels in great affi@ion; “ The laft Judgment ;”’ a fet of twelve middle-fized uprights, of which the fubjeéts are taken from the life of the Virgin; ‘“* The Death of the Virgin,” ditto, which has alfo been copied by Von Mecheln and other contemporary artifts, and is a compofition of confi- derable merit, and one of the moft carefully finifhed en- gravings of the mafter; St. Anthony hurried into the Air by Demons,”’ a very capital work, of which we have already {poken, an upright folio, but not very large. A fet of the apoitles, very {mall. Of mifcellaneous fubjects, Schoen has engraved “ The Alchemiits fighting ;”’ “ A Bifhop’s Crozier,” in folio, in the {piral volute of which is the Virgin Mary with the infant Chriit, and an angel playing on a lute; an incenfe-cup or cenfer with a chain, ditto. Twelve {mall plates of gold{miths’ ornaments, confifting of armorial bearings with their appropriate fupporters, &c. clofing with an efcutcheon, bearing the eypher of the artiit himfelf, fup- ported by a female ; and “ The Battle againft the Saracens,”’ in which St. James appears on the part of the Chriltians; 3 large folio plate, prefumed to have been the laft of Schoen’s engravings, from the circumitance of certain diltant figures Beak the left hand corner being left in an unfimfhed ate. ‘ Bartholomew Schéen is faid, by profeffor Chrift, to have been the brother of Martin, but of the dates of his birth and death we find no account. His apparently very ane cient engravings are known by his initials, having between them a mark of feparation exaCtly refembling that which fe- parates the initials of Martin Schden, which confirms the probability of their having been brothers. The engravings of Bartholomew bear that fort of :efem- blance to thofe of Martin, that a bad copy does to a good original, and in neatnefs and feeling ave exceedingly deleltive: They are partly original, but the greater number are copies _ from the very fuperior prints of his brother, ae a GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. Uis original works confit chiefly of grotefque figures, ef which fomeare by.no means deftitute ofhumour. It may fuffice to mention the few following, which are all engraved en {mall plates. A beggar man, with an old woman in a wheelbarrow ; a man playing on alute, with an old woman holding a ladle and jar; two grotefque heads of an old man and woman, marked in a better ftyle than the former; and a lover and his mittrefs, a {mall circle. He copied the fet from the life of Chrift, the large folio of Chrift bearing the crofs, and various other of the prints of Martin, but the copies may be known from the originals, by their infericrity as well as by the difference between the two fignatures. When a man of original genius, or one who may claim that noble of human diltinGtions, the title of mentor, fhines forth on the world, a fwarm of bufy flutterers round his glory are kindled into exiftence, buzz in his rays, and think to fhare hisfame. Such was Bartholomew Schoen, when confidered with reference to his brother; fuch probably were Paul and George Schoen, who have been mentioned as goldfmiths and engravers of this early period, and fuch were thofe ether contemporary imitators and immediate fucceffors of Martin, who now claim fome fmall portion of our notice. OF talents far inferior to thofe of Martin Schoen, yet en- gravers to whofe works the virtuofi are by no means inatten- tive, were the I{rael ven Mechelns, father and fon, whom Strutt has miftakenly inclined to identify, as having been one and the fame individual. Both were natives of Mecheln or “Mekenin, a village near Bocholt, in the bifhopric of Muntter, in Weitphalia. The elder Ifrael von Mecheln (or Mekenin) was born in the year 1424, and, like Schoen, he was by trade a gold- {mith. —~ The year of the nativity of the younger Ifracl hag not been mentioned. ‘The lateft of his engravings is dated in the year 1522, and he died in1523. It has been conjectur- ed, that he ttudied under Martin Schoen, from the number he has copied of that mafter’s works, but this feems very in- fafficient evidence of the fact. It rather feems to fhew that the barrennefs of his invention correfponded with the drynefe and infipidity of his ftyle as an engraver. The works of the Von Mechelns (i the father en- rayed) are numerous. ‘That he did engrave, is inferred by ae ‘baron Heinnekin from the following circumftance. « An attentive examination (he fays) will make it appear that all thefe prints are not by the fame hand. I am almoft certain that Ifrael, the father, engraved feveral, thofe efpe- cially which have the greateft marks of antiquity, and are executed in a rude ftyle, approaching neareft to the work of the goldfmith. Nor, do I deny, that the fon may have com- menced orginally as a goldfmith, by engraving armorial bearings, flowers, foliage, crofles, and other ornaments: but he was a painter as well as an engraver, and a man of tolera- ble ability, confidering the time im which he lived.”’ Strutt, on the other hand, can fee no reafon for dividing the works which pais under this name, nor can he find any other difference in the prints than might reafonably be ex- pected in the works of an individual artift, who performed fo many: his moit early productions being of courfe the rudeft, but all equally defeétive where he has attempted to expre{s the naked parts of the human figure. The difficulty, and the importance alfo, of the queftion, ceafes, when we reflect that it was part of the profeflional bufinefs of the goldfmiths of that day, in which every ap- Vou. XVI. prentice was inttructed, to ornament their productions with engraving. OF thefe engravings, fo little worthy of learned contro- verfy, the principal are ; the portrait of the fenior Mekenen, an elderly man with a long beard, his head drefled with a turban. The plate is in quarto, and bears the infcriptiona «© Tfracel von Meckenen, Goldf{chmit.’’ Ditto of Mekenen, junior, and bis wife, infcribed « Figuracio facierum Ifrahelis et Ide Uxoris, I. V. M.”’ in 8vo. « The Defcent of the Holy Ghof;”’ « St. Luke Painting the Virgin and Chitd,’’ and a fet of prints from “ The Life of Chriit ;’” fall upright folios, though varying a little from each other in dimenfions. Thefe are among the prints which Heinnekin fuppofes to be the work of Mekenen the father, and Strutt, the early productions of the fon. They bear the evident marks of being the attempt of a novice, being wretchedly engraved and quite as ill drawn. & Judith and Holofernes,’* of the folio fize. Inthe back ground is an army, where cannon and other modern imple- ments of war are ignorantly introduced. « The Banquet of Herodias.”” This alfo isa folio plate, twelve inches in length, and marked Ifrahel V. M. At one end is feen the decolla- tion of St. John the baptitt ; ard at the other, Herodias and her father appear feated at table. “* Herod’s Cruelty,”’ is a middle-fized upright. Of holy families, the Ifracls engraved feveral, the chief of which may be known from each other by the following peculiaritie In one, the Virgin Mary, habited in a long robe, is fitting with the infant Chrift, while beyond an en. clofure appears St. Jofeph repofing. Toward the bottom, at the right hand corner, is a {mall grafshopper, from which it has obtained the name of the Virgin ot the Grafshopper. It 1s in quarto, and inferibed Lfrael V. M. (This plate has been copied, with improvements, both by Albert Durer and Mark Antonio.) In another, the Virgin Mary, feated ina landfcape, is about to kits the infant Saviour ; the Deity ap- pears in the clouds above; and St. Jofeph fleeping. (This isa middling-fized upright, and is partly finifhed by means of {cratches, which are apparently made with the peint of the graver, fomewhat in the manner of Rembrandt.) In an- other, which is dated 1480, the Virgin and Child are fur- rounded by four angels. ‘This is alfo a maiddling-fized upright. OF other facred fubje€ts, we fhall mention « The Annun- ciation,’’ in 8vo., where an angel appears holding a feroll, on which is the motto « Ave. Gra,’’ and the Virgin is kneeling before a praying defk, on which is infcribed I. V. M. “The Death of the Virgin Mary,” copied from Schoen. “The Virgin crowned by Angels, and ftanding on a Crefcent, while the fall of Satan is reprefented below,’? an upright folio. «« The Scourging of Chrift,” ditto. « The Bearing of the Crofs,” a large folio, copied from Sch6en, and two large folios of the ‘° Crucifixion of our Saviour,’’ which are dif- tinguifhable from each other by the following peculiarities in the one, angels are receiving the blood from the wounds of the dying Saviour, while the Madonna and St. John ap- pear below: in the other, which is efteemed the fuperior work, St. John holds a book in one hand, while the other is hfted, and the hasds of the Madonna are clafped ; and the ground in the latter is almoft left white, whereas in the former it is nearly covered with engraving. From the legends of the Roman Catholic rubrics, the younger Ifrael has engraven, ¢ St. George and the Dra- gon,” in 4to. inferibed I. V. M. SchGen's « St. An- thony tormented by Demons ;” and “ St. Jerome,’ in which the faiat appears re in a room aad poiating to a Es Xv full, GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. full. On the right hand corner is the lion’s head. The lat- ter has been copied by Lucas of Leyden, and in the opinion of Strutt is Lfrael’s mafter-piece, though perhaps that dif- tinétion ought rather to be granted to his moral print of « A Cavalier and Lady, walking in amorous talk, while Death from behind a Tree is fhaking an Hour-glafs,’”’ a defign which, whoever was its original author, had previoufly been engra- ven by Sporer or Schauflein, and has been fubfequently co- pied by Albert Durer and feveral others. Of the fingular defign confilling of three naked women, with a globe hanging above, which is infcribed@.25.@. there is alfo an engraving by Ifrael. A. folio plate of “ The Death of Lucretia ;’’ a pair in quarto, of “ A Woman finging, while a Man accompanies her on the Lute,"’ and “A Man playing the Organ, whilea Woman blows the Bellows,’’ both marked I. M.; Schoen’s richly ornamented incenfe cup; and feveral plates of grotefque if e and other gold{miths’ ornaments, are all that we fhall mention of the two hundred and fifty engravings by the Ifraels which are enumerated by Heinnekin. Neither of them appears to have had any fettled monogram, but marked his en- gravings varioufly, as we have {tated in the courfe of our lit, {ometimes adding to his name and refidence the word “¢ Gold- {chmit,’’ and at others * Tzu Bockholdt,’’ in the German character. The beft of their works, as has been before inti- mated, are copies from the fuperior productions of Martin Schoen. Matthew, or Martin Zagel, Zafinger, or Zinck, goldfmith and engraver, was born in the year 1430, but in what part of Germany is not known, though, from the fubjects of two of his engravings, it may be gueffed that he was of Munich: neither is the year of his death certain, though, that he lived to the beginning of the fixteenth century, and engraved tll the age of feventy-five, may be inferred from the circum- ftance of one of his prints being dated in the year 1505. The extreme of Gothic ftiffnefgappears in his works. His compofition 1s bad, and his drawing itill worfe: the mecha- nical part of his engraving, indeed, pofleffes a certain degree of neatnefs, but is without the fainteit ray of tafte. It is proper, however, to obferve, that from the delieacy, or ra- ther faintnefs of Zagel’s manner of engraving, his plates would not ftand many good impreffions; that many of the retouched prints, which are exceedingly bad, are abroad in the world, and that therefore, to do jultice to the flender fhare of merit which he poffefied, it is neceflary to fee the early impreffions of his plates; nor fhould be left unmen- tioned, that in his latter engravings he difplays a more intimate knowledge of perfpective than we find aniong his predecef- fors in Germany. Zagel marked fome of his prints fim- ply with the initials M. Z.; and others, as will be found in our frit plate of the monograms, &c. of the engravers of Ger- many. Among his beit engravings may. be reckoned «¢ Solomon’s Idolatry,’’ a middling-fized upright, dated asor. “ A Holy Family,” in which the Virgin Mary is receiving water from a fountain, in a cup of the fame date with the preceding. “ he legendary Story of St. Chrif- topher bringing the Infant Jefus acrofs an Arm of the Sea,”’ a {mall upright. “ A Lover feated ina Landfeape, enter- taining his Miftrefs,’’ and ‘¢ Two Lovers Embracing,’’ ditto. L'wo large and very rare folio engravings of ** The Grand Ball and ‘Tournament at Munich:’’ in the former of which is reprefented a dance and card party, in which the duke of Bavaria is engaged at play, and in the latter a tournament, at which the ale is prefent, “ The Martyrs St. Cathe- rine and St. Urfula,” both in 8vo. <¢ The Martyrdom of St. Sebaftian,”’ in ato. « The March to War,”’ ditto, and “ Ariftotle the Philofopher,’’ a fubje& often repeated, and called by fome Socrates and Xantippe. The laft is a very rare print, in 4to. Albert Glockenton was a native of Nuremberg, born in the year 1432, and who flourifhed as an engraver at the com- mencement of the fixteenth century ; but the time and place of his death are uncertain. Strutt fays of him, that if he did learn his art from Schoen, he not only imitated his manner, but copied a great number of his prints: which copies con- flitute the greater part of the works of Glockenton. He executed his plates with the graver in a neat but fervile man- ner, by no means improving the drawing of his originals. He marked his engravings with a fort of half Gothic initials of his name, as may be feen in our firft plate of the monograms of the German engravers, and fometimes added the date. The principal works of Glockenton, after the originals of Martin Schoen, are ‘¢ Chrift bearing his Crofs,” and s Chrift crucified ;’? both rare and of the folio fize ; « The death of the Virgin.” The fet of the wife and foolifh virgins, ten plates; the paflion of our Saviour, a fet of ten others, both of which are more particularly men- tioned in our account of Schoen, and the “ Virgin and Child at an Altar ;’’ in 4to. The latter is fuperior, in point of compofition, to theGerman art of that period, is marked with only a Gothic G, and bears the very early date of 1466 ; which is perhaps the mott ancient that is to be found on any copper-plate print whatever. Of this engraving particular mention is made under the article Glockenton, in the “ Catalogue Raifonnée du Cabinet d’eitampes de Brandes.”’ Contemporary and co-equal with Zageland Glockenton, was an engraver for whom Strutt claims a fort of doubtful exiftence, by the name of Wenceflaus of Olmutz, in Bohe- mia. He found a copy of Martin Schoen’s © Death of the Virgin’’ in the Monro collection, which had not only the name of this artiit infcribed upon it, burt the date of the year in which it was engraved, namely 1481. He adds, «¢there is no doubt of its being a copy from Schoen, becaufe it bears the evident marks of a fervile imitation. It is highly probable that Wenceflaus was the difciple of Schoen,’’—*‘ another obfervation arifes from a ftri@ exami- nation of this print, upon comparing it with the ancient German engravings marked with the W only; which is, that they are evidently the work of the fame artift as the preceding, though they haye ufually been attributed to Michael Wolgemut, the mafter of Durer. The name is perfeGily plain,’” but the words that follow are far lefs legible, and in the opinion of the prefent writer are much more like Olomuce [bidem than Olmutz in Bohemia. -Of thefe prints marked with the letter W only, Strutt mentions the following : The “¢ Annunciation,’ where the Deity appears above and a pot of flowers is introduced on the fore-ground ; a fimall up- right ; “ The Cavalier and Lady heedlefs of Death;”? «The Lait Supper;”’ “The Crucifixion of St. Anthony ;”’ {mall and nearly fquare ; and the fet of {mall uprights from the * Life and Paffion of Chriit.” The above are all from Sch6en; from the Ifraels of Mekenin. “ An old Man leading a little Boy, with a Woman fol- lowing carrying a Girl at her back ;”’ and “A Lover en- tertaining his Miftrefs;?” two fmall uprights; and “The naked Women with a Globe fufpended from above.” r We are now again arrived at the time when the Nurems berg Chronicle was publifhed, and thofe extraordinary _ works both on copper and on wood began to appear, ~ which are known to the world under the highly refpeGted name of Albert Durer. . ia thofe which follow are GERMAN SCHOOL @f the various powers of Albert; his reputation as the father of the German fchool of painting; and his general merits as an artilt, we have already treated pretty much at large; (fee Durer, Arserr.) It remains to add our lift of his principal engravings, and to comment more particularly on fomeof thofe whichare, and deferve to be, mott confpicuous. Though the defeéts of the artift are pointed out in the eritical remarks which follow, and which are chiefly ex- trated from lectures delivered at the Royal Inftitution in the years 1805 and 1806, yet are they calculated to lead the attentive obferver to a more intimate acquaintance with the merits of this extraordinary engraver, and to confirm the general and juftly merited praife which has now, for three centuries, been beftowed en Albert Durer. The refemblances between the feveral objeéts which this matter has introduced into his engravings, and their arche- types in nature, proceed, for the moft part, too much upon fac-fimile principles for the generalized dignity of his fub- jects ; and his powers of imitation are too prodigally lavifhed upon fubordinate and uneffential parts. The expreffion of his figure of “ Melancholy,’ which would elie have approached fublimity, is confiderably injured by the introduction of a multitude of objects, moft of which the mind does not readily aflimilate with the fentiment of melancholy. It mutt firft be perceived or difcovered, that thefe objeéts are allufions to aftrology, alchemy, and the occult i{ciences, as they are called. ‘The performance ad- dreffes itfelf, therefore, to the curious and inquifitive part ot mankind, and not to man: and as neither the eye nor the mind can at once dilate with greatnefs and defcend to little- ne{s, it is evident that the refearch it requires mutt be the deitruction of fublimity. S } ‘Though there is nothing of the “ holy calm,’’ with which Collins has furrounded his figure of melancholy, this com- pofition may {till be thought interefting on another account, namely, as a: true picture of the times in which it was en- graven; for precifely thus was attention perplexed and dif- tracted on moft philofophical fubje&s in the age of Albert Durer; and as he is author of feven treatifes, moft of which are on the metaphyfics of art, he had probably experienced much of that {pecies of melancholy which proceeds from the mental exhauition and diffatisfta@ion in which fuch tudies often terminate. Regarded in this view, it is no inapt verification of the old adage, “¢ The painter paints himielf.”’ It might have affifted to reconcile us to the de- feéts of this performance, if Albert Durer had named it Study ; or, if we could fancy the figure out of the picture, we might be content to let our attention dwell awhile on the fill with which he has reprefented moft of the other objects, when abftractedly and feverally confidered. This talent, however, of reprefenting the characters and textures of in- dividual objects, is {till more conf{picuous, and fomewhat lefs objectionable, in the print of “St. Jerome in the Room,” where- in all the objets are rendered with a fidelity little fhort of the camera obicura:’ Regarding the art as in its infancy, we may look at this engraving with the fame kind of pleafure, * (and we fhould at all the works of artof this period, with the fame candid indulgence) with which Reynolds contem- ‘plated «‘ The Virgin and Child”’ by Van Eyck, in the cathe- dral church of Bruges— the artift,’ fays fir Jofhua, shaving accomplifhed the purpofe he had in view.”’ Another of the moft celebrated, though not the beft, of Durer’s engravings, is his * Adam and Eve.’? He has, in this infkance, had recourfe to nature for his models, but his Eve is not “the faireft.of her daughters,’’ nor his ‘«¢ Adam the goodlieft of men fince born:’? yet we may perceive that he felected from shenature with whieh he was ac- OF ENGRAVING. quainted ; and though we do not behold the fymmetry and {uperlative grace of Greek beauty, we probably fee the felt and acknowledged beauty of Nuremberg. It will alfo be allowed, that the Paradife they mutt fhortly quit, does not feem very defirable to. inhabit; here is no gemal light, no luxuriance of vegetation, and no abundance of animal life, To ufe more of the words of Milton, nature is fo far from wantoning as in her prime,—{fo very far from playing at will her virgin fancies, that fhe appears, in thefe of Shak{peare, “bald with dry antiquity »’ yet if Raphael has violated this cardinal principle of propriety, by erecting a church, and houfes two {tories high in his Paradife, who fhall throw the firft ftone at Albert Durer? The boles of his trees, though among the firft, if not the very firft that were ever engraven, have much of the truth of individual nature, and their foliage, and the fur ef the cat, are expreffed with a degree of freedom that muit furprife thofe who refleét that no etching has been employed, and how comparatively ill calculated are the fleek and {iff lines of the unaflifted gra- ver to the expreffion of fuch objects. The introduétion of the cat and moufe in Paradife could not fail to be under- ftood, from its familiarity; but though ingenious, this very familiarity rendered it unfit for the occafion. The prophet Ifaiah has far more nobly exprefled the primeval harmony and happinefs of the brute creation. ; The Eve of Albert Durer is apparently of the fame family that Otho Venius, and Rubens, afterwards adopted for their models; and in the engraving which colleétors, call «¢ The Death’s Head,” is a female figure, which.{tilk more evidently fhews the efteem in which Rubens mutt have held the works, or at leaft the women, of Albert Durer. It is not eafy to conceive the occafion that could have given birth to this myiterious print of Death’s head. It prefents us either the ordinary routine of human life in allegory, or perhaps a fort of poetic armorial bearing. The creit is a winged helmet, richly ornamented, .and beautifully executed ; and though a flcull, which one fhould think could not fail to be an awful monitor, is highly emboffed on the fhield, the female fupporter, heedlefs of her charge, heedle{s of the moral leffon, and of the moral character fhe has to fuftain, is obvioufly liflening to the very fufpicious fug- geftions of a fort of favage man. It appears to be one of the night thoughts of Albert Durer, and perhaps, like thofe of Dr. Young, may be intended to mark the lamentable influence of the groffer paffions. Whatever its author may have intended to inculcate by this print, its execution as an engraving is admirable. The helmet, with all its pomp of heraldic appendage, and the aCtual and reflex lights on its polifhed furface, are charaéteriftically, though minutely, ex- prefled ; the fkull is accurately drawn, and its bony fub- tlance is deferibed with a matterly hand; the author has even feduloufly attended to the finer enamel of its two re- maining teeth. The head of the favage, with its beard and wild redundance of fnaky tangled hair, has confiderable and well-managed breadth of hght and fhade, though its character is far lefs favage than fhould feem to belong. to the rett of the figure: its expreffion is, doubtlefs, meant te be aflumed and infinuating, The eountenanee of the female has feldom been ferpaffed for that fuccefsful mixture of character and expreflion that lends a willing ear to a delufive promife; and the hands of both figures are far better drawn than we have hitherto Jeen among the productions of the German f{chool: the drapery alfo, which we have been accultomed to fee ftiff, flarched, and complicated, is here relaxed into freedom and fimplicity, and is fo remarkable for filky texture ; approaches fo near to what is. now termed pictureique compoftign of forms and light and fkade ; and (2 . tNy GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING js, on the whole, fo fuperior to that of his Melancholy, and fome other of his fubfequent works, as leaves us either to wonder that Albert Durer, having once attained, fhould ever lofe fight of the excellence of its principles; or to infer that he did not perceive their excellence, or that the f{cience he deduced from his own obfervation of nature prevailed but occafionally over the prejudices of his education. In his fmall prints ef the life of Chrift, of which Mare Antonio is faid to have pirated the copy-right, other in- ftances occur of this {tyle of fuperior fimplicity in the dra- peries, and fome of broad and captivating effects of light and fhade. His Jefus Chrift fuffers greatly, or beams with God-like benevolence; his Magdalens and Madonnas are fometimes divinely pathetic ; and many other of the heads in thefe interefting and often grand compofitions, are exqui- fitely finifhed miniatures, remarkable for that fort of accord- anee and confiftency of parts which we deem the internal evidence of truth and nature. The principal portraits of Durer, engraved on copper, are thofe of the elector Frederic of Saxony, dated MDXXIIII. Albert, eleGtor ef Mayence, dated 1523. Bilibald Pirkheimer, dated 1524. Melan&hon, dated 1525. ‘Thefe are all of the quarto fize. In folio he has engraven his friend Erafmus, good im- preffions of which are now become very rare, dated 1526, and two figures of himfelf, on the fame plate, one being his portrait in the year 1509, and the other in 1517. They ftand on either fide of a piece of architecture. Of the portraits of Durer, it may with truth be faid, that, in point of drawing, they poffefs the fame internal evidence of eorreétnefs which diftinguifhes the bett of his hiftorical heads : in ftyle they are laboured ; but the labour is not ill-beftowed ; and the chiarofcuro is frequently comprehenfive and clear. His compofitions from holy writ, and thofe legends which in his day were thought to be nearly of equal authority, are numerous. The principal of thofe on copper are “ The Adam and Eve in Paradife, or Sin of our firft Parents,” which has already been the fubje& of detailed comment, a very elaborate work in folio, dated 1504. Another « Adam and Eve,’’ which reprefents them after their expulfion from Paradife. “ Adam crawling, and Eve fitting with an In- faht at the Entrance of a Cavern,’’ in quarto. ‘ A Man witha Beard, feated on the Ground (his Horfe faftened to a Tree) carefling a Young Woman,” a {mall quarto plate, known by the name of “ Judah and Tamar,”’ and believed to be the earlicft of Albert Durer’s engravings. ‘ The Nativity,"’ where the Virgin Mary is adoring the Infant Chritt, while St. Jofeph is drawing water from a well. *© A Holy Family,’ known, among connoiffeurs, by the title of © The Virgin of the Butterfly,’ where the Madonna is feated in a landfcape, with the infant in her arms, and St. Jofeph afleep near her. Another, known by the title of “ The Virgin of the Ape,’’ where the Infant Chrifl, kneeling, is playing with a bird, and an ape is tied near the group. Another, known by the title of « The Virgin of the Pear,” which is dated 1511, where the Infant Chriit, holding a pear, is fitting with his mother at the foot of a tree. Another, known by the name of “ ‘The Virgin of the Apple,’ which is dated 1514. All of them are of the 4to, dimenfions. An etching of the “ Holy Family,” in folio, wherein the Virgin Mary is ftanding and holding the Infant Chrift in her arms, and a girl is introduced at prayers, dated in the year gro. A fet of fifteen, inchiding the frontifpiece, entitled «The fmall Paffion,” very rare, and dated from 1507 to 1512. Chrift Crueified, with the Holy Wom n at the Foot of the Crofs,” a fmall circle, without the artift’s mark, and faid to have been done for the fword-belt of Charles V. “ The Saviour proftrate in the Garden of Olives,’ very rare, and dated 1515. “ A Group of Angels bearing the Inftraments of Crucifixion, &c.’’ engraved on tin, or iron tinned over, and dated 1516. “ The grand Ecce Homo,’”’ in large 4to. with a Latin infcription, and dated in 1512, avery rare print, much fought after by connoiffeurs. “¢ The Entombing of Chrift by the Holy Women,”’ in {mall folie, a print dated 1507, and in which feveral cats are ftrangely introduced, but which fome think is not by Albert Durer. ‘* The Infant Pro- digy,” a kneeling figure, in folio: fome pretend that this is a portrait of Durerhimfelf. «¢ St. Hubert at the Chafe,” a foto print, in which the faint is reprefented kneeling before a crucifix, which appears upon the head of a ftag + the fcene is a wood, with a caflle at fome diftance. : Albert Durer has been analogically compared with our poet Spenfer, and it has been remarked, that “ if any one of his performances were to be pointed out as more parti- cularly refembling Spenfer, it fhould be that of the Legen- dary Tale of St. Hubert. They are characterized by the romantic heights of extravagance ; the fame abundance of ideas; the fame unremitted and fuccefstul attention to minute excellence; the fame general air of incredibility rendered credible, and, as we fhould fay now, if the works- of the poet and engraver were now produced for the firit time ; the fame want of concentration, brevity, and generak effeét; but a temporary adoption of the fympathies of the fixteenth century, as far as art is concerned, reconciles us to thefe.’? OF the fubje& of St. Jerome, Durer has engraven two plates in fmall folio, on one of which, where the faint 1s fitting in a chamber, we have already commented ; in the other he is kneeling before a crucifix, in a rocky defart; and the engraving is far lefs elaborately finifhed than the former. «“ A naked winged Woman ftanding on a {mall Globe fufpended in the Clouds, holding in one Hand an elabo- rately wrought Cup, and in the other a Bridle,” a folio print, known among dealers by the name of the Larger Fortunes According to Vafari, it fhould be calied Temperance, ac- cording to others, Prudence: but, perhaps, Albert Durer meant it for the Guardian Genius of Nuremberg, of which city a bird’s eye view appears beneath. Another « Naked Woman on a Globe,” in 12mo., called the Leffer Fortune. She holds a long itick and a thiflle. The figure of « Melancholy,” on which we have already’ commented. She is fitting, her head refting on her hand; furrounded by various emblems, a folio plate, of exquifite workmanfhip, dated 1514. “ The Dream of M. Wol- gemut,”’ where he is reprefented afleep near a frying pan: the devil is behind with a large pair of bellows, and on the fide Venus, with Cupid walking on ftilts. “ The great Satyr,”” who is attacked by a fawn whilit repofing with a nymph, a fmall folio, the work of the graver, and performed with admirable fkill. ‘“ The Sorcereffes,’’ four naked women in a room: a globe, with the letters O. G. H. is fufpended from above, and in an adjoining chamber appears the devil furrounded by flames: it is dated 1497. Baldi- nucti thinks it is the earlieft of Durer’s engravings. It is copied from Wolgemut, and is a rare print. ‘ A Cheva- lier on Horfeback, and in complete Armour, purfued by Death on Horfeback, (who is holding forth an Hour-Glafs, } and another Spetre:’’ this is a very hghly finithed and exqui- fite engraving, in {mall folio, of A hs good impreflions are’ rare. It is by fome termed “ Death's Horfe,’’ and by others, with more propriety, “ The Worldly Man:’’ it ic 2 dated: a GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. Gated 1513, and the impreffions which were taken before this date was inferibed, are much valued. ‘The Death’s Head,” of which we have already given a particular defcrip- tion, in fmall folie, dated 1503. Another heraldic fubject of the fame dimenfions, difplaying a lion rampant on a fhield, and a helmet furmounted by a cock fpreading his wings. «A large Horfe,” behind which marches an armed man with boots, bearing a halbert, and another horfe of more beautiful form, behind which marches another armed man with a halbert, having a griffin on his helmet : both in gto., and dated 1505. ‘ A difhevelled Sorcerefs, mounted on a He-Goat, and flying through the Air, with a Dittaff in her Right-Hand. “ The Prodigal Son,” a fmall upright folio, of which the impreflions, before the date 1513 was added, are held in moft efteem. Under the article Evenmsa we have afcribed the inven- tion of this mode of art to Albert Durer. The carlieft 6f his etchings, which bears a date, is called “ ‘The Rape of Proferpine,” a folio print, dated 1516, and in two years afterwards appeared kis more celebrated etching of the march of an army, which has been called «¢ The Cannon,”’ from a large piece of ordnance forming the principal object ow the fore-ground: the fcene reprefented is the entrance of a village, with a bird’s eye view over an extenfive country, and three Turks are introduced near the fore-ground. Both thefe etchings are reported to have been performed on plates of iron or tteel ; and the latter, which is now become rare, is among the largeft of the works of Albert Durer. The principal of thofe works of our artift which are com- monly fuppofed to have been engraven on wood, are as fol- lew :—The portraits, in folio, of Albert Durer, imfcribed «© Albre€&t Durer counterfeyt in {einem alter des LVI.” without the engraver’s cypher; another with” his cypher; the emperor Maximilian I.; a buft with numerous orna- ments, infcribed Imperator Cxfar Divus Maximilianus Pius Felix Auguitus 1519;’’ Ulrichus Varnbuler, a rare print, with the following infcription on a fhield, “* Albertus Durer Noricus reddere que conatur 1522.” ; From the numerous hiftorical works which Durer per- formed in this manner, we feleét the following: A fet of thirteen folio prints, including the frontifpiece, from the life and paffion of Jefus Chrilt, inferibed “ Paffio Domini, &c.” dated 1510, 1511. A fet of twenty-feven fmall uprights, known by the name of the Smaller Paffion, and inferibed “Figure Paffionis Domini Noftri Jefu Chrilti 1519, 1520.7" An “ Ecce Homo,” in folio, engraved in a bold and broad ftyle, and with great freedom. “ The Holy Trinity, furrounded by the Angelic Hoft,’’ and dated 1511. Another “ Ecce Homo,” known by the title of «« The Myf- tery of the Mafs.’’ A fet of fixteen folio pieces, inclufive of the frontifpiece, of which the fubjeéts are taken from the Apocalypfe, and the text printed on the reverfe of every leaf. A fet of twenty-two fmall folio prints from the life of the Virgin Mary, dated 1509, 1511: feventeen of this beau- tiful fet of engravings were copied by Mare Antonio at Venice, to all of which copies, except one, the Italian artilt added the cypher of Albert Durer. “The Holy Family,” ef the folio dimenfions, where St. Anne holds the infant Saviour, and the Virgin Mary is in the aét of adoration. “©The Rhinoceros,’’ a rare print, in folio, with a German infcription, dated 1515. In clair-obfcure (or chiarofcuro) printed from a fuccef- fion of blocks, the following are afcribed to Albert Durer : «A Holy Family in a Landfcape :’? two angels are crown- ing the VirginMary, and on the fore-ground are three rabbits ; in large folio. Two, of legendary itories from the lives of St. Auguitin and St. Chriftopher, in large folio, the latter of which is fearce. A fort of apotheofis of the emperor Maximilian, where, accompanied by the Virgin Mary and numerous faints, he is adormg the Saviour. (Of this piece Huber poffeffed an impreffion on vellum very richly coloured. ) A pair, which are f{earce, of «A Yortrets in a ftate of Siege,”’ generally called the Siege of Vienna, dated 1527. A fet of fix ornamental defigns for tapettry, of aftronomical fubjects. The wholenumber of engravings by Albert Durer, and after his defigns, are flated to amount to 1214: but Mariette’s colleGtion amounted to no more than 420, which were fold at his death for 1830 livres. See the article Durer in the Catalogue Raifonnée of the Brandes cabinet. The triumphs of the emperor Maximilian, which, when pafied together, form two very large and long prints of the frieze form, have been generally afcribed to Albert Durer, but the refearches of Mr. Douce of the Britifh Mufeum, and Mr. Edwards of Pall-Mall, have determined that they are the performances of various other artifts, though perhaps executed under the general fuperintendance of Albert Durer. Lucas Cranach, or Kranach, wasborn at Cranach, in Weit- phalia, in the year 1472 or 1474, and died at Weymar in 1553. He was educated a painter ; yet whether he fludied under any other matter than his father has not been recorded. He pafled feveral years in the fervice of the eleétor of Saxony as an artift, diftinguifhing himfelf by his engravings on copper and wood, and in that manner which is techni- cally called chiaro-/curo. His fertility of invention far outran his judgment; led away by the livelinefs of his fancy and talent for compofition, he took fuch forms as were before him, following the {tiff Gothic tafte which prevailed in his country at the time, without attempting to improve it. His manner of drawing is rather dry and taftelefs, than abfolute- ly incorreét, but his heads have a moderate portion both of charaéter and expreflion, though they are not marked wich precifion or in a pleafing ftyle : his hands and feet are very defeétive, and a total ignorance of the art of diftributing light and fhade confufes his effects. Cranach fometimes marked his plates with the initial let- ters of his name: and fometimes with the cypher, but more frequently with the dragon holding a ring in his mouth, which will be found in our firft plate of German marks and mo- nograms. ‘The dragon is the creft of the elector of Saxony, to which, on fome occafions, Cranach added the eleCtoral fhield. The following will probably be found amongfthe beft of his engravings, beginning with thofe which are executed on cop- per: Portraits of Jean Frederic elector of Saxony, where an angel appears on high with a crown of laurel, in large ato. andveryrare. The two eleCtorsof Saxony, Frederic and Jean, the former of whom is holding a chaplet, in 4to. dated 1510, and almoft fquare. Chriftianus II.-king of Denmark and Norway, furrounded by ornamental architeéture, armorial bearings, &c. inlargegto. Profile of Martin Luther in the habit of a monk of St. Auguitin, infcribed « Des Luters. geftalt,”” in 4to. and dated 1523. The chief of his hiftorical works are: ‘Adam and Eve after their Fall,’ (called by fome the Penitence of St. Chry- foftom) the feene is a defart, where a naked woman and child appear on the fore-ground, and in the back-ground a man is crawling, a folio plate, dated 1509, marked with the cypher and little dragon of Cranach, and executed quite in his Gothic manner. “The Temptation of our Saviour in the Defart,’’ where the Chrift has fomewhat better preten~ fions to merit, than generally belongs to the figures of Cra- nach, but the tempter is as grotefque and entertaining a devi as you would wifh to fee: the print is in fmall folio, and marked L. C. W. the laft letter epoting! Wittenbourg = it ww GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. is very rare and bad. A whimfical compofition, of ¢ Jefus Chrift in the Clouds,” furrounded by angels, and infpiring the electorof Saxony, a half length of whom appears below ; a {mall print, almolt fquare. In chiarofeuro, that is, on two blocks of wood, the one for the outline and darker fhadows, and the other for the demitints and lights, Cranach has engraven ‘ St. Chriftopher carrying the Intant Chriit over an Arm of the Sea,’’ a folio print, dated 1507. “ St. George and the Dragon,” a large ato. St. John preaching in the Defart,”? in folio, dated 1576. And, “A Naked Venus’’ (of ludicrous beauty) ac- companied by Cupid, who is trying his bow, in folio. The letter-prefs engravings of Cranach, commonly fup- pofed to have been performed on wood, areas follow: Butt of Jean Frederic, elector of Saxony; ditto of Martin Luther in the coftume of amonk of the order of St. Auguf- tin, dated 1520; both in 4to. Whole length portraits of Martin Luther; Philip Me- lanéthon ; the emperor Charles V.; the emperor Ferdinand ; Jean Fredric, ele€tor of Saxony; and Jean Guillaume, duke of Saxony, all of the folio fize. A half length of the eleGtor of Saxony, holding a book open before a crucifix, a rare print, marked with the little dragon, dated in 1552, and infcribed with a Latin fentence. Of his hiftorical works, the following are held in moft réqueft among collectors. * Adam and Eve in Paradife, or the Sin of our Firft Parents,” dated 1509. “ The Annun- ciation”? “St. John preaching in the Defart,’’ which has been called a grand compofition, and is dated 1516, and the “Decollation of St. John :?? all of the folio fize. A fet of twelve in {mall folio from the life and paffion of Jefus Chrift, inferibed on the title page ‘“ Paflio D.N. Jefu Chrifti venuttiffimis imaginibus,” &c. and dated 1509: this fet is highly efteemed among connoiffeurs. Another fet of twelve, of the Martyrdoms of the Apoftles,in 4to. and which are held in ftill more requeft for righ compofition and the ex- preffion of the heads, and are on the whole fuperior to the preceding : they are dated in the year 1549. It is curious to reflet with how frequent infenfibility, the ‘Gotho-german artifts of the age of Cranach felected fubjects that called for the introduétion of beauty even of the highett kind,and dre‘t out their virgin Mariesand Venufes in all the fff meagrenefs of their age and country. Paris vilited by the three Goddeffes on mount Ida,” isa rare piece in large folio, dated 1508. ‘Curtis leaping into the fiery Gulph”’ is alfo in folio, and dated 1508. ‘Three plates of tournaments, of which two are called the great, and the other the little tour- nament, dated 1569; anda pair of park feenes with flags in the rutting time, and which are very rare, conclude our lift of the engravings of Lucas Cranach. Hans or John Burgkmair painter, and engraver on wood, was born at Augfburg inthe year 1474. He ftudied under Albert Durer, and fome of his engravings are dated fo. early as 1510, but the time and place of his death are unknown. He engraved chiefly, if not entirely on wood, and his prints poffefs much of the fire and fpirit which diftinguifh thofe of his matter. Profeffor Chrift attributes to him fome fmall {pinted woodencuts which weremade for the ancient edition of theworks of Geyler de Keiferberg, which bear the above date (oft510), and are marked I. B. Many of the works of this artilt bear his name at length, the reft are marked with one or other of the two cyphers which will be found in our plate of the monograms, &c. of the German {chool. The following are the engravings by Burgkmair, which are moft fought after by-collectors: «The Emperor Maxi- milion J. on Harfeback ;’’ of which defign there is a dupli- cate engraving in clare obfeure, which bears the hame of Jot de Negker, but which is partly the work of Burgkmair: It is a very rare print, dated in the year 1508, both of the folio fize. <¢St. George on Horfeback,’’ alfo bears the name of Negker, and is of the folio fize, and in clare obfeure “‘Jofeph and the wife of Potiphar,”’ is of a {quare forth andin4to. ‘St. Thomas,’’ ‘St. Bartholomew,’’ and « St. Sebattian,”’ dated 1515, are all in folio. “A young Woman mourning the lofs of a Hero that Death has over- come,”? is a rare print in folio; by Burgkmair and Negker. The remainder of the letter prefs cuts of this artift are a fet of two hundred and thirty-feven for a folio work, ae which the manufcript by Mare 'Treitz Sauerwein is in’ the Imperial library at Vienna: its title is “ Der weifs Konig’? (the wife king), and it confifts of.the diftinguifhed a&s of the emperor Maximilian. ; «The triumphal Entry of Maximilian,” confifting of one hundred and thirty-five blocks or plates, have remained for a long period of time unknown at the caftle of Ambras, but within thefe few years have been remoyed to the Imperial library at Vienna, fince which, impreffions have been taken, and feveral fets have been brought to England. Many of thefe engravymgs are the work of Burgkmair, and are marked at the back with his name or initia's, though the whole generally paffes under the name of Anon and were probably executed under his direétion. Another work, executed by thefe artills conjointly with Hans Schaufflein, is called the Tewrdanck ; but the greater number of the prints contained in it are from the graver of Burgkmair. Johanfen, or Hans Baldung, furnamed Grien or Grun, painted and engraved for the letter prefs and in clare obfeure. He was a native of Gemund in Suabia, and was born in the year 1476. He flourifhed as an engraver through the earlier part of the fixteenth century, and the lateft of his works 1s dated in the year 1534, but the time of his death is uncertain. His engravings are executed in a bold ftyle, and with con- fiderable power over the inftruments of his art. Strutt fays of him, that «his figures are rather expreflive than correét ; the naked parts of them are poorly drawn ; and the ex. tremities, thouch free and fpirited, are often heavy, and not well marked :’? yet confidering the period and place at which Baldung lived, he may be regarded as a meritorious artift. His engravings are fometimes marked with his name at length, and at others with the cyphers which we have given in cur plate of German monograms. His principal works are, “ Adamand Eve in Paradife.””? ‘The Fall of Adam :’” in the latter, a tablet is fufpended from a tree, bear- ing the motto “‘ Lapfus humant generis,” and the date 1511. Both are of the folio fize, and the Fall of Adam is a per- formance of merit in clare obfcure. A fet of thirteen figures in fmall folio of the Saviour and twelve apoltles, dated in 1514; and marked with the artift's cypher. “The Crucifixion,’’ with the holy women and St. John at the foot of the Crofs, in clare obfcure. A fet of four {mall uprights reprefenting the Effects of Love, or Influence of Women, exemplified in the ftories.of Samfon and Dalilah, Solomon’s Idolatry, David and Bathfheba, and Xantippe and Socrates, (called by fome Ariftotle and Phryne,) dated 1515. ‘A drunken Bacchus lying at the mouth of a Cafk,’? in 4to. “The Sorcerefs,’’ who is mounted ona he-goat, holding a cauldron. A pair, cut ina mafterly {tyle, of wild horfes in a foreft, with the name of Baldung at length, and the date 1534. Another pair of {mall land- {capes, which are faid to be etched on plates of iron, and are very rare, 7 Of - GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING. Of Hans Bréfang, a defigner and engraver for the letter prefs, very little more is known than that he was contempo- rary with Baldung, and has fometimes been miltaken for him from the fimilarity of their cyphers, and their tate in defigning and engraving. Mittaking the numeral 5, in the dates of his engravings, for a 6, Strutt has placed hima century too late. Thofe of his works which are beft known, are “ Adam and Eve in Paradife,”’ of the folio fize ; bearing the cyphcr of Brefang, andthe date 1519. A fet of three of the 4to. dimenfions, dated 1504; wiz. “Chriit on the Crofs;” s‘Chrift lamented by the holy Women;’’ and “*A dead Chrift,”’ with angels bearing him away. Another fet of thirteen, of the Saviour and twelve apollles, alfo in {mall 4to. and the three Deltinies ina landfcape, dated 1513, avery rare print in Ato. n : : Lucas or Louis Kreg, or Krugen, painter, eoldfmith, and engraver, was bora at Naremberg in the year 1489, and died in the fame city in 1535. He formed his talte, in defigning and engraving, from itudying the works of Lucas of Ley- den, and drew the human figure better than many of his contemporaries, though his attitudes are ill chofen, and his draperies {tiff. His mark was a fimall pot or jug placed between his initials on a tablet, as reprefented in our firft plate of the monograms, &c. of the German engravers, to which the date was in fome inftances added. His principal en- gravings areas follow : « The Nativity,” ‘“The Adoration of the Shepherds,”’ and * {he Adoration of the Kings,”’ three {mall uprights, ‘dated 1516. ‘The Holy Family,” and two prints of the Eece-Homo, with the initruments of flagellation, in {mall 4to. “St. John the Divine, writing,” while the holy Virgin is dictating to him from the clouds, and below is the ludicrous incident of the devilemptying the ink-horn of thefaint. «Two naked Women contemplating a Skull and Hour glafs,’’ and «¢ A naked Woman fitting with her Back towards the Spe€ta- tor,” with a city and mountain appearing in the diftance ; all fmall uprights. Hans Schaufllein, the third engraver of that name, was born at Nuremberg fome time about the year 1487, and died at Nordlingen, atewnin Suabia,in 1550. He ftudied ‘under Albert Durer, and imitated his ftyle with confiderable fuccefs. > The moft diftinguifhed of his performances are, “The Creation of Eve,’ in 4to.; “Chrift with the Crown of Thorns, and the Virgin Mother in Grief ;?? and “ Herodias with the Head of St. John the Baptiit,” both in folio. “The Banquet of Herodias,”? a grand compolition, fup- pofed to be engraven on two blocks in large folio.“ Numa ‘Pompilius recommending religious worfhip to the Romans,” aud “ Lucretia {tabbing herlelf,”’ a pair in 4to. A fet of eight plates of military fubjeéts in folio. Another fet of four rare prints of “The Triumphs of the Wives of the celebrated Sots,” in {mall folio. The greater number of the fet -oftwenty of marriage proceffiens. Part of the fet of an hundred ‘and eighteen of «The Perils and Adventures of the excellent and, famous chevalier Tewerdanks,” a curious and very rare book, printed at Nuremberg in the year 1517: But few libraries have the honour of poffeffing a complete copy of this celebrated work, of which Melchior Phintzing fays, in the dedication to Charles king of Spain, that he had feen moft of the ations that are therein engraved and deferibed, which in fa&t are thofe ef the emperor Maxi- milian I. under the fiGtitious name of Tewerdanks. Albert Altdorfer, whom fome have miltakenly fuppofed to Gave been of Altdorff in Switzerland, was a native of Altdorf ws Bavaria, borninthe year 1488, His name is found in the regifter of the citizens of Ratifbon in the year 1511, where, having pafied the routine of preparatory civil offices, he was made a member of the interior fenate, and architect of the city of Ratifbon, and where, in 1538, he died without iffue. Some of his pi€tures may yet be feen at Ratifbon, and at the town houfe is preferved a complete collection of his en- gravings. ‘The French call him “Je petit Albert,” pre~ iumptively in contradiftinGtion to the great Albert Durer, and becaufe his engravings are {mall, for which reafon alfe he is ufually ranked with «the little mafters.”’ ; His merit was however not inconfiderable. He engraved both for the rolling-prefs and letter-prefs ; but thofe which he did for the latter are his beft performances. He poflefled a lively fancy, a free hand, and great facility of invention. Yet his ftyle is German, and his drawixg, though fpirited, is in- correct. He marked his plates and blocks with the two forts of monograms which appear in our plate of the cy- phers, &c. of the German fchool. One of thefe marks has been attributed to Aldegrever ; but the evident fuperiority of the latter malter is of itfelf fufficient (independent of the cypher) to corre& the miftake. From the {pirited wooden cuts of Altdorfer, Holbein, of whom we fhall prefently fpeak, is faid, and probably with truth, to have derived great affiftance in the progrels of his ftudies. Altdorfer’s principal engravings on copper are the por- trait of himfelf ; and that of Martin Luther, in an oyal, fur- rounded by foliage ; the head of an infant, one of his earlieft works, dated in 15073 “ Adam and Eve in Paradife Sed ‘¢ Solomon’s Idolatry ;”? “‘ Dalilah and Sampfon 3” “ Ju- dith and Tfolofernes ;’’ feveral fmall prints of the Madonna and infant Chriit ; a Crucifixion, with’ numerous ficures 5 another with the Virgin Mary and St. John, both {mall up- rights ; “ St. Jerome {landing ina Cavern,” where is an altar, book, crucifix, and a tablet, with the monogram of the ar= tift ; another St. Jerome among buildings, accompanied by a lion; “ St. George combating the Dragon ;’’ two etch- ings of the death of Dido, and that of Lucretia ; 9a pair co- pied from Mare Antonio, of “ Venus accompanied by Cupid entering the Bath,” and “Venus leaving the Bath:”’ thefe are {mall uprights and in a neat ftyle. « Cupid Sporting with Sea-horfes.”’ ““Amphion faved by Dolphins,” dated 1525. A pairof “ Lafciviculnefs,” and prefumptively, “ Chattity;” reprefented by a female fitting on an altar, and holding a fceptre, with numerous attendants bearing lanterns. «A Warrior precipitating himfelf into the Sea.’ A pair of {mall land{capes lengthways, one with rocks Charles de St. Alvin, archbifhop of Cambray, after H. Rigaud, dated 1742; Maurice Quinten de la Tour, from a picture by himfelf, dated 1742; Jean Bap- tite Silva, a celebrated phyfician, after Rigaud, dated 1742; Pierre Mignard, firft painter to the French king, after his friend Hyacinthe Rigaud, engraved in 1744, for Schmidt’s reception into the academy, a piece regarded by connoifleurs as a chef d’ouvre of the mafters, and the flefh of which is engraved in a ftyle fo foft and mellow, that it has been emphatically faid to be rather painted than en- graved. he four laft are in large folio. After his return from Paris to his native city, Schmidt engraved the portraits of Antony Pefne, firft painter to the king of Pruffia, and Samuel Baro liber de Cocceii, both in folio, dated 1751 and 1752, and reckoned among the beit portraits from the graver of Schmidt. Johannes Theodore Eller, aulic-counfellor, &c. after Pefne ; and Louis Albertene de Brandt baron de Grapen- dorf, after le Sueur, are a very rare and beautiful pair. of portraits of the folio fize. Among the beft portraits which our artift engraved at Peterfburg, are thofe of Michel de Woronzow, count of the Holy Roman empire, aud Nicholas Efterhazy de Ga- lantha, both in large folio, after L. Tocque, and dated 17585; Pierre Comte de Schuallow, grand-mafter of the Pruffian artillery, from the life, and dated 1760; the em- prefs Elizabeth of Ruflia, a whole length figure, with ac- companiments of the imperial coftume, after L. Tocque,, which -Huber calls a fuperb print, more efpecially for the execution of the acceflory parts, it is dated in 1758; count Cyrillus de Rafumowtky, after L. Tocque, and Jacobus: Mounfey, from a picture by Schmidt himfelf, dated 1762,. are rare and beautiful, and M. de Katt, field marshal and minifter of ftate to the king of Pruflia; the laft portrait from the graver of Schmidt, the head in which is by him- felf, but the reft finifhed by Bergere the elder. Among his hiftorical and fancy works, may be diftin- guifhed a pair of “ The fair Greek,’ and « The amorous: Turk,” the two firft plates which Schmidt engraved under Larmeffin at Paris; ‘‘ Tabagee Flamande,’’ &c. in folio, after Oltade, engraved ina ityle refembling that of Vifl- cher, and dated 17575 ‘* The Virgin Mary fitting with the. Infants Chrift and St. John,’’ after Vandyke, dated 177335 « The Virgin at Prayers,” after S. Ferrata; “The Prefen- tation in the Temple,” after Pietro Tefta, for the Imperiak. gallery at Peterfburg ; “* Alexander and Philip the Phyfi- cian,’ after Annibal Carracci, engraved in imitation of the hitorical ftyle of Gerard Audran, at Berlin 1769, and « Timocles- juilified: by Alexarder,!’ companion to the above, and after the fame painter; both in large folio. In imitation of the Tafte of Rembrandt.—A half eagth of a bearded old man with a feathered bonnet,, defigned by the engraver, and an old woman in profile, after Rembrandt, companion to the above ;_ buft of an Oriental in the ftyle of Caftiglione, dated 1750; buit of a young man ina Rem- ' ‘brands GERMAN SCHOOL. OF -ENGRAVING. brandt head-drefs ; an old man habited as a Perfian, after Rembrandt ; portrait of a young female, and portrait of a young figneur, from the fame mafter; the Jewifh bride, and the father of the Jewifh bride, both after Rembrandt, and frem the colleétion of the count de Kamki; the profiles of Salimbeni, and count Algarotti; the portrait of the en- graver himfelf, inferibed “* Georg Fridrick Schmidt ; Ko- nigll Preuff, Hof. Kupfertecher Mitglud der Maler Aca- demien zu Berlin & Paris,’”? dated 1752. His beft hiftorical works, in the talte of Rembrandt, are, ‘‘Jefus Chrift prefented to the People, and buffetted by the Soldiers,” after Rembrandt, dated 1756. “ The Refufcitation of the Daughter of Jairus,’” after Rembrandt, with a very ‘fine chiarofcuro, dated 1767. «* The prefentation in the Temple,” after Dietrich, com- panion to the above. ‘The Philofopher in’ his Grot,’”’ by fome called Anchifes taking refuge in his grotto during the fack of Troy, in the back-ground of which is a city in flames, after Rembrandt, and dated 1768. ‘ The Repent- ance of St.’Peter,”’ after F. Bol. * «* Lot and his Daughters,” after Rembrandt, from a picture in the poffeffion of prince Henry of Pruffia, to whom the print is dedicated, and the funeral monument of Sir Andrew Mitchell, knight of the Bath, and ambaffador from the king of Great Britain, who died at Berlin in 17713 the two lalt are of folio dimen- fions, ~ Jofeph Wagner was born A. D. 1706, at Thalendorf, on the lake of Conftance, and died at Venice fome time about the year 1780. He learned the art of defign under J. Amiconi, whom he accompanied to England and to Italy, and, obedient to the advice of this mafter, he afterwards travelled to Paris, and ftudied engraving with very con- fiderable fuccefs under Laurent Cars, In the year 1756 he fettled at Venice ; began to publifh there the engravings of himfelf and pupils, and finally eftablifhed a beneficial commerce with’ feveral parts of Europe. Among his difciples were Flipart, Berardi, and,’above all, Bartolozzi, whofe talents have done honour to his matter; to himfelf, to Italy, and to England, and who ftill lives engraving in Portu- gal amid the din of arms. ° The ftyle of Wagner’s engraving is particularly eafy and engaging, and is in fine art, what in manners we term amiable. It is built on the firm foundation of found draw- ing; and partakes’ highly of the merits of Gerard: Audran and Giacomo Frey. Like them he harmonioufly mingled etching with the’ work of the graver and dry needle, and, like them, he evinced a high feeling of the merits of thofe maitérs after whom it was his fortune to engrave. The elements of his ftyle are, vigour tempered with mildmefs and fuavity ; hence’he is delicately bold, and, without the leaft appearance of labour, produces, in his beft works, an effet of finifhing, which others labour after in vain, and which is more particularly obfervable and appropriate ‘in-infantile fubjeéts, or where he has to touch the imagination with indefinite grace. In his’figures of the Infant Saviout and St. John, where the charaGters in his original allowed‘ him to be fo, he is, indeed, the Tiamingo of his art; though if living artifts had found a place in our Cyclopedia, that honour muff rather have been awarded to the moft diftinguifhed-of his pupils. Wagner's’ firft attempts in engraving are faid to have been the’ portraits’of the Englifhi princeffes Anne, Amelia, and Caroline, daughters’ of George II. Of His other por- traits, the moft remarkable are, a pair in'folie, wHole length’ figures'of the emprefs' Anne of Ruffia, and Peterthe Great, ‘ eonduéted by Minerva. The emprefs Elizabeth Péetrowna, with a’ Rufiian infeription; anid! Barinelli* crowned* by” the Mufe of Harmony ; all in folio, and after his firft mafter, . Amiconi. wet Among the moft efteemed of his hiftorical works are, ” ‘The Infant Chrift afleep in a Landfcape,”’ a beautiful - print. ‘* The Education of the Virgin.”? “ «* The Prophet Tirefias,” infcribed “‘ Tirefias triplex modo vix modo feemina ° vates ;’’ all of the folio fize, and after Amiconi. “ The’ Holy Family,’’ elevated on a pedeftal, at the foot of which are other faints, after Paolo Veronefe. ‘The Interview of Jacob and Rachel,” after Lucca Giordano, engraved for the Drefden frallery. “* Rebecca receiving the Pre- fents,’’ after the fede mafter, and for the fame work. | “The Death of Abel,”’ after B. Luti, in large folio. * St. Mary Magdalen,” from the fame mafter, and of the fame dimenfions. ‘ The Virgin and Infant Chrift,”” after Soli- ’ mena. The Affumption of the Virgin Mary,” after. Piazetta. St. John in the Defart,’? after Carlo Vanloo ; _ all in large folio. ; A fet of large land{capes, ornamented with Italian pafto- ral figures, after Zucarelli, and executed with much tafte, are by Wagner, in conjunction with Bartolozzi. : German School of Mufic. Though the language and national ftyle of finging in Germany are much inferior to thofe of Italy, the initrumental mufic of that country is indifputably the fir in the world. It is true that the violin, is infinitely obliged to Corelli, Geminiani, Samis, Tartini, | and Boccherini; but for fymphonies, and the union of wind-inftruments with thofe of the bow, the Italians haye nothing at prefent, equal to the full pieces of the elder. Stamitz, Vanhal, Haydn, and Mozart ; nor on keyed-inftru- ments have they any compofitions equal to thofe of Emanuel Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and feveral other great claveciniftes. _ And though the beft German fingers are, in general, in- ferior to the piazza, or flreet fingers of Italy ; yet Ger- many has, now and then, furnifhed a vocal performer equal , to the beft of Italy: fuch as Raaf, the Mingotti, the Taiber, the Tofi, Mara, &c. , ; M. Suard, ci-devant member de l’Academie Frangoife, an extremely fevere and faftidious critic of the dramatic mufic of Italy, and a determined Gluckift, begins a. long article in the Encyclopédie Methodique en the hiftory of mufic in Germany; but though the article confiils of twelve quarto pages, only four or five of them are be- ftowed on German mufic in ‘general, before the author haftens to his hero Gluck, whofe life he gives, and an ample lift of his works, fince he quitted the Italian ftyle of com-, pofition for that of France. All this is minutely and ably done, and would be fatisfactory to all mufical readers, if the author’s zeal for Gluck, and his ftyle were not exc/ufive, and , his cenfures fo fevere, of all that has been admired in Italy, . both in compofition and performance, by all the reft of Europe, except France. No vocal compofitions but thofe of Gluck efeape condemnation. Metaltafio’s dramas are nat written to his. mind. The compofers are too florid,. and the finging too important. : ; If M. Suard had confefled that the ftyle of finging in. France was bad, and that its native public fingers were. unable to execute fuch fongs as the great Italian matters have , compofed ; and therefore that it was moft prudent to have, as little finging as poffible; the airs very fhort and fimple no introductory fymphonies, or ritornels to impede the. progrefs of the drama; to fet the poet above the compofer: and-the aétor above the finger: with thefe conceffions all: Europe would have admitted’ his reafoning to be juft ; but when M. Suard infifts onal! Europe implicitly following the French model in mufical dramas ; that where great opera com~ pofers and fefined fingers abound, they are not-to be em- ployed,, GER ‘ployed, but that fhe melo-drama, to render it interefting, fhould never admit an air fuperior to an elegant ballad, 1s what lovers of dramatic mufic, and judges of good com- pofition and good finging, will never Finferibe to. But though M. Suard is fo determined a foe to all ‘opera mufic but that of Gluck, and finging, except that of the natives of his own country, when he {peaks of the inftru- “mental mufic of Germany, he ‘is very juft, and celebrates “the fchools of Vienna, Coblentz, Manheim, Munich, and * Stutgard ; which have produced the Stamitzes, the Touchis, Canabichs, Schroeters, Haydns, and innumerable other fymphonifts, whofe compofitions are known to all lovers of mufic. All thefe different fymphonilts (fays with great truth M. Suard) have a peculiar chara¢ter and ftyle of their ~ own ; yet, continues he, “ it mutt be allowed that all give ‘way to the inexhauftible Haydn for invention and originality. He unites all the refources of {cience to the charms of gend tafte: he is noble and gay, full of grace and force; fimple with infinite variety ; and unites to movements the moft “fweet and captivating in melody, the greateft orchettral "effeGs.”? This character is written with fuch truth, intelligence, “and feeling, that we forgive the elegant and refined writer “much of his bigotry for Gluck, and intolerance for all dra- matic mufic, except that of France. No praife is too flrong for the inftrumental mufic of - Germanyin general by the compofers fo jufily celebrated by M. Suard; but when to thefe we join Emanuel Bach, and the admirabie Mozart, and his fcholar Beethoven, it ‘feems as if inftrumental mufic, at leaft, was arrived at its ‘acme of perfection. This extenfive empire has lkewife produced mafters who have even equalled the moft eminent “Italian dramatic compofers of the laft century; fuch as ‘Handel, Haffe, Graun, J. C. Bach, Miftewecce, Gluck, Naumann, &c., without mentioning the operas, oratories, and maffes of Haydn, and the dramatic mufic of Mozart, _perfiaps the belt of its kind. So that Germany may be faid frequently to vie with Italy itfelf in its own beft {tyle _of compofition. ' GERMAN, in Geography, a -townfhip of America, in _ Fayette county, Pennfylyania; containing 1835 inhabit- ants. German. Flats, the chief and poft-town of Herkemer county, in the ftate of New York, fituated on the N. fide ‘of Mohawk river, oppolite to Herkemer, and 24 miles E. of Whiteftown ; and containing 1637 inhabitants. German Jown, a town of New York, in Columbia gounty, containing 516 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of Phi- ‘Tadelphia county, in the ftate of Pennfylvania, feven miles N. of the city of Philadelphia. It is a corporation, con- ‘fifting chiefly of High and Low Dutch, and contains about 350 houfes, chiefly of ftone, fome of which are large and elegant, forming one ftreet about two miles in length. The public buildings are a Prefbyterian, German-Calvinift and Lutheran church, a Friends’ meeting-houfe, and an aca- ‘demy. Here is a coniiderable manufacture of ftockings, made of cotton, thread, and worfted. ‘This is an ancient town, pleafantly fituated, and by its-vicinity to the metro- polis, well adapted for manufactures. ‘The principal con- _gregation of the Mennonifts, and the parent of ‘that fect in _America, fubfifts in this place. A fevere battle was fought _here between the Englifh and Americans in Ofober 1777. —Alfo, a poft-tewn, and capital of Stokes county, N. Ca- _rofina, fituated near the town fork of Dan river, and con- : taining a.coyrt-houle, gaol, and about 30 houfes ; 528 miles S.W. by:S. of Philadelphia.—Alfo, the chief town of Hyde eounty, in Newbern ditrit, N. Carolina—Alfo, a town of GER ‘Bracken county, in ‘Kentucky, containing 81 inhabitants, —Ailfo, a town of the ftate of New Jerfey; 17 «miles W.S.W. of Morriftown. ‘GERMANDER, in Botany. See Trvcrium. GERMANDER, in the Materia Medica. The common ger- mander, feucrium chamedrys, chamedrys: minor repens, is a native of England, and flowers in June and Ju y: The leaves and tops have a moderately bitter tafte, accompanied with a weak aromatic flavour, diminifhed by drying the plant. They give out their virtues both. to watery and {pirituous ment{trua. The chamedrys has been chiefly efteemed in the chara€ter of a mild aperient and corroborant ; it is recom- mended in uterine ob{tru€iions, intermitting fevers, and in the rheumatifm and gout. The good effeGts of the cha- medrys in the latter diforder are recorded by different authors who have employed it in various forms and combi- “nations, of which the celebrated antiarthritic,-or Portland powder, is an inftance. According to Murray-the virtues of this plant fhould be nearly allied to thofe of Marrubium ; and therefore it promifes to be ufeful in afthmatic affeGtions, coughs, and infarétions of the lungs. Thefe virtues, how- ever, are fomewhat problematical. The Marum germander, or Syrian herb maftich, feucrium marum, flowers from July till September. It is a native of Spain, and is faid to grow plentifully alfo in Greece, Egypt, Crete, and Syria. It was firft cultivated in England by Parkinfon in 1640, and is now to be found in many’of our gardens. *'The leaves and younger branches of marum, when recent, emit, on being rubbed between the fingers, ‘a vola- tile aromatic fmell, which excites fneezing, but to the tafte they are bitterifh, with a fenfation of heat and acrimony. According to Lewis (Mat. Med.) it lofes but little of its pungency by being dried ; and gives out its active matter par- tially to water, and completely to reétified fpirit.. Diftilled with the former, it yields a highly pungent, {ubtile, volatile, effential oil, fimilar to that of feurvy-grafs, but ftronger and of lefs perifhable pungency. Rectified {pirit carries off, in the infpiffation of the fpirituous tin€ture, a confi- derable fhare of the fmell and pungency of the marum, but leaves much the greateft part concentrated in the extract; which, on being tafted, fills the mouth with a durable, pe- netrating, glowing warmth. Wedelius ftrongly recommends ‘this plant as an important remedy in many difeafes requiring medicines of a ftimulant, aromatic, and deobltruent quality ; and inftances of its efficacious ufe have been adduced by Linnezus, Rofenftein, and Bergius. At prefent, however, marum is here chiefly ufed as an errhine, and is an ingredient in the “pulvis afari compoftus” of the London Pharma- copeia. ‘The dofe of the powdered leaves is from a ferupie ‘to half a dram, which Murray advifes to be given in wine. The water germander, teucrium /cordium, is a native of England, in marfhy fituations, and flowers in July and Au-- gult. The leaves of /cordium have a {mell refembling that of garlick, whence its name; and to the tafte they are bit- terifh, and flightly pungent. “When moderately and newly dried, they give out, fays Lewis, (Mat. Med.) their fmell: and tafte both to water and to reétified {pirit. In diitillation their peculiar flavour arifes with water, but the impregna- tion of the diftilled fluid is not ftrong, nor could any fen. tial oil be obtained on fubmitting to the operation feveral pounds of theherb. “The ancients attributed to feordium a peculiar antifeptic and alextpharmic power, and it had for many ages the character of being remarkably efficacious.in all peflilential and putrid difeafes. With this view it entered into the compofition of feveral officinal medicines, that were fuppofed to be antidotes to various kinds of poifons and in- fectione GER feStions. But, notwithftanding this celebrity, it appears to be a very infignificant article of the Materia Medica, and is therefore very juttly fallen into difufe. Bergiys, however, fates its virtue to be « antiputredinofa, tonica, diaphore- tica, diuretica, refolvens ;’’ and fome others recommend it to be employed externally in antifeptic eataplafms and fomen- tations. Woodville Mat. Bot. , GeroManver, Rock See VERONICA. GERMANEA, in Botany, named by Lamarck after Monf. de Saint-Germain, a great admirer and cultivator of plants. Lamarck Diét. v. 2. 6go. Iluftr. t. 514. Juff. 116. g- See Precrrantnus, which latter appellation, given by L’Heritier, who was partial neither to M. de Saint-Ger- main nor his admirers, has been univerfally adopted. GERMANIA, in Geography, a poft-town of Culpepper eounty, in Virginia; 82 miles from Wafhington. GERMANICIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, fituated on a plain between mount Taurus and mount Amanus, on the bank of a {mall river which ran into the Pyramus, W. of the town. GERMANICOPOLIS, a town of Bithynia, near the Propontide, called by Pliny Helgas and Boos-Cxte—Alfo, a town of Paphlagonia, called Gangra—Alfo, a town of Tfauria. GERMANICUS, C-zsar, in Biography, erand-nephew of Auguttus, nephew of Tiberius, and grandfon of Livia. When Auguttus adopted Tiberius, he obliged him to adopt Germanicus, who thus, according to the Roman law, ftood in the filial relation to them both. Germanicus married Agrippina, grand-daughter of Auguftus, a lady not more illuftrious for her rank than her virtues, and he himfelf grew up in the general affection of the public, 0% account of the excellence of his temper, and the mildnefs of his difpofi- tion, and was denominated the “ delight of the Roman people.’” Germanicus was very learned and eloquent, and, at an early age, he became illuftrious in warfare, and was raifed to the moft important offices of the ftate. When Aug iftus died, he was engaged in a war in Germany, and the affection of the foldiers unanimoufly faluted him emperor. He refufed the honour, and then appeafed the tumult which his indifference to the rank had occafioned. He continued his exploits in Germany, and defeated the celebrated Ar- minius, and upon his retura was rewarded with a triumph. The Germans fought with the greateft bravery, but were at length obliged to yield to fuperior difcipline and generalfhip. The concluding battle was attended with great {laughter to the Germans, and gave the Roman commander occafion to raife a trophy with this infeription, “ ‘The nations between the Rhine and the Elbe fubdued by the army of Tiberius Cefar;” but this fubjugation was only a temporary cefla- tion of the conteft, and; upon fome difaiter experienced by the Romans from the elements, the Germans renewed their attack, which aforded Germanicus an opportunity of ac- quiring new laurels, and he expected to have made an entire eonqueit of Germany, but the emperor, jealous of his fuccefles, recalled him, with many compliments upon his palt condué, and the’ profpect of a fecond confulate. On his return he was honoured with another triumph, which was celebrated with extraordinary magnificence. That part of the fpeétacle which was moft affecting to the Roman people, was the chariot of the victor, filled with his three fons and two daughters. Germanicus was foon fent into the Eaft to quell fome diturbances there: the powers entrulted to him ox this occafion were very extenfive, but the fufpicious Tiberius ‘had’ placed. Pifo. as a {py and check on the illufliious general. Germanicus entered upon his fecond gonfillfhip, having the emperor for his colleague; he vifited GER Athens, and was received in that city with all the adulation ufually pratifed by the inhabitants. He then failed to Eubea and Lefbos, thence he touched upon Thrace, and crofiing into Afia, viewed the ruins of Tzoy, and confulted the cracle at Colophon. Pifo haitily followed him, and after terrifying the Athenians with a fevere harangue, and throwing out snfinnations againfl Germanicus, embarked for Rhodes, where he would have perifhed had he nct have been faved by the humane affiftance of the prince, whom he over- took there. Germasicus now preceeded to execute his commiffion. He placed the crown on the head of Zeno, fon of the king of Pontus, an ally of the Romans. He then reduced Cappadocia and other places to the flate of Roman provinces, and in the enfuing year he made a pro- grefs into Egypt, and viewed every thing that was defery- ing of notice in the country, at the fame time opening the public granaries to the people, who were fuffering under a {earcity. Upon his return from Egypt to Syria, he found that Pifo had abrogated every regulation which he had eftablifhed among the legions, and in the cities, and his indignation at this behaviour widened the breach between them. At this time Germanicus was attacked with a difeafe which afterwards proved fatal, and which was im- puted to the effects of poifon, but fome of our beft hiftori- ans, having impartially examined the collateral fa&ts, do not think the evidence fufficient to juftify the affertion. Ger- manicus himfelf had no doubt that he was the viétim of the malignity of Pifo, and, in his lait moments, conjured his friends to profecute with the utmoft vigour the authors of his death. He died at Epidaphne, near Antioch, in the year 19, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. His death . was the fubjeét of univerfal lamentation at Rome. Every © other concern was forgotten, and the people, without wait- - ing for an order from the magiltrates, forfook the forum, fhut up their houfes, and afflumed every token of univerfal forrow. GERODOT, a town of France, in the department of the Anbe; nine miles E. of Troyes. GEROLDSHOFEN, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of Wurzburg ; 20 miles N.E. of Wurzburg. GEROLDSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the county of Katzenelnbogen; feven miles S. of Naftede. GEROLSTEIN, a town of France, in the department of the Sarre, and chief place of a canten, in the diftri& of Prum; 24 miles N. of Treves. The place contains 3505 and the canton 2892 inhabitants, in 29 communes, N_ lat. 50° 16. E. long. 6° 38). GERON Poixr, a cape of Ireland, in the county of Antrim, on the eait coalt, W. long. 5* 50’. Ny lat. 5 Bh GERONA, or Gironye, Lat: Gerundas a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia, the fee of'a bifhop, fuf- fragan of Tarragona, ‘This is a fortified town,, of nearly a triangular form,» fituated on the fide and at the foct of a fteep mountain ; the river Tar runs through it. The ftreets: are narrow and. crowded, but the honfes are tolerably well built. It has feveral churches and convents; and its popu- lation amounts to about 14,0co perfons, a fourth of which number coniilts of pniefts, monks and nuns, feholavs and ftudents. Several provincial councils have been held in this place, one in 517, another in 1068, &c. The trade of this town is inconfiderable, and its only manufaétories confift of a few looms for ftockings, coarie cloths, and woollen and cotton ftuffs, The cathedral and collegiate churéhes are the two moit remarkable edifices in Gironne. The treafury of the cathedral is richly furnifhed with chalices, croffes, fhrines, relics, &c. of gold and filver fet with jewels. I the Capuchin convent there is an Arabian bath, conilra@ed in the moft elegant ftyle, and confilting of columns ftanding: on an o¢tagon {tylobate, or low-bafe, encircling a refervoir to contain water. The univerfity of Gironne, founded i 1521 by Philip II., was abolithed in 1715 by Philip V. After the fuppreflion of the Jefuits, public inffruétion was concentrated in one college, accommodating geo ftudents, who are taught the Latin grammar, rhetoric, philofophy, and theology. - The library is fele€&t and extenfive, Scliools. are kept by the community cf the Beguine nuns for the gra~ tuitous inftructicn of poor girls; 47 miles N.E. of Larces lona._ N. lat. 42° ro!. E. long. 2° 35’. GERONIMO, Sr., atown of Mexico, in New Bifeay; go miles N. of Parral. GERONTE, a fmall ifland in the Mediterranean, near the coait of Natolia. N. lat. 36° 20!. BE. long. 30° 4". GZRONTES, in Antiquity, a kind of judges, or magif= trates, in ancient Sparta, anfwering to what the Areopagites; were at Athens. See Arnopacus. The word is.formed of Greek, y 8%. GHERKINS. See Guenrkins. GHERMA, or Geama, in Geography. See Gua- NA. GHERMANSIK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na- tolia ; 15 miles E. of Scala-Nova. GHERRI. See Grrr. GHERUA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Lachfa; or Hadsjar; 45 miles W.N.W. of El Ca- tif. GHERZE',- a town otf miles S. of Mefurada. 30'. GHESILPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir- car of Rantampour; 28 miles S.S.W. of Suifopour. GHEUK SHA, i. ¢ Blue Water, a lake of Perfian Armenia, 60 miles long, and 6 broad ; 50 miles E.N.E. of Erivan. GHEUREL, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 28 -miles W.N.W. of Angara. GHEUTSI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ; 16 miles E. of Cogni. GHEYSSIOQUAS, a tribe of Hottentots, inhabiting a diftri& of South Africa, bordering on the country of Caf- fraria. M. Vaillant, being at no great diltance from Orange river, found fome of thefe people, who pointed out to him a chain of mountains to the eait, which was occupied by their principal tribes, and which feparated them from the Caffres, or at leaft from the Briquas and Bremas, confider- ed by themas tribes of Caffres. The chief difference be- tween the Gheyfliquas and the nations that furround them confifts in the colour of their ornaments, to which they im- part a dazzling whitenefs by procefles peculiar to themfelves. ‘The women are well-made, lively, and prone to laugh or dance ; but at the fame time mode{t and referved. The people, in general, are faid to be very hofpitable and gene- rous.. The practice of femi-caftration prevails in all their hordes without exception, and they are the only tribe among the Hottentots who adopt it. Diflerent accounts are given by travellers of the reafon of this fingular operation. Kol- ben, {tating it to confift in the extraction of the left tefticle, reprefents it asa religious ceremony, prevailing among all the Hottentots, butthis is not true in fact. Others afcribe it to a defireon the part of the Gheyfliquas- to remove every im- pediment in running, and others again aflign as its caufe a with to prevent the too abundant propagation of the fpecies, Africa, in Tripoli; 50 N. lat. 31° 28% HE. long. 14° GHI But neither of thefe caufes produces the effect afcribed_te them. Vaillant fuppofes that it is a mark of diltinGtion, adopted by thet anceitors, when at war with neighbouring nations, by which they might know one’ another ; but this account is no lefs fanciful and improbable than any other. Whatever is the caufe from which this practice originates, it is performed by the father, commonly at the birth of the child ; though it 1s fometimes deferred till the child has com- pleted his third year. GHEZ, a town of Grand Bucharia; 24 miles S.S.E. of Balk. N. lat. 36°16. E. long. 65° 40’. GHEZAN. See Gnzay. GHEZZI Prer Leoxr, called Cavalisr Ghezzi, in Biography, a painter who was a pupil and imitator of Pietro Cortona. He was fele¢ted with Luti Trevifani, and other artifts of the fame ftyle, to paint the prophets in St. John Lateran; and executed many other works of lefs confe- quence ; but he obtained moft celebrity by his fall in carica- ture, which he freely indulged. GHIABUNDER, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 25 miles S.S.W. of Goragot. GHIBELINS. See Grsetins. GHICKERS, an appellation given to thofe who inha- bited the northern and largeft divifion of the hilly tra& fituated between the Behut, the Sinde, and Cafhmere, ia Hindooftan, by way of contralt to the Joudis, who oc- cupied the fouthern and leaft divifion. GHIDORE, in Geography, a province of Bengal, bounded on the N. by Bahar, on the N.E. and E. by Curruckpour, on the S. by Birboom, and on the S.W. by Curruckdeah and Moy. ‘The chief place is Ghidore ; which is 70 miles S-E. of Patna. N. lat. 24° '53'. Ie. long. 86° 23!. GHIEZ, a fortrefs of Perfia, in the province of Irak, taken by the Afghans in 1723. GHILAN, or Kiran, fynonymous with the ancient Gela, a province of Weiltern Perfia, bounded on the N. by the provinces of Aderbijan or Aiderbeitzan and Schirvan, on the N.E. by the Cafpian fea, on the E. by the Cafpian fea and the province of Mazanderan, en the S. by the Perfian Irak, and on the W. by the provinces of Aderbijan and Curdiitan ; about 200 miles from E. to W., and 150 from N. to S. This is one of the moit beautiful and fer- tile provinces of Perfia, producing filk, olives, rice, to- bacco, and molt excellent fruits of all kinds, and in fuch abundance, as not oxly to fupply the waits of its inhabitants, but fufficient to provide for a great part of Perfia and Armenia. The manufactures and filk of Ghilan are efteem- ed the beft in Perfia, and have been in fuch repute for many years, that Rafhd, its capital, is become one of the firft commercial towns in this part of Afia. The fineft fort is ufually white, and chiefly fent into the interior cities of Perfia, or fold to the ‘Turks; the inferior kind is yellow, and prin- cipally difpofed of tothe Ruffians. Rafhd fupplies the border- ing provinces of Perfia, and the independent neighbouring {tates, as far as Georgia, with European merchandize, except the goods which are tranfported immediately from A ftrakan, through Kiflar and Moftok, to the nearelt part of Georgia, and of the neighbouring mountains ; and thofe fent from Shamakee to the Lefeue Tartars, and other independent tribes. In this province are feen whole forefts of mulberry, box, and walnut trees. Every peafant has a garden to his cot- tage, planted with orange-trees, citrons, figs, and vines. For a further account of the trade and government of this province, we refer to the articles Casp1an Sea and Persia. We bhall here only add, that in the year r792 Akan, called by Dr. Pallas Aga Mamet, collected an army, and purfued his conquelts in the vicinity of Ghilan, till at length he had no Gut no rival, except Hidaet, khan of Ghilan, whom he forced to fiy from Rafht or Rafhd, his place of refidence, and who was killed near the port of Sinfili In confequence of thefe events Akau became monarch of the whole of Welftern Perfia ; and having been made an eunuch in his infancy by order of Nadir Shah, he nominated for his fucceffor his nephew Baba Serdar. GHILDI, a town of Africa, on the Senegal ; 30 miles N.W. of Gallam. 7 aes a town of Curdiftan; 50 miles S.S.W. of rbi GHINALA, a town and territory of Africa, on the river Rio Grande, near its mouth. N. lat. 11° 15’. W. long. 14° 15’. : GHINIA, in Botany, fo named by Schreber in memory of Luca Ghini, who, in the 16th century, was profeffor of botany at Bologna and Pifa, in each of which univerfities he greatly improved, if he did not entirely found, the botanic garden, and was the firlt who made the fludy of botany an effential part of medical education. He publifhed no book himfelff but Haller mentions the exiltence of a manufcript copy -_ lectures, and he communicated many things in correfpondencc to the writers of histime. Schreb. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 2. (Tamonea ; Aubl. Guian. Swartz. Prod. Nat. Ord. 19. Willd. Sp. Pl.-v. 1. 114. Swartz. Ind. Occ. v..2. 1087. 659. Juffl. 10g. Lamarck, Illuftr. t. 542. 94-)—Clafs and order, Didynamia Angio/permia. LPerfonate, Linn. Véitices, Juff. - Ger. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, tubular, permanent, inferior, its orifice with five pointed f{preading teeth. Cor. of one petal, irregular ; tube long, narrow; limb of two lips, the upper one largeit, roundifh, concave, afcending ; lower in three deep roundifh. fegments, the middlemott larger, deflexed, emarginate. Stam. Filaments four, in- ferted into the tube above its bafe, two of them longer than the reft; anthers each of two feparated oblong cells, one of them terminal, fertile in the longer ftamens only, the other like a little feale in the middle of each filament. Pi/. Germen roundith, fuperior ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the tube; ftigma four-lobed. Peric. Drupa turbinate, ar gular, dry, projecting beyond the permanent calyx. Nut angular, of four or five cells. Seeds folitary. Eff, Ch. Calyx with five fharp {preading teeth. Corolla ringent, two-lipped; the lower lip three-lobed. Nut coated, four-celled, invefted with the calyx. Seeds folitary. An- thers of two dittant Icbes. Obf. We think this genus ought to be placed in Didy- namia, along with Verbena, to which it is nearly akin, though only the longer flamens appear to be perfect ; but this may be variable, and cannot well be determined without repeated examinations of wild fpecimens. 1. G. fpinofa. Willd. n/ 1. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1, 45. (G. verbenacea; Sw. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1089. Verbena curaffavica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 28. Veronice fimilis, &c. Herm. Parad. t. 240.)— Fruit with four thorns. Leaves fmooth.””—Native of feveral parts of the Weft Indies, where Houfton and Swartz have gathered and examined it. This is an annual and rather humble herba- ceous plant, with a branched /fem, ovate deeply ferrated Laves, and long loofe fpikes of {mall whitith fowers. 2. G. mutica. Willd. n. 2. Sw. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 10go. (Tamonea fpicata; Aubl. Guian. 660. t. 268.)— Fruit without thorns. Leaves downy.’?—Native of Guiana and Cayenne. Much like the former, but with downy aves, and an unarmed fruit, and the middle fegment of the lower lip of the corolla, according to Swartz, is emarginate in this, entire in the preceding. Neither of them have much GHI beauty, nor any other qualities to recomntend them for cultivation with us in the ftove, though perhaps they might be planted out for the fummer, if defirable, like other tender annuals. GHINNA, or: Guenne!, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the E. fide of the Nile, oppolite to Kuft, or Coptos, on the other fide, and diltant from Coffeir, or Kofire, on the Red fea, about 90 geographical miles. N. lat. 26° 11'. E. long. 32° 49’. GHINUE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, m Natolia; 24 miles N.W. of Sinob. GHIO. See Kemurx. Giro, a town of Africa, belonging to the Foulahs, on the Senegal; 12 miles S.W. of Goumel. GHIR. See Gir. GHIRGIN. See Guincurn. GHIRLANDAIO, Domenico, in Biography, a painter, of whom Vafari {peaks as being of the firit rank in his time. His real name was Corradi. He at firft was em- ployed by his father, in his own profeflion of goldfmith, at Florence, who obtained the name of Ghirlandaio, by having been the firft to make little metallic garlands ( GAirlandi) for children to wear. Domenico continued to paint, after he had adopted painting as his profeffion, for the churches and convents in Florence, both im frefeo and in cil. He, like other artifts of the time, introduced into his pictures the portraits of his friends, but gave them more character ap- pertaining to the fubjcct, than had hitherto been dene there ; and he was the firit who left off gilding in pictures, and attempted to imitate its effects by colours. He was called to Rome by Sixtus IV. to affiit other mafters employed in painting his chapel. His works there were afterwards {poiled to make reom for thofe of M, Angelo. He was highly honoured, and employed nobly ; but his greateit glory is, having had the great hero of the art, M. Angelo, for a pupil. He died in 1493, at the age of 44. His brothers, David and Benedetto, finifhed many of his works, and educated his fon Ridolfo to the art, who afterwards made great progrefs, and obtained efteem from Raphael himfelf, who invited him, but-not fuccefsfully, to work in the Vatican. In Ridolfo’s pictures, Mr. Fufeli fays, ‘there is fomething anelogous to the genius of Raphael; the com- pofition, the vivacity of the face, the choice of colours, fomething ideal in the ufe of nature, betray fimilar maxims, with inferior powers.”? He died in 1560, aged 75. GHIRNAH, in Geography, ariver of Hindoottan, which runs into the Taptee ; 36 miles S.W. of Burhanpour. GHISCIOLA, a town of Italy, in the department of the Upper Po; 15 miles E. of Cremona. GHISTELLES, atownof France, in the department of the Lys, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Bruges; 11 miles S.W. of Bruges. ‘Phe place contains 2500, and the canton 11,404 inhabitants, on a territory of 182! kiliometres, in 18 communes. ; GHIVIRA, a town of Italy, in the department of the Olona; 30 miles N.W. of Milan. GHIZNI, or Gazna, an ancient empire of Hindooftan, founded by Abiilagi, governor of Korafan, A.D. 960, who revolied from the king of Bucharie. Ghizni con- fifted chiefly of the traé&t which compofed the kingdom of Ba@tria, after the divifion of Alexander's empire; that is, the countries lymg between Parthia and the Indus, and fouth of the Oxus. The Ghiznian empire, fubject to the fame caufes of decay with other unwieldy fates of rapid’ growth, was, in 1158, forcibly divided; the weftern, and largeft part, and which {till retained the ancient name of the empire, being feized on by the family of the Gaurides, (fo denominated, GHY denominated from Gaur, or Ghor, a province and city lying, beyond the Indian Caucafus), while the provinces contiguous to both fhores of the Indus, remained to Chufero, or Cufroe, who fixed his refidence at Lahore: and even his pofterity were, In 1184, driven out of their kingdom by the Gaurides. The death of the emperor Mahomed Gori, in 1205, occa- fioned a new divifion of the Ghiznian empire ; the Perfian part remaining to Eldoze, and the Indian part to Cuttub, who founded the Patan, or Afghan dynaity, in Hindooftan. In 1221 Gengiz Cawn, among his extenfive conquetts, accomplifhed that of the empire of Ghizni; putting an end to the dynaity of Charafm, which then occupied that throne, and driving before him the unfortunate Gelali, fon of the reigning emperor ; who {wam the Indus to avoid his fury. The ancient empire of Ghizni is nearly. comprehended by the kingdom, known at prefent by that of Candahar. Sce Canparar. Gurzni, or Gazna, a city of Candahar, once the repyted capital of the Ghiznian empire, and placed among the weftern fources of the Indus, and not far from the Indian Caucafus. The pofition of Ghizni is erroneoufly fixed by M. D’Anville in the N.W. extreme of Cabul ; whereas it appears to be almoft in the very heart of that province. It is termed the “« Second Medina,’’ on account of the great number of illultrious perfons whofe remains have been in- terred there. Wonderful ftories are related concerning its extent and population in ancient times; neverthelefs, Baber expreffes his furprife at its having ever been pitched on for the feat of any empire. Ghizini is diftant about 56+ geocra- phical miles $. by W. from Cabul, about 1674 {uch miles from Candahar, and about 88 miles from Bamian. N. lat. 33° 35 -E. long. 68° 22". GHOBAN. See Gopan. GHOER, a town of Holland, in Overyffel, on the Rigge; 10 miles N.N.E. of Borkeloe. GHOR. See Gaur. ‘GHORATB, atown of Arabia, in the country of Ye- men; 15 miles E. of Iambo, GHOUP, a mountain of Southern Africa. This, and alfo Nieuweld, are a continuation of the Roggeveld moun- tain, and join the divifions bearing the fame name in the dif- tri€t of Graaf Reynet. They have lately been deferted, on account of the number of Boosjefman Hottentots, who dwell clofe behind them. GHOURBUND, a town, and diftri& of Cabul; 42 miles NiW. of Cabul. N. lat. 34° 55’. E. long 67? ; : ali 2 GHOURI, atown of the kingdom of Balk. N. lat. 35° 40'. E. long. 66° 56’. GHULE ex Axsais, atown of Arabia Felix ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Chamir. ‘ GHULPAIGAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak, taken by the Afghans in 1723; 100 miles N.N.W. of Ifpahan. N. lat. 33° 45’. E.long. 50° 40’. GHUMISCHKANA, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the government of Trebifond; 50 miles S.S.W. of Trebi- fond. GHUNFUDE, a fea-port of Arabia, on the Red fea, belonging to the fheriff of Mecca. All vefiels which carry coffee to Jidda are compelled to anchor here, and pay a duty ; 145 miles S. of Mecca. N. lat. 29° 7’. GHUNI, one of the fmaller Cape Verd iflands, being little more than a rock. GHURMAN, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan; 30 miles N.E. of Ferah. GHYASPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 20 miles W.S.W. of Chuprah. GIA GIA, an Italian adverb, ufed in Mufie for already, formerly, cidevant : as “* Gia macitro di cappella del Duomo di Milano,”’ formerly maeftro di cappella, or compofer, to the cathedral of Milan. _ GIABBAR, in Geography, afortrefs of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Diarbekir; 120 miles S.S.W. of Diarbekir. GIACOMELLI Gemrxtano, in Biography, of Parma, compofed for the theatres of Venice, between the years 1704 and 1736, feven or eight different dramas, written chiefly by Apoftolo Zeno and Metaftafio. He was the {cholar of Capelli; but adopted a more high and flighty flyle, with which the Venetians were much captivated, before they heard the more graceful and expreffive airs of Vinci and Hafic. GIACOMO, Sr. in Geography, a town of Italy ; three miles S. of Verona.—Alfo, a town cf the Valteline ; two miles N.W. of Chiavenna. Giacomo, St., Valley of, a valley of Switzerland, which is part of the county of Chiavenna. It.is narrow, and wa- tered by the torrent Lira ; contains about 10 parifhes, is under the jurifdiction of the commiffary, and poffeffes feveral import - ant privileges that preferve the inhabitants from the oppret- fion which their neighbours endure, All caufes are tried in the valley. The criminal flatutes are thofe of Chiavenna, with this difference, that inftead of the affeffor, the valley chufes four perfons, who are always prefent at the examination ; and without whofe concurrence, torture cannot be inflicted, nor fentence pafled. The valley has its own code of jnrif- prudence, and courts independent of the commiflary, from the decifion of which an appeal lies to the diet. The lower part of the valley produces vines and corn; the upper, rye, barley, and pallure, mixed with large groves of fir and pine. Giacomo ARKADELT, in Biography, a Netherlander, and a difciple of Jufquin, enumerated by Adami among the fingers and compofers of the pontifical chapel in the 16th century. He was maeftro di cappella fome time to the car- dinal of Lorrain, and had acquired great fame by his madri- gals, of which he publifhed at Venice, between the years 1539 and 1575, five books. In one of which is the celebrated madrigal, ‘ 1] bianco e dolce Cigno cantando muore,”’ which was in high favour all over Europe. GIADEN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, 60 miles W. S.W. of Mecca. GIADILA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed, 90 miles S.W. of Kariatim. GIADRI, a town of Albania, on the Drino; eight miles N. of Aleffio. GIAGAS of Africa. See JaGas. GIAGH, or Jenacu, a cycle of twelve years, in ufe among the Turks and Cathayans. Each year of the giagh bears the name of fome animal ; the firft that of a moufe ; the fecond, thatof abullock: the third, of a lynx or leopard; the fourth, of ahare ; the fifth, of a crocodile; the fixth, of aferpent ; the feventh, of a horfe; the eighth, of a fheep ; the ninth, of amonkey ; the tenth, of a hen; the eleventh, of a dog ; and the twelfth, of a hog. They alfo divide the day into twelve parts, which they call giaghs, and diftinguifh them by the name ef the fame animals. Each giagh contains two of our hours, and is di- vided into eight 4h, as many as there are quarters of hours in our day. GIALAKOVA, in Geography, a town of Euro-ean Turkey, in Romania; 6omiles N.E. of Filippopoli. GIALLOLINO, in Natural Ififory. See Narres Yellows GIAMANI, GIA GIAMANT, in Geography, atown of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Chufiftan; 28 miles S.S.W. of Sufter. GIAMBASH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Smyrna. GIANAH, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kerman ; o miles E. of Singian. - GIANCAZZO, Sr. a town of Naples, in the province of Ctranto ; 12 miles S.W. of Brindifi. GIANNONE, Perea, in Biography, was born at or near Naples about the year 1680. He was educated for, and practifed in, the law, but-was much more diflinzuifhed as an hittorian. In 1723 he wrote a “ Hittory of Naples,” ia four volumes 4to. The ftyle is pure, but the freedom with which he difcuffed feveral topics relating to the origia of the papal power gave fo much offence to the court of Rome, that he was obliged to exile himfelf from his native country. He found an afylum with the king of Sardinia, who did not, however, dare to avow himieif his proteCtor, but chofe rather to reprefent his fituation as that of a prifoner. Giannone died in Piedmont in 1748. Extraéts from his hiftory were afterwards printed in Holland under the title of «¢ Anecdotes Ecclefiattiques.”” His pofthumous works were given to the world in a quarto volume, containing, among other mifcellaneous matter, his profeffion of faith, and a juf- tification of his liftory. GIANOTTI, a performer on the double-bafe in the opera at Paris, from the year 1739 to 1767, who publifhed, G i in 1759, a treatife built onthe priaciples of Rameau, entitled «¢ Guide du Compofiteur,’? the Compofer’s Guide; a work much efteemed by the followers of Rameau. The author of this tract having been long in the practice of ex- plaining the fyfem of the fundamental bafe to his {cholars, has drawn-up his owa work in a clear and_ intelligible manner. GIANNUTY, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Medi- terranean fea, near the coait of Italy. N. lat. 42°24". E. long. “FX 20% GIANT, yf, aman of extraordinary, enormous ftature and bulk. The reality of giants, and of nations of giants, is much controverted among the learned. ‘Travellers, hiftorians, and relations, both facred and profane, furnifh various inftances of them; a great part of which naturalifts and antiquaries fet afide. Taofe among the ancients who {peak of giants, as hifto- rians, and affirm there were fuch beings, are Czfar, de Bello Gallico, lib. 1. Tacitus, de Morib. Germanor. and Annal. lib. ii. Florus, lib. iii. cap. 3 St. Auguttine, de Civit. Dei. lib. xv. cap. 9g. and Saxo-Grammaticus, at the end of his preface: among the moderns, Hieron. Magius, Mifcellan. de Gigantibus; Chaffagonus, de Gigantibus; Kircher, Mund Subterran. lib. vii. feé. ii.-cap. 4. and fo many others, that Stephanus, in his notes on Saxo-Grammaticus, affirms, nothing can be more extravagant than to deny or allegorize the authorities we have concerning them. Dr. Derham obferves, that though we read of giants be- fore the flood, Gen. vi. 4. and more plainly after it, Numb. ly probable the fize of man has always ¢ Be this as it will, it is manifef, that in both thefe places giants are {poken of as rarities and wonders of the agri of la the common itature: and fuch in tances we have a in all GIA ages, But itis not at allimprobable, that the firfl men were of a ftrength and ftature fuperior to thofe of mankind at pre- fent, fince they lived a much longer time; long life being commonly the effe€t of a ftrong conftitution. There are many fabulous relations: fuch as we take to be that of Theuto- bocchus, who is faid to have been dug up anno 1613, and to have been higher than the trophies, and twenty-fix feet in height : and no better we fuppofe the giants to have been, of whom O1. Magnus gives an account in his fifth book; fuch as Harthen and Starchater, among the men ; and among the women, ‘ reperta eft (faith he) puella—in capite vulnerata, mortua, induta chlamyde purpurea longitudinis cubitorum 5, latitudinis inter humeros quatuor.’’. Ol]. Mag. Hitt. lib. v. Cap. 2. ; But, as for the more credible relations of Goliah (whofe height was fix cubits and a {pan, (1. Sam xvii 4.) which, ac- cording to bifhop Cumberland, is fomewhat above eleven feet Englith, of Og, king of Bafan, (Deut. iii. 11.) whofe bed was nine cubits long and four wide, of Maximinus the empe- ror (who was nine feet high), and others in the reign of Au- guitus and other Roman emperors, of about the fame height ; to which might be added the dimenfions of a fkeleton, dug up in the place of a Roman camp, near St. Alban’s, by an ura infcribed Marcus Antoninus, of which an acceunt is given by Mr. Chefelden, who judged, by the dimenfions ef the bones, that the perfon was eight feet high, Phil. Tranf. N> 333 ; thefe antique examples and relations, we fay, may te match- ed, nay outdone, with modern ones; of which we have divers in J. Ludolph. Comment. in Hift. thiop. hb. ii.cap. 2. fe&t. 22. Magius, Conringius, D. Hakewel, and others; the laft mentioned writer fpeaks from Nannez, of porters and archers belonging-to the emperor of China, fifteen feet high, and of others bas Purchas, of ten and twelve feet high, and more. Sce that learned author's Apol. p. 208. The exiftence of a race of men above the common ftature, on the coait of Patagonia in South America, has been the fubje&t of difpute for the two lait centuries. In one century almoit all navigators, of every country, affirmed that there ~ were fuch perfons ; and in the next the faét is denied by the greater number, and their predeceflors are treated as timid or boaiting fabuliits. The Yrea Garcilaffo dela Vega, in his hiftory of Peru, relates, that according to a tradition univer- fally received, anumber of veficls or junks came to St. He= lena with a cempany of giants on board, of a ftature fo enormous, that the natives of the country were not higher than their knees ; that their eyes were as broad as the bot= tom of a plate, and their limbs proportionably large. But thefe are fables, fimilar to thofe relative to the fame fubje& in other parts of the world. See Grants? bones.- Om Turner, the naturalift, reports that he had feen, near the river Plata, on the coait of Brafil, a race of giants, who went ftark naked, one of whom was twelve feet high ; but he acknowledges that he faw no ethers fo tall. Tne ocular witneffes on the affirmative fide of the queftion are, Magel- lan, Loaifa, Sarmiento, and Nodal, among the Spamiards ; Cavendith, Hawkins, and Knivet, among the Englifh; Se- bald, De Noort, Le Maire, and Spilberg, among the Dutch ; and among the French, thofe who went in the expedition from Marfeilles and St. Maloes, in the year 1704. Knivet affirms that he meafured feveral dead bodies, which he found buried at Port Defire, which were from fourteen to fixteen {pans high ; and that he had frequently feen at Brafil one of the Patagonians, who, though a youth, meafured no Jefs than thirteen fpans; and that the Englifh prifoners at Braiil affured him, that they had feen many men of the fame gigantic itature upen the coafts of the {trait : this accoynt is alio conkrmed by Sebal de Weit, and Oliver de Noort. cia zy GIANT. Clafz, a commiffary on board Le Maire’s fleet, declares that he found, in the fepulchres on the coaft of Patagonia, the bones of men who were between ten and eleven feet high. Nodal and fir Richard Hawkins merely relate, that thefe fa- vages were a head taller than the inhabitants of Europe, and of fucha flature, that the people on board their veflels called them giants. Thofe who bear teftimony to the contrary, are Winter, the Dutch admiral Hermite, Froger in De Gennes’s Nar- rative, and fir John Narborough. Sir Francis Drake alfo is filent with refpect to the ftature of the inhabitants of Patagonia; but Winter pofitively affirms, that the accounts of their being giants are falfehoods invented by the Spaniards. Narborough meafured the flculls and the print of the feet of the favages on the coalt of the ilrait of Magellan, which, he fays, were of the common fixe’: and he had often feen companies of them at Pert St. Julian, who were neither taller nor bigger than other men. However, it may be obferved in general, that the greater part of thefe who hold the affirmative in this queflion, {peak of people that inhabited the defert coafts of Patagonia to the eait and -welt; and that, on the contrary, thofe who hold the nega- tive, {peak of thofe who inhabit the ftrait upon the fides of the utmoft point of America to the north and fouth. Frezier relates, not from his own knowledge, but from the teltimony of eye-witnelles, that there was, at a confiderable .diftance within the country from the coaft of Chili, an In- dian nation, called by their neighbours Caucohues, who fometimes came down to the Spanith fettlements, that were more than nine feet high, and were the fame race with the Patagonians who live on the eaftern coat. It appears from various relations, that the inhabitants of the two borders of the ftrait are of the common ftature, and that the race, diftinguifhed by the name of Patagonians, make their con- {tant refidence upon the defert coalts, fearcely acceflible to any but themfelves ; and when European fhips frequented the trait, they removed and fettled in the interior part of the country: however, the current teftimony of late navi- gators, particularly commodore Byron, captain Wallis, and captain Carteret, will put an end to the doubts that have been hitherto entertained of the exiitence of {uch perfons. Commodore Byron, who viiited the coalt of Patagonia, in 1764, {peaks of the inhabitants as of a gigantic flature ; but he did not meafure any of them, and only concluded, by the proportion of their {lature to his own and that of his companions, that they could not be lefs than fix and a half, or feven feet in height, and proportionably {trong and bulky. Captain Wallis had an interview with thefe people in 1766, and found, by meafuring them, that the ftature of the greater part of them was from five feet ten inches to fix feet, ‘though there were fome who were fix feet five and fix feet fix inches, and one who was fix feet feven inches. Captain Carteret, who attended captain Wallis on this oceafion, con- firms the above account in his letterto Dr. Maty. Sce Phil, “Tranf, vol. Ix. art. 2. p. 20, &c. See Hawkefworth’s “”V oyase, yol. li, Introd. and p. 28. 154. i Giants, Rebel, in Ancient Mythology, were the fons of ‘Terra, or the Earth, by Colus, who made war again! Ju- piterand the ¢eleftial deities, to avenge the defeat of the Titans. Thefe giants are reprefented as of an cnormous height and fize, having a wild and dreadful afpect, and pofleffed of ftrength proportioned to their bulk: cach ot them had a hundred hands, and ferpents, inttead of legs. _ Being determined to dethrone Jupiter, they reared Mount ‘Offa upon Pelion, and Olympus upon Offa, and from. thence attacked the gods with huge rocks, fome of which fell into the fea and became iflands, and others fell on the earth aad _ You SVL " formed mountains. Jupiter fummoned a council of the cods, and being informed.that it was neceffary to obtain the affit- ance of fome mortal, with the advice of Pallas he called up Hercules, and with the aid of this’ hero, exterminated the giants Enceladus, Polybotes, Alcyon, Porphyrion, the two fons of Alceus, Ephialtus, Othus, Eurytus, Clytius, Ty- thyus, Pallas, Hippolitus, Agrius, Thoon, and Typhon, the laft ef whom it was more difficult to vanquifh than all the others. Jupiter having thus gained a complete vidtory, caft the rebels down to Tartarus, where they were to ree -ive the full punifhment of their enormous crimes : according to the account of fome of the poets, he buried them alive under Mount Etna and different iflands. For the explication of this fable, fome have fuppofed that Jupiter (for whofe hiftory, fee Jupirer) deilroyed the robbers that infefted Theffaly, and that thefe are the pre- tended giants; for we have already obferved (in the pre- ceding article) that the appellation « Nephilim,”’ occurring in fcripture, and tranflated giants, fignities people addigted to all kinds of licentionfnefs and violence, or robbers and ruffians. Jupiter, when he left Crete to vifit the other parts of Greece, ufually refided on mount Olympus, where he had probably built a {trong citadel. This mount Olym- pus, highly clevated, was afterwards taken for heaven itfelf, and the moft ancient poets, efpecially Homer, fo defcribe it. he banditti now mentioned, determined in their attack on that prince, befiege him im his citadel, which afterwards gave rife to the fiGtion of their having attempted to fcale heaven, and of their having made an aflault upon it. It is added, that with this view they piled Offa upon Pelion, importing, as it is conjectured, that they had fortified thefe two mountains, which are alfo in Theflaly, and at no great diftance from Olympus, whither they retired after their ex- curfions, and kept Jupiter’s garrifon in awe. For other particulars, fee Banier’s Mythology, vol. iii, See alfo TITANS. Grants’ Bones, aname too haftily given by the vulgar to certain bones and parts of {keletons, of an enormous fize, found in England and other places. Of all the numbers of thefe, which have been publicly fhewn about as wonders in nature, not one but has proved, on examination, a bone of an elephant, or elfe of a whale, or of fome other terreftrial or aquatic animal now perhaps extinét ; the firft, however, is ufually the cafe, as the bones of elephants are much more frequently found buried in the earth than thofe of the whale. ; Sir Hans Sloane mentions a vertebra of the loin of a whale fent him from Oxfordfhire, where it was dug up under ground, and afterwards ufed as a ftool to fit upon, and vul- garly fuppofed part of a human back-bone. Now, if the - whole fize of the body had been calculated from this piecey the account would have prefented fuch a fize as would have far exceeded all the fabulous jtories of giants’ fkeletons exe tant in the world. Many fkecletons of this kind have been found which have been called the fkeletons of giants: fuch are thofe of Phi- loftratus, which are faid to be the bones of men of twelve, twenty, andeven thirty cubits high; that found ia a moun tain of Crete, and mentioned by Plato and Ptiny, forty-fix cubits high; another of fixty cubits, found near Tangier in Mauritania, mentioned by Plutarch and Strabo, and {up pofed to be the fkeleton of Anteus; the fkeleton of Pallas, the fon of Eyander, found in Rome, and faid to be taller than the walls of that city; another,. found in: England in 1171, fifty feet long. St. Auftin alleges, in proof of the exiltence af giants before the flood, a grinder tooth, which he faw on the fhoreg of Utica, which was. in reality that of wy G¢g GIANT. an elephant. The cooth in the church of St. Chriftopher, at Hiipulla, and the fhoulder bone of St. Chriftopher, pre- ferved in a church at Venice, are of the fame kind. The tooth preferved and fhewn at Antwerp is only the grinder of an elephant; and another, belonging to a fkeleton which was dug up near Tunis in 1630, was fent to the learned Pierefc, who took the impreffion of it in wax, and comparing it with the tooth of anclephant fhewn near the place, found it to be of the fame fhape and fize. Sir Hans Sloane has zi +2 an accurate and learned account of feveral other mif- takes on this fubjeét, for which we muit refer to the Philof. Tranfa&. N°’ 404. However, Monf. Le Cat, in a memoir read before the Academy of Sciences at Rouen, recites a number of inftances, in which fkeletons, or parts of fkeletens, of an uncommon magnitude, have been found; thefe have been examined by anatomiits, he fays, and have been by them reputed real bones; and hence he infers the exiftence of giants. Giants Caufeway, a name given in the county of An- trim, onthe north coaft of Ireland, to a vait quantity of that kind of bafaltes, (fee Basarres,) which ftands in co- lumns, and runs out a great way into the fea. The ignorance of the vulgar as to the nature of this ftone, has occafioned this great pile of it to be fuppofed artificial and the work of giants, once inhabitants there. But who- ever confiders this amazing feries of columns, will be foon convinced no human hands could have formed them, and will find an accuracy in their figures greater than could have been expected from the mof curious hand. The length of the feveral columns, and their joints fo regularly placed in feries, and the nicenefs of their articulations, by which no {pace or vacuity is left between, are wonderful. This caufeway forms a kind of mole, or quay, projecting from the bafe of a fteep promontory fome hundred feet into the fea ; and the perpendicular columns ef which it is formed exhibit an appearance not unlike a folid honey-comb. ‘The {ingle columns are irregular prifms of from four to eight s; but the pentagonal and hexagonal are by far the moit numerous, and, when examined, they are found juft fuch as mutt neceffarily be required in the places where they ftand to fill up between others, fo as to leave no vacuity. Each of thefe columns is feparable-into a feries of joints, each of which is fo well fitted to the place, that the joining appears only acrack or crevice in the itone: yet thefe are regularly articulated, there being always a convexity on one part, and a focket in the other to receive it, fo that the joists cannot flip off from one another ; befides which, the angles of one requently {hoot over thofe of the other, fo that they are completely locked together, and can rarely be feparated without a fracture of fome of their parts. The depth of the concavity is generally about three or four inches. Thefe hollows are of great ufe to the neighbouring poor, for they make a kind of falt pans of them, and thus very ealily pro- cure themfelves a kind of bay-falt in fummer. They fll thefe little bafons with fea-water at high tides, and the heat of the fun and of the ftone contributing greatly to the evaporation, as well as the fhallownefs of the bafon, the whole humidity is found evaporated in the time of four tides, and they take out the falt ready for ufe. The length of thofe joints is various; they are from eight to four and twenty inches long, and for the moft part longer towards the bottom of the column; they are generally fot fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. The triangular and fquare columns are fewer in number than the others, but they ftand principally in the inner part of the large feries, and-are feldom feen, unlefs fearched after by a curious eye, The regular figure of the flone, eompofing this caule- way, is not more wonderful than its quantity. ‘Lhe whole country for many miles being full of it, and a vai mafs running far into the fea: for, befides what vulgarly goes b the name of the Giants Caufeway, which is itfelf of vaft ex- tent, there are great numbers of the fame pillars at diftances in other places. There are two other {maller and imperfe& caufeways to the left hand of the great one, and farther in the fea, a great number of rocks fhew themfelyes at low water, which appear plainly all to confift of the fame fort of columns. In going up the hill from the caufeway there are found, in different places, a vaft number of the fame columns; but thefe do not ftand ere&t, but are laid flant- ing upwards in different angles and directions. Beyond this hill, eaftward, alfo, at feveral diitances, there ittand a great number of the fame pillars, placed ftraight and erect, and in clufters of different fizes. Thefe are feen fcattered, as it were, over the feveral parts of the hills. One parcel of them is much admired, and called by the country people the looms of the organs. It itands in an elegant form, and faces the bottom of the hill. The co- lumns, of which this clufter confifts, are about fifty in num- ber, and they are fo nicely put together, that the talleft ftand in the middle, and the fhorter gradually on each fide of it to the end, fo that they look like the pipes of a church organ viewed from the front. ‘The talleit one of all thefe, which ftands exactly in the centre, is forty teet high, and confifts of forty-four diftinét joints. What is emphatically called the Giants Caufeway is, in faét, af{mall portion of that vaft bafalticarea, of which the pro- montories of Bengore and Fairhead confilt, and which extends over a great part of the neighbouring country. ‘Thefe two great promontories, which have been examined by Hamilton and lately by Dr. Richardfon, ftand at the diftance of eight miles from each other, and are the leading features of the whole coaft of Antrim. The former of them, fituated about feven miles Weft of Ballycaftle, reprefents it‘elf at a diftance, and in profile, as an extenfive headland, running out from the coaft a confiderable length mto the fea; but, ftriGly fpeaking, it is nade up of a number of leffer capes and bays, the whole of which forms what the feamen deno- minate the headland of Bengore. ‘Thefe capes are com- poled of a variety of different ranges of pillars and a great number of ftrata, which, from the abruptnefs of the coait, are very confpicuous, and form an unrivalled pile of natural architecture, in which all the neat regularity and elegance of art is united to the wild magnificence of nature. The promontory of Fairhead raifes its lofty fummit more than 500 feet above the fea, forming the eaftern termination of Ballycaftle bay. It prefents to view a vaft compaét mafs of rude columnar ftones, the forms of which are extremely grofs, many of them being near 150 feet in length, and of a coarfe texture. At the bafe of thefe gigantic columns lies a wild watte of natural ruins, of an enormous fize, which, in the courfe of fucceflive ages, have been tumbled down from their foundation by itorms, or fome more powerful operations of nature. ‘he maffive bodies have fometimes withitood the fhock of their fall, and often lie in groups and clumps of pillars, ‘refembling many of the varieties of arti- ficial ruins, and forming a very novel and ftriking landfcape. Befides thefe two promontories, there are feveral other parts of the county of Antrim which exhibit a fimilar columnar bafaltic ftruéture. Thus the mountain of Dunmull, be- tween Coleraine and the river Bufh, abounds in fuch bafalt, - particularly at the craigs of Iflamore, where two different ‘ranges of columns may be difcovered; they may be feen alfe: GIAN F. alfo at Dunluce-hill, near the enftle of Dunluce; in the bed of the river Bufh, near the bridge of Bufh-mills; on the fummit of the mountain of Croaghmore; in many parts of the high land over Ballintoy ; in the ifland of Raghery, op- pofite Ballycaftle, and various other places, through an extent of coaft about fifteen miles in length and two in breadth. Beyond this tract, which abounds in perfect pil- lars, an attentive obferver will be able to trace the fame materials and itratification in very diftant parts of the coun- try, as far as the northern fhore of Loughneagh, and the mountains of the county of Derry ; in many places of which imperfe€t columnar forms may be obferved; fo that the great caufe which generated this {pecies of {tone has been exerted through a fpace of more than forty miles in length and twenty in breadth; that is, through above eight hun- dred fquare miles. Of the different varieties obfervable in the columns that compofe the Giants Caufeway and thofe of the other parts ef the coaft, the following comparative view has been given by Mr. Hamilton. 1. With refpect to form and magni- tude: the pillars of the caufeway are comparatively {mall, not very much exceeding one foot in breadth and thirty in length; fharply defined, neat in their articulation, with convex or concave terminations to each joint. In many of the capes and hills they are of larger fize, more imperfeé& and irregular in their figure and articulations, having often flat terminations to their joints. At Fairhead they are of a gigantic magnitude, fometimes exceeding five feet in breadth and a hundred in length ; often apparently deftitute of joints altogether. 2. With refpeé to fituation: the pillars of the Giants Caufeway ftand on the level of the beach, from whence they may be traced, through all degrees of elevation, to the fummit of the higheft grounds in the neighbeurhood, as at the old fort of Dunmull, and on the top of Croaghmore, fix hundred feet at leatt above the level of the fea. 3. With refpect to difpofition and arrange- ment: at the caufeway, and in moit other places, they ftand perpendicular to the horizon ; in fome of the capes, and particularly near Ufhet harbour in the ifle of Raghery, they lie in an oblique pofition; at Doon-point, in the fame ifland, and along the Ballintoy fhore, they forma variety of regular curves. 4. With regard to colour and grain : the Giants Caufeway bafalt is blackifh, clofe, and uni- form; its varieties of colour are blue, reddifh, grey ; and of grain, all that can be fuppofed from extreme finenefs to the coarfe granulated appearance of a ftone, which refembles imperfe&t granite abounding in cryftals of fhorl, chiefly black, though fometimes of various colours. 5. With re- {pect to texture: though the Giants Caufeway bafalt be in general compact and homogeneous, yet the upper joint of each pillar, where it can with certainty be afcertained, is always rudely formedand cellular. ‘The grofs pillars alfo, in the capes and mountains frequently abound in thefe air- holes through all their parts, which fometimes contain fine clay and other apparently foreign bodies : and the irregular bafalt beginning where the pillars ceafe, or lying over them, is, in general, extremely honey-combed, containing in its cells cryftals of zeolite, little morfels of fine brown clay, fometimes very pure fteatite, and in a few initances bits of agate. ; The inland pillars, upon the whole, differ from thofe which run into the fea, and are called the caufeway, only in the following particulars; fome of the inland pillars are much larger than thofe of the caufeway, being two feet anda half in diameter, and among thefe .there are only found fuch as have three, four, five, and fix fides, none of them having yet been found-to have feven or eight fides, as many of thofe of the caufeway itfelf have. And, finally thefe inland pillars, though compofed of as many joints as thofe of the caufeway, yet have not that curious arti culation of the ball and focket, but are only joined by the eying ene fmooth furface on another; fo that a joint of a fingle column may be flipped off from the ref, by a confiderable force prefling againét it. ‘There is fome- thing like this obfervable alfo in fome of the columns cf the caufeway itfelf; for among the numbers which are jointed by, the ball and focket, there are fome which dnly adhere by being applied furface to furfuce. This is found only ina few of the columns, however, and they always ftand within the clutters, and are compoied of lefs than feven fides. In thefe alfo the joint is not made by the, application of two horizontal planes, but by fuch as flant, fo that it looks very like the breaking of an entrochus or alteria. ‘The joints, as we fee the pillars above the furface, are ufually as many in number as the pillar is feet high; but they are not regularly each of a foot long, for they are fhorteft at the upper part of the columns, and run gradually longer and longer as they approach the bafe. This is ob- ferved both in the inland columns, and in thofe of the caufe- way; but though the length of the joints differs, their convexities and hollows are much the fame in all parts of the column. There are other bafaltic columns, fimilar te thofe above deferibed, in our own ifland ; particularly at Staffa, one of the weftern iflands of Scotland ; in the mountain of Caderi- dris; near Dolgelly, in Merionethfhire ; where they proba- bly form a group asin other places. Mr. Strange has given an account of two groups of ~prifmatic bafaltine columns, which he difcovered in the Venetian {tate in Italy ; one in Monte Roflo, about feven miles nearly fouth from Padua, and the other in Monte del Diavolo, near San Giovanni Ilarime, about ten miles north-weit of Vicenza. The form of the latter is nearly circular, refembling that of the Giants’ Caufeway ; that of the former approaching more to an ob- long or oval figure: the columns of San Giovanni are much about the fame fize, and meafure about a foot in diameter ; thofe of Monte Roffo are very unequal, fome being a foot, while others fearcely exceed three inches in diameter: thofe of both thefe Venetian groups manifeft all the varieties of prifmatic forms obfervable in the Giants’ Caufeway, and other fuch groups; but they are commonly of five, fix, or feven fides, and the hexagonal form feems moftly to prevail. The texture of the former fort is folid and uniform ; the fur- face fmooth, and the internal parts of a dark iron-grey colour ; thofe of Monte Roffo have a rough and knotty furface ; and, when broken, manifeft a variegated colour, and unequal texture of parts ; refembling an inierior fort of granite, of which the mountain is formed, and which ferves as a bafe for this range of columns. Other groups of arti- culated bafaltine columns have alfo been obferved in the pro- vince of Velay and Auvergne in France ; particularly by M. De Varennes, at Blaud near Langeac, and by M. Def- marets, near le Mont d’Or; and M. Sage mentions another near St. Alcon, in the fame province. Kircher has long ago defcribed a group of the fame columns near Viterbo in Italy. Mundus Subterran. lib. viii. fi. cap.9, &c. And Mr. Strange mentions another at Caftel Nuovo, in the Euga- nean hills, about four miles fouth-welt of that of Monte Roffo. For the various controverfies with regard to the origin of thefe bafaltic columns, and of the fletz-trap-rocks in general, fee Trap. Grants’ Head, in Geography, a cape on the eaft coat Ggz ot Gol oA of the ifland of St. Chriftopher, a little to the eaft of Ragged Point. GIAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiftan ; 70 miles E. of Schiras. Giar, A See Dssar. Giar Alnahar, in Botany, a name given by Avicenna, Se- rapion, and the reft of the Arabian writers, to the potamo- geiton of thofe times. This is tranflated by fome the water- ruth, but that is founded on an error: it is certain that the plant thus called by the Arabians was very different from the potamogeiton of our times. Avicenna tells us, it had flowers refembling thofe of the water-lily ; and it feems either to have been the fagitta aquatica or water arrow-head, or elfe the butomus, or fome of the fmaller fpecies of nymphza. GIARAF, Carr, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of Tripoli. N. lat. 34°. E. long. 11°. GIARDINI, Fetice, in Biography, in many refpects the greateft performer on the violin during the lait century. He was a native of Piedmont ; and when a boy was a choi- rifter ia the Duomo at Milan, under Paladini, of whom he learned finging, the harpfichord, and compofition ; but having previoully manifeited a difpofition and partiality for the violin, his father recalled him to Turin, in order to receive inftructions on that inftrument of the famous Somis. But though his preference of the violin, upon which he foon became the greateft performer in Europe, feems a lucky circumftance, yet he had talents which would have made him a fuperior harpfichord player, had he continued to praétife that inftrument ; but he ufed to fay, that he was perfectly cured of that vanity at Paris, by the performance of Madame de S. Maur, a fcholar of Rameau, who played in fuch a manner, as not only made him afhamed of his own performance, but determined him neyer to touch the inftru- ment again in. ferious pra¢tice. He went to Rome early in his life, and afterwards to Naples, where, having obtained a place among ripienos in the opera orckeftra, he ufed to flourifh and change paflages much more frequently than he ought to have done. «¢ However,” fays Giardini, of whom we had this account, “I acquired great reputation among the ignorant for my impertinence ; yet one night, during the opera; Jomelli, who had compofed it, came into’ the orchettra, and feating himfelf clofe by me, I determined to give the maeftro di cappella a touch of my taite and execu- tion; and in the fymphony of the next fong, which was ina pathetic ftyle, I gave loofe to my fingers and fancy ; for which I was rewarded by the compofer with a—violent flap in the face ; which,’’ adds-Giardini, “was the beit leffon I ever received froma great mafter in my life.”’ Jomelli, after this, was however very kind, in a different way, to this young and wonderful mufician. Giardini came to England in the {pring of 1750. His firft public performance in London, at which we were prelent,. was at a benefit concert for old Cuzzoni, who fung in it with a thin cracked voice, which almof frightened out of the little theatre in the Hay-market the fons of thofe who had perhaps heard her at the great theatre in the fame ftreet; with extacy. . But when Giardini played a folo and concerto, though there was very ttle company, the applaufe was fo.lond, long, and furious, as nothing but that beftewed en Garrick had ever equalled. We had met him the night before at a private concert, with Guadagni and Frafi,_at the honfe of Napthali Franks, ef, who was himfelf one of the belt dilettanti performers on the violin at that time3 and we were all equally furprifed and delighted with the various powers of Giardini at fo early a period of. his life ,. when, befides folos of his own compofition of the molt brilliant EM OW, kind, he played feveral of Tartini’s, in manufcript, at fight, and at five or fix feet diftance from the notes, as well as if he had never praétifed any thing elfe. His tone; bow; execution ; graceful carriage of himfelf and his inftrument ; performing a MS. piece of a young compofer in the room, he declared that Giardini had fo improved it as to make it better than he intended, or had imagined it to be in the warm moments of conception ; and laitly, playing variations extempore, during half an hour, upen a new but extra- ordinary kind of birth-day minuet, which accidentally lay on the harpfichord—all this threw into the utmoit aftonifh- ment the whole company, who had never been accuilomed to hear better performers than Felting, Brown, and Collet ! Of his academy, {cholars, manner of leading at the opera and oratorio, performance in private concerts, compofitions vocal and inftrumental, we fhall fay nothing here, left our praife fhould be too much for others, and too little for ourfelves. He foon got poffeffion of all the pofts of henour in this country. He was engaged and careffed at moft of the private concerts of the principal nobility, gentry, and. foreign minilters; at the Caftle and King’s-Arms concert in the city; and in 1754, he was placed at the head of the opera band ; in which he intreduced a new difcipline, and a new ftyle of playing, much fuperior in itfelf, and more con=. genial with the poetry and mulic of Italy, than the languid manner of his predeceflor Felting ; who, except one or two feafons, when Veracini was at the head of the orcheftra, had led the opera band from the time that Caftrucci was dif- miffed, till the arrival of Mingctti. In 1756, on the failure and flight of the Jmprefaria or. undertaker of the opera, Vaneichi, the Mingotti, and Giardini joined their interefts, and acquired for a while the fovereignty of the opera kingdom, by which gratification of their ambition, thefe two great performers were foon brought to the brink of ruin, as others had been before them, But though great applaufe was acquired, and appearances were favourable, yet the profits to the managers were fo far from folid, that they found themfelyes involved at the end of the feaion in fuch difficulties, that they were glad ta refign their fhort-liyed honours, and fhrink into a private flation. Giardini, while in the opera management, befides arrang- ing patiticcios, fet feveral entire dramas ; but though he had fo great a hand on his inftrument, fo much fancy in his cadences and folos, yet he had not {ufficient force.or variety to fupply a whole evening’s entertainment at the Lyric theatre. Yet after he had refigned his throne in the orcheftra, he frequently threw in a fingle air or rondeau into the operas of other maiters, which was more applauded than, all the reit.of the drama; of this kind were the favourite airs of “ Voiamanti,’”’ and « Ah non fo perche tu fei, &c.'” In 1762, on Mattei quitting the management of the operas in {pite of former mifearriages, Giardini and Mingotti again refumed the reins of opera government. But after ftruggling two years againit the ftream, during the decline of Mingoiti s favour, and after an inai{picious feafon, at_the end of 1763, Giardini and his partner again abdicated their thrones. rom this pericd, Giardini, ae hovering over his former Lyric kingdom, without the power of invading it, or bringing about a reftoration, was forced to content himfelf with teaching ladies of rank and fafhion to fing, and the produce of a great annual benefit. He continued here, unrivalled, as a leader, a folo player, and a compoler for hig inktrument, till augmenting the importance of his inftrument and cur national partiality for the tafte of his country, till the admirable preduCticus and great performers of Germany began GIA Begah to form a Teutonic intereft and Germanie body here, which, before Giardini’s departure from London, became very formidable rivals to him and his Roman legion. At the end of 1784, he went to Italy, and refided a con- fiderable time.at Naples, with fir William Hamilton, one of his firft feholars on the violin after his arrival in England. Remaining on the continent till the fummer of 1789, Giardini returned to this country, bringing with him a female pupil and her whole family, attempting a burletta opera at the little theatre in the Haymarket, while the great opera-houfe, which bad been burned down, was rebuilding ; but his prima donna not being approved, their fpeculation failed, and he had her and her whole family on his hands. During his abfence the public had learned to do without him, and reconciled themfelves to his lofs ; his health, hand and eyes were impaired ; he was dropfical, his legs were of an enormous fize, and little of his former fuperiority on his inftrument remained, but his fine tone. He compofed quartets that pleafed very much, but in which he never played any other part in public than the tenor. ‘he ftyle of mufic was changed; he printed many of his old compofi- tions which ufed to pleafe; but now could gain neither purchafers nor hearers, fo thateabout the year 1793, he went to Peterfburg with his burletta troop ; which feems to have pleafed as little there and at Mofcow, as in London ; and he is faid to have died in this laft city in great wretched- nefs and poverty ! But before we try to account for this melancholy termina- tion of fo brilliant acareer, let us endeavour to do juftice to his profeffional abilities. ; It is the bufinefs of every artift to endeavour to arrive at the head of his profeffion during the age in which he lives, but no one can beexpected to afpire at fuperiority over all mankind, paft, prefent, and to come. Homer, our own Shakefpeare, and Milton, have, perhaps, fucceeded in that with, if ever they formed it, and Dryden and Pope have gained two out of three of thefe eras. If Giardini has been furpafled by a few in tafte, expreflion, and execution, his tone and graceful manner of playing are full unrivalled, nor does any one, of all the admirable and great performers on the violin, furpafs all others fo much at prefent, as Giardini did, when at h's beft, all the violinifts in Europe. That a man with fuch talents and intelleéis as art and nature fearcely ever allowed to the fame individual, who might haye realized 40 or 50,000/., fhould, by extravagance, ca- price, and a total want of benevolence and rectitude of heart, die a beggar, unfriended and unpitied, is fearcely credible! It is painful to probe the private character of fuch aman; yet it fhould not be concealed. Truth and morality require it to be recorded. The kings of Egypt ufed to be tried after their deceafe. And if young mulicians of great talents, who are prone to deviate from propriety of conduct, fhould chance to read this article, it may ferve asa beacon, and remind them of the poflibility of furviving favour and talents, however great, and terminating their exiflence in mifery and mortifi- e2-ion. A refpectable, profeffor, who, from Giardini’s firft arrival in England, was conitantly attached to him, and a fincere admirer of his talents, ‘his wit, and even the ingenuity of his fpleen and fpite ; before he quitted this country in 1784, de- lineated his character in the following manner, a copy of which came lately to our hands, accidentally. . Sketch of the private charader of a great mufician—* There exifts a man who would rather gain half a crown by fuperior fubtilty and cunning, than a guinea by ufual and fair means ; who is of fo difficult a commerce, that the utmoft circum- GIA fpe&tion, attention, and complaifance, can only prevent an open rupture, but never put him ‘oif his guard, or warm his heart with the faintelt glow of friend{hip ; fo capricious and fplenetic, that he has had difagreements and quarrels with all the fir perfonages, as well as profeffors of the fame art, in the nation, with whom he has had any intercourfe ; yet fuch are his talents, and entertaining qualities, that, in a fhort time, all elfe is forsrotten, and thofe whom he had offended, are as ready to court his acquaintance as ever $ though his rank in his profefiion and great abilities fhould, fet him above the enyy and petulance of indigent inferiority ; yet the fuccefs of any one of his acquaintance is as torturing: and intolerable to his mind, as the gout or fone could be to his body. He can besz no mufician who does not folely de- pendon his favour, whomhe can lift up and put down with a coup de baguette, bring into light, or extinguith, at pleaftre. He teems, himfelz, to defpife all favour from fupe 5 or even equals, yet he is contlantly at war with favourites of tion is fo truly, every kind, public and private. His difp diabolical, that, prefer the evil principle of the Mani- to the sood of the Chri if i a, matter of in- ite intereft, wheth iail ferve or injure an individual, he would always chufe latter. He has con- cheans ftantly trifed with fortune as well as favour, and having, in the courfe of his life, acquired gveat fums, is indigent, and though fo much courted, has not one friend; with the brighteft intellects, and the cleareft head for bufinefs, his temper renders it fo impoflible for any enterprize to thrive under his direétion, that the moit favourable and aufpicious beginnings conilantly cnded in enmity and misfortune. He 13 a8 inveterate and powerful an enemy to the opera, oratorio, pantheen, and public and private concerts, when they are not under his direttion, as an _ex-minifler ufually is to the government 5 and yet, notwithftanding the attradions of his performances, abilities as a compofer, and experience as a manager, fo much are his tricks and tyranny held in ab- horrence by patentees and proprietors, that they would fhut their fhops, rather than open them by his affiflance. His= intereft is new as totally annihilated in the nation, as that of the Stuart family, who, whatever convulfions or revolutions rere to happen in the fiate, would never be called int power.”” GIARECAN, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucha- ria; 45 miles N. of Vefhgerd. ' GIARGA, a town cf the ifland of Corfica; nine miles EF. of Calvi. GIARITCHAS, a croup of ‘fimall iflands, among the Melnceas.~ N. lat:'o-'3’. E. long. 127° 18. GIARMAL, atown of Hungary; 20 miles E.S.E. of Levens. a GIAROLA, in Oriithelesy. See ALAtDA italica. GiSROLO, a name by which a {mall bird of the fnipe kind, remarkable for its white tail, is known in the markets of Italy. Aldrovandus has called it the cinclus tertius. See TRINGA othropus. ; GIARUD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Kerman; 20 miles W. of Rauand. GIARURA, a town of the kingdom of Candahar ; 25 miles $:W. of Candahar. GIASAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeflan ; 25 miles N.it. of Kin. ' GIAT, a town of Franee, in the department of the Puy-de-Déme ; 27 miles W. of Clermont. GIAVENNA, a town of France, in the department of the Po, ‘ituated at the foot of the Cottian Alps, near the Sangou 5 furrotmded with an ancient wall having four gates, ilk) and G1B and diltinguifhed by its agreeable fituation and falubrious air; 15 miles W. of Turin. GIAUF, At, adiftri& of Egypt, in the S.E. part of the Delta. \ GIAVI, a town of the ifland of Sardinia; 21 miles E.S.E. of Algeri. 1g , GIAUKIRI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, anciently Sigeum,’’ chiefly inhabited by Greeks. GI1AZA, a town of Italy, in the Veroneie; 14 miles N.N.E. of Verona. GIB, in Agriculture, a fort of ftick with a hook at the end, which is fometimes ufeful in making and repairing hedges, and for various other purpofes. Grip, in Mechanics. See CRANE. Gis, or Yokings, in Mining, are pieces of wood from two to four or more feet long, with a bird’s-mouth or notch cut ineach end, that are placed as ftruts between the four upright poles, at the corners of fquare or rectangular thafts, which are fupported with wood, inftead of being ginged or bricked. : GIBAU, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the cir- cle of Olmutz; eight miles N.E. of Olmutz. GIBBAWAYS, an Indian tribe refiding in Upper Ca- nada, onthe E. fide of Detroit river, oppolite to fort Gib- raltar. GIBBEN, a town of the duchy of Courland; 32 miles N.E. of Piltyn. : GIBBETHON, in Scripture Geography, a city of Dan, allotted to the Levites (Jofh. xxi. 23.); probably the fame as Gabbata; 12 miles from Eleutheropolis. Here they fhewed the tomb of the prophet Habbakuk. -GIBBON, Epwarp, in Biography, was born at Put- ney in 1737., His father was a gentleman of fortune, and fome years member of pariiament. The fubje¢t of this article was a very delicate and fickly child, infomuch that his parents had but little hope of rearing him. From _nine years of age to twelve, he was umder the tuition of Dr. Woodefon at Kingfton-upon-Thames. Here he acquired the elements of claflical learning, and he mentions his twelfth year as particularly “ propitious to the growth of his intel- IeQual ftature,”? becaufe at.this period he read a variety of Englifh books of poetry, romance, hiftory and travels. « He then went to Weftminfter fchocl, but his ill Rate of health prevented him from making a regular progrefs in the ftudies of the place. For feveral years he was chicfly the objeét of medical care, till at length, and, as it were, very fuddenly, his conftitution acquired firmnefs, and his father immediately fent him, as gentleman-commoner, to Magdalen college, Oxford. He was probably ill prepared to receive the benefits of an univerfity education, and he ftigmatifes the fourteen months that he {pent there as the moft idle and unprofitable of his whole life. To a total negleét of reli- gious inftruGtion he has attributed a very remarkable inci- dent which took place at this time. He had from an early age been addited to difputation on topics of divinity. His leifure from other purfuits induced him to turn his attention to the controverfies between the Papifts and Proteftants. His mind was overfet by the arguments of the former, and in 1753 heshad an interview with a popifh prieft in London, when he folemnly abjured the errors of Proteftantifm. He immediately wrote an elaborate letter to his father, in which the avowed the change in his fentiments, and juttitied the meafure which he had taken. With all the zeal of a new convert he has fince declared, ‘I am proud of an honeft fa- crifice of intereft to confcience: I can never blufh if my tender mind was entangled in the fophiftry that feduced the acute and manly underitandings of Chillingworth and j GIB Bayle.’ He was fent by his father to Laufanne, and placed with a Calvinift minifter, by whofe judicious efforts, aided by his own found reafon and mature refleGtions, his faith in the Romifh articles gradually gave way, and on Chriitmas day 754, he received the facrament in the Proteftant church. During the time he fpent at Laufanne, he laid the foundation of that knowledge m the languages, and in the art of logic, which enabled him to make fo confpicuous a figure in the li- terary world. To the ‘ Hillory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman empire,’’ we have had occafion frequently to recur for an elucidation of faéts, we may therefore be allowed to fpeak fomewhat at large of the author of that work. His ruling paffion, that of reading, com- pletely developed itfelf in Switzerland, and he wanted no excitements to induftry, froma tutor. Belles lettres, and the hiftory of man, and the human mind, were his favourite objects of ftudy ; forthe mathematics he had no inclitiation, and what he did not, and perhaps could not purfue, he was- ready to condemn, and congratulated himfelf that he efcaped from thtm “before lis mind was hardened by the habit of rigid demonftration, fo deftruétive of the finer feelings of moral eyidence.”? That this view of the effeé&t of mathema- tical ftudies was unjuft, might be proved froma variety of inftances in which the ableft mathematicians have been equally celebrated for their fine tafte and excellent judgment in other branches of literature. In the year 1758 he returned from Laufanne to London, where he was kindly received by his father, and he found ina mother-in-law, a new relative, who in time conciliated his good will and confidence. He now began laying the foundation of a copious library, and foon fet about preparations for appearing befere the public as an author. In 1761, he printed his “ Effai frr 1’ Etude de la Litterature,”? in one volume azmo. It was a. very refpeCtable juvenile performance, and was highly praifed in the foreign journals. At home it obtained but a fmall fhare of public notice. While he was compofing this work, at leaft before it was publifhed, le was engaged in the mili- tary profeffion, which was but ill calculated for a perfon of histurn. The peace, in 1763, fet him free from a commif- fion which he had held in the militia, and he immediately paid a vifit to Paris, and having fpent fome months im that capital, he went to Laufanne, where he paffed a year in cul- tivating fociety, and in collecting materials for a profitable journey into Italy. This he undertook in 1765, and it was, as he fat mufing amidi{t the ruins of the capitol, while the friars were finging vefpers in the temple of Jupiter, that the idea of writing his great work, viz. “ The Hiftory of the Decline and Fall of this City,”’ rufhed into his mind. He had, previoufly to this, proceeded fome way in another intereft- ing defign, and compofed, in the French language, the firft book of a Hiftory of the Swifs liberty; but this, perhaps on account of its ityle, was condemned by a literary fociety of foreigners in London, to whom it was read, and he com- mitted it to the flames. In 1767, he affifted in compiling a critical work, entitled ‘* Memoirés Litteraires de la Grande Bretagne,” the fuccefs of which was but trifling. In 1770 he publifhed, in his native tongue, a pamphlet, entitled «© Critical Obfervations on the fixth book of the AEneid,’”’ which was intended as a refutation of Dr. Warburton’s hypothefis concerning the meaning of the defcent of Zneasy and in the fame year, by the death of his father, he fuc- ceeded to an eltate confiderably involved, and from the per- plexities of which he fcarcely ever extricated himfelf. His circumftances were, however, well fuited to the tafk he had undertaken as an author: for he thought himfelf, that had he been either much poorer or much richer, he fhould never have accomplifhed it. Leifure and books were neceflary He the GIB the one hand; on the other, the ftimulus of a handfome in- creafe of property. His acquaintance was large, but he compenfated the hours devoted to them by early rifing and clofe application. In 1774, he was, through the intereft of Mr. Eliot, introduced to a feat in parliament, which he occupied during eight years, and gave, fays he, many a filent vote in fupport of the rights, though not, perhaps, the interett of the mother country. Early in 1776 the firlt volume of his “ Hiftory’? made its appearance; its fucceds was very great, and far furpafled the moft fangume expec- tations of the author: ‘‘ The firlt impreffion,’”’ fays he, <¢ was exhaufted in a iew days; a fecond and a third edition were fcarcely adequate to the demand, and the bookfelier’s property was twice invaded by the pirates of Dublin.’’ It was received with general applaufe, but the praifes of none were fo keenly relifhed by Gibbon, as thofe of the two celebrated hiftorians, Hume and Robertfon, who, inftead of viewing his rifing fame with jealoufy, promoted it with ‘liberal commendation. Inthe midit of his triumph, his two chapters, concerniig the growth and progrefs of Chritti- anity, raifed a ftorm againit him, which, as he had not forefeen, he regarded with fome alarm. He was attacked on all fides, byt ashe profefled to have written only asa hittorian, he declined entering the lifts as a controyeriialitt. In one inftance his fidelity, as an hiftorian, was attacked; here he felt that he was called on for a ** Vindication,’ in which it was admitted that he fuccefsfully repelled the prin- cipal charges, and returned them on his antagonift. It was fuggeited, in the two chapters referred to, that the progrefs of Chriltianity was peculiarly favoured by fecondary caufes, ,and of courfe that its origim was not divine: though this theory had not been deftitute cf advocates among fincere believers in the truth of the Chriftian fyftem, yet there is little doubt that Gibbon was an unbeliever, and he wrote in this part of his work under the mafk ofa friend. His pretenfions were unveiled by many excellent writers, who ranked high in the eftablifhed church, and by others who were not in the church, but who were equally alive to the dpread of {ceptical principles, and active in oppefing their -psopacation. After he had refumed his work, he was foli- cited by minifters to write an anfwer to the manifeito of the court of France, on its declaration of hoflilities. On this .occafion he publifhed his « Memoire Juttificatif ;?’ it was written in French, and much admired for its ftyle and its reafoning, and was delivered, asa ftate paper, to the courts of Europe. For this fervice he was rewarded with the ap- pointment of one of the Lords of Trade, by which a hand- fome addition was made to his income, and little to his en- gagements. In 1781 the fecond and third volumes of his -Hiltory appeared, which fupported the reputation which he had already acquired. Upon the diffolution of lord -North’s miniftry, the board of Trade was abolifhed, as oceafioning only an ufelefs expence to the ftate. The defal- cation in Mr. Gibbon’s income no longer permitted him to fupport the fame ftyle of living in his cwn country, and he removed his refidence to Laufanne: here, in an elegant re- treat, he finifhed his Hiftory, in three other quarto volumes, which were publifhed in 1788. It was with real regret that he diimiffed an occupation, which had given to many years of his life that zeft which an interefling objet of pur- -{ait can alone impart. He came to England to fuperintend _the printing of his work, and then returned to Laufanne, to fpend, as he hoped, the remainder of his days; but the ftorms of the French revolution, which menaced the guiet and happy regions of Switzerland, gradually loofened his attachment to Laufanne, and he began to look towards England for a refuge. le regarded the events that were GiB taking place in France with the utmoft abhorrence, and he either was, from habit, or had become fo from the occuit- rences of the times, a decided enemy to every fpecies of pub- lic reform. He avowed his affent to Mr. Burke’s creedy which he had vindicated in his «* RefleGtions:’’ <¢ I admire,” fays he, ‘ his eloquence, I approye his politics, I adore his chivalry, and I can almoft excufe his reverence for church eitablifhments.’’ Mr. Gibbon returned to England in 17932 but after a few months refidence his attention was forcibly called to the progrefs of a difeafe, which had fubfifted in a {mall degree for thirty years, and which now terminated his exiltence, Jan. 16, 1794. He has charatterized himfelf ir the following words: ‘ I am endowed with a chearful tem per, a moderate fenfibility, and a natural difpofition to re- pofe rather than aétivity; fome mifchievous appetites and habits have, perhaps, been correéted by philofophy or time. The love of ftudy fupplies each day, each hour, with a per- petual fource of independent and rational pleafure.” “< He was,”’ fays his biographer, “ eafy in fociety, and fond of it - he was beloved by his friends, and had, in an eminent de- gree, the manners and habits of a gentleman. Early indul- gence and habit had made the conveniences and elegances of cultured life effential to his comfort, and he was not one who could have been content with the confcieufnefs of men- tal fuperiority in an humble ftate. His great work, which will long be a monument to his fame, is a performance of vait and accurate refearch, and of enlarged and philofophical thinking: it abounds in {plendid paflages, and its ftyle dif- plays atherough maftery of the whole compals of the Eng- lifth language,”’ After his death two quarto volumes of his mifcellaneous works were publifhed by lord Sheffield, con- taining, among other things, memoirs of his life and writ- ings, compofed by himfelf; to which the reader is referred or more particulars relating to this celebrated man. GIBBONS, Ortanpo, without exception, the beft com— pofer for the church during the reign of king James I. and though not bleit ‘with longevity, yet, during his fhert life, he contributed amply to the mufic of the church, which he enriched with numerous compolitions, that are {till frefh and in conitant ufe among the beit produétions- within its pale. This excellent mufician, a native of Cambridge, was bro- ther of Edward Gibbons, bachelor of Mufic, organift of Briftol, gentleman of the Chapel Royal, and mafter of. Mathew Lock ; and of Ellis Gibbons, author of two ma-- drigals in “ the Triumphs of Oriana,’? who is ftiled by Ant. Wood, “ the admirable organift of Salifbury.”’ In 1604, at the age of twenty-one, Orlando was appointed organilt of the Chapel Royal, in the room of Arthur Cock. In 1622, he was honoured at Oxford with a doc-- tor’s degree in mufic, at the fame time as his friend Dr. Heyther, when both were countenanced and favoured with indulgencies in the univerfizy in confequence of letters from. the learned Camden, who recommended them with friendly zeal to its notice. According to Ant. Wood, the acade- mical exercife in fix or more parts, performed at this time for Heyther’s degree, was compofed by Orlando Gibbons, “* as one or more eminent muficians then living had feveral times told him.’’ So that growa-gentlemen, as well as boys, through idlenefs or ignorance, are fometimes reduced to the humiliating neceffity of having recourfe to the charity of friends, before they can exhibit an exercife. A manufcript copy of the exercife performed for Dr.. Heyther’s degree, is faid to have been found, figned with: the name of Orlando Gibbons. It is an anthem for eight. voices, taken from the forty-feventh pfalm ; and appears to be the very fame compofition-as the anthem of Orlando: Gibbons, . GIB Gibbons, to the words * O clap your hands together, all ye people,’ Printed in Boyce’s Cath. Muf. vol. ii. P- 59. The harmony in Gibbous’s fervice in F, printed by Dr. Boyce, is pure, clear, and grateful; and the melody more accented and flowing than we have found in any choral mutic of equal antiquity. The two parts in one, of the Gloria Patri, though they may be the caufe of fome confufion in the words, difcover no reftraint or ftifnefs in the melody, which continues to move with the fame freedom, as if no canon had exiltence. And though the puri/s, on account of the confufion arifing from ail the parts finging different words at the fame time, pronounce the ityle, in which his full anthems are compofed, to be vicious; yet the lovers of fugue, ingenjous contri- vance, and rich, fimple, aad pleafing harmony, mutt regard them as edmirable procuftions, alla Palefrina, a ftyle in which Tallis and Bird acquired fo much renown. Befides his admirable choral compofitions, O. Gibbons was author of melodies in two parts to the hymns and {pi- ritual fongs of the church, tranflated by George Withers, and of feveral other works which are mentioned elfewhere. See Fanrasra and PARTHENIA. Dr. Tudway, in the dedication of the firft volume of his manufeript “Colleion of the moft celebrated Services and Anthems ufed in the Church of England,” addreffed to Lord Harley, for whom it was made; after a juit and warm eulogium on the abilities of Tullis and Bird, fays that “ none of the later compofers could ever make appear fo exalted a faculty in compofitions for the church, except that moft excellent artift, Orlando Gibbons, organift and fervant to king Charles I. whofe whole fervice, with everal anthems, are the molt perfe& pieces of church compofitions which have appeared fince the time of Tallis and Bird; the air fo folemn, the fugues and other em- bellifhments fo juft and naturally taken, as muik avarm the heart of any one, who is endued with a foul fitted for divine raptures.”’ To this encomium every candid judge of harmony will readily fubferibe ; but when the doétor tells us, that the celebrated fervice in F was com- pofed by Orlando Gibbons in 1635, he furnifhes no very favourable proof of his knowledge in chronology ; as‘it 1s recorded on the monument ereéted to his memory by his widow, that he died ten years before that period. For in 1625, being commanded, ex officio, to attend the {olemnity of the marriage of his royal maiter, Charles I. with the princefs Henrietta of France, at Canterbury, for which occafion he had compofed the mufic, he was feized with the {mall-pox, and dying on Whitfunday, in the fame year, was buried in that cathedral. Gissons, Dr. Cnrisrerrer, was the fon of Orlando Gibbons, and fcholar of his uncle Ellis Gibbons, organift -of Briftol. _He had been honoured with the notice of Charles I. and was of his chapel. At the reftoration, be- fides being appointed principal organift of the Chapel Royal, private organift to his majeily, and organift of Weftmin- fier Abbey, he obtained his do€or’s degree in mufic at Oxford, in confequence of a letter written by his majefty Charles II. himfelf, in his behalf, which is inferted by _ Ant, Wood in the Fafti Oxon, vol. ii. Col. 158; who fays, that he completed his degree in an aét celebrated i St. Mary’s church, July 11, 1664. : The compofitions of this matter, which were not-nu- merous, feem never to have enjoyed a great degree of fa- - your; and though fome of them are preferved in the Mu- feum collection, they have long ceafed to be performed in our cathedrals. His abilities on the organ, however,-mut “, “=e i * Le i 3) have been confiderable, to entitle him to the ftations ke filled, at a time when the ftyle of playing that inftrument was fo much more complicated and elaborate than at pre- fent. Dr. Blow, who, in finging and compefition, was educated by Captain Cook, is faid to have been a {fcholar on the organ of Dr. Chriftopher Gibbons, who died 1676. Orlando Gibbons had two brothers, Edward and Ellis, the one organift of Briftol, and tke other of Salifbury. Edward was a Cambridge bachelor of mufic, and incor- porated at Oxford, 1592. Betides being organift of Brif- tol, he was prieit-vicar, fub-chanter, and mafter of the choiritters in that cathedral. He was fworna gentleman of the chapel, March 21, 1604, and was the mafter of Mat- thew Lock. In the Triumphs of Oriana, there are two madrigals, the one in five, and the other in fix parts, com- pofed by Ellis Gibbons. Wood fiyles him the admired organift of Salifbury. Of Edward Gibbons, it is faid, that in the time of the rebellion he aflifted king Charles T. with the fum of one thoufand pounds; for which inftance of his loyalty, he was afterwards very feverely treated by thofe in power, who deprived him of a confiderable eftate, and thruft him and three grandchildren cut of his houfe, though he was more than fourfcere years of age. GIBBOSITY, in Surgery. See Spine, Curvature of: GIBBOUS, in 4frenomy, is ufed in reference to the en= lightened parts of the moon, while fhe is moving from full to the firft quarter, and from the laft quarter to full again ; for all that time the dark part appears horned, or fal- eated, and the light one bunched out, convex, or gib- bous. Grissous fi/h, gilbofus pifcis, in Ichthyolosy, a name given by Mer. Ray to the fith called by the Dutch fromrugh. Vt is a fmooth fifh without feales} its belly is white, its fins and tail black. It grows toa confiderable fize, fometimes to four feet. It is caught all over the Eaft Indies, near the fea fhores, and is very firm, and much efteemed at table. It has its name from the renarkable rifing of-its back, which is like that of the perch, but much higher. Ray’s Ichthyolog Append. p. 4. GIBBY, in Geography, a clulter of {mall iflands, in the Eaft Indian fea, about tweive leagues in circumference, well inhabited, fituated on the equator. E. long. 126° 5'. GIBE’, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed ; 130 miles E. N. E. of Hajar. GIBEAH,, in Scripture Geography, a city of Benjamin, the birth-place of Saul, the firft king of Ifrael. (Jofh. xviii. 24. Ezra ii. 26. Nehem. vii. 3c.) Gibeah was about two leagues N. from Jerufalem. In Jerome's time it was’en- tirely deftroyed. GIBEL-EL-TOR, a mountain of Paleftine, anciently called Mount Tabor, which fee. , GIBELET, or Ganyte, a fea-port of Syria, anciently called «* Gabala’? and «* Gabulon,”’ fituated on the coaft of the Mediterranean, at the mouth of the river Jebilee; 12 miles $.S.W. of Tripoli. ey Pe aoe a town of Paleftine; cight miles E. of aza. ; GIBELINS, Giper.rss, Gibellings, or Ghibelins, a fa- mous faction in Italy, oppofite to another called the Guelphs. 1 10 tse The Guelphs and Gibelins ravaged and laid wafte Etaly for a long feries of years: fo that the hitory of that coun- try, for the fpace of three centuries, is only a detail of their mutual violences and mortal wars. The Guelphs ftrennoufly afferted the power of the fee of ~ Rome, as the Gibelins did-the emperor’s right of fove- -fergnty. ai i se a” af. aie GIB We have but a very obf{cure account of their origin, and the reafon of their names: the generality of authors affirm, that they arofe about the year 1240, upon the emperor aie the IId’s being excommunicated by pope Gregory xX. That prince, fay they, making a tour among the cities of Italy, gave the name Gibelins to fuch as he found well affected to him; and that of Guelphs to thofe who adhered to the pope. But as to the reafon and fignification of thefe words, there is a deep filence; Gibelin might be poffibly formed of gebicter, imperator ; whence gebieterifch, imperiofe. Of gebieter, the Italians might make, by corruption, Gibe- lin; fo that Gibelins, in this light, fhould be the fame with Imperiales, or fuch as followed the emperor’s party. By the way, fome writers maintain, that the two factions arofe ten years before ; though ftill under the fame pope and emperor. Other hiftorians relate, that Conrad III. marching into Italy, in the year 1139, again{t the Neapolitans, Roger, count of Naples and Sicily, in order to defend his ftates, ¢alled to his affiftance Guelph duke of Bavaria; and that one day, when the two armies were ready to join in battle, the Bavarians cried out in High Dutch, die, Guelph! or, as others fay, in Flemith, hier, Guelph! that is, here, Guelph ! and that the Imperialifts anfwered on their fide, with the words hie, or hier, Gibelin! here, Gibelin! calling the em- peror by the name of the place where he had been bred. Hornius refers the names to the war in 1140, between Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and Con- rad III. duke of Suabia; the two princes preparing to engage near the town of Winiberg, the Bavarians began to ery out Guelph, which was the name of duke Henry's brother ; and the partifans of the emperor Weibelingen, which was the name of the place where that prince was born and bred, in the duchy of Wirtemberg, whofe fur- name he bore: from which Weibelingen the Italians at Jength formed Gibelin. This account is confirmed by Martin Crufius: “ Initium Gibeline (Wibeline a patria Conradi regis) et Welfice concertationis.’? Conrad being of Weibelingen, that word, fays Crufius, gave rife to gibellingue, and that to gibelling, Gibelins, Gibeliint. Platina, on the other hand, affures us, that the name Gibelins arofe from that of a German at Piftoya; whofe ‘brother, named Guelph, gave likewife his name to the oppolite faction: the two brethren, it feems, bearing an ir- reconcileable hatred. Others maintain, that the emperor gave the appellation Gibelins to thofe of his party, from the German word gipffe', fignifying ridge, or ee becaufe the empire refted on them, as the rafters of a houfe leans on the ridge, which joins them a-top. Karus, a learned canon of Strafbourg, in the lives of the emperors of the houfe of Brunfwick, is of the fecond opinion above related: in a battle, fays he, between Welff, or Guelff, and Frederic, the army of the firft crying out, hie, Welf, hie, Welf! the fecond commanded his to cry out hie, Gibeling! hie, Gibeling ! the name of his birth-place: and the French and Lombards afking the fignification of thofe words, they were anfwered, that by Wel was meant the pope’s party; and, by Gilelin, the emperor's. Yet others contend, that the word Gibelin is only a foft- ening of the word gibertin, or guibertin; and that it arofe from Guipert, an antipope, fet up by the emperor Henry III. in the year 1080. Among many other conjectures, Maimbourg, in his Hift. de Ja Decad. de I'Emp. advanves another opinion, Vou. XVI. GIB that the two factions, and their names, arofe ftom 2 quarrel between two very ancient and illuftrious houfes on the confines of Germany, that of the Henrys of Gi- beling, and that of the Guelphs of Adorf. See Ma. chiavel. It is faid by fome, that the Gibelins, when driven out of Italy long after the year 1229, at which period the conteft between them and the Guelphs ran very high, and fettled at Amfterdam, were the inventors of the mercan- tile practice of re-change, or re-exchange, on bills of ex- change, on account of the damages and charges they were put to, and the intereft of the money of their bills proteft- ed, which had been given to them for the effeéts they had been obliged to leave behind them. Anderfon’s Hift. Com- merce, vol. i. p. 110. See GuELrus. GIBELLO, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Parma, on the right bank of the Po; 16 miles N.W. of Parma. N. lat. 45° 1’. E. long. 10° 7’. GIBEON, in Scripture Geography, the capital city of the Gibeonites, who availed themfelves of the oaths of Jofhua, and of the elders of Lrael, on an artful reprefenta- tion which they made of their belonging to a remote coun- try. (Jofh. ix.) Jofhua and the elders made an unadvifed league with them; but upon a difcovery of their miftake, they fpared their lives, and condemned them to the fervile office of carrying wood and water to the tabernacle, and other work of a fimilar kind, in token of their pufillanimity and duplicity, as flaves and captives. In this ftate of fervi- tude they remained till the entire difperfion of the Jewith nation, A.M. 2553. ‘The Gibeonites were defcended from the Hivites, the old inhabitants of the country, and pofleff- ed four cities, viz. Cephira, Beeroth, Kirjath-jearim, and Gibeon, the capital, afterwards given to Benjamin, except- ing Kirjath-jearim, which was afligned to Judah. ‘The Gi- beonites fubmitted to the burthens impofed upon them by Jofhua, and continued faithful to the Lfraelites. Neverthe- lefs Saul deftroyed a very great number of them (2 Sam, xxl. I, 2, 3, &c.); but God, asa punifhment of his cruel- ty, in the reign of David, caufed a great famine, which lafted three years (A. M. 2983. B.C. 1017); and David was informed by the prophets, that this calamity would con- tinue as long as that cruelty, which Saul had exercifed againft the Gibeonites, remained unretaliated. The Gi- beonites, being afked what fatisfaction they required, an- fwered, “Seven of Saul’s fons will we put to death, to avenge the blood of our brethren.’? Accordingly the Gi- beonites crucified them in the beginning of {pring, when, in Palettine, the barley-harveit commenced. From this time we find no mention of the Gibeonites, as forming a feparate people. But they were probably included among the «* Ne- thimm,’’ who were public flaves appointed for the fervice of the temple. (1 Chron. ix. 2.) Gibeon was feated on an eminence, as appears by its name, denoting a hill; it was 40 furlongs N. from Jervfalem, ac- cording to Jofephus. It is called “ Gabza’’ (fee 2 Sam. v. 25, compared with 1 Chron. xiv. 16.) We find mention of the fountain and pool of Gibeon. (2 Sam. 11. 13.) The taber- nacle and altar of burnt offerings, made by Mofes in the wildernefs, were removed to Gibeon. (1 Chron. xxi, 29, 30.) When Solomon was feated on the throne, he went to facrifice at Gibeon, becaufe this was the moft con- fiderabie of all the high places where facrifices were then tolerated, the temple not being yet built. (1 Kings, iii. 4.) GIBERT, Barritasar, in Biography, was born at Aix in 1662. He was educated partly at Paris and partly at Soiffons. At the age of twenty-two he was appointed te teach philofophy at the college of Beauvais, and in 1688 he Hh obtataed Gib obtained the profefforfhip of rhetoric in the college of Ma- zarin at Paris, which office he filled with great reputation more than fifty years. He was a zealous defender of the privileges of the univeriity, of which he was feveral times chofen reéter. He obtained other preferments connected with the univerfity, but on account of his oppofition to the revocation of an appeal made by the univerfity againit the bull Unigenitus, the court, in 1740, exiled him to Auxerre. He died in the following year at the age of feventy-nine. He was author of many works, in which are difplayed mnch erudition and folidity of judgment, but the ftyle is fomewhat involved. Among his publications are “ De la veritable Eloquence ;”? “* Reflexions fur la Rhetorique 5” « Jugemens des Savans fur les Auteurs qui ont traite de la Rhetorique,’’ in three volumes 12mo. _ Moreri. GIBERTI, Grammateo, a very learned prelate of the ehurch of Rome, was born at Palermo towards the clofe of the fifteenth century. He vifited Rome when he was but twelve years of age, where he was diftinguifhed for the brilliancy of his talents, and was introduced to pope Leo X. who entertained a great regard for him. He had a thirft for polite literatute, but was, at an early age, taken from the purfuit, and placed in the fervice of a perfon ef high rank. By pope Clement VII. he was employed in fome very important legations to the king of France and other potentates. In 1523 he obtained from his patron the government of Tivol, and in the following year he was created bifhop of Verona: he was not, how- ever, allowed to take poffeffion of his fee, but was kept at Rome as the advifer and friend of the pope. In 1527 Giberti was given as one of the holtages by the pope to the Imperial army, on which oceafion he underwent much jll treatment, and was more than once threatened with a fhameful death. He was, at length, through the inter- pofition of his friend, Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, reltored to his liberty, and retired to his bifhopric, on which he con- tinued to refide till his death, except when occafionally fummoned to Rome by Paul IIT. He died in 1543, and his works, which were numerous, have been publithed col- leétively ; they chiefly confift of his conititutions and regula- tions for the government of his church, which under his di- rection ‘became a model of ecclefialtical difcipline. He eradicated many abufes, and was profufe in alms to the poor. He was the patron of learned men who reforted to his palace, among whom was the celebrated poet Flaminio. He printed at his own expence, and under his own eye, feveral works of the fathers, and in order to render his editions forrest, he entertained feveral Greek copyifts. Moreri. GIBET, or Giszer, a machine in manner of a gallows whereon notorious criminals, after execution, are hung in irons, or chains: as fpectacles, in terrorem. The word in French, gibet, properly denotes what we eall gallows: it is fuppofed to come originally from the Arabic gikel, mount, elevation of ground; by reafon gibets are ufually placed on hills, or eminences. GIBLETS, the offals or entrails of a goofe; including the heart and liver, with the feet, gizzard, &c. The word is fuppofed to be formed of gobkts, from the French gobeau, mouthful. Giblets make a confiderable article in cookery: they boil giblets, flew giblets, make ragouts of giblets, giblet- pies, &c. GIBLIEN, in Geography, a town. of Egypt, on the Jeft bank of the Nile; 14 miles N. of Afna. GIBLOS, a city on the coaft of Pheenicia, between Tripoli and Berytus ; called alfo Byblos, which fee. ‘ GIB GIBON, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 22 mifes N.N.E. of Bayamo. GIBRALEON, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, on the river Odiel, with a harbour for {mall fifhing veffels ; containing about 150 houfes in two parifhes, and fituated about ro miles from the Atlantic; 44 miles W. of Seville. N. lat. 37° 20!. W.long. 7° 1'. GIBRALTAR, derived from Gebel, an arabic word fignifying mountain, and Zarit, the name of a Moorith ge- neral, who conquered Spain and difembarked here in the year 712, is a town of Spain, in the province of Andalufia, but belonging to Great Britain, fituated on a rock, at the fouthern extremity of Europe, and reckoned one of the keys of Spain. This rock forms a promontory from Spain into the fea, oppofite another promontory extending from Africa, bounding a narrew fea, which unites the Atlantic with the Mediterranean, called in Latin ** Fretum Hercula- neum, or Gaditaneum,”’ and in Englith the Straits of Gibral- tar. ‘The length is about eight leagues, and the breadth, in the narroweit parts, nearly five. On thefe two promonto-- ries are placed the famous mountains of Calpe in Europe, and Abila in Africa, known to the ancients by the name of the pillars of Hercules. From the top of the promontory of Calpe, the eye commands an extent of 40 leagues, two fezs, and five kingdoms, viz. Seville and Granada, in Spain, and Barbary, Fez, and Mérocce, in Africa. In endea- vouring to trace the town mentioned by Mela, Strabo, and Pliny, under the names of Calpe, Cartheya, Melaria, Belo, and Befipo, and alfo the promontory of Juno, fituated from eait to weit on the fhore of the ftraits, no veltige is perceived, except the mountain and {cite of Cartheya; which latter city paffed from the pofleffion of the Pheenicians to that of the Carthaginians, and is now reduced to a mere heap of ruins, fearcely difcernible in the bay of Gibraltar, where the Carthaginian tower was alfo fituated. This ground is now occupied by a mean farm. On cafting your eyes over the kingdoms of Granada and Seville, you fee the lofty ridges of the defert del Cuervo, as well as the mountains of Hogen and Sanorra, and towards the eaft, oppofite to Gibraltar, the new town of Algeziras. In the middle of this inclofure you diftinguifh the ruins of Great Cartheya ; at a fhort diftance, on a little hill, the town of St. Roche is fituated ; on the eaft you perceive the chain of mountains, called the Sierra de Ronda, abounding in fruits and aroma- tic plants. Near thefe ftood the town of Munda, fo cele= brated in Roman hittory as the fcene of the battle between the fons of Pompey and Auguftus, when they were difputing the empire of the world. The objects which bound the ho- rizon on the right are the Sierra Neveda, and the Alpujarras ; on which the inow lies all the year. The mountains fupply a number of fountains and rivulets of clear water, forming the fources of the Xenil and the Darro; rivers which water the city-of Granada and give fertility to the rich province of Andalufia. . The promontory on the European fide is joined to Spain by an ifthmus, or neck of land, fo narrow, that from fome afpedts the rock has the appearance of an ifland. The length of the ifthmus is about 200 paces; acrofs which the Spaniards have drawn a line and fortified it, to prevent the garrifon from having any communication with the country. The form of the rocky mountain, on which the fortrefs of Gibraltar is built, is oblong ; its fummit is a fharp craggy ridge, extending nearly from N. to S., almoft three miles, and in breadth no where exceeding = of a mile. The life of its ridge is undulated, and the two extremes are fome- what higher than the centre. The fummit of the Sugar- loaf, which is the higheft point towards the fouth, is ele- vated GIBRALTAR. vated to the height of 1439 feet; the Rock-mortar, which is the higheft eminence to the north, is 1350 feet ; and the Signal-houfe, which is nearly the central point between thefe two, is 1276 feet above the level of the fea. The weftera fide of the mountain forms a feries ef rugged flopes, inter- f{perfed with abrupt precipices. Its northern extremity is perfeQly perpendicular, except towards the N. W., where what are called the Lines intervene, and a narrow paflage of ground that leads to the ifthmus, and is entirely covered with fortification. The eaftern fide of the mountain moftly confifte of a range of precipices; but a bank of fand, rifing from the Mediterranean in a rapid acclivity, covers a third of its perpendicular height. Its fouthern extremity falls in a rapid flope from the fummit of the Sugar-loaf into a rocky flat of confiderable extent, called Windmill Hill. The principal mafs of the mountain rock confifts of a grey, denfe marble; the different beds of which prefent to Spain- a face of 1350 feet of perpendicular height, in a conical form. Thefe beds, or ftrata, are of various thicknefs, from 20 to upwards of 4o feet, dipping in a direction from eaft to welt, nearly at anangle of 35 degrees. In fome parts of the folid mafs of this rock, we find teftaceous bodies entirely tranfmuted into the conftituent matter of the rock, and their interior hollows filled up with calcareous {par ; but thefe do not occur often in its compofition, and its beds are not feparated by any intermediate ftrata. This rock is fuffering a flow, but conftant depofition ; and the uncovered parts of it prefent holes of various fizes, hollowed out of the folid rock, and apparently formed by the attrition of gravel or pebble, fet in motion by the rapidity of rivers or currents in the fea; whence it is prefumed, that, however high the furface of this rock may now be elevated above the level of the fea, it has once been the bed of agitated waters. On the welt fide of the mountain, towards its bafe, flrata eceur, which are of a different kind from the mountain reck. (See Major Imrie’s mineralogical Defeription of Gibraltar in the Tranfactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. iv.) : . The firft, or hicheft, forms the fegment of a circle, its convex fide being towards the mountain, and its flope being in that direCtion. This ftratum confifts of a number of thin beds; the outward one, which is the thinneft, is in a ftate of decompolition, and is mouldering down into a blackith- brown or ferruginous coloured earth. The beds below this increafe progreffively in breadth to 17 inches, where the ftratification reits upon a rock of an argillaceous nature. "This laft bed, which is 17 inches thick, confifts of quartz of a blackifh-blue colour, in the fepta or cracks of which are found quartz cryttals, colourlefs and perfeGtly tranf{parent. Thefe cryftals are compofed of 18 planes, difpofed in hex- angular columns, terminated at both extremities by hexan- gular pyramids. The largeft feen by major Imrie, did not exceed one-fourth of an inch in length; they generally adhere to the rock by the fides of the column, but are detached without difficulty. Their great degree of tranf- parency has obtained for them the name of “ Gibraltar diamonds.’ ‘The rock is completely befet with batteries, thrown up at all points, where the afcent could not be ren- dered completely inacceffible ; fo that from Europa Point, which advances fartheft into the fea on the fouth fide, to the higheft part of the rock, which is that of the north (at about two miles diftance from the other), there is not a {ingle point, which is not put into a defenfible condition. On the fide neareft Spain, the internal fortifications, made fince the time Gibraltar was befieged by the combined armies of France and Spain, are aitonifhing. Thefe im- provements are principally owing to general O’Hara, the late governor; a great number of workmen having been employed about it, for eight years, at an immenfe expence. In order to form fome idea of the labour expended on thefe fortifications, it will be fufficient to obferve, that the exca- vations effected by the force of gun-powder, in the centre of the mountain, and in the folid rock, form vaults of fuch height and extent, that during a fiege they are capable of containing the whole garrifon. Thefe cayerns, of which the moft confiderable is the hall of St. George, communi- cate with the other batteries, eftablifhed along the moun- tains by a winding road, paflable on horfe-back. On returning towards Europa Point, as you enter the town, your attention is engaged by confiderable fortifications, barracks, magazines, and batteries, placed wherever the nature of the ground would admit. On the higheft point of land the tower of St. George was built, under the direc- tions of general O'Hara, who intended to raife it to a fufficient height for commanding the whole of Cadiz, and obferving all that paffed in that port ; but the undertaking, being difapproved by the Britifh government, was left in an unfinifhed ftate. Along the mountain are feveral grottos, or natural excavations, the moft famous of which is that of St. Michael ; the height of the entrance being 437% (varas) yards above the level of the fea. The cavern below is at leaft 70 feet, and contains columns of cryttallizations and flalaGiites, refembling all the orders of architeéture. About 100 paces from its gate is another beautiful cavern, 65 varas fquare, and the vault 21 varas high. On the right is a fecond excavation, adorned with caprices of nature fimilar to thofe of the former, but fo regularly difpofed, that it has the appearance of atemple. Perhaps this was formerly ufed for confulting fome oracle, probably that of Hercules, who was the principal divinity of the place, as well as of the cave in the promontory of Ampelufia, on the coaft of Africa. From the entry of this cavern you difcover the whole of the bay of Gibraltar, two leagues acrofs from eaft to weft, and three from north to fouth. You alfo com- mand a view of the country-houfes, the flower and kitchen gardens, which the inhabitants have formed one above the other, on the fide of the mountain, up to the royal road, and the public walk, extending for about half a mile from the town of Gibraltar to the new town on the fouth. The Englifh have {pared no pains in covering the rock with trees and flowers, in fupporting the earth with walls and props, in cutting a number of roads threugh the folid rock, and ia making them paffable on horfe-back and in carriages up te the very fummit. They: have even fome artificial mea- dows for their flocks. From the grotto of St, Michael, fituated on the fouthern part of the mountain, at an almoft equal diftance, the Signal tower and the Sugar loaf, the entrance of which is 5000 feet above the level of the fea, you difcover the magazines, the batteries, the new town; on the fouth, the. marine hofpital, which is a handfome and convenient building. The view extends over a number of country-houfes, to fome of which beautiful gardens are attached ; in time thefe new buildings will ferm a town as confiderable as that of Gibraltar. Near thefe are eight magnificent cifterns, large enough to contain 40,000 tons of water, and bomb-proof; they receive all the water which flows down the fide of the mountain, previoufly purified in coppers erected for the purpofe. On the fouth fide you perceive a number of mountains, called Tarfes.; and near them formerly ftood a very ancient tower, witha ciltern and well. .In a cave not far diltant feveral ftones have bee found with human bones above the common fize, fo feougly\, incrulted ia them as to form one folid mafs. (See Poffile Bones.) From Europa Point to the gate on the land-fide ; Bh2 are GIBRALTAR. are feveral moles, which facilitate the unloading of fhips, and enable them to caft anchor in fecurity. Before you arrive at the fonth gate you obferve a handfome, large, fquare, furrounded with trees, now called the Field of Mars, formerly the Red Sand; of fuch a fize, that the 6000 men, ufually compofing the garrifon, can perform their mancu- yres without inconvenience. Here the guard always mufters, and on Sundays and holidays they make it the grand parade. The prevailing forms of religion in this promontory are the Catholic, that of the church of England, and the Jewith, each of which has its own burying ground, among the fandy earth of the mountain. The town of Gibraltar is on the welt fide at the foot of the mountain; it is large, well built, fortified with ftrong walls, baftions, and works to cover them ; a large fort pro- teéts and mafks the mole, built in the form of a bridge, 300 feet long ; a church is built near it; and on the land fide is another mole, which covers the part fortified by a fort witha tower, and two or three breaft-works, thrown up in front. On entering the town by the fouth gate, you perceive on the left an edifice, containing the library of the officers of the arrifon ; confifting chiefly of the works of modern authors. The governor’s houfe is built on the ground formerly occu- pied by the convent of Francifcans ; to which is attached a beautiful garden, which, on hurfday and Sunday evenings, during the fummer, is the promenade of the officers of the garrifon and inhabitants of the city. The principal {treet mto which you enter on leaving the goyernor’s houfe, 1s the refidence of the merchants, and on the right is the Catholic ehapel, rebuilt in an excellent ftyle of architecture ; this ftreet extends almoft through the whole length of the city, being more than half a mile long, and on each fide it has handfome flat pavements, and a number of fhops from one end tothe other. All the houfes are built in the Englith ftyle, with {mall deors, flat roofs, and enormous bow windows, behind which the prime goods of all forts are expofed to fale. The whabitants are chiefly military ; the commerce with Africa is neither certain nor regular ; and although the contraband trade with Spain, both in money and goods, is one of the principal branches of trade, that cannot be fufficient (fays La Borde) to indemnify England for a million and a half of piaftres, which on an average it cofts annually to maintain this point in the Mediterranean, where in other refpects the duties colleéted are very fmall. This place is advantageoufly fitu- ated for victualling the fleets, and the protection of the coaft of Africa, from whence the Englih procure their corn, and as a place of refuge for their privateers and floops of war. The port is a key tothe Mediterranean and to the Atlantic ; eonfuls from all the itates of Europe and North America ufually refide there. ‘The Americans, as well as the Swedes, Danes, and Dutch, in time of peace, carry on a direct com- merce with Gibraltar, by fupplying themfelves with the ar- ticles they want, and leaving in exchange f{nuff, cod, pitch, and tar, mafts, rum, maize, rice, flour, fugar, pepper, einger, cotton, anifeed, and the other articles of commerce, which they procure from Afia, Africa, and Europe. The coaits of Granada, Seville, and Catalonia, furnifh wine, and Afriea wax and frefh meat in great quantities; they alfo im- port ftom Spain brandy, raifins, almonds, oranges, lemons, tilks, falt, &c. which the veffels from the north carry back in exchange. Gibraltar contains altogether gooo inhabit- ants, including eight regiments, amounting to 6000 men ; fo that this place is rather a military colony than a commercial eltablifhment. ‘The population of Gibraltar extends one mile to the fouth, and nearly as much towards the top of the mountain ; and if we may judge from the new buildings lately erected, it is certainly increafing. All thehoufes are painted black on the outfide, with white borders or ledges, fhewing the number of ftories, which are generally two or three. ‘This mode is well fuited to a country where the reflec- tion of the fun is fo violent. The police 1s well conducted 3 no beggars are to be found here; the ftreets are preferved clean and falubrious ; and though they are all well lighted at night, no one is allowed to walk without a lanthorn, and a per« miifon from the general; fentinels requiring an{wers to their challenges being ftationed m the town, as well as patroles and watchmen. All forms of religion are tolerated without in- convenience, and the number of Jews, who live here more fecurely than in any other part of Europe, is very confidera- ble. Gibraltar has atheatre, which, though fmall, is welk laid out and adorned with tafte. For want of regular aétorsy the officers of the garrifon perform, during the greater part of the year, a number of Englith plays. On the oppofite fide of the ftraits of Gibraltar is the town of Ceuta. The traveller, who wifhes to crofs over inte Africa, may take advantage of the N.W. winds, and of the fmall veffels which are continually pafling and repaffing. The origin and foundation of this townare loit in the ob- fcurity of time, Itis certain, however, that the Pheenicians, the Egyptians, and other ancient people, landed at Gibraltar ; and the name of the pillars of Hercules, by which this place was known, is nothing more thana tradition preferved among the Pheenicians, who peopled this coait, and brought theig gods and religious worfhip with them. But it is not known whether the feats or columns exilted in the remoteft anti- quity, and if the infcription “non plus ultra’? meant that, nothing was more wonderful than the feparation of the two continents, or, as is more probable, that no one had dared te navigate beyond this point. However this be, it is probable that the firft navigators of the Mediterranean landed at Gib- raltar, or its environs. ‘his opinion is fupported by the authority of Pomponius Mela, who, being born at Cadiz, may be {uppofed to feel more intereft than others in whatever related to this coaft. "The Moors feized on Gibraltar in the eighth century, and held it without interruption till the fourteenth, when, inthe year 1310, it was taken from them by Perez de Guzman; but they retook it in the year 1332, and held it till the year 1462, when it was retaken by the Spaniards, and it has continued in the hands of the Chriftians from that time. The Englifh took it from the Spaniards during the war of the fucceflion in Spain ; the fort furrendered to the united fleet of England and Holland under fir George Rook, in 1704; and the allies took poffeffion of it in the name of Charles III. The place was ceded to the Englifh by the trea- ties of Utrecht and Seville; it was befieged at feveral times without fuccefs. Since the Englifh have been matters of the place it has been fo much improved and itrengthened, as pro- bably to bid defiance to the utmott efforts of an enemy. In the courfe of the American war, the Spaniards again befieped it 5 but their memorable attack with floating batteries of up- wards of 200 cannon, in fhips of all fizes, terminated only in difappomtment, in the deitruction of the fhips and men employed, and in the immortal honour of the brave defenders : 16 miles N. of Ceuta, 70 S. of Seville. N. lat. 36° 4’ 44". W. long. 5° 19' 46". GIBRALTAR, an ancient town of South America, in the goverument of Caraccas, and province of Venezuela, fituated on the E. coaft of thelake Maracaybo, The countryin its vicinity is well watered with rivers, and furnifhes cocoa of the beft qua- lity, and very largecedars. The beft Spanifh tobacco is pro- duced here, calleds ‘Tobago de Marafaibo, from which is made the valuable {nuff}. vulgarly called “* Mackaba” fnuff, Lhe air is yery infalubrious inthe rainy feafon, and therefore the GIB the merchants and planters retire at that time te Maracaybo, or Merida; roo miles S.S.E, of Maracaybo. N. lat. 10° 4! W. long. 67° 36'. a Gipranvar Point, is the weftern extremity of a fandbank, in Upper Canada, which forms the harbour of York, and upon which block-houfes are erected for its defence. There is another place of this name on the fide.of lake Memphra- ee in the town of Bolton, in Upper Canada. IBRIN, a town of Syria; ro miles S.E. of Aleppo. GIBSON, Ricrarp, in Biography, the Dwarf, was placed by a lady at Mortlake, to whom he was page, with Francis de Clyne to learn to paint, both in water at in oil ; but he in- formed himfelf more by fludying the works of Lely, and ained confiderable reputation. GIBSON, Epwarp, in Biography, was born at Bamp- ton, in Weftmoreland, in the year 1669. He received the early part of his education at the free-fchool in his native town, and at the age of feventeen he was fent to Queen’s college, Oxford. In 1691 he was admitted to the degree of B. A., and in the fame year, having already applied him- felf moft diligently to the ftudy of the northern languages, he publifhed anew edition of William Drummond’s Poleno- Middiana, and James V. of Scotland’s Cantilena Ruttica, quarto, illuftrated with netes. In 1692, he gave a tranfla- tion inthe Latin language, together with the original, of the « Chronicon Saxonicum ;’” likewife a work entitled « Li- brorum Mannufcriptorum in duabus infignibus Bibliothecis, altera Dugdaliana Oxonii, Catalogus,’” with a dedication to Dr. Tennifon, afterwards archbifhop of Canterbury, which proved the foundation of the author's fubfequent for- tune under the aufpices of that prelate. He next publifhed a correct edition of Quintilian “¢ De arte Oratoria ;’” and a new edition of Somner’s treatife on the Roman ports and forts in Kent. In 1694 Mr. Gibfon commenced A.M., and fhortly afterwards was elected fellow of his college, and ad- mitted into deacon’s and prieft’s orders. In 1695 he pub- lifhed an Englifh tranflation of ‘ Camden’s Baa This work was patronized by lord Somers, who offered Mr. Gibfona living in the ifle of Thanet, which he declined, on account of ill-health, and in the following year he was ap- pointed librarian at Lambeth, by the archbifhop, Dr. 'Ten- nifon, who received him into his family, and who appointed him morning preacher at Lambeth church. His publica- tions about this period were, “ Vita Thome Bodleil, Equi- tis Aurati,’’ together with ‘“ Hiftoria Bibliothece Bodleia- ne :” alfo, « Reliquie Spelmanniane ; being the pofthu- mous works of fir Henry Spelman, relating to the Laws and Antiquities of England, together with the Life of the Author.”? He was now appointed domeflic chaplain to the archbifhop, through whofe means he obtained the le¢ture- fhip of St. Martin’s in the Fields, and was prefented to the rectory of Stifted in Effex. His promotion im the church went on rapidly, but it didnot render him indifferent to the caufe of literature, and in 1713 he publifhed his celebrated work, entitled « Codex Juris Ecclefiaftici Anglicani; or the ftatutes, conftitution, canons, rubricks, and articles of the church of England, methodically digefted under their pro- per Heads, &c.”” The fcheme of church power vindicat- ed in this volume was excepted againft, not only by diffenters, but by the foundeft and moft conilitutional lawyers within the pale of the church ; who maintained that the principles and claims advanced in it would be fu‘ficient, if acted upon, in their utmoft extent, to eftablifh a facerdotal empire, which mutt draw all power to itfelf, and render the civil ma- giltrate its minifter. and dependent. In 1715 our author, who had taken his degree of D.D., was coniecrated bifhop ef Lincoln, and in 1723 he was tranflated to the fee of Lon- GID don. In this fituation, on account of the weak health of Dr. Wake, then archbifhop of Canterbury, almof every thing relating to the affairs of the church was confided to him. His great zeal for the eftablifhed religion, and his oppofiticn to the diffenters, who were endeavouring to obtain the repeal of the Corporation and Teft aéts, leflened him in the eftimation of the prime minifter, fir Robert Wal- pole; and he was, about the fame time, rendered obnoxious to men in power, by feveral attacks on the principles in his “© Codex,’ which the authors contended were inimical to the civil conttitution of this country, and favourable to a {pirit of intolerance and perfecution. Of thefe attacks, one of the moit able was conducted by the recorder of Briftol, afterwards Mr. Juftice Fofter, at the defire of lord Hard- wicke, lord chief-juftice of the court of king’s bench. Bithop Gibfon’s conftitution was naturally {trong and vigorous, but he exercifed it with almoft ;inceffant labours, fo that, at length, it might be faidto be fairly worn out by his {tudies andexertions, Tor fome time before he died, he became fen- fible that his end was approaching, and im 1748 he breathed his laft at Bath, being in his feventy-ninth year. Befides the works already enumerated, the bifhop was author of fe- veral others, highly efteemed by the learned. He wrote and publifhed many paftoral letters, addrefled to the clergy and laity of his diocefe, intended to oppofe the growth of infi- delity and enthufiafm : fome vifitation charges, occafional fermons, and {mall tra&ts again{t the prevailing vices of the age. hefe fmaller pieces have been frequently reprinted, and it is faid that the bifhop received more real fatisfaGtion on account of the repeated demand for his practical works, than from the honours conferred on him by his larger and more learned treatifes. He poffefled the focial principles in an eminent degree, and his beneficence and charity were very extenfively, though privately, exercifed. An initance of li- berality is recorded, which redounds greatly to his honour : Dr. Crow hadleft him by his will 2500/. which bifhop Gibfon freely gave to Dr. Crow’s own relations, who were in indigent circumttances. Biog. Brit. i GID, or Gippy, in Rural Economy, a morbid condition occurring in fheep and fome other animals, in which there is aconftant vertigo or turning round. The affection is gene- rally confidered as a kind of hydrocephalus, or encyfted col- lection of watery matter in the head, between the dura and pia mater. It has, however, been fuggeited by fome as depending upon a worm or maggot under the horn on either fide of the head 5 in fupport of which Mr. Collins has been informed of cows having the difeafe, and being cured by having a perforation made near the horn, and the worm or maggot taken out ; but this isno doubt another fort of diforder. Some farmers confider this complaint as the moft com- mon among fheep that are richly fed, and know it by the name of the /urdy evil, the cure being attempted by the ufe of fmall bleeding and affafoetida ; and in order to guard againit a relapfe, the fheep fhould be put into a hilly or ele- vated patture. Among the graziers in the county of Lincoln the difeafe is known by the terms furdy, and bladder on the brain, and in its remedy a fort of trepanning procefs is had recourfe to, by which great numbers of fheep are fuppofed to be faved. The perfon who performs the operation raifes the fealp with a ftrong hooked knife juft over the part affected, to the ex- tent of about half a crown piece, after which, nearly the fame extent of the fkull-bone is elevated, letting it hang as by ahinge on one fide; then by means of a quill, cut flant- ing to a point, in the form of afpear, and hacked on each fide, the bladder is fought for and brought out whole, the: bone GIE bone being immediately put down again, and covered with a after. The South Down fheep farmers, when the animals are af- feéted in this way, fay they are pateri/b. Various other modes of cure have been propofed, but they do not feem worthy of much attention. See SHEEP. GIDDA, in Ancient Geography, See Jippa. GIDDATOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, jn the circar of Cicacole; 16 miles S.W. of Coffimcotta. GIDDINESS, in Medicine, 2fenfation as if the objects furrounding the perfon were ina flate of circumgyration, or whirling motion, accompanied with an inability to main- tain the ereét pofture, or to move forward in a ftraight line : in technical language this is denominated Vertigo ; which fee. GIDDRI, in Geography, a town of Albania; 8 miles N. of Aleffio. GIDEA, a river of Sweden, which rifes in the Lapp- mark of Afele, andtraverfing Angermanland, runs into the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 16° 20°. E. long. 18° 54". GIDELI, a town of Candahar ; 50 miles S.E. of Ca- bul. GIDID, atown of Africa, in Dar-fir, nearly S.E. and about 22 miles from Cobbé, on the road from Cobbé to Ril. This town has a competent fupply of water ; and yet the Fukkara, who poffefs it, are fuppofed to be fo deftitute of hofpitality, that they will hardly furnifh a traveller fuf- ficient to allay his thirft. In this town are many houfes, and fome of them belong to merchants who derive their ori- gin from the eaftward.—Alfo, a town of Nubia; 35 miles S. of Gerri. a GIDI-SHEHRI, a totvn of Afiatic Turkey, in Nato- lia; Smiles S. of Beifheh: . GIDOLA, atownof _ -ffia, in the government of Wi- burg ; 20 miles N. of Wiburg. GIECH, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of Bam- berg; 7 miles N. of Bamberg. GIEDKULISZKI, a town of Samogitia; 24 miles S. of Rofienne. GIEDROYCE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Wilna; 24 miles N.N. W. of Wilna. GIEDUNGEN, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Chriftianftadt ; 18 miles N.W. of Stavanger. GIEGUZIN, a town of Lithuania; 15 miles S. of Wilkomiers. : GIEK, in Botany, the Ceylon name of afmall fruit, de- {eribed’by Gartner v. 2. 486. t. 180, of which nothing more is known. The nucleus is fingularly pitted, like a Ru- bus, but if the figure be in all points correét, it cannot be a grain of the fruit of that genus. The internal parts, which were decayed, might have afcertained fomething decilive, efpecially the fituation of the embryo. GIELLUM, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Aggerhuus ; 53 miles N. of Chriftiania. GIEN, a townof France, and principal place of a dif- triG, in the department of the Loiret, feated on the Loire; 32 miles S.E. of Orleans. The place contains 5117, and the canton 11,366 inhabitants, on a territory of 410 kilio- metres, in 11 communes. N. lat. 48° 45’. E. long. 10° rae > GIENE!. See Kenf. ies a town of Africa; 10 miles S. of Tri- oli. F GIER, a river of France, which runs inte the Rhone, i2 miles below Lyons. GIERACE, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Reggio; containing 13 GIF churches, and 4 monafleries. Near it are fome fulphureous baths; 34 miles N. of Reggio. N. lat. 38°6'.. E. long, 16° 30'—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demo- na; 30 miles S.W. of Miftretta. N, lat. 37° 48". E. long. 14° 22". GIERANONY, atown of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Wilna; 20 miles N.E. of Lida. j GIERGA, a town of Bengal; 48 miles S.E. of Doe- a GIESIM, a town of Nubia, between Sennaar and Abyf- finia; 100 miles E.S.E. of Sennaar. N. lat. 13° 16! E. long. 35° 15’. GIESSEN, a flrong town of Germany, in the princi- pality of Upper Heffe, fituated in a fertile country, on the Lahn. It isdefended by a good citadel and arfenal. An uniyerfity was founded here in the year 1605; 36 miles N.E.of Mentz. N.lat. 50° 35’. E. long. 8 43/. ; GIEZIN, a town of Samogitia ; 22 miles E.S.E. of Ro- ienne. GIFF, a term in Surgery, fignifying fwellings behind the ears. GIFFEN, Huszert, in Biography, a lawyerand philo- logift, wasa native of Gueldres m France. He itudied at different univerfities, as thofe at Louvain, Paris, and Or- leans, and in 1567 he took his degrees in the law. He went to Venice in the train of the French ambaffador, and from thence to Germany, and taught philofophy and jurif- prudence at Strafburg, Altdorf, and Ingolftadt. He was educated in the principles of Proteftantifm, which he re- nounced for the Catholic religion previoufly to his being in- vited to the imperial court, where the emperor Rodolph be- ftowed upon him fome important offices. Being fent into Bohemia, he died at Prague in the year 1604, being about feventy years of age. His principal works are «* Comment, de Imp. Juitiano :”? ‘* Index Hift. Rerum Romanorum ;”? and notesand comments upon Ariftotle’s politics, ethics ; alfo upon Lucretius. Moreri. Bayle. ’GIFFT-MEHL, the name given by the German che- miits and metallurgifts to the firft appearance of arfenic, or the grey flowers arifing from the roaiting of cobalt, and fticking to the long wooden funnel, which they carry from the furnaces. The word gifit-mehl is German, and fignifies poifonous meal or flour. GIFHORN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the principality of Luneburg-Zell, feated on the Allier; 19 miles E. of Zell. ' - GIFONI, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 7 miles E..N. E. of Salerno. GIFT, or Grant, in Law, a method of transferring perfonal property, anfwering in fome meafure to the convey- ances of real eftates. Gifts and grants are thus to be diftin- guifhed from each other, that gifts are always gratuitous, whereas grants are upon fome confideration or equivalent. With regard to their fubjeét-matter, they may be divided into gifts or grants of chatttels rea/, and gifts or grants of chattels perfonal. Under the former clafs may be included all leafes for years of land, affignments, and furrenders of thefe leafes; and all the other methods of conveying an eftate lefs than freehold ; though thefe very feldom carry the out- ward appearance of a gift, however freely beitowed ; being ufually expreffed to be made in confideration of blood, or natural affection, or of five or ten fhillings nominally paid to the grantor ; and in cafe of leafes, always referving a rent, though it be but a pepper-corn :—any of which confidera- tions will, in the eye of the law, convert the gift, if execut- ed, into a grant ; if not executed, into a contract. Grants GIG Grants or gifts of chattels per/fonal are the at&t of tranf- ferring the right and the pofleffton of them ; whereby one man renounces, and another man immediately acquires, all title and intereft therein: which may be done either in writ- ing or by word of mouth, attefted by fufficient evidence (Park. § §7.), of which the delivery of poffeffion is the itrongefl and the mott eflential. But this conveyance, when merely voluntary, is fomewhat fufpicious ; and is ufually conftrued to be fraudulent, if creditors or others become fufferers thereby. And, particularly, by ftatute 3 Hen. VII. c. 4. all deeds of gift of goods, made in truft to the ufe of the donor, fhall be void ; becaufe otherwife perfons might be tempted to commit treafon or felony, without danger of forfeiture; and the creditors of the donor might alfo be defrauded of their right. And by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 5. every grant or gift of chattels, as well as lands, with an in- fent to defraud creditors or others (3 Rep. 82), fhall be void, as again{t fuch perfons to whom fuch fraud would be prejudicial: but, as againft the grantor himfelf, fhall ftand good and effectual ; and all perfons partakers in, or privy to, fach frandulent grants, fhall forfeit the whole value of the goods, one moiety to the king, and another moiety to the party grieved ; and alfo, upon conviction, fhall fuffer impri- fonment for half a year. A true and proper gift or grant is always accompanied with delivery of pofleflion, and takes effect immediately ; as if A. gives to B. 100/. or a flock of fheep, and puts him in pofleflion of them direétly, it is then a gift executed in the donee ; and it is not in the donor’s power to retract it, though he did it without any confideration or recompence (Jenk. 10g.) : unlefs it be prejudicial to creditors; or the donor were under any legal incapacity, as infancy, coverture, durefs, or the like; or if he were drawn in, circumvented, or impofed upon by falfe pretences, ebriety, or furprize. But if the gift does not take effeét, by delivery of immedi- ate pofleffion, it is then not properly a gift, but a contra@; and this a man cannot be compelled to perform, but upon good and fufficient confideration. See Conrracr. The conveyance by gifi, ‘ donatio,”’ is properly applied to the creation of an eftate-tail, as feoffment is to an eftate in fee, and leafe to that of aneftate for life or years. It dif- fers in nothing from a feoffment, but in the nature of the eltate pafling by it ; for the operative words of conveyance in this cafe are do or dedi (Welt. Symbol. 256.) ; and gifts in tail are equally imperfect without livery of feifin, as feoff- ments in fee-fimple. (Litt. § 59.) See Feorrmmnt. This is the only diftinGtion which Littleton feems to take, when he fays (§ 57), ‘ it is to be underftood, that there is feoffor and feoffee, donor and donee, leffor and leflee 3’ viz. feoffor is applied to a feoflment in fee-fimple, donor to a gift in tail, and leffor to a leafe for life, or for years, or at will. In com- mon acceptation gifts are frequently confounded with grants. (See Granr.) Blackft. Com. B. 11. Girt-day, in Rural Economy, is a term implying a boon- day, or a day’s work given from the tenant to the lord, or from neighbour to neighbour. ‘Girts, New Year's. See SrR#ENE. GIG, Fisn. See Fisx-gig. GIGA, Jal. Gicur, Fr. a jig, the name of a gay dance, and of its tune. The Crufca Diét. defines this word from Dante, par. 14. /frumento muficale di corde ; a mufical inftrument with flrings. The Crufca, likewife, fays, that it is an inftrumental movement, fo called.— Walther’s derivation from ®eige, Germ. a violin, or fiddle, comprehends both the tune and the inftrument upon which, originally, it was moft frequently played. ‘The time of the ggid, or jig, is always quick, “ in triplets of or 7. G9 a? 3? GIG Corelli’s jigs were long in favour; but, being in the fame time as moft of our old country-dances, they are almoft dii become vulgar, except the gighe in his sth folo, and 11th fonata, op. 11%. _ Rouffeau fays that gigues are now wholly out of fafhion in Italy and France; but the movement is only improved by new and more elegant paflages: for, whatever is played quick, in triplets of 6, 9, or 12 quavers in a bar, is {till a gigas or jig. GIGAIA, Gicwa, Gia, or Gigo, in Geography, one of the {maller weftern iflands of Scotland, about 7 miles long and 2% broad, partly rocky and partly arable, fituated in N. lat. 55° 36’. W. long. 5° 43/, and feparated from the penin- fula of Cantyre, or Kintyre, by a channel 34 miles broad. There are no trees in this ifland; but oaks are fometimes dug up in the moraffes. Near its centre is Dun-clifs, ahigh fteep rock, flat at top, which appears to have been a flrong fortification. At Kilchattan is a rude column, 16 feet high, 4 broad, and 8 inches thick, and near it is a cairn, On the weitern fhore, which is bold and rocky, there are two re- markable caves; and on the S. coatt isa fubterraneous pailage 133 feet in length. Between the projeGting points and funlc rocks on the E. coaft are creeks, in which veffels may be fately moored. This ifland contains 592 inhabitants. About 15 mile S. from Gigha, is the ifland Caray, or Cara, near a mile long and half a mile broad, containing 22 inhabitants. The fhores are every where high and rocky, except at the N. E. end, where is the only landing place. The Mull of Cara, at the S. end, isa perpendicular rock 167 feet high. At the N. E. end, the foil is a mixture of fhells, fand, and common mould ; the reft of the ifland, at the furface, is a ftratum of peat earth. Between Gigha and Cara 1s Gigulum, a {mall uninhabited ifland. GIGANTES, a clufter of fmall iflands among the Philippines, N. W. of Sibu. N. lat. 11° 42’. E. long. T2Z20'0 GIGANTIC. See Granr. Gicantic Order, in Architedure, a name given by Scam- mozziand others to the Tufcan order. GIGANTOMACHIA, the battle of the giants again{t the fabulous gods of the ancient heathens. See Gian‘. The word is Greek, y sJovropecere tay formed of Yby Mrs YhyavTO After viewing the works, it immediately occurred to him, that if the coals on that part of the duke’s eftate could-be, brought Vou. XVI GIL to market in fuch a populous. town as Manchefter, and for the fupply of the numerous works in its vicinity, the col- liery, which, in the ftate it was at the time of his infpeCtion, yielded little profit, would become extremely valuable. -Ip is faid, that he fecluded himfelf altogether from company for two days, at the Bull inn at Manchefter, to confider how this might be done by water-carriage, as that by land was very expenfive, and, on account of the badnefs of the roads, very inconvenient, and almott impracticable. Hav~ ing digelted his. fcheme, he communicated: it to the duke, who was no lefs ftruck with the propofition fuevefted: by: Mr. G. than the projector himfelf, Accordingly the work. was foon after began, Mr. .G.’s name has feldom occurred’ in connection with this very important and.lucrative under— taking; and as he preceded Mr. Brindley in. this. bufinefs, of which we have ample and fatisfactory evidence, we thought that juftice required a candid.and impartial. ftatement of the cafe. Mr. G. was fo fortunate; in the profecution of this work, as to find lime upon. the duke’s.eftate, which mutt otherwife have been brought by land, from, Buxton, at the diftance of near 30 miles; and)in a werk of this great ex= tent, this was no inconfiderable faving. The tunnel was entirely executed, as wellas planed, by Mr. G.; who, be- ing acquainted with Mr, Brindley as a neighbour, and know- ing him to be a very. ingenious and excellent mill-wright, engaged his affittance in the conduét and completion of thie arduous undertaking, and introduced him.to the duke foe this purpofe. "he duke was fo well fatisfied with-his agent and projector, that at firft they lived together for two or three months in the year, and for feveral of the laft years. of Mr. Gilbert’s life, he fpent half his time with him. In June, 1757, he remoyed with. his family to Worfley, that he might, with greater convenience, attend the profecution of the bufinefs he had undertaken. As a farther evidence of the duke’s regard for Mr.G. we may. here add, that he gave his fon, who was educated for the church, the fecon& beft preferment. at his difpofal, to the amount of about 1200/. per annum. We might mention-manry- other. con- cerns in which Mr, G. was engaged, and in. which he had, an opportunity of manifeiting his flaill and judgment, in the conduct of canals, mines, and other improvements relating to rural economy, We fhall merely add, that he is {aid to have been the firft perfon who fuggeted the ufe of gun-pow- der in obtaining rock-falt. Mr. G. was probably fo mode! and unaffuming, that he did not, during: his life-time, lay claim to the honeur which belonged to him, with refpect to the duke of Bridgewater’s canals.and collieries; and we have introduced his name into the Cyclepzdia, in order to de him. juitice, without meaning to detract from the merit: of his coadjutor and fucceffor, Mr, Brindley, to whom we have already paid ample aad deferved refpeét under his biegra~ phical article. Mr, Gilbert’s general charaéter commanded the efteem of all who knew him, and his death, even after a prolonged life of about 73 years, which happened at Worf- ley, on the 4th or Auguit, 1797, was, without/doubt, re- gretted by his friends, and efpecially. by the noble dike, who was in the houfe at the time. Giiperw’s Jfland, in Geography, an ifland neav the S.W. coalt of Terra del Fuego. N.lat.55°13!. W.long. 71° 7’. Gitserv’s Jown, a town of America, in the {late of Vir- ginia, feated on the Shenando, 30 miles N. of Charlottef ville. GILBERTINES, in Lcch/flaftical Hiffory, an order of religious, thus called from St. Gilbert, of Sempringham, in the county of Lincoln, who founded the fame about the year 1148: the monks of which obferved ‘the rule of St. Auguttine, and were accounted canons; andthe nuns that of pt. Benedict, ; Ti The Gig The founder of this order ere€ted a double monaftery, or rather two different ones, contiguous to each other, the one for men, the other for women, but parted by a very high wall. St. Gilbert himfelf founded thirteen monafteries of this order, viz. four for men alone, and nine for men and women together, which had in them feven hundred brethren, and fifteen hundred fifters. At the diffolution there were about twenty-five houfes of this order in England and Wales. GILBERTUS Anaticus, in Biography, the firft prac- tical writer on medicine, whom this country produced, is placed by Bale, (who calls him Gilbertus Legleus, and fays he was phyfician to Hubert, archbifhop of Canterbury,) in the reign of king John, about the year 1210. But Leland, without ftating the grounds of his opinion, makes him more modern. Dr. Freind obferves, that it is obvious, from the work by which he is princtpally known, (a ‘ Compendium of Phyfic,””) that he muft have lived feveral years later in the thirteenth century, very probably in the beginning of the reign of Edward I.: “ For he quotes Averrhoes,”’ Dr. Freind remarks, ‘* who reached to the clofe of the twelfth eentury; and whofe works could not have been tranflated fo early, and indeed were not tran{lated till the middle, at leaft, of the thirteenth, as Bacon, a good voucher, informs us: and the mention he makes of a book, ‘¢ de Speculis,’’ which, without doubt, is that written by Bacon, and what he tran- feribes from Theodorick, concerning a leprofy, evidently fhews that he lived low in this century, &c.”? (Hift. of Phy- fie, vol. li. p. 267.) According to Leland, he maintained a high chara¢ter for his knowledge in philofophy and phyfic, which he had acquired by great ftudy and much travelling; and he was very fuccefsful in his praétice. His writings are porcpaly compiled from thofe of the Arabian phyficians, ike the works of his contemporaries in other nations; fome- times, indeed, he tranferibes whole chapters word for word, efpecially from Rhazes. He is reprefented as the firft Eng- lifth phyfician who ventured to expofe the abfurd practices ef the fuperititious monks, who at that time engroffed much ef the treatment of difeafes, and is faid to have contrafted with them the methods recommended by the ancients. The principal work of Gilbert, entitled «« Compendium Medi- cing tam morborum univerfalium quam particularium,’’ was corrected by Michael Capella, and printed at Lyons in 1510; and ‘afterwards at Geneva, in 1608, under the title of «¢ Laurea Ang'icana, feu Compendium totius Medicine.” His other treatifes were, “ De viribus Aquarum:’ De Re Herbaria:” “ Thefaurus Pauperum:”’ and “ De tuenda valetudine."’ Eloy. Ditt. Hift.. Freind, loc. cit. GILBING, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Erme- land; 12 miles W. of Allenttein. GILBOA, in Scripture Geography, a mountain of Pa- leftine, celebrated on account of the defeat and death of Saul, and his fon Jonathan. (1 Sam. xxxi. 1, 2, 3.). Eufe- bius and Jerom place this mountain fix miles from Bethfan; otherwife Seythopolis. GILD, or Guitp, originally fignifies a fraternity, or company. The word is formed from the Saxon gildan, to pay, becaufe every man was gildarz, i. e. to pay fomething towards the charge and fupport of the company. Hence alfo our Guild- hall, g. d. the hall of the fociety or fraternity, where they meet, and make orders and laws among themfelves. The origin of gilds, or guilds, is thus related : it being a law among the Saxons, that every freeman of fourteen years old fhould fixd fureties to keep the peace, or be com: mitted ; certain neighbours, confifting of ten families, en- tered into anaffociation, and became bgund fer each other; GIL either to produce him who committed an offence, or to make: fatisfaGtion to the injured party : that they might the better’ do this, they raifed a fum of money among themfelves, which they put into a common ftock; and when one of their pledges had committed an offence, and was fled, then the other nine made fatisfa¢tion out of this ftock, by pay- ment of money, according to the offence. Becaufe this affociation confifted of ten families, it was called a decennary ; and from hence came out later kinds of fraternities. But, a3 to the precife time when thefe cuilds had their origin in England, there is nothing of certainty to be found ; fince they were in ufe long before any formal licence was granted them for fuch meetings. It feems to have been about the clofe of the eleventh cen- tury, fays Anderfon, in his Hiltory of Commerce, vol. i. p- 70. that merchant-guilds, or fraternities, which were after- wards ftyled corporations, came firft into general ufe in many parts of Europe. Mr. Madox, in his Firma Burgi, chap. 1. § 9. thinks, they were hardly known to our Saxon progeni- tors, and that they might be probably brought into — land by the Normans; although they do not feem to have been very numerous in thofe days. The French and Nor- mans might probably borrow them from the free cities of Italy, where trade and manufa@tures were much earlier pro- pagated, and where poffibly fuch communities were firft in’ ufe. See CHARTERS of Community, Ciry, and Corrora- TION. Edward the Third, in the fourteenth year of his reign, granted licence to the men of Coventry to erecta merchant's gild and fraternity, of brethren and fifters, with a mafter, or warden; and that they might found chauntries, beftow alms, do other works of piety, and conititute ordinances touching the fame. So Henry the Fourth, in his reign, granted a licence to found a gild of the Holy Crofs, at Stratford-upon- ~ Avon. , Gixp, in the royal boroughs of Scotland, is {till ufed for a company of merchants, who are freemen of the borough. Every royal borough has a dean of gild, who is the next magiftrate below the bailiff. He judges of controverfies among men concerning trade; difputes between inhabitants. touching buildings, lights, watercourfes, and other nui- fances ; calls courts, at which his brethren of the gild are bound to attend; manages the common ftock of the gild; and amerces, and colleéts fines. Gin, or Geld, according to Camden, alfo fignifies a tri- bute, or tax. See Gexp. j Gixp, according to Crompton, alfo fignifies an amerce- ment. As in foot-geld, which he interprets a preftation within the foreft. ‘ : Hence, to be quit of all manner of gild, is to be dif- charged of all manner of preitations to be made for gathering fheaves of corn, lamb, and wool, to the ufe of fo- relters. : pty Gixp, or Geld, isalfo ufed' among our ancient writers for acompenfation, or mulét, for a fault committed. See Un- GELD. ° Hence, weregeld is the price of a man ; orfeeld is the price of cattle ; angeld, the fingle value of a thing ; favigeld, the double value, &c. ’ , Psat There are divers other words which end~with geld, and few the feveral kinds of payments; as danegeld; a geld, fenegeld, horngeld, fotgeld, penigdd, &c. winch ee. i . “Ginn, or Guild renis, are rents payable to the crown by ; “any GIL aay gild, or fraternity ; or fuch rents as formerly belonged to religious gilds, and came to the crown at the ge- neral diffolution: being ordered for fale by the ftat. 22 Car. IT. GILDABLE, or Gerpaste, denotes a_perfon tribu- tary, thatis, liable to pay tax, or tribute. ~ Camden, dividing Suffolk into three parts, calls the firft gildable, becaufe liable to tax ; from which the two other parts were exempt, becaufe ecclefiz donate. j GiLpaBLxis alfo explained in an ancient MS. to be that laad or lordfhip which is /ub diftrifione curie vicecom. GILDAS, in Biography, furnamed the Wife, a Britith monk, and the moft ancient Britifh writer now extant, was born in the year 520. Heis known among many authors by the name of Badonius, by which he is diftinguifhed from Gildas Albanius, who is faid to have lived at an earlier pe- riod. His furname Badonius is derived from a memorable victory gained by the Britons over the Saxons, at the hill of Badon, now Bath, about the time of his birth. Having been carefully educated according to the manners of the times he became monk of Bangor, where he diligently ap- plied himfelf to the learning of that period, and particularly to the ftudy of the fcriptures, with a view of qualifying himfelf for the duties of a public preacher. He is faid to have vifited Ireland at the requeft of Americus, afterwards king of the country, where he diltinguifhed himfelf by his zeal and fuccefs in converting Pagans, confuting the herefies of the ages eftablifhmg monatteries, and in reforming the corrupt itate of principles and manners which had become prevalent among the Chriftians in that ifland. Upon his return to his native country he vifited the monaftery of Lhan- carvan, lately founded by a pious nobleman of South Wales, and endeavoured, by all the means in his power, to engage other perfons, eminent for rank and fortune, to follow his example. He fpent fome time in the northern parts of Britain ; vifited France and Italy, and then returned home, where he acquired a high reputation as a molt indefatigable preacher who never helitated to cenfure the prevailing vices of the age. He is fuppofed to have died at the abbey of Bangor in the year 590; though, according to fome writers, this event happened at Glaitonbury, full twenty years prior to this. The chief work of this author is; «¢ Epiftola de Excidio Britanniz, et Caftigatione Ordinis Ecclefiattici,”’ containing lamentations over the miferies and almoft total ruin of his countrymen, and very fevere reproofs of the cor- ruption and profligacy of manners in which all ranks were fharers, and of which he drew a mott alarming picture. This curious remain of Britifh ecclefiaflical antiquities was firft printed by Polydore Virgil in 1525, from an imperfect copy. It was afterwards publifhed in 1568 by John Joffe- line from another, and a more perfect manufcript copy, but the beft edition was publifhed by Dr. Thomas Gale, in the firft volume of his ‘‘ Hiftorie Britannice, Saxonice, &c."’ Gildas wrote feveral ‘ Letters,’’ of which there are nume- xous fragments in an old collection of canons preferved among the MSS. in the Cottonian library. Other pieces have been afcribed to him, but thefe are confidered by the beft judges, as not really his, among them is the “ Hittoria de Geltis Britonum.’’ Moreri. Giipas-ds-Bois, Si. in Geography, atown of France, in the department of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Savenay. The place contains 859, and the canton 5527 inhabitants, on a territory of 235 kiliometres, in five communes. _GILDER. See Guiiper. GILDHALDA Teurtoniconum was ufed for the fra- Gre, ternity of Eafterliag merchants in London; called alfo the Siillyard. ; GILD-HALL, g. d. Gilde aula, the chief hall in the city of London. See Gurtp-hall. GILD-MERCHANT, Gilda Mercatoria, was a certain privilege, or liberty, granted to merchants, whereby they were enabled, among other things, to hold certain pleas of land within their own precinéts. King John granted gi/dam mercatoriam to the burgeffes of Nottingham. It is held, that if the king grants to a fet of men to have “gildam mercatoriam,’’ a mercantile meeting or affembly, this is alone fufficient to incorporate and eftablifh them for ever. 10 Rep.3o. 1 Roll. Abr. 513. GILDING, or Gumopne, the art, or a&, of {preading er covering certain fubftances with gold, either in leaf or powder, orin amalgam with quickfilver. See an account of thefe preparafions of gold under Goxp. The art of gilding was not unknown among the ancients, though it never arrived among them at the perfe@tion to which the moderns have carried it. For this purpofe the gold was beat into plates, with which the walls of apartments, difhes, and other veflels were covered. In early ages thefe plates were thick, fo that this mode of gilding was very expentive. (See the procefs employed for gilding, in this manner, the horns of the ram brought by Neftor, as an offering to Minerva, in Homer’s Odyfley, |. iti. v. 492.) In procefs of time, however, the expence was much leffened, becaufe the art was difcovered of making thefe plates thinner, and of laying them on with a fize. Pliny affures us, that the firft gilding feen at Rome was after the deftruétion of Carthage, under the cenforfhip of Lucius Mummius, when they began to gild the ceilings of their temples and palaces ; the Capitol being the firft place on which this enrichment was beftowed. But he adds, that luxury adyanced on them fo hattily, that in a little time you might fee all, even private and poor perfons, gild the very walls, vaults, &c. of their houfes. * When we cover our houfes with gold,’’ fays Seneca, at. 115.) ‘ what elfe do we than rejoice in deception? for we know, that coarfe wood is concealed under that gold.’? We need not doubt but that they had the fame method with us, of beating gold, and reducing it into leaves ; though, it fhould feem, they did not carry it to the fame height; if it be true, which Pliny relates, that they only made feven hundred and fifty leaves, four fingers fquare, of a whole ounce. In- deed, he adds, that they could make more ; that the thickeft were called bradee Prenefine, cn account of a flatue of the goddefs Fortune at Pranefte, gilt with fuch leaves; and that thofe of the thinner fort were called bradee quaftoria. The modern gilders alfo make ufe of gold leaves of divers thickneffes; but there are fome fo fine, that a thoufand do not weigh above four or five drachms. The thickeit leaves are ufed for gilding on iron, and other metals ; and the thinneft on wood. But we have another advantage above the ancients, in the manner of ufing and applying the gold: the fecret of painting in oil, difcovered of late ages, furnifhes us with means of gilding works that fhall endure all the injuries of time and weather, which to the ancients was impracticable. They had no way to la the gold on bodies that would not endure the fire but wit whites of eggs, or fize; neither of which will endure the water: fo that they could only gild fuch places as were fheltered from the moilture of the weather. The Greeks called the compofition on which they ap- plied their gilding on wood, leucophaum, or leucopborum Tiz2 whick, GILDING. which is defcribed as a fort of glutinous compound earth, ferving, in all probability, to make the gold itick, and bear polifhing. But as to the particulars of this earth, its colour, ingredients, &c. the antiquaries and naturalifis are not agreed. bets There are feveral methods of gilding in ufe among us: viz. gilding on an oily fize; gilding on a water fixe; gilding ty the fire, which is peculiar to metals; gilding of books; &Se. We may diftinguith, in general, two kinds of gilding, one with, and the other without, the application of heat. The firft method is pra€tifed on thofe fubftances, fuch as wood, paper, leather, filk, lacquered and japanned ware, &e. which would be injured, and even deftroyed at the temperature requifite for the other fort of gilding, which is employed on fubitances that are not liable to alteration by expofure to a moderate heat, fuch as metals, and fometimes glafs and porcelain. There are two methods of gilding on wood, viz. oil- gilding, and burnifhed gilding. ; GiLpINe in oil, or-an oily fize, is performed by cementing the gold to the ground by means of fat oil. Linfeed oil may be prepared for this purpofe, by putting fuch a quantity of it jnto a broad veffel as may cover the bottom about an inch deep, and adding to it as much water as will rife fix inches or more above the bottom. Let the veffel be expofed to the fun and rain, and the contents be occafionally ftirred for five or fix weeks, till the oil appear of the confiftence of treacle. Then feparate the oil from the water, and place it in along bottle, or feparating-funnel, ufed by the chemitts, in fuch heat as will render it perfetly fluid; pour off the clear part, and ftrain the remainder through a funnel, and the whole will be fit for ufe. The water helps to clear and bleach the oil, and improve it in other refpeéts. In order to prepare the wood for gilding, it muft firft be covered or primed with two or three coatings of boiled linfeed oil and white lead, in order to fill up the pores, and conceal the irregularities of the furface, occafioned by the veins in the wood. If greater nicety and perfection in the work be required, the wood fhould be firft rubbed with fith-fkin, and then with Dutch rufhes. When the priming is dry, the next operation is that of fizing the work, or laying upon it, by means of a bruth, or a large pencil, a thin coat of gold fize ; care being taken that the brafh or pencil be made to pafs into all the cavities and projecting parts, if the fubjeét be carved. This gold fize is prepared by cae ig calcined red ochre with a due proportion of the fat, or thickeft drying oil that can be procured, (the older the better) ; and this fize, in order to fit it for working more freely, is to be mixed, previoufly to its being ufed, with a {mall quantity of oil of turpentine, till it acquires a proper con- fitence. Sometimes the work is’ fized with fat oil, and the japanner’s gold fize (fee Gorp Size), ground alfo with ochre. Ifa high degree of perfection be required, the work fhould be fized a fecond time, and fome add a third fizing, before the gold is laid on. In order to afcertain its fitnels for this purpofe, it is touched with the finger; and if it feel fomewhat adhefive or clammy, or, as the gilders call it, “tacky,” but not fo as to be brought off hy the finger, it is in a fit flate for gilding. But if it be fo clammy as to daub, or come off on being touched, it is not fufficiently dry ; or, if it has no clamminefs or fticking quality, it is too dry, and mutt be fized over again before it is gilt. When the gold'fize is good, it will be fufficiently dry in about twelye hours for the application of the gold. In this procefs, when the furface is fufficiently Jarée and plain to contain them, the gold leaves may be laid on entire, either by means of a fquirrel’s tail, or immediately from the paper which originally contained them, which laft method, prac- tifed by thofe who have acquired the neceflary dexterity, is the fimpleit and moft expeditions, as well as the beft, for the perfection of the work. The leaves, being ‘laid on the proper parts of the work, mutt be fettled to the ground; by gently compreffing thofe, which feem to want it, with the fquirrel’s tail on a cotton ball ; and if any part of the gold has flown off, or has been difplaced, fo as to leave any {pot uncovered, a piece of another leaf, of a correfponding fize and figure, muft be laid upon it. When the parts aré too fmall to admit of laying on whole leaves, or when vacancies are left, after laying on whole leaves, which re= quire to be covered with the flips or fragments of leaves; thofe that are to be ufed are turned from the paper upon a cufhion. (See Girpine Crfbion and Cusniox.) They are then cut into flips, of a proper fize, by a blunt pallet- knife (fee Girpine Knife) ; and each flip is taken up on the point of a fine brufh, or by an inftrument called the “tip,’”? (fee Gitpixe 7ip,) which, being moiftened by breathing upon it, will take up the leaves, or any frag- ments of them from the cufhion. When thefe are thus applied to the parts of the work that were to be covered, they are gently preffed down by the cotton ball, till they lie every where evenly upon the ground; and the gold will immediately adhere to the fticky furface of the fize. Where the work is very hollow, and fmall pieces are wanted to cover parts that lie deep, they may be taken up, by the tip already mentioned, or the point of a fitch pencil, firft breathed upon, and thus conveyed to, and fettled in, their proper places. ‘The whole of the work, being thus covered, fhould be fuffered to remain till it be dry, and it may then be brufhed over by a camel’s hair pencil, or foft hog’s hair brufh, in order to clear away any loofe particles of the gold leaf. If, after brufhing, any defective parts appear, Foch parts muft be again fized; and treated as before. Thé {quirrel’s tail ufed in gilding is cut fhort, and fometimes fpread in the fan-fafhion, by means of a piece of wood formed like a pencil-itick, but bread at both ends, and fplit to receive the tail ; but it will equally ferve in its own form, when the hair is cut to a proper length. The cotton fhould alfo be formed into a ball, by tying it up in a piece of fine linen rag; for if it be ufed without the rag, the fibres adheré to the gold fize, and embarrafs the work. err This fort of gilding is chiefly ufed for domes, and the roofs of churches, courts, banqueting-houfes, &e. and for figures of plafter, lead, &c. that are to ftand expofed to the weather. This oil-gilding is the moft fimple and eafy, leaft expenfive,. and moft durable, as it will not be readily imjured when ex- pofed to the open air; and it may be alfo cleaned with a little warm water and a foft brufh; but, as it cannot be burnifhed, it wants the high luftre which is produced by the method we fhall next deferibe. Giiprx6, Burnifhed, or in Diftemper, or on Water-fize, is that kind of gilding which is generally ufed for piéturé frames, mouldings, ftucco, and fuch wooden works as are {heltered from the weather, and not fubjeét to dampnefs. In order to prepare the woed for this fort of gilding, thofé parts that admit of it fhould be firft well rubbed with fifh= ikin, and thea with Dutch rufhes: It fhould then be care- fully covered with ftrong fize, made of fhreds, &c. of white leather, fuch as that ufed by glovers, or clippings of parch- ment boiled in water, in the proportion of about a pound of — > , the rit GILDING. the fhreds or clippings, to fix quarts of water, to the con- fiftence of a jelly, and then ftrained through flannel while hot. When this coating is dry, eight or ten more mult be applied, confiftine of the fame fize, mixed with fine platter of Paris, or wafhed chalk, or powdered whiting ; which mixture muft be made by melting the fize, aad ftrewing the whiting, &c. gradually into it, ftirring them well toge- ther, that they may be thoroughly incorporated. "This is laid on with a {tiff brufh, and oftener or feldomer repeated, according to the nature of the work; for pieces of feulp- ture, feven or eight layers futlice: for flat, or {mooth works, they ufe ten or twelve. In the latter cafe they are applied by drawing the brufh or pencil over the work: in the former, by dabbing it fmartly on, that the fize may enter all the dents of the carving. After the laft coat 1s laid on, and before it be quite dry, a bruth pencil, dipped in water, fhould be paffed over the whole, to fmooth it, and take away any inequalities that may have been formed ; and when it is dry, the parts that admit of it fhould be again brufhed over till they are per- fetly even. The work fhould then be repaired, by freeing all the cavities from the priming: after which a water polifh fhould be given to the parts defigned to be burnifhed, by rubbing them gently with a fine linen rag moiitened with water. When the whole work is become quite dry, a moderately thick layer muit be applied, compofed of fize and bole, or yellow ochre. Doffie, in the Handmaid to the Arts, gives the following recipe for the fimpleft compofitions, ufed as the proper cement or gilding fize in this kind of gilding: «©Take any quantity of bole armeniac, and add fome water to it, that it may foak till it grow foft. Levigate it then on the ftone, but not with more water than will pre- vent its being of a fliff confiftence, and add to it a little purified {net or tallow feraped; and grind them together. When this is wanted for ufe, dilute it to the confittence of cream, by parchment or glovers’ fize, mixed with double ?ts quantity of water, and made warm. Some melt the fuet or tallow, and mix it previoufly with five or fix times: its weight of chalk before it is put to the bole, to facilitate their eommixture, to which in this wet flate they are fomewhat repugnant. It is alfe fometimes praétifed to put foap fuds to the bole; which will contribute to its uniting with the tallow.” (See Gop Size.) Let this compofition be diluted with warm fize mixed with two-thirds of water, and let it be fpread with a bruth over the whole of the work, and then fuffered to dry ; and then let the fame mixture be ap- plied in the fame manner, at leaft once more. After the lat coat, it fhould be rubbed in the parts to be burnifhed with a foft cloth, till it be perfeGtly even. Some add a little ver- milion to the gilding fize, and others colour the work, if carved, before it be laid on, with yellow and the glovers’ fize ; to which alittle vermilion, or red lead, fhould be added. This laft method is defigned to give the appearance of gilding to the deeper and obfcure parts of the carving, where the gold cannot, or is not thought neceffary to be laid on. But this praétice is much difufed ; and inftead of it fuch parts of the work are coloured after gilding ; which operation 1s called “¢ Mattmg.”’ ; The work being thus prepared fhould be fet in a pofition fomewhat declining from the operator ; who, having at hand acup of clean water, and iome hair pencils, moiftens a part of the work, and then applies the gold leaf to the part fo moi{tened in the manner already direéted under the article Oul-Griivina, till it be completely covered, or till it be too dry to take the gold. This will tmmediately adhere on being preffed with the cotton ball. ‘The operator proceeds to moiften the next part of the work, and apply the gold as before, repeating the operation till the whole is completed, If, in examining the work, any parts fhould appear to need being repaired, they fhould be moiftened as before, and covered with the gold; but care fhould be taken that no part be miffed in the firft operation, as it is not fo eafily mended as in oil-gildimg ; nor fhould any drops of water be fuffered to fall on the perfect part of the gilding, as the gold is very apt to turn black in this ilate. The work being thus far gilt, when dry, and fit for the purpofe, which it will ufually be in about twenty-four hours, remains, either to be burnifhed, or matted. The proper period for this purpofe can only be afcer- tained by experience, and varies at different feafons. The mode of diflinguifhing the fitnefs of the work to take ‘the burnifh, is to try two or three particular parts at a diftance from each other ; and if thefe take the polifh well, the whole may be concluded to be in a fit ftate. But if the gold peel off, or be difordered by the rubbing, the work mutt be deemed not futficiently dry ; and if the gold bear the rub- bing well, and yet receives the polifh flowly, it is a proof of its being too dry, which fhould be prevented by watching the proper time. For the work, when too dry, both re- quires much more labour to burnifh it, and fails at laft of taking fo fine a polifh. To burnifh it, is to fmooth and polifh it with a burnifher, which is ufually a dog’s or wolf’s tooth, or a blood-ftone, an agate, or a pebble, or fomething elfe very fmooth, fitted in ahandle for that purpofe. 2 To mat, is to give it a light lick in the places net bur- © nifhed, with a pencil dipped in fize, wherein a little ver- milion fometimes has been mixed. This helps to preferve it, and prevent its lawing, when handled. Or, it is to cover the hollow parts with a colour the neareft in appearance to gold. ; Some recommend for this purpefe red lead, with a little vermilion ground with the white of an egg; but yellow ochre, or Dutch pink, with red lead, would better anfwer the end; or the terra di Sienna, very flightly burnt, or mixed with a little red lead, would have a much better effedt, and be more durable than any other mixture fo near the colour of gold in fhade. Iinglafs fize will likewife fupply the. place of the whites of eggs. -This operation of matting fuperfedes the neceffity of yellowing, which is intended to give the appearance of gilding to the deeper and obfcure parts of the carying where the gold cannot, nor is thought neceffary to be laid on. I ' The laft thing is to apply a vermeil, or lacquer, in all the little lines and cavities; and to ftop and amend any little faults with fhell-gold. The compolition here called vermeil, is made of gum gutta, vermilion, and a little of fome ruddy brown colour, ground together with Venice varnifh and oil of turpentine. Some gilders, in leu of this, content themfelves with fine lacca, or dragon’s-blood, with gum-water. Sometimes, inftead of burnifhing the gold, they burnith the ground or compofition laid on lait before it; and con- tent themfelves afterwards to wafh the part over with fize, This method is chiefly praétifed for the hands, face, and other nudities in relievo; which, by this means, do not ap- pear fo very brilliant as the parts burnifhed ; though mueh more fo than the parts perfectly flat, or matted, To gild a work, and yet preferve white grounds, they apply a layer of Spanifh white mixed with a weak fifh-glue, on all the parts of the ground where» on the yellow, or the layer next under the gold, might run. ; Gitpine, fiz. > GILDING. GILDING, Japanners, is performed by means of gold pow- ‘der, or imitations of it, cemented to the ground by a kind of gold fize: for the method of preparing which, fee Goip- This kind of gilding may be practifed on almoft any fubftance whatever, whether wood, metal, leather, or paper ; nor is there any preparation neceflary, befides making the furface on which the fize is to be laid, even, and periec&ily clean. Then fpread the japanner’s fize, mixed with a due proportion of oil of turpentine and vermilion, with a bruth over the work, if the whole furface is to be gilt ; or draw with it, by means of a pencil, the proper figure deiired, avoiding carefully any other parts ; when it is almoft dry, fo astto be capable, by its clamminefs, of receiving the gold, dip a piece of wafh-leather wrapped round the finger in the gold powder, deferibed under She//-Goip, and rub it lightly over the fized work ; or {pread the powder witha foft camel’s hair pencil; and witha camel's hair brufh clear away the loofe powder, after the gilded furface is dry. When leaf gold is ufed, the method of fizing mutt be the fame as for the powders ; but great care is neceflary in are them on, while the fize is in a proper ftate of dry- nefs. There is a falfe Lind of gilding, in which a colour of gold is given by painting and varnifhes, without employing gold. Thus a very fine golden colour is given to brafs and to fil- ver, by applying on thefe metals a gold coloured varnifh, which, being tranf{parent, fhews all the brilliancy of the metals underneath. Many ornaments of brafs are varnifhed in this manner, whichis called gold lacgucring, to diitinguifh them from thofe that are really gilt. Silver leaves, thus varnifhed, are put upon leather, which is then calied gilt lea- ther; and many picture-frames have no other than this coun- terfeit gilding, which may be difcovered by wafhing it with a little rectified fpirit of wine ; for the {pirit will diffolve the varnifh, and leave the filver leaf of its own whitenefs. For plain picture frames, thick tin-foil may be ufed inftead of fil- ver ; the tin leaf fixed on with glue is to be burnifhed, then polifhed with emery and a fine linen cloth, and afterwards with putty applied in the fame manner ; being then lacquered ever with the varnifh five or fix times, it looks like burnifh- ed gold. (See Lacaurrine.) Among the falfe gildings may alfo be reckoned thofe which are made with thin leaves of copper or brafs, called Dutch leaf. In this manner are made all the kinds of what is called gilt paper. See Gitpinc of Paper. taints of Books. There are various methods, with re- {pect to the cement ufed, by which the edges of books or paper may be gilt. Strong gum-water or ifinglafs fize, or glover’s-fize may be employed ; but as the gum-water, and weaker fizes are apt to run beyond the edge, and thus caufe the leaves to ftick together, ifinglafs, melted with the addi- tion of fome common proof fpirit of wine, anda fixth part of honey or fugar-candy is much to be preferred ; to which mutt be added a third of bole armeniac well powdered. The following compofition may be ufed for this purpofe : Take bole armeniac, and fugar-candy well powdered ; mix them with the whites of eggs, beaten to an oily confiltence ; and the cement will be fit for ufe. In applying any of thefe cements, the paper, in quires orin books, fhould be well cut and poliiled on the edges to be gilt ; and well {crewed down by a prefs; in this ftate it is to be brufhed over, firft with a little of the cement without the fugar-candy or the bole ; and when that is dry, either with the cement above given, or any other folutionof gum or fize with the proper proportion of the bole; after which it may be fuffered to i 3 and then water-polifhed, by rubbing it with a fine linen rag flightly moiftened, It is then fit for receiving the gold, provided _the work is ready for aiaee it be moiftened at that time; and the leaves may be then laid on, being cut according to the breadth which they are to cover, and preffed clofely down by a cotton ball; and after the gilding is thoroughly dry and firm, it may be po- lithed. See Boox-binding, and GiLpING of Paper. : Gi.pinG on china-ware. The gold is very much valued on china-ware, and would be much more fo, were it not that it is very liable to lofe its luftre, and to rub off. The Chi- nefe have at prefent a method of preventing both thefe acci- dents, ina great meafure, by means of a fort of polifhing, which they give it after itis laidon. They prepare for this purpofe a fine piece of agate, which they polifh on one fur- face in as perfect a manner as poffible. With this they rub over the gold, as it lies on the porcelain, feveral times, whea it firit comes from the baking. This gives the gold a luftre which it would not otherwife have, and fixes it down to the ware in fuch a manner,, that it cannot eafily be got off. The principal mifchief to which gold thus laid on is fubjeét, is the tarnifhing, or growing dull; this is remedied by the fame fort of means. They wet the veffel, upon which they would revive the luftre of the gold, in common clean water; and while it is wet, they rub it with the fame polifhed agate, adding a little fair water at times to keep it moit. If the gold has not been well laid on at firft, this may poffibly raife it or take it off in fome places; but if it was originally put on with the help of this itone, as all the gold on porcelain now is, the rubbis.g it with it a fecond time never gives it any {cratches, but recovers its priftine luftre and beauty. It muft be obferved, that the rubbing with this ftone muift be all done one way, both in the firit laying on the gold, and in the brightening of it up afterwards. ‘This may ferve as a method for us as well as the Chinefe, not only to re- cover the beauty of our tarnifhed gilt china-ware, but alfo to lay gold upon fome of our home manufactures of this kind. Obferv. fur les Couttimes de ?Afie. See Porcz- LAIN. Giiv1NG on enamel and glafs, is performed by burning or annealing, i. e. by producing a cohefion of the gold with the glafs or enamel, by the intermediation of a flux, or by, producing the like effe& without any. In both thefe me- thods, the gold is made to adhere to the enamel or glafs, in confequence of the fufion or approach to that ftate, either of the flux ufed, or of the body of the enamel cr glafs it- felf, by which the gold is cemented to fuch body. The flux, when any is ufed, may be either fimple glafs of borax, or any of the preparations of fluxes powdered (fee Fux); and the gold is ufed, either in the form of leaf gold, or in that of powder made mechanically, or by precipitation. (See Gotp powder.) When leaf geld is employed without any flux, the enamel or glafs may be moiftened witha very weak {olution of gum arabic, and again dried. After being thus prepared, it fhould be breathed upon till it becomes a little adhefive or fticky, and then laid upon a infficient num- ber of leaves of gold: when the gold is thus united to the enamel or glafs by the cementing quality of the gum arabic, If a flux be ufed, it fhould be finely levigated, tempered with a very weak folution.of gum arabic, and very thinly {pread on the part cf the work to be gilded: and when the gum water is almoft dry, the leaf gold fhould be laid on that part thus prepared for it, which is then in a ftate proper for burning. In the prefent practice, the aurum fulminans, or precipitation of gold b alkaline falts, is made by thofe who gild glafs in the anche perfection; and the volatile alkali is employed for the pre- cipitation by the chemiit, who prepares it for this purpofe,» But when this kind of precipitate is chofen, the ufe of any flux muit be avoided, and a very coniiderable degree of heat GILDING. heat applied. The manner of ufing the precipitate powders of gold, the aurum fulminans excepted, as well as the leaf gold,. may be varied, by adding to it or omitting any flux; but in what way foever the powder is ufed, it is to be tem- pered with the oil of fpike, and worked as the enamel colours; and the quantity of flux, when any is ufed, may be a third of the weight of the gold. In cafes where the glafs is very hard, or where the opportunity of a {trong heat cannot be conveniently obtained, the expedient of uling a flux in the following manner may be adopted with great advantage. Grind glafs of borax to a fine powder; and having tempered it with oil of fpike, lay it on the glafs where the gilding is to be made; then burn the glafs with a degree of heat, that will caufe the borax to run; and when it is cold, apply the precipitate or leaf gold, and burn it again, as in other cafes. After the work is burnt, if it be intended to be burnifhed, a proper luftre may be given to* it, by rubbing the gilded part with a dog’s tooth, or with a fine agate, or iron burnifhers. Handmaid to the Arts, vol. i. p. 374, &c. See Ruby Grass. Gold may be laid upon white earthen-ware or glafs, by drawing your delign, upon the veffel to be gilt, with japanners’ gold fize, moiftening the fize, as you find neceflary, with oil of turpentine. Set the work in aclean place to dry for about an hour, and then place it fo near the fire that you could but juft bear the heat of it with your hand for a few feconds. Let it remain there till it feels quite tacky or clammy: then, having procured a cufhion and fome leaf-gold, cut it into flips of the proper fize, and lay it on with a little cotton-wool. When the gold is all on, put the work into an oven to be baked for two or three hours. Drinking glaffes, with gilt edges, have been much ad- mired in this country; the beft of thefe are brought from Germany: thofe that are made in England, though equal in beauty to the foreign, being greatly inferior in the dura- bility of the gilding. Dr. Lewis made feveral experiments with a view of difcoyering this art; from which he con- cludes, that the gold is cemented to. them by means of an in- _ tervening matter, which will adhere to glats fo as not eafily to be rubbed off. He tried maftich, and other refinous bodies rubbed warm on the glafs, and feveral {pirituous var- nifhes: but none of thefe were found to adhere fuflictently to the glafs. Herecommends to the trial of the artilts in this way the harder oil varnifhes: and glafles have been fince pre- pared in England, probably on the principles which he has pointed out, with as durable gilding as thofe brought from Bohemia and Thuringia. . M. Zeigler, in a German tranflation of the “‘Commercium Philofophico-Technicum,” defcribes a varnifh for this pur- pofe, with the method of ufing it, which appeared from his experiments to be the beft. This varnifh is prepared by boiling fine tranfparent amber; reduced to powder, in a brafs veffel, tothe cover of which a valve is fitted, with as much drying oil as will juft cover it; and by diluting the above folution with four or five times its quantity of oil of turpentine. This varnifh may be made to dry fooner, and acquires greater firmnefs by grinding it with a little white lead, ‘or rather with a mixture of white lead and minium. It is to be applied very thin on the glafs, and the gold leaf laid lightly on the varnifhed part; when the varnifh is tho- roughly hardened, the gold may be burnifhed, by laying a piece of {mooth paper between the tooth or iteel burnither, and the gold. This gilding, M. Zeigler obferves, is dura- ble, and of a fine luitre. Com. Phil. Techn. p. 65, and 614. Copies of figures and letters on paper, and for the embel- lifhment of manuferipts, is performed with fhell-gold, tem- pered with gum-water; or the chara¢ters may be drawn with a milky folution of gum-ammoniacum made in water, and gold-leaf applied upon them when almoft dry, or if all or any part of them is become quite dry, they may be again fufficiently moiftened for receiving the gold by breathing on them. Letters 1aifed from the furface of paper or parch- ment, in the manner of emboffed work, fuch as are feen on ancient manufcripts, may be formed either by friGtion on a proper body with a folid piece of gold, or by leaf gold. The former method is practifed by tempering pulverized eryftal with {trong gum-water, and with this palte forming the letters; when they are dry, they are rubbed with a piece of folid gold, as in polifhing, and the letters will appear as if gilt with burnifhed gold. The letters are formed with an embofled figure, either of the feparate letters, or of whole words, cut in fteel; and each letter of thefe ftamps, when they are ufed, is anointed evenly with a feather dipped in oil. ‘Then fill thefe concave letters with the above pafte, and itrike the ftamps in a perpendicular dire¢tion on the paper or vellum, laid over fome fheets of paper. When the emboffed letters are formed with leaf gold, the following, or a fimilar compofition muft be ufed. Thicken beaten whites of eggs with as much vermilion as is neceffary * to give them the confiftence of pafte; ufe the ftamps as be- fore; and when the letters are dry, moiften them by a {mall pencil with flrong gum-water: and when this is almoft dry, cover the letters with leaf gold, prefling it clofe to every part of them with cotton or foft leather; after the gilding is dry, polifh it with proper burnifhers. Com. Plul. Techn. p. 64. and Handmaid to the Arts, p. 450, &c. GILpinG of live-fi/h, as craw-fith, carps, &c. may be per- formed without injuring the fifh, by means of a cement; which Mr. Hooke, in his pofthumous papers, direéts to be prepared in the following manner: Put fome Burgundy pitch into a new earthen pot, and warm the veffel till it receives fo much of the pitch as will ftick round it; then ftrew fome finely powdered amber over the pitch when growing cold; add a mixture of three pounds of linfeed oil, and one of oil of turpentine: cover the veflel, and boil the contained in- gredients over a gentle fire; grind the mixture as it is want- ed, with fo much pumice-ttone in fine powder as will reduce it to the confiftence of paint. When the fifh has been wiped dry, this mixture is fpread upon it, and the gold leaf laid over it, and gently prefled down; after which, the fifh may be immediately put into water, and the cement will harden, and be in no danger of falling off. GitpinG on leather. See LACQUERING. GixpinG of mictals may be done by cleaning the furface of the metal, and applying gold leaves to it, which, by means of rubbing witha polifhed blood-ftone, and a certain, degree of heat, are made to adhere perfectly well. In this manner filver leaf is fixed and burnifhed upon brafs, in mak- ing French plate ; and fometimes alfo gold leaf is burnifhed upon copper and upon iron. For this purpofe, the metal, being previoufly polifhed and quite clean, is heated to about the temperature of melted lead, and covered with a double layer of gold leaf; then a blood-ftone burnifher, applied gently at firft, and gradually increafing the preffure, will caufe the furfaces of gold and copper to touch éach other in almoft every point, and then adhere with a force proportion- ed to the completenefs of the contaét. The firft layer being thus burnifhed, a fecond is made to adhere in the fame man- ner, and fometimes a third, if the gilding is intended to be very folid: This method of gilding is tedious, and is fubjeé. to the almoft impoffibility of ufing a fufficient preflure with- out injuring the evennefs of the gilded furface. In cafes where thefe objeCtions do not apply, there cannot be amore 3 effectual GILDING. effectual mode of gilding, as we perceive in the manufacture of gilt filver and copper wire. The bar, before it is commit- ted to the wire-drawer, is plated with gold, by having feveral leaves of gold fucceffively burnifhed down upon it, and be- ing then fubjected to the ftrong compreffion that takes place in wire-drawing, the gold and the other metal become fo erfeétly united, as to form, in a manner, one fubftance. See soLp Mire. Some metals, and particularly filver, may be gilt in the following manner: dip pieces of linen in the folution of gold by aqua regia, and then burn them to afhes ; rub thefe afhes on the furface of the filver, well cleanfed from any unctuous faatter, witha wet linen rag, dipped in falt water, and the particles of gold contained in them will thus be applied to the filver, and adhere to it, without the application of heat, or intervention of any other body. Burnifh the filver with a blood-ftone, till it acquires the colour of gold. Mott gilt ornaments on fans, {nufl-boxes, and other toys of much fhew and little value, are nothing but filver gilt in this manner. Seckmann (Hilt. of Inventions, vol. 5 fuggelts, that this method of gilding, fometimes called dry, and fometimes cold gilding, is a German invention ; and that foreigners, at leaft the Englifh, were firfl made acquainted with it about the end of the r7th century; for Robert Southwell deferibes it in the Phil. Tranf. for 1698, and fays, that it was known to very. few goldfmiths in Germany. See Gitpinc of Metals by the frre. GILDING on paper, parchment, and vellum. There are va- rious methods ufed for this purpofe, according to the feveral ends which the gilding is defigned to anfwer. But for the mott part, fize, properly fo called, and gum-water, are ufed as the cements, and the powders are moré generally employ- ed than the leaf gold. Sce the three firft articles in Gitp- ING. The gilding proper to be ufed with water-colours may be, either with the leaf-gold or powder ; the leaf-gold may be laid on the defigned ground by means either of gum-water, or ifinglafs fize; obferving, that the gum-water or fize be of the weaker kind, and laid fparingly on the ground, and that proper time be allowed for it to be dry ; and then the gold is applied to it, as in the articles above recited ; and it may be polifhed, if neceffary, by the dog's tooth, or other kind of bumifher. In gilding larger furfaces, it will be found ufeful to colour the ground with the gall-ftone ; and when colours are to be laid en the gilding, the gall of any beatt brufhed over the gold will adapt it for receiving the colours. When the gold powders are ufed along with paintings in water-colours, they are previoufly formed into fhell-gold. The gilding proper for the coloured paper ufed in binding hooks, and for other fuch purpofes, is performed much in the fame manner: only that the gum-water and fize may be much ftronger, and that they are generally conyeyed to the ground by means of a wooden plate or print, or by an en- grayed roller, which make an mmpreflion of the intended Agure or defign. In this kind of gilding, the japanner’s gold- fize may be alfo commodioufly employed; and this fhould be always ufed when the emboffed appearance is wanted in the greateft degree ; and for this purpofe it fhould be thick- ened with yellow ochre, mixed with as much red-lead as the proper working of the print will admit. Inftead of the ge- nuine leaf-gold, or gold powder, the German powder, form- ed of the leaves called Dutch gold, is commonly ufed in this kind of gilding. The edges of books or paper are gilt in the manner directed under the article Boox-binding and Giipine of books. ‘GitptnG on Thread and Wire. See Goup-thread, and GoLp-wire. GitpinG on Wood. See the three firft articles in Giip- ING. Girpine on Metals by the Fire. There are two ways of gilding by fire ; viz. that with liquid gold, and that with leaf gold. or the latter, fee GitpinG of Metals, fupra. ‘Lhe former, technically called « water-gilding,”’ is pers formed with gold amalgamated with mercury, in the pro- portion of ubout fix or eight parts of mercury to one of got . In order to this operation, they heat fome pure quickfil- ver ina clean crucible, and, when it is nearly boiling, put about a fixth of its weight of fine gold in thin plates heated red-hot, and. ftir them gently about, till the gold be found melted and incorporated into a mafs with the mercury. It is then allowed to cool; and when cold, it is to be put ina piece of foft leather ; and by gradual preffure, the fluid part of the amalgam, confilting almoft wholly of mercury, may be forced through the pores of the leather, while the gold, combined with about twice its weight of mercury, will re- main behind, forming a yellowifh filvery mafs, of the con~ fiftence of foft butter. This, after having been bruifed ina mortar, or fhaken in a ftrong phial with repeated portions of falt and water, till the water ceafes to be fouled by it, is fit for ufe, and taay be kept for any length of time, without in- jury, in acorked plual. It is of indifpenfible importance that the materials of this amalgam fhould be perfeétly pure ; and therefore, the mercury employed in the preparation of it fhould be procured from the diftillation of the red precipitate (nitrous red oxyd of mercury), either alone, or mixed ‘with a little charcoal powder. When filyer is the metal to be gilt, it is prepared for the operation by foaking it in warm dilute muriatic acid, fo that the furface may be rendered perfeétly clean ; it is next wafh- ed in clean water, which fhould be two or three times chang- ed, in order to free it from the whole of the acid; and being afterwards dried, and made moderately warm, a little gold- amalgam, alfo warm, is to be evenly {pread upon the iilver,, to which it will immediately adhere. In applying the amal- gam, the operator ufes a little knife, or a brufh made of brafs wire, for the purpofe; and giving the work a gentle heat before the fire, lie dabs or fpreads the amalgam with the bruth farther and more evenly wpon it. . Thus far advanced, the metal is fet over the fire, upon a grate, or in a fort of cage, under which is a pan of char- coal, yielding a heat juft fuficient for evaporating the mer- cury ; by which means the mercury 1s railed in fumes, and leaves the gold alone adhering to the work; in propor- tion as the mercury, evaporating and flying off, difcovers places where gold is wanting, they take care to fupply them, by adding new pieces of amalgam with the knife or, bruth. If a thicker gilding be required than can refult from fo much of the amalgam as is applied at once, the metal, after the firft quantity has left its gold fixed on the furface, has more of the amalgam {pread upon it. After the evapora- tion of the mereury from this, another quantity may be ap- plied in the fame manner. When the mercury 1s evaporated, {o that the furface becomes uniformly of a pale yellow colour, the metal is made to undergo other operations, by which its colour and Tuitre are heightened. For this purpofe, it is firft- rubbed with a feratch bruth, compofed of fine brafs wire, till its furface is made clean and fmooth, but the pale yellow colour {ill remains ; then it is covered over with a compo- fition called gilding wax, and again expefed to the fire till the wax be burnt off ; and this application is repeated till the gold appears of a proper colour. This gilding wax is com- pofed of bees’ wax, mixed with the following {ubflances ; 5 viz. GILDING. “viz. red ochre, verdigris, green vitriol, or alum. ‘Thus the colour of the gilding is heightened by a perfect diffipation of fome mercury remaining after the former operation. The gilt furface is then covered over with a faline compofition, confifting of equal quantities of nitre, fal ammoniac, green vitriol, and verdigris, finely powdered, and mixed up into a patte with water or urine ; or, this is ufed inftead of the gilding wax. The piece of metal thus covered is heated till the mix- ture fmokes, and quenched in water or urine. This effect feems to be produced by the acid of nitre, which is difen- gaged by the vitriolic acid of the alum, or other vitriolic falt, during the expofure to heat, a€ting upon any particles of copper which may happen to lie on the gilded furface. If the colour of the gilding be not fufficiently heightened by the firft application, a fucceeding one will complete the defired effeét. Some artifts think they give an additional Juttre to their gilt work, by dipping it in a liquor prepared by boiling fome yellow materials, as fulphur, orpiment, or turmeric. The only advantage of this operation is, that a part of the yellow matter remains in fome of the hol- lows of the carved work, in which the gilding is apt to be more imperfect, and to which it gives a rich and folid ap- pearance. Copper, and the alloys formed by its combinations with zinc, are gilded much in the fame manner as filver ; but their affinity for mercury being confiderably lefs than that of fil- wer, it is not eafy to produce a complete adhefion of the ‘amalgam of gold to the burnifhed furface of thefe metals by the fame means, and with the fame evennefs as in the for- mer cafe. Advantage is here taken of the nitric acid for facilitating the adhefion of the copper and mercury in the following manner. ‘The piece of copper, e. g. a button, is firft cleaned by fteeping it in acid and fubfequent wafhing, - and it is then burnifhed ina lathe, or by other means : after this, it is dipped in a neutralized folutiea of nitrat of mer- cury, and in a'few feconds, on account of the flrong affinity of nitric acid for copper, the mercurial falt is decompofed. ‘The copper takes the place of the mercury, and at the fame time the mercury is depofited in the metallic ftate, on the furface of the copper, covering it entirely, and ftrongly ad- heriny to it. The gold amalgam is now applied, and the reft of the procefs is the fame with that which has been already defcribed. Thusa given quantity of gold may be made to cover a larger furface than in any other way of gilding on metals; five grainsof gold completely gilding both the up- per and under furfaces of 144 copper buttons, each of them an inch in diameter. (Phil. Mag. ix. 20.) Iron cannot be gilt by amalgamation, unlefs it be previ- -oufly coated with copper, by dipping it in afolution of blue vitriol, or rubbed with the vitriol itfelf a little moiflened. Iron may alfo receive a golden coat from a faturated folution of gold in aqua regia, mixed with fpirit of wine ; becanfe the iron, having a greater afinity for the acid, precipitates the gold from it. In the gilding of iron, or rather fteel, by means of an amal- gam, peculiar difficulties occur. If recourfe he had to the me- thod of fimple burnifhing down, the heat requifite for this pur- pofe’will, in many cafes, bring the temper of the feel too low ; on fuch occafiens the modealready deferibed of gilding copper is fometimes practifed: that is, the parts of the feel to be gild- ed are pencilled over with nitrat of mercury, by which they are covered with a flightly adhering coating of mercury ; then the amalgam is applied, and the gilding @uifhed in the afaal way. Phe objections to this procefs are, frit, that a confiderable heat 1s required, though inferior to that requifite for burnifhing down; aad, fecondly, that even with all pofible care, the gilding is apt'to be rough and to fcale off. “A very Vou. ZVI. confiderable improvement on this method is to trace the figure of the gilding on the fteel firft of all with a brufh charged with a {trong folution of fulphated copper, in confequence of which a pretty thick plate of this metal is depofited on the fteel to which it may be made to adhere with confiderable firmnefs by means of the burnifher; thus the gilding is, in part, performed upon the copper. A new method of gold gilding upon fteel has lately been publifhed. (fee Phil. Mag. xi. p. 144), poffeffing many ad- vantages over the others, and capable of ultimately attaining avery high degree of perfection. This method depends upon the well-known fact, that if fulphuric ether and nitro-muriat of gold are mixed together, the ether will, by degrees, fepa- rate from the acid nearly the wholeof the gold, and retain it for fome time in folution in nearly a metallic ftate. If ether, thus charged with gold, is {pread, by means of a pen or fine brufh, on the furface of highly peclifhed feel, the ether prefently evaporates, leaving the gold behind in clofe contact with the fteel, and the adhefion is confiderably improved by the fubfequent application of the burnifher. The dearnefs, and efpecially the rapid volatility of ether, are objeCtions of fome moment, but may be got over by ufing the beft oil of turpen- tine inftead of the ether, which has nearly the fame efficacy in decompofing the nitro-muriat of gold, and is both cheapers and not fo very quickly evaporable. On the fubje@ of gilding by amalgamation, Dr. Lewis has the following remarks: ‘there are two principal inconveni- encics in this bufinefs; one, that the workmen are expofed to the fumes of the mercury, and generally, fooner or Jater, have their health greatly impaired by them; the other, the lofs of the mercury ; for though part of it is faid to be detained ix the cavities made in the chimnies for that purpofe, yet the greateft part of it is loft. From fome trials [ have madey it appeared that both thefe inconveniencies, particularly the firft and moft confiderable one, might be in a good meafure avoided, by means of afurnace of a due conftruction.”’ If the communication of a furnace with its chimney, in- ftead of being over the fire, is made under the grate, the af-pit door, or other apertures beneath the grate, clofed, and the mouth of the furnace left open, the current of air, which otherwife would-have entered beneath, enters now at the top, and pafling down through the grate to the chimney, carries with it completely both the vapour of the fuel, and the fumes of fuch matters as are placed upon it. The back part of the furnace fhould be raifed a little higher above the fire than the fore-part, and an iron plate laid over it, that the air may enter only at the front, where the workmaa ftands, who will be thus effeCtually fecured from the fumes, and from being incommoded by the heat, and at the fame time have full liberty of introducing, iafpecting, and removing the work. ; If fuch a furnace is made of flrong forged (not milled) iron plate, it will be fufficiently durable. The upper end of the chimney may reach above a foot and a half higher than the level of the fire; over this isto be placed a larger tubes leaving an interval of an inch, or more, all round between it and the chimney, and reaching to the height of ten or twelve feet ; the higher the better. The external air, pafling up between the chimney and the outer pipe, prevents the latter from being much heated, fo that the mercurial fumes will condenfe again{t its fides into running quickfilver, which fall- ing down to the bottom, is there catched in a hollow rim, formed by turniag inwards a portion of the lower part, and conveyed by a pipe at one fide into a proper receiver. Another method is mentioned by authors of gilding upom metals, and alfo upon earthen-ware and glafs; whichis, te fute gold with regulus of antimony, io pulverize this mafs, Kk and GIL and fpread the powder upon the piece to be gilt; afterwards 40 expofe it to fuch a fire that the regulus may be evaporated while the gold remains fixed. But Dr. Lewis mentions the following inconveniencies to which this method is fubject : the powder does not adhere to the piece, and cannot be equally {pread; part of the gold is diffipated along with the reculus ; glafs is fufible with the heat neceflary for the evapo- ration of regulus of antimony; and copper is liable to be corroded by the regulus, and to have its furface rendered un- even. Lewis’s Com. Phil. Techn. p. 77, &c. p. 81. 88. and 108. Macquer’s Di&. Chem. Eng. edit. 1777; and Aikin’s Di. of Chemiftry, art. Grip1Nc. Gitvine Cufbion, is formed by a few folds of flannel, or a quantity of tow or wool, fecured on a piece of wood of any fize from eight to fourteen inches fquare by a light covering of leather, and faftened tight round the edges. ‘The furface fhould be perfeétly flat and even, and it is ufually furnifhed with ahandle. See Cusnron. Gixvinc Knife, a flip of the hollow Spanifh cane, cut up to a fmooth and fharp edge, witha good penknife: this cane knife cuts the gold leaf better than one of fteel, as it is apt to ftick to this laft. ‘This knife may in all refpeéts be the fame as thofe ufed’in painting, called « pallet knives ;” the blade of which may be four or fix inches long, and fomewhat more than half an inch in breadth, with a proportionable handle. Gitpine Pallet, a flat piece ef wood, about three inches long, and an inch broad, covered with a piece of fine woollen cloth. By breathing upon this pallet, to moiften the clotha little, and then clapping it gently down upon the gold leaf, this may be raifed from the cufhion, and conveyed to the work to be gilded. Girpinc 77, a tool made by faftening the long hairs of a fquirrel’s tail between two cards, and ufed for taking up the gold leaf after it is cut, and applying it to the article to be gilded. Gitvinc Wax. See Girpine of Metals. GILDO, in Biography, a powerful lord in Mauritania, ferved the emperor "Cheedofius, in his brother’s revolt in 373, with fo much fidelity, that he was raifed to the chief com- mand in Africa. During the reigns of Arcadius and Ho- norius he maintained a kind of independence, and ruled, at his pleafure, the provinces under his command, which he oppreffed by every {pecies of tyranny Inthe diffenfions be- tween ‘the eaftern and weftern empires, he was perfuaded by the minifter Eutropius to acknowledge Arcadius: for “this he was condemned asa public enemy by the Roman fenate. Aboutthe fame time a deadly quarrel had arifen be- tween Gildo-and his- younger brother Mafcezel, in which the Jatter had taken refuge in the court of Honorius. Gildo, with a brutality that can never be fufficiently execrated; fatiated his difappointed vengeance upon the two children of his brother, whom he barbaroufly murdered. Mafcezel, an- xious for revenge, landed a body of troops in Africa, and encamped in the face of a numerous army of Moors collected by Gildo. ‘Thefe, intimidated by the fuperior difcipline of the Europeans, fled almoft without a blow. Gildo efcaped tothe fea-fhore, where he embarked for a foreign country, but, being driven back by adverfe winds, he was feized by the inhabitants and thrown into a dungeon. ‘There a voluntary death faved him from the cruel fate, which his confecience told him he might expect from his injured brother. The revolt of Gildo, fays the hiftorian, was confidered as an event of fo much importance to the empire, that the poet Claudian made the ‘¢ Gildonic war” the fubjeét of one of his pane- gyrics, to the honour of Stilicho; who was the commander in Pr GEL it ; Hane the fubje& of this article. ift. GILEAD, Balm of. See Batsam. Gireap, Falfe Balm of, in Botany. PHALUM. GILEAD, in Scripture Geography, mountains of Paleftine, which lay E. of Jordan, and feparated the lands of Ammon, Moab, Reuben, Gad, and Manaffeh from Arabia Deferta. Ac- cording to Eufebius mount Gilead reached from Libanus north- ward to the kingdom of the Amorites, which was ceded to the tribe of Reuben; fo that it muit have extended above 70 leagues from north to fouth. This mountain, or rather chain of hills, was much celebrated for its excellent balm. Jer. viii. 22. xlvi. 11. i. 8. Gen. xxxvii. 25. See BALsaM. Gilead derived its name from Gael-haed, g. d. the heap of witnefs, in reference to the heap of itones raifed as a monu- ment of the covenant between Jacob and Laban. Gen. Mixes a GILES, in Biography, a learned Italian prelate, and cardinal of the fixteenth century, diftinguifhed himfelf by the progrefs which he made in different branches of litera- ture; and was appointed profeffor of philofophy, and then of theology, in his order, that of the hermits of Auguttine. In 1507, he was raifed to the poft of general of his order, and was employed by pope Julius II. to open the council affem- bled at the Lateran in the year 1512 ; and, in 1517, was fent legate into Germany by Leo X.,on whichoccafion he was pro- moted to the office of cardinal. After this he was fent into Spain, and employed in many difficult negociations. He was nominated bifhop of feveral important fees at dif- ferent periods, and alfo patriarch of Conftantinople. He died at Rome in 1532, and left behind him a very high character for learning. He was, during his life, perpetu- ally confulted in difficulties that occurred to the literati in the Oriental as well as the Latin and Greek languages. He was the author of many works that bear teitimony to his reputation, among thefe are, Remarks on the early Chapters of the Book of Genefis, Commentaries on fome of the Pfalms of David; Dialogues, Epiftles, Poems, &c: - In the third volume of “ Ampliffima Colle&tio veterum Monumentorum,”? many letters of this prelate and his cor- refpondents are inferted, which contain numerous faéts as well relating to his own hiltory, as to that -of the period in which he flourifhed. Moreri. : : GILFORD, in Geography, a {mall poft and market town of the county of Down, Ireland. The river Bann runs through the centre of it, over which there is a very handfome bridge, highly ornamented with hewn ftone, of twenty-two arches. {tis a handfome neat town, and thé country about it is highly improved; the houfes are good, and chiefly inhabited by wealthy and reputable linen-drapers: The linen trade is carried on yery extenfively- here, and the cloth is as remarkable for the finenefs of its texture, as the river is for giving it an excellent bleach. Nothing can ex~ ceed in beauty the-vale from Banbridge to Moyallen through Gilford, on the borders of the Bann, for a continuance of. fix miles; the river in delightful meanders, the rifing* grounds furrounding it adorned with woods, and the bot= toms variegated with bleach-greens, afford views the moit beautiful and piturefque. Gilford is 62} miles N. from Dublin, and 11 miles from Armagh. 5 . GILGAL, in Scripture Geography, a celebrated place, W. of Jordan, where the Ifraeclites encamped after their paflage® of this river, and where a confiderable city, famous for’ many events, was afterwards built. It was about a Teague“ from Jordan and from Jericho. , ; GILGE, in Geography; atown of Pruffia, in the cirele of 7 Samland ; Gibbon. Univer See Dracocr- GIL Samland; 28 miles N.W. of Ronipbnie li a river of Pruffia, which branches off from the Memel about ; miles below Tilfit, and runs into the Curifch Haff, N. lat. 55° ro!. E. long. 21° 24’. GILGEN, Sr.atown of Auftria, 10 miles N. W. of Efferding —Alfo, a town of Stiria; 5 miles N.N.E. of Marburg. GILGENEAU, atown of Pruffia, in Oberland; 15 miles N.N.W. of Seldau. GILGENBURG, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland; 6a miles E. of Culm. N. lat. 53° 17'. E. long. 19° 57. GILGUL Hanmeruin, a Hebrew phrafe, literally fig- nifying the rolling of the dead. To conceive the ufe of this expreflion it is to be obferved, that the Jews have a tradi- tion that, at the coming of the Meffiah, no Ifraelite fhall rife any where but in the Holy Land. What, then, fhall become of all the faithful interred in other parts? Shall shey perifh, and remain in the ftate of death ? No, fay the Jewifh doftors ; but God will dig them fub- terraneous canals, or cavities, through which they {hall roll from their tombs to the Holy Land; and, when they are arrived there, God will blow on them, and raife them again. oT his imaginary paflage of the carcafes, or afhes, of the Jews from their tombs to the Holy Land, by rolling under- ground, is what they call gi/eul hammethin, the rolling of the dead. GILIBERTIA, in Botany, named by Prof'. Gmelin of Gottingen in his faulty edition of the Syit. Nat. of Lin- nzus, v. 2. 682, in honour of John Emanuel Gilibert, author of a Flora Lithuanica, printed in 1781, o€tavo, which was fuppreffed by authority of the government of Poland, on account of its alleged imperfeétions, but which was reprinted by its author afterwards at Lyons, where he alfo edited various works of Linneus.—Willd. Sp. Pl. Ve 2. 551- (Quivifia; Cavan. Diff. 367. Juff. 264. La- marck. Illuitr. t. 302.)—Clafs and order, Decandria Mono- gynia. Nat. Ord. Trihilate, Linn. AMelie, Juff. Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped, with four or five teeth, permanent. Cor. Petals four or five, ovate, obtufe. NeCtary of one leaf, cup-fhaped, fhorter than the petals, embracing the germen, with ten marginal teeth. Svam. Filaments none; anthers eight or ten, ovate, erect, feflile on the teeth of the neftary. Pi/f. Germen fuperior, globofe, furrowed, fhorter than the nec- tary ; ftyle fimple, rifing above the neétary ; ftigma glo- bofe, thick, furrowed. Peric. Capfule ovate, coriaceous, fplitting half way down into four acute recurved valves, with longitudinal central partitions, feparating it into four eells. Seeds one or two in each-cell, ovate, {mooth, affixed to the columella. Eff. Ch. Calyx with four or five teeth. Petals four or five. Neétary cup-fhaped, bearing the anthers on its mar- gin. Capfule ovate, of four cells. Seeds moftly folitary. 1. G. decandra. (Quivifia decandra; Cav. n. 531. t. 211.) —Leaves alternate, elliptic-lanceolate, undivided. Flowers five-cleft, decandrous, racemofe—Gathered by Commerfon in the ifland of Mauritius. An evergreen fhrub, with nu- merous, alternate, zig-zag branches. Leaves alternate, ftalked, an inch or inch and half long, elliptic-lanceolate, entire, more or lefs acute, fmooth, with one rib and many tran{verfe veins, without ftipulas. //ocuers from five to nine in each axillary clufter, with downy ftalks and calyx. Petals white, elliptical, thrice as long as the calyx, filky at the back, each about a quarter of an inch in length. Neédary white, abeut halfas long. The habit of the fhrub and afpeét of the flowers, refemble a Limonia. Git. _ 2. G. eterophyila. (Quiviiia ovata; Cav. n. 532. t. 212; and Qu. heterophylla; n. 533. t. 213.)—WLeaves obovate ; undivided, finuated, or pinnatifid. Tlowers four-cleft, oc- tandrous, fomewhat umbellate.— Gathered by Commerfon in the iflands of Bourbon and Mauritius. The /aves are rather fmaller than in the lait, and remarkable for their variety of fhapes, being either obovate and blunt, or fome- what pointed, and either undivided, or more or lefs flightly waved or finuated, or deeply and accurately pinnatifid like an oak-leaf ; all thefe varieties are found on the fame {peci- men, nor can we feparate Quivifia ovata, though all the leaves of one plant happened to be undivided, for the ori- ginal fpecimens accord in every other particular. The flowers are much fmaller than in the firft {pecics, and grow from two to four together in rather an umbel, than a clufer. Capfule the lize of a pea, pointed, flightly filky 3- G. oppofitifolia. (Quivifia oppofitifolia; Cav. n. 534- t. 214.)—Leaves oppofite, elliptical, undivided. Flowers fomewhat umbellate.—Native of the Mauritius. Leas broadly elliptical, obtufe, uniform, two inches long, all nearly oppolite, as well asthe branches. We have not {een the flowers. The fruit is rather umbellate than racemofe, the fize of a large pea, furrowed, depreffed, clothed with fhining tawny down, and opening into four or five parts on the fame branch. 4. G. rutilans.—Leaves alternate, ovate, pointed, undi- vided. Flowers fomewhat racemofe.—Gathered by Com- merfon in the Mauritius with the former, but not de- {cribed by Cavanilles or Willdenow. The aves are almof as large as the laft, but more pointed, often oblique, and al- ways alternate. Branches zig-zac. Clufters fhort, racemofe, though appearing like little umbels, about the length of the foot{talks, each of from three to fix flowers, their {talks very flichtly downy Petals filky at the back, a line lone. Fruit of four cells, globofe, four-furrowed, the fize of a pea, clothed with fhort, denfe, rigid, golden-coloured pubefcence. Commerfon, the only botanift who has gathered any fpe- cies of this genus, feems to have intended naming the decans drous ones Baretia, and the o€tandrous Ababell/a, but they cannot be feparated on any botanical principle whatever. All go by the name of Bois de Quivi among the French in the lands of Mauritius and Bourbon, whence Cavanilles con- trived his barbarous name Quivifia. Of their qualities or ufes nothing is mentioned. The names of Baretia and Ala- ella were both intended to commemorate a young woman, who, being defirous of failing round the world, put on men’s cloaths, and engaged herfelf as a failor, her real fex being concealed from all on board, except Commerfon, to whom fhe devoted herfelf, paffing as his fervant. At length, on the arrival of the fhip at Otaheife, the more intelligent na- tives difcovered the feeret which had efcaped the “penetrae tion of her companions, to their no fmall aitonifiment. Commerien contrived the word Lonafidia as_a fpecilic name, to exprefs her fidelity. The Otaheitans, had they under- ftood Latin, would prebably have invented a better. GILIMER, or Ge_imar, in Biography, lat king of the Vandals in Africa, a defcendant of Genferic, fuccecded to the throne of his depofed coufin Hilderic. The emperor Juftinian joined the caufe of the dethroned fovereign, and determined do annex the African provinces once more to the Roman tominions. Belifarius was chofen to execute the defign, who failed in 533. Zano, the brother of Gilimer, was, at this time, engaged in the conqueft of Sardinia, by which circumftance the force of the Vandals was divided, while a confiderable party at home flill adhered to the late king Hilderic. Guilimer affembled his troops torefift the invadur, but being defeated with great {laughter he was glad to re Iiske itive Gib tire to the Numidian deferts, having firft exercifed the ty- rant’s policy, by commanding the execution of Hilderic and his captive friends. Carthage fubmitted to the victorious Belifarius ; but Gilimer colleéted his feattered forces, and being joined by Zano, who had returned from Sardinia, a fecond aétion enfued, in which Zano loft his life, and Gili- mer again retreated. The lofs of the African provinces fuc- ceeded, and the defeated king was forced to take refuge in the inacceflible mountains of the interior of Numidia, Even here, he was furrounded by a part of the Roman army un- der Pharus, and reduced to the utmoft diftrefs, which to him was peculiarly afli€tive by its contra with the luxury and éffeminacy in which he had been accuftomed to live. So de- plorable was his fituation, that he is reported to have applied to Pharus for a lyre, a fponge, and a loaf of bread: the frit he faid was to footh his forrows ; the fecond to dry up his tears : the third he afked as an humble delicacy, of which he had not tafted fora longtime. His diftreffes at length obliged him to fubmit to the conqueror ; he defcended from the mountains, and followed Belifarius to Conitantinople, marching in the train of his triumph; on which occafion, he fuffered neither tear nor figh to efcape, but frequently exclaimed, in the language of Solomon, “ Vanity of vani- ties, all is vanity !”’ The emperor received him with re- fpect, and fhewed him much attention and kindnefs : he would have raifed the fallen monarch to the dignity of pa- trician, could he have been perfuaded to renounce the Arian do@trine, in which he had been educated. He was put in pofleffion of a large elftate in Galatia, where, in the bofom of his family, he ended his days in peace. ‘The extinétion of the Vandal kingdom in the perfon of Gilimer is to be dated from the year 534. Gibbon. Univer. Hit. GILION, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft-Indian fea, about 36 miles in circumference. 5S. lat. 77 6’. E. long. I a) Ue : GILIS, Sr., a town of France, in the department of the Scheldt, and chief place of a €anton, in the diftriG of Termonde. The place contains 3228, and the canton 16,770 jnhabitants, on a territory of 95 kiliometres, in fix com- munes. yey GILITZSTAIN, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ; 10 miles E.ME. of St. Veit. ‘ ] GILL, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied provin- cially to the pair of wheels and frame on which timber is conyeyed. \ ‘ ’ Gii1, Jon, in Biography, was born at Kettering, in Northamptonfhire, in 1697, and difcovering, when very young, an wicommon capacity for learning, his father, who was a diffenter of the Baptift perfuafion, fent him to a grammar-fchool in the neighbaurhood, where he foon out- itript his companiens in cla ical attainments. Whes he was but eleven years of age he had read feveral of the common {chool books in Latin, and made a confiderable proficiency in the Greek. Owing to the narrow circumftances of his pa- rents he was put to bufinefs, but he did not fail to improve his leifure moments by an attention to claffical literature, fo that by the time when he had attained his nineteenth year he had read all the Greek and Latin authors that had fallen in his way, and had diligently ftudied logic, rhetoric, moral and natural philofophy. He had lkewrfe ftudied Hebrew fo as to be able to read the Old Teltament in the original with pleafure. In 1716 he was baptized, and foon after commenced preaching in private. He now removed to Higham Ferrers to profecute a regular courfe of ftudies under Mr. Davis, a man of confderable learning, and paitor of a baptill church in that place. His ftay here was 4hort, and after about a year he returned to his native town, Gil and became affiftant. preacher to the congregation there ; and in 1719 he received and accepted an invitation to be- come paftor of a baptift congregation in Southwark. The duties of this fituation he difcharged with great fidelity and ufefulnefs more than half a century. He died in 177% in the feventy-fourth year of his age. His fentiments in religion were ftri€tly Calviniftic; and his moral conduéct was unimpeachable and truly exemplary. He was author of many works, particularly of ** An Expofition of the Old and New Teftament ;”? in nine volumes folio: “* A body of Divinity,’’ in three volumes 4to.; “ A Supplement to Mr. Whitton’s Effay towards reftoring the true text of the Old Teftament.”? In the year 1748, when he had publifhed the third volume of his “ Expofition of the New Teftament,”° the degree of dotor of divinity was conferred upon him by the univerfity of Aberdeen without his folicitation or know- ledge: information of the faét was communicated to him by two of the learned profeffors, who declared that his diploma was prefented to him, ‘¢on account of his great knowledge of the fcriptures, of the oriental languages, and of Jewifh antiquities, of his learned defence of the fcriptures againft Deifts and infidels, and the reputation gained by his other works.’’ Dr. Gill had, indeed, from the time of his fet- tling in the metropolis, paid a moft unwearied attention to the oriental languages: he had ftudied the writings of the fathers, ecclefiaftical hiftory, the accounts of the rites and cuftoms of the eaftern nations, all which he knew were adapted to enrich his ftores of biblical learning, and to qualify him for the duties of his profeffion. Gen. Biog. Git, in Botany. See Grecuoma. Gi1L, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in the fate of Maffachufetts and county of Hampfhire, fituated on the W. bank of Connecticut river, go miles from Bofton ; containing 700 inhabitants. Gitt, or Beck, is a name in feveral Englifh counties for a brook, rivulet, or fmall ftream of water. GiLL, a meafure ot ale or beer, is 1-4th of an ale pint = 8 8125 cubic Englifh inches = 1.220779 wine gills = .016g9084 cubic links. Git of wine, cyder, oil, &c. = 7.21875 cubic Englith inches .014.5307 cubic links. Grit, Scotch meafure, = 1-4th of a mutchkin = 1-26th of a Seotch pint, the cubic content of which varies much in different places. See Scotch Pix. GILLAROO, Trous: See Trout. GILLEM’s Bay, im Geography, a bay on the S, coaft of the ifland of St. Cheiflopher; two miles W. of Baffe- terre. GILLE-LE-VICOMTE, Sr, a town of France, in the department of the North Coafis; fix miles N.NLE. of Guingamp. GILLES-LES-BOUCHERIES, Sr, a town of France,.in the department of the Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Nimes; 10 miles SSE. of Nimes. The place contains 53745 and the canton 6557 in- habitants, on a territory of 180 kiliometres, in two com- munes. GILLES-SUR-VIEC€, Sr., a tewn cf France, in the department of the Vendée, and chief place of a canton, in the di€tri& of Les Sables-d’Olonne ; 13 miles NN.W. of this latter town. ‘The piace contains 780, and the canton 12,335 inhabitants, on a territory of 4325 kiliometres, in 17 communes. ‘ GILLES, Psrer, in Biography, was born at Albi in 1490, and became diftinguifhed as a fcholat and traveller. Having acquired ait extenfive knowledg@ of the learned Ian— guages 1-4th of a wine pint 8191499 ale gills = GIL guages and the philofophy of the timés, he fet out on his travels with a view of making obfervations in natural hif- tory and antiquities. On his return he was introduced to the notice of George d’Armagnac, bifhop of Rhodes, who engaged him to compofe his book * De Viet Natura Anima- lium.’ This work, which confifted of extras from Elian and others, with obfervations of his own, he dedicated to Francis I., who fent him to travel in the Levant, but with- out furnifhing him with proper fupplies, fo that he was re- duced to great diltrefs, and was obliged to enlift in the troops of the fultan Soliman II. for fubliftence. He left Conftan- tinople in 1550 and went to Rome, where he died 1555. He was author of two geographical works, “ De Bofphoro 'Thracio,”’ and ¢* De ‘Topographia Con ftantinopoleos,’? which are efteemed for their learning ; and alfo of fome tranflations from the Greek. Moreri. GILLESAY, or Gixtsay, in Geography, one of the fmaller Hebrides, between Lewis and North Uift. N. lat. 57 45’. W. long. 6° 59/. _ Giissay Point, a cape on the S.W. coaft of the ifland of Celebes. S.Jat..5° 15'. IE. long. 119°.48'. GILLESKAAL, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Drontheim ; 240 miles N. of Drontheim. GILLETTE, a town of France, in the department of the Maritime Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- tri of Puget-Theniers. The place contains 646, and the canton 1712 inhabitants, on a territory of 105 kiliometres, in four communes. GILLIAN, Guisiaix, or Ghifain, St, a town of France, in the department of Jemmappe, fituated on the river Haifne and ivrrownded by marthes, and deriving its name from a celebrated abbey founded in the year 651 by Guiflain, the friend of St. Amand. Having been fuc- ceffively in the pofleffion of the Dutch, the French, and the Spaniards, and of the allies, it was taken by the French in 1792. St. Gillian was called the key of Mons, and is diftant three miles W. of it. GILLIFREE. See Jirurte. GILLINGHAM, a parih in the hundred of Chatham and Gillingham, Kent, England; is feated on the river Medway at the diftance of two miles from the town of Chatham, and 32 from London. It contains 715 houfes and 4133 inhabitants, the greater part of whom are imme- diately or indire€tly employed in the bufinefs connected with the neighbouring dock-yards. This village, though now deprived of its confequence by the increafe of Chatham, was formerly of much note. In the time of queen Eliza- beth here were four quays, and twenty-feven fhips and boats; the largeft of thefe, however, was.only twenty tons. The archbifhops of Canterbury formerly had a palace here ; one of whom, John Strafford, in the tenth year of Ed- -ward IIId’s reign, obtained a charter for a weekly market, and an annual fair to continue eight days; but thefe have been long difcontinued. William of Gillingham was a na- tive of this place. He was a monk of Canterbury, in the time of king Richard IJ., and wrote a hiftory ‘of Britain s alfo one of his own monaltery. Hlatted’s Hiltory of Kent, vol. iv. 8vo. GILLORJ, an ifland on the coaft of Weft Florida, di- vided from Dauphin ifland by a very narrow channel, through which a boat cannot pafs without fome difficulty ; and between Gillori and the main land, on the welt fide of Mobile bay, there is a chain of {mall iflands and oytter fhells, through which is a paflage of four feet, called «¢ Paffe au Heron.” GILLS, Brancuiz, in Ichihyology, See Fisii, Organs af Refpiration. tr GIL Giits, Leaf of the. See Forrum branchiarum. GILLY-FLOWER, in Gardening, the common name of a fine fragrant flowery plant, common in gardens, &c. See DIANTHUS. j GitLy-FLowER, Queen’s. See Hesprris. GILLY-FLOWER, Stock. See CHEIRANTHUS. Gitiy-Lough, in Geography, a lake of Ireland, in the county of Sligo; and on the river by which its waters are difcharged into the fea ftands the town of Sligo. This lake exhibits that variety of charming profpeéts which bold hills, wooded lawns, aud large iflands clothed with verdure and crowned with trees, united with a great extent of water, cannot fail to produce. Beaufort. GILMANTOWN,. a_ poft-town of America, in Strafford county, New Hampfhire, 8.W. of lake Winni- pifcogee, and 52 miles N.W. of Portfmouth; incorpo- rated in 1727, and containing 3752 inhabitants. GILMARQUEY, a town of Hindooltan, in Dowla- tabad ; 13 miles N.IE. of Nander. GILOH, or Geto, in Scripture Geography, a town of Palettine, fituated in the mountains of the tribe of Judah. Jofh. xv. 51. GILOLO, in Geography, one of the Molucca iflands, in the Eaft-Indian ocean, of confiderable extent, and in its irregular form refembling Ce/ebes, which fee. Hts length is about 230 Britifh miles, and the breadth of each limb fel- dom above 40. The fhores are low ; but the interior rifes to high peaks, perhaps of granite. This ifland is faid to have been once governed by one fovereign, a fheref from Mecca ; but the fultans of Ternate and Tidore now feem to fhare it between them, the former poffefling the northern part with Mortay, Bakian, Motir, and fome Celebefian iflands, and part of Papua; while the fultan of ‘Tidore holds the fouthern part with Myfol, and fome other ifles. One of the chief towns is Tatanay, fituated on a point or promontory of the eaftern limb, faced with precipices, fo as to be accefiible only by ladders. Gilolo abounds with oxen, buffaloes, goats, deer, and wild hogs; but the fheep are few. The bread-fruit and fago-tree are common; and, in fpite of the Dutch extermination, there are probably cloves and nutmegs. The natives are induftrious, particularly in weaving ; but their exertions are fupprefled by Batavian jealoufy. The equinoGtial ruts through the fouthern part of the ifland. E.long. 128”. GILP Locu, in Argylefhire, Scotland, is a kind of - gulf branching from Loch Fine on its W. fide, which is navigable for vellels to the entrance of the Crinan canal, through which they pafs to Loch Crinan, and the Erifh fea. See CAnar. GILPIN, Brernarp, in Biography, was born at Kent- mire, in Weitmoreland, in the year 1517. He was deltined by his parents for the church, and educated with that view. At fixteen years of age he was entered at Queen’s college, Oxford, where he became diflinguifhed for the diligence with which he applied to his academical itudies.. He was led to think for himfelf, and freely, by the writings of Erafmus ; and as he determined to apply himfelf to the ttudy of theology, he fet about acquiring a thorough knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew languages, in order: that he might inveltigate the feriptures in their original tongues. In 1539 he took his degree of B.A., and in 1541 that of M.A., and about the fame time he was elected tellow of his college, and ad- mitted into holy orders. Shortly after he was invited to be- come a member of cardinal Wolfey’s new foundation at Chriit-church, which he acéepted. Here he continued his former ftudies, but it does not appear that his couric of reading hed produced any doubts in his mind refpe@ing the GIL ion, for he even entered into.a vindication of the Catholic doctrines ina difpute with Hooper, afterwards bifhop of Winchefter. ~ The difcuffion was however favour- able to his improvement and candour, as it afforded him the opportunity of difcovéring that his own opinions were not {o well fupported by feripture as he imagined. Upon the acceffion of Edward VI., Peter Martyz was feat, under the patronage of that prince, to Oxford to read divinity leétures, a duty which he performed in a frain to which that uni- verlity had been but little accuftomed. He attacked many eftablifhed doétrines, which had been long regarded as the truth, and the only truth. Gilpin was looked up to, as ca- pable of defending the eftablithed doétrines in oppofition to modern innovations, but his faith was fhaken, and he chofe to remain an unprejudiced fpectator, ready to embrace what- ever fhould appear the truth, after deliberately weighing the arguments which the difcuffion might proveke. At length, howeyer, he confented to enter the lifts with Peter, and the difpute ended in the conviction of Gilpin that there were great corruptions in popery, and that there was need of a total reformation. He continued at Oxford till he was thirty- five, and took his bachelor’s degree in divinity. In 1552 he was prefented with a living in Durham, but before he went to refide there, he was appointed to preach before his majefty at Greenwich. The king was not prefeat, but Gilpin’s difcourfe was a ferious and very hoftile attack on the prevailing avarice and corruption of the age; he fpared neither the court, clergy, magiltrates, nor gentry. he freedom which he made ufe of at this time recommended him to the notice of many perfons of the firft rank, parti- cularly of fir William Cecil, afterwards lord Burleigh, who obtained for him a general licence for preaching. While Mr. Gilpin was in London, he frequently viited his uncle Tonftal, bifhop of Durham, at that time a_ prifoner in the Tower, under a fentence of mifprifion of treafon. When Mr. Gilpin was fettled in the country, he felt many doubts how to proceed in the inftru€tion of his people; he had not made up his own mind on many important doCirines, and therefore felt but ill qualified to teach others, or indeed to ruard them from the prevailing errors. He accordingly refigned his living, and determined, at she advice of Tonttal, to {pend fome time abroad. He had now an opportunity of re-examining all his opinions; he began to have juft notions of the do¢trines of the reformed; faw things in a clearer light, and felt a fatisfaction in the change that he had made, to which he had hitherto been a ftranger. On the death of king Edward, Tonital was releafed and rein{tated in his bifhopric ; he immediately offered his nephew a good living, which was refpeétfully refufed on confcientious principles. Ge returned from the continent in the year 1556, and imme- diately vifited bifhop Tonftal, who received him with great friendfhip, and prefented him with the archdeaconry of Dur- ham, to which he annexed the living of Eafington. He now repaired to his parifh, determined to do what good he was ‘able in reproving vice, and encouraging virtue. His zeal and affiduity in the good work of reformation made him many enemies, and the cry of herefy was continually founded againit him, but by the {kilful management of his uncle, the charge, though formally and publicly brought, was difmiffed.- After this, he refigned his prefern:ost in the church, and be- eame domettic chaplain to the bifllop. Mr. Gilpin did not remain long without a benefice, but was indu@ted to the li- ving of Houghton-le-Spring, and upor. his arrival at the place, people crowded to him from all quarters, perceiving ahat he was a teacher very different from thofe to whom they had been accuftomed, and by his truly affeétionate treatment pf them, be quickly gaiied their confidence, refpeét, and th> popular PEN. attachment. The bifhop was fill anxious for the advances ment of his nephew, and prefented to him a vacant prebend in the cathedral of Durham, which Mr. Gilpin modefily, but firmly declined, and told the prelate, ‘ that by his bounty he had already more wealth than, he was afraid, he could give a good account of, and he hoped his lordfhip would rather beftow this preferment onone by whom it was more wanted.’’ A frefh fet of articles of impeachment were drawn up and prefented againit him, and he was again protected by his uncle, but from this period the bifhop’s favear to him manifeftly declined, and he ftruck him out ef his will. He was exceedingly concerned to have in any way offended fo good a benefactor, but he could not compromife the matter ; he was bound to fatisfy his confcience, and Tonttal was vexed that he fhould carry his piety and zeal to what he thought an excefs. The malice of Mr. Gilpin’s enemies was not fatisfied with the lofs which he had experienced in his uncle’s efteem; they accufed him before the favage Bonner, who, in the moment of his frantic zeal, declared that he would bring him to the ftake in a fortnight. Gilpin refufed to liften to the entreaties and interceflions of his friends by leaving the country, but was prepared to fuffer for the truth, aa he had been zealous in propagating it. He accordingly waited with great compofure for the arrival of the bifhop’s meffengers. He was apprehended, but fortunately, before he could reach London, an account of the Queen’s death met them on the road, an event not more favourable to our worthy paftor, than important for the country at large. The mercilefs favage might now gnafh his teeth, but he could no longer infli&t the yenom of his malignity upon the unoffending reformers. Gilpin, thus almo‘t miraculoufly de- livered, returned to Houghton through crowds of people, who regarded him as a father, and who expreffed their ut- moft joy, and offered up their thanks to Almighty God for his deliverance. Mr. Gilpin was foon nominated to the bifhopric of Carlifle, which he declined, giving as a reafon, that in this diocefe he had many friends and acquaintance, of whom he did not think very highly, and that he muft connive at many irregularities, or draw upon himfelf fo much hatred as to prevent his ufefulnefs. In 1561 he was offered the provoftfhip of Queen’s college, Oxford, which he like- wife declined; contenting himfelf with the living of Houghton, the duties of which he performed in the moft exemplary manner. He employed much of his time in en- deavouring to improve the minds of the younger part of his parifh, fuffering none to grow up in an ignorance of their duty, but urging all to intermix religion with labour, and amid the cares of this life to have a conitant regard to the next. He was affiduous m preventing lawfuits among his parifhioners, and his hall was frequently thronged with peo- ple of his own or neighbouring parifhes, who came to fettle their differences. He had a tender concern for all under affliction, and was a much readier vifitant at the houfe of mourning than at the houfe of feafting. To ftrangers and travellers there was always a generous welcome at the houfe of Mr. Gilpin, and he could fuit himfelf to perfons of all ranks in life. Once he received an unexpe&ted vifit frem lord Burleigh, and the reception of the noble ftranger was fo liberal, that his lordfhip was accuftomed to fay, that he could not have expected more at Lambeth. When the great ftatefman left his hoft, and had travelled about a mile from his refidence, he turned his horfe to take one more view of the place in which he had experienced fo much content, and having kept his eye fixed fome time, he exclaimed, “‘ There is the enjoyment of life, indeed! Who can blame that man for not accepting a bifhopric! What does he want, or what can he poffefs to make him greater , or GIL or happier, or more ufeful to mankind.”? Mr. Gilpin’s la- bours extended beyond his own parifh; he every year vifited divers neglected parifhes in Northumberland, York- fhire, Chefhire, Weftmoreland, and Cumberland; and that his own flock might not fuffer, he was at the expence of a eonttant affiftant. In all his journies he did not fail to vifit the gaols and places of confinement ; and by his labours and affeGhionate manner of behaviour, he is faid to have re- formed many abandoned perfons in thofe abodes of human mifery. He had fet places and times for preaching in the different parts of the country, which were as regularly at- tended as the affize towns of acircuit. If he came to a place in which thene was a church, he madeufe of it; if net, of barns, or any other large building, where great crowds of perfons were fure to attend him, fome for his inftrudtions, more, perhaps, to partake of his bounty ; but in his difcourfes he had a fort of enthuhaftic warmth, which roufed many to a fenife of religion who had never thought of any thing ferious before The dangers and fatigues at- tending this employment were, in his eftimation, abundantly compentated by the advantages which he hoped would ac- crue from them to his uninitructed fellow-creatures. He did not {pare the rich ; and in a difcourfe before the bifhop of Durham, who had already conceived a prejudice againit him, he fpoke with fo much freedom, that his beft friends dreaded the refult; they rebuked him for giving the prelate a handle againft him, to which he replied, ‘ If the difcourfe fhould do the good he intended by it, he was regardlefs of the confequences to himfelf.”? He then waited on the prelate, who faid, ‘* Sir, I propofe to wait upon you home myfelf.”? When they arrived at the rectory, and entered the houfe, the bifhop turned fuddenly round, and grafped him eagerly by the hand, faying, <¢ Father Gilpin, I know you are fitter to be bifhop of Durham, than I am to be parfon of this church of yours. I afk forgivenefs for pait injuries. Forgive me, father, I know you have enemies, but while I live bifhop of Durham, none of them fhall caufe you any further trouble.”? Upon queen Elizabeth’s recom- mending the eftabliihmentof free-fchools, Mr. Gilpin under- took to build and endow one, a defign which he immediately put in execution. This fchool was no fooner opened than it began to flourifh ; and there was fo great a refort of young people to it, that in a little time the town was fcarcely able to accommodate them. He procured able matters from Oxford, and took every method to encourage thofe of his pupils who were moit diligent in their ftudies. In the Jatter part of his life Mr. Gilpin went through his various duties with much difficulty: his health was impaired, and his conftitution broken down by the great fatirues which he had undergone for many years. In addition to his infirmi- ties, he met with an accident which had nearly proved fatal to him, and from the effects of which he never perfeCtly reco- vered. Ashe was croffing the market-place at Durham, he was thrown down, and almoft trampled to death by an ox. After a long and tedious confinement, he was able to get eut, but continued lame as long as he lived. He died in 1583, in the 66th year of his age. Such were the life and labours of Bernard Gilpin, who, for his exemplary piety, jaborious virtue, and unbounded benevolence, deferves to have his name tranfmitted to pofterity with refpeét and reverence, and who obtained, and moft defervedly among his contemporaries, the title of the Northern Apoitle. By his unwearied application he had amafled a great flock of Knowledge, and was indeed ignorant of no part of learning at that time in efteem. He had given more than common attention to the ftudy of the dead languages, to hiftory and divin:ty ; he is faid to have excelled im poetry, but he ex- G1M pended little time in the purfuit of any thing that was foreign to his profeffion. His temper was naturally warm, but, by degrees, he fucceeded in obtaining an entire command of himfelf. His difpofition was ferious, yet, among his particular friends, he was cheerful and even facetious. His {everity had no other objet but himfelf: to others he was mild, candid, and indulgent. Biog. Brit. Givi, Sawrey, who lately praétifed horfe painting with fo much fuccefs, was born at Carlifle in 17.33, from whence, after having acquired fome relifh for the art trom his father, who was a captain in the army, he came to London, and was articled to a fhip-painter. His firft interefting works were compofed of fome market groups which {truck his eye from his window. Soon after he went to Newmarket, being encouraged by the late William, duke of Cumberland, where he executed many compofitions which might have vied with Hogarth in point of charaéter. In the duke’s ftud he acquired that knowledge of the horfe, which he has difplayed with fuch fuperior fpirit and beauty, and when we fee with what felicity he applied it to the higher depart- ments of the art, to hiftoric compofitions in the triumph of Camillus, the eleétion of Darius, the ft ory of Phaeton, we mult lament that fuch talents fhould have been drawn afide to the meaner employment of horfe-portrait-painting, which occupied too much of his valuable life. His drawings of animals, in pencil and water-colours, difplay a degree of tafte and {kill feldom attained. As 4 man he was equally efteemed for probity of charaéter and fimplicity of manner, and, as a member of the Royal Aca- demy, he added honour to the inftitution. Fufeli’s Pil- kington. GILSON, in Geography, a townthip of America, in Chefhire county, New Hampfhire, containing 484 inhabit- ants; fituated on the E. fide of A fhuelot river, and joining Keene on the fouth. GILT, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying a young female pig, whether in an open or {payed itate. Gint-Head, in Ichthyology. See Aurara and Spanus. GIMAR, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 6 miles E. of Havannah. GIMBLET, in Carpentry, a {mall boring tecl, which enters the wood with a {crew ; the part above is cylindrical, both infide and out; its ufe is to make a way for nails, in order to drive more eafily, or to preyent the wood from {plittine. GIMBLETING, in Sea Language, is apphed to the anchor, to denote the action of turning it round by the ftock, fo that the motion of the flock appears fimilar to that of the handle ofa gimblet, when it is employed to turn the wire, GIMBOLS, denote the brafs-rings by which the fea- compafs is fufpended in its box that ulually ftands in the binacle. GIMESCH, in Geography, a town and caftle of Hun- gary ; 10 miles W. of Bukans. GIMIGLIANO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ; to miles E. of Nicattro. GIMMER, a town of Africa, in Dar-fir; 40 miles N.N.W. of Cobbé. Gimmer fog, in Rural Economy, a name applied to a female fheep of the firft year. Ginmer Lamb, a term applied to a female lamb. GIMONT, in Geagraphy, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Gers, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Auch; 12 miles IX. of Auch. ‘The place con- tains 2300, and the canton $413 inhabitants, on a territory of 230 kiliometres, in 13 communes, : GIMZO, GIN GIMZO, in Scripture Geography, a city of Judah, which the Philiflines took from Ahaz.. 2 Chron. xxvili. 18. GIN, in Geography, a town of China, of the third rank, in’ Pe-tcheli ; 10 miles S.E. of Chun-te. Guy, formed probably by corruption from engine, in Artil- lery and Mechanics, is a machine for raifing great weights, compofed of three long legs, two of which are kept at a proper diftance by means of two iron cr wooden bars fixed to one of the legs by means of a bolt at one end, and by the other end to the other leg with a bolt and key, fo that it may be put on or off at pleafure. At three feet from the bottom is a roller moving in cheeks, that are faftened to thefe poles by two iron bands and two iron bolts. The three legs of this machine are joined together with an iron bolt, about which they move; to this bolt is fixed an iron balf ring to hook on the windlafs, containing two brafs pul- lies. When the gin ftands upright, and its legs are ata proper diftance, one end of the cable is fixed to the dol- phins of a gun or mortar with another windlafs, containing likewife two brafs pullies, and the other paffes through the pullies and round the roller, which is turned round by means of handfpikes paffing through the holes im the ends of the roller: while a man holds the cable tight, the gin is raifed to fuch a height as to admit a carriage being put under it. The gin is ufed in loading a timber-carriage with timber ; it confilts of an acute triangular frame, in the lower part of which is a roll or windlafs : at the apex is a fet of pulles, and a hole to receive the top of a ftrong pole, which is fet up oppofite the triangular frame, which by this means forms a fort of tripod (or triangle, as it is commonly called among workmen) ftanding acrofs a tree to be raifed and loaded: the gin-rope is then reeved through a moveable block of puliies, faftened by a chain to the tree, through that in the top of the gin and round the rell; and then, by means of hand-fpikes or levers ufed to the roll, the tree is drawn up to a fufficient height forthe timber-carriage to be paffed under it. Long treeshare raifed at one end firtt, and two of the wheels of the timber carriage are pafled under them ; when the other ends are raifed in like manner, and the other two wheels (which are made to feparate for this purpofe) are paffed under them, and then are joined to the other wheels by the long adjuftable pole with which the carriage is furnifhed. See Timsrn-Carriage. An erect axis or drum, turned by the force of horfes walking in a circle, and ufed for raifing coals and other weizhts, is alfo called a gin ; the buckets being attached to the oppofite ends of a rope, which pafles round the drum, and which is drawn by means of its adhefion to the drum. One of the buckets defcends empty, while the other is drawn up full ;.and wher the motions of the buckets are to be changed, the horfes are turned, or the wheels are made to impel the axis in a contrary direction, when any other moving power is employed. For fhallow mines or fhafts, thefe ave worked by horfes, and are called horfe-ciis; and in deep mines thus worked, it is ufual to have two levers pro- jecting frem the fhaft, fo as to employ two horfes, and even four sin fome cafes, with a boy to each pair, or fingle horife, to itop and turn them, fo as to draw from the other fide of the lever, as often as a corve or bafket arrives at the top of the fhafth. See the article Coat. -'The increafing depth of the pits, and demand for eoals at Newcatlle, occafioned Mr. Smeaton, the en- gineer, to be applied to in the year 1777, by the pro- prietors of Long Benton colliery, to cont vive them a mode of drawing more expeditioufly, and larg*r bafkets of 6 CIN coals than the horfe-gins then in ufe, and he accordingly erected for them a water-gin, the fupply for which was raifed by the fteam-engines employed at the pits. Since the above period, {mall iteam-engines, called wimfeys in many places, have been applied to the winding of coals, and other minerals, and have already fuperfeded all other modes of drawing at the large collieries; thefe feveral modes of drawing or winding we fhall defcribe particularly in the ar- ticle WinpinG-Lagine. Gry, in Mining, horfe-gin, or coal-gin, isa machine ufed for drawing buckets or corves of earth or minerals up a mine- fhaft or tunnel-pipe of a canal : it confiftsof a large vertical drum or barrel, on which a rope winds, which is conduéted to pullies over the fhaft ; and ufually as one bucket or corve defcends another afcends. See the preceding article and Mine Wixvrxe Engine. Gix-driver, is the man or boy who attends the gin-horfe and turns him, when a full bucket or corve kas arrived at the top of the mine-thaft. GINAIRJ, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Kumbe. GINANNIA, in Botany, fo called by Scopoli and Schreber in memory of Count Jofeph Ginanni, a native of Ravenna, whofe pofthumous werks ia Italian, compofin two folio volumes, with above go plates, were publithed at Ve- nice in 1755. They chiefly relate to the marine produ@tions of the Adriatic, as corals, fuci,a few fhells, &c. but are perhaps not too feverely charaéterized by Linneus, ina letter to Gerard, as ** of no manner of ufe”’ The author was re- commended to the fiudy of natural hiftory by -his friend Valifneri, as a cure for hypochondriacal diforders, but this is hardly a fufficient reafon for the publication of his book, Haller appears to have feen the frit volume only. Schreb. 271. Mart. Mill. Dict. v.2. (Paloue; Aubl. Guian. 365. t. 141. Palovea; Juff. 351. Brownea pauciflora; Willd. Sp. Pl.v. 3.716.) See Brownera, to which genus we are perfuaded this plant is rightly referred by Willdenow at the fuggettion of Schreber, Addend, 829. The fem is fhrub- by, 15 feet high, branched, the branches alternate, ftraight . or declining. Leaves fimple, alternate, nearly feffile, ovate, entire, pointed, fmooth and fhining. Svipules minute, acute. Flowers terminal, few, red, large, and handfome, their fhort falks enveloped in large concave imbricated brafeas. Le- gume veddifh, linear, compreffed, three inches long, fome- what like that of Cercis filiquafirum. Native of the forefts of Guiana, flowering in February, and bearing fruit in May. GINASSERVIS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Var, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Brignolles ; nine miles N.W. of Barjols. The place contains 782, and the canton Sooo inhabitants, ona territory of 3024 kiliometres, in fix communes. Phe: GINDARUS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia, ia Syria, fituated on a mountain, E. of the gulf of Ifficus. GINDELI, in Geography, a town of Candahar, on the Behat ; 48 miles E.S.E. of Cabul. GINDERE, a town of Ceylon; five miles N. of Point de Galle. . GINERCA, a town of the ifland of Corfica, fituated in a {mall bay to which it gives name; 13 miles S. of Calvi. GINESTAS, a town of France, in the department of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Nar- bonne; feven miles N.W.of Narbonne. ‘The place contains scr, and the canton 6753 inhabitants, on a territory of 167% kilometres, im 15 communes. : GINETO, Svr. a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 16 miles N.W. of Bifignano. . GINETTA, Genera, or Genet, in Zoology, the VivEr- RA genetta of Linnzus, which fee. GINGER, GIN GINGEE, in Geography, a town and fortrefs of Hin- dooftan, in the Carnatic, once the capital of a kingdom of the fame name, fituated ona mountain and defended by three caflles ; 33 geographical miles from Pondicherry and 23 from Trinomaly. N. lat. 12’ 16’. E long. 79° 36’. GINGER, in Botany. See AMomum. Gixarn, Zingiber, in the Materia Medica, &c. Ginger is either black or white. In Jamaica this plant attains its full height and flowers about Auguft or September, and fades about the clofe of the year. When the ftalks are en- tirely withered, the roots are in a proper ftate for digging, which is generally performed in the months of January and February. “ After being dug, they are picked, cleanfed, and gradually feethed, or fcalded in boiling water : they are then {pread out, and expofed every day to the fun till fufficiently dried ; and after being divided into parcels of about roolb. weight each, they are packed in bags for the market : this is called the “black ginger."" <¢ White ginger’’ is the root of the fame plant, but inttead of f{ealding the roots, by which they acquire the dark appearance of the former, each root is picked, feraped, feparately wafhed, and afterwards dried with great care: by this operation more than double expence is in- curred, and the market price is proportionably greater. Black ginger is faid by Jacquin to lofe part of its effential oil by being thus immerfed in boiling water ; and on this account it is Tels ufeful for medical and other purpofes than the white, which is always good when perfeétly found and free from worm-holes: but that imported from the Eait Indies is ftronger than any we have from Jamaica. This warm aromatic root appears, fays Lewis, to be much lefs liable to heat the conttitution than might be ex- ected from the penetrating heat and pungency of its taite, and the fixednefs of its aétive principles. But Dr. Cullen is of opinion, that there is no real foundation for this remark. It gives part of its virtue to water, and the whole to re¢tified {pirit, tinging the latter of a deep, and the former of a pale yellow colour. This latter property it pofleffes in fo confi- derable a degree, that if a watery infulion of this root be boiled down to a thick confiltence, diffolved afrefh in a large quantity of water, and {trongly boiled down again, the heat -and pungency of the root remain, but with little or nothing of its fmell. It is ufed medically as an antifpafmodic and car- minative. The eafes in which it is more immediately fer- viceable are flatulent colics, debility and laxity of the ftomach and inteftines, and in torpid and phlegmatic conititutions to excite brifker vafcular aétion. It is feldom given but in eom- bination with other ingredients.. In the Pharmacopeeias it is direGted to be adminiftered under the form of a fyrup and tinéture ;. it is alfo prefcribed as a condiment, and as a {ubfidiary ingredient in many compofitions. ‘The fyrup of ginger 1s prepared by macerating two ounces of the ginger -root fliced in a pint of boiling water for twenty-four hours, and then ftraining, and adding two pounds of retined fugar, as in other fyrups. The tincture of ginger is formed by macerating two ounces of ginger root fliced in two pints of proof {pint for 14 days, and then ftraining the liquor. The dietetic qualities and ufes of ginger are well known ; and it is employed under various forms. It is not uncommon to candy the root, when green, with fugar and honey ; having firft fteeped it {ome time in water, to takeaway part of its acrimony, and to difpofe it to let go the outer fkin. This candied ginger, brought from abroad, is moderately aromatic. They alfo make a marmalade of it, cakes. i en people make great ufe of this confection, as holding it foyereign againit the feurvy. The Indians eat the root, when green, by way of fallad, firft chopping it Voz. XVI, GIN {mall, mixing it with other herbs, and feafoning it with oif and vinegar. Ginger may be preferved by wafhing it, and laying it ta fteep for ten or twelve days in white wine and water, ftirring them every day; then boila pound of roots with two quarts of white wine, and about a pint of lemon juice, for a quarter of an hour; then add two pounds and a half of fine fugar, and boil it to a fyrup, {cumming it as it rifes; fet it by till the next day in a glazed pan ; then boil it for half an hour, and repeat this boiling at the fame interval till the ginger is clear. Put it into glaffes, and cover them with paper, and it will afford a fine fweermeat for the winter, A wine is made of ginger, which is a pleafant and falubrious beverage. Gincer, in Geography, one of the fmaller Virgin ifles in the Weit Indies; 10 miles S.S.W. of Virgin Gorda. N. lat. 187 5’. W. long. 62° 53'—Alfo, a town of Egypt, on the E. branch of the Nile, oppofite to Manforah. GINGERBREAD, aricher kind of bread; the flavour and tafte of which are heightened and improved with {pices, and particularly ginger ; whence the name. There are various forms and preparations of gingerbread : we fhall content ourfelves with the following receipt, whick is well recommended. Into a pound of almonds, blanched and pounded, grate a penny white loaf ; fift and beat them together; to the mixe ture add an ounce of ginger, fcraped tine ; and liquorice, and annifeed in powder, of each a quarter of an ounce ; pour in two or three fpoonfuls of rofe-water, and make the whole into a patte, with half a pound of fugar : mould and roll it, print it, and dry it in a ftove. Others make it of treacle, citron, lemon, and orange-peel, with candied ginger, coriander, and caraway-feeds, mixed up with as much flour as. will make it into a patte. GINGERO, or Lenpero, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, fituated on the S.W. of Abyflinia. N. lat. 6°. E. long. about 35°. GINGHAM, a town on the north coaft of Sumatra. N. lat. 5° 10’. E. long. 96° 10’. GINGIDIUM, in Botany, a name adopted by Forfter, Nov. Gen. t. 21, for an umbelliferous plant, found on the hills of New Zealand, which he himfelf fufpe@ted to be a Ligufticum, and which has been fo confidered by following botanifts. It is Ligufficum Gingidium of Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 1428. See Licgusricum. The 50yy1div of Diofcorides appears to be likewife of this natural order, but the fpecies can fcarcely be determined with certainty. Dr. Sibthorp fuppofed it might be Daucus Gin- gidium of Linneus, merely from the coincidence of the names, for it agrees better with D. Vifnaga, Ammi Vifnaga, Prod. Fl. Grae. n. 6503 not that any thing can be gathered, from the defcription of Diofcorides, to quote him, infuch a cafe, with any propriety. He fays it is «* by fome called Lepidium, and grows very abundantly in Cilicia (now Caramania) and Syria. It isalittle herb, like wild carrot, but more flender and more bitter, with a whitifh and bitterifh root.’? This will be found to accord equally well with many plants of thofe countries. Matthiolus, mifled, as it feems, either by a Latin verfion, or by the opinion of thofe who take the sx@uauo; of Diofcorides tor the Paffinaca, or Parfnip, whereas it is evi- dently by the defcription a Daucus, or Carrot, took for the yeyydioy a Syrian plant, firft defcribed by himfelf, and whick indeed is‘{maller and flenderer than the Parfnip, though larger and broader than the Carrot. Hence he cenfures thofe who have taken the Chervil, Scandix Cerefolium, for the herb in queftion, though they really appear to be more in the right than himfelf. However this may be, the plant of Matthiolug is the Daucus Gingidium of Linngys, as well as his D.ducidus : Ll Linnzus GIN Linnaeus having in the firft inftance defined it from the wooden eut of Matthiolus, and-in the latter defcribed it from a {pe- «imen in the Upfal garden. The hiftory of this miftake is ‘given at length, by the writer of the prefent article in the Tranfactions of the Linnean Society, v. 9. 131. GINGING, ia Mining, fleining ‘ or {taining, fignifies the lining of a mine-fhaft with ftones or bricks for its fupport. Shallow fhafts, where the meafures are adapted to itand, are funk firft, and the lining of them with {tone, or ginging, is be- gun from the bottom and carried up at once to the tep: but in finking deep fhafts, after as great a depth is done at once as the nature of the meafures will permit, a further depth is funk in the bottom, beginning firlt withinfide the ginging, and continuing the fhaft of that diminifhed diameter for 12 or 18 inches, according to the foundnefs of the mea- fures in that place, when it is gradually enlarged to the full fize as the finking proceeds, and funk fome yards lower, until ‘upon reaching a bed of ftone, or as great a depth as ts judged fafe, according to the nature of the inking, the ginging ts be- gun, and carried up to where the diminithing ef the fhafts begins ; when the fame is picked out to admit the fucceflive courfes of {tone or bricks, as high as is judged fafe, then the removal of the remainder of the {upport for the firft ginging is commenced, by cutting out a piece, wide enough to admit of ene or two courfes of {tone or bricks, being built up like a pier, which is firmly keyed or underpinned to the ging- ing above by metns of tile-fheds or thin flate if neceflary : a fimilar piece is then cut out and underpinned on the oppofite fide of the fhaft, and then another between each of thefe, and fo on, until the ginging of the lower and upper part 1s en- tirely joined all round the fhafts. The fhaft is then deepened withinfide the laft ginging, and funk, firft narrow and then of its proper width, as far as is jadged fafe, when a new ginging is begun, and carried up, ‘and joined to that previoufly finifhed, as above defcribed. Solid ttone-beds or permanent rocks, which are met with in finking, are not ginged, but the fhaft is funk through fuch rocks, of the fame diameter as the infide of the ginging, which {tands upon their top and is pinned up beneath their bottoms. GINGIVA, in Anatomy, the gum; a hard fort of flefh, invefting the alveoli, or fockets, of the teeth. See Gums under Cranrom. GINGLARUS, in the Ancient Mufic, a {mall Egyptian flute, which, according to Jul. Pollux, was proper for a fimple melody, perhaps from having but few holes GINGLYMOID, in Anatomy, from yilyauys:, a hinge, and sc, form 5 a term applied to certain joints of the body. ‘See DIARTHROSIS. GINGLYMUS. See Drartnnosis. GINGO, Grxcoux, or Gingoup, in Geography, a town of the Valais; 1omiles W. of Aigle. GINGRA, in Aniiquity, a kind of dance ufed at fu- perals. GINGRAS, or Gixeros, inthe Ancient Mufic, a dance performed to the found ef flutes. GINGRINA, in Antiquity, a name given to a fmall kind of flute fit for beginners. GINGROS, and Gixertas, Mufical Inflrumeuts of the Ancients. “The Phoenicians, according to Athenzus, had flutes of only a palm in length, which produced acute, but plaintive founds. The Carians made ufe of them in their funerals ; perhaps by Carians the Pheenictans are meant here, as in Corinna and Bathyllides. Thofe flutes derive their names from the lamentations of the Pheenicians at the death of Adonis, whom they called Gingres. Encyel. Suppl. GIN GINHEIM,; in Geography, a town of Germany, in the county of Hanau Munzenberg; 11 miles W. of Hanau. GIN-HOA, a town of China, of the third rank, in Quang-tong ; 22 miles N. of Chao-tcheou. GIN-HOAT, a town of China, of the third rank, is Se-tchuen ; 32 miles S. of Tche-lileou. GINIPALIAGARUM, a town of Hindooftan; 25 miles FE. of Calicut. GINKGO, in Botany, Linn. Mant. 313. Kampf. Amoen- 811. t. 813.—The Japanefe name of a tree, as large as @ Walnut-tree, with leaves refembling an Adiantum. he male flowers are in catkins, the female folitary, on ftalks, producing a drupa, whofe nut refembles that of a Piffacia, with a white, fomewhat altringent, kernel, which is eaten in Japan, being fuppofed to affilt digeftion. This tree is hardy in our gardens, fometimes bearing catkins, but no fruit. The late Mr. Gordon fent a living plant to Linneus, whe mentions it ia an appendix by the above appellation, not be- ing able either to define the genus, or to name it properly, tillhe knew the fructification. Mr. Salifbury having with great afliduity determined its effential characters, it was de- dicated to him, by Dr. Smith im the Tranf. of the Linn, Soe. v. 3. 330, and his botanical merits will ever jultify the appropriation. See SaLispunria. GIN-KIA-CENTZE, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat. q1° 45’. E. long. 123° 29/. GIN-KIEOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in Pe-tcheli ; 17 miles N. of Ho-kien. GINLIA, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; 12 miles N. E. of Teramo. GINNANIT, Francis, in Biography, was born at Ra- yenna in 1716. He was educated in his father’s houfe, and at the age of fourteen was placed at Parma, as page to the duke of Antony Farnefe. The duties of this fituation did not prevent him from purfuing his ftudies, and he was parti- cularly attentive to natural hiftory, under the direction of his uncle Jofeph Ginnani, who was well known for his re- fearches into marine produGions. He devoted himfelf toa retired and ftudious life, and was the inventor of divers agri- cultural inftruments and other machines, ufeful as well as curious. His writings, which relate to almott all the de- partments of natural hiftory, obtained for him an admifiion into the learned focieties of Londen, Paris, Bern, and Peru- gia, and he held a literary correfpondence with many o! the moit eminent natural philofophers of the age. In private life he was courteous, modeft, and benevolent, and he was particularly obfervant of the duties of religion. He «died at the age of forty. His principal work was a treatife on the difeafes of corn, with obfetvations on the caufes and remedies. He publifhed an account of the natural ~produc- tions in the mufeum of Ravenna, and he greatly interefted himfelf in the inftitution of the fociety of that town. He left behind him fome manufcripts, among which was a “ Na- tural and Civil Hiftory of the Pine Foreits of. Ravenna.’” Gen. Biog. 4 GINNIS, in Geography, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 21 miles W.N. W. of Erzerum. GINNISH, a town of Hindoollan, in Guzerat ; 36 miles S. of Amedabad. GINONDAYAN, atown on the E. coat of the ifland of Leyta. “Nulat. 10% 237" Evlong./125° ro!. GINORIA, in Botany, was named by Jacquin, to coni- memorate a patron of fcience and of himfelf, the marquis Charles Ginori, governor of Leghorn, who was extremely liberal in fupporting a botanic garden'at Florence. Linn. Gen. 240. Schreb. 323. Jacq. Amer. 148. » Willd. Sp. Ply. 2.871. Mart. Mill, Dict, v. 2. Juamarck Dict. i v2. GIN v. 2.712. Jufl. 331. Clafs and order, Dodecandria Mono- gynia, Nat. Ord. Calycanthema, Linn. Salicarie, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf: tube bell- fhaped ; limb fix-cleft : fegments lanceolate, {preading, co- loured, permanent. Cor. Petals fix, roundith, {preading, long- er than the calyx, with long claws inferted into the neck of the calyx. Siam. Filaments 12, awl-fhaped, the length of the calyx and inferted into it ; anthers kidney-fhaped. Pi/. Germen roundith, depreffed ; ftyle awl-fhaped, as long as the corolla, not deciduous; ftigma obtufe. Peric. Capfule roundifh, deprefled, thining, coloured, with about four fur- rows and four valves, of one cell, gaping at the top. Seeds numerous, minute; receptacle roundith, large. Eff. Ch. Calyx fix-cleft. Petals fix. Capfule of one cell, with four valves, coloured, with many feeds. 1. G. americana. Linn. Sp. Pl. 642. Jacq. Amer. t gl. Native of the rocky and gravelly banks of rivers in the ifland of Cuba. This beautiful fhrub has much of the af- pect of a myrtle, and bears its flowers and ripe fruit in December. It rifes erect to the height of three or four feet, and its branches are round, {mooth, and woody. Leaves lanceolate, entire, {mooth, {preading, on fhort foot- ftalks, oppolite, an inch and half long, numerous, Stalks fingle-flowered, flender, axillary and terminal. Mowers inodorous, with a reddifh calyx, blue corolla, and dark-red capfule, containing a molt beautiful berry. Seeds whitith. The capfule remains entire for fome time after the feed is fhed, together with the calyx and part of the ftyle. The natives call this plant Rofa dl rio, or river Rofe—It has ne- ver been introduced into the gardens of Europe, nor have we even feen a dried {pecimen. GIN-PIN, in Geagrephy, a town of China, of the third rank, in Chan-tong ; 17 miles N. E. of Tong-chang. GIN-SENG, or Nin-sena, in Botany. See Prvax. Gix-senG, ta the Materia Medica, is one of the prin- cipal medicines of the Chinefe and ‘Tartars; and_ their moft eminent phyticians have written many volumes concern- ing its virtues. It is known among them by divers other names, expreffing only jpirit, or the pure Spirit of the earth ; the plant that gives immortality, kc. It makes, in effect, the whole materia me- dica for the people of condition, put is too precious for the populace. j : All the writers of the Chinefe affairs make mention of the gin-feng: as Martinius, in his Atlas ; F. Kircher in his China Iluttrata; 1. Tachard, in his Voyages; and I’. Le Comte, in his Memoirs. And yet we knew but very little of this plant before Fr. Jartoux, a Jefuit, and miffionary in China; who, being em- ployed, by order of the emperor, in making amap of Turtary, in the year 1709, had an opportunity of feeing it growing in avillage about four leagues from the kingdom of Corea, in- habited by Tartars, called Calca-Tatze. ‘hat father took this opportunity to make a apace of the plant, and give an accurate defcription of it, with its virtues and manner of preparing it. The gin-feng, accord- “ine to his defeription and drawing, has a white root, fome- what knotty, about thrice the thicknefs of the flem, and which grows tapering to the end; at a few inches from the head it frequently parts into two branches, which gives it fome refemblance of a man, whofe thighs the branches repre- fent; and it is hence it takes the denomination gin-feng, which fignifies a figure of a man. a It is hard to fay, why the Chinefe fhould call it gin-feng, a word which fignified figure or reprefentation of a man nel- ther that father, nor any he enquired of, could ever find, that it bore more refemblance to the figure of aman thanis erdi- GIN narily feen among other roots. The Tartars, with more rea. fon, call it orhota, that is, the firft of plants. It grows to’ the height of about eighteen inches. The plant dies away every year: the number of its years may be known by the number of flalks it has fhot forth, of which there always remains fome mark, Thofe who gather the gin-feng preferve only the root ; and all they can get of it in ten or fifteen days time they bury together, in fome place under ground ; then they take care to wafh it well, and feour it witha brufh ; then dip it in feald- ing water, and prepare it in the fumes of a fort of yellow mil- let, which gives it part of its colour. [he millet is put in aveflel, with a little water, and boiled over a gentle fire ; the roots are laid over the veffel, upon fmall traniverfe pieces of woed, being firft covered with a linen cloth, or fome other yeffel placed over them. They may alfo be dried in the fun, or by the fire; but then, though they retain their virtue well enough, they have not that yellow colour which the Chinefe fo much adimire When the roots are dried, they mutt be kept clofe in fome very dry place; otherwife they are in danger of corrupting, or of being eaten by worms. As to the place where this root grows, it is between the thirty-ninth and forty-feventh degree ef north latitude, and between the tenth and twentieth degree of eait longitude, reckoning from the meridian of Pekin. Here is found a long tract of mountains, which thick forefls, that cover and encompa{s them, render almo{t impaflable : it is upon the declivities of thefe mountains, and in thele thick foretts, upon the banks of torrents, or about the roots of trees, and amidft a thoufand other different forts of plants, that the gin-feng is found ; it isnot to be met with in plains, val- leys, marfhes, the bottoms of rivulets, or in places too much expofed and open If the foreft takes fire and be confumed, this plant does not appear till two or three years after ; it alfo lies hid from the fun as muchas poffible, which fhews that heat is an ene« my to it. The places where the gin-feng grows are, on every fide, feparated from the province of Quang-tong by a barrier of wooden flakes, which encompafles this whole province, and about which guards continually patrol, to hin- der the Chinefe from going out and looking after this root. Yet, however vigilant they are, greedinefs after gain ine cites the Chinefe to lurk about privately in thefe deferts, fome- tines to the number of two or three thoufand, at the hazard of lofing their liberty, and all the fruits of their labour, if they are taken either as they go out of or come into the province. The emperor, in order that the Tartars fhould reap all the advantage that is to be made of this plant; rather than the Chinefe, gave orders, in 1709, to ten thoufand Yartars, to go and gather all they could find of the gin-feng, upon condition that each perfon fhould give him two ounces of the belt, and that the reit fhould be paid for, eight for weight, in pure filver. It was computed, that, by this means, the emperor would get this year above twenty thoufand Chinefe pounds of it, which would not coft him above one-fourth part of its value. We met, by chance, fays I. Jartoux, with fome of thefe ‘Yartars, in the midit of thefe frightful deferts ; and their mandarins, who were not far out of the Ways came, one after another, and offered us oxen for our fubfittence, ace cording to the. commands they had received from the ems peror. Tole This GIN This army of herbalifts obferved the following order : af- ter they had divided a certain tract of land among their feve- ral companies, each company, to the number of a hundred perfons, fpread itfelf out ina right line, toa certain fixed place, every ten of them keeping at a diftance from the reft. Then they fearched carefully for the plant, going on lei- furely in the fame order; and in this manner, ina certain number of days, they run over the whole fpace of ground appointed them. When the time was expired, the mandarins, who were en- camped in their tents in fuch places as were proper for the fubfiftence of their horfes, fent to view each troop, to give them frefh orders, and to inform themfelves if their number was complete. If any one of them was wanting, as it often hap- pened, either by wandering out of the way, or being attacked by wild beafts, they always looked for him a day or two, and then returned again to their labonr as be- fore. Gin-feng was formerly fuppofed to grow only in Chinefe Tartary, affecting mountainous fituations, fhaded by clofe woods, but it has now been long known that this plant is alfo a native of North America, whence M. Sarrafin tranf- mitted fpecimens of it to Paris in the year 1704; and the gin-feng fince difcovered in Canada, Pennfylvania, and Vir- iaia, by Lafiteau, Kalm, Bartram, and others, has been found to correfpond exactly with the Tartarian fpecies, and its roots are now regularly purchafed by the Chinefe, who confider them to be the fame with thofe of eaftern erowth, which are known to. undergo a certain preparation above-mentioned, by which they affume a fomewhat differ- ent appearance. This plant was firft introduced into Kng- land in 1740 by that induftrious naturalift, Peter Collin- fon. The dried root of gin-feng, as it is imported here, is fearcely as thick as the little finger, about three or four inches long, frequently forked, tranfverfely wrinkled, of a horny texture, and both internally and externally of a yellowiih white colour. ‘To the tafte, fays Lewis (Mat. Med.), it difcovers a mucilaginous fweetnefs, approaching to that of liquorice, accompanied with fome degree of bitterifhnefs, and a flight aromatic warmth, with little or no fmell. It is far fweeter, and of a more grateful {mell, than the roots of fen- nel, to which it has by fome been fuppofed fimilar-; and differs likewife remarkably from thofe roots, in the nature and pharmaceutie properties of its active principles: the fweet matter of the gin-feng being procured entire in the watery as well as the fpirituous extra¢t, whereas that of fennel-roots is deftroyed or diffipated in the infpiflation of the watery tinéture. The flight aromatic impregnation of the gin-feng is likewife in good meafure retained in the watery extract, and perfectly in the {pirituous. The gin-feng, we haye obferved, is an ingredient in moft of the medicines which the Chinefe phyficians preferibe to the better fort of patients: they affirm, that it is a fove- reign remedy for all weaknefles oceafioned by exceffive fa- tigues, ‘either of body or mind; that it attenuates and car- ries off pituitous humours ; cures weaknefs of the lungs and the pleurify ; ftops vomitings ; ftrengthens the itomach, and helps the appetite ; difperfes fumes or vapours ; fortifies the breaft 5 isa remedy for fhort and weak breathing ; ftrength- ens the vital fpirits, and is good againft dizzinefs of the head and dimnefs of fight; and that it prolongs life to ex- treme old age. Nobody can imagine, that the Chinefe and ‘Tartars would fet fo higha value upon this root, if it did not conftantly produce a good effect: thofe that are in health often make ufe of it to render themfelves more vigo- GIO rousand ftrong. And J am perfuaded, adds father Jartoux, above-mentioned, it would proye an excellent medicine in the hands of any European who underftands pharmacy, if he had but a fufficient quantity of it to make {uch trials as are neceflary to examine the nature of it chemically, and to ap- ply it in a proper quant'ty, according to the nature of the difeafe for which it may be beneficial. Some Nala It is certain, that it fubtilizes, incteafes the motion of, and warms the blood, that it helps digeftion, and invigo- rates ina very fenfible manner. to After I had defigned the root, he goeson, I obferved the ftate of my pulfe, and then took halt of a root, raw as it was, and unprepared ; in an hour after I found my pulfe much fuller and quicker ; I had an appetite, and perceived myfelf much more vigorous, and could bear labour better andeafier than before. Four days after, finding myfelf fo fatigued and weary, that I could fcarcely fit on horfeback, a mandarin, who was in company with us, perceiving it, gave me one of thefe roots; I took half of it immediately, and an hour after I was not in the leaft fenfible of any wearinefs. I have often made ufe of it fince, and always with the fame fuccefs. Ihave obferved alfo, that the green leaves, and efpecially the fibrous part of them, chewed, would produce nearly the fame effet. The Tartars often bring people the leaves of gin-feng inftead of tea: and [ always find myfelf fo well afterwards, that J fhould readily prefer them before the beft tea; their decoétion is of a grateful colour, and, when one has taken it bri or thrice, its tafte and fmell become very agree~ able. As for the root, it is neceffary to boil it a little more than tea, to allow time for extraCting its virtue, as is practifed by the Chinefe, when they give it to fick perfons ; on which occafion they feldom ufe more than the fifth part of an ounce of the dried root. To prepare the root for exhibition they cut it into thin flices, and put it into an earthen pot well glazed, with about half a pint of water: the pot is to be well covered, and fet to boil over a gentle fire ; and, when the water is confumed to the quantity of a cupful, a little fugar is to be mixed with it, and to be drank ; immediately after this, as much more water is to be put to the remainder, and to be boiled as be- fore, to ex.ra¢t all the juice, and what remains of the {piri- tuous part of the root. Thefe two dofes are to be taken, the one in the morning, and the other in the evening. Phil. Tranf. N° 337, or Abridg. vol. iv. part i. p. 314, &c. Gin-feng has been confidered by the Chinefe as a power- ful aphrodifiac ; but a fact to the contrary is alleged by Dr. Cullen in his Mat. Med. v. ii. p. 261. Highly as the virtues of this root have been ex-olled by the Chinefe, and by others, upon their authority, we know of no proofs, fays Dr. Woodville (Med. Bot.), of its efficacy in Eurepe, and from its fenfible qualities, we judge it to poffefs very little power as a medicine. It is recommended in decoétion, viz. a dram of the root to be long boiled ina fufficient quan- tity of water for one dofe ; but it has been omitted in the lait edition of the London Pharmacopeia. GIO, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on the N. coaft of the ifland Shapinika. ) Gio, Sv., a town of Italy, in Friuli; 11 miles W. of Pal- ma la Nuova. = Gio di Fiore, St., a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 16 miles W.S.W. of Umbriatico. ‘ Gio in Pelago, St., aniflandin the gulf of Venice, near the coaft of Iftria. N. lat.g5? 1g’. KE. long. 13° 49/. GIOAR, inthe Alagteria Medica of the ancient Arabians, a word GIO a word applied to feyeral different fubftances, and fometimes ufed as the diltin names of them; fometimes only as an epithet tothem. It is generally ufed by Avicenna as a name for arfenic, fometimes for antimony ; and in Serapion, we often find it ftanding for any of the mineral poifors. The original meaning Gf thalsbrd sgyhb. mere than what. the Greeks expreffed by the word cciz, /ubjlance ; but it became applied to feveral things moft eminent in their way ; as to ar- fenic, the mott fatal of poifons ; to antimony, fuppofed at that time the mo/t valuable of medicines ; and to pearls, as the moft valuable of gems. GIOBAR, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Diarbekir ; zomiles N.W of Tecrit. GIOCONDO, Fray. Giovanni, in Biography, who flourifhed in the fixteenth century, was a native of Verona, where he taught the learned languages for a fubfiftence. Among his pupils was the celebrated Julius Czfar Scaliger. He afterwards became a monk, and was claimed as a bro- ther both by the Dominicans and Francifcans. He was ex- tremely learned in mathematics, and contributed much to the revival of claffical learning, by the colleétion of anciest monuments and manufcripts. He prefented to Lorenzo de Medici a collection of ancient inferiptions which he had com- piled in Rome. Giccendo was fome time at the court of the emperor Maximilian. He vifited France, and was em- ployed to build two bridges over the Seine. After this he obtained the title of Architeét-royal in France. ‘The time of his death has not been afcertained: it is fuppofed he did not furvive, very long, the year 1521, as he calls himfelf an old man, eight years before this, in the dedication of a work to Juliano de Medici. He materially ferved the caufe of literature by feveral works, which did him much credit as a writer, as they likewile extended his fame as an artitt. He publithed an edition of Pliny’s epiftles, and gave a cor- rect edition of Vitruvius, illuitrated with figures, which he dedicated to pope Julius If. He took a part in editing many other works of the ancients, and was the frft perfon who gave a defign of Cefar’s bridge over the Rhine. In 1506 he wrote four differtations, addreffed to the magiftracy ot Venice, concerning the waters of that city. He was em- ployed with Raphael and San Gallo in fuperintending the erectioa of St. Peter's. His laft work was, probably, the rebuilding of the ftone bridge of Verona. Gen. Biog. GIOFAR, At, in Geography, a town of Arabia; 8 miles S.S. E. of Rabogh. GIOGI, a town of Tranfilvania, fituated near the Ma- ros; 14 miles S. W. ot Millenbach. GIOJA, or Giova, Fravio, in Biography, was born at Pafitano, near Amalfi, in the kingdom of Naples, about the year 1300. Little is known of the hiltory of his life, except that he is thought to have been the difcoverer of the directive power of the magnet, by which it difpofes its peles along the meridian of every place, or nearly fo, and to have applied this important fact to the purpofes of nayi- gation, under the form of a compafs. As a proof that this inftrument was the invention of a fubject of the king of Naples, who was a junior branch of the royal family of France, it is faid he marked the north point with a fleur- Ge-lis, by which it is diftinguifhed by the people of every country. Asa memorial uF this difcovery, the territory of Principato, in which Gioja was born, bears, for its arms, a compals. It muit not, however, be concealed, that the French and the Englifh have claimed for themfelves the honour: and many authors of reputation have given it to the Chinefe, who are reported to have known its ufe long be- fore their intercourfe with Europeans, and that the fecret GIO was brought to Italy by Marco Polo. Moreri. See the ar- ticle Compass. Gioia, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province of Bari; 14 miles.S.S. W. of Converfano.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Abrazzo Ultra; 7 miles S. E. of Celano —Alfo, a town cf Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 7 miles S. of Nicotera. GIOMELU, abody of the {pahis, or horfe, in the fer- vice of the grand fignior. GIONI Piano, S¢. in Geography, a town of Naples, ix Capitanata; § miles S.S. W. of Lefina. SLORASH, a town of Arabia, in Yemen; 60 miles N. W. of Saade. : GIORDANI, Vira, in Biography, was born at Bi- tonto, a town belonging to the kingdom of Naples, in 1633. He was intended for the church, but deferted the ftudies neceflary for that profefion, and married when he had no means of providing for the fupport ofa family. After this he led an idle life, quarrelled with his relations, murdered. his brother, and fought for fafety by leaving his country. He entered asa common foldier on board the galleys, which pope Innocent X. fent againit the Turks in the Levant. He was prefent in feveral a¢tions, and gave abundant proofs of his courage and heroifm. His talents led him to promotion and he was made purfer, a fituation which obliged him to improve himfelf in arithmetic, of which he fcarcely knew, the elements. What his duty required him to learn, his inclination led him to purfue with pleafvre and delight 5, he became an able mathematician, and was at length chofen profeffor of mathematics to Chriftina, queen of Swe- den. Lewis XIV.appointed him profeffor of the fame branch of fcience in the Academy of Sculpture and Painting. This was in 1666, and in 1672 pope Clement X. made him his engineer, and profeflor at the College of Wifdom. By his great prudence, regularity, and temperance, he redeem- ed his character, and died in his 78th year. His principal works are “ Euclide Reflituto,”” 1686, folio. *¢ Funda- mentum Doéirine Motus Gravium,’’ and « Ad Hyacin- thum Chriitophorum Epiftola.”” Moreri. GIORDANO, Luca, an _ hittorical painter, born at Naples in 1629. His father was an artift of no great re- pute, who, fancying his fon Luca had an inclination to painting, employed him very early inthe practice of the art; by which means he acquired an uncommon facility of handling the pencil, and fucceeded in imitating the works of great mafters. By this, when very young, he gained for his parents confiderable wealth; and fo eager was his father to make advantage of his ingenuity, that he fearcely allowed the youth time to eat his meals, but was continually urging him to purfue his labours by repeating fo inceflantly Luca fa prefto, (Luca make ha/le,) that fa preito became his nick-name among his companions. His firft mafter of any note was Jofeph de Ribera, called Spagnoletto; to whofe ftyle he, for a time, fo much ad- hered, as to puzzle the moft difcerning critics. Prom Naples he removed to Rome, where he induflrioufly ftudied the noble remains of antiquity, and the works of eminent matters inthe art. He fixed himfelf unhappily with Pietro Cortona, by which it is probable his brilliant imagination was taught to expand itfelf in a more imperfe& and trifling manner than,it was originally capable of entertaining. His ready hand, and the freedom, boldnefs, and precifion of his touch, was exactly what Cortona required, and with him he wrought on many noble works in frefco; and was fo in- credibly expeditious in that way, that he could -difpatch as much work in a day, as any other painter could in a week. His imagination was exceedingly fertile; and this, with the readinefs of his hand, and the confequent abundance of 7 his Gio his productions, foon fpread his fame over Europe. The king of Spain (Charles If.) defiring to fee him paint, and to have the Efcurial adorned by his hand, invited him there, ordering him to be paid 1500 ducats de Plata for the voyage, and allowing him to freight the fhip that brought him over duty free. He alfo made him groom of the bed-chamber, honouring him with a golden key, but difpenfing with his attendance, that he might be more his own matter. Velafco fays, “ that it is impoflible to exprefs the num- ber aad beanty of his compofitions in Madrid, Toledo, and at the Efcurial: and that he employed only two years to paint ten arched cielings of the church aad ftaircafe of that alace. He was exceedingly induftrious, generally painting Ke or feven hours every day; and being highly favoured by the kins, became exceedingly rich. It was in 1692 he firlt arrived at Madrid, and did not return to Italy’ till 1702, when he accompanied Philip V.to Naples, and in 1704. died there. Previoully to his going into Spain ke had executeg nume- rous works m Rome, Genoa, Milan, and other places; and had produced a valt number of pictures in imitation of Titian, Tintoret, Giorgiene, &c. &c. wl hich are extremely correct, and exhibit the amazing power of his memory, and the verfatility of his genius. The extraordinary facility of painting which he pofleffed, enabled him tow ork with great fuecefs in frefco, as well as in oil. This very facility 1s, however, the caufe that Giordano’s works will never be re- garded as ftandards in the art of painting. Too grreat a de- cree of freedom is an enemy to gratideur of ityle, and the perfon who polleffes it 1s apt to be too ealily fatislied with his productions; and indulging himfelf in the pleafure afford- ed by the frefhnefs and clearnefs of colour and effect pro- duced by it, is unwilling to difturb it in order to render the parts more politively correct; and thus, though ever agrec- able, yet works wrought in this manner are too often fiimly and weak in their effect on the mind. Tis is the charac- ter of Luca Giordano, who, though a great mailer in the art, ranks only in a fecond or third rate. One of his mott confiderable productions is the altar-piece of the church of the Afcenfion at Naples, reprefenting the fall of Lucifer. And in the Durazzo Polaw at Genoa, is a fine picture of Seneea dying in the Bath; of which, alfo, there is a duph- cate in the gallery at Drefden. ; GIORGIEV, in Geography, a town of Walachia, on the N. fide of the Danube; jo miles S.W. of Bucharett. In June 1771, the Ruflians defeated the Turks near this town, killing 5000 of them, and taking 180 pieces of can- non, with artillery and baggage for 30,000 men, N. lat. 3° 38. E. long. 25° 18’. ‘ ; , GIORGIO Axrosiorro, in Biography, an Italian writer on mufic, who, having been a confiderable time in England, had a work entitled “ L’ Arte Armonica,”’ tranf- lated into Englifh, which he publifhed in two vols. folio, by fubfeription, under the title of «A Treatife on the Compo- fition of Mutic,” in three books, with an Introduétion on the Hiftory and Progrefs of Mufic from its beginning to this tine, written in Italian by Giorgio Antoniotto, and_tranf- lated into Englifh, 1760, printed by Johnfon, Cheap- fide. We had at this time no well digefted, clear, and ample treatife of compofition in our language. Morley’s treatife was become fearce, obfolete, and totally defeétive in every thing that concerns modern mufic. We had indeed Mal- colm’s treatife publifhed in 1721, and that of Dr. Pepufch in.1731. The firft is dark and awkwardly written; the fecond, though excellent as far as it goes, has fome preju- dices of the old fchool, which Were totally abandoned in G1o 1760, and it is too concife in many particulars to enlighten or fatisfy the doubts of young Students in many eflential points, which were now neceflary to be explained, and which in the year 1731 had no exiftence. Geminiani’s * Guida Ar:aonica,”’ fo long expected, and publithed about the year 1746, puzzled the caufe, and difappointed every reader. Much therefore was expected, even by profeffors, from a work in two vols. folio, written by a learned Ttalian, and nearly half the lit of fubfcribers confilted of the names of the principal compofers and organifts of the time. _ We had a miferable tranflation of Raraeau’s treatife, written originally in a mufical technica, totally different from that to which we were accuftomed, which, with the ungram- matical and bad Englifh to which the reft was tranflated, threw every one who attempted to read it into defpair. The fonatas and concertos of Corelli, publifhed in feore by Dr. Pepufch, and the works of Handel and Gemimani, for thofe who took the trouble to feore them, were excellent leffons of counterpoint, if they had been properly itudied. But 1 is attonifhing how long even great performers on in- {truments remain in utter ignorance of compofition. Jack James, Magnus, and Kilway, though admirable organilts, never attempted compolition, and if they had, after a cef- tain time, they would never have been fure of their ground, but even in making a bafe to a minuet or country dance would have difcovered to real judyes, that they were not regular bred contrapuntilts. Signor Antoniotto, we believe, was a perfect judge of the mechanical rules of harmony ; but his methed is not clear and intelligible to a itudent out of the reach of a matter. His introduction, and hiftorical account of the progrefs of mutfic from the fyftem of the Greeks to the pre- fent time, will amufe, though not accurately inflrué, curious readers. He afcribes to Guido the invention of harmony, and to John de Muris the invention of mufical charaéters, as had been long done by others, who, trufting to tradition, had never feen the Micrologus of Guido, nor the Compendium of John de Muris, by which it has been lately proved, that the laws of harmony were unknown to Guido, and that de Muris himfelf affigns the invention of mutical characters to Magif- ter Franco, who flourifhed 1047, near 300 years ‘ ; Biumenbach has claffed the produ&ts of fecretion on a fomewhat different principle. <“* The fecreted finids,” fays he, “ difplay on one hand fo much variety, while on the other they feem to be joined by fo many points of affinity. that their arrangement in claffes muft be in great ieee arbitrary. They may, however, be difpofed in the following order, according to the flighter or more effential changes and modifications which their elements, contained in Bhd mafs of the blood, undergo in the fecretory organs. “Milk may be placed in the firft rank, as coniifting apparently of a very fimp'e modification of chyle, and formed from the blood by a very eafy procefs after the influx of the chyle. The watery fecretions come next, fo called from their fluidity and tranfparency, although they differ ma- terially from water in the nature of their conftituent elements, particularly in containing a portion of albuminous coagu- lable matter—including the fluids of the eye; the tears, ‘the matter of perfpiration, the exhalations in the cellular fub- {tance, and in the thoracic and abdominal cavities, to which the liquor pericardii and the fluid of the ventricles feem to be analogous. “The urine, ordinarily referred to the aqueous fluids, is diftinguifhed by very remarkable peculiarities. "The falivary fluids, concerned in the fun€tions of maftication, digeftion, and chylification, feem to be rather more changed. Then follow the mucous fecretions, {pread over the fur- faces of moft of the vifcera belonging to the natural and generative fun@tions, as well as the cavities of the nofe, larynx, and refpiratory organs. The mvcus in the interior of the eye, as well as that under the epidermis, do not ap- pear to differ effentially from the preceding. Under the title of adipous fluids may be clafled, befides the common fat, the medulla of the bones, and the febaceous matter of the fkin (including alfo the cerumen of the ears). The greafy matter formed under the prepuce about the corona glandis of the mele, and the fimilar produ@tion in the fe- male pudenda, may be referred to the fame clafs; as well as the fecretion of the Meibomian palpebral glands. The liquor of the amnios, and the fynovial fluids, are commonly deemed gelatinous ; but their real nature is not yet under- ftood, neither is that of the fluid, hitherto unnamed, thrown out in the uterus under the venereal ftimulis, known. The fluid contained in the early months. of conception between the chorion and amnios, that of the veficula umbi- licalis, and that which furrounds the veflels of the umbilical chord, is as yet little underitood. The contents of the Graafian veficles, and the proflatic fluid, feem to be truly ferous or albuminous. ‘The male femen is quite a peculiar product, not to be compared to, or clafled with, any other : and the fame remark will hold good alfo of the bile.”’ In- ftitut. Phyfiolog. fect. 32. . wa he divifion of this able phyfiologift would be natural and inftruétive, if the animal fluids deviated from the nature of chyle by gradations which could be eafily ‘perceived and marked. But we really cannot eftablifh among them aay order correfponding to their natural compofition ; and the dif- ferences obfervable between chyle and fat, between the aqueous fluids and bile, conftitute intervals, which We can- not appreciate or meafure. Indeed there are often fo many differences and fo few relations between one fluid.and an- other, that we can fearcely compare them at all.” The vaft progrefs which chemiftry has made of late years, and the valuable difcoveries with which the analy fis ok GLAND. of animal fubftances, as well as other parts of the feience, has been enriched; might have led us to expeét that the clafiification of the fluids would have been reformed accord- ing to their conftituent principles, and ought into a con- dition correfponding to the reit of the feience. Fourcroy has indeed given fuch a diftribution of the fubject im his Elements of Chemiftry ; but he dees not feem to value the arrangement very highly, as he has not continued it in his lalt great work, the “¢ Syiteme des Connoiffances Chimniques.’’ In proportion as the various animal produéts are analyfed with more accuracy, they are found to pofiefs fpecific cha- raéters which diftinguifh them ioe: and there- fore render it impofflible to refer them without impropriety to any general heads: accordingly in the moft recent and able chemical works, they are enumerated and confidered feparately. Inthis point of view, therefore, the exactnefs and perfection of modern analyfis renders our attempts at a general arrangement of the animal fluids unavailing ; and 1t has only ferved hitherto to fhew the defects of fuch me- thods. Dumas, in his “ Principes de Phyfiologie,’’ adopts a dif- ferent plan, which he calls a natural phyfiological one, and to which he aferibes the advantage of connecting clofely the Knowledge of the fluids with that of their ufes. “ This method,’’ he obferves, “ which is the moft natural and ufeful of all, is to refer the fluids to the various organic fyftems in, which their fecretion takes place, to make a clafs of humours for each fyftem, to confider each of them as infeparable from the fyftem to which it belongs, and to condué the ftudy of both together. We fhall therefore have as many different claffes or {pecies of fluids as there are organic fyftems in the body. This fimple and natural method of confidering the fubject appears to me to be preferable to the more laboured arrangements founded on the effential na- ture and chemical compofition of the fluids, becaufe it is not expofed to that uncertainty, which the imperfection, the variations, and even the progrefs of our knowledge con- cerning the nature and properties of animal matters, mutt unavoidably occafion. It is, moreover, the moft eafy and mftru€tive way to confider the fecreted fluids in their rela- tions to the folid organs, with whofe functions they are concerned. The diftribution of the animal fluids with re- gard to the feven organic fy{tems of which the human hody is compofed, will be better underflood by prefenting it in atabular view, where their relations, influences, and ufes, will be immediately ‘perceptible. f Fluid of the ventricles of the brain, Aqueous, vitreous, and cryttalline humours of the eye, Tears, i Meibomian fecretion, Mucus of the nofe, Fluids of the nervous or fentitive fyftem. Cerumen, Fluid of the labyrinth of the ear, ( Saliva. ; Pid Of the mufcular’ or Fibrine, moving fy{ftem Merofity, BUY 4 Fat. Mucus of the trachea and air-vef- fels Of the vafcular or ca- } Fluid ‘Oe the pericardium, lorific fyitem. — pleura, | Pulmonary exhalation, ; | Blood. f Mueus of the mouth, pharynx, and ecfophagus, ftomach, ————— inteftines, kidney and bladder, Gattrie fluid, Panereatic fluid, Inteftinal Auid, Iexhalation of the abdominal c2- vity, Bile, Liquor of the renal capfules, | Urine. OF the vifceral fy fem | ororgans of fupply.) ( Refidue of all the fluids, and of Of the lymphatic oa pe OB, : < Lymph, colleéting fy{tem 1 Ss . Dern & 7 | Pat of the cellular tiffue,. Mucous fluid. ( Proftatic liquor, | Mucus of the urethra, —. vasina OF the fexual or repro- } Seminal fluid, split ductive fyftem. 5 Exhalation of the tunica vaginalis, Contents of the ovarian veficles | Liquor amnii; ( Meconium. Of the bony or fup- = orting fyftem. Sai P 8 °Y Synovia, Of the fluids ju! mentioned, fome are fecreted in-certain organs belonging to their refpective fyftems; e. gr. thofe of the conglomerate glands, of the glandular vifeera, &e. 3 others are formed over whole organic fyitems, without any particular apparatus, as the exhalation inthe cellular mem- brane, that of the circumferibed cavities, &c. ;- while others are not the produce .cf fecretion, but move freely through all parts of the fyftem: in which they are concerned, as the blood and contents of the abforbing fyltem. With the latter we have nothing to do at prefent ; neither does the organization, from which the fluids of the middle clafs are produced, come under our confideration in: this article, but it will be deferibed in InrEGuUMENTSs, Memerane, and CELLULAR SuBSTAxcz. The phyfiological theory of thefecretions-muft be founded on a perfect knowledge of the nature of the animal fluids, and qf:the Rrudture of the feeretory organs. The folution of the interefting problems arifing out of this fubjee&t, can be expected only from the union of anatomy, enlightened by jult views of phyfical feience, with chemiftry, fupported and directed by phyfiological obfervation. The fecretory organs are of various kinds, and preferve a conitant rela- tion to the kind of fecretion, and the manner in which it is effected. -Thofe fluids, which feem to be derived from the blood, with the leaft change, are not produced by a complicated organic apparatus. The exhalation, | which moiitens the furfaces.of the circumferibed | cavities, the aqueous vapour of the lungs, and the cutaneous perfpira- tion are formed by organic fyitems, compofed chiefly of vafeular ramifications, without poffefling any thing’ that is at all analogous to glandular ftru@ture. ~The arrangement of the fibrous tiffue of mufcles, ‘and of the bony fabric, ad- mit of the fame remark; if we fuppofe that thefe organs habitually fecrete fibrine or bony matter. But thefé are cafes, which come under the defcription of nutrition, and. inthis fenfe all_parts of the body may be called feeretory or- gans, GLAND. gans. The mucous fluids, which appear to differ more confiderably from the materials in the blood, are generally feparated by particular glands, which are called crypts or follicles, contained in the fubftance of the membranes or vifcera. But it feems probable, that thefe alfo may be feparated from the vafcular ramifications of a fimple mem- branous tifue without any exprefs glandular firucture, as in the cafe of feveral mucous membranes. It remains there- fore for us at prefent to explain, in a general way, the anatomical ftruéture of the various glands, by which the other animal fluids are fecreted. The glandular differs from moft other fyftems, in the animal economy, in this circumftance, that its peculiar tiffue is not exaétly identical in all the organs belonging to it. The fibres of any voluntary mufcle would ferve equally well to compofe any ether of the fame kind. Tendinous fibres, cartilaginous and bony ftructures, are the fame every where. The fubftance of the liver, on the contrary, 13 widely different from that of the kidney ; which again is very diftiné in its character from that of the falivary glands. The glandular fyitem, therefore, is marked in its various parts with very few general attributes, which alfo fuffer many exceptions, Situation, forms, divifion, Sc. of the glandular fyftem.— Glands have two different fituations in the body. Some are fubcutaneous, as the breafts and falivary glands ; others deeply feated, as the liver, kidnies, pancreas, and moft of the mucous glands, and confequently, not expofed to the aGtion of the external bodies. Many of them occupy fitua- tions where there is much motion, as the falivary glands near the jaw, the mucous in clofe contaé with a plane of mufcular fibres, the liver in the vicinity of the diaphragm, &c. Thefe fats have led to the fuppofition that the neighbouring motion, extraneous to their functions, determined the ex- cretion of the feereted fluids. But, in the firft place, the palatine glands, the pancreas, the tefticles, and even the kid- nies, are fo fituated, as to be out of the way of fuch external afliiance. And we obferve, further; that mucus is fecreted as abundantly by the pituitary membrane, as in any other part, although there is no mufcular plane here ; that the lining of the bladder produces an equally copious fupply, when the vifcus is paralytic; and that various caufes aug- ment the fecretions, without any conneétion with the circum- ftance firft alluded to, as fialagogue medicines, or the fight of food in the cafe of falivary glands. We cannot doubt, therefore, as Bordeu has obferved, that this mechanical caufe has nothing to do with the matter, and that the eflen- tial caufe of all excretion confifts in a peculiar vital aétion. Some glands are fingle, as the liver and pancreas ; others are arranged in pairs, as the kidnies, falivary, and lacrymal glands. The latter are fimilar on both fides of the body ; but the refemblance cannot be compared, in refpeét to its exa€inefs, to that of the double organs in the animal life. One kidney is lower than the other; their arteries, veins, and nerves, are not analogous in length or fize; often various notches exift in one, and not in the other: the fame obfervations will apply to the falivary glands. Generally the forms are not determined in a very certain manner in this fyftem: they are fubject to innumerable modifications in volume, dire€tion, and the different pro- portions ; and differ remarkably, in thefe refpects, from the precife and rigorous laws which govern the conformation of the organs of animal life. Take fome one organ, by way of example, from both lives. A fmall brain will be found to poffefs a corpus callofum, thalami optici, and cor- pora ftriata of correfponding fize ; while, on the contrary, a large liver often has a {mall Jobulus Spigelii, and vice ver/a. A kidney will often be larger in its upper portion only, or in the lower. Thefe variations in the animal life affect th whole organ: while they frequently are obferved in fome part only in the organic. Bichat, who makes this remark, endeavours to explain the faét, by his opinion concerning the neceffity of a harmony of a¢tion in the animal life. If one fide of the brain were developed more than the other ; if one eye, one ear, or one fide of the nofe exceeded the corre{ponding organs, the operations of the mind, the fenfe of fight, hearing or {melling, would be inevitably difturbed : while the fecretion of bile or urine would go on equally well, although fome particular part of the fecreting organs were proportionally larger or {maller than the others. The eer which are furrounded by membranes, as the liver, * The particles of glafs by annealing are fuppofed to lofe- pert of their fpringinefs, and their hatdeneia at the fame time. A gradual heating or cooling of glafs, according to Dr. Hook, anneals or reduces its parts to a texture more loofe, and eafy to be broke ; but withal more flexible than before. Andhence in fome meafure the phenomena of glafs- drops. Some of the phenomena depending on the fragility of un- anhealed glafs deferve the attention of the curious. Thofe ef the lachrymez, or glafs-drops, were among the firft taken notice of ; andit hasalfo been obferved, that hollow bells made of snemneaied glafs, with a fmall hole in them, will fly to piece§ by the heat of the hand only, if the hole by which the internal aud external air communicate be {topped with a finger. Phil. Tranf. N° 477. § 3. See Rupurr’s Drops. 2 But lately fome veffels made of fuch unannealed glafs have been difcovered, which have the remarkable property of refifting very hard ftrokes given from without, though they fhiver to pieces by the fhocks received. from the fall of very light and minute bodies dropped into their cavities. Of this kind’is the ** Bologna phial. » "Thefe glaffes may be niade of any fhape; all that needs be obferved in making them,’ is to take care that their bottoms may be thicker than their fides. Ke thicker the bottom is, the eafier do the glaffes break. One whofe bottom is three fingers breadth in thicknefs, flies with as much eafeat leaft as the thinneft glafs. Some of thefe veflels have been #ied with ftrokes of a mal- let fufficient to drive a nail into wood tolerably hard, ard have refitted fracture. They alfo refift the fhock of feveral heavy bodies let fall into dick cavities, from the height of two or three feet. -For inftance, mufket-balls, pieces of iron, or other metal; pyrites, jafper, wood, bone, &c. but this is not furprifing, as other glaffes of the fame fize do the fame. But the wonder i is, that taking a fhiver of flint of the fize of a finall pea, and letting it faliinto the glafs only from the height of three inches, in about two feconds the glafs flies, and fometimes in-the very moment’ of tlie fhock ; nay abit of flint, no larger than a grain, dropt into feveral glafies fuccefiively, though it did not imme diately break them, yet they ail flew, being fet by, in lefs than three quarters of an hour. Phil. Franf. ibid. p: $09. Some other bodies produce a like effeét with flint : for in- Rgnce, fapphire, porcelain, diamonds, hard tempered ‘fteel, ‘ as alfo marbles, fuch as boys play with ; to which add pearks from the animal kingdom. The experiment fu fu cceeded alfo sitica the glaffes were held in the hand, refted ona pillow, put in water,—or filled with water. It isalfo remarkable, that-the glafles broke upon their bottoms being flighthy ‘rubbed with the finger, though fome of them aids net fly till half an hour after the rubbing. It the elaffes be every where extremely thin, they do not break in thefe cireumftances. Some have pretended to account for thefe phenomenay by faying, that the bodies dropped into thefe veffels ‘caufe a concuffion, that is ftronger than the cohefion of the parts of the glafs, and that confequently a rupture of the fame muft enfue. But why does not a ball of gold, filver, iron, cop- per, or feveral other bodies, even a thoufand times heavier than a fhiver of flint, equally caufe this concuffion, and break the glaffes ? Mr. Euler has endeavoured to account for thefe appear- ances from his Principles of Percuffion. He thinks this experiment. entirely overthrows the opinion of thofe who meafure the force of percuffion by the vis viva; and he thinks the principles he has eftablifhed give a clear folu- tion of this phenomenon. According to thefe principles, the extreme hardnefs of the fitnt, axd alfo its angular figure, which makes the fpace of contact with the ae velfel ex- tremely fmall, Guplie to caufe an impreffion on the glafs vait- ly greater than) lead’or any other metal ; and this may ac- count for the flint’s brea! king the veffel, ‘though the bullet, even falling from a confiderable height, dees no damage. Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1745, p. 47- Hollow cups, made ‘of the green bottle-clafs, fome of them three inches thick at bottom, were inftantly broken, by a fhiver of flint weighing about two grains, though the had refifted the fhock of a mufket ball from the height of three feet. Phil. Tranf ibid. p. 515. «© The precife mechanical caufe of this difpofition to crack in unannealed glafs, is very difficult to explain,” fays Ajikin (Di&.., “ but generally fpeaking, it is fuppofed’ to be the forcible contraction of the outer part by fudden cool- ing, whilf the inner porticn is fill foft and half-fluid, fo that the whole fixes with a permanent ftram or inequality of preflure of one part upon the other ; and as glafs is extreme- ly elattic, though brittle, any force which tears afunder a portion, however {mall, of the tenfe ee communicates a {trong and fudden impulie over the whole mafs.”” “© This moft fingular phenome non,’’ (of the Rupert’s drop) fays the fame i ingenious chemi, in confequence of his own ex- periments, “ is obvioufly owing to fome permanent and very frong inequality of preilure; for when they are heated fo red, as to be foft and merely let to cool ef themfelves, this property of burfting is ‘entirely loft, and, at the fame time, the fpecific gravity of the drop is, in- creafed. The peculiar brittlenefs of the Bologna phial is alfo removed by again heating and cooling flowly.”” The common window-clafs, when badly annealed, is cut by the diamond with difficulty, and the cut often flies in a dire@tion different from what was intended, or the glafs en- tirely breaks. Among other more common defects of glafs, we may mention its liability to be a¢ted upon by corrotive liquors, as is the cafe when too much faline flux has been ufed. As i impe- netrable as glafs is to the common menitruums, we find it éaten by the air in length of time, when expofed in old win- dows ; but the effets of its being kept. in a fubterraneous place are much more ftrange. - Borrichius tells us, that.at the GAL AeSase the time when he was at Rome, there was dug up a whole houfe from under the kitcher garden of a citizen. The houfe had been buried there ten ages, and there were found in it feveral glafs urns, or lacrymatories. The glafs.of thefe had no holes made in it, as our old glafs in chamber-windows has, but {till retained its fmooth furface and tranfparence ; but it was fplit into a vaft number of thin laminz, which were as pellucid and fine as Mufcovy .glafs; and in fome places were tinged with all the beautiful colours that art could have given. We are not acquainted perfe@ly with the an- cient way of working .their glafs; but it .is. not probable there could be any thing particular in the formation of the veflel, to determine it to {plit thus into flakes; but that glafs of the fame kind, in any form, would haye done the fame. Borrich de Ortu Chemiz. There are ether vilible imperfeCtions in glafs, materially injuring its foundnefs and beauty, and enumerated by Aikin (Dict. art. Glafs) under the denominations of frie, threads, tears, and knots. "The former are undulating waves in the glafs, arifing from the imperfeét mixture of the materials, and their different {pecific gravities. Accordingly, we may obferve, that the moft tran{parent glafs is fubject to bubbles and veins, the methods of preventing which are yet little known; and this is an inconvenience by which Mr. Dol- lond’s excellent difcovery is affected ; for the flint-glafs which he ufesis peculiarly fubjeG to {mall veins, that difturb the rays intheir paffage, and render the vifion confufed. This effect 1s owing to the denfity of thefe veins being greater than that of the reft of the glafs, as appears from their image received on white paper, when the glafs is held between the paper and a candle, or other. luminous object : for this image of a vein, thus received, is a line brighter than the reft of the image of the glafs, and this bright line is defined by a dark ‘edge on each fide. But the bright line evidently fhews a convergency of rays, which can only be effected by the veins being denfer than the medium in which they are placed. The reafon why flint glafs ismore fubjeét to veins than other glafs is, fays the tranflator of Macquer’s Chemical DiGionary, becaufe it is compofed of materials of more different denfities. Mr. Macquer, with a view of improving the manufac- ture of this glafs, propofes to facilitate the union of the calx of lead and fand, of which it is compofed, by depriv- ing the calx of lead, as much as poffible, of its phlogifton, which may be dene by combining the vitriolic acid with mi- nium, or red-lead, and expofing this compofition to the opera- tion. of fire, to difengage it from the acid ; and alfo by giving thefe two fubitances the greateft poffible degrees of fiuidity and mobility, which may be done by mixing with the com- pofition of them a confiderable quantity of folvents. Hilt. Acad. Scienc. for 1773. } Thriads in glafs, are thofe ftreaky filaments which arife from the vitrification of the clay; being generally green, and rendering the glafs more liable to crack at thefe parts. But one of the worlt defeGts (fays Aikin, udi fupra), 1s “fears, or drops of vitrified clay falling down trem the furnace into the pots, and entangled with the glafs. Arti- cles made of glafs with this defect, are always very brittle, and generally break of themfelves by flight changes of heat and cold.’” Small bubbles appear in glafs not fufficiently re- fined by a continuance of the melting heat ; and thefe may be owing to adeficiency of flux, fo that the glafs is lefs fufible, and the bubbles cannat eafily be difengaged. «« Hence,”’ fays the author now cited, « the foft fufible Jaffes with much lead are much lefs liable to this fault than rake hard, green bottle-glafs, which is made only of alkali and earth.””? The £vofs in glafs “ arife either from a portion of fand that has efcaped vitrification, and remains entangled in the glafs, or froma remaining quantity of glafs-gall 3 or from bits of the crucible which may be accidentally knocked off by the iron inftruments ufed in the working.” GLass of Antimony. See Oxyds of ANvimony aad V1- TRUM Antimonii ceratum. . Guass, Axungia of. See Axuncia, SANpiveR, and Gass, fupra. Guass of Borax. See Borax. Grass, Colouring of, toimitate gems. See GEvis. Grass, Gold-coloured. 'This kind of ylafs may be made! by taking ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs, omitting the falt-petre ; and for every pound adding an ounce of calcined borax ; or, if this quantity doth not render the glafs fufficiently fufible, two ounces ; ten ounces of red tartar, of the deepeft colour, two ounces of manga- nefe, and two drams of charcoal of fallow, or any other foft kind. Precipitate of filver baked on glafs will ftain it yellow, and hikewife givea yellow colour on being mixed with and melted with forty or fifty times their weight of vitreous compofitions ; the precipitate from aqua-fortis_ by fixed al- kali feems to anfwer beft. Yellow glaffes may alfo be ob- tained with certain preparations of iron, particularly with Pruffian blue. But Dr. Lewis obferves, that the colour does not conitantly fucceed, nor approach to the high yellow of gold, with filver or with iron. he neareft imitations of gold which he has been able to produce, have been effeGed with antimony and lead. Equal parts of theyglafs of anti- mony, of flint calcined and powdered, and of minium, form- ed a glafs of ahigh yellow ; and with two parts of glafs of antimony, two of minium, and three of powdered flint, the colour approached {till more to that of gold. The laft com- polition exhibited a multitude of fmall fparkles interfperfed through its whole fubftance, which gave it a’ beautiful ap- pearance in the mafs, but were really imperfceétions, owing to air-bubbles. Neri directs, for a gold-yellow colour, one part of red tartar, and the fame quantity of manganefe, to be mixed with a hundred parts of frit. But Kunckel obferves, that thefe portions are faulty ; that one part, or one and a quar- ter of manganefe, is fufficient for a hundred of frit ; but that fix parts of tartar are hardly enough, unlefs the tartar is of a dark red colour, almoft blackifh ; and that he found it expedient to add to the tartar about a fourth of its weight of powdered charcoal. He adds, that the glafs {wells up very much in melting, andthat it muft. be left unftirred and worked as it {tands in fufion. Mr. Samuel More, in repeat- ing and varying this procefs, in order to render the colour more perfeét, found that the manganefe is entirely effential te the gold colour, and that the tartar is no otherwife of ufe, than in virtue of the coaly matter, to which it isin part re- duced by the fire; the phlogifton or inflammable part of the coal appearing in feveral experiments te be the direct ting- ing fubltance. Mr. Pott alfo, in his Neue Wichtige Phy- ficalifhch-Chymifche Materien, &c. printed in 1762, ob- ferves, that common coals give a yellow colour to. glafs; that different cozly matters differ in their tinging power ; _ that caput mortuum of foot and lamp-black anfwer better than common charcoal; and that the fparkling coal which remains in the retort after the rectification of the thick em- pyreumatic animal oils, is one of the moft active of thefe preparations. This preparation, he fays, powdered, and ~then burnt again a little in a clofe veffel, is excéllent for ting- ing glafs, and gives yellow, brown, reddifh, or blackith co- four; according to its quantity: but the frit muft not be very hard GLAS& hard of fufion; for, in-this cafe, the flrong fire will deftroy the.colouring fubftance before the glafs melts, and he has found the following compofitions to be nearly the belt ; viz. fand two parts, alkali three, garts ; or, fand two, ; alka- li three, calcined borax one;,pr fand two, alkali two, calcined borax ones and though falt-petre is hardly ufed at all, or very {paringly, for yellow glaffes, as it too much volatilizes the colouring fubltance ; yet here for the moft part a certain proportion of it, eafily determined by trial, is very neceffary ; for without it, the concentrated colouring matter isapt to make the glafs too dark, and even of an opaque pitchy blacknefs. It does not certainly appear that there is any material diverfity in the effects of different coals; the difference being probably owing to the different quantities of the inflammable matter which they contain 5 fo that a little more fhall be required of one kind than of an- other, for producing the fame degree of colour in the glafs. Nor does the faftnete or fufibility of the frit appear te be in - refpect neceffary. Ee oil {pangles may be diffufed through the fub- ftance of glafs, by mixing the yellow tales with powdered glafs, and ringing the mixture into fufion. See Lewis's Com. Phil. Techn. p. 223. 626, Ke. : Guass for counterfeiting lapis lazuli. See Lapis Lazutr. G ass refembling opal. See OPAL and Gens. Grass, Ruby. The way to give the true fine red of the ruby, with a fair tran{parence, to glafs, is as follows. Cal- cine in earthen veflels gold diffolved in aqua regia, the men- ftruum being evaporated by diflillation, more aqua regia added, and the abftra¢tion repeated five or fix times, till it becomes a red powder. This operation will require many days in a hot furnace ; when the powder 1s of a proper colour, take it out ; and when itis to be ufed, melt the finett cryftal glafs, and purify it, by often cafting it into water ; and then add, by {mall quantities, enough of this red powder to give it the true colour of a ruby, with an elegant and perfect tran{- parence. Neri. See Gems. H The procefs of tinging glafs and enamels by preparations of gold, were firft attempted about the beginning of the 17th eentury. Libavius, in one of his tracts, entitled Alchymia, printed in 1606, conjectures that the colour of the ruby pro- ceeds from gold, and that gold diffolved, and brought to red- nefs, might be made to communicate a like colour to factitious gems and glafs. On this principal Neri, in his « Art of Glafs,’’ dated 1611, gives the procefs above recited. Glau- ber, in 1648, publifhed a method of producing a red colour by gold, iu a matter which is of the vitreous kind, though not yertect glafs. For this purpofe he ground powdered flint or bed with four times its weight of fixed alkaline falt ; this mixture melts in a moderately ftrong fire, and when cold looks like glafs, but expofed to the air runs into a liquid ftate. On adding this liquor to folution of gold in aqua regia, the gold and flint precipitate together in form of a yellow owder, which by calcination becomes purple; by mix- ing this powder with three or four times its weight of the alkaliae folution of flint, drying the mixture, and melting it ina ftrong fire for an hour, a mals is obtained, ofa tranfparent ruby colour, and of a vitreous appearance, which neverthe- Jefs is foluble in water, or by the moifture of the air, on ac- count of the redundance of the falt. The honourable Mr. Boyle, in 2 work publifhed in 1680, mentions an experiment, in which a like colour was introduced into glafs without fufion; fer, having kept a mixture of gold and mercury in digeftion for fome months, the fire was at lait immoderately increafed, fo that the glafs burft with a violent explofion ; , and the lower part of the glafs was found tinged throughout of atranfparent red colour, hardiy to be equalled by that of rubies. See Porofity of Bodies, in Shaw’s Abridgment of Boyle’s Works, vol. i. p.459; and Appendix to the Scep- tical Chemilt. About the fame time Caffius is faid to have difcovered the precipitation of gold by tin, and that glafs might be tinged of aruby colour by melting it with this precipitate: though he does not appear, fays Dr. Lewis, from his treatife De Auro, to have been the difcoverer of either. He defcribes the preparation of the precipitate and itsufe, but gives no account of the manner of employing it ; only that he fays, one dram of gold, duly prepared, will tinge ten pounds of glafs. See Gorn precipitate awith tin. This procefs was foon after brought to perfection by Kunckel ; who fays, that one part of the precipitate is fufficient to give a ruby colour to 120 parts of glais, and a fenfible rednefs to upwards of 1900 parts ; but that the fucecfs is by no means conftant. Kunckel alfo mentions a purple-gold powder, refembling that of Neri, which he obtained by in- {piffating folution of gold to drynefs, abflracting from it frefh aqua regia three or four times, till the matter appears like oil; then precipitating with ilrong alkaline ley, and wathing the precipitate with water. By diffolving this pow- der in {pirit of falt, and precipitating it again, it becomes, he fays, extremely fair ; and in this ftate he diretis it to be mix- ed with adue proportion of Venice glafs. Orfchal in his treatife entitled Sol tine Vette, gives the following procefs for producing a very fine ruby. He di- rects the purple precipitate, made by tin, to be groundwith fix times its quantity of Venice-glats into a very fine powder, and this compound to be very caretully mingled with the frit or vitreous compofition to be tinged. His frit confifts of equal parts of borax, nitre, and fixed alkaline falt, and four times as much calcined flint as of each of the falts; but he gives no directions as to the proportion of the gold precipi- tate, or mode of fufion. Hellot defcribes a preparation, which mixed with Venice glafs, was found to give a beau- tiful purple enamel. This preparation confifts of equal parts of folution of gold, and of folution of zinc in aqua regia, mixed together with the addition of a volatile falt pre- pared from fal ammoniac, in quicklime, in fufficient quantity to precipitate the two metals. The precipitate is then gra- dually heated, till it acquires a violet colour. However, though a purple or red colour, approaching to that of ruby, may, by the methods above recited, be baked on glafs or enamels, and introduced into the mafs by fufion, the way of equally diffufing fuch a colour through a quautity of fluid glafs 1s fill, fays Dr. Lewis, a fecret. The following pro- cefs for making the ruby glafs was communicated to Dr. Lewis by an artift, who afcribed it to Kunckel. The gold is direéted to be diffolved in a mixture of one part of fpirit of falt, and three of aqua-fortis, and the tin in a mixture of one part of the former of thefe acids with two of the latter. The folution of gold being properly diluted with water (fee GoLp aS a &e.) the folution of tin is added, and the mixture left to itand tall the purple matter has fettled to the bottom. The colourlefs liquor is then poured off, and the purple fediment, while moift and not very thick, is thorougb- ly mixed with powdered flint or fand. This mixture is well ground with powdered nitre, tartar, borax, and arfenic, and the compound melted with a fuitable fire. The proportions of the ingredients are 2560 parts of fand, 384 of nitre, 240 of tartar, 240 of borax, 28 of arfenic, 5 of tin, and 5 of gold. Lewis’s Com. Phil. Techn. p. 171. 621, &e. GLAss, white-opague, and_fimi-tranfparent, may be made of ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs, and one Grrl ASSise ene pound of well calcined horn, ivory, or bone; or an opaque whitenefs may be given to glafs, by adding one pound of very white arfenic¢ to ten pounds of flint elals. Let them be well powdered and mixed, by grinding them together ; and then fufed witha moderate heat, till thev are thoroughly in- corporated. A elafs of this kind is made in larce quan- tities at a manufacture near London, and uled Bat only for different kinds.of veflels, but as a white ground for enamel in dial-plates and {nuff-boxes, which do not require finifhing with much fire, becaufe it becomes very white and fufible with a moderate heat. | i Guass, Yellow ~See Golden-coloured Gass. Guass-balls, whichare circular or otherwife fhaped hollow veffels of glafs, may be coloured within, fo as to imitate the femi-pellucid gems. The method of doing it is this.: taake a ftrong folution of ichthyocolla, or ifinglafs, in com- mon water, by boiling ; pour a quantity of ths while warm into the hollow of a white glafs veffel ; ‘fhake it thoroughly about, that all the fides may be wetted, and then pour off the reft of the moifture. Immediately after this, throw in red lead, fhake it and turn it about, throw it into many places with a tube, and the moiture will make it flick and run in waves and pretty figures. ‘Then throw in fome of the pain- ter’s blue fmalt, and make it run in waves in the ball’as the red-lead ; then do the fame with verdigris, next with orpi- ment, then with red lake, all well ground ; always catting in the colours in different places, and turning the glafs, that the moilture within may run them into the waves. Then take fine plafter of Paris, and put a quantity of it into the ball ; fhake' it alfo nimbly about ; this will every where flick firmly to the glafs, and give it a {trong inner coat, keeping all the colours on yery fairly and {trongly. Thefe are fet on frames of carved wood, and much efteem- ed as ornaments in many places.. Neri, Guass-drops. See Rurerr’s drops. Giass, FLoliating of. See Foxrrarina and Looxinc- GLASS. Giass-gall, or fandiver, is the fcum of the glafs pots, which arifes during the vitrification of the frit. See GLAss, Jfupra. Gass, gilding of. See GirpinG of enamel and gla/s. GLass, grinding of. See GRindING Guass-houje Furnace, is the place in which the ingredi- ents or materials of glafs are fuled and vitrified. There are three kinds of furnaces ufed in the glafs-works. The f1/, called the «¢ calcar,”’ ferves for preparing or calcining the frit. It is made like an oven, 10 feet long, ieven broad, and two deep. The fuel, which is fea-coal, is put ina trench, on one fide of the furnace ; and the flame reverberates from the roof back upon the frit. The coals burn in an iron grate, and the afhes fall thence into holes underneath. The fecond isthe working furnace,’ in which the ingre- dients are melted, and the glafs is made. Its figure is round, refembling a dome, three yards in diameter, and two high, fupported on arches, beneath which is a large {pace for a brifk and copious draught of cold air from without : round. the infide there are arranged eight or more pots, and on thefe piling-pots, every where clofed except at one fide opening, which communicates with a {mall recefs formed by the alter- nate projections of the mafonry and flues of the oven.or kiln, in which recefs the workmen itand. The furnace has two partitions ; the lower, feparating the pots fromthe fire-place, has a circular hole in the centre covered witha grate, through: which the flame paifes from the fire-place into the furnace, being afterwards reyerberated from the arched fides and roof to the melting-pots, and pailing out with the {moke through the top of thedome, which is lengthened into a.chimney for. the fpace of afew feet. The fecond partition divides this from the leer or annealing furnace ; through the boccas, or working holes, when there are more than one, the metal is taken out of the pots, ard the pots put into the furnace: thee boccas are {topped with moveable covers, made of Jute and brick to fereen the eyes of the workmen from the fire ; and fometimes on each fide of the bocea is a boccarella, out of which coloured glafs, or finer metal is taken from the pilmg- pot. ‘Tothe furnace likewife occafionally belong ovens, or holes near the leer, for the calcining of tartar, iron, &c. The leer; which ferves to anneal and cool the veffels, and which Agricola makes a particular furnace, confilts of a tower, belides the leer; the tower hes di-ectly over the melting furnace, with a partition betwixt them about a feot thick, having an aperture called occhio, or hunella, through which the flame or heat afcends out of the furnace into the tower: on the floor or bottom of this tower, the veffels, fafhioned by the artift, are fet to be annealed; and as the flame has here a lefs degree of intenfity than that which is fultained by the pots, the veffels, after they have been formed, cool flowly and gradually. This ‘has ufually two boccasy or mouths, by which the glaffes are put in with a fork, and placed on the floor. The /eer is an avenue, five or fix yards leng, continued to the tower; through this the glafles, when annealed, are drawn in iron pans, called fraches, by which they come to cool by degrees, being quite cold by: the time they reach the mouth of the leer, which enters the “ farofel,’’? or room where the glaffes are to be fet. Vhe third is the ‘¢ grecn-glafs furnace,” which is a kind of compeund of all the former. It is made fquare, (the two former being circular,) having an arch at each angle for an- nealing and cooling the glaffes, ‘The metal is wrought on two oppofite fides, and on the other two they haye their calcars, into which are made linnet-holes for the fire to come from the furnace, to bake the frit, and alfo to dif- charge the fmoke. Fires are made in the arches to anneal: the veffels, fo that the whole procefs is done in one furnace. The materials with which the infides of thefe furnaces: are conftruéted are not ordinary brick (which would foon melt down into glafs, as would alfo all the fofter itones,) but. hard and fandy kinds, called by Imperatus ‘ pyramachia. ” But when bricks are ufed, they fhould be formed of an earch which poffeffes in the highett degree the qualities: of denfity and infulibility, for refilting the fire, which continues to aét upon them, without ceffation for along time; as*the fires 1m a glafs-houle are feldom fuffered to go out, from the time when the furnace is’ firft employed till it needs repair, and. the interval may be two or three years; the walls of the fur- nace, for this reafon, as well as the pots, are conftructed: chiefly of clay, mixed with fand, and other materials ofta refractory kind, in due proportion. See GLAss-pots. Grass of lad, a glafs made with the addition of a large quantity of lead, of great ufe in the art of making counter-- feit gems. ‘The method of making it is this: put a large uantity of lead into a potter’s kiln, and keep it ina {tate of fufion with a moderate fire, till it is calcined.to a grey loofe powder: then fpread it in the kiln, and give it. a ereater heat, continually ftirring it to keep it from running into limps; continue this feveral hours, tll the powder be- come of a fair yellow; then take it out and fiftit fine: this is called calcined lead. oe "Take of this calcined lead fifteen pounds, and cryttalline, or other frit, twelve pounds; mix thefe as well as poilible together; put them into a pot, and fet them in the furnace for ten hours; then caft the whole, which will be now per- fe€tly melted, into water; feparate the loofe lead from it, and return the metal into the pot; and after ne in wion GLASS. fufion twelve hours more, it will be fit to work. It is very tender and brittle, and muft be worked with great care, taking it flowly out of the pot, and continually wetting-the marble it is wrought upon. Neri. It is well known, that cerufs, or white lead, minium, li- tharge, and all the other preparations and calces of lead, are-ealily fufed by a moderate fire, and formed into-a tranf- parent glafs of a deep yellow colour. But this glafs is fo penetrating and powerful a flux, that it is neceflary to give lt a greater confiftence, in order to render it fit for ufe. With this view, two parts of calx of lead, e. g- minium, and other parts of fand, or powdered flints, may be put into a crucible of refractory clay, and baked into a compact body. Let this crucible, well clofed with a luted lid, be placed in a melting furnace, and gradually heated, for an hour, or an hour and a half; and afterwards let the heat be increafed, fo as to obtain a complete fufion, and continued in that itate for the fame time: let this crucible remain to cool in the furnace, and when it is broken, a very tranfpa- rent yellow-coloured glafs will be found in it. Some add nitre and common falt to the above mixture, becaufe thefe falts promote the fufion and the more equal diftribution of the fand. This glafs of lead has a confiderable fpecific gra- vity, and its lowett part is always the heavieft. It is an im- portant flux in the aflays of ores to facilitate their {corifica- tions. Glafs of lead is capable of all the colours of the gems in very great perfe@tion. The methods of giving them are thefe: for green, take polverine frit twenty pounds, lead calcined fixteen pounds; fift both the powders very fine; then melt them inte a glafs, feparating the unmixed lead, by plunging the mafs in water; after this return it into the pot, and add brafs thrice calcined fix ounces, and one penny- weight of crocus martis made with vinegar; put this in at fix different times, always carefully mixing it together; let it finally fettle an hour, then mix it together, and take a proof of it; when the colour is right, let it itand eight hours, and then work it. If inftead of the calcined brafs the fame quantity of the caput mortuum of the vitriolum veneris be ufed, the green is yet much finer. For topaze-colour take cryftal frit fifteen pounds, cal- cined lead twelve pounds; mix them well together, by fift- ing the powders through a fine fieve; then fet them in a furnace not too hot, and feparate the fuperfluous unmixed lead, by cafting the whole into water: repeat this twice; then add half gold yellow glafs, and let them incorporate and purify, and they will be of the true and exaét colour of the original topazes. For fea-green, take eryftal frit fixteen pounds, calcined lead ten pounds; mix and fift them together, and fet them in a pot in a furnace: in twelve hours the whole will be melted; then cafk it into water and feparate it from the lopfe lead; put them into the furnace again for eight hours; then feparate the loofe lead by wafhing a fecond time, and return it to the pot for eight hours more.. Neri. See Gens. Cxass, Painting in. The primitive manner of painting in glafs was very fimple, and of confequence very eafy: it con- fied in the mere arrangement of pieces of glafs of different colours, in fome fort of fymmetry; and conttituted a kind of what we call Mo/zic work. Afterwards, when they came to attempt more regular de- figns, and even to reprefent figures raifed with all their fades, their whole addrefs went no farther than to the draw- ing the contours of the figures in black, with water colours, and hatching the draperies, after the fame manner, on glafies of the colour of the object intended to be painted. For the carnations, they chofe glafs of a bright red; upon which they defigned the principal lineaments of the face, &c. with black. At laft the tafte for this fort of painting being confider- ably improved, and_the art being found applicable to the adorning of churéhes, bafilicas, &c.they found means of incorporating the eoleurs with the glafsitfelf, by expofing them to a proper degree of fire, after the colours had beea laid on. A French painter at-Marfeilles is faid to have given the firft notion hereof, upon going to Rome, under the pontifi- cate of Julius II. But Albert Durer, and Lucas of Ley- den, were the firft that carried it to any height. The colours ufed in painting on glafs are very different from thofe ufed either in painting in oil, or water. The d/ack is made of two-thirds of fakes, or feales of iron, beaten up, and mixed with another third of rocaille, or little glafs beads. White, with fand, or little white peb- bles, calcined, pounded in a mortar, and afterwards ground on marble; with one fourth-part of falt-petre, added there- to, and the mixture calcined and pulverized oyer again: to which, when they are ready to ufe it, is added a little gyp- fum,-or plaiter of Paris well ground, &c. For yellow, they ufe leaf-filver ground, mixed up in a crucible, with fulphur or falt-petre; then well beaten and ground on a porphyry ftone; and, at length, ground over again with nine times as much red ochre. Red is made of litharge of filver, and {cales of iron, gum Arabic, ferretta, glafs-beads, and blood-itone, nearly in equal quantities. This is one of the moft difficult colours, and the preparation only to be learned by experience. Green is made of xs uftum, one ounce; as much black lead, and four ounces of white fand, incorporated by the fire. After calcination, they add a fourth part of falt-petre: after a fecond calcination, a fixth part more: after which they make a third coétion before it is ufed. Azure, purple, and violets, are prepared like green, only leaving out the xs uftum, and in the lieu thereof ufing fulphur for azure; perigueux for purple; and both thete drugs for violet. Carnations are made of ferretta and ro- caille. And laftly, colours for the hair, trunks of trees, &c. are made of ferretta, rocaille, &c. This account of colours we have from M. Felibien’s ex- cellent work Des Principes d’ArchiteCture, &c. though it muft be owned, that all the painters on glafs do not ufe them; there being few artifts of that kind but have in- vented their own particular ones, whereof they ufually make great fecrets. But this is certain, that thefe above defcribed are fufficient for the beft paintings of all forts ; provided the perfon has but the fkill to manage them. __ In the windows of divers ancient churches, chapels, col- leges, &c. we meet with the moft beautiful and@lively colours imaginable ; fuch as far exceed any ufed: among us: but itis not that the fecret of making thofe colours is loft; but that the moderns would not go to the ex- pence of them; nor take all the neceflary pains; becaufe this fort of painting is not now fo much efteemed as formerly. ; Mr. Walpole, in his Anecdotes of painting in England, has traced the hiftory of this art from the reformation, when mifguided zeal deitroyed moft of the monuments of it in our churches, through a feries of profeffors to the prefent time. Among the later proficients in this ‘art were Ifaac Oliver, who painted the windows at Chrift- church, Oxford, in 17¢0; William Price, who in the fame year painted the windows in Merton chapel ; William Price, the fon, to whofe art we owe. the windows at Queen's, New-college, and Maudlin, of whom Mr. Walpole fays, thai his colours are fine, his drawing 4 ; good, GLASS. good, and his tafte in ornaments and Mofaic far fuperior to any of his predeceflors, and equal to the antique. In 1761, Mr. Paterfon, an auctioneer late of Effex-houfe in London, exhibited the two firft auctions of painted glafs imported from Flanders; and undertook alfo to eftablifh a manufacture of painted glafs: feveral of the pieces of this ingenious artilt exhibited colours vying in perfe€tion with the old paintings. Thofe beautiful works, among the painters in glafs, which were made in the gla{s-houfe, were of two kinds: in fome, the colour was diffufed through the whole body of glafs ; in others, whieh were the more common, the colour was only on one fide, fearee penetrating within the fubitance above one-third of a line; though this was, more or lefs, according to the nature of the colour; the yellow being al- ways found to enter the deepeft. Thefe laft, though not fo ftrong and beautiful as the former, were of more advantage to the workmen ; becaufe, on the fame glafs, though already coloured, they could fhew other kinds of colours, where there was occafion to embroider draperies, enrich them with foliages, or reprefent other or- naments of gold, filver, &c. In order to this, they made ufe of emery ; grinding, or wearing down the furface of the glafs, till fuch time as they were got through the colour, to the clear glafs ; this done, they applied the proper colours on the other fide of the glafs. By this means the new colours were pre- vented from running and mixing among the former, when the glafles came to be expofed to the fire, as will hereafter be fhewn. When the intended ornaments were to appear white, or filvered, they contented themfelves to bare the glofs of its colour with emery, without applying any new colour at all ; and it was in this manner that they wrought the lights and heightenings on all kinds of colours. The painting with vitreous colours on glafs depends en- tirely on the fame principles as painting in enamel; and the manner of executing it is likewife the fame; except that in this the tranfpareney of the colours being indif- penfibly requifite, no fubftances can be ufed to form them but fuch as vitrify perfetly: and, therefore, the great object is to find a fet of colours, which are compofed of fuch fubitances, as, by the admixture of other bodies, may promote their vitrification and fufion; are capable of being converted into glafs; and melting, in that ftate, with lefs heat than is fufficient to melt fuch other kinds of glafs as may be chofen for the ground or body to be painted; te temper thefe colours, fo as to make them proper to be worked with a pencil; and to burn or reduce them “by heat, toa due ftate of fufion, without injuring or melting the glafs which conititutes the body painted. The firft thing to be done, in order to paint on glafs, in the modern way, is to defign, and even colour, the whole fubje& on paper. Then they make choice of pieces of glafs proper to receive the feveral parts, and proceed to divide or diftribute the defign itfelf, or the paper it is drawn on, into pieces fuitable to thofe of glafs; having always a view that the glafles may joi in the contours of the figures, and the folds of the draperies; that the carnations and other finer parts may not be damaged by the lead wherewith the pieces are to be joined toge- ther. The diitribution being made, they mark all the glafles, as well as papers, with letters, or numbers, that they may be known again; which done, applying each part of the defign on the glafs intended for it, they copy or transfer the defign upon this glafs, with the black colour, Vou. XVI. diluted in gum-water; by tracing and following all the lines and ftrokes, as they appear through the glafs, with the point of a pencil. When thefe firft ftrokes are well dried, which happens in about two days, the work being only in black and white, they give it a flight wafh over, with urine, gum Arabic, and a little black; and this feveral times repeat- ed, according as the fhades are defired to be heightened ; with this precaution, never to apply a new wafh, till the former is fufficiently dried. This done, the lights and rifings are given, by rubbing off the colour in the re{pec- tive places, with a wooden pomt or the handle of the pencil. As to the other colours above-mentioned, they are ufed with gum-water, much as in painting in miniature ; taking care to apply them lightly, for fear of effacing the out- lines of the defign; or even, for the greater fecurity, to apply them on the other fide, efpecially yellow, which is very pernicious to other colours, by blending there- with. And here too, as in pieces of black and white, parti- cular regard muft be always had, not to lay colour on co- lour, or lay on a new lay, till fuch time as the former are well dried. It may be added, that the yellow is the only colour that penetrates through the glafs, and incorporates therewith by the fire; the reft, and particularly the blue, which is very difficult to ufe, remaining on the furface, or at leaft entering very little. When the painting of all the pieces is finifhed, they are carried to the furnace or oven, to anneal or bake the colonrs. The furnace here ufed is fmall, built of brick, from eighteen to thirty inches fquare; at fix inches from the bottom is an aperture, to put in the fuel, and maintain the fire. Over this aper- ture is a grate, made of three fquare bars of iron, which traverfe the furnace, and divide it into two parts. Two inches above this partition is another little aperture, through which they take out pieces, to examine how the co¢tion goes forward. On the grate is placed a fquare earthen pan, fix or feven inches deep; and five or fix inches lefs, every way, than the perimeter of the furnace. On one fide hereof is a little aperture, through which to make the trials, placed dire€tly oppofite to that of the furnaces deftined for the fame end. In this pan are the pieces of glafs to be placed in the following manner ; firft, the bottom of the pan is covered with three ftrata, or layers of quicklime, pulverized ; thofe ftrata being feparated by two others, of old broken slafs: the defign whereof is to fecure the painted glafs from the too intenfe heat of the fire. This done, the glaffes are laid horizontally on the laft, or uppermott, layer of lime, The firft row of glafs, they cover over witha layer of the fame powder an inch deep ; and over this they lay an- other range of glaffes: and thus alternately, till the pan is quite full; taking care that the whole heap always ends with a layer of the lime-powder. ‘ The pan thus prepared, they cover ‘up the furnace with tiles, on a f{quare table of earthen-ware, clofely luted all round; only having five little apertures, one at each corner, and another in the middle, to ferve as chim- nies. Things thus difpofed, there remains nothing but to give the fire to the work. The fire for the two firit hours mutt be very moderate; and muft be increafed in proportion as the coction advances, for the fpace of ten or twelve hours; in which time it is ufually conmpleted. At lait, Uu the G‘L*A*S ‘6. the fire, which at firft was only of charcoal, is to be of dry wood; fo that the flame covers the whole pan, and even iffues out at the chimnies. During the laft hours, they make affays from time to time, by taking out pieces laid for that purpofe, through the little aperture of the furnace, and pan, to fee whe- ther the yellow be perfeét, and the other colours in good order. When the annealing is thought fufficient, they proceed with great hafte to extinguifh the frre, which otherwife would foon burn the colours, and break the glaffes. See ParnTine. : GLAss, painting on, by means of peints. wig. Gtass, poli/bing of. See PoursutxG and GrinpvInG. Gtass-porcelain, the name given by many to a modern invention of imitating the china-ware with glafs. The me- thod given by M. Reaumur, who was the firft that carried the attempt to any degree of perfection, is delivered by that gentleman in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, to this effect. This change of glafs was firft taken notice of by Neumann, who, in diftilling milk in a glafs retort, obferved, that the bottom of the veffel acquired the appearance of porcelain, which he attributes to the fine white earthy matter of the milk forced into the glafs by heat. Neum. Chem. Works by Dr. Lewis, p. 571- The mixing of glafs reduced to powder, with other lefs eafily vitrifiable fubitances for forming a pafte, to be after- wards made into a fort of a porcelain, has been a contrivance long practifed, but it is very troublefome, and the refult fubject to many faults; but this new ware is made of glafs alone, and that with much lefs trouble, and without the reducing it to powder. By this art, veffels of glafs are changed into vefiels of a fort of porcelain, without altering their form, and the meaneit glafs made only of fand, lime, ‘and faline afhes, ferves as well as the beft for that purpofe : eur common coarfe green quart-bottles, or the great bell glaffes with which gardeners cover their melons, &c. being by this means changeable into a beautiful white fort of por- celain ware ; and this is to be done in fo eafy a manner, and with fo fmall expence, that it requires no more trouble or charge, than that of baking a common vefiel of our coarfe earthen-ware ; and for this reafon the yeflels of this fort of ware may be afforded extremely cheap. It is very certain, that all porcelain ware is_a fubftance in the ftate of femi-vitrification: and in order to bring glafs, which is a wholly vitrified fubftance, into the condition of porcelain, there requires no more than to reduce it to a lefs perfeétly vitrified ftate. The quettion which would naturally be ftarted on this oc- cafion, is, whether it be poffible to reduce glafs to a lefs vitrified flate, it having already undergone what is efteemed the lait change by fire. But when we confider, that the mafs of antimony, the vitrifications ef many of the metals, as the glafs of lead, and the counterfeit gems coloured by the metals, are more or lefs eafily reduced again by che- miltry to metals, &c. the reducing of fand, flints, &c. after they are vitrified, at leait a little way back toward their native or priftine itate, may appear not wholly impracticable, and the attempts which M. Reaumur made on this occafion, were what gave him the firlt hints of the glafs-porcelain ; called from his name “ Reaumur’s porcelain.” The method of making it is this. The glafs veffels to be converted into procelain are to be put into a large earthen vellel, fuch as the common fine earthen difhes are baked in, or into fufficiently large crucibles ; the veflels are to be filled _ with a mixture of fine white fand, and of fine gypfum or plailer-ftone burnt into what is called plafter of Paris, and 3 See Back-pzint- all the interftices are to be filled up with the fame powders fo that the glafs veflels may no where touch either one an- other, or the fides of the veffel they are baked in. The veffel is to be then covered down and luted, and the fire does the reft of the work ; for this is only to be put into a common potter's furnace, and when it has ftood there the ufual time for the baking of the other veffels, it is to be taken out, and the whole contents will be found uo longer glafs, but con- verted into a white opaque fubftance, which is a very elegant porcelain, and has almoft the properties of that of China. Memoirs Acad. Sciences Par. 1739. The powder which has ferved once, will do again as well as frefh, and that for a great many times: nay, it feems, ever fo often. The caufe of this transformation, fays Mac- quer, is probably that the vitriolic acid of the gypfum quits its bafis of calcareous earth, and unites with the alkaline falt and faline earth of the glafs, with which it forms a kind of falt or felenites, differing from the calcareous felenites, by the interpofition of which matter the glafs acquires the qualities of porcelain. Dr. Lewis, from a variety of ex- periments on the nature and qualities, and method of pro- ducing this porcelain, has deduced the following conclu- fions: 1. Green glafs cemented with white fand received no change in a heat below ignition: in a low red-heat, the change proceeded very flowly ; but in a {trong red-heat, ap- proaching to whitenels, the thickeft pieces of glafs bottles were thoroughly changed in three hours. 2. The glafs fuftained the following progreffion of changes. Its furface firt became blue; its tranfparence was diminifhed, and when held between the light and the eye, it appeared of a yellowifh hue: afterwards it was changed a little way on both fides into a white fubftance, externally ftill blueifh: and as this change advanced {till farther and farther within the elafs, the colour of the vitreous part in the middle ap- proached nearer to yellow: the white coat was of a fine fibrous texture, and the fibres were difpofed nearly parallel to one another, and traniverfe to the thicknefs of the picce: by degrees the glais became throughout white and fibrous, the external blucifhnefs at the fame time going off, and being fucceeded by a dull whitifh or dun colour: by a full longer continuance in the fire, the fibres were changed Sedu from the external to the internal part, and converted into grams ; and the texture then was not unlike that of common porcelain, The grains, at firft fine and fomewhat glofly, appeared afterwards Jarger and duller, and at Jength the fubitance of the glafs became porous and friable, like a mafs of white fand flightiy cohering. 3. Concerning the qualities ef the converted glafs Dr. Lewis obferves, that the whitenefs of the internal part wes not inferior to that of porcelain, but that ies furface was the leaft beautiful; that the thick pieces were quite opaque, and that feveral thin pieces were femi-tranfparent: that while it remained in a fibrous ttate, its hardnefs became greater than that of glafs, or of the common kinds of porcelain; it was a of fuftaming fudden changes of heat and cold better than any porcelain ; and in a moderate whitc heat, it was fufible into a fubftance not fibrous, but vitreous and fmooth, like white enamel; that when its texture had been coarfely granulated, it was now much fofter and unfufible; and, laitly, that when fome coarfely granula:ed unfulible pieces which, with the continuance of a moderate heat, would have become porous and friable, were fuddenly exposed to an intenfe fire, they were rendered remarkably more compaG than before ; the folidity of fome of them being fuperior to that of any other ware. 4. No differences appeared in the internal colour, hardnefs, texture, or the regular fucceffion of changes, from the ufe of different cementing f{ubilances ; though GLASS. though in external appearances the differences were.confider- able. All the pieces which had been furrounded with char- coal or with foot were externally of a deep black colour, which did not difappear by expofare tga {trong fire during an hour, with free accefs of air. Colored clays and fands communicated different fhades of a brown, colour; and white earths gave whitifh, greyifh, or brownifh tinges. White fand, calcined flints, and gypfum, gave in general the greateft whitenefs, and tobacco-pipe clay the greatett gloffi- nefs and brightnefs. Glaffes compofed of earths without al- kaline falt, glafs of lead, flint-glafs, crown-clafs, looking- glafs plates, a glafs prepared with calcined flints and a fixed alkaline falt, and even green glafs which had been fufed toge- ther with a ninth part of alkaline falt, fuffered none of the above alterations by cementation. Green bottle-glafs and common window-olafs were molt fufceptible of thefe altera- tions. 6. The changes produced by cementation could not proceed from any abforption of matter from the cementing fubftance ; becaufe no increafe of weight was given, and becaufe the fame changes were produced upon a piece of elafs merely by heat, without any cementing fubitance. See Com. Phil. ‘Techn. p. 230—255. Mr. Gregory Watt, in his valuable paper on bafalt (Phil. Tranf. for 1804, cited by Aikin,) alleges this porcellanous change of glafs as an illuftration of his important principle, wiz. “that bodies whofe fibres have a natural tendency toa cryttalline arrangement, or a polarity, when vitrified by a fuificient heat and cooled hattily in the vitreous ftate, are able fubfequently to return to their natural cryttalline arrange- ment of fibre, when expofed to a heat merely fufficient to foften the texture, though not enough for fufion. This, in the inflance of bafalt, he fhews by the fingular cryttalli- zations farmed in the cells of fufed bafalt, long after it had loft the liquidity of fufion. The circumftance of no mate- rial change occurring in the weight of elafs by this conver- fion into the fibrous {tate, fhews inconteftably that it cannot be owing either to any thing gained during the procefs, nor to any material lofs of the alkali; and this is alfo rendered manifeft by its return to the vitreous {tate and vitreous quali- ties when again melted. This too may again be porcel- lanized in the fame way, and again be melted into glafs, and fo on alternately."’ See Porcetary. Guass-fots, the veflels in the glafs manufacture ufed for melting the glafs. Thofe for the white glafs works are made of atobacco-pipe clay, brought from the Ifle of Wight, which is firtt well wathed, then caleined, and afterwards ground to a fine powder ina mill; which being mixt with water, is then trod with the bare feet till it is of a proper confiftence, to mould with the hands into the proper fhape of the veffels. When thefe are thus made, they are after- wards annealed over the furnace. ‘Thofe for the green-glafs work are made of the nonfuch, and another fort of clay from Staflordthire ; they make thefe fo large as to hold three or four hundred weight of metal. And befides thefe, they have a {mall fort called piling pots, which they fet upon the larger, and which contain a finer and more nice metal fit for the niceft works. Neri. The clay that is ufed for this purpofe fhould be of the pureit and mott refractory kind, and well c'eanfed from all fandy, ferruginous, and pyritous matters ; and to this it will be proper to add ground crucibles, white fand, calcined flints duly levigated, or a certain proportion of the fame clay baked, and pounded not very finely. The quantity of baked clay that ought to be mixed with the crude clay, to prevent the pots from cracking when dried, or expofed to a great heat, is net abfolutely determined, but depends on the quality of the crude clay, which is more or lefs fat. M, D’ Antic, in a memoir on this fubje€t, propofes the follow- ing method of afcertaining it: the burnt and crude clay, being mixed in different proportions, fhould be forraed into cakes, one inch thick, and four inches long and wide. Let thefe cakes be flowly dried, and expofed to a violent heat, till they become as hard and as much contratted as poffible, and in this ftate be examined ; and the cake, he fays, which has fuffered a diminution of its bulk equal only to an eightecnth part, is made of the beft proportions. “He ob- ferves, in general, that moft clays require that the propor- tion of the burnt fhould be to the frefh as four to five. It is of great importance that the material of which the pots are made fhould be carefully feleCted, as they are ex- pofed to the action of a very fierce fire, and alfo to the fol- vent activity of the glafs with its powerful fluxes. They fhould alfo be made very thick and ftrong, as they are in- tended to laft for many months. When finifhed, they are placed in a warm room in order to difcharge their moi{ture, and any fmall fiffures arifing from the unequal fhrinking of the clay are clofed by gently beating with a mallet. They are afterwards gradually heated in a fmall oven, conftruéted for this purpofe, and flowly brought to a red heat ; and after remaining for fome time in this {tate, they are removed to the furnace, and fixed down in their places by fire-clay. Here, on account of a further fhrinking, they remain for a day or two before they are fit for receiving the glafs mate- rials. Pots of this kindare faid to laft, at an average, about a year. Giass Tubes are of various lengths, diameters, and forms, according to the purpofes to which they are applied. Thefe are often formed with the lamp and blow-pipe, in the manner deferibed under the article Lame-blwers. In this way tubes are fealed hermetically (fee Hermericat Seal), tubes are bent, others are joined, bulbs are annexed to tubes for thermometers, &c., and glafs is drawn out into threads. It has been obferved, that glafs tubes laid before the fire in an horizontal pofition, and with their extremities fup- ported, have had a rotatory motion about their axes; and alfo a progreflive motion towards the fire, even when their fupports are inclined from the fire, fo that the tubes will move a little upwards. See Phil. Tranf. N° 476. § 1. When the progreflive motion of the tube is topped by any obitacle, its motion about its axis will itill continue. When the tubes are placed in a nearly upright potture lean- ing to the right band, the motion will be from catt to weft; but if they lean to the left, the motion will be from weit te eaft; when the nearer they are placed to the perfectly up- right pofture, the lefs the motion will be either way. If the tube be placed horizontally on a glafs plane, the frarment, for inftance, of coach window-glafs, mitead of moving towards the fire, will move from it, and about its axis, in a contrary direétion to what it had done before. Nay, it will recede from the fire and move a little upwards, when the plane inclines towards the fire. Neither the draught of airup the chimney, not attraction or repulfion, are the caufe of thefe phenomena. It feems rather owing to the {welling of the tube towards the fire ; for allowing fuch {welling, gravity mutt pull the tube down, when fupported near its extremities horizontally ; and a frefh part beg expofed to the fre and {welling out again, mift fall down again, and fo on fucceflively ; which will produce a rotatory motion towards the fire. If the tube be fupported by two other tubes, and thefe be brought near to each other, and to the centre of the fup- ported tube, then its parts hanging over on each fide, being larger than the part which lies between the fupporters, will, (Ovi eis by GLASS. by their weight, pull downwards, and confequently force the middle part, refling upon its two props, upwards: and being lefs advanced towards the fire, as being lefs heated, will, by their oblique fituation, pull the middle part back- wards alfo from the fire, which will caufe a rotatory regreflive motion, quite contrary to what the tube had when fupported near its extremities. And when a fingle tube lies inclining oppofite to the fire, either to the right hand or to the left, out of a plane perpendicular to the furface of the fire, gra- vity will not permit the curved part to reft, but pull it down till it coincides with a plane perpendicular to the ho- rizon ; and confequently, as new curves are generated, new motions will be fo too; that is, the tube will be made to move about its axis, with this difference, when the tube in- clines to the right hand, the motion will be from eaft to weit ; when to the left hand, from weft to eaft. The juitnefs of this reafoning is made manifeft, by bending a wire, and fup- porting it firft near its extremities, then near its centre on each fide, afterwards inclining it to the right and to the left ; the bending in every cafe reprefenting the curved part of the tube next the fire. This folution of the phenomena is rendered the more probable from hence, that when four fupporters were made ufe of, one at each extremity, and two near the middle, there was no motion at all, either backward or forward. Nox does the increafe of contaét hinder the mo- tion, becaufe the plate of glafs was fo broad as to have a much greater contact with the tube, and yet both the rota- tory and regrefliye motions were manifett. Thefe experiments fucceeded beft with tubes about twenty or twenty-two inches long ; the diameter about one-tenth of an inch: and they had in each a pretty ftrong pin fixed in cork, for an axis to roll with on the fupporting tubes. Phil. Tranf. N° 476. Gass reecivers, how to cement the cracks of. See CEMENT and RECEIVER. . Grass, how to take the impreffion of antique gems in. See Gem. The property which glafs poffeffes in common with other fubftances of being expanded by heat, and contracted by cold, was long ago obferved and evinced by Mr. Hook. See Birch’s Hitt of the Royal Society, vol.i. p. 411. See ‘TrHeERMOMETER. - Grass, Laws relating to. No glafs fhall be imported into Ireland, other than the manufacture of Great Britain, on pain of forfeiting the fame, and fhip, and tos. a pound. 19 G. II. c. 12. If any foreign glafs fhall be landed or un- fhipped before entry and payment of the duties, or without warrant from the proper officer, the fame fhall be forfeited, or its value ; and the matter or other perfon having command of the veflel, and every other perfon concerned in fuch landing or unfhipping, fhall forfeit too/. 17 G. III. c. 39. And by 38 G. III. c. 33. for preventing the fraudulent importation of glafs, every package containing any plate or plates of glafs unframed, being plate, crown, or JSbeet giafs, which hall be imported, or brought into this kingdom for ex- portation, fhall be marked on the outfide in Roman letters four inches long at lealt, with the word Grass, on pain of forfeiture, together with the package, and all goods con- tamed in it. The mafter of the vefiel importing fuch package, fhall, in reporting his cargo, exprefs every {uch package of lafs, on pain of forfeiting the fame, and alfo 1o0/ Nor fhall any fuch package be imported, which fhall not contain 500 weight, on pain of forfeiture ; but not extending to any pat of glafs 60 inches in length or upwards, on account of the package not being marked. By 43 G. III. c. 69. For every 100 weight of materials, &c. that fhall be made ufe of in Great Britain for the making of plat: or flint gla/s, or enamel, flained, or paftegla/s, ot phial glafs, fhall be paid b the maker thereof 4 es 4 : fee wee eet aight oF materials ufed in making /pread window gla/s, commonly called broad glafs, 8s. 2d.; for every hundred weight of mate- rials ufed for making all other window glafs (not being fpread glafs), whether flafhed, or otherwile manufaétured, commonly called crowz glafs, or German fheet glafs, 11. 4s. 6d.5 for every hundred weight of materials ufed in making com- mon bottles (not being phials), and of veflels ufed in che- mical laboratories, and of garden glaffes, and of all other veffels or utenfils made of common bottle metal, 4s. 1d.; and for every hundred weight of plate glais, and of all other glafs manufaétures, which fhall be imported into Great Britain, the fame not being flafks, in which wine or oil is imported, nor foreign green glafs bottles, nor Irifh glafs, or glafs manufac- tures imported direétly from Ireland, tobe paid by theimporter before the landing thereof, 2/. 2s. And any glafs-maker fhall take out a licence, for which he fhall pay ro/., to be renewed annually ten days at leaft before the end of the year, on the penalty of so/. 24 G. III. c. 41. 43 G. IIL. c. 69. The place of making glais fhall be entered, before the com- mencement of manufacture, and all work-houfes, furnaces, pots, annealing arches, &c. &c. on pain of forfeiting 200/. 19 G. II. c. 12. 17 G. IIE. ¢. 39. 35 G. IIT. ¢. 114. Officers may enter and furvey, and mark pots; and any perfon counterfeiting or altering fuch mark, or conniving at its being done, fhall forfeit 5o0o/. ; or defacing, or caufing to be defaced or obliterated fuch mark, incurs a forfeiture of 2oo/. 35 G. III. c. 114. Notice of beginning to work fhall be given in writing, on pain of forfeiting 20/. 19 G. II. c. 12. And notice of filling every pot fhall be given twelve hours before the operation is begun, on pain of so/. 19 G. If. c. 12. 17 G. III. c. 39. Annealing arches are to be made of a certain form, and numbered, on pain of forfeiting 1oo/. Annealing arches are to be locked, except at certain times; and breaking fuch lock, &c. incurs a forfeiture of 2o0/. 35 G. III. c.114. The fame a&t comprehends feve- ral other provifions, enforced by certain penalties. Bottles are not to be removed till they are weighed, (penalty 100/.) which are to be kept feparate from thofe that are unweighed, on pain of forfeiting 50/. No phials, &c. are to be made in places entered for making common glafs bottles, on pain of forfeiting 200/. Entry fhall be made of the glafs manu- factured every month within the bills, and elfewhere every fix weeks, on pain of 20/. The maker, within the bills, fhall, in four weeks, and elfewhere in fix wecks after entry, pay off the duties, on pain of double duty. If glafs, fhipped for exportation, fhall be re-landed, it fhall be for- feited, and every perfon concerned therein fhall forfeit 1co0/, 17 G. III. c. 39. For the drawbacks on exportation of glafs, fee 43 G. III. c. 69. Obftructing officers in fe- curing the duties incurs a forfeiture of 50/. 19 G. II. ce. 12. 17 G. III. c. 39. Penalties are appropriated, half to the ufe of the king, and half to him that shall fue. Guass-Carrick Point, in Geography, « cape of Ireland, on the eaftern coait of the county of Wexford. N. lat. 52° 35’. W. long. 6° 124, Guass-Cafe, in Gardening, a light fort of ereétion formed with glafs fafhes in proper frame-work, moftly up- right in the front part and ends, but floping at top from a back wall, or other convenient building, to the fore-part ; the front, top, and both ends being of glafs-work. The fituation for this purpofe fhould face the {outh, in order to have the full influence of the fun. Conitruétions of this nature are ufeful for prote@ting many forts of curious tender plants in winter which want it only occalignally from fevere © fro{t, and other fimilar caufes. Buildings GLASS. Buildings of this kind may be conftruéted, occafionally, either againit fome ready-built fouth wall, which ferves for the back, all the other parts forward being wood-work and glafs; or detached in a fimilar fituation, fo as that the whole front may ftand to the fouth; the back being framed of brick-work, &c. or of wood double planked ; but the former is preferable; the whole being generally ranged lengthways, nearly inan eaft and weit direétion. The dimenfions may be from five or fix, to eight or ten feet in width, by ten, fifteen, or twenty feet in length or more, as may be required ; and from fix or eight, to ten feet high behind, by five or fix to feven or eight in the front, both ends in proportion withthe top, floping gradually, as quit noticed, from the back, having an entrance, or door, in front, or at oneend. The glafs-work fhould be made to flide readily backwards and forwards. Sometimes fire-flues are carried along the back and front internally, proceeding from an exterrial furnace, for occa- fional fire-heat in winter, which render them more conve- nient and ufeful for different purpofes. Thefe cafes, as mentioned above, are ufed as prefervatory departments, in which to winter many forts of curious exotics of the hardier green-houfe kinds, which only want protection from fevere cold, as well.as many choice kinds of ‘the open ground, which are rather tenderifh in their minor growth, or any other particular or curious hardy plants, whether flowers, fhrubs, or young trees, efpecially the choice evergreen kinds, which require effectual protection from the ravages of rigorous frofts or cutting winds, in winter or early fpring; and, at the fame time, in mild open weather, to enjoy the full air by opening the glafles; all which, being in pots, can be readily placed in this prefer- vatory at the approach of fevere weather, and be thus kept in good condition till fettled weather in fpring, &c.; then removed into the full air. In fummer and autumn, when unoccupied in this way, thefe cafes may be of fome utility to place fome curious kinds of tender plants in, when in flower for feeding, to guard them from heavy or inceffant rain, or cold night dews in autumn, which, in many forts retard, or fometimes wholly fruftrate their production of good feed, as in many forts of curious tender annuals ;_par- ticularly the fine double balfams, cock’s-combs, tricolors, double ftramoniums, diamond ficoides, and various others. They are alfo capable of being ufed in {pring and the early part of fummer, as in April, May, and June, as a kind of drawing-frames, for fome particular forts of curious annuals to bring them to a tall growth, fuch as the large or giant cock’s-combs, tricolors, double ftramoniums, dcuble-ttriped balfams, egg-plants, &c. the plants being firft raifed in hot-beds, under garden-frames, tll of twelve or fifteen inches growth, then a hot-bed made in the glafs- cafe, earthed at top, and the plants in pots, fingly plunged into the earth of it; the glaffes, in thefe cafes, fhould be fhut clofe, only a neceflary admifficn of frefh air beg given every day, by which they run up to a tall ftature in the beft < See Annual PLANTS. - perfection of ftrength for flowering. Thefe forts of glafs-cafes are alfo fometimes made -ufe of as a kind of appurtenances to hot-houfes, or ftoves, detached from them, having, as obferved above, internal flues for fire- heat, when neceflary, ferving as prefervatories for many forts of exotics, which are tenderer than common green-houfe plants, but do not require the con{lant full heat of the more tender hot-houfe kinds, but only the afliftance of moderate fire-heat in winter, in cold nights, or when very damp, cloudy, foggy-weather and fevere frofts prevail. They are fometimes ufed in the bufinels of forcing different kinds - ‘prove, or preferve the fight. of flowering plants and efculents, either by means of an internal bark-bed, or flues for fire-heat. When intended for this purpofe, it is convenient to have both an internal pit for a bark-bed, and flues for fire-heat, in order to ufe either feparately, or fometimes both, as may be found neceflary. See Hor-Housn, Guass-Faces, in Mining, is a term for the polithed fur- faces, or flickenfides, which are found in fome of the mineral veins in Derbythire, fomething like the polifhing which is {een often on the fides of faults. See SnickENsipE. Grass J/le, called alfo Scalpey, in Geography, one of the Hebrides, near the N.E. extremity of Harris. It is a {mall low, round ifland, covered with heath, and indented by the fea. Near its weftern extremity are two good natural har- bours, and on its eaft point a light-houfe was ere@ed A. D. 1788. It lies at the entrance of Eaft Loch Tarbot. N. lat. 57° 50’. W. long. 6° 4o!, Guass-Lead, in Mining, according to Mr. Mawe, “ Mine- ralogy of Derbythire,”’ p. 105, is an opaque waxy lead-ore found in that county : fometimes alfo it is tranfparent and cryttallized, appearing as though it had undergone the action of fire. Guass-Lough, in Geography, a lake of Ireland, in. the county of Moneghen, near which is a village of the fame name, about five miles from the town of Monechen. - The lake contains 120 acres ; anda wood, {preading over a fine bold hill, hangs down to the water in one deep fhade, the effeét of which is remarkably beautiful. The county around - is very fine. Young. GLAssEs are diftinguifhed, with regard to their form, ufe, &c. into various kinds, as drinking-glafles, optic-glafles, looking-glaffes, burning-glaffes, &c. - Grasses, Drinking, are fimple veffels of common glafs or cryftal, ufually made in form of an inverted cone. Each glafs confifts of three parts, viz. the calyx or bowl; the bottom, and the foot ; which are all wrought or blown feparately. Nothing can be more dexterous and expeditious than the manner wherein thefe parts are all blown; two of them opened, and all three joined together. An idea is only to be had thereof, by feeing them actually at work. The glafles chiefly ufed in England are made of the afhes of fern; cryttal glaffes being lefs frequent in ufes The exceeding brittlenefs of this commodity, notwithftanding the eafy rate of each glafs, renders the coniumption thereof very contiderable. For the method of gilding the edges of drink- ing-glafles, fee GitpinG on Enamel and Glafs. Guassrs, Metallic, in Chemifiry, are the oxyds, or fome- times the fulphuretted oxyds of the different metals, vitri- fied by heat. Guasses, Optic, are-thofe made ufe of to ftrengthen, im~ ~ See Opric Glafes. Guassws,. Convex. See Convexity. Grassrs, Concave. See Concave. Guass, Infernal. See IxFernat. . Gtasses, Lenticular.. See Leys. Grasses, Menifcus. See Meniscus, &c.¢ Guassrs, Plain. See PLAi~ Glajs. Grasses, Plano-Concavex See PLANO-CONCAVE, .. Guasses, Plaio-Convex. See PLANo-CoNveEN. « Giasses, Telefeope. . See Tixtescorr. GiAss, Olje@. Sce Onszer-Gla/s. Grasses, Eye. See Eyr-Gla/s. Grass, Magnifying.» See MAGNiryING, Grass, Multiplying. _ See MuLtiptying. : Guasses, Mufical. © SeeARmonica, . GLA Guass, Perfpedive. See Perspective. Guass, Lookmg. See Looxtxa-Gla/s, Mirror, and FortaTinc Grass, Burning. Guass, Weather. Grass, Cupping. Guass, Window. Grass, Axis of a. See Axis. Guass, Pole of a. See Pore. Guass, Hour. See Hoeur-Glaf. Gtass, Tin. See Bismutn. Grass, Watch. See Wartcit. ‘Grass-Wort. See Kari. Guass-Wort, Berry-Bearing, in Botany. See ANABASIS. Guiass-lVort, Jointed. See Saricorsxta and Kerr. GLASSHATTEN, or Grasirren, in Geography, a ‘town of Hungary, celebrated for its hot-baths, and having near it fome rich gold mines; 7 miles from Schemnitz. GLASS-HOUSE Bay, a bay on the E. coaft of New Holland, betweeen cape Moreton, and the Glafs-houfes, which are three hills, fo called by captain Ceok in 1770, fituated in S. lat. 26° 28! GLASSHUTTEN, a town of Saxony, near which is a filver mine ; 8 miles S. of Drefden. GLASSIUS, Sotomox, in Biography, was born in the year 1593, and it is fuppofed he was educated at Jena, where he was admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity, and for fome time filled the theological chair with diftin- guifhed reputation. He was appointed fuperintendant of the churches and fchools in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha, and exercifed the duties of his funGtion with prudence, equity, and impartiality. He died at Gotha in 1656, and left be- hind him, as a memorial of his fame and learning, a work publifhed in quarto in 1623, entitled << Philologia Sacra,” which is pronounced by Mofheim an ineftimable and immor- tal work, than which none can be more ufeful for the inter- pretatign of Scripture, as it throws much light upon the language and phrafeology of the mfpired writers, He was author, likewife, of “ Onomatologia Meffie Prophetica ;” “ Chriitologia Mofaica et Davidica ;” “ Exegefis Evange- liorum et E-piftolarnm,”’ and fome other pieces. Moreri. GLASSNEVIN, in Geogaphy, a village near Dublin, in Ireland, remarkable for the very extenfive and valuable botanical garden belonging to the Dublin fociety. See Duswin Society. GLASSY Humour. See Eve and Vitreous. GLASTONBURY, in Geography, a market town in the hundred of Glafton, and county of Somerfet, England, is fituated on the great road from Wells to Exeter. The feite occupied by it was originally called Ynyfwytryn, or the Glafs Ifland, and in Latin Avalonia. A town is .faid to have been built here, and largely en- dowed by king Ina about the year 708: in the next cen- tury it was laid wafte by the Danes, and rebuilt by king Edmund, who granted it many additional privileges. In 1184 it was de!troyed by fire, and was again refored by the munificence of Henry If. The chief celebrity attash- ed to the town was derived from its abbey ; which, during fix centuries, furpaffed in authority and revenues every other in England, excepting that of Weltminfter. The abbots enjoyed a ftate of regal fplendour, with aa income of nearly go,o00/ per annem, had tke title of lords, and fat with the barons‘in parliament. The abbey and, its offices occupied an area of lind of nearly fixty acres within the walls. The laft abbot, Richard Whiting, who was the fixtieth See Bunninc-Glaf. See Weatner-Gla/s. See CuprixG-G/a/s. See Wixpow and GLass, /upira. GLA in fucceffion, refufing to furrender his abbey .to king Henry VIII. was, with two of his monks, drawn on a hurdle to the Torr, near the town, and there hanged: the abbot’s head was fet on the gate of the abbey, and his quarters were fent to. Bath, Wells, Bridgewater, and Ucheier. It being traditionally recorded, that this was the burial place of king Arthur, Henry II. ordered a fearch to be made, when a leaden crofs was difcovered with a Latin in- {cription in rude charaéters, thus tranflated; “ Here lies the famous king Arthur, buried in the ifle of Avalon.” Beneath was found a coffin hollowed out of the folid rock, wherein were the bones of a human body, fuppofed to be thofe of Arthur; which were then depoiited in the church under a monument. Scarcely any veftice remains of thefe extenfive buildings, except fome ruins of the church, part of a chapel dedicated to Jofeph of Arimathea, and the abbot’s kitchen, which feems to be of a more recent ftruc- ture than the other offices. Among the religious relics with which the town and its environs abound, the moit confpicuous is the Torr, or St. Michael’s Tower (on which abbot Whiting was ex- ecuted,) ftanding on an eminence eait of the town, where was formerly a {mall oratory, dedicated to St. Michael the archangel. : The town of Glaftonbury confifts of two: principal ftreets, and is divided into two parifhes, St. John’s and St. Bene- dict’s. It was formerly a parliamentary borough, but was disfranchifed on the confifcation of the abbey in 1539. A charter of incorporation was granted by queen Anne, by which the civil government was veited in a mayor, a juitice, eight aldermen, and fixteen burgefles. The principal build- ings are the two parifh churches, two meeting-houfes, two alms-houfes, anda free fchool. The George, a refpectable inn, was anciently an hofpital for the accommadation of pil- grims reforting to the fhrine of St. Jofeph. In the centre of the town was formerly a large ftone crofs, originally appro- priated to fhelter perfons who attended the market. It was taken down about five years ago: but a plate and defcription are preferved in the firft volume of the Architec- tural Antiquities of Great Britain. Glaftonbury is 130 miles diitant from London ; has a market on Tuefdays, and four annual fairs: the population return, in 1807, was 410 houfes, and 2035 inhabitants, of whom only 104 were em- ployed in trade, which is chiefly that of manufacturing worlted itockings. South-weit of the town is Wearyall hill, fo called from a tradition that St. Jofeph and his companions, weary with their journey, relted here; and that St. Jofeph ftuck his hawthorn ftaffin the earth; it took root, and conitantly budded on Chriitmas day. This famous thorn had two trunks, of which one was deftroyed in queen Elizabeth’s reign, the other in the great rebellion: but there are trees, originally from the old itock, {ull growing in the gardens of Glaltonbury, and in various other parts of the king- dom. Collinfon’s Hilt..Somerfetfhire, 3 vols. 4to. Maton’s Weitera Counties, 2 vols. 8vo. GLASTONBURY, a townfhip of America, in the county of Bennington, and ftate of Vermont; having only 48 in- habitants.—Alfo, a handfome httle town in Hartford county, Conneéticut, fituated on the E. fide gf Connecticut river, op- polite to Weathersfield ; containing 2718 inhabitants. GLastonsury Thorn, in Botany. See Mespivus. GLASTUM, from the German word vie an old name for Woad; (fee Isaris.) Hence feveral plants have the {pecifie name of gia/lifolia, on account -of the fimilitude of their leaves to that herb, GLATT, GLA GLATT, in Geography, a river of Germany, which rans into the Neckar, 2 miles N. from Sultz in Wurtembere. Gratt, or Glalten, a town of Germany, in the county of Fueeer; 4 miles E. of Dorntftetten. Gurr, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the Rhine; 2 miles below Eglifau. GLATTEN, a mountain of Switzerland; S. S. W. of Glaris. ; GLATZ, a principality of Silefia, bordering on Bohe- mia, and furrounded by mountains. The internal territory is mountainous, interfected with vallies, meadows, corn-fields, woodlands and {mall rivers. It produces wheat, generally fufficient for its inhabitants, and has patture for a great number of cattle. It contains quarries of mill-ftones, free- ftone, and marble; as well as a great variety of precious ftones. It has alfo mines of coal, copper, and filver ; with feveral mineral {prings. From 1561 to 1742, Glatz was annexed to the crown of Bohemia; in 1742 it was ceded by the emprefs Maria Therefa to Frederick IL. king of Pruf- fia, and his heirs. It forms one circle, divided into fix dif- tricts. Guarz, the capital of the principality above-mentioned, is fituated on the Neiffe, and built on the fide of a moun- tain, having upon its fummit a {trong caftle. The town contains about 400 houfes within the walls, and as many in four fauxbourgs. It is a place of confiderable trade. It has been frequently pillaged and burnt; 54 miles E. of Breflau. N. lat. 50 16’. E. long. 16° 26’. Grarz Kogel, a mountain of Auttria; 12 miles S. of Steyr. GLAVACIA, a town of Walachia; 35 miles W. of Bucharett. GLAUBER, Jomy Ropoxrn, in Biography, a celebrated chemilt of Amfterdam, who was efteemed the Paracelfus of his age, was born in Germany in the beginning of the fixteenth century. He travelled much in the purfuit of chemical knowledge, and collected many fecret proceffes ; and his experiments contributed to throw much light on the compofition and analyfis of the metals, inflammable fub- ftances, and falts. In fact he paffed the greater part of his life in the laboratory. He did not always fee the proper application of his own experiments, and vainly fancied that he had difcovered the panacea, and the philofopher’s ttone, which were at that time objects of purfuit: and the dif- appointment of many perfons, who had been feduced by his promifes, contributed to bring the art of chemiitry into contempt. His theory is full of ob{curity ; but his practice has perhaps been mifreprefented by thofe who littened to his vain and pompous pretenfions ; and who accufe him of a difhonourable traffick, in firft felling his fecrets to chemifts at an enormous price, of again difpofing of them to other perfons, and laftly, of making them public in order to extend his reputation. Glauber publifhed about twenty treatifes ; in fome of which he appears in the character of phyfician, in others in that of an adept or metallurgiit; in the latter he moft particularly excelled. However, it would be un- juft not to give him the praife of acutenefs of mind, of facility and addrefs in the profecution of his experiments, and of extenfive chemical knowledge. He was the inventor of a falt, which to this day retains his name in the {hops of our apothecaries. The works of Glauber have appeared in different languages; the majority of editions are in German, fome in Latin, and others in French. with re- gard to other men, we ourfelves entertain no doubt. How- ever, there may be gleets of various kinds, and fome of them may be infeGtious, and others not fo. When, after a go- norrheea, a thin difcharge continues, for a long while, to take place from the urethra, the complaint may depend upon a weaknefs of the veflels, or, as Mr. Hunter exprefies it, upon a habit of a¢tion, which the parts have contracted. When a gleet arifes froma itricture in the paflage, or from a difeafe of the prottate gland, the caufe muit be referred to irritation, and the cure depends on the removal of the original com- plaint. Gleets, which are the confequence of gonorrhea, are often exceedingly difficult of cure, and what is very curious, it frequently happens, that, aba they have refilted every fart. of remedy, and after the patient has long given up the ufe of medicines and injections, a fudden cure fpontaneoufly occurs. Many gleets ‘undergo a temporary ftoppage under particular modes of treatment; but, as foon as this is re- mitted, regularly return again. A vait number of gleets depend upon the prefence of a {tricture in = urethra, and of courfe are not curable by injections. Ve have often thought that in all cafes of gleets, it thould 7 aie invariable cuilom of the furgeon to introduce a bougie, for the purpofe of afcertaining whether there is any obtlruétion in the paffage ; for, when the difcharge depends ona itricture, the patient might make ufe of balfams, turpentines, and bougies, for years, and. yet receive no benefit whatever. At all eyents, w henever a gleet refilts ordinary means, the itate of the urethra and of the prottate gland ought to be examined. #See Prostare GLAND, Difeafe of; and STRICTURE. Mr. Hunter was of opinion, that the {pontaneous difap- pearance of a gleet, after a long refiftance to every fort of medicine and application, very. mise -quently depe nded upon accidental changes in the patient? s conilitution. It was another fentiment of this celebrated furgeon, that fome gleets were connected with fcrofula. This idea is founded on the circumitance, that more gleets may be cured by fea bathing, than any other kind of bathing. It is alfo ‘fupported by the fact, of fea water being fometimes an effectual means of eure, when employed as an injeétion. We have always found fault with this plan of judging of the nature of difeafes.. If a diforder yields to mercury, _practitioners are apt to decide immediately, that the com- plaint is venereal. If a malady, like a gleet, gives way to fea bathing, which benefits ferofulous complaints, fuch furgeons, as reafon on Mr. Hunter's principles, will imme- diately fet down the cafe as ferofulous. It is never remem- bered in this calculation, that mercury cures many difeafes befides the venereal; and fo does fea bathing many. com- plaints befides thofe which are of a fcrofulous nature. Gleets have alfo been reprefented as always conneéted witha relaxed con{titution, though we think we have feen the complaint in fubjeéts, who were ftrong, robuft, and young, with every appearance of general health, and whofe ftate feemed to us a itriking contradiGtion te the foregoing obfer vation. Gleets, as we have before ftated, are often exceedingly dificult of removal. Sometimes, indeed, they may be got rid of with tolerable eafe ; but in other caneaieees they com- pletely fruftrate the art of furgery, and the patient, tired of the ineflicacy of different remedied, relinquifhes the trial of all. In flight cafes, and occafionally in inveterate ones, a cure may be effected by exhibiting mternally the balfam of copaiva, the oleum te rebinthine, or the tinGture of lytta (cantharides). It is we'll worthy of notice, that when a cure can be accomplithed by thefe means, benefit is foon derived from their employment. For this reafon, when they neither diminifh, nor remove the gleet in the courfe of five or fix days, Mr. Hunter made ita rule never to continue their ufe any longer, but have recourfe at once to other methods. We have already remarked the great tendency. of many gleets to return, after being for a time itopped by dif- ferent modes of treatment. Hence practitioners fhould never difcontinue the fuccefsful plan immediately the dif- charge ceafes, but perlilt in its adoption for ten days ora fortnight, after all the fymptoms have entirely gone off. In relaxed habits, gleets are very likely to be cured by the cold bath, fea bathing, bark and fteel: medicines. Cold bathing indeed often fucceeds in every kind of conilitution, when other:methods.areof no avail: .Welhayeieaaga trong young men labouring under gleets, who could not get rid of them in any way in London ; ; but who got well almoft imme- diately on going to the fea fide, and bathing there. "There can be no doubt alfo, that forte beneficial revolution in the fyttem, ariling from the change of air, might have a confi- derable fhare in the cure. We lately had under our care a gentleman with a gleet, which had laited nine months, but difappeared all at once on the patient going for a fhort time toa part of the country which was not near nthe fea. There are two principal kinds of injeétions im ufe for the cure of gleets, viz. altringent and irritating ones. The aitringent ones are, for the moit part, fuch as the decoction of bark, and folutions of zincum vitriolatum, alum, or acetite of lead. An injection of proper itrength, containing cuprum ‘vitriolatum, bolus gallicus, and camphor, is alfo an rexceeding y eligible one. The bet irritating injection which we know of, is that made by diffolving two grains of the hydrargyrus muriatus in eight ounces of diftilled. 4% ater. Bougies may alfo be confidered as a€ting on the urethra as irritating applications, and hence they are oceaiionally re. commended to be wornfor the cure of gleets. In general, common bougies are employed; but fometimes others, medi- cated with eamplior or turpentine, are ufed. In irritable conttitutions, the latter kind of injection anid the bougies may excite a good deal of irritation, pain, ftrarts gury, &c. fo that fome cireumfpection is neceffary in the employment of fuch means. We may itate, indeed, that no endeavour fhould ever be made to cure a gleet, by exciting irritation in the urethra with ttimulating mjections, or bou- gies, before milder means have failed. We have found a weak GLE weak injeClion of the hydrargyrus muriatus more frequently fuccefsful than any other. One grain to fix ounces of water is quite ftrong enough to begin with, and the {trength may be gradually augmented, in proportion as the urethra appears capable of bearing it. The practitioner muft not leave off the injection as foon as the difcharge ceafes ; for if he does fo, the gleet will generally recur. The plan fhould {till be followed up for about a fortnight. When gleets are to be cured by bougies, it is neceffary to wear thefe inftruments about a month or fix weeks before any dependence can be put in the permanence of the cure. Neither the furgeon nor the patient fhould be deterred from perfifting in the trial of irritating injections or bougies, by the circumftance of their appearing to increafe the dif- charge at firft. This they always do. Mr. Hunter thought that moderation and regularity in diet were conducive to the cure cf gleets. Soisa quiet kind of life in the generality of cafes, but there are inftances in which gleets feem to be benefited and cured by reugh exer- cife on horfeback. A return or an increafe of a gleet is very apt to be the confequence of intercourfe with women, and the patient often thinks that he has received a frefh infeCtion. Mr. Hunter thought that the cafe might be difcriminated by the fhort time which intervenes between the connection and the re-appearance of the difcharge. Gleets are often fo exceed- ingly obitinate, that the furgeon cannot be informed of too many modes and principles of cure. On this account we deem it right to mention that gleets feem to be curable on the principle of counter-irritation. Hunter has {een a gleet ftop on the breaking out of two chancres on the glans penis, and the difcharge has been known to flop as foon asa blifter was applied to the under part of the penis. Gleets have likewife been cured by ele¢tricity. Women are liable to gleets, and the difeafe being fituated in lefs irritable parts, whatever injections are ufed, may be made ftronger than for male patients. It is almoft unneceffary to remark, that balfams and tur- pentines, internally given, can have no fpecific effeét on the parts affected in women, as they have on the urethra in men. Hence it would be abfurd to prefcribe fuch medicines for female patients. GLEIBERG, or Guitzpere, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the principality of Naflan Weilburg; eight miles N E. of Wetzlar. ' GLEICHAN, a county of Germany, in the principa- lity of Gotha, divided between the princes of Gotha, Hohenloe, Hatzfield, and Schwartzburg, fituated on the banks of the Ohr, between Erfurt and Gotha. GLEICHEN, Freperic von, in Biography, was born in the year 1714. He was intended and educated for the profeflion of arms, and {pent the early part of his life as an officer in the fervice of Bayreuth, and was diftinguifhed by his attention to military difcipline. He rofe to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and obtained the favour of the mar- rave. His honours did not fit. eafy upon him, he fighed pies retirement, and in 1756 his wifhes were accomplithed ; he obtained a difmiffion from the fervice with a handfome pention, to which was afterwards added the rank of privy counfellor. He now had leifure to diftinguith himfelf as a philofopher, anaturalilt, and a writer, is attention was accidentally excited to microfcopical obfervations, and not fatisfied with the inftruments already in exiltence he con- ftruéted an univerfal microfcope, with which he combined the folar microfcope. His principal obferyations relate to feminal animalcula, and infusion animals: he would fit day VoL. XVL GEE after day at his glafs, and was always difpleafed if he ex- perienced any interruption while engaged in his favourite purfuit. By daily practice he had acquired uncommon acutenefs of fight, which was of the greateft advantage to him in his refearches. ‘Though he had an ardent attach- ment to {cience for the love of it, yet he devifed various eco- nomical plans, from which he expected to derive great emo- lument, but they were the fchemes of a theorift, and did not prove of real advantage either to himfelf or the world. He died in June 1783, leaving behind him numerous works in,natural hiftory, as ‘¢ Obfervations on the Parts of Frut- fication in Plants when in bloom, and on the Inle&s found in them :’’ ¢ Hiftory of the Common Houle Fly :’ “ Treatife on feminal Animalcula and infufion Animals ;’? “¢ Effay towards the Hiftory of the Tree-loufe of the Elm :”’ this infect, the aphis ulmi campeftris, coft our author the labour of eight years; it is the caufe of the bladders on the leaves of the elm-tree during the fpring. Gen. Biog, GLEICHENBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 1o miles N. of Racklfburg. GLEICHENBERGAN, or Gretcuem Bere, a town of Germany, in the county of Henneberg ; four miles E. of Romhild. GLEICHENIA, in Botany, named by the writer of this article in honour of Philip Frederick, Baron von Gleichen, author of a fplendid microfcopical work on the ftruéture and phyfiology of the parts of fructification in feveral plants, publifhed at Nuremberg, in folio, with coloured plates, in 1764. As the feeds of ferns were among the fubjeéts to which Baron Gleichen paid great attention, a genus belonging to this curious tribe was judged peculiarly proper to commemorate him. Smith in Mem. de l’Acad. de Turin, v. 5. 419. t. 9. f. Io, Traéts, 258. t. 1. f. 10. Swartz. Fil. 165. Brown. Prod. v. I. 160. (Mertenfia; Willden. in Aét. Holm. ann. 1804. 165. t. 4, 5. Swartz. Fil. 163.)—Clafs and order, Crypfo- gamia Filices: fe&. Aunulate. Nat. Ord. Filices dorfifere. Eff. Ch. Capfules in a fimple, concentric, orbicular feries ; each feries conitituting a round feparate dot, on the back of the leaf. Cover none. This genus was firft founded on the Onoclea polypodivides of Linnzus, an elegant and fingular fern, native of the Cape of Good Hope. In this the capfules are ufually three, rarely four together, half immerfed in the under fide of the frond, and as each burits by a longitudinal fiffure, they all together have exaétly the appearance of a fingle capfu'e, of three cells, and three valves, the partitions feeming to originate from the centre of each valve. Traces of a jointed ring appear on fome of the valves only, and rather refemble the corrugations of thofe ferns termed /purioufly arnulated, Several other fpecies, ftri€tly allied to the original one in habit and appearance, fo as to be at firft fight {carcely dif- tinguifhable from it, have been found in New Holland, and have been defined by Dr. Swartz and Mr. Brown, In thefe the capfules are not immerfed in the leaf, though each feries ftands in a flight depreffion. In G. dicarpa of Brown there are only two together ; in others three, four, or even fix. Thefe new difcovered fpecies evince the pro- priety of Mr. Brown’s meafure, of reducing the ATertenfia of Willdenow and Swartz to Gleichenia, as their fructifica- tions exactly agree. Dicranopteris of Bernhardi does not in our opinion fo well aflort with them, having an irregular accumulation of flalked capfules in each det, though its habit is precifely that of Mertenfiaz. Mr. Brown, having examined thefe ferns alive, determines them to be fur- nifhed with a complete, ftriated, tranfverfe, rarely oblique, ring. ae us Ny; €rs& Tis genus naturally divides itfelf into two fections. The original Gleichenia, of which there are five {pecies, have the ultimate branches of their repeatedly forked ftem pinnate, their leaflets or pinne deeply pinnatifid, with fhort, triangular, or rounded fegments, each fegment bearing a fingle dot or feries of capfules. The Mertenfie have their ultimate branches deeply pinnatifid, the fegments linear, with a row of numerous dots on each fide of the midrib of each fegment, efpecially at its lower half. Of thefe we are acquainted with five or fix fpecies, all natives of the Eaft or Welt Indies, or of New Holland and its neighbourhood. GLEICHENSTEIN, in Geography, a town and cattle of Germany, in the territory of Eichsfeld; feven miles S.E. of Heiligenftadt. ar GLEINSTOLLEN, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; miles S. E. of Voitfberg. : “4 GLEISS, a town of “Switzerland, in the Valais; 26 miles E. of Sion. nS 0 Ao GLEIWITZ, or Griwice, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Oppeln; 20 miles N. E. of Ratifbon. N. Jat. 50° 17’. E. long. 18° 35’. oe t ; GLEN Ruvrr, is a river of Lincolnfhire, which rifes near Ropfley, and purfues a courfe nearly S.5.E. to Brace- brough, when, turning fuddenly N. E., it pafles to Kates bridge and through the Fens, by Surfleet, to the fea at Fofdyke Wath; for the greater part of its courfe through the Fens this river is navigable for barges, a cir- cumftance which was over-looked in compiling the alpha- betical lift of inland navigatious in our article CANAL. The {mall river or drain called the Bourne, which branches from the Glen and proceeds up to Bourne town, is alfo navigable for fome diltance upwards. The South Forty- foot navigable drain commences very near to this river, below the mouth of the Bourne, and proceeds by a cir- cuitous route to Bofton. See Sourn Forry-roor. GLENAA, a mountain in the county of Kerry, Ireland. e KILLARNEY. SLENAN Istanps, a clufter of {mall iflands in the Atlantic, near the coaft of France. N. lat. 47°43’. W. ong. 3° 55’. CLENA RM, a poft towm of the county of Antrim, Ireland, on the ealt coaft of it, adjoiming which is Glenarm caftle, the feat of the countefs of Antrim. The town is pleafantly fituated on the fea-fhore, near the bay of the {ame name. It is 404 miles N. from Dublin, and 24 N. from Belfatt. GLENAVY, 2 poft-town of the county of Antrim, Treland, fituated near the eaftern border of Lough Neagh. It is 77 miles N. from Dublin on the road to Antrim. GLENCOE, a vale of Scotland, in the county of Ar- gyle, near Loch Leven, where, in the year 1691, the mha- pitants were maflacred contrary to the faith of a royal pro- clamation ; 17 miles N. of Inverary. GLENDALOUGH, GtanpeLoucn, or Glendalloch, commonly called the Seven Churches, an interefting object to travellers in the county of Wicklow, Ireland, 22 miles S. from Dublin, and about feven or eight miles weft from Rathdrum. Its name is derived, aceording to Mr. Ledwich, from its being fituated in a valley with lakes, from glen, a valley, and Joch, a lake. ‘That this was the true origin of the name feems to be confirmed by Hoyeden, who was chaplain to Henry II., and who calls it equivalently in Latin, Epifcopatus Biftagnenfis, the bifhopric of the two lakes. Glendalough is furrounded on all fides, except to the eait, by ftupendous mountains, whofe vaft perpendicular height throws a gloom on the vale below, well fuited to infpire religious dread, Tree thefe, many mountain- GLE ftreams fall into the valley, and, forming a juntion, affume the name of Avonmore. One of thefe ftreams, called St. Kevin's keeve, is ftill an objet of fuperftition; weak and fickly children being dipped in it every Sunday and Thurf- day before fun-rife, and on the third of June, which is St. Kevin’s day. he two lakes in the vale are divided from each other by a rich meadow; the reft of the foil is fo rocky as to be incapable of tillage by the plough. The names of the adjoining mountains, in which the word Derry often occurs, are fuppofed to denote that they were formerly covered with wood ; at prefent they have only brown heath, or more fable peat. Between the cathedral and’ upper lake isa group of thorns of great fize; and near the cathedral the trunk of an aged yew, which meafures three yards in diameter. From the remains of walls above, and the traces of foundations below the furface of the earth, the town is fuppofed to have been once pretty large, but the only ftreet appearing is the road leading from the market place into the county of Kildare. It isin good prefervation, being paved with ftones placed edgewife, and ten feet inbreadth. There are feven churches of coniiderable antiquity, and fome chapels which appear to be of later conftruétion. St. Kevin was the patron jaint, and his name confequently is given to many of the furrounding objects. He is faid to haye founded the town. or monaftery in the fixth century ; but Ledwich attributes the ere@ion to the Oftmen, who infefted Ireland, in the ninth century. Some figures in a chapel, containing the tomb of St. Kevin, furnifh fome plau- fible arguments in fupport of this opinion. There are two round towers at Glendalough, both of which are adjoining churches, but neither the cathedral nor abbey has fuch an addition, theugh if a belfry were the objeé& of thefe build- ings, the preference would probably have been given to- them. Thefe towers were alfo, in Mr. Ledwich’s opinion, the work of the Oftmen. The arguments for and againft this opinion will be confidered under the article Rounp Towers. A monattery having been founded here, and the fuppofed miracles of St. Kevin having been proclaimed, numbers flocked to his fhrine ; as Girald Cambrenfis fays, in what had been a barren wildernefs, were to be found, after a few years, not only churches and good houfes, but much wealth. According to the Ivifh annals, the town thus founded was often plundered by the piratical freebooters of the north, who, as they fubfifted folely by depredations,. without reluctance, frequently pillaged their own country men. In 1162, Laurence O'Toole, afterwards archbifhop- of Dublin, was eleéted abbot ; and in a few years after earl Strongbow granted the abbey and parfonage to Thomas,. the nephew of Laurence. he charter is one of the moft valuable and ancient in Ireland, as it preferves the pofleffions, privileges, and immunities of the abbey. Previous to this, Glendalough had alfo had a bifhop ; but, in 1152, Cardinal. Paparon endeavoured to unite it to the fee of Dublin. This was refifted, and, in 1179, pope Alexarder III. confirmed. the city to its bifhop, faving the rights of the abbot. A letter, written in 1214, is quoted by Ledwich, to flew that. Glendalough was at that time become a neft of thieves and robbers. In the reign of king John, the fee was united to that of Dublin ; but the fe@ of the O’ Tooles, who were very powerful, kept it, in fome degree, independent until 1497,, when the bifhop formally furrendered his right and claim in the Chapter-houfe of St. Patrick, Dublin. he Seven Churches, when -approached: by the bridge of Derrybawn, . form a very picturefque and pleafing feene. The bridge is thrown over the Avonmore, and is compofed of three ellip- tic arches. Derrybawn, covered to a great extent with an oak coppice on one fide, and the huge broccagh on the other, . GLI other, confines the view up the river to the valley; at the end of which the great round tower, and the other ruins, appear to great advantage. As the new military road has made Glendalough eafily acceflible, it-is frequently vifited by travellers. Ledwich’s Antiquities. GLENE, Paw, properly fignifies the cavity or focket of the eye. GLENE is more frequently ufed by anatomifts for the fhal- lower cavities of bones, into which fome other bone is received and articulated. By which it ftands diftinguifhed from cotyle or acetabulum, which is a deeper cavity, intended by nature for the like purpofe. GLENEGAD Heap, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, in the peninfula of Inis Lowen, county of Donegal. W. long. 7° 41! from Greenwich, N. lat. 55° 20'. GLENGARRIFY, a harbour of Ireland, in the county of Cork, on the north-eait part of Bantry-bay. The ar- butus grows in this neighbourhood in great perfection. GLENGARRY, the name of a countyin Upper Canada, bounded on the E. by the line which feparates Upper from Lower Canada; on the S. by the river St. Lawrence ; and on the W. by the townfhip of Cornwall, running N. 24° W.., until it interfeéts the Ottawa or Grand river, thence defcending the faid river till it meets the fore-mentioned feparating line. Glengary county comprehends all the iflands contiguous to it in the river St. Lawrence. GLENICZA, a river of the duchy of Warfaw, which runs into the Obra, near Koften. GLENKEN’s Canat, is the parliamentary name of an inland navigation, made fince the year 1802, in Kirkcud- bright county in Scotland. See Cana. GLENLUCE, a town of Scotland, in the county of Wigton, which fprang from an abbey of Ciftertians, founded in 1190, called ¢ Vallis Lucis.”? It is fituated at the northern extremity of a large bay to which it gives name ; 18 miles W. of Wigton. N. lat. 54° 58’. W. long. 4°27'. The bay extends on the S. coaft of Scotland from the Mull of Galloway to Burrowhead, N. lat. 54° 50!. W. long. 4° 50’. GLENMORE, a {mall ifland on the W. coaft of Scot- Jand, at the mouth of Loch Suart. N. lat. 56° 38'. GLENOID, in Anatomy, from yan, the articular cavity of a bone, and «3o:, form, a term applied: to certain arti- eular furfaces, particularly where the hollow is not deep. GLERS, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the county of Tyrol; 21 miles W. of Bolzano. : GLESE, a river of Louifiana, which runs into the Miflifippi, N. lat. 37° 15'. W. long. go® 14/. GLESUM, or Grisum, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by many of the ancients to the common yellow amber orfuccinum. Yhe word feems to have been originally German, and to have been adopted by the Romans in their conquetts in that part of the world. They feem to have ufed the word in general for any tranfparent fubftance, and thence to have applied it to amber as a tranfparent ftone. See GLass. GLETCHERHORYN, in Geography. See JoNGrRAU. GLIANY, a town of Poland, in Galicia; 20 miles E. of Lemberg. GLIESA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 25 miles W.N. W.. of ‘Tornea. GLIGVI, atown of Afia, in Dageftan; go miles N. of Teflis, GLIKEON, a town of European Turkey, in the pro- wince of Epire; 26 miles W. of Arta. GLIMS Horm, one of the fmall Orkney iflands, which GLit affords paftures ; 2 miles S. of Pomona, between that and Barray. GLIMMER, or Cart-sitven, in Mineralogy, according to Dr. Woodward, ** Method of Foffils,’’ p. 14, are names for Mica, which fee. Gliit, fpangles, daze, and filver, are other names by which the miners and quarrymen defignate the fhining plates of this fub{tance which they meet with dif- perfed in the earths and ftones in their works. The late Mr. William Martin obferves, “ Outlines,”’ p. 141, “ Glim- mer 1s frequently difperfed through the fand-ftones and clay, forming vegetable petrifactions, but never conftitutes their whole fubitance.’? In Derbythire, it is not uncommon to find nodules, or round nefts or mafles of mica, in thin and feparate plates, in the firft, or millftone grit, which fall out on expofure, and Jeave !pherical holes, a circum- {tance which has, according to Mr. Farey, given rife to rock-bafins or holes on the tops of large loafe blocks of {tone where the water ftands in many inftances after rain, but not perpetually, as the vulgar opinion 1s. See RocK- Basins. GLINA, in Geography, a river of Croatia, which runs into the Save ; 12 miles W. of Patrinia. GLINLOUGH, a lake of Ireland, in the northern part of the county of Leitrim, from which a {mall river flows to Sligo bay. GLINNINO, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Novogorod, on the Mita; 12 miles S. E. of Borovitchi. GLINSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Tchernigof, on the river Sula; 80 miles S. E. of Tcher- nigof. GLINUS, in Botany, derives its name from yawos or yazwozy a word ufed by Theophraftus, and denoting a kind of maple, though we cannot trace any fimilitude between that tree and the little herbaceous plant, to which the name was applied by Loefling ; but it was adopted by Linnzus. —Linn. Gen. 243. Schreb. 328. Loefl. Iter. 145. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 929. Mart. Mill. Did. v.2. La- marck Dict. v. 2.728. Gertn.t. 130. Juff. 316.—Clafs andorder, Dodecandria Pentagynia. Nat, Ord. Caryophyllety Linn. Ficoidee, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, acute, concave leaves, coloured within, permanent, and downy. Cor. none; neétaries about five, refembling narrow petals, fhorter than the calyx, and unequally two or three-cleft. Stam. Filaments about fifteen, awl-fhaped, flat, as long as the calyx; anthers incumbent, oblong, comprefled, two lobed. if. Germen of five fides ; ftyles five, fhort; flig- mas fimple. Peric. Capfule ovate, with five cells, five fides, and five valves. Seeds numerous, roundifh, in a fingle row at the bafe of the valves, tubercled, each attached by a long thread-like italk. Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla none. Neétaries cloyen briftles. Capfule five-cornered, five-celled, five-valvedy with many feeds. 1. G. /otoides. Linn, Sp. Pl. 663. Burm. Ind. rtz. t. 36. f. 1. “ Stemhairy. Leaves obovate.’’— Native of Spain, and found by Loefling in a gravelly foil near Tala- vera del Badajoz, alfo in a dried-up rivulet between Merida and Truxillo. Root annual. Stems procumbent, jointed, hairy. eaves obovate, on foot-italks, Flowers nearly feffile, crowded together, fometimes on very fhort hairy ttalks. A figure of this fpecies is deftined to appear in the Flora Greca, t. 472, froma drawing made at Smyrna, and from which it appears that what Gertner confidered as petals, ave more probably neédaries, as not being external to the flamens; after all, they ought perhaps to be called Y yi2 burreg G i; I barren filaments. "They feem, from the dried {pecimens, to be ranged alternately with the real ftamens. 2. G. didamnaides. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 929. Pluk. Amal. ro. t. 356. f.6.—“ Leaves round, hairy. Stem fhrubby, proftrate. Leaflets of the calyx Janceolate.’?— Native of India. It feems doubtful whether G. didam- noides be not merely a variety of /ofcides ; but as Willdenow fill keeps them feparate, on the authority of a dried fpe- cimen, we have retained the {pecies. 3. G. fet florus. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.929. Vahl. Symb. 3. 64.— Leaves obovate, plaited. Stem fhrubby. Leaf- iets of the calyx ovate.’"—Native of inundated woods in Arabia Felix during the rainy feafon. The whole plant is hoary, from very thick hairs, which are longer than in G. lotoides. his ipecies was firft deferibed by Vahl, from Forfkal’s fpecimen which we have examined. The pubel- cence is beautifully ftellated and very denfe. Gurxus, in Ichthyology, a namé by which Bellonius and fome other authors have called a fmall fea-fifh, more com- monly known by the name of the éracunculus. GLIS. In the common acceptation of the word, this only fignifies the dormoufe: but Linneus has ufed glires ina larger fenfe: and, in his Syitem of Zoology, makes it the name of the fourth order of the mammalia clafs of animals. ‘The charaéters of the creatures of this clafs are, that they have only two fore-teeth in each jaw ; they have no dentes canini, or dog-teeth; and the feet have toes, and are formed for leaping when they run. ‘The animals of this clafs are the feveral fpecies of the Hy/frix, Cavia, Caftor, Mus, ArGomys, Sciurus, Myoxus, Dipus, Lepus, and Hyrax ; which fee reipectively. Guts, a name given to feveral fpecies of Myoxus ; of Didelphis ; of Mus; and of Aréomys ; which fee ref{pect- ively. : Guis Volans. See VespertiLo Spa/ina. GLISCHROMICTHES, in Natural Hiffory, the name ef a genus of compound earths. The word is derived from yazxpoc, touch, and pixSus, mixed. "The bodies of this genus are loams compofed of fand and a more vifcid clay, and are of a tough and firm texture. The earths of this genus are ufed in making bricks, and on fome other occafions; and are of feveral diftinét fpecies. - GLISSA, in Jchthyology, the name of a fea-fith of the tunny kind, but of a perfectly fmooth flin, and wholly free from feales. It ufually grows to the length of two cubits, and the thicknefs of a man’s body: it is of a very round body, and has very rough jaws, but no diftin&t teeth 5 its tail is forked, but not fo arched or lunated as that of the tunny ; it lives in deep water, and isa fifh of very delicate talte. Gefner. De Pife. p. 1158. GLISSON, Francis, in Biography, was born at Rampifham, in Dorfetfhire, in the year 1597, and educated at Caius college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow, and in 1627 was incorporated M.A. in Oxford. He then applied himfelf to the ttudy of phyfic, in which faculty, he took his degree of doétor at Cambridge, and in that univerlity was made regius profeffor of phytic, which office he held about 40 years. He fettled in London for the practice of his profeflion, and was admitted a fellow of the walle of Phyficians in 1635. In 1639 he was chofen reader of ana- tomy in the college, and in that department acquired great reputation by his le€tures “De Morbis Partium,’’ which he was particularly requefted by his colleagues to make public. During the civil wars he retired to Colchefter , where he praétifed with great credit in thofe times of confu- fion, and was im the town at its memorable fiege by the par- 4 GLO liamentary forees in 1648. He was one of that fmail, but illuftrious fociety, who inftituted a weekly meeting in Lon- don about the year 1645, for the purpofe of promoting inquiries into natural and experimental philofophy, which, after having removed to Oxford during the troubles, was augmented in London after the refloration, and became ultimately the Royal Society. He was afterwards feveral years prefident of the College of Phyficians, and died in 1677, inthe parifh of St. Bride’s, London, aged 80. Gliffon left the following works: 1. “'Tra@atus de Rachitide, feu morbo puerili Rickets diéto,’’ firft publithed in 16503; it went through feveral editions abroad, and two tranflations into Englifh the year after its publication, by Philip Armin, and Nicholas Culpepper. 2. “*Anatome Hepatis, &c.”’ London, 1654; afterwards reprinted at Amfterdam and the Hague. This work contains amuch more exaét defeription of the liver than had before appeared. The capfule of the vena portarum was fuppofed to be firlt difeovered by him, and has ever fince borne his name ; but Walzus and Pecquet had feen it a fhort time before, and he has only the merit of having firft examined and defcribed it with accuracy. Dr. Gliffon’s largeft work is a metaphytical piece, viz. 3. *¢TraGtatus de Natura Subftantie Energetica, feu de Vita Nature, eju{que tribus primis Facultatibus,’’? Lond. 1672, in 4t0., a profound and laborious performance, in the very depths of the Ariltotelic philofophy, with all its nu- merous divifions, and an extraordinary effort of the under- ftanding in a man of an adyanced age.—4. His laft publication, ‘ Tractatus de Ventriculo et Inteftinis, cut premittitur alius de partibus continentibus in genere, et in fpecie, de iis Abdominis,””? Lond. 1676, 4to., Amik. 1677, I2mo, contains every thing at that time known concerning the alimentary canal, arranged in a clear manner, with various new obfervations. In aword, Gliflon was ex- ceeded in judgment and accuracy by none of that group of Englith anatomifts, who followed the fteps of Harvey with great ardour and fuccefs ; infomuch that Boerhaave terms hiny * omnium anatomicorum exactiflimus,’’ and Haller fpeaks in praife of all his writings. Aikin Biog. Mem. of Med. Eloy. Dic. Hitt. GLISTER. See Crysrer. GLITNESS, in Geography, one of the fmaller Shetland iflands, on the E.coaft of Shetland; 11 miles N. of Ler- wick. N. lat. 60° 22’. W. long. 1° 16’. GLIUBEN, atown of European Turkey, in Dalma- tia; 18 miles S.E. of Mottar. GLIZADE, in Fencing, is an operation performed by dextroufly making your blade flip along that of your adver- fary by a movement of the writ, anda quick forward ex- tention of the arm, without deviating from the line of direc- tion. This is a fimple, and at the fame time a matterly moyement in fencing. GLOBBA, in Botany, a Malay name adopted by Rum- phius and Linneus, under which, however, they have in- cluded a very heterogeneous aflemblage of {pecies. We fhall fpeak only of fuch as ae in generic character with the original one, feen and deferibed by Linneus, and preferved in his herbarium. Linn. Mant. 2. 143. Schreb. 25. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.153. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 2. Rofcoe in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. 355. t. 20. f. 13. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v.1.9. Juff. 63. Lamarck Did. v. 2. 729.—Clafs and order, Monandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Scitaminee, Linn. Canne, Jul Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular, permanent; its border three-lobed. Cor. of one petal; tube long, cylindrical, flender; outer limb in three, nearly equal, ovate, {preading lobes; inner of two fimilar lobes, and a central, GLO central, vertical, prominent lip, cloven at each extremity. Stam. Filament one, prominent, long, linear, channelled, dilated at its fummit; anther oblong, of two diftinét paral- lel lobes, attached by its back to the dilated part of the filament. //. Germen inferior, roundifh; ftyle thread- fhaped, the length of the filament and embraced by it; ftizma obtufe. Peric. Capfule roundifh, of three cells and three valves. Seeds numerous. , Eff. Ch. Anther in two parts. Filament elongated, in- curved, bearing a lobed appendage. Style thread-thaped, embraced by the anther. Corolla with three outer lobes and three inner, the middlemoft vertical and cloven. 1. G. marantina. Linn. Mant. 2. 170. Sm. Exot. Bot. y. 2.85. t. 103. (Colebrookia bulbifera; Donn Cant. 1.) — Appendage of the filament four-lobed, divaricated, terminal. Spike not taller than the leaves. Bracteas elliptical, broad, longer than the calyx—Native of Bengal, from whence it was fent by Dr. Roxburgh to the late lady Amelia Hume in 1800. It flowers in the ftove in July and Augutt. Root perennial, tuberous. Stems feveral, herbaceous, about two feet high, fimple, leafy. Leaves elliptical, acute, entire, with one rib and numerous parallel fimple veins; fmooth above; foft and finely downy beneath; their footitalks long, fheathing, bearded at the top, which is extended upwards into a pair of rounded auricles, Spike terminal, folitary, fim- ple, ere&t, more or lefs lax, about as tall as the leaves, or rather under that height. Braédeas alternate, feflile, elliptical, broad, concave, many-ribbed, fomewhat downy, minutely dotted; the lower ones each bearing one ovate bulb; the upper ones a clufter of feveral flowers, each of which is accompanied by its own fmaller braétea. Thefe flowers are very tranfient, flender, orange-coloured, with a deeper {pot in the centre of the lip. 2. G. racemofa. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2. 115. t. 117. (Deo- fara; of the inhabitants of Nepal.)—A ppendage of the fila- ment arrow-fhaped, narrower than the anther. Clutter elon- gated, cylindrical. Bra¢teas fhorter than the calyx, deci- duous.—Gathered by Dr. F. Buchanan in the woods of Upper Nepal, flowering in June. Habit of the lait, but taller, with larger more pointed eaves. ‘he inflorefcence is much more ftriking, and confiits of a long terminal racemus of numerous orange-coloured flowers, which are twice the fize of the former, and effentially diftinguifhed from that by the arrow-fhaped form of the appendage to their filament, which does not extend beyond the anther, except at its rounded termination. _ 3G. verficolor, Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2. 116.t. 117, a,b, c, (Hura Siamenfium; Keenig in Retz. Obf. fafe. 3. 49.)— Appendage of the filament four-lobed, divaricated. Clutter fomewhat corymbofe. Bracteas fhorter than the calyx. Lip towards the middle of the filament —Found by Keenig plen- tifully in grafly fhady parts of the ifland called Young Cey- lon, in the Ealt Indies. he c/ufler of flowers is fhorter and more corymbofe than in G. racemo/a, and the corolla is varie- gated with orange, white, and different fhades of violet. ‘The appendage of the filament nearly refembles that of G. marantina, but the fituation of the lip, thruit, as it were, half way up the filament, above the other lobes of the corolla, is altogether peculiar.. For this, however, we depend on a drawing made by Mr. Sidney Parkinfon, and communicated by fir Jofeph Banks, of the accuracy of which we have no reafon to doubt. Koenig mentions a more dwarf variety, found near the town of Malacca. Can this be what has Jately been introduced into the {toves about London by Dr. Roxburgh, and which we have feen and examined at fir Abraham Hume's, and at Meflrs. Lee and Kennedy’s, flow- ering in June 1850? It is figured in Curtis’s Magazine, GLO t. 1320, where Dr. Sims has, we think, juitly made this pretty plant a new genus, by the name of Mantifia faltatoria. It differs from G/odéa in having a radical, not terminal, in- florefcence, which, as far as we know, is an infallible indi- cation of a generic difference in this natural order, and there- fore the flower affords, as was neceflarily to be expected, clear effential charaéters of diftinGion, in the two long linear appendages to the lower part of the filament, which fupply the place of two of the inner fegments of the corolla, while the lip, which makes the third, is not bifid at its upper extremity. The large purple éraéceas, and the branch- ed flower-/lalk, are alfo remarkable. S. GLOBE, in Geometry, a round or {pherical body, more ufually called a /phere; which fee. The earth and water together are fuppofed to form a globe; hence called the terraqueous globe. The planets, both primary and fecondary, are fuppofed, as well as our earth, to be folid globes. ; The earth is, ina particular fenfe, called the globe, or globe of earth; though it is now well known that this is not its true figure. See Figure of the Earru. Gionz, Refiftance of a. See Resistance. Gosz is more particularly ufed for an artificial {phere of metal, platter, paper, or fome other matters; on whofe convex furface is drawn a map, or reprefentation, either of the earth or heavens, with the feveral circles conceived thereon. Grosss are of two kinds, terrefirial and celefiial: each of very confiderable ufe, the one in aftronomy, and the other in geography, to perform many of the operations thereof in an eafy, fenfible manner, fo as to be. conceived without any knowledge of the mathematical grounds of thofe arts. The fundamental parts, common to both globes, are an axis, reprefenting that of the world, and a fpherical fhell or cover, which makes the body of the globe, on whofe exter- nal furface the reprefentation is drawn. Globes, we have obferved, are made of divers materials, viz. filver, brafs, paper, plafter, &c. Thofe commonly ufed are of plafter and paper; the conftruion whereof is as follows. Gioses, Conftrudion of. A wooden axis is provided, fomewhat lefs than the intended diameter of the globe; and into the extremes hereof two iron wires are driven for poles: this axis is to be the beam or bafis of the whole ftru@ure. On the axis are applied two f{pherical, or rather hemi-{phe- rical caps, formed on a kind of wooden mould or block. Thefe caps conlift of pafteboard and paper, laid, one lay after another, on the mould, to the thicknefs of a crown piece; after which, having ftood to dry and embody, mak- ing an incifion along the middle, the two caps, thus parted, are flipped off the mould. They remain now to be applied on the poles of the axis, as before they were on thofe of the mould; and to fix them in their new place, the two edges are fown together with packthread, &c. The rudiments of the globe thus laid, they proceed to ftrengthen and make it fmooth and regular. In order to this, the two poles are hafped in a metalline femi-circle of the fize intended; and a kind of plafter, made of whiting, water, and glue, heated, melted, and incorporated toge- ther, is daubed all over the paper furface. In proportion as the plafter is applied, the ball is turned round in the femi- circle, the edge whereof pares off whatever is fuperfluous, and beyond the due dimenfion, leaving the reft adhering in places that are fhort of it. After fuch application of plafter, the ball ftands to dry; which done, it 1s put again in the femi-circle, and freth matter GLOBE. matter applied: thus they continue alternately to apply the compolition, and dry it, till fuch time as the ball every- where accurately touches the femi-circle; in which ftate it is perfe&tly {mooth, regular, firm, &c. The ball thus finithed, it remains to pafte the map or de- feription thereon: in order to this, the map is projected in feveral gores or guffets, all which join accurately on the Pherical furface, and together cover the whole ball. To direé&t the application of thefe gores, lines are drawn by a femi-circle on the furface of the ball, dividing it into a num- ber of equal parts correfponding to thofe of the gores, and fubdividing thofe again anfwerably to the lines and divilions of the gores. The papers thus pafted on, there remains nothing but to colour and illuminate the globe, and to varnifh #t, the bet- ter to refift duit, moifture, &c. The globe itfelf thus finifhed, they hang it in a brafs meridian, with an hour circle and quadrant of altitude, and thus fit it into a wooden horizon. Groses, De/fcription of the. The things common to both globes are either delineated on the furface, or added as ap- pendages without it. Without the furface are, 1. The two poles whereon the globe is turned, reprefenting thofe of the world. (See Powe.) 2. The brazen meridian, which is divided into de- grees, and pafles through the poles. 3. ‘The wooden hori- zon, whofe upper fide reprefents the horizon, and is divided into feveral circles; the innermoft whereof contains the twelve figns of the zodiac, fubdivided into their degrees ; the next the Julian; and the third the Gregorian calendar ; without fide of all thefe, are drawn the points of the winds. 4. A brafs quadrant of altitude, divided into 90 degrees, to be faftened on the meridian at the diftance of go degrees from the horizon. 5. The hour-circles, divided into twice twelve hours, and fitted on the meridian, round the poles, which carry anindex pointing to the hour. A mariner’s compafs is fometimes added on the bottom of the frame, and fome- times afemi-circle of pofition. On the furface are delineated, 1. The equinoétial line, divided into 360 degrees, commencing trom the vernal in- terfections. 2. The ecliptic, divided into twelve figns, and thefe fubdivided into degrees. 3. The zodiac. 4. The two tropics. And, 5. The polar circles. All which fee under their proper articles. What elfe belongs to globes, either as to conftruétion or defcription, is different as the globe is either celeffial or ter- reftrial. Our common globes, though inftructive inftruments for explaining the firlt rudiments of geography and the {pherical do¢trine of aftronomy, yet labour under feveral defects ; as they do not thew how the phenomena, illuftrated by them, arife from the motion of the earth, which is the principal thing beginners efpecially fhould have in view, and as they are only formed for the prefent age, and do not ferve the purpofes of chronology and hiltory, which they might be made to do, if the poles, whereon they turn, were contrived to move in a circle round thofe of the ecliptic, according to its prefent obliquity. Mr. John Senex, F.R.S. invented a contrivance for reme- dying thefe defects, by fixing the poles of the diurnal motion to two fhoulders or arms of brafs, at.the diftance of 23° from the poles of the ecliptic. Thefe fhoulders are ftrongl faftened at.the other end to an iron axis, which pafles through the poles of the ecliptic, and is made to move round witha very {tiff motion ; fo that when it is adjutted to any point of the ecliptic, which the equator is made to interfeét, the diurnal mot.on of the globe on its axis will not be able to difturb it. When it is to be adjufted for any time, paft or future, one of the brazen fhoulders is brought under the me- ridian, and held faft to it with one hand, whilft the globe is turned about with the other, fo that the point of the eclip- tic, which the equator is to interfe¢t, may pafs under o de- gree of the brazen meridian: then holding a pencil to that point, and turning the globe about, it will defcFibe the equa- tor according to its pofition at the time required ; and tranf= ferring the pencil to 23 4, and 66 4 onthe brazen meridian, the tropics and polar circles will be fo deferibed for the fame time. By this contrivance, the celeftial globe may be fo adjufted, as to exhibit not only the rifings and fettings of the flars, in all ages and in all latitudes, but likewife the other phenomena that depend upon the motion of the diurnal axis round the annual axis. Senex’s celeftial globes, efpecially the two greateft, of feventeen and twenty-eight inches in diameter, have been conftruéted on this principle : fo that by means of, a nut and ferew, the pole of the equator is made to revolve about the pole of the ecliptic. Phil. Tranf, N® 447, p- 201. 203. or Martyn’s Abr. vol. viii. p. 217. and N? 493, art. 18.in Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvi. p. 290. Mr. Jofeph Harris, late affay-mafter of the mint, contrived to remedy the former of the defects above-mentioned, by placing two horary circles under the meridian, one at each pole ; thefe circles are fixed tight between two brafs collars placed about the axis, fo that when the globe is turned, they are carried round with it, the meridian ferving as an index to cut the horary divifions. "The globe, in this ftate, ferves readily for folving problems in north and-fouth Iati- tudes, and alfo in places near the equator; whereas, in the common conftru¢tion, the axis and horary circle prevent the brafs meridian from being moveable quite round in the hori- zon. This globe is alfo adapted for fhewing how the viciffi- tudes of day and night, and the alteration of their lengths, are really occafioned by the motion of the earth; for this purpofe, he divides the brafs meridian, at one of the poles, into months and days, according to the fun’s declination, reckoning from the pole. Therefore, by bringing the day of the month to the horizon, and rectifying the globe accord- ing tothe time of the day, the horizon will reprefent the circle feparating light and darknefs, and the upper half of the globe the illuminated hemifphere, the fun being in the ze- nith. Mr. Harris alfo gives an account of a cheap machine for fhewing how the annual motion of the earth in its orbit caufes the change of the fun’s declination, without the great ex- pence of an orrery. Phil. Tranf. N° 456, p. 321, &c. or Martyn’s Abr. vol. viii. p. 352. The late Mr. George Adams, mathematical inftrument maker to his majefty, has made fome ufeful improvements in the conftruction of the globes. His globes, like others, are fufpended at their poles in a {trong brafs circle, and turn therein upon two iron pins, which are the axis. ‘They have befides a thin brafs femi-circle, moveable about the poles, with a f{mall, thin, fliding circle upon it, On the terreftrial globe, the thin brafs femi-circle is a move- able meridian, and its {mall fliding circle the vifible horizon of any particular place to which it is fet. On the celeftial globe, the femi-circle is a moveable circle of declination, and its {mall annexed circle an artificial fun or planet. Each globe hath a brafs wire circle, placed at-the limits of the twi- light, which, together with the globe, is fet in a wooden frame, fupported by a neat pillar and claw, with a mag- netic needle at its bafe. On the terreftrial globe the divifion of the earth into land and water is laid down from the Jateft difcoveries ; there are alfo many additional circles, as well as the rhumb-lines, for folving all the neceflary geographical and nautical GLOBE. wautical problems. On the celeftial globe, all the fouthern conttellations, lately obferved at the Cape of Good Hope by M. de la Caille, and all the ftars in Mr. Flamtteed’s Britifh Catalogue, are accurately laid down and marked with Greek and Roman letters of reference, in imitation of Bayer. Upon each fide of the ecliptic are drawn eight parallel circles, at the diftance of one degree from each other, includ- ing the zodiac ; and thefe are croffed at right angles with fegments of great circles at every fifth degree of the eclip- tic, forthe more readily noting the place of the moon, or of any planet upon the globe. The author has alfo inferted, from Ulugh Beigh, printed at Oxford in 1665, the manfions of the Moon of the Arabian Aftronomers, fo called, be- caufe they obferved the moon to be in or near one of thefe every night during her monthly courfe round the earth, to each of which the Arabian characters are fixed. On the ftrong brafs circle of the terreftrial globe, and about 23°43 oneach fide of the north pole, the days of each month are laid down according to the fun’s declination; and this brafs circle is fo contrived, that the globe may be placed with the north atid fouth poles in the plane of the horizon, and with the fouth pole elevated above it. The equator, on the fur- face of either globe, ferves the purpofe of the horary circle, by means of a femi-circular wire placed in the plane of the equator, carrying two indices, one of which is occafionally to be ufed to point out the time. For a farther account of thefe globes, with the method of ufing them, the reader may confult Adams's ‘Treatife on their Conftrution and Ufe, &ce. 1769. . Grose, Celeftial, is an artificial fphere, on whofe convex furface the fixed ftars are laid down, at proportionable diftances, together with the principal circles of the {phere. The furface of the celeftial globe may be efteemed a juft reprefentation of the concave expanfe of the heavens, not~- withftanding its convexity ; forif the eye were placed in the centre of it, and the globe made of giafs, the {tars that are drawn upon it would appear ina concave furface, exactly correfponding to thofe in the heavens. The ufe of thefe globes is to exhibit the phenomena of the motions of the fun and ftars, in an eafy and obvious manner ; which, though fomewhat inaccurate, is yet exact enough for the common ufes of life, and may fave the trouble of trigonometrical cal- culations. To exhibit the flars, circles, Se. on the furface of a given Sphere or ball, and fit for the ufes of aflronomy —s. Afiume any two points diametrically oppofite to each other, as P and Q (Plate XIV. Affronomy, fig. 117.) and in thefe fix up axes, P and Q C, tor the ball to turn round on. The points P and Q, or A and C, will exhibit the poles of the world. 2. Divide a brazen circle A B C D into four quadrants, AE, EC, CF, and F D; and fubdivide each quadrant into go degrees, numbered from the points E and F, to- wards the poles A and C. 3. Inclofe the globe in this circle, asin a meridian, at the points A and C, fo as it may freely turn therein. 4. Apply a ftyle or pin to the furface of the globe, in the firft degree of the meridian, and turn the ball round; by this means will a circle be defcribed on the furface, repre- fenting the equator to be divided into degrees. 5. From the pole of the world P towards M, and from the other pole C towards N, number 234 degrees; the points M and N will be the poles of the ecliptic. 6. Apply a ftyle to the meridian, in the point M; and turn the globe round; by this rotation will the arctic polar circle be defcribed: and after the fame manner is the an- tarctic polar to be defcribed about the point N. 7: Number 234 deg. from the equator towards the poles P and Q, and note the points H and I;' then applying a {tyle to the meridian, as before, two circles will be defcribed parallel to the equator, whereof that drawn through H will be the tropic of Cancer, and the other through I the tropic of Capricorn. 8. Hang the globe within the meridian, in the poles of the ecliptic, as before in the poles of the world; and ap- plying a ftyle to E, turn it round: by this means will the ecliptic be delineated, which remains to be divided into twelve figns ; and each of thefe, again, divided into thirty degrees. g- While the globe remains thus fufpended, bring the degree of longitude of any ftar under the meridian; and in the meridian, number as many degrees towards the pole: as is the degree of latitude of the place: the point of in- terfection is the place of that ftar on the furface of the globe. After the like manner may the place of the ftar be determined from the right afcenfion and declination given, the globe being fuppofed fufpended from the poles of the world, or the equator. 10. All the ttars of a conftellation thus laid down, the figure of the conftellation is to be defigned ; after which it may either be coloured or engraven. 11. Place the globe with the meridian, in a wooden frame or horizon, D BL, fupported on four feet,-in fuch manner as to be divided thereby into two hemifpheres, and that the pole A may be raifed or depreffed at pleafure. 12. On the limb or edge of the horizon deferibe a circle, . which divide into 360 degrees, and infert the calendars and winds. 5 13. Laitly, To the pole A fit a brazen circle, divided into twenty-four horary parts, and numbered twice twelve, fo that the line of divifion of XII. may be in the plane of - the meridian, on either fide the pole ;: and on the pole itfelf apply an index, to turn round with the globe.. See Horary Circir. Thus is the globe complete. It may be here obferved, that as the longitude of the {tars is continually increafing, a common globe does not remain of perpetual ufe: but the increafe in feventy-two years only amounting to a degree, the whole will. make no contiderable error in a hundred years; the defign of a globe being only to reprefent things fomething near the truth, Guose, to make a celeftial. "This method is that the moft frequently ufed; and we only premifed the former as being the moft eafily conceived, and leading more naturally to this. 1. From the given diameter of the globe, find a right line AB, fy. 118. equal to the circumference of -a great circle, and divide it into twelve equal parts. 2. Through the feveral points of divifion, 1, 2; 3> 45 &c. with the interval of ten of them, defcribe arches, mu- tually interfecting each other in D and E ; ‘thefe figures or pieces, duly patted or joined together, will make the whole {urface of the globe. 3. Divide cach part of the right line A B. into: thirty equal parts, fo that the whole line A B, reprefenting the periphery of the equator; miay be divided into 360 de- grees. 4. From the poles D and E, fg. 119. with the interval of 234 deg. deferibe arches a, 6; thefe will be twelve parts of the polar circles. 5. After the like manner, from the fame pokes D and E, with the interval of 664 deg. reckoned from the equator, defcribe GLOBE. deferibe arches c, d; thefe will be twelfth parts of the tropics. 6. Through the degree of the equator e, corref{ponding to the right afcenfion of any given ftar, and the poles D and E, draw an arch of the circle, and taking in the com- paffes the complement of the declination from the pole D, deferibe an arch interfeGting it ini; this point ¢ will be the place of that ftar. 7. All the ftars of a conftellation being thus laid down, the figure of the conftellation is to be drawn according to Bayer, Hevelius, or Flamfteed. 8. Laftly, after the fame manner are the declinations and right afcentions of each degree of the ecliptic dg to be de- termined. 9. The furface of the globe thus projected on a plane is to be engraven on copper, to fave the trouble of doing this over again for each globe. 10. A ball, in the mean time, is to be prepared of paper, platter, &c. after the manner above dire¢ted, and of the intended diameter of the globe: on this, by means of a femi-circle and ftyle, is the equator to be drawn: and through every 30th degree a meridian. The ball thus di- vided into twelve parts, correfponding to the fegments be- fore projected, they are to be cut from the printed paper, and pafted on the ball. 11. Nothing now remains but to hang the globe, as be- fore, in a brazen meridian and wooden horizon; to which may be added a quadrant of altitude H I, fg. 120. made of brafs, aud divided in the fame manner as the ecliptic and equator. If the declinations and right afcenfions of the ftars be not given, but their longitudes and latitudes in lieu ther2of, the furface of the globe is to be projected after the fame man- ner as before: except that, in this cafe, D and E, fg. 121. are the poles of the ecliptic, and f/ the ecliptic itlelt ; and that the polar circles and tropics, with the equator ¢ d, and the parallels thereof, are to be determined from their de- clinations. One of the fulleft catalogues of the ftars is that of Mr. Flamiteed ; wherein the right afcenfions and declinations, as well as the longitudes, latitudes, &c. are every where expreffed. Guopr, ufe of ihe celeftial. The ufe of this inftrument is very extenlive ; there being fcarcely any thing in the {pherical altronomy but may be exhibited thereby. The principal points are contained in the following pro- blems, with their folution; which will let the reader enough into the nature and reafon of this noble inftrument, to apply it, of his own accord, in any other cafes. To find the right afcenfion and declination of aflar, repre- fented on the fuface of the globe.—Dring the ftar to the gradu- ated fide of the brazen meridian: then the number of de- grees intercepted between the equator, and the point on the meridian cut by the far, gives its declination ;. and the de- gree of the equator which comes under the meridian, toge- ther with the ftar, is its right afcenfion. Lo find the longitude and latitude of a flar—Apply the centre of the quadrant of altitude over the pole of the ecliptic in the fame hemifphere with the flar, and bring its graduated edge to the flar; the degree on the quadrant cut by the ftar is its latitude, reckoned from the ecliptic ; and the degree of the ecliptic cut by the quadrant its lon- itude. To find the fun's place in the ecliptic—Seek the day of the month in the proper calendar on the horizon, and againft the day in the circle of figns is the fign and degree the fun is in for that day ; this done, find the fame fign upon the ecliptic, on the furface of the globe; this is the fuu’s place for that day. To find the declination of the fun—The fun's place for the day given being brought to the meridian, the degrees of the meridian intercepted between the equinoétial and that place, are the fun’s declination for that day at noon. To find the place of a planet, with its right afcenfion and declination ; its longitude and latitude for the time being given — Apply the centre of the quadrant of altitude on the pole of the ecliptic (the pole, we mean, of the fame denomina- tion with the latitude), and bring it to the given longitude in the ecliptic : this point is the planet’s place ; and bringing it to the meridian, its right afcenfion and declination will be found, as already fhewn of a ftar. To reéify the globe, or adjuft it to the place, Sc. fo as it may reprefent the prefent fate or fituation of the heavens.— 1. If the place be in north latitude, raife the north pole above the horizon; if in fouth, raife the fouth pole; till the arch intercepted between the pole and horizon be equal to the given elevation of the pole, 2. Fix the quadrant of altitude on the zenith, 7. e. on the latitude of the place. 3. By means of a compafs or meridian line, place the globe in fuch a manner as that the brazen meridian may be in the plane of the terreftrial meridian. 4. Bring the degree of the ecliptic the fun is in to the me- ridian, and fet the horary index to twelve; thus will the globe exhibit the face of the heavens for the noon of that day. 5. Turn the globe till the index come to any other given hour: thus will it fhew the face of the heavens for that time. To know all the flars and planets by means of the globe.— 1. Adjuft the globe to the ftate of the heavens: for that time. 2. Look on the globe for fome one ftar which you know, e. gr. the middlemoft ftar in the tail of the Great Bear. 3. Obferve the pofitions of the other more con- fpicuous ftars in the fame conftellation; and by tranf- ferring the eye from the globe to the heavens, you will eafily note the fame there. 4. After the fame manner may you proceed from this to the neighbouring conttellations, till you have learned them all. If the planets be reprefented on the globe, after the man- ner above defcribed, by comparing them with the neigh- bouring ftars you will likewife know the planets. To find the fun's oblique afcenfion, his eaftern amplitude, and azimuth, with the time of rifing—1. Reétify the globe for the hour of twelve, and bring the fun’s place to the eaftern fide of the horizon: then the number of degrees, intercepted between that degree of the equator now come to the horizon and the beginning of Aries, is the fun’s oblique afcenfion. 2. The degrees on the horizon, in- tercepted between the eaft point thereof and the point wherein the fun is, is the ortive or rifing amplitude. 3. The hour, pointed to by the index, is the time of the {un’s rifing. 4. Turning the globe till the index points to the prefent hour, lay the quadrant to the fun’s place: the degree cut by the quadrant, in the horizon, is the fun’s azimuth. To find the fun’s oblique defcenfion, weflern amplitude, and azimuth, with the time of Jetting —The folution of this problem is the fame as that of the former; excepting that the fun’s place muft be here brought to the weftern fide of the horizon, as in the former it was to the eaftern. To jind the length of day and night—1. Find the time of the fun’s rifing, which being numbered from mid- night, the double thereof gives the length of the night. 2. Subtract the length of the night from the whole day, or twenty- GLOBE. twenty-four hours, and the remainder is the length of the day. To find the rifing, fetting and culminating of a fear ; its continuance above the horizon for any place and day ; toge- ther with its oblique afcenfion and defcenfion, and its eaftern and qwoftern amplitude-and azimuth.—1. Adjult the globe to the ftate of the heavens at twelve o’clock that day. 2. Bring the ftar to the eaftern fide of the horizon: thus will the weftern amplitude and azimuth, and time of rifing, be found, as already taught of the fun. 3. Bring the fame ftar to the weftern fide of the hori- zon: thus will the weftern amplitude and azimuth, and the time of fetting, be found. 4. The time of rifing, fubtraéted from that of fetting, leaves the continuance ef the ftar above the horizon. 5. This continuance above the horizon, fubtracted from twenty-four hours, leaves the time of its continuance below the horizon. 6. Laftly, the hour to which the index points, when the ftar is brought to the meridian, gives the time of its cul- mination. To find the altitude of the fun, or flar, for any given hour of the day or night.—1. Adjuft the globe to the pofition of the heavens, and turn it till the index point at the given hour. 2. Fix on the quadrant of altitude, at go degrees from the horizon, and bring it to the fun’s or ttar’s place; the degrees of the quadrant, intercepted between the horizon and the fun or ftar, is the altitude required. ; : The altitude of the fun by day, or of a flar by night, being given, to find the time of that day or night—1. Redtify the globe as in the preceding problem. 2. Turn the globe and quadrant, till fuch time as the ftar, or degree of the ecliptic the fur is in, cut the quadrant in the given de- gree of altitude; then does the index point at the hour fought. : The azimuth of ite fun or a flar given, to jind the time of the day or night.—Rectify the globe, and bring the quad- rant to the given azimuth in the horizon; turn the globe, till the ftar come to the fame: then will the index thew the time. , To find the interval of time between the rifings of two flars, or the culminations.—1. Raife the pole of the globe fo many degrees above the horizon, as is the elevation of the pole of the place. 2. Bring the firft flar to the ho- rizon, and obferve the time the index points to. 3. The fame do by the other ftar: then fubtracting the former time from the latter, the remainder is the interval between the rifings. After the like manner is the interval between two cul- minations found, by bringing both ftars to the meridian. _ ‘ The day of the month being given, to find when any flar will come to the meridian.—Re€tity for the fun’s place; turn the globe till the given flar comes to the meridian ; then the index will point to the time fought. a * To find when any given flar will come to the meridian, ai any given hour of the night—Bring the given flar to the me- ridian; fet the index to twelve at noon; then turn the lobe eaftward, till the index points to an hour as far Siftant in the forenoon from twelve as the given hour is in the afternoon, obferve the degree of the ecliptic then at the meridian, oyer-againit which degree, in the calendar, is the day of the month, when the given ftar will be upon the meridian at the giver hour. Wo By obfervation of a flar upon the mertdiany to Jind the hour of the night.—Reétify for the latitude and the fun’s place ; bring the given ftar to the meridian, and the index will thew the hour of the night. Vou, XVI. To find the beginning and ending of the crepufculum or tats fight—~1. Reétify the globe, and fet the index to the twelfth hour, the fun’s place being in the meridian. 2. Note the fun’s place, and tum the globe weltward, as alfo the quadrant of altitude, till the point oppofite the {un’s place cut the quadrant of altitude in the eighteenth degree above the horizon: the index will then fhew the time when the twilight commences in the morning. 3. Taking the point oppolite to the fun, bring it to the eaftern hemi- fphere, and turn it, till it meet with the quadrant ‘of altitude in the eighteenth degree ; then will the index thew the time when the twilight ends. Given the fun's longitude and the obliquity of the ecliptic, to find the fun’s right afcenfion and declination.—Find the fun's longitude or place on the ecliptic, and bring it to the brazen meridian. Then the arc of the equator, between the firft point of Aries and the brazen meridian, fhews the fun's right afcenfion; and the arc of the brazen meridian between the equator and the ecliptic fhews the declination. Giwen the obliquity of the ecliptic and the Jun’ s declination, to find the fun’s longitude and right afcenfion.—Mark the fun’s declination on the brazen meridian, and turn the globe till the ecliptic comes under the figure ;_ then will the diftance from the meridian to the firft point of Aries fhew the fun’s longitude on the ecliptic, and its right afcenfion on the equator. Given the obliquity of the ecliptic and the fun's right afcenfion, required the fun's declination and longitude. —Bring the {un’s right afcenfion in the equator to the brazen meridian, then will the intercepted arc of the ecliptic to Aries fhew the fun’s longitude ; and the are of the meridian, that is between the fun’s right afcenfion and longitude, will fhew the declination, To find on what day the fun begins to fhine conftantly at any given place in either of the frigid zones, and how long he con- tinues to foine without intermiffion at the fame place —Subtra& the latitude of the given place from go”, and find in what two days of the year the fun’s declination is exactly equal ta the remainder, and of the fame kind as the latitude of the place ; then on the firft of thofe days in the {pring quarter, the fun ceafes to fet at the given place, and fhines without intermiffion there till he arrives at another point of the ecliptic,as many degrees on the other fide of the fummer folitice, when his declination is again equal to the comple- ment Of the latitude: the fpace of time between thofe two days is the length or duration of the longeft day. To find the latitude of thofe places in the north frigid zone, where the fun begins to fhine conftantly on any day between the vernal equinox and the fummer folffice, or in the fouth frigid zone on any day between the autumnal equinox and the winter Sobftice. —Find the fun's declination for the given day ; fubtra@ it from 90°, and the remainder will be the latitude of thofe places : where the fun begins to fhine conftantly the latitude is of the fame kind as the fun’s declination. To determine under what latitude tavo given lars rife or fet at the fame inftar:t —Bring one of the flars to the horizon, and, keeping it there, raife or deprefs the pole till the other is on the horizon at the fame time, obferving whether this is effected on the ea or weit pelition of the horizon; then the degree of the meridian, interfe¢ted by the horizon, will be the latitude of the place required. To find at what place a given flar is vertical at any given hour at London; ©. g. at what place will Capella be veriical the 2d of March at 10 o'clock afternoon, at London tim. N. B.—This problem requires the affifkance of both the terre{trial and celeftial globes. t. Find, as above, the time of the meridian paflage of he Zz {tay GLOBE. ftar: in the prefent inftance Capella pafles about 6 o’clock in the afternoon. >. Find under what meridian they reckon 6 o’clock when it is ro with us, whieh will be four hours to the weit. 3. Obferve under this meridian the place whofe latitude is equal to the declination of the ftar, which, in this example, is nearly 46°: and this place, which is near Louifburg, in North America, will be the place required. To explain the phenomena of the harveft-maon by the globe, Moon. Grose, Terre/frial, is an artificial fphere, on whofe furface are delineated the principal places of the earth, in their pro- per fituations, diftances, &c. together with their circles imagined on the furface of the terreftrial fphere. The ufe of the terreftrial globe, is to exhibit the feveral affe€tions and phenomena of the different places of the earth, depend- ing on magnitude, &c. in an eafy obvious maaner, without the trouble of trigonometrical calculations. Guoss, Jo confiruct a terrefrial.—T he conftruGtion of a terreltrial globe, whether of metal, plafter, paper, &c. is the fame as that of a celeftial. The fame circles are deli- neated on both: and as for the places, viz. cities, towns, &c. they are laid down from the longitudes and latitudes given, as the {tars are from their right afcenfions and declina- tions. Hence all problems, depending on the circles, may be equally wrought ‘on either globe; as the afcenfions, defcen- fions, amplitudes, azimuths, rifings, fettings, altitudes, &c. of the fun; the lengths of day and night ; hours, of the day and night ; crepufcula, &c. We fhall here, therefore, only give what is peculiar to the terreftrial globe. Guozz, Ufe of the terreffrial. To find the longitud> and latitude of any place delineated on the globe.—Bring the place to the graduated fide of the brafs meridian: the degree of the meridian it cuts is the latitude required ; and the degree of the equator, at the fame time under the meridian, is the longitude required. The longitude and latitude given, to find the place on the globe. —Sceek, in the equator, the given degree of longitude, and bring it to the meridian: then count from the equator on the meridian the degrees of latitude given, towards this or that pole, as the latitude is either north or fouth : the point under this is the place required. The hour being given at any place, to find what hour it is in any other part of the world —Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the hour-index to the given hour ; then, by turning the globe, bring any place to the meridian, and the index will point to the hour of that place. To find the anteci, perieci, and antipodes of any place.— x. The given place being brought to the meridian, count as many degrees on the meridian from the equator towards the other pole: the point which is thus arrived at is the place of the anteeci. 2. Note the degree of the meridian over the given place and its anteeci, and turn the globe till the oppolite degree of the equator come under the meridian ; or, which amounts to the fame, till the index, which before ftood at twelve, come to the other twelve: then will the place, correfponding to the former degree, be tke periecci ; and the latter, that’ of the antipodes. To find what place of the earth the fun is vertical to at any time afigned —1. Bring the’ fun’s place found in the ecliptic to the meridian, and the index to the hour of twelve, noting what point of the meridian correfponds thereto. 2. If the given hour be before noon, fubtra& it from twelve hours, and turn the globe towards the welt, till the index points at fee the hours remaining: thus will the place required be undew the point of the meridian before noted. 3. If the hour be after noon, turn the globe in the fame manner towards the weit, till the index points at the given hour: thus, again will the place required be found under the point of the meri dian before noted. If, at the fame time, you note all the places which are under the fame half of the meridian with the place found, you will have all the places to which the fun is then in the meris dian ; and the oppofite half of the meridian will fhew all the places in which it is then mid-night. : A place being given in the torrid zone, to find the two days in the year wherein the fun is vertical in the fame.—1. Bring the given place to the meridian, and note the degree oF the meridian correfponding thereto. 2. Turn the globe about ; and note the two points of the ecliptic paffing through that. degree. 3. Find on what days the fun is in thefe points of the ecliptic ; for on thofe days he is vertical to the given place. _ To find thofe places in the torrid zone to which the fun is ver- tical on a given day.—Bring the fun’s place in the ecliptic to the meridian ; then turning the globe round, note all the places which pafs through that point of the meridian: thofe are the places required. ; After the fame manner may be found what people are afcii for any given day. Be The day and hour at any place being given, to find where the fun is vertical at that hour.—Bring the fun’s place to the meridian, and the degree over it is the fun’s declination at that time; then bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the index to the given hour ; turn the globe till the Petes points to twelve at noon, and the place on the globe which lies under the degree of the fun’s declination has the fun thera vertical. A place being given in the frigid zone, to find the time when the fun begins to appear above the horizon, and when it begins to difappear ; and alfa the length of the longef day or night ie that y é : ode ee) cs place.—Rettify for the latitude ; bring the afcending part of the eeliptic, 7. ¢. for latitudes north of the tropic of Cancer the femicircle intercepted between Capricorn and Cancer, to. the fouth point of the horizon ; shies the degree of the ecliptic which cuts that point, and find when the fun enters that degree, and this will give the time when the fun begins to appear in that latitude. Bring the de- {cending part of the ecliptic to the fame point of the horizon and the calendar will thew. when the fun leaves that Jatientie and difappears. Again, bring the afcending part of the ecliptic to the north point of the horizon, and the degree, as before, will fhew in the calendar when the longelt day pe gins ; and by bringing the defcending part of the ecliptic to the fame north point, we fhall find, in the fame manner. when the longeft day ends. 3 To find the latitude of the places wherein any given day is of any given length.—1. Bring the fun’s place for the given da to the ecliptic, and fet the index to the hour of Cee 2. Turn the globe, till the index points at the hour of rifin or fetting. 3. Raife and deprefs the pole till the fun’s ca - pear in the eaftern and wettern fide of the horizon; then wall the pole be duly elevated, and, confequently, the Iatitude iven. : To find the latitude of thofe places in the frigid zone where the fun does not fe for a given number of days—t1. Count fo many degrees from the next tropic, towards the equinoétial point, as there are units in half the number of the given days ; becaufe the fun, in its proper motion, goes neath a degree every day. 2. Bring the point of the ecliptic, thus found, to the meridian ; and its diftance from the pole will GLOBE will be equal to the elevation of the pole, or latitude of the places required. Any hour of the day or night being given, to fhew all thofe places to which the fun rifes and fets 5 where it is noon or mid- night ; and where day or night.—1. Vind what place the fun is at that time vertical to, as already taught. 2. Let this place be brought to the zenith of the wooden horizon, z. e. elevate the pole as the latitude of that place requires ; then will the places on the eaftern fide of the horizon be thofe the fun is fetting to; and on the weftern fide, thofe he rifes to; thofe under the upper femi-circle of the meridian have it noon; and thofe under the lower, midnight. Liaftly, to thofe of the upper hemifphere it is day ; and to thofe in the lower, night." ; Hence, as in the middle of an eclipfe, the moon is in that degree of the ecliptic oppofite to the fun’s place; by the prefent problem it may be fhewn what places of the earth then fee the middle of the eclipfe, and what the beginning or ending. : To jind what places of the earth a planet, e. gr. the moon, is vertical to any day of the year.—xz. Mark the planet’s place on the globe, as above taught. 2. Bring this place to the meridian, and note the degree over it. 3. Turn the globe round, and the places which pafs under the point are thofe required. The declination of a flar, or any other phenomenon, given, to Jind what parts of ihe earth the fame is vertical to.—Count as many degrees in the meridian, from the equator towards one pole, as are equal to the given declination ; viz. towards the north, if the declination be to the northward; and towards the fouth, if the declination be fouth. Then turn- ing it round, the places that pafs through the extremity of this arch in the meridian are the places required. Yo diermine the place of the earth where any flar, or other celeftial phenomenon, will be vertical at a given hour.—t. Ele- vate the pole according to the latitude of the place, from whofe noon or midnight the hours are numbered. 2. Bring the fun’s place for that day to the meridian, and fet the index at twelve o'clock. 3. Determine the place of the flar ow the furface of the globe, and bring it to the meri- dian; the index will fhew the difference of time between the impulfe of the fun and ftar to the meridian of the place: note the point of the meridian over the place of the ftar. 4 Find in what places of the earth it is then noon, and {et the index to twelve o'clock. 5. Turn the globe towards the well, till the index has pafied over the interval. of time between the culmination of the fun and ftar. .Then, under the point of the meridian, before obferved, will the place required be found. And hence may always be found what place a flar, or other phenomenon, rifes or {ets to at any given time. ; To place the globe in fuch manner, under any given latitude, as that the fun fhall illuminate all thofe regions which he adually illumines on earth.—1. Retify the globe, i.e. elevate the pole according to the latitude of the place ; bring the place to the meridian, and fet the globe north and fouth by the compaffes ; thus, the globe having the fame fituation with regard to the fun as the earth has, that part thereof will be illuminated which is illuminated: on earth. Hence alfo the globe being fituate in the fame manner, when the moon thines, it will fhew what parts are then illuminated by the moon. And in the like manner, we may find when the fun and moon rife and fet-at any given time. * Ss * To find the diflance of two places on the globe.—Take the given places in the compaffes, and apply them to the equa- tor: the degrees which there fubtend being reduced into miles, leagues, or the like, give the diftances required. The fame may be done, and that more commodioufly, by laying the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude over the two places, and noting the degree intercepted. To jind how any one place bears from another.—Bring one place to the meridian, and lay the quadrant of altitude over the other, and it will thew on the horizon the point of the compafs on which the latter bears from the former. Problems on the terreftrial elobe may fometimes be ad- vantageouflv folved, by confidering the horizon as the circle of illumination, and bringing the fun’s place to the zenith. To find for any given day and hour thofe places where the fun is then rifing or felting » thofe places where ii is noon, and in par- ticular that place whire the fun is vertical ; thofe places that have morning or evening twilight ; and thofe places where it was midaight.—Find the fun’s place in the ecliptic for the given day, bring it to the brazen meridian, and mark its declina- tion. Elevate the (north or fouth) pele as many degrees above the horizon as are equal to the fun’s declination (nerth or fouth). Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the index to the given hour, then turn the globe on its axis, till the index comes to the upper twelve, and fix the globe in that pofition. All thefe places along the weftern edge of the horizon have the fun rifing, thofe along the eaitern edge have the fun fetting: it is noon to the places under the brazen meridian, and amongft them the fun is vertical to that place, which ftands under the degree of the fun’s decli- tion. Thofe places that are within 18° of the weftern femi- circle of the horizon have morning twilight, and thofe within 18° of the eaftern femi-circle have evening twilight : and it is midnight at all thofe places under that part of the brazen meridian whichis below the horizon. In fhort, it is day to all places above the horizon, and either twilight or dark night to all thofe which are below it. The day and hour of a lunar eclipfe being given, to jind thofe places where it will be vifible. —¥ind the place where the fun will be vertical when the eclipfe begins, and rectify the globe, in refpeét to latitude, for the antipodes of that place. Then bring the antipodes to the upper part of the brazen meridian, and fix the globe in that pofition, and the begin- ning of the eclipfe will be vifible to all places which are then above the horizon. Yo jind the proportion which the land bears to the fra.—For this purpofe Dr. Long propofes to take the papers of a large terreftrial globe, and after feparating the land from the fea with a pair of {ciffars, to weigh them carefully in {cales. [his method fuppoles the globe to be exaétly de- lineated, and all the papers of equal thicknefs. By an ex- periment on the papers of Mr.Senex’s feventeen inch globe, he found that thofe comprehending the fea weighed 349 gfains, and the others only 124; whence he inters, that almoft three-fourth parts of the furface of our earth between the polar circles are covered with water, and that little more than one-fourth is dry land. Dr. Long omitted weighing the papers within the polar circles, becaufe the proportion whtch the land bears to the fea within them is not afcertained. Long’s Aitron. vol. i, p. 168. See Afag- nitude of the EARTH. Gtore, To conftrud a dial by the. See Dra. The celettial globe has been improved by Mr. Fergufon : in this globe, (Plate XV. Ajfronomy, fig.122.) an arch MKH, of 233°, is fixed on the north pole of the axis, above the hour circle; and at the end is fixed an upright pm HG, Zatz ftanding GLOGDE: ftanding direétly over the north pole of the ecliptic, and perpendicular to that part of the furface of the globe. On this pin are two moveable collets at D and H, to which are annexed the quadrantal wires N and O, carrying two little balls reprefenting the fun and moo... The collet D is fixed to the circular plate F, on which are engraven the 29% days of the moon's age, beginning under the wire N, which wire, as it turns round, carries with it the plate F. Thefe wires are fixed or flackened by the fcrew G, and the two little balls are made to rife and fet at the fame time and on the fame point of the horizon, for the day to which they are rectified, as the fun and moon do in the heavens. The ball reprefenting the moon may be ferewed as many degrees to either fide of the ecliptic, as her latitude amounts to at any given time; and for this purpofe, S is a {mall piece of patteboard, the curved edge of which at S is to be fet upon the globe at right angles to the ecliptic, and the dark line over § to fand upright upon it: from this line, on the con- vex edge, are drawn the 53 degrees of the moon’s latitude on both fides of the ecliptic ; and when this piece is fet up- right on the globe, its graduated edge reaches to the moon on the wire O, by which means fhe 1s eafily adjufted to her latitude found by an ephemeris. The horizon of this globe is fupported by two femi-circular arches, becaufe pillars would {top the progrefs of the balls, when they go below the horizon in an oblique fphere. This globe is rectified by clevating the pole to the latitude of the place, bringing the fun’s place in the ecliptic for the given day to the brazen me- ridian, and fetting the hour-index to twelve at noon; then, fetting the fun direGily over his place in the meridian, and the moon over her place in the ecliptic, by fixing her wire under the number that expreffes her age for that day on the plate F; and, laftly, laying the curved edge of the patte- board S over the ecliptic below the moon, and adjufting the moon to her latitude over the graduated edge of the patte- board. Having thus rectified the globe, turn it round, and obferve on what point of the horizomthe fun and moon balls rife and fet ; for thefe agree with the points of the compafs on which the fun and moon rife and fet in the heavens on the given day: and the hour-index fhews the times of their riing and fetting, and alfo the time of the moon’s pafling over the meridian. This globe is alfo contrived for exhibit- ing the phenomena of the harveft-moon, &c. Phil. Tranf. N? 483. art. 21. in vol. xliv. p. 535, or Fergufon’s Aitron. Pp: 291. ’ Grose, Dialling. See DIALLING. Groprs, Patent, are thofe. with the improvements of Mr. Neale, for which he obtained his majeity’s letters patent ; by means of which he folves feveral aftronomical problems, which do not admit of folution by the common globes. Gross, Planetary, is a machine contrived and defcribed by Mr. Fergufon ; in which '[’ (Plate XV. Affronomy, fig: 423) is a terreftrial globe fixed on its axis ftanding up- right on the pedeftal CD E, on which is an hour circle, having its index fixed on the axis, which turns fomewhat tightly in the pedeftal, fo that the globe may not be liable to {hake : to prevent which, the pedeftal is about two inches thick and the axis goes quite through it, bearing on a fhoulder. ‘The globe is hung in a graduated brazen meri- dian, much in the: ufual way ; andthe thin plate N, NE, ¥, is a moveable horizon graduated round the outer edge, for fhewing the bearings and\ amplitudes of the fun, moon, and planets. The brazen yneridian is grooved round the outer edge ; andin this groove is axflender femi-circle of brafs,. the ends of whiecli are fixed to the Korizon in its north and fouth points’: this femi-circle flidesin-the groove as the horizon is moved in re 3> 4, h- This plate or ecliptic is fupported by four {trong wires, havimg the lower ends fixed into the pedeftal at C, D, and E, the fourth being hid by the globe. The ecliptic is inclined 234 degrees to the pedefal, and is there- fore properly inclined to the axis of the globe which ftands upright on the pedeftal. To resify this machine.—Set the Sun, and all the planetary balls, to their geocentric places in the ecliptic for any givers time, by an ephemeris; then fet the north point of the ho- rizon to the latitude of your place on the brazen meridian, and the quadrant of altitude to the fouth point of the ho- rizon ; which done, turn the globe with its furniture till the quadrant of altitude comes right againft the Sun, viz. to his place in the ecliptic ; and keeping it there, fet the hour in- dex to the XII. next the letter C. By this machine the following problems, as well as many others, may be refolved. To find the amplitude, meridian altitudes, and times of riffing; culminating, and fetting of the fun, moon, and plancts.—Turn the globe round ealtward, or according to the order of the figns ; and as the eaftern edge of the horizon comes right againit the fun, moon, or any planet, the hour-index will fhew the time of its rifing ; and the mner edge of the ecliptic will cut its rifing amphtude in the horizon. Turn on, and as the quad- rant of altitude comes right againit the fun, moon, or pla- nets, the ecliptic cuts the meridian altitudes in the quadrant and the hour-index fhews the times of their coming to the meridian. Continue turning, and as the weitern edge of the horizon comes right again{ft the fun, moon, or planets, their fetting amplitudes are cut in the horizon by the ecliptic ; and the times of their fetting are fhewn by the index on the hour-circle. To jind the altitude and azxirauth of the fun, moon, and planets at any time of their being above the horizcn.—Turn the globe till the index comes to the given time in the hour-circle ; and keep the globe fteady, and moving the quadrant of altitude to each planet refpectively, theedge of the ecliptic will cut the planct’s mean altitude on the quadrant, and the quadrant. - will cut the planet’s azimuth, or point of bearing on the ho- rizon. The fan's altitude being given at any time either before or after noon, to find the hour of the day, and the variation of the compafs, in aay known latitude —W ith one hand hold the edge of the quadrant right againit the fun; and, with the other hand, turn the globe weitward, if it be in the forenoon, or ealtward if it be in the afternoon, until the fun’s place at the inner edge of the ecliptic cuts the quadrant in the fyn’s. obferved altitude ; and then the hour-index will point out : GLO the time of the day, and the quadrant will cut the true azi- muth, or bearing of the fun for that time: the difference between which, and the bearing fhewn by the azimuth com- pafs, thews the variation of the compafs in that place of the earth, Fergufon’s Aftron. p. 292, &c. Guose Amaranth,’ See Gompur Ena. Guoxe Animalcule, in Natural Hiffory, is a fingular, mi- nute, aquatic animal, whofe form feems exaétly globular, without either head, tail, or fins. It moves in all directions, either rolling like a bowl, or gliding along fmoothly with- out turning itfelf at all. Its whole body is tranfparent, ex- cept where it is covered with circular black {pots ; fome of which have fix or feven, fome one, two, three, four or five, and others none at all. Thefe fpots are probably the eggs or young ones of the animal. The general appearance of the body exhibited a kind of fhort moveable hairs or briftles, by means of which it is conjectured the motions of the ani- mal may be performed. Baker’s Microf. 1753, p. 322, &c. Guiose, Daify. See GLoBuLARiA. j Grose Fiji, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome fpecies of the oftracion are called. See Osrracioy. Giosr Flower, in Botany. See SpusRANTHUS. Grose Ranunculus. See TROLuIUs. Grose Thifile. See Ecrinors. GLOBULAR Cuarr, a reprefentation of the furface, or fome part of the furface, of the terraqueous globe upon a plane ; wherein the parallels of latitude are circles nearly concentric: the meridians, curves, bending towards the poles ; and the rhumb-lines alfo curves. The merits of this chart confift m this, that the diftances between places on the fame rhumb are all meafured by the fame feale of equal parts; and the diftance of any two places in the arch of a great circle, is nearly reprefented in this chart by a ftraight line. Hence land-maps, made ac- cording to this projection, would indifputably have great advantages above thofe made any other way. See Map. ee natant But for fea charts, and the ufe of navigation, it is yet controverted, whether the globular chart be preferable to Mercator’s, where the meridians, parallels, and particularly the rhumb-lines, are all ftraight lines; imafmuch as ftraight lines are found more eafy to draw and manage than curves, efpecially fuch as rhumb-lines on the globular chart are. This projection is not new, though not much taken notice of till of late. It is mentioned by Ptolemy in his Geography ; as alfo by Blundeville, in his Exercifes. See CHART. GrosuLar Projeition. See PRosecrion. Guosunar Sailing. See Great-circl Sar.ine. GLOBULARIA, in Botany, was fo called by Tourne- fort, becaufe its flowers grow in the fhape of a little globe or ball.—Linn. Gen. 47. Schreb. 63. Willd. Sp. Pl. Aut. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1.222. Mart. Mill. Vv. I. 539: Die 2 Lamarck Did: v. 2.730. Ilultr.. t. 56. Tourn. t. 265. Gaertn. t. 44. Jufl. o7—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. vfimachie, Jufl. 1s Ch. Cal. Common perianth imbricated, with equal feales, the length of the dif; proper perianth of one leaf, tubular, five-cleft, acute, permanent. Cor. General one nearly equal; proper one of a fingle petal, tubular at the bafe ; limb in five fegments ; the upper lip very narrow, cloven, fhorteft; the lower confifting of three larger, equah ferments. Stam. Yilaments four, fimple, as long as the proper corolla; anthers diflin&t, incumbent. Pi. Germen fuperior, ovate; ttyle fimple, the length of the flamens ; ffigma obtufe. Peric. none; proper calyx fhutting up and GLO ertclofing the folitary, ovate feeds. Common receptacle oft long, divided by fcales. Ei. Ch. Common calyx imbricated ; proper one tubular, inferior. Partial corollas with the upper lip cloven; under one three-cleft. Receptacle chaffy. 1. G. longifolia. Long-leaved Globularia. Pl. v. 1. 539; (Alypum five Herba terribilis; Sloan. Jam. v. I. 19, t. 5. f. 3.)— Stem fhrubby. Leaves linear- lanceolate, entire. green-houfe fhrub isa native of Madeira, flowering’ in July and Augutt. The wood of this plant is hard and white, Willd. Sp. Heads of flowers axillary.”—This - with a very large pith, and an wuequal light brown or grey — bark. Leaves growing very thick towards the ends of the branches. Flowers confifting of feveral {pherical heads, of a blueifh colour. Seed pappous, all over downy. 2. G. Alpum. Herb Terrible. Linn. Sp. Pl. 139. (Alypum montis Ceti; Ger. em. 506.)—* Stem fhrubby..- Leaves obovato-lanceolate, three-toothed or undivided. Heads of fowers terminal.’’—A green-houfe fhrub, found. in various parts of the fouth of Europe, flowering from Auguit to November. Root woody. Leaves alternate, fafciculated in the lower avil/e, near an inch long, glaucous, fome are undivided, others three-toothed. FYowers blue or - purple. ‘The whole. plant is bitter, and purgative in a vio- - lent degree. 3-_G. bifnagarica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 139. (Scabiofa bifnaga- rica five G. frutefcens ; Pluk. Amalth. t. 58. f. 5.) —* Stem fhrubby. Radical-leaves wedge-fhaped, abrupt ; item-leaves lanceolate.’’—-Native of the woods of India. S¥em of many {traight, hard, leafy branches, eachakout five or fix inches - high. Flowers in a blue terminal head. 4. G. vulgaris. Blue Daify. Linn. Sp. Pl. 139, (Aphyllanthes anguillare ; Camer. Hort. t. 7.) —« Stem herbaceous. Radical-leaves_three-toothed. Stem-leaves lanceolate.’"—A hardy perennial, common in fome parts of Europe, and flowering in May and June. Root woody. Stem afpan high, terminated by a head of deep blue flowers. Willdenow mentions two varieties of this fpecies, one witha -= > eaflefs flem, the other with white flowers. 5. G. fpinofa. Linn. Sp. Pl. 139.—<* Radical-leaves cre- nate-prickly ; {tem-leaves entire, pointed.’ — Native of Spain, . Albinus having gathered it in Granada. It flowers in May. —Radical-leaves numerous, fmall, {iff and notched, each notch ending ina prickle. FYowers compofing an oblong {phere, hairy.—We are not acquainted with any figure of - this {pecies. 6. G. cordifolia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 139. t. 245.—* Stem nearly naked. Leaves wedge-thaped, with three points; the middle one very {mall.’? — Native both of hills and vales in Hungary, Auftria, and Switzerland, flowering from April to July. Root creeping, each joint throwing out a clutter of /eaves, from the ceutre of which Jacq. Auftr, - {prigs a fmooth purplifh /fem about four inches long, ter- - minated by a head of blue flowers 7. G. nana, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 542.—‘* Flower-talks naked, very fhort, leaves fpatulate, fomewhat ovate, en- tire.”—-Found in the fouth of France; and on the Pyrenées, where our dried fpecimen was gathered. by Dr. Noehden, —Root woody and very thick, beariag numerous tufts. ofi little aves, among which arife the fhort, folitary. flower- flalks. #Yoqwers forming a terminal head.—It has never been ficured. 8. G. audicaulis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 140. Jacq. Auttr. t. 230.— Stem naked, leaves entire lanéeolate.’’—Native of mountainous and ftony places in Auttria and Switzerland, flowering in July.—2oot perennial, fibrous, creeping, throw- ing out numerous, thickifh, firm ages, darker on the up- per GLO per fide. Flower-flalk about fix inches long, {mooth, firi- ated, purplifh towards the top, bearing a roundifh head of blue flowers. 9. G. orientalis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 140.—“ Stem nearly naked. Vieads of flowers alternate, feffile, leaves ovate, fomewhat lanceolate, entire.’’—This fpecies is a native of Natolia. —Root perennial. Leaves numerous, obovate, running down into the foot-ftalks, acute, undivided, naked. Stem a foot high, herbaceous, perfectly fimple. Leaves alternate, {mall, lanceolate, remote. Heads of flowers alternate, feffile, from feven to ten, at the fummit of the ftem.—Linnezus defcribed G. orientalis, having received it from M. Biorling, but it is nowhere figured. Groguxanta, in Gardening, contains plants of the herba- ceous, flowery, perennial kind ; of which the f{pecies chiefly cultivated are the three-tooth-leaved globularia (G. aly- pum); and the common globularia or blue daily (C. vulgaris); but others may be eafily raifed. There are two varieties of the Jaft fort, one with a white flower, and another that has a leaflefs ftem. Mithod of Culture —In the firft it may he effe€ted by plant- ing cuttings of the young branches in April, juit before they begin to fhoot, in pots of light frefh mould, plunging them in a very moderate hot-bed, and giving them due water and fhade, till they have ftricken root. After this they fhould be removed from the bed, and be gradually hardened to the open air, being proteéted during the winter months. The fecond fort may be readily increafed by parting the roots, as in the common daify, planting them out in the carly part of the autumn, in moift fhady fituations. They fucceed beft in fuch loamy foils as are rather moift in their quality. The firft affords variety among potted plants, and the latter in the fronts of the more moift and fhady borders and clumps of pleafure-grounds. GLOBULE, Grozutus, a little globe; otherwife call- ed a /pherule. Thus the red particles of the blood are called globules of the blood, on account of their rednefs and fmallnefs. (See Buoopv.) The Cartefians call the particles broken off the matter of the firft element, globules of the fecond clement. See CARTESIAN, &c. GLOBULUS Nast, is ufed for the lower, flexible, car- tilaginous part of the nofe. -GLOCHIDION, in Botany. See Brapresa. GLOESZTI, in Geography, a town of Walachia; 50 miles N. of Buchareft. N. lat. 49° 13’. E. long. 26 16’. GLOGAJU, a principality of Silefia, on the E. fide of the Oder, bordering on Poland ; producing corn and wine in abundance, in fome parts affording mines of iron. The paftures feed many fheep, and the wool is wrought into different manufactures. It is divided into fix eircles. Inthe year 1241, it was governed by its own princes ; but after- wards it belonged to the king of Poland, to the king of Bohemia, to the emperor, and laft of all to the king of Pruffia. GuoGau, Gros or Great, the capital of the principa- lity of the fame name, built in rrro on the S. fide of the Oder, taken by the Pruffians in 1741, and ftrengthened by new fortifications. It isthe feat of a governor, a command- ant, divers tribunals, and a bifhop’s court, &c. It contains two Catholic churches, of which one is collegiate, three cohvents, a Lutheran church and fchool, anda chapel for Calvinifts; 62 miles N.W. of Breflau. N. lat. 51° 39). E. long. 16° 5’. GLocav, Ober, or Little, a town of Silefia, in the prin- GLO cipality of Oppeln; 19 miles S$. of Oppeln. N. lat. 50° 16’. E. long. 17° 48’. . GLOGNITZ, a town of Auftria; 28 miles S. of Vienna. GLOKEN-SPEISSE, in Mineralogy, a term ufed by the Germans to exprefs a fort of impure regulus of bifmuth, obtained by accident, fometimes in the making of {malt- The bifmuth ores are often fo intimately mixed with the cobalt, that they cannot be feparated from, them. Tn this cafe, the arfenic being raifed in the Mowers, there re- mains at the bottom, inftead of the fixed vitrifiable earth of the cobalt, a fort of impure regulus of a reddifh co- lour. This is bifmuth, with an admixture of the earth of cobalt, and other extraneous matter. They fometimes call this whole matter by the common name of fpeifle ; but more ufually they feparate it into two parts, and call the under part, which is moft folid, gloken-{peiffe, and the upper part they diftinguifh by the name of zs calda- rium. GLOMERELLS, in our Old Writers, commiffaries ap- pointed to determine differences between fcholars of a {chool or univerfity, and the townfmen of a place. In the edict of the bifhop of Ely, anno 1276, there is mention of the malter of the glomerells. GLOMME, or Gtomen, in Geography, called alfo the Stor Ely, or great river, the chief river of Norway, {prings from the lake of Orefund on the north of the Famund, and after running a courfe nearly fouth about 300 Britifh miles, difcharges itfelf into the Northern Ocean near Frede- rickftadt, to which town about 50,000 trees are annually floated npon it. This river, being full of cataracts and fhoals, - isnot navigable. Before it receives the Worme, which iffues from the lake Miofs, it is about as broad as the Thames at Henley. In its courfe it prefentsa broad furface, fome- times watering pleafant vallies, fometimes intercepted by fand-banks, over which it frequently {hifts its courfe, fome- times winding between rocky cliffs, and precipitating itfelf in frequent cataracts. Near Kongfwinger it is as broad as the Thames at Putney. Its rugged courfe, however, muft render it a tremendous torrent. GLON, ariver of Bavaria, which ruas into the Ammer, near Crantzberg. GLONS, a town of France, in the department of the Ourte, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Liege. ‘The place contains 1,500, and the canton 8,850, in- habitants, on a territory of 1074 kiliometres, in 23 com- munes. - GLOR-FAT, in Rural Economy, aterm applied to ani- mals that are extremely fat. : GLORIA Parnrt, in the Liturgy, a formula of words re- peated at the end of each Pfalm, and on otlier occafions, to give glory to the Trinity; called alfo the Dozology. It is thus denominated, becaufe it begins in the Latin office with thefe words; Gloria Patri, q. d. Glory be to the Father, &c. . Pope Damafcus is commonly faid to have firft ordered the rehearfal, or rather, finging the Gloria Patri at the end of Pfalms. Baronius, indeed, will have it to have been ufed in the times of the apoftles: but its ufe, then, he al- lows to have been more obfcure, and thatit did not become po- pular till after the rife of Arianifm, when it was made’a kind of fymbol of orthodoxy. ; , The fifth canon of the council of Vaifon, held in 529, decrees, ‘‘ that the name of the pope fhall always be re- hearfed in’ the churchés of France, and after the Gloria Patri fhall be added ficut erat in principio, as is done at Rome, in Africa, &c. on account of the heretics, who fay, GLO fay, that the} Soa. of God had his beginning in time.’ Fleury. Gort in excelfis is alfo a kind of hymn rehearfed in di- vine fervice, beginning with the words Gloria in excelfis Deo, & in terra pax hominibus, &e: Glory be to God on high, on earth peace, Kc. GLORIOSA, in Botany, fo named on account of the fplendour and magnificence of its flowers. Tournefort, ob- jecting to the name given by Linnzus becaufe it is an adjec- tive, called {this genus JZethonica, in which he has been followed by Juffieu, and indeed by all French botanitts, though the Linnzan {chool have refufed to adopt this barba- rous name.—Linn. Gen. 164. Schreb. 220. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.95. Ait. Hort. Kew. v.11. 434. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 2. Gertn. t. 18. Juff. 48.—Clafs and order, Hewandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Sarmentacee, Linn. Lilia, Juff. Gen. Ch. Ca/. none. Cor, Petals fix, oblong-lanceolate, waved, very long, entirely bent back, furnifhed at the bafe of their infide with a honey-bearing furrow, between two ridges. Stam. Filaments fix, aw]-fhaped, fhorter than the corolla, horizontal; anthers incumbent. P:/?, Germen globofe ; ttyle thread-fhaped, longer than the ftamens, horizontal ; ftigmas three, thread-fhaped. Peric. Capfule fuperior, oval, with three lobes, three cells, and three valves. Seeds numerous, lobular, covered with pulp, and difpofed in two rows. Eff. Ch. Corolla of fix waved and reflexed petals. Style oblique. 1. G. fuperba. Superb Lily. Linn. Sp. Pl. 437. Re- dout. Lilac. t. 26.—* Leaves furnifhed with tendrils.’’— Native of Malabar and Guinea. It was introduced into Kew Garden in 1690 by the firft earl of Portland. A ten- der ftove plant, flowering in July and Auguit. The /lem is herbaceous, abouta fathom high, round, haying two oppo- fite lateral branches, and putting forth a flower-[talk from the bofom of each leaf. Leaves alternate, fmooth, each ending in a tendril. yellow colour. Pefa/s lanceolate, long, waved at the edge, reflexed near the bafe. his remarkably handfome plant re- quires exceffive heat to make it flower. 2. G.fimplex. Linn. Mant. 62. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 96.— « Leaves pointed.’——Native of Senegal. The /eaves are not furnifhed with tendrils. overs bluee—There is no figure of this fpecies known. It was merely taken up from Miller, nor has any thing been found which anfwers to the defcription. Obf. This very beautiful genus is nearly allied to Erythro- niune. GtortosaA, in Gardening, comprifes a plant of the herbaceous, flowering, perennial kind; of which the fpecies cultivated is the fuperb-lily (G. fuperba.) Method of Cultur?.—It is capable of being increafed by planting the offsets from the old roots, either in the autumn after the ftems decay, or in the early {pring before they fhoot, in pots filled with light earth, plunging them in the bark- bed of the ftove. The old roots, when taken out of the ground, fhould be preferved in dry fand during the winter in the ftove, or in adry warm room. Itis the practice of fome tolet the roots remain during the winter in the mould, .eeping the pots in the tan-bed ; planting out the offsets early inthe fpring. In either way they fhould have very little water given them. When the ftems appear they fhould be fupported by fticks, and in hot dry weather a little water fhould be f{paringly given, as there may be occafion. And the pots in which they are planted fhould be fmall, that they may be confined, and put forth ftronger items. AN Re pots will be large Flowers pendent, of a moft beautiful red and _ GLO enough for the roots of the greateft fized plants of this na- ture. The plants afford much effeét by their beautiful flowers among thofe of the ftove kind, when properly intermixed with them. GLORIOUS Istanps, in Geography, two {mall iflands in the Indian fea. S. lat, 12° 32!. E. long. 47° 15'. GLOSKAR, a fmall ifland in the Baltic, E. of Aland. N. lat. 60’ 20'. E. long. 20° 13'. GLOSS, Gtossa, a comment on the text of any author, to explain his fenfe more fully and at large, whether in the fame language, or in any other. See COMMENTARY. The word, according td fome, comes from yauccx, tongue 5 the office of a glofs being to explain the text, as that of the tongue is to difcover the mind. Others derive it from.the Latin glofs, of yarw:, a fifter-in-law, which among lawyers fometimes ftands for fifter ; the glofs being, as it were, filter’ to the text. Nic. de Lyra compofed a poftil or glofs on the Bible, in fix volumes folio.. The French fay, proverbially of an ill comment, that it is glofs d'Orleans, plus obfcure que. le texte. Gross is alfo ufed for # literal tranflation, or an interpre= tation of anauthor in another language, word: for words Young fcholars need an interlineary glofs for the under- ftanding of Juvenal, Horace, Salluft, Periius, &c. Gtoss is alfo ufed in matters of Commerce, &a, for the lultre of filk, ftuff, or the like. GLOSSARY, Gtossanium, a kind of diGtionary for explaining the obf{cure, ancient, and barbarous words and phrafes of an altered, corrupted, or refined language. Spelman’s gloffary, entitled Archaiologicum, is an excel- lent work ; though that author did not begin to ftudy in this way till fifty years of age. M. Du Cange’s Latin Gloffary in fix volumes, Paris, fol. 1733, Bafil, fol. 1762, isa work in high eftimation, and containing a fund of the moft curious and amufing intelligence. Charpentier’s fupplement to this work, in 4 volumes, fol. Paris, 1766, is neceflary to render this fet of books complete. Du Cange’s Greek Gloflary in two volumes, fol. Lugd. 1688, is an excellent performance, full of uncommon erudition. The Greek, Latin, and French gloffaries of Du Cangs form a feries of the moit in{tructive articles in the tudy of jurifprudence and belles lettres. There is an abridgment of this work in 6-vols. 8vo. ; which, however, contains fome matter not common to either of the preceding. This abridg- ment is exceedingly rare. As a caution to the purchafers of the Greek Gloflary, we inform them that in the. article « Moneta”? (Coins, vol.-iv. p. go4.) there fhould be 10 plates of engravings of coins, and monograms of various princes and fovereigns of Europe, which are fometimes wanting, and thus the value of the edition is materially depretiated. Lindenbroek has a Gloffary on the laws of Charlemagne, &c. : LOSSOCATOCHOS, in Surgery; an inftrument for depreffing the tongue. It is deferibed by Paulus Agineta, and the term is derived from yAwzca, the tongue, and- xalexn, to repre/s. x GLOSSOCE LE, denoting a fwelling ang protrufion of the tongue. ‘lhe word comes from yawsox,. the tongue, and xnAry @ tumour. GLOSSOCOMA, a retractiom of the tongue. GLOSSOCOME, in the Inftrumental MN ufic of the Greeks; aname given by the ancients toa kind of cate for the glottis, or tongues of their flutes,.which probably were hautboys, and, confequently, their glottis was a reed. See GLorris.’ GLOSSOCOMON, in Mechanics, isa name given by Hi- ere, GLO ero, to a machine compofed of divers dented wheels, with pi- nions ferving to raife huge burdens. Gtossocomon, aterm in Surgery, derived from yAucex, the tongue, and xousw, to guard; originally a cafe for the reed of a hautboy, but ufed metaphorically to fignify a cafe for a fractured limb. GLOSSODIA, in Botany, (+>.wssoesde-, having the form or appearance of a tongue ; in allufion to the peculiar ap- pendage to the internal part of the flower, which refembles the tongue of a ferpent, and affords the effential character. Brown Prod. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 325—Clafs and order, Gynandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Orchidee. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of three equal fpreading leaves. Cor. Petals two, equal to and refembling the calyx. Neétary of a different form, fhorter, undivided, not glandular, accompanied, at its bafe above, by acloven tongue-thaped ap- pendage, between it and the ftyle. Stam. Anther terminal, its cells clofe together ; mafles of pollen two in each cell, compreffed, powdery. iff. Germen inferior: ftyle co- lumnar, with a dilated membranous border at each fide. Peric. Capfule.. Seeds numerous. Eff. Ch. Calyx and Corolla equal. Lip fhorter, undivided, without glands, with an appendage atits bafe. Style dilated at each fide. Anther vertical. 1. G. major. Brown 326.—* Appendage cloven half way down ; its lobes fpreading, acute.” 2. G. minor. Ibid.—“ Appendage cloven to the bafe; its lobes parallel, obtufe.”’ Both fpecies are natives of the country near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. Their du/bs are undivided, with a la- minated coat, and grow in the earth, not parafitically. Herb hairy. Leaf folitary, radical, its bafe enclofed in a mem- branous fheath. Sta/é radical, bearing generally one blue flower, rarely two, and furniihed mek one bradea befides what accompanies each flower. Brown. GLOSSOIDES, in Natural Hiflory,a name given by fome authors to a fpecies of ftone, refembling the figure of the human tongue. This isa mere accidental configuration of a common flint or pebble, perfe€tly indeterminate in fize and colour, and owing its form to no animal mould, asthe ftones found in fhells sell do, but is a mere lufus nature in the concretion of the ftone. GLOSSOMA, in Botany, fo named by Schreber, from qrwsse, the tongue, and wyoc, the foulder, alluding to the tongue-fhaped appendages borne by the anthers. Schreb. 792. Willd. Sp. Pl.y. 1. 664. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 2. (Votomita; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. go. Juff. 382.) Clafs and order, Tetran- dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rhamnis affine, Jul. -Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, turbinate, four-toothed, permanent. Cor. Petals four, equal, lanceolate, acute, much longer than the calyx, recurved. Neétary a ring round the bafe of the ftyle. Stam. Filaments four, very fhort ; anthers oblong, nearly united into a cylinder, elon- gated at the top into a membranous lanceolate expanfion of two cells, opening inwardly. Pi/f. Germen inferior, obovate ; ityle thread-fhaped, as tall as the ftamens ; {tigmas four, acute. Peric. Drupa pear-fhaped, of one cell, crowned by the calyx. Seed folitary, ovate, ftriated. Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, four-toothed. Petals four. Anthers cohering, each crowned with a lanceolate mem- brane. Stigmas four. Drupa with one furrowed nut. Obf. The above charaéters appear to be taken by Schre- ber from Aublet, nor have we any better materials, The only fpecies known is, 1. G. arborefcens ; Willdenow. (Votomita guianenfis ; Aubl. v. 1. 91. t. 35.) —A /brub of a middling fize, whofe ‘trunk is five or fix feet high, and five or fix inches thick ; GLO the wood yellow, hard and compa&. Branches knotty, {preading varioufly, leafy. Leaves oppofite, elliptical, pointed, entire, fix inches long, thick and firm, of a fhining green, placed on fhort ftalks, with a deciduous ftipula at each fide of their bafe. Flowers white, on fhort, um- bellate, axillary ftalks, their petals about half an inch long, This plant is found in the extenfive forefts of Guiana, about the habitations of the natives. Nothing is recorded res fpeCting its qualities or ufes. GLOSSOPETALUM, fo denominated by Schreber from the tongue-like appendages to the petals. Schreb. 205. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1521. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2. (Goupia ; Aubl. yv. 1. 295. Jufl. 378. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 217.)— Clafs and order, Pentandria Pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofe, Linn. Rhamni, Jull. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth half inferior, of one leaf, minute, five-toothed, permanent. Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, fpread- ing, acute, much longer than the calyx, each bearing at its point a linear-lanceolate, abrupt appendage, almott of the lencth of the petal, bent back and lying upon it. Stam, Filaments five, very fhort; anthers roundifh. Pi. Germen roundifh, encircled by a glandular ring, which bears the petals and ftamens; ftyle none; ftigmas five, acate. Peric. Berry roundifh, with five furrows, of one cell. Seeds five, angular. Eff. Ch. Calyx half inferior, with five teeth. Petals five, each bearing an inflexed longitudinal appendage. Berry with five feeds. Obf. Schreber, p. 826, fufpeéts this genus not to be diftin& from Aralia, but the habit confirms Juffieu’s opinion, who feparates them widely. Two fpecies are defcribed by Aublet. 1. G. glabrum. (Goupia glabra; Aubl. v. 1. 296. t. 116.) —*¢ Leaves fmooth.’’—Native of the forefts of Guiana, 30 leagues from the fea, bearing flowers and fruit in Novem- ber. The trunk is 60 feet or more in height, and two or three feet in diameter, ferving to make canoes; the bark fmooth and grey; the woed white and light. Branches drooping, furnifhed with alternate /eaves of an ovate, point- ed, fomewhat unequal figure, entire, rigid, fhining, and fmooth, with a branching rib, and fine tranfverfe veins at the back. Flowers yellow, {mall, many together in foli- tary axillary umbels. Berry black, globular. 2. G. tomentofum. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1522.—* Leaves downy.’’—Native of the foreits of Cayenne and Guiana. Not half fo lofty as the former. The baré is wrinkled and dark-coloured. Leaves clothed on both fides with fome fhort hairs. Their juice, which, as well as the bark, is bitter, is ufed to cure inflammations of the eyes. GLOSSOPETRA, or Gtorrorrrra, in Natural Hiffory, called alfo ichthyodontes, fhark’s teeth, dog7ifh’s tecth, &c. a kind of extraneous foffil, fomewhat in form of a fer- pent’s tongue; frequently found in the ifland of Malta and divers other parts. Some of them are in a high ftate of pre- fervation, having their enamel and points perfect, and their {harp edges finely ferrated as in the recent teeth. - Naturalifts have been much divided as to ‘the nature and origin of thefe bodies. Steno, De Corpore folido intra foli. dum contento; Ol. Wormius, Differt. de Gloffopetra ; and ap has De Gloffopetris Lunebergenfibus, treat of them at large. : The vulgar notion is, that they are the tongues of ferpents petrified ; and hence their name, which is a compound of yawrrn, tongue, and DET Pty fone. Hence, alfo, their tras ditionary virtue in curing the bites of ferpents. The general opinion of naturalifts is, that they are or teet GLO teeth of fifhes, left on land by the waters of the deluge, and fince petrified. They even {pecify the very kind of fifh, and take it to be that which Theophraftus and the Greek writers call xzpyapia:y and the moderns the /haré or /ea-dog. Camerarius cannot -perfuade himfelf that the gloflopetra found in England, Malta, and round Montpelier, were ever the teeth of a fea-dog, or any other fifh. The chief difficul- ty, he fuggefts, isthe fmall quantity of volatile falt and oil which they afford by diftillation. To which Dr. Woodward anfwers, in defence of the common fyftem, that having lain fo long buried under ground, it is no wonder they fhould have lott the beft part of their volatile principles. Itis cer- tata, that human bones and fkulls, long interred, do not afford nearly the quantity of thofe principles that they would have doae mmediately after the perfon’s death. Another feruple, propofed by Camerarius 1s, that the glof- fopetre, when expofed to the naked fire, turn toa cov! ; and not to a calx ; contrary to what is afferted by Fabius Colum- na. Dr. Woodward anfwers, that it is likely enough the loffopetrz, in burning, may aflume the form of a coal, be- fore it arrive to that ¢f acalx. The feveral fizes of the teeth of the fame fpecies, and thofe of the feyeral different {pecies of fharks, afford a vait varicty of thefe foflil fubitances. Their ufual colours are black, blueifh, whitifh, yellowifh, or brown; and in thape they ufually approach to a triangular figure. Some of them are fimple ; others are tricufpidate, having a {mall point on each fide of the large one; many of them are quite {traight, but they are frequently found crooked, and bent in all direétions ; many of them are ferrated on their edges, and others have them plain: fome are undulated on their edges, and flightly ferrated on thefe undulations. 'Phey differ alfo in fizeas muchas in figure; the larger being four or five inches long, aud the fmaller of lefs than a quarter of an inch. They are moft ufually found with us in the ftrata of blue clay, theugh fometimes alfo in other fubitances, and are frequent in the clay-pits of Richmond and of Sheppy ifland, and in other places. They are very frequent alfo in Ger- many, but nowhere fo plentiful as in the ifland of Malta. Inthe Britifh ttrata they rarely occur. Mr. Farey has found them in thefe ftrata only in five places, wz. in the London clay, ptobably obtained from the clay-pits above-mentioned ; in a bed of the foft or upper chalk in Kent, at Harefield, near New Malton, &c.; ina green fandy ftratum below the chalk, N. of Duntftable, &c.; inthe Stonesfield and Colly- wefton flate feries, above the Bath free-ftone rocks, at En- ftone in Oxfordfhire, where Woodward procured {pecimens of thefe teeth in the jaw, &c.; and in the thick grey lime- rock which lies under and furrounds the South-Wales coal hafons (PInl. Tranf. N° 334.) Gloffopetre are fome- times found in gravel-pits and other colleétions of alluvial matters. It is feldom poffible to determine to what place in the feries of ilrata thefe belong, and they fhould therefore be carefully diftinguithed from fuch as are actually found in the {trata. The Germans attribute many virtues to thefe foflil tecth ; they call them cordials, fudorifics, and alexipharmics ; and the people of Malta, where they are extremely plentiful, hang them about their children’s necks to promote dentition. They may poflibly be of as much fervice this way as an anodyne necklace ; and if fufpended in fuch a manner that the child can get them to its mouth, may, by their hardnefs and fmoothnetfs, be of the fame ufe as a piece of coral. See Servent’s Tongues. GLOSSO-PHARYNGEUS, in Anatamy, from yrvesz, Vou XVI. GLO the tongue, and fapvyt, a name given to thofe fibres of the conitrictor pharyngis fuperior, which arife from the fide of the tongue. GLOSSO-SPATHA, in Surgery, an m{trument, called by fome /peculum lingue, and ufed to deprefs the tongue, ix order to look into the fauces. There are many inflammatory diforders of the mouth, fauces, and palate, which require a depreffion of the tongue, while they are infpeéted and treated with proper remedies. The handle of a filyer fpoon is made to fupply the place of this inflrument in moft cafee, and anfwers the purpofe very well. Whichever is ufed, care fhould be taken to deprefs very gently, to avoid giving the patient pain, as alfo to avoid irritating the mouth and inflamed parts. When injections are to be made into the mouth, this in- ftrument or the {poon fhould alfo be applied, and the fyringe fhould be conveyed into the mouth over it. GLOSSO-STA PHYLINUS, in Anatomy, from YAWTT OL, the tongue, and svar, the uvula, another name for the con- {tri€tor ifthmi faucium. See DeGgiurtition. GLOTTIDIS Rima, the fame opening as the glottis. The term rima particularly denotes its flit-like form. GLOTTIS, from yastz2, the tongue, is the opening through which the air pafles to and from the lungs in refpira- tion. In this paffage the voice is formed. Sce Drcivu- ririon and Larynx. Julius Pollux makes the glottis a joint or part of a. flute, and Helychius fays that the glott were little tengues, aéted upon by the breath of the player. This defeription of He- fychius feems to confirm the idea of the ancient nominal flutes being a kind of hautboys. GLorttis, in Ornithology, a name piven by many authors to a bird of the longlegged kind, approaching to the nature of our red-fhank, but larger and longer legged, and generally known by the name fimo/a. See Scoopax Glottis. GLOUCESTER, in Geography, a city in Gloucefter- fhire, England, is fituated in a vale, on a gentle eminence, rifing, on the eaft fide, from the river Severn. "Uhis opulent city appears to have originated in a Roman ftation which was fituated at King’s Holm, near the north-eaftern extre- mity of the prefent city: The Romans contimed to oe- cupy this {pot till the diftraGtions of their own empire oc- cafioned them to quit the ifland. Its government then re- verted to the Britifh princes, under whofe domination it continued till about the year 577, when, according to the Saxon Chronicle, it was furrendered to the Weft Saxons, and was reputed one of their principal cities : it was after- wards fubjugated by the Mercians, who alfo obtained pot- feffion of the other parts of the county. Under the Saxons it acquired the appellation of Gleau-celtre. The ftrength and confequence of the city rendering it an object of frequent enterprife, its vicinity was feveral times the fcene of aétion between’ the Britons and Saxons. By -thefe conflicts, its buildings were nearly ruined; and the whole place might have funk into complete decay, if Wolphere, fon of king Penda, had not enlarged‘and adorned it, about the year 679. This refloration was fo perfect, that Bede informs us, it was efleemed, about the commencement of the 8th century, as one of the nobleil cities in the Kingdom. Its early im- portance 18 evinced by its having been the refidence of various Saxon monarchs; and hence it was depominated:a royal city, as itis cxprefsly termed in a grant made by king Edgar to the monks of Worcefter, dated at Gloucefler in the year 964. By this monarch a battla was fought here with the Danes, who had: twice pluhdered the city in the preceding reigns, and who again ravaged, and partly con- fumed it by fire, in that of his fon Ethelred. Several of 3 A. the GLOUCESTER. the Norman and Enghith kings alfo occafionally refided and tranfaéted public bufinefs in this city. A memorable era in the eventful hiftory of Gloucefter originated in a conteft between Henry III. andthe barons. ‘That monarch, in 1263, appointed fir Maci de Befile, a French knight, fheriff of the county, and conttable of the caftle within the city> ‘The preference thus given to a foreigner was violently refented by the indignant nobles, who immediately made choice of fir William Tracy, a native of the fhire. He accordingly proceeded to exercife the duties of his office in holding a county court, but was fuddenly interrupted by De Belile, who, entering with a party of the king’s troops, feized the knight, and, with cireumftances of peculiar cruelty, hurried him to the caflle, where he was committed to clofe confinement. After this outrage, the barons de- puted fir Roger de Clifford, and fir John Giffard, with their dependants, to befiege the caftle, for the double pur- spofes of refcue and revenge ; in a few days they obtained an entrance, and compelled De Belile to retire to the keep ; he afterwards furrendered, and was fent as a prifoner to Erdefley caftle, in the marches of Wales. In the year 1278 Edward I. affembled a parliament-here, and feveral laws, conheéted with the flatute of Quo Warranto, were enacted, and have, from that period, been known under the general ~uppellation of the Statutes of Gloucefter. In the courfe of the two next centuries, four parliaments were held here. “The oppofition of the Glouceftrians to the royal caufe, dur- ing the reign of Charles I., is generally fuppofed to haye operated fatally againft his intereit throughout the kingdom : fo early as the year 1641, they declared for the parliament ; raifed a company of volunteers, which they added to their trained bands; procured cannon from London and Briftol, and repaired and ftrengthened the fortifications: though frequently befieged by the royaliits, they fuccefsfully re- fiited every attack. c The ecclefiattical ftate of Gloucefter, during the Roman and former part‘ of the Saxon period of its hiftory, is involyed -in much obfcurity: but in the year 657, Edwy, king of Northumberland, having fubdued Mercia, ereéted Litch- field into a bifhop’s fee, and included Gloucefterfhire within its diocefe. This bifhopric was foon afterwards divided ‘into ‘the five fmaller of Litchfield, Dorchefter, Leicetter, Hereford, and Worceiter; to the laft of which this diftriG was annexed, and continued fubje&, till the. reign of Henry VILI., who, by letters patent, dated September 3d, 1541, and afterwards confirmed by act of parliament, erected “the city of Gloucetter, the county of that city, and all the ‘county of Gloucefter, into a bifhopric, with a dean and chapter, by the name of the diocefe of Gloucetter ; and ordained that fuch part of the then vill and county of Briltel, as formerly was in the diocefe of Worcefter, fhould ‘be from thenceforward in the diocefe of Gloucefter for ever.” The church appowted for the cathedral of the new fee, was that belonging to the abbey, founded by Wolphere, firit Chriftian Bing of Mercia, and Ethelred, his brother and fucceffor, in the year 681. The New Minfter, as it is termed in the records, was burnt, with the monaflery, in 1087 or 1088 ; probably at the fame time that the city was partly deftroyed by the adherents of Robert, brother to Willtam Rufus. Serlo, then abbot, began a new church in June, 1089; the firlt {tone was laid by Robert, bishop of Hereford ; and on the completion of the edifice, in the following year, it was dedicated to St. Peter, by the bifhops of Worcefter, Rocheiter, and) Bangor. ‘The abbey was again deftroyed by fire in rror or 1102, but the church was faved. ‘The prefent magnificent and interefting edifice has been ere&ted at -different periods, and confequently dif ; 3 ‘between thofe and the chapel of our Lady. plays various {pecimens of ancient ecclefiaftical architecture, in the Saxon, Norman, and Englifh ftyles. The converfion of the abbey church into a cathedral was the chief canfe-of its prefervation at the reformation; and, to the honour of the inhabitants of Gloucefter, it became the object of their peculiar care during the civil wars, after which they ob- tained a grant of it from Oliver Cromwell. Hence the eathe- dral has been transferred to the prefent age, as nearly perfeét in ali its parts, with regard to its general conftruction, as it was left by the moft favoured of its architeéts. The eras of erection of the principal parts are known; and. hence the chara€teriftic f{tyles of each can be fatisfactorily afeertained, The lower part of the nave, the chapels that furround the choir, and the crypt, are prefumed to have belonged to the building erected by bifhop Aldred, before 1c8g: the roof of the nave cbtained its fimfhing and form in 1248. In 1310 the fouth aifle was begun ; and part of the fouth trar- fept was added in 1330. ‘The building of the north tran- fept and choir commenced about the fame year; the latter was completed in 1457. Between the years 1351 and 1390, the elaborate cloiilers were finifhed. The chapel of our Lady was built between the years 1457 and 1498; and the centre tower between 1457 and 1518. ‘The interior of this fplendid fabric confifts of a nave, choir, fide a:fl-s, and tran- fepts, with a chapel of our Lady, and feveral {maller chapels or orateries. From the interfection of the nave and tranfepts rifesa high tower, and on the fouth fide is a handfome pro- jeGting porch.- The roof is fuftained an twenty-eight co- lumns, which extend-in two rows from the weft end to the high altar, where the prefbytery forms nearly a femi-circular {weep : the tranfepts have no ifolated pillars... The chapel of our Lady is, as ufual, aitached to the prefbytery ; and ‘there are chapels in the north-eaft and fouth-eaft angles of the tranfepts and choir, with two others projecting in the fweep The outline, cr ground plan of the cathedral, is probably the fame at pre- fent as defigned by bifhop Aldred previous te the year 1089 ; and the crypt remains almoft as perfeét as the mafons left it. The architeGure of this fubterraneous and gloomy place is -maffy, and fuited to the immenfe weight refting on the arches, which are turned upon huge fhort pillars, and flrengthened by groins of proportionate folidity. The nave is an intereft- ing fpecimen of the ftyle which continued to preyait for nearly two centuries after the Norman conquett. The arcade of ponderous round columns, and the rows of femi-cireular arches above, imprefs the mind with ideas of the {trength, folidity, and profound folemnity which muft have accompa- nied its original ftate. he archiieciure of the weit end is very different from the other parts of the nave ; and the vault is_ covered by interlecting ribs, and ornamented key- ftones ; but the remainder is of the plainett defeription, with three ribs only to each pillar ; yet the key-itones are carved. On-each fide are eight mafliye columns ; the arches between them are bounded by large mouldings, carved into zig-zags, and other ornaments. Direétly over each colamn, and at fome diftance, js a range of heads of various charaéters ; fome ferene, and others terrific. Thefe ferve as brackets to clufters of fhort pillars, whofe capitals difplay. the moft beautiful variety of foliage, on which zig-zag {trings extend, ferving as a bafe to other cluftered pillars with equally elegant capi- tals: from thofe the ribs of the yault commence. The gal- lery windows, pierced through the wall above the arches, are divided by fhort thick pillars, and bounded by others, with zig-zag arches: a twifted {tring feparates them from the clereitory windows. ‘Lhe north and fouth aifles of the nave are nearly in the ityle of the weit end, with pointed windows, rich ramifications in the arches from the mullions, and fillet- ed GLOUCESTER. ed vaults. The arch of entrance to the cloiflters from the north aifle is moft elaborately aud exquilitcly adorned by pil- lars, buttreffes, niches, pinnacles, foliage, and pannels, and, the fingular ornament .of twifled pinnacles under the arch. Inthe fouth aifle, nail-headed mouldings are introduced as em- bellifhments on each fide of the windows. An advanced cradation of ftyle is exhibited in the interior of the fouth tranfept ; but the moit perfect and ornamental degree is dif- played in the chapel of our Lady. he choir is divided from the nave by a fkreen, defigned by Kent. The dimentions of the cathedral and its feveral parts are as follow : entirelength, infide, four hundred and twenty-three feet : length of the nave, one hundred and feventy-one feet ; breadth, forty-one feet two inches; height, fixty-feven feet feven inches : breadth of the north aifle, twenty feet ten inches; height, forty feet fixinches : breadth of the fouth aifle, twenty- two feet; height, forty feet: length of the fouth tranfept, fix- ty-fix feet ; breadth, forty-three feet fix inches ; height, eighty- fix feet : length of the north tranfept, fixty-fix feet ; breadth, forty-three feet fix inches; height, feventy-eight feet : length of the choir, one hundred and forty feet ; breadth, thirty-four - feet fix inches; height, eighty-fix feet : length of our Lady’s chapel, ninety-two feet ; breadth, twen- ty-four feet four inches ; height, forty-fix feet fix inches: height of the tower, including the pinnacles, two hun- dred and twenty-five feet. The great cloifters, which were completed by abbot Frouceller, are the molt elegant and perfect of the kind: the fides and roof are profufely em- bellifhed, and the windows are filled with mullions and tracery. This cathedral contains feveral curious fpecimens of monu- mental fculpture. On the tomb of Edward II., which was erected by hisfon and fucceffor, and exhibits great perfection of art, is arecumbent figure, in alabafter, of the deceafed monarch, regally robed and crowned. Another monument, worthy of notice, is that to thememory of alderman Black- leach, and his wife, whofe figures, in white marble, lie on a table tomb, dated 1639, and feem accurate copies of the ortraitsby Vandyck: they are evidently the work of a fkil- fa artift. A third, deferving obfervation for its defign and claflic ftyle, difplays a group by Flaxman, erected to com- memorate Mrs. Morley, who died at fea, in childbed: fhe is reprefented as rifing from the waves with her infant in her arms, and conducted by two angels. Between the north aiile and the choir is a monument, ere¢ted by abbot Parker to perpetuate the memory of king Ofric: and ina chapel nearly oppolite, is a figure, fppoted to reprefent the unfor- tunate Robert Curtois, duke of Normandy, and eldeft fon of William the Conqueror. ‘ The walls that furrounded Gloucefter are mentioned ina" ancient prophecy, attributed to. Merlin ; and tradition afcribes them to Cifla, the fecond king of the fouth Saxons. The Norman conqueror caufed them to be ftrengthened and em- battled : and they were again repaired in the nineteenth of Edward Iii. Leland defcribes Gloucetter as ** well-builded of tymbre, and ftrongly defended with walles, where it is sot fortified with the deepe ftreame of Severn water.’’ The swalls were completely demolifhed after the Reftoration ; and the only memorial of their former ftrength now remaining-is the Weit Gate: this is embattled; and was erected in the time of Henry VIII. The caftle, was probably “built about the period of the Norman invafion ; the remains were lately deftroyed; and on its fcite was built the county gaol, which was completed in 1791 : it confifts of three di- vifions, refpectively named the Penitentiary Houfe, the Bridewell, aud the Sheriif’s Prifon; thefe all have their dif- tin and appropriate regulations. ‘Lhe gaol contains 203 {eparate cells ;. 164 for fleep, and 39 for employment. i In this city and its fuburbs were formerly eleven parochial churches ; but only fix are now flanding ; thofe of St. Mi- chael, St. Mary de Crypt, St. Nicholas, St. Mary de Lode, St. John, and St. Aldate ; the others having been either de- {troyed at the fiege in 1643, orfince taken down. In St. Michael’s parifh is a Blue Coat hofpital, fo called from ¢he fimilarity of its regulations to thofe of Chrift Church, Lon- don, founded and endowed in 1666 by fir Thomas Rich, bart. Among other benevolent eftablifhments that confer honour on the inhabitants of Gloucefter, may be mentioned the county infirmary, erected by voluntary contributions, and opened in the year 1755. Its annual receipts, arifing from donations and the mtereft of funded preperty, amount to between two and three thoufand pounds. The principal trade of Gloucefter refults from the navi- gation of the Severn, from the hemp and flax-drefling bufi- nefs, and from the pin manufacture. The latter, which is the principal fource of labour to the inhabitants, appears to have been introduced into this city by John Tilfby, in the year 1626, and is now carried on to a far greater extent than at any other place in England; there being nine manu- actories, which furnifh employment to about 1500 perfons. The pins conveyed annually to the metropolis, are faid to amount to the value of 20,000/.; but the principal demand is from Spain and America. A bell-foundry has been efta- blifhed here above three hundred years. The clothing trade, formerly the chief {upport of the inhabitants, is now nearly loft: one fulling mill only remains. Various and important privileges have been granted to Gloucefter by feveral monarchs: it was erected into a borough by charter from king John; Henry II. granted the burgelles the fame liberties and cuftoms as had been enjoyed by the citizens of London; by the aét 33 Hen. VIIL., which eftablifhed the bifhopric of Gloucetter, it is ordered that the town fhould thenceforth be termed a city. It is alfo privileged as a county within itfelf. The corporation, acting under a charter of Charles II., confifts of a mayor, twelve aldermen, a high fteward, recorder, town clerk, tw6 fheriffs, common-council, &e. The title of mayor firft oc- curs in the year 1483. The high ftewards have generally been perfons of great eminence. ‘Two reprefentatives to parliament are elected by the inhabitants and. freemen; the number of voters 1s about 3,000; the earlieft return was. made in the twenty-third year of Edward I. The eleétions. are carried on in an ancient {tru€ture, called the Booth-hall, which is alfo appropriated to the affizes and other county bufinefs. The public affairs of the city are tranfacted at. the Tholfey, a building fuppofed to have derived its name from the toll formerly received in it by the lords of the manor. Very confiderable improvements haye been made, within the lait feventy years, in the appearance and buildings of this city. It confitts, principally, of four fpacious {treets, meeting each other at right angles, and taking their names from.the fituation of the gate which originally ftoed at the bottom of each, as Haft Gate ftreet, Weit Gate ftreet, North Gate itreet, and South Gate ftreet. At the inger- fection of the ftreets, formerly ftood a large and beautiful crofs; but falling to decay, and impeding the pailage of carriages, it was removed in 1750: its fcite fuill retains the name. ‘The city is well paved and lighted: and its elevated fituation, with a gradual defcent on every fide, greatly con- tributes to health and cleanlinefs. The markets had lon been eftablifhed by prefcriptive right ; but thofe now Velde on Wednefdays and Saturdays, were chartered by Henry IJ]. Three fairs are held annually and much frequented. The Brae haepfes GLOUCESTER: houfes and population have varied confiderably in different ages, according to the degree of fecurity or danger which the inhabitaats experienced: the progrefs has been feveral times interrupted by fires and civil commotions. Since the, fiege in 1643, the inereafe has been regular. On the laft enumeration, under the a& of 1801, the houfes, in the city alone, amounted to 1368, the population to 7265: the ‘nhabitants of the fuburbs being 1500 more. Gloucefter is fituated’ 106 miles W. from London. “Among the more eminent natives of this city is Robert of Gloucefter, who wrote a chronicle of Britain in verte, from the age of Brutus to his own time, the reign of Henry IIT. On the north-weft fide of Gloucefter is the celebrated ifle of Alney, a {mall tra&t, formed by the feparation of the itream of the Severn inte two channels. ‘This was the fcene of a combat between Edmund Ironfide and Canute the Dane, in the year ror6. In the fouthern fuburbs of Gloucefter are the remains of Lanthony priory, founded in 1187. After the diffolution, the monaftic buildings were converted into the offices of a farm. The only parts now left are a large barn, and the principal entrance, or gateway; on which are the arms, among others, of the Bohuns, earls of Hereford, who were great benefaors to the priory. Rudder’s Hiftory, &c. of Gloucefter. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. Guoccester and Berkley Canal, is the parliamentary name of a canal of very large dimenfions, following the E. fide ‘of the Severn river between Berkley and Gloucefter, of ahich-Mr. Robert Mylne and Thomas Dadford were the engineers ; the other particulars will be found ia our article CANAL. GuorcrsTen, or Cape Ana, a townhhip of America, in Effex county, Maffachufetts, whofe eaft point forms the N. fide of the bay of Maffachufetts. It contains 5313 in- habitants, and is divided into five parifhes, befides a fociety- of Univerfalifts. It is a poft-town and a town of entry. The harbour is open and acceffible to large hips, and it is one of the moft confiderable fifhing towns in the common- wealth. At the harbour, properly fo called, are fitted out annually from $0 to 70 bankers, and from Squam and Sandy bay, two fas!l out-ports, the bay fifhery is carried on with great ‘fp, and to a large amount. Thatcher’s: ifland, on which ee two lights, lies clofe tothe S.E. fide of the townhhip, which is itfelf joined to the continent by a bank of fand, that is rarely. overflowed with the water. Here is a fine white fand, fit for the manufacture of glafs, The harbour is defended by a battery and citadel erected in 1795 :—16 miles N.E. by E. of Salem, and 34 N.E. of Botton. ; Guovucester, the N. welternmof townthip, and the large't, in Providence county, Rhode ifland, being 1135 miles {quare, containing 4009 inhabitants. Groucester, the name of a county in New Jerfey, bounded N. by Burlington county, S. by Salem, Cumber- Jand, and Cape May counties, E. by the Atlantic ocean, aud W. by Delaware river. Its length on the Delaware js abaut thirty miles, and an the fea it is about 22 miles. Great and Little Egg harbour rivers are both navigable for yeffels of about 200 tans about 20 miles from their mouths. ‘The ftreams which fall into Delaware river are navigable for {mall veffels, a few miles'up from their mouths, and afford fome fhad, roach, herrings, and perch. Its adjacent iflands are Red Bank, Pett, and Old Man's creek. The foil of ‘the county is a mixture of fand and loam, and the tra& bordering on the Delaware is in a high ftate of cultivation, The chief produ€tions are beef, pork, £fh, a” hay, corn, lumber, butter, cheefe, &c. It is divided inte ten townthips, viz. Woodbury, Waterford, Newtown, Glou- cefter townfhip, Gloucefter town, Deptford, Greenwich, Woolwich, Egg harbour, and Galloway. Molicus river di- vides the county from Burlington, and is navigable 20 miles for veflels of 60 tons. Maurice river runs fouth- erly about 40 miles through Cumberland county into Dela- ware bay, and is navigable for veffels of 100 tons 15 miles, and for fhallops ro miles further. It contains 16,115 inha- bitants, of whom 61 are flaves. In this county are found quantities of bog-iron ore, which is manvwfactured into pig and bar iron, and hollow ware. Here is alfo a glafs- houfe. The chief town is Woodbury, nine miles S. of Philadelphia. Grovucesten, a {mall town in the above-mentioned county, on the E. fide of Delaware river, three miles below Phila- delphia—Alfo, a polt-town in Virginia, in the county of its own name, on a point of land on the N. fide of York river, 17 miles diftant from York town. GuovcestEr, a county in Virginia, fertile and well culti- vated, bounded N. by Piankitank river, which feparates it from Middlefex, E. by Matthews county and Chefapeak bay, N.W. by King and Queen, S. and S.W. by York river, which divides it from York county. It is about 55. miles long and 30 broad, and contains 3272 free inhabitants,. and 4909 flaves. "The low iazds croduce excellent barley, and Indian corn, the ftaple produce cf the county. r GrowcesTER Houfe, a ftatiou belonging to the Hudfon- bay company, fituated in New South Wales, on the N. fide of the waters which form a communication through a chain- of {mall lakes, between Winnipeg lake and Albany river, Henley houfe lies N.E. of this, nearer the mouth of Al- bany river in James’s bay. N. lat. 54°. W. long 87° 30!. GLovcestrr, a townfhip in the county of Dundas in Upper Canada, which is the feventh in afcending the Otta- wa river; E. of, and contiguous to, the river Rondeau. GrovucestEr, Cape, a cape on the S. coait of Terra del’ Fuego —Alfo, a high promontory on the E. coaft of New Holland. S. lat. 19° 59'. E. long. 148° 11.—Alfo, a ~ cape on the coalt of New Britain. 5. lat 5°54’. E. long: Ids? 15. Grovcrster Jfland, an ifland in the S. Pacific ocean, about fix miles long, and from one to a quarter of a mile broad, difcovered and fo called by captain Wallis in 1767. It is furrounded by rocks, full of trees, and inhabited by perfons who appeared armed with long pikes or poles, but deftitute of canoes. S. lat 1g 11’. W. long. rgo* 4°. Grovcester, Duke of, Iflands, two iflands in the S. Pacific ocean, difcovered and {fo called by Captain Car— teret in 1767, which were covered with trees, but ap- peared to be uninhabited. The fouthernmoft of thenr was a flip of land in the form of a half-moon, low, flat, and fandy ; the appearance of it was pleafant, but it had neither vegetables nor water; but it abounded with birds, fo tame that they might be taken by the hand. The other ifland very much refembled this, and is diltant from it about five or fix leagues ; they lie W.N.W-and E. §. E. of each other. Qne of them is im S. lat. 20° 38’. W. long. 146°: the other in S. lat. 20° 34’. W. long. 146° 15 ; the variation §° E. Thefe iflands are probably the land feen» by Quiros, as the fituation is nearly the fame. : GLOUCESTERSHIRE, one of the weftern coun. ties of England, is furrounded by Herefordthire, Oxford fhire, Berkthire, Wultfhire, Somerfetthire, and Monmouth- fhire. It comprehends an area ,of nearly feventy miles in one direétion, by forty in a tranfverfe’ line. “This diftriety, during the Roman domination in Britain, was much eceu- pied GLOUCES pied by the Romans. Mr. Fofbrooke (one of the hiltoxians ef the county) obferves, ‘ from the ruins which have at various times. been excavated, it is evident that this county, from Cirencefter to Painfwick, Bifley, Sapperton, Wood- chefter, Uley, Kingfeote, and other adjoining places, was much peopled with Romans, or Romanized Britons; that Cirencefter was the great metropolis, or refort of pleafure and amufement ; while Gloucefter, and the hills about the Severn, were the great. military pofitions ; the city, oa ac- gount of the river, having peculiar advantages with refpect to commerce.’” The principal Roman roads which pafled through this county, were the Hkenild ilreet, the Ir- ming or Erming ftreet, the Fofs-way, and the Via Julia. Under the dominion of the Saxons, Gloucefterfhire formed part of the Mercian kingdom, and Winchcombe and King- ftanley are mentioned as refidences of the Anglo-Saxon mo- narchs. On the divifion of Mercia into five bifhoprics, after the converfion of the Saxons, the greatelt part of this county was included under that named Wiccia, and from this appellation the. Dobuni, the early. inhabitants of this part of Britain, rere afterwards termed Wiccn. Gloucefterfhire is feparated into four divifions; thefe are fubdivided into twenty-eight hundreds, containing 320 parifhes, one city, and twenty-eight market towns. ‘The number of houfes, as returned under the population a¢t, amount-? to 37,276; of inhabitants, 187,164; of wkich g0.227 were males, and 96,927 femules. “The whole ceanty, wit the exception of the chapelries of Icomb, and Cowhony- born, is included within the diocefe of Gloucefter ; which comprehends one arch-deaconry, and ten deaneries. The number of reprefentatives returned to parliament are eight ; two for the-fhire, two for the city, two for Tewkfbury, and two for Cirencefter. The general afpect of Gloucetter- fhire is greatly diverlified ; nature having divided it into three diftriéts of very diffimilar character, re{pectively named the Hill, the Vale, and the Foreft. The Hill diftriét, including the Cotfwolds, and the Stroudwater hills, may be regarded as a continuation of the central chain proceed- ing fouth from Derbythire, and paffing through this county witha fmaller elevation into Wiltthire ; there {welling into the Salifbury Downs, and afterwards running weit towards the Land’s End in Cornwall. The extent of the Cots- wold hills, from Broadway hill to near Tetbury, is thirty miles; and from Birdlip hill to Burford, about twenty miles: the area, they include is eftimated, by Mr. Marthall, ‘to contain nearly 200,000 acres. "The furface is billowy ; and the climature, confidering the natural elevation of the Jand, unufually mild. The fides of the hills abound with fprings ; and almoft every dip has its rill, and every valley its brook. The primary object of the Cotfwold hufbandry is fheep ; thefe have been long famous $ and it is a prevailing tradition, that the Spaniards originally procured their breed of fine woolled fheep from thefe hills, though this affertion is contradiéted by feveral modern writers. The inclofures are chiefly ftone walls, about four feet and a half high, ex- -elufive of a coping of flat ftones. The Vale diltri¢t includes the entire traét bounded on the eaft by the Cotfwold hills, and by the river Severn on the weft; and is ,ufually fub- divided into the Wales of Evetham and Gloucefter, and the Vale of Berkeley ; the latter of which is feparated from -the former by a natural interfection, and is very different in produce and rural management- The Foreit diltriG is feparated from the re{t of the county by the river Severn; and is principally comprehended by the Foreit of Dean, which was formerly of particular value, for the goodnefs -and ftrength of its timber. Its oaks were fo greatly re- nowned that Evelyn obferves, that in Elizabeth’s reign, 4 PEARS: ELT 1K EE, an ambaffador was purpofely fent from Spain to procure its deitruétion, either by negociation or treachery. It alfo abounds in beech; and the foil is confidered as peculiarly favourable for the growth gf the Stire apple. Its prin- cipal minerals are iron, ore, and coal: iron appears to have been wrought here even in the time of the Romans;, and fo early as the reign of Edward. FE. feventy-two furnaces, for melting iron, are recorded to have been built here. la a furvey made in the feventeenth year of Charles I. the forelt is eftimated as originally containing upwards of 43,000 acres, of which above 14,000 were woodland. Several thoufand ‘acres have, however, been granted. away, by dif- ferent foyercigns, and difafforefted.. Fhe miners have dif- tinét courts, and, like thofe of Derby fhire and Devonfhire, are governed by their own cuitoms. The principal rivers conneéted with Gloucetterfhire, are the Severn, the Frome, the Wye, and the Ifis or Thames. The canals that interfeét the county are diftinguithed by the names of the Thames and Severn, the Stroudwater, the Berkeley, end the Hereford and Gloucetter.. The Severn, the fecond commercial river in England,. renders -effential fervice to a large portion cf this county. It enters: Glou- cefterfhire near the ancient town of Fewkefbury,. where, uniting its waters with the Upper Avon, and purfuing a fouth-welterly courfe, it traverfes a wide vale, which ts rich in paiturage, and in fome places #bundantly wooded. About one mile above Gloucefter; i@ divides into two ftreams: thefe again unite a little below the city, forming the tract of land called Alney ifland. In the courfe of its paffage through the county, it receives the ftreams of the Upper Avon, the Chelt near Wainlode. the Leden near Over’s- bridge, the Frome at Framilode, the Avon at Berkeley.; and the Lower Avon below Britol. The Wye feparates part of this county from Monmouthfhire and Herefordthire,. and forms the grand natural weltern boundary to the forett of Dean, whofe noble wooded eminences coni{titute many fine features on its meandering banks. The Thames, the noft important of the Dritifh rivers, has its fource in this county, at a place called the Thames-head, near the village of Cotes, about two miles fouth-welt of Cirencefter. Near this place the Thames and Severn canal emerges from under ground, and receives a tonfiderable quantity of water, occa- fionally from this fpring. The junction ot the Thames and: Severn was an object of favourite fpeculation with the Lon- don and Briftol merchants for many generations; but was not completed till near the clofe of the lait century, an att for that purpofe was obtained in 1783, and the defign was brought to perfection in 1792, when the firft veflel pafled from the Severn into the Thames. This canal begins at Wallbridge, near Stroud, (at the place where the Stroud navigation ends,) and proceeds in a devious courfe through the county to Lechlade, where it joins the Thames. This courfe includes a diitance of thirty miles, feven chains and a half. The water, in its progrefs from Stroud to Sapperton, (feven miles three furlongs), is raifed by means ot locks 241 fect 3 inches: between Sapperton and Lechlade it falls 130 feet Ginches. The Stroudwater canal encounters many obitacles; yet in defiance of all oppofition, an act was ob- tained in 17,75, under the operation of which it was finithed. "The manufactures of Gloucetterfhire are numerous: clothing ituffs, blankets, rugs, carpets, {tockings, &c. are made in different parts of the county. Bar iron, edge tools, wire, nails, and many other articles, are alfo manufactured in large quantities. Near Briltol are fome extenfive foun- deries; as well as different works for making brafs and wire, vitriol, red-lead, -fal-ammoniac, &c. At Glouceiter, vatt quantities of pins are made; and at Frampton-Cotterel is a confiderable GLO confiderable manufactory of felt-hats. Several authors have employed their pens in defcribing the topography and anti- quities of this county: the principal of thefe are fir Robert Atkins’s “ Ancient and prefent State of Gloucefterfhire,” fol. 1712, fecond edit. 1768. Rudder’s “ New Hittory of Gloucefterfhire,”’ fol. 1779: Bigland’s “ Hittorical, Monnu- thental, and Genealogical Colleétions,”’ &c. folio, one volume and part of a fecond, 1791: Lyfons’s Colle@ion of Glou- cefterfhire Antiquities,” folio, 1801: Rudge’s “ Hiltory of the County of Gloucefter, compreffed and brought down to the Year 1803,’ 2 vols. 8vo. Fofbrooke and Yates’s «< Hiftory of Gloucefterfhire,"’ 2 vols. 4to. 1805. « Beau- tics of England and Wales,” vol. v. contains a coneife and eneral account of the county. GLOVE, Currorueca, 2 habit or covering for the hand and wrift, ufed both for warmth, decency, and asa fhelter from the weather. Gloves are diftinguifhed, with refpect to commerce, into leather gloves, filk gloves, thread gloves, cotton gloves, worlted gloves, &c. There are alfo gloves of velvet, fattin, taffety, &c. Lea- ther gloves are made of fhamoy, kid, lamb, doe, elk, buff, &c. There are alfo perfumed gloves; wafhed, glazed, waxed gloves; and white, black, fouff-colour, &c. gloves; fingle, fined, topped, laced, fringed with gold, filver, filk, fur, &c. It is a proverb fora glove to be good and well made, three kingdoms mutt -contribute to it; Spain to drefs the leather, France to cut it, and England to few it. “But, of late, the French feem to have appropriated the funGtions of the other two; the gloves of the French manufa¢ture being now faid to have the advantage, in point of drefling and fewing, as much as of cutting. By 34 Geo. III. c. ro. the Britifh duty on gloves and mittens impofed by 25 Geo. III.c. 55. is repealed, except the duty on licenfes; and by 36 Geo. III. c. 80. the faid duty on licences is alfo repealed. By 6 Geo. III. c. 19. and 25 Geo. I[I.c. 55. foreign manufactured leather gloves or mitts fhall not be imported, under the penalty of forfei- ture; and the importer or feller incurs, befides forfeiture, a penalty of 200/. with double cotts. Gove, to throw the, was a practice or ceremony very ufual among our forefathers, being the challenge whereby another was defied to fingle combat. It is ftill retained at the coronation of our kings; when the king's champion catts his glove in Weftmintter-hall. Favyn fuppofes the cuftom'to have arifen from the eaftern nations, who, in all their fales and deliveries of lands, goods, &c. ufed to give the purchafer their glove -by way of livery or inveftiture. To this effeét he quotes Ruth iv. 7. where the Chaldee paraphrafe calls glove what the :;common verfion renders by fhoe. He adds, that the rabbins interpret by glove, that paffage in the cvinth Pfalm, «In Idumeam ex- tendam calceamentum meum, Over Edom wall I caft out my fhoe”’ Accordingly, among us, he who took up the glove, declared thereby his acceptance of the challenge; and as part of the ceremony, continues Favyn, took the glove off his own right hand, and caft it upon the ground, to be taken up by the challenger, This had the force of a mutual en- gagement on each fide to meet at the time and place which fhould be appointed by the king, parliament, or judges, The fame author afferts, that the cuftom which ob- tained of blefling gloves, in the coronation cf the kings of France, is a remain of the eaftern pra€tice of giving poffef- fion with the glove. Lib. xvi. p. 1017, &c. : The delivery of a glove was in frequent ufe formerly, as a fymbol of inveftiture. See Du Cange, Gloff. Lat. GLO Gloves were alfo ufed to fignify the fleward’s or bailifl 's fee, or part of the price of the inveftiture or purchafe-money of the land. «Si aliquam territorn partem venundari conti= gerit, domini venditiones habebunt; fcilicet, tot denarios quot venditor inde habuerit folidos. Major vero terra illiws pro qantis accipient duos donarios.’’ Where qwanti figmilics gloves, or, in French, gants. Hence the common cuftom, in many bargains, of giving ervants money for a pair of gloves. , Anciently it was prohibited the judges to wear gloves on the bench; and at prefent, in the flables of molt princes, it is not fafe going in without pulling off the gloves. GLOVER, Ricuarn, in Biography, was born at Lion« don in 1712. He received the elementary inftru€tions in claffical learning at Cheam, and exhibited a cowtfiderable tafte for the claffics, and an attachment to fcience. When he was only 16 years old, he wrote a copy of verfes «To the memory of fir Ifaac Newton,’ which is prefixed te Dr. Pemberton’s view of the Newtonian philofophy. He engaged in commercial purfuits, and became eminent in the mercantile world, to which he was introduced by his father. In 1737, he married a lady with a handfome fortune ; and in the fame year he publifhed his epic poem of Leonidas. Glover had joined the oppofition of the day, at the head of which was Frederic prince of Wales, and his poem, founded on the ftruggles of free Greece againit Atfiatic defpotifm, was calculated in a high degree to ferve a gene- rous caufe. It abounds in noble fentiments, and is confider- ably varied by incident and defcription. Its plan is admira- bly adapted for poetical effeét : it was received by Lyttle- ton and others with high applaufe, and very foon pafled throuch three editions. << But it labours,” fays the critic, “under that want of intereft which attends all modern epics, efpecially fuch as.are built upon fome of the fubaltern events of ancient hiftory ;.and its poetry is not of a character fuffi- ciently elevated to engage the reader by the beauty of detached paffages.’ The reputation which it firft acquired foon fubfided, and it now lives rather in memory than m the actual acquaintance of readers. He publifhed in 1739, his poem, entitled “ iLondon, or the Progrefs of Commerce :”* and the ballad of “ Hofier’s Ghatt.’" Mr. Glover was not only a poet but an ardent politician, and was diltingwifhed in various inftances for his eloquence in the caufe of freedom, His talents gained him great credit, and he was appointed by the merchants of London to condué an application to parliament, complaining of the negleét with which their trade had been treated. The fpeech which he. pronounced at the bar of the houfe of commons on this fubject, in January 1742, was greatly admired, and was publithed. His celebrity as'a public.charaéter, did not favour his pro- grefs in commerce; his affairs became embarrafled ; he was, to ufe a modern fafhionable phrafe, obliged to fufpend his payments, and at length retreated from aétive life, to praétife economy in an obfcure fituation. The duchets af Marlborough bequeathed him, and Mallet, five hundred pounds each on condition of their joing to write the hiftory of the great duke. Glover renounced the tafk, and Mallet never executed it. He now wrote Several pieces for the flage, which being fuccefsful to a confiderable degree his circumftances became fo much improved, that he ven- tured to return to public life, and fat as member for Wey- mouth, in the parliament of 1761. His commercial know- ledge made him extremely ufeful on {everal important eccafions. In the year 1775, he took an active part in an application to parliament on behalf of the Wett Indi merchants, and for his zeal and affiduity he was compli. menied witha yaluable prefent of plate. He died in November GLO November 1785, and left behind him another poem, entitled the « Athenaid,”’ relating, in thirty books, the wars between the Greeks and Perfians.. This was publifhed in 1788, in three volumes 12mo., but it failed completely in attracting public attention. Giover, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in the {tate of Vermont and county of Orleans, N. E. of Crafts- borough, adjoining. It has 36 inhabitants. Giover’s Reef, rocks gn the bay of Honduras. N. lat. 16°. W. long. 88° 20%. GLOW-worm, in Lntomolgy. See CrcinpeLa. Can- tharis and Cicindela have been often ufed, indifcriminately, for the glow-worm; but they form two diftinct genera of the fame order in the Linnzan fyftem. See CanTHAnis. The glow-worm is often feen in the day time. _ The male and female differ greatly in this {pecies of infect. ‘The male has wings, and is a {mall fly; the female has no wings, but is a large crawling worm. i The body of the male is cblong, and fomewhat flatted ; the wings are fhorter than the body; the head is broad, dun, and flat; the eyes are large and black. This has no light ‘ifluing from it, and is not commonly fuppofed to be at all of kin to the glow-worm. The female is what we exprefsly call-by this name; this is a very flow-paced animal, without wings, and fomewhat refembling a caterpillar; the head is fmall, flat, hard, and black, and fharp towards the mouth: it has fhort antennz, ‘and fix moderately long legs; the body is fiat, and is com- ‘pofed of twelve rings, whereas the body of the male confilts “only of five; it is of a dufky colour, with a ftreak of white down the back. It is often feen in the day-time, but it is ‘not known except in the dark; at which time it is eafily diftinguifhed by the glowing light, or lambent flame, that is . feen near the tail, iffuing from the under part of the body. The common glow-worm is frequently met with under our hedges, and, if carefully taken up, may be kept alive “many days on frefh turfs of grafs; all which time it will ‘continue to fhine in the dark. The light of this little infec is fo ftrong, that it will thew itfelf through feveral fubitances, in which the creature may be pat up; a thin pill-box eafily fhews it through, and even “though lined with paper, the light is not impeded in its paflage by both. The creature is fluggith, and appears dead in the day-time, and its light is not diltinguifhable, even if carried into a darkened room, unlefs the creature be turned upon its back, and difturbed, fo as to be put in “motion, and then it is but very faint; after fun-fet the light begins to return, and with it the life and motion of the animal. The motion and light of this creature feem, in ‘tome meafure, to depend upon one another: it never fhines but when the body is in fome fort of motion; and when it ' fhines moft, the body is extended to one-third more than its length in the day-time. In the time of-brightett fhining, it ' will fometimes on a fudden turn its body about, and the ; light will not be larger than the head of a pin; and, on being touched, it wili then immediately extend itfelf, and the ight will become as large and bright as ever. Phil. Tranf. N° 71. Two points feem to be agreed upon by naturalitts, with regard to the Nght iffuing trom the tail of a glow-worm ; frit, that it is phofphoric, and fecondly, that its ufe is to attract the male infe&t. Should the fingularity, if any fuch there be, in the natural hiitory of this animal, which fhould render a provifion of this kind more neceflary for the glow-worm, than for other infe€ts, be a fubje& of inquiry ; 4% may be obferved that this fingularity feems to be the GLO difference, which fubfifts between the male and the female, which difference is greater than what is found in any other {pecies of animal whatever. The glow-worm, as we have obferved, is a female caterpillar, the male-of which is a fly ; lively, comparatively {mall, diflimilar to the female in ap- pearance, probably alfo as diftinguifhed from her in habits, purfuits, and manners, as lie is unlike in form and external conftitution. Hence it appears, that the caterpillar cannot meet her companion in the air. The winged rover difdains. the ground. They might never therefore be brought toge~ ther, did not this radiant torch direét the volatile mate to his. fedentary female.- ‘* In this example,” fays the ingenious author now cited, “we fee the refources of art anticipated. One grand opera- tion of chemiftry is the making of phofphorus; and it was thought an ingenious device, to make phofphoric matches fupply the place of lighted tapers. Now this very thing: is done in the body of the glow-worm. The phofphorus is not only made, but kindled; and caufed to emit a fteady and genial beam, for the purpofe which is here ftated, and which I believe to be the true one.” . Paley’s Natural Theology, p: 363. : Giow-worm, Flying, cicindela volans. In the warmer months of the year, this creature is fometimes caught in our houfes flying to the flame of a candle, and when examined in the dark, it is found: luminous at thefe times, though perhaps lefs, or not at all fo, at others; which may be a reafon of its not being known, though caught in the. fields ; and to this it may be owing, that many who have defcribed it have thought it not a native of England. Without wings. it is frequently enough found in form of the common glow- worm, and then always fhines. Aldrovand has very well deferibed the cicindela volans, and fays, that it lays eggs. which hatch into fmall worms, and that thefe after a time become flies, by the fame fort of change which happens to caterpillars and other reptiles which become butterflies, and other f{pecies of winged infeQs. Mouffett, and Thomas Bartholine, both deferibe the animal much as Aldrevand has done, but they allow the male only to have wings; but Julius: Scaliger contradiés this, and fays, that he has caught them both winged in the aét of generation: this is a plain proof that both fexes are winged; yet it has not happened that both fexes have been acknowledged to be fo, even by thofe who have quoted this paflage. And Mr. Waller, -who gives an account of them in the Philofophical Tranf- actions, obferved them in the fame manner in the act of copulation both winged, and with no other difference be- tween them but that the female was the larger of the two, which is the cafe in regard to many infects. Julius Scalig. Exerc. 191. Phil. Vranf. N) 167, p. 841: The male and female in this winged ftate both fhine in hot weather, and their light is fo vivid as to be ealily feen even while there isa candle in the room; the vibrations of it are irregular and its colour greenifh. ‘The luminous parts are two {mall {pecks wader the tail at the end, and the light continues in thefe fome time after thé tail is cut off, but then gradually “goes out. y The parts. of infe&ts continue aliye in fome degree for a contiderable time after they. are cut off, and probably the light in the tail of this animal continues jult as long as tat fort of life remains in it. Mouffett, cap. 15. The ufe of this light feems to be to direét the animal in its courfe, and in the taking of its prey, and to this purpofe it isadmirably placed, The tail is eafily bent under the belly, and then throws the light full upom any objet about or under the head of the animal, and the eyes are placed not on the upper part but on the under fide of the head; fo that they. have alk GLO ali the advantages of it, while the light in ¢his part 1s not of- fenfive tothe eyes, as it naturally svould have been if carried before the head. ‘The creature can, upon-occation, cover this light, fo as not to be known, or purfued by it, by its enemies. Thomas Barthol. «de Luce Anim. lib. ii. cap. Iz. This infe& is of the beetie kind, ef a brown and dufky colour. It has hard cafe or fhell wings, as the other beetles have, and when thefe are expanded, there appear a pair of very large membranous ones ; its head is covered with a fort of fhield or broad-brimmed hat : under this hat are placed the eyes, which are black and large, and are moveable, fo that the creature can, upon occafion, thruft them forward : it has two hairy antenna, and its legs are like thofe of the common fly, hard, ‘helly, and hairy. Its eyes afford an elegant object for the microfcope, being compofed of an infinite number of lenfes, asthofe of the libelle and other infects. Aldrovand. de Infect. lib. i. cap. 8. GLOXINIA, in Botany, named by the late M. L’ He- ritier in honour of Dr. Benjamin Peter Gloxin, a native of Colmar, in whofe inaugural differtation,” publifhed at Straf- burg in 1785, are given the characters of Martynia and fome neighbouring genera, agrone which the plant now under our confideration is eomprehended. The fame work alfo contains the firft defeription and figure of the Sa/via kons- roides, unneceflarily changed by 1.’ Heritier afterwards to S. formofa ; and one of Cyperus egyptiacus, which proved the Schoenus mucronatus of Linnzus. L’Herit. Stirp. Nev. 149. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 331. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 229. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 2. Clafs and order, Didynamia Angtadermia. Nat. Ord. Per/onate, Linn. Campanulacea, Jufl.? or rather a new order, diftinguifhed by lateral, not marginal, recepta- cles of the feeds. Ju/f- Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of five oblong, {pread- ing, nearly equal leaves. Cor. of one petal, obliquely bell- fhaped ; gibbous at the bafe ; its border in five rounded ob- tufe lobes, the four uppermoft recurved, the lower one pro- minent, concave and inflexed. Stam. Filaments four, much fhorter than the corolla, with the rudiment of a fifth ; in- ferted into the receptacle, connected with the bafe of the corolla, incurved, downy, converging laterally in the upper part, two of them rather the fhorte{t ; anthers ovate, peltate, two-celled, cohering together, their lobes diverging. Pift. Germen inferior, turbinate, furrowed ; ftyle cylindrical, as Jong as the ftamens; ftigma capitate. Peric. Capfule imper- feétly two-celled, with two valves, and two lateral divided receptacles. Sveds numerous, Ef. Ch. Calyx fuperior, of five leaves. Corolla bell-fhaped, with an oblique irregular border. Filaments, with the rudiment of a fifth, infected into the receptacle. Capfule with many feeds, inferted into lateral receptacles. 1. G. maculata. Curt. Mag. t. 1191. (Martynia perennis ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 862. Hort. Chiff. t. 18. Ehret. Bistiowk|2. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 3.—Native of South America; the feeds having been fent from Carthagena by Mr. Robert Millar, be- fore 1739. It requires with us the conftant heat of a bark itove, by means of which it flowers Jate in autumn. It is propagated abundantly by the little tuberous roots; which are perennial. The /fem is herbaceous, fimple, leafy, round, very {meoth, fpotted with purple. Leaves large, oppofite, re- curved, ftalked, broad-ovate, acute, ferrated, {mooth and fhining, pale at the back, with prominent veins. //owers axillary from the diminifhed leaves, or bracteas, at the upper part of the flem, folitary, ftalked, large, drooping, of a fine blue with a dark fpot at the bottom within. ‘Their {cent is very peculiar, refembling mint, which no writer feems to have noticed, I GLU GLUBOKATA, in Geography, atown of Ruffia, in the government of Kolyvan; 72 miles E. of Semipolatnoi. GLUCHOYV, or Giuxkuor, a town and diftri& of No- vogorod Severfkoi, fituated on the river Yefma, falling into the Seim; 40 miles E.S.E. of Novogorod Severfkoi. GLUCK, k Chevalier Curtstoruer, in Biography, amu- fical compofer opr fire and originality, who, during the laft 30 or 40 years of the preceding century, acquired great re- nown, but chiefly in France, by a f{pecies of compofition, congenial to the national tafte, which Lulli and Rameau had formed, and in which the fhort and fimple airs required no eat abilities in the fingers; but the dramas being written in the language of the country, and the poet being regarded as a much more important perfonage than the compofer of the mufic, the feveral characters required great aGters rather than great fingers. Thiseminent compofer was born in the Palatinate, of a poor family, about the year 1716.. His father, during the infan- cy of his fon, removed into Bohemia, where be died, leaving his offspring in early youth, without any provifion, fo that his education was totally neglected ; but nature had given him an inftinétive love for mulic, which is taught to all chil- dren, with reading and writing, in the Bohemian fchools, whe- ther of charity or fuperior foundations, in all the towns and villages ; inchurches and in the flreets, men, women, and children fing in parts, and play upon fome inftrument, and often onmany initruments. This was the cafe with the young Chriftopher, who trayclled about from town to town, fup- porting himfelf by his talents till he had worked his way te Vienna, where he met with a nobleman who became his pa- tron, took him into his fervice, carried him into Italy, where he procured him leffons in counterpoint, at Naples, by which he profited fo well, that before he left Italy he compofed fe- veral dramas for different theatres, which acquired him repu- tation fufficient to be recommended to lord Middlefex as a compofer to our lyric theatre m the Haymarket, then under his lordfhip's direction. But, unluckily, arriving in England in 1745, after his firft opera of ‘ Artamene’’ had been per- formed ten nights, in which the famous air “ Rafferena il mefto ciglio,* fung by Monticelli, was conftantly en- cored, the rebellion broke out, and the great Opera-houfe was fhut up, on account of the popular prejudice againft the per- formers, who, bejng foreigners, were chiefly Roman Catho- lics. Nor was the Opera-honfe allowed to be opened again, till January 7th, 1746, when “la Caduta de’ Giganti,”’ fet by Gluck, wasperformed before the duke of Cumberland, in compliment to whom the whole was written and compofed. The fingers were Monticelli, Jozzi, aud Ciacchi ; with fig- nora Imer, Pompeati, afterwards better knewn by the name of madame Cornelic, and Frafi. The firft woman, Imer, never furpafled mediocrity in voice, tafte, or action; and the Pompeati, though nominally fecond woman, had fuch a mafculine and violent manner of finging, that few female fymptoms were perceptible. The new ne at by Auretti, and the charming Violetta, afterwards Mrs. Garrick, were much more applauded than the fongs, which, however, for the time, had confiderable merit. The firft air in G. minor is cf an original cait. but monotonous. ‘lhe fecond air has genius and defign init. ‘Then a duet, in which he hazarded many new paflages and effects. "The following air, for Monticelli, is yery original in fymphony and ageompaniments which a little difturbed the voice-part in performance, we well re- member, and Monticelli called it aria tedefca. His con- temporaries | in Italy, at this time, feemed too much filed down ; and he wanted the file, which, when ufed afterwards in that country, made him one of the greateft compofers of . his time. The next air printed, is in, a very peculiar med fure, ; GLUCK. fure, and likeno other that we recolle¢t : it has great merit of novelty and accompaniment ; the voice-part wants only a little more grace and quiet. The following fong, fet for Jozzi, a good mufician with little voice, is full of new and ingenious paflages and effects; we fhould like much to hear this air well performed at the opera; it is kept alive from beginning to end. Something might be expected from a young man able to produce this opera, imperfect as it was. It had, however, but five reprefentations. From London he returned to Italy, and compofed feveral operas in the ftyle of the times, fuch as that of Terradeglas, Galuppi, and Jomelli; and we heard little of him till he en- lifted with the Italian poet Calfabigi, with whom he joined ina confpiracy again{t the poetry and mufic of the melo-dra- ma then in vogue in Italy and all over Europe. It is extracrd:nary that Calfabigi, editor of the beautiful Paris edition of the works of Metattafio in 1755, in the preface to which there is the higheft and feemingly moft cor- dial praife of the works of the imperial laureate, fhould be the firit, ten years after, to find them fo defective; writing his «© Orfeo” ina different ftyle, and joining with Gluck in de- erying the lyric ftyle both of the mufic and poetry of the Italian opera. In 1764, the year fh which the late emperor Jofeph was crowned king of the Romans, Gluck was the compofer, and Guadagni the principal finger. It was in this year that a {pe- cies of dramatic mufic, different from that which then reigned in Italy, was attempted by Gluck in his famous opera of « Orfeo,” which, with Guadagni’s admirable ation, fuc- ceeded fo well, that it was foon after attempted in other parts of Europe, particularly at Parma and Paris. ‘This is not the place to difcufs its merit ; we fhall here only obferve, that the fimplifying dramatic mutic in Gluck’s manner, in fa- vour of the poct, at the expenee of the compofer and finger, is certainly very rational, where an opera is performed in the language of the country, and the fingers have no great abilities to difplay, asin France ; but in England, where we have fre- quently fingers of uncommon talents, and where fo {mall a part of an opera audience underitands Italian, by abridging the fymphonies, and prohibiting divifions and final cadences, in favour of an unintelligible drama, we fhould lofe more than we should gain. After its fuccefs at Parma and Paris, * Orfeo’’ was ex- hibited at Bologna, Naples, andin 1770 in London ; when the principal parts were filled by Guadagni and Grafli, after- wards Mrs. Bach. The unity, fimplicity, and new dramatic excellence, which at Vienna, and afterwards at Paris, rendered this drama fo interefting as to make the audience think more of the poet than the compofer, were greatly diminithed here, by the he- terogeneous mixture of mujic of other compofers ina totally different {tyle. Tn 1769, Calfabigi and Gluck, encouraged by the fuc- cefs of “ Orfeo,” produced “ Alcefte,” a Tecond opera, on the reformed plan, at Vienna, which received even mere ap- plaufe than the firft. In 1771, the fame poet and muiician brought a third opera, ‘“ Paride ed Helena,”’ on the {lage at Vienna, written and compofed in the fame new, or rather old, French ftyle, with better mufic, in which Millico was the principal finger, and which afforded the audience fuch pleafure as feemed to have imprefled the lovers of mutic in the imperial capital with a partiality for that fpecies of dramatic mulic, which was not likely to be foon ob- literated. ‘ In 1772, Gluck fet to mufic an opera taken from Racine’s “ Tphigeniec,” in which he fo far accommodated himfelf to the national tafte and ftyle of France, as frequently to imi- Vou. XVI. tate and adopt them. And as this opera was intended for Paris, his friends feared for its fucce s,as there was fre- quently melody, and always meafure, in his myfic, though fet to French words, and for a ferious French opera. But the year 1774 was rendered a remarkable era in the annals of French mufic, by the arrival of the chevalier Gluck at Paris, whofe operas, by his conforming to the genius of the French language, and flattering the ancient national tafte, were received with acclamation. He began his career in this capital by his celebrated opera of « Orphée,”? of which the reputation was already eftablifhed ; and this was followed by “ Tphigenie,’’ taken from one of Racine’s beft tragedies, which had all the fuccefs that may be imagined from the force of his genius applied to a favourite drama, fet in the ftyle of their favourite compofers, Lulli and Rameau. In his opera of “ Cythere Affiegée,” 1775, where more delicacy and tendernefs, than force, were required in the com- polition, he was not fo fuccefsful. Nor was his « Alcefte,”” the year following, received with the fame rapture as at Vi- enna. Indeed his « Armide,’’ in 1777, did not quite ful- “fil the ideas of grace, tendernefs, and pathos, which fome of the fcenes required, and auditors accuftomed to Italian mufic expected: however, his operas were excellent preparations for a better ftyle of compolition than the French had been ufed to; as the recitative was more rapid and the airs more marked, than in Lulliand Rameau : there were likewife more energy, fire, and variety of movement, in his airs in general, and infinitely more force and effect in his expreffion of grief. fear, remorte, vengeance, and all the violent paffions. Gluck’s mufic is fo truly dramatic, that the airs and fcenes, which have the greateft effect on the ftage, are cold, or rude, inaconcert. he fituation, context, and intereft, gradually excited in the audience, give them their force and energy. Indeed, he feems fo much the national mufician of France, that fince the bett days of Rameau, no dramatic compofer has excited fo much enthufiafm, or had his pieces fo frequently per- formed. Ithas been faid in the * Journal de Paris,’? that each of his pieces had fupported two or three hundred repre- fentations. ‘lhe French, who feel very enthufiaftically what- ever mufic they like, heard with great rapture the operas of Gluck, which eventhe enemies of his genre allowed to have great merit of a certain kind; but though there is much real genius and intrinfic worth in the dramatic compofitions of this matter, the congeniality of his flyle with that of their old national favourites, Lulliand Rameau, was no {mall me- rit with the friends of that mufic. The almoft univerfal cry at Paris was now, that he had recovered the dramatic mufic of the ancient Greeks; that there was no other worth hear- ing; that he was the only mufician in Europe who knew how to.exprefs the paffions ; thefe and other encomiums prepara- tory to his apotheofis, were uttered and publifhed in the jour- nals and new{papers of Paris, accompanied with conftant and contemptuous cenfures of Italian mufic, when Piccini arrived. This admirable compofer, the delight and pride of Naples, as Gluck of Vienna, had no fooner erected his itandard in, France, than all the friends of Italian mufic, of Roufleau’s doctrines, and of the plan, if not the language, of Metattafio’s dramas, enlifted in his fervice. A furious war broke out, all Paris was on the gut vive ? No door was opened to a vilitor, without this queftion being afked previoustohis admiffion: * Monfieur! eftes vous Piccinifte ou Gluckifte ?’ Thefe difputes, and thofe of mufical critics, and rival artifts throughout the kingdom, feem tous.to have foured and diminithed the pleafure arifing from mu(ic ip proportion as the art has advanced to perfection. When every phrafe or paffage in a-mufical compofition is te be analyfed and diffected during performance, all delight and 3B enthufiafm GLU enthufiafm vanifh, and the whole becomes a piece of cold mechanifm. It is certainly neceflary for profeffors to ftudy caufe and effe&, and to make themfelves well acquainted with the fundamental rules of their art ; but we would advife true lovers of mufic to /i/fen more than talk, and give way to their feelings, nor lofe the pleafure which melody, harmony, and expreflion ought to give, in idle enquiries into the nature and accuracy of their auricular fenfation. The chevalier Gluck, after returning to Vienna from Pa- ris, and being rendered incapable of writing by a paralytic ftroke in 1784, only lingered in a debilitated ftate till the au- tumn of 1787, when he died at the age of feventy-three. Gluck had great merit as a bold, daring, nervous com- pofer ;and as fuch, in his French operas, he was unrivalled. But he was not fo univerfal as to be exclufively admired and praifed at the expence of all other compofers ancient and modern. His ftyle was peculiarly convenient to France, where there were no good fingers, and where no good finging was expected or underitood by the public in ge- neral ; and where the poetry was fet up againft mufic, with- out allowing equality, or even an opportunity of manifefting her moit captivating vocal powers. It is, however, allowed by an exclufive admirer of Gluck, in the Encycl. Meth., that ‘ the Italians have the glory of having furnithed examples of almoft every kind of beauty of which mufic is fulceptible, and of having difleminated their tafte inevery part of Europe ;” but adds, that “* France will owe to the celebrated Gluck the having firft conceived the fyftem of a mufic truly dramatic, and our theatre will furnifh true models of it to other nations, and to polterity. Let us haften to fteal from the Italians and the Germans the glory of laying the true foundation of a mufical fyftem and of transforming the molt amiable and touching of arts, into a fcience as interefting as it is fertile.” Gluck, in a moment of franchife, over a bottle, faid <‘ the French area very good fort of people, who love mufic, and want fongs in their operas ; but they have no fingers.”’ And Sacchini, being afked how his ope as were executed at Paris, faid, ‘© God forbid I fhould ever go to hear them perform- ed!” And thefe are the people who are to furnifh models of dramatic mufic to Italy, and to all the reft of Europe! GLUCKSBURG, in Geography, a town of Denmark, with a fortrefs, in the duchy of Slefwick; nine miles E. of Flenfburg. GLUCKSTADT, a fea-port town ef Germany, in the duchy of Holiftein, belonging to Denmark, fituated en “the Elbe. This town is regular and well-built, aad its mar- ket place commands the chief {treets. Several canals run through it, and the principal one croffes near the market ‘place, and is here connected with another, which divides the town into two nearly equal parts. On the land lide it may be laid under water. Gluckftadt is the feat of the king’s regency, and of the offices and courts connected with it. Here is alfo a grammar-{chool. The Calviniits are permitted to have a church, the Roman Catholics a chapel, and the Jews a fynagogue. In 1738 a commercial college was in- ftituted here by king Chriitian Vi., as it was a place of fome trade; and in 1750, king Frederic V. eftablifhed an office for keeping the harbour, adjoining to which is a bafin for the reception of veffels, in good condition. Gluckftadt was built in 1620 by permiffion of Chriftian TV. in a waite called the Wildernefs, and in the patent granted to it, he ordered that it fhould be called Gluckiftadt, or the Fortunate Town; he alfo conferred upon it many cuftoms, rights and privileges, fuch as were enjoyed by the town of Willter ; and it was foon after invefted with the Lubeck and Ham- GLU ; burghrights. Itis diflant 28 miles N.W. from Hamburgh. N. lat. 53° 51’. E. long. 9° 20’. GLUE, Guuren, a vifcid, tenacious matter, ferving as a cement to bind or connect divers things together. There are divers kinds of gluesmade ufe of in the divers arts ; as the common glue, glove glue, parchment glue: but the two laft are more properly called /ize. The common or ftrong glue is a commodity ufed by numerous kinds of artificers; as joiners, cabinet-makers, cafe-makers, hatters, book-binders, &c. and the confumption thereof is very confiderable. The belt is that made in Eng- land, in {quare pieces of a ruddy brown colour: Flanders glue, which is whitifh and tranfparent, is held the next after the Englith. The moft ordinary glue of France is black and opaque. ; Glue is made of the fins of all kinds of beafts ; as oxen, cows, calves, fheep, &c. The older the beait is, the better is the glue that is made of its hide. Indeed, it is rare they ufe whole fkins for this purpofe; thofe being capable of being applied to better purpofe: but they make ufe of the fhavings, parings, or {craps of the hides, and alfo horns; and fometimes they make it of the feet, finews, nerves, &c. of beaits; andalfo of the pelts obtained from furriers. That made of whole fkins is the beft, and that of finews, &c. the werft: and hence, chiefly, arifes the difference of glues, and the advantage of Englifh and Flemifh glues. Give, method of making.—Mr. Clennell, in the Monthly Magazine for 1802, gives the following ftatemest of the general mode of its manufacture. The materials above enumerated are “firft digefted in lime-water, to cleanfe them from greafe or dirt; they are then fteeped in clean water with frequent ftirring, and afterwards laid in a heap and the water prefled out. ‘They are then boiled in a large brafs cauldron with clean water, feumming off the dirt as it rifes, and it is further cleanfed by putting in, after the whole is diffolved, alittle melted alum or lime finely powdered. The {cumming is continued for forae time, after which the mafs is ftrained through bafkets, and fuffered to fettle, that the remaining impurities may fubfide. It is then poured gra- dually into the kettle again, and further evaporated by boil- ing and {cumming, till it becomes of a clear dark brownifh colour. When it is thought to be ftrong enough, it is poured into frames or moulds about fix feet long, one broad, and two deep, where it gradually hardens asit cools, and is cut out when cold by a {pade into fquare cakes. Each of thefe is placed in a fort of wooden box open in three divifions to the back; inthis the glue, while yet foft, is cut into three flices, by anin{trument like a bow, with a brafs wire for its {trmg. The flices are then taken out into the open air, and dried ona kind of coarfe net-work, faftened in moveable fheds four feet fquare, which are placed in rows in the glue maker's field. When perfectly dry and hard it is fit for fale. That is thought to be the beft glue which {wells confiderably without melting by three “or four days’ immerfion in cold water, and recovers its former dimentions and properties by drying. Glue that has got froft, or that looks thick and black, fhould be melted over again. To know good from bad glue, the purchafer fhould hold it between his eye and the light, and if it appears of a ftrong dark colour, and free from cloudy and black fpots, the article is good.’? When glue is ufed by the carpenters, they break it and foak it for about 24 hours in cold water; and then melt the foaked pieces, caufing it to fimmer for a quarter of an hour over a flow fire and frequently flirring it. When cooled it becomes a firm gelly, which may be cut by any inflrument. It is merely warmed for ufe, and in this ftate fpread over the furface of the wood with a {tiff brufh. In an interval from one GLU @e to three days the pieces of wood will be fo perfettly ce- meated, that beards, thus cohering, willas readily break m any part as feparate at the junGtion. Glned boards will not fet ina freezing temperature; the ftiffening being occafioned by the evaporation of the fuperfluous matter of the glue, which is prevented by a confiderable degree of cold. Guvr, Bees. See Wax. Guur, Fifh, isa fort of glue made of the nervous and mu- siaeneus parts of a large fifh, found chiefly in the Ruffian eas. Thefe parts, being boiled, bear a near refemblance to that vifcid matter found on the fkins of cod-fifh. When boiled to the confiftence of a jelly, they fpread it on a leaf of paper, and form it into cakes; in which ftate it is fent to us. Fifh-glue is of eopligerahle ufe in medicine, and divers others arts; where it is betfer known under the name of ifinglafs and ichthyocolla. See Isincrass. A ftrong and fine glue may be prepared with ifinglafs and {pirit of wine thus: fteep the ifinglafs for twenty-four hours in {pirit of wine or common brandy. When the menftruum has opened and mollified the ifinglafs, they muit be gently boiled together, and kept ftirrmg till they appear well mixed, and till a drop thereof, fuffered to cool, prefently turns to a ftrong jelly. Then ftrain it, while hot, through a clean linen cloth, into a veffel to be kept clofe {topped. A gentle heat fuifices to diffolve this glue into a tranfparent and almoit colourlefs fluid, but very itrong; fo that pieces of wood, glued together with it, will feparate elfewhere than in the parts joined. Boyle’s Works abridg. vol. i. Pp- 130. A. ftrong compound glue may be made by infufing a mix- ture of common glue, in {mall pieces, with ifinglafs glue, in as much f{pirit of wine as will cover them, for about twenty-four hours: then melt the whole together, and add as much powdered chalk as will make it an opaque white. A ftrong glue, that will refift moifture, may be obtained by diffolving gum fandarac and mattic, of each two ounces, ina pint of fpirit of wine, and adding about an ounce of clear turpentine: then take equal parts of ifinglafs and parchment glue, and having pounded them into {mall pieces, pour the folution of the gums upon them, and melt the mix- ture ina covered yeflel, with a heat lefs than that of boiling water: then ftrain the glue through a coarfe linen cloth, and putting it again over the fire, add about an ounce of powdered glafs. Or, a flrong glue, that will refift water, may be made by adding half a pound of common ifinglafs glue to two quarts of fkimmed milk, and evaporating the mixture to a due confiftence. A glue, that will hold againft fire and water, may be made by mixing a handful of quick-lime with four ounces of linfeed oil, boiling them to a good thicknefs, and fpreading the mixture on tin plates in the fhade; it will thus become exceeding hard, but will eafily be diffolved over a fire, and be fit for ufe. See C#MENT. GLUMA, a Hu, in Botany, is the peculiar calyx of grafles and grafs-like plants, and indeed their corolla, at Jeaft what is fo termed by Linneus, is of the fame chaffy nature. Hufks or Glumes are ufually comprefled, embracing each other at the bafe ; more rarely they are depreffed, flat- tened vertically, as i: Quaking-grafs or Briza. To the hufl belongs the ariffa or awn, (fee ArisTA,) which is a briftle- fhaped appendage, ufually {piral, and poflefling the pro- perties of anhygrometer. It originates from the midrib or keel of the hufk, and is either terminal or dorfal, being in the latter cafe placed fometimes yery far down the back of the husk, asin many {pec‘es of vena, and in thefe inftances Stouts GLU it belongs to the glumes-that eonftitute the corolla, not the calyx. The arifia, though fo remarkable, is by no means always conftant i the fame fpecies, though nearly invariably fo in the flowers of the fame individual plant. Hufks are moftly furnifhed with one central longitudinal rib, though the inner g/ume of the corolla in graffes have two nearly marginal ones. ‘They have in moft inftances, befides the central rib, a greater or lefs number of lateral ones, all hikewife longitudinal, of great ufe in diftinguifhing {pecies of Poa and other difficult genera. Their margin is comnionly thin and more or lefs membranous or fcariole. Some glume always remain feparate and diftin& from the feed which they commonly enfold ; others are clofely incorporated with that part as it ripens, of which a curious example may be feen in Briza. Some forts of viviparous graffes exemplify the trans- formation of glumes into leaves in a remarkable manner, the awn remaining at the fummit being perhaps the only indica- tion of their original nature. See Aira levigata, Engl. Bot. t. 2102. The fame metamorpholis of a petal into a leaf is indeed not rarely feen ina Tulip and other cultivated flowers.. We have a wild fpecimen of a Similar change in the dnemone alpina, part of whofe leafy involucrum 1s be- come a perfect petal. Glumes are, we believe, invariably permanent, never de- ciduous, till the feed ripens, when thofe cf the corolla fall off along with the feed, ferving the purpofe of a fericar- MUM. GLUMACE@QUS Frowens, a term applied by fome botanifts to the flowers of the natural order of graffes, expreflive of their chaffy nature. GLUMMEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen; 24 miles S. of Konigfberg. GLURANTZ, or Givurs, a town of the county of Tyrol, fituated on the river Adige, built in 1362, and fur- rounded with walls in 1530. It was taken by the French in 1799; 36 miles W. of Brixen. N, lat. 46’ 38’. E. long. 10 26/. GLUS, in Surgery, a{pecies of dyfury, attended with a copious quantity of mucusin the bladder. Hence, the max lady has been named dy/uria muco/a. GLUT, among Jalconers, the flimy fubftance that lies ig a hawk’s paunch. ; Gur, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes provincially applied to a large wooden wedge. GLUTA, in Botany, fo called by Linneus, from the Latin word glutus, thruft clofe together, in allufion to the clofe application of the claws of the petals to the ftulk which elevates the organs of frutification. Profeflor Martyn feems not to have been aware of this derivation. We are led to it by the repeated indication of the circumftance in Lin- neus, and his ufe of the word adglutinata, even in the generic character, as well as in his fubfequent obfervations. Linn. Mant. z. 160. Syft. Veg. Ed. 14.821. Schreb. 146. Willd. Sp. Pl. y.1. 1120. Mart. Mall. Dit. v.2. Juff, 427. Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. (Linnzus refers it to Gynxandria Pentandria.) Nat. Ord. Capparides, Jull. 2 Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of cne leaf, membra- neus, bell-fhaped, obtufe at the bafe, cloven half way down into two lobes, deciduous. Cor. Petals five, equal, lanceolate, bluntifh, fomewhat oblique, four times the length of the calyx ; their upper part {preading horizontally; their claws cohering round the {talk of the germen, and attached Stam. Vilaments five, briftle-fhaped, rather fhorter than the petals, inferted into the fummit of the ftalk of the germen; anthers verfatile, rather oblong. Pi/f, Germen 3B2 obovate; GLU sbovate, ftanding on a cylindrical ftalk, which is rather longer than the calyx; ftyle thread-fhaped, equal to the filaments; ftigma fimple, obtufe. Peric. and Seeds un- known. Eff. Ch. Calyx bell-fhaped, cloven, deciduous. Petals five ; their elaws cohering round the {talk of the germen. Stamens inferted into the top of that italk, below the germen. 4 1. G. Benghas. Linn. Mant. 2. 293. Native of Java, where it is called Benghas, and, if we miltake not, in the Malay language Dedec. This plant is unknown to all botanifts except Linnus, by whofe herbarium alone it can be determined. His remarks have led the {tudents of natural orders wide of the trith concerning it, for nothing can be more unlike Paffflora. To Sterculia it has fome refemblance, and we have been much inclined to refer it to Juffien’s Malvacee, efpecially from its likenefs in fome refpeéts to the Affonia of that author and of Cayanilles ; but on exami- nation this likerefs proves fallacious. The moft probable place for it is amongit or near the Capparides, but the fruit being unknown, leaves this matter in great doubt. After all, it may be thought to belong to fome new order, which the ftudents of natural arrangement are but too prone to make on every emergency, and the French in particular feem to think they thew their fkill by their refinements on this head ; whereas it is but an eafier fault, though a more fatal one, than that of making too many genera, and ought to be watched with tenfold care. The Gluta Benghas appears to be a fhrub or tree, with fli¢htly pubefcent branches and buds. Leaves feattered, moft numerous about the ends of the branches, from three to ten inches long, elliptic-lanceolate, bluntith, entire, tapering down at the bafe into a fhort foot{talk ; they are fmooth on both fides, furnifhed with one rib and many tran{- verfe yeins connected by innumerable reticulations. —Stipulas none. Fioqers nearly the fize of Climatis Flammula, or, as Linnzus fays, of a cabbage bloffom, ina corymbofe pani- cle; whether terminal or axillary cannot be determined from the fpecimen, though he afferts the former. There is fome appearance of a glandular deprefiion at the back of the foot- ftalk where it joins the leaf. S. GLUTEA, Arrerta, in Anatomy, a large artery dif- tributed chiefly among the glutei mufcles. See Ar- TERY, GLUTEN, AyiMat, in Chemiftry. and Broop. Guiuren, Vegetable, a fubitance refembling the former, and found in feveral vegetables. (See Vegetable Finre.) Beceari firft found that wheat-flower contained gluten in con- iiderable quantity, and from this it is obtained by the fol- lowing procefs. (Aikin’s Diét.) Moillen any quantity of wheat-flour witha little water, and knead it with the hand into a tough ductile pafte, then let a very flender ftream of water keep dropping on the -pafte, while it is inceffantly worked about with the hands, and the water will run off white and turbid, owing to the fecula or ftarch which it carries off. The palte in the mean time gradually becomes more of a grey and almott femi-tranfparent appearance ; and when the water runs off quite clear, nothing is left in the hands but pure gluten. No other precaution is required in this preparation but that of not drenching the flour at firit with water, but only ufing a very fmall quantity with much kneading, that the gluten may not be carried off along with the ftarch. Good wheat-flour will yield in this way about a fourth of its weight of gluten, and no other flour but that of wheat will yield it, except ina very fmall proportion, and hence probably the peculiar property of wheat-flour to make See Animal Fipre eLvV bread without any other addition than a‘ ferment.’ See Breap. ' Gluten is contained in fmall quantity in feveral vegetable juices and other parts, and may be feparated from them, Bird-lime is fuppofed to be chiefly gluten, and the green fecula of plants abounds with it. See Birp-time and Frcura. GLUTEUS, in Anatomy, a name given to three large mufcles, concerned in the motions of the pelvis and thigh, and diftinguifhed from each other by the epithets magnus, medius, and minor. They occupy the outer and potterior part of the pelvis, from whith they arife, and ferm the large flefhy prominences named the buttocks. The gluteus magnus, or maximus, le grand feffier, ilii- facro-femoral, is a very broad, thick, and bulky mufcle, compofed of large fafciculi loofely connected together, and feparated to a confiderable depth by adipofe and cellular fubftance, of an irregularly quadrilateral figure, and fituated obliquely at the outer and back part of the hip, ‘The round- ed {welling, which forms the outline of the buttock at its back part, and the projection of which hides the termination of the large inteftine, 1s formed entirely by this mufcle. Its external furface has the fame degree of convexity as that of the buttock ; the internal, which covers the tuberofity of the ifchium, and the great trochanter, is proportionally concave. It arifes, 1ft. By thort aponeurotic fibres, from about one imch of the pofterior extremity of the crifta ili, where the bone extends beyond the facrum, and from the neighbouring part of the immediately fubjacent notch. At this origin an aponeurofis may be obferved, continuous with that of the thigh, and of the vertebral mufcles. 2dly. From the liga- ment connecting the pofterior end of the iliac erifta, to the back of the facrum ; and here it is continuous with the ten- dinous origin of the Jatiffimus dorfi, longiflimus dorfi, and facrodumbalis. 3dly. From the external margin of the fa- crum, near its laft foramen, from the tubercle at the fide of the termination of the canal containing the medulla f{pinalis, and from the articulation between the facrum and coccyx. 4thly. From the potterior furface of the coccyx. 5thly. Yrom the furface of the great facro-fciatie ligament. From thefe points the fibres all proceed obliquely downwards and outwards, nearly parallel to each other; the mufcle is at firft rather thinner and narrower, and grows broader and thicker as it proceeds. Its upper margin is clofely attached to that part of the femoral fafcia which covers the gluteus medius. The fuperior fibres, having turned over the great trochanter, join the upper part of the common tendon. ‘T'he latter is mott intimately conneéted to the fafcia lata, fo that, on the firft infpeétion, the gluteus magnus appears to be in- ferted into this fafcia, throughout the whole line of its front edge : we cannot, however, eafily diftinguifh thefe parts by cutting through the mufcle, and turning it afide. The com- mon tendon receives the mufcular fibres from above the tro- chanter, to below the quadratus femoris, where it begins to be attached to the bone. It is very firmly attached to the rough line, which commences at the root of the trochanter, and joins the linea afpera, occupying by its infertion a {pace of about three inches ; it is fituated here between the vaitus externus and adductor magnus, to the former of which it is connected by tendinous and mufcular fibres. The exterior convex furface of this mufcle is covered for a {mall fpace towards its upper part by a thin plate af the fafcia lata, and is every where elfe immediately fubjacent to the integuments. The inner furface covers the os inmomina- tum, the facrum and coccyx, the origin of the vertebral muf- cles, the gluteus medius, the pyramidales, the gemini, the obturator internus, the quadratus femoris, the tuberofity of the G LV the ifchium, the origins ofthe femitendinofus and biceps, the adductor magnus, the fciatic nerve, and the great tro- chanter, A. large fynoyvial membrane, placed between this mufcle and the laft-named eminence, favours their reciprocal motions. The cavity does not in general contain much fluid ; and it fometimes exhibits internal folds. The gluteus medius, le moyen feflier, ilio-trochanterien, is a thick and broad mufcle, flattened and triangular, partly covered by the preceding, but placed more at the fide of the pelvis. It arifes by very fhort aponeurotic fibres from the external furface of the os innominatum, immediately under the criita ilit, running forwards to the front as far as the ante- rior fuperior {pine, and backwards to the facro-{ciatic notch: downwards it is bounded by the curved line, which marks the circumference of the gluteus minimus. Another origin of this mufcle is from the fafcia lata, where that aponeurofis is fixed to the crifta ilil, and where it feparates this mufcle from the tenfor vagine. [rom this double origin the fibres all take their courfe downwards, the anterior or fhortelt being at the fame time directed obliquely backwards; the middle, which are longer, paffing perpendicularly, and the potterior or longett, coming obliquely forwards.’ In this way they all converge to meet in a broad aponeurolis in the radiate fibres, beginning in the fubftance of the mufcle, higher behind than before, and delcending, as it receives the mufcular fibres fucceflively, to the great trochanter, to be fixed to the upper and anterior part of that eminence. Many of the anterior fibres are mixed with thofe of the gluteus minor; fo that the two cannot be completely feparated without dividing fome of the mufcular fubltance. Its external furface is covered behind by the gluteus magnus, in front by the fafcia lata) The inner furface covers the gluteus minor, the gluteal artery, and the furface of the bone. Its front edge is in contact with the tenfor vagine ; the poflerior with the pyramidalis. Gluteus minor, or minimus, le petit feffier, ilio-ifchii-tro- chanterien. This is the {malleft of the three glutei, and covers the os innominatum by its whole inner furface, being equally covered on the outlide by the preceding mufcle. It is thick and flattened, and has a triangular figure. It arifes from the furface of the os innominatum by very fhort aponeurotic fibres ; beginning at the anterior fuperior {pine, and following a curved line, which extends from the latter procefs to the facro-{ciatic notch. rom this line, of which the convexity is turned upwards, it covers the bone as far as the edge of the acetabulum. ‘he mufcular fibres all defcend in a converging manner ; the middle taking a per- pendicular courfe, while the anterior are directed backwards, and the pofterior forwards. They are all implanted in a broad radjated aponeurofis, which lies on the external fur- face of the mufcle, except towards the front, where it is covered by a few fibres of the preceding mulcle. his aponeurolis, as it defcends, forms a {trong tendon implanted immediately with: the former, in the upper and anterior portion of the great trochanter. It has fome conneétion to the capfular ligament of the hip; and a fmall fynovial membrane is interpofed between it and the trochanter. It is covered by. the gluteus medius, and very flightly by the pyramidalis: it lies on the bone, on the capfular ligament of the hip, and the origin of the rectus cruris. Motions produced by the glutei.—The mufcles, which we have juit deferibed, move the thigh and pelvis reciprocally en each other. heir action on the pelvis may be obferved both in ftanding and walking. When we fupport the trunk in the erect attitude on both feet, the glutei magni fix the pelvis firmly behind, and counteract that tendency which the body naturally has to fall forwards. Hence the ELV bulk and power of thefe very mufcles in the human fubjeé afford a clear proof that man was defigned for the attitude on two feet ; this gives to the human frame the buttocks, which are feen in no other animal, becaufe man is the only biped among the mammalia. In the cafe now under con- fideration the glutei magni are aflilled by the femi-tendinofi, femi-membranofi and bicipites; and antagonized by the pfox and iliaci, which poffefs a force much inferior to that which oppofes them behind, becaufe they are aided by the weight of the trunk. When the pelvis has been bent for- wards, the gluteus magnus will reftore it ; and if the cir- cumitances admitted of this part being carried backwards, the fame mufcle would produce that motion. The other two glutei are not eflentially concerned in the attitude of ftanding on both feet ; but they are the principal agents in fupporting and balancing the trunk on one foot, by inclining the pelvis over the head of that thigh bone on which the body reits, fo that the centre of gravity of the trunk may be in a line drawn through that lower extremity. In this cafe their exertion countera¢ts the tendency of the trunk to fall on that fide which is not fupported, Thefe mufcles are further employed in the fame kind of way in progreffion : the gluteus magnus balances the pelvis while one leg is carried before the other, and brought to the ground ; and the two others fuppert the trusk Tee, while the limb of the oppofite fide is in the air. In the attitude on one leg, the gluteus magnus can rotate the pelvis. on the thigh-bone of its own fide, fo as to turn the fymphyfis pubis towards the oppofite fide. When the glutei move the thigh on the pelvis, the magnus reftores the bone to its former pofition, where it had been previoufly bent ; and, i the pelvis be carried forwards, 1t may move the former til! farther in the dire¢tion of extenfion ; the medius and femi- medius moye the thigh away from the oppofite limb. The g. magnus has the effect alfo of rotating the thigh outwards ; while the anterior fibres of the two {maller mufeles will rotate it inwards. ‘Che former is a tenfor of the fafcia lata. GLUTTON, in Zoology. See Ursus Gula. GLYCAS, Micuakr, in Biography, a Greek hittorian, who is fuppofed to have flourifhed in the 12th or 13th cen- tury, though by fome others he is referred to the 15th. He. was a native of Byzantium, but {pent a great part of his lite in the ifland of Sicily. He is principally known by his «© Annals,”? in four parts, containing the hittory of the world, from the creation to the birth of Chrift, and that of the Byzantine emperors down to the death of Alexius Com- nenus in 1118, inter{perfed with a number of theological, philofophical, and phyfical difcuffions. An edition of the « Annals’ in Greek and Latin was given to the public by father Labbe, in 1660. The third part has been publifhed feparately by Meurfius, with a verlion and fcholia. Several letters of Glycas have been publifhed in different colle¢tions. - He was undoubtedly a very learned man, and the corre{pond- ence which he maintained with the literati of his age fhew- that he ftood in very high reputation, Moreri-. GLYCERIA, in Botany, from yAvaego:, /zveety the feeds being eaten in Germany, and called Manna-feeds, on account of their fweet tafte. Brown Prod.. Nov. Holl. y. 1. 179.— Clafs and order, Triandria Digynta. Nat. Ord...Gramina. This new genus of grafles ia founded by Mr. Brown on the Feftuca fluitans of Linnseus, Poa fluitans, Sm. Fl. Brit. 95, with the following characters. “© Glume (Calyx) of two valves, containing many flowers. Spikelet cylindrical, awnlefs. Perianth (Corolla) beardlefs, its valves of equal length. Sca/e under the germen folitary, fiefhy, like a half fhield.. Stigmas doubly compound. Seed wocor A GLY CINE. unconnected, oblong, with a furrow at one fide. fomewhat panicled.’ We cannot but affent to the propriety of feparating the grafs in queftion from Poa and Fefuca, as far as habit is concerned, but we are very certain that Poa diflans, maritima, procumbens, and rigida of Fl. Brit. and Cynofurus durus of Linneus cannot fail to go along with it, though we fear the characters given by the fagacious writer above quoted will not be found to hold good in all, if inany, of thefe. Perhaps the following definition of Glyceria, formed on fimple and obvious Linuzan principles, may be unexceptionable, as embracing them all, and preferving an analogy with genera already eltablifhed. Calyx of two valves, containing many florets. linear. S: GLYCINE, from yAveu-, /weet, the particular applica- tion of which is not very obvious, having originated merely from the {weet tafte noticed by Cornuti in the leaves and tuberous roots of G. dpios. This indeed is the original, and. perhaps the only true Glycine, the numerous affemblage of fpecies ranged under this zenus, by recent writers, being very anomalous in fruétification, efpecially thofe of New Holland, as will appear by Mr. Brown's definitions when the fecond part of his valuable work appears.—Linn. Gen. 373. Schreb. 495. - Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1053. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 34. Juff. 357. Lamarck Iluttr. t. 609. Gertn. t. 154. Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. \ Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Le- guminofe, Juil. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, compreffed, two-lipped ; upper lip notched, obtufe ; lower longer, three- cleft, acute, its middle tooth longelt. Cor. papilionaceous. Standard inverfely heart-fhaped, deflexed at the fides, eib- bous at the back, emarginate at the top, and ftraight, till driven back by the keel. Wings fmall, oblong, ovate to- wards the extremity, bent downwards. Keel linear, falcate, curved upwards, preffing the ftandard upward by its obtufe and dilated extremity. Stam. Filaments in two fets, (one fimple, the other in nine divifions,) flightly feparated at the top, revolute; anthers fimple. Pz/?. Germen oblong ; ityle cylindrical, rolled f{pirally ; ftigma obtufe. Peric. Legume Floaers Spikelet Corolla of two oblong, obtufe, beardlefs valves. oblong. Seeds kidney-fhaped. Eff. Ch. Calyx two-tipped. Stamens in diftin fets. Keel of the corolla forcing back the ftandard with its point. Obf. Glycine Apios and frutefeens have a two-celled le- gume. G. monoica is a fingular inftance of a feparation of fexes in flowers of this tribe. This genus has accumulated from two fpecies (G. Apios and frutefcens) in the Hortus Cliffortianus, to eight in the firlt edition of Species Plantarum, nine in the fecond, fifteen in the fourteenth and laft edition of Sy/lema Vegetabilium, and finally to forty-four in Willdenow. “Thefe now form a very heterogeneous affemblage, and the New Holland ones con- flitute a diftiné& genus, the Kennedia of Ventenat, diltin- guifhed by its fpontaneoufly reflexed flandard, and legume of many cells. The whole requires a thorough revifal. Some are of opinion that G. Apios is generically dittinét from all the others, and if fo it would be mof convenient, though this is one of the original {pecies, to give it the generic name of Apios, retaining Glycine for fuch more common and more numerous ones as may anfwer to the ufual idea of the genus, an effential character being {elected to combine them together. : Grycixe, in Gardening, contains plants of the fhrubby climbing kind; of which the fpecies cultivated are the 3 fhrubby glycine, or Carolina kidney-bean tree (G. fru- tefcens} ; the two-fpotted glycine (G. bimaculata) ; the reddifh-flowered glycine {G. rubicunda) ; and the fcarlet glycine (G. coccinea.) ; Method of Culture—In the firft it may be effeted by laying down the young branches in the early autumnal feafon. When well-rooted in the following autumn, they may be taken off and planted where they are to remain, or in nurfery-rows, being watered when the weather is hot, and the roots protected in the winter by fome fort of ftrawy material. ‘They are found to fucceed beft in dry, warm, light forts of ground. And the other kinds may be raifed by fowing the feeds when they can be obtained from abroad, or produced here in pots of light earth, in the early f{pring, being after- wards removed into other pots, and placed in the green-houfe, or Cape ftove. It has been fuppofed by Mr. Curtis, that the two lait may fucceed in the open air, when planted out in warm fheltered fituations, and protected during the winter feafon by fome convenient matting or other means. All the forts are ornamental in their flowery climbing growth ; the firft in the open ground, and the latter in the green-houfe and ftove colleétions. Guycrxe, Glucine, Fr. in Chemiftry. This earth was firft difcovered by M. Vauquelin in 1798. He deteéted it in the analyfis of the beryl, undertaken at the defire of Hauy, who wifhed to have it afcertained by a itrict chemical inquiry, whether the beryl and emerald were as fimilar in their compofition as in the form of their cryftallizations. The refults of this inquiry were conformable to the expeéta- tions which gave rife to it, and the exiftence of a new earth in the beryl and emerald was confirmed by the experiments of Klaproth. Vauquelin, in the memoirin whichhe announced his difcovery, called the new fubftance merely the earth of theberyl: afterwards, with his affociates, Guyton, Fourcroy, and Chaptal, he determined on the name g/ucine, derived from the Greek yavxo-, weet, becaufe all the foluble falts of this earth have the property of producing a certain {weet aftrin- cent tafte. When the name was fele€ted, the chara&ter on which it was founded was peculiar; but though it ceafed to be fo on the difcovery of yttria, yet as the name conveys no erroneous ideas of the body, to which it is applied, there is no impropriety in adhering to it: befides, the tafte fill ferves as a phyfical characteriftic ; for, according to Vau- quelin, the fweetnefs of the falts of glycine has a fenfible difference from that of the falts of yttria, particularly of the fulphat. Glycine, in its pure ftate, has not yet been difcovered in nature : indeed, its occurrence in compound minerals is ex- cecdingly rare, for it has only been found in the beryl, or ultramarine, the emerald and the gadolinite ; aad it enters but fparingly into the compolition of thefe bodies; the beryl, in which it is moft abundant, containing, according to the analyfis of Vauquelin and Rofe, no more than 14 per cent. From the analogy which exiits between glycine and alumine, the former is very liable to be taken for the latter by chemiits who do not pay particular attention to accuracy in their analytical inquiries. The firft analyfes of the emerald made by Klaproth and Vauquelin afford an inftance of this kind; and M. Bindheim committed a fimilar error in his analyfis of the beryl. To obtain glycine in a ftate of chemical purity, finely powdered beryl is to be fufed with three times its weight of cauttie potath in a filver or platina crucible ; the crucible is to be expofed for two hours to a {trong red heat, and the mixture in fufion is to be frequently itivred with an iron rod, in order to keep the earth as much as_poffible fufpended GLY CINnik. fafpended and expofed by an extent of furface to the action of the alkali. If the treatment deferibed is properly con- duéted, the fufed mafs, when foftened with water, will be entirely diffolved by muriatic acid, affilted by a flight digeft- ing heat :' the muriatic folution thus procured mutt be eva- porated to drynefs. A large quantity of water will diflolve the foluble falts, and leave the principal part of the filex, which is to be feparated and well wafhed ona filter, The fil- tered folution is to be precipitated by carbonat of potafh. The precipitate, confifting principally of alumine and theearth in quettion, is to be diffolved in dilute fulphuric acid, and évaporated to the proper confittence to afford cryftals of alum. If the precipitate produced by carbonat of potafh has been well wathed, it is neceffary to add a little potafh to the ful- phuric folution. When the folution, on a fecond or third evaporation, and addition of potath, ceafes to yield any more cryftalsof alum, the mother liquor is to be mixed with a folution of carbonat of ammonia, greatly exceeding the quantity neceflary to faturate the acid, and to be transferred to a bottle having a ground ftopple: the mixture is to be wellagitated, and carbonat of ammonia is to be added till the precipitate which firft appeared is re-diffolved, or no longer diminifhed by frefh portions of the carbonated alkali. The folution of the triple compound of glycine carbonic acid and ammonia is to be filtered in order to feparate the {mall remaining quantity of alumine, and then boiled till the vapour ceafes to change the colour of turmeric paper, or till it no longer has an ammoniacal {mell ; when all the carbonat of ammonia being driven off, the whole of the glycine will be found precipitated in the form of a white granular pow- der combined with carbonic acid. This powder is to be wathed ina filter, till the water ceafes to afford a precipitate with muriat of barytes and lime-water; it is then to be dried, and heated to rednefs : by this means, the water and carbonic acid, amounting to about half the weight of the whole, will be expelled, and the glycine, if it does not efiervefce with acids, will be left in a perfectly pure flate. Glycine thus procured, is a {now-white powder, foft and fomewhat unctuous between the fingers, very adhelive to the tongue, and deftitute both of fmell and tafte. Its {pecific gravity is 2.976. It preducesno change in the co- Jour of vegetable blues. Neither oxygen nor nitrogen has any action onit, nor does 1t fuiferany change by expofure to the atmofphere ; as carbonic acid and moifture do not ap- pear to be abforbed by it. It forms, with a {mall quantity of water, a Slightly duétile pafte, that poffeffes much lefs te- nacity than that of alumine. Glycine has not yet been fufed ; it neither contracts nor hardens when heated, nor is it altered by expofure to the moit intenfe fire. With borax it forms a white tranfpareut glafs, which does not become opaque on cooling. It refules to combine direétly with fulphur or phofphorus, but it appears from Fourcroy that a fulphuret may be formed by decompoiing the fulphat of glycine by chareoal. Glycine is folnble in a faturated folution of fal- phuretted hydrogen. A liydro-fulphuret of this earth, it is likewife faid, may be obtained by diffolving the fulphuret in water. In thefe properties it approaches the alkaline earths, and conttitutes apparently the link of union between them and the clafs to which it belongs. It 1s diffulved by both the fixed alkalies in their liquid ftate, but ina lefs degree than alumine, and, like alumine, it is not taken up by ammonia. It is diflolved in afolution of carbonat of ammonia, as has al- ready been mentioned. It very readily unites with acids. All its foluble falts produce, when firit talted, the fenfation of {weetnefs, which gradually becomes altringent. Jn relation to its affinity for acids, glycine appears to be sntermediate between alumine and magnefia, for it decom- pofes only the falts of alumine, yttria, andizircon, Arid the order of its affinities ismuch the fame, according to Fourcroy, as that of the other earths, fulphuric acid helding the firft place, andnitric, muriatic, phofphoric, fiuoric, boracic,and car- bonic following. No experiments have been undertaken yet, to afcertain whatcombinations glycine is capable of form- ing with the earths and metallie oxyds. Yttria and alumine are the only earths for which gly- cine is liable to be miftaken: the properties in which it re-- fembles them are, rather unfortunately, of a moft ftriking kind, but it has a number of other characters which are very diilinét, and fully demonftrative of its peculiar nature. Gly- cine is fimilar to alumine, in being {cluble in cauttic folutions of the fixed alkalies, and in fome of its phyfical qualities ; butit differs from alumine in affording with acids {weet aftrin- gent falts ; in not yielding alum with fulphuric acid and pot-: afh ; in poffefling a greater affinity for acids ; in being en- tirely foluble m carbonat of ammonia; and laftly, in not being precipitated from its folutions by oxalat, tartrat, or pruffiat of potath. It is to be diftinguifhed from yttria, by its greater folubility in carbonat of ammonia, the latter requir- ing for its folution five times as much carbonated alkali as glycine, by its falts occafioning a precipitate, when added to any of the fuccinats, by the infolubility of yttria in fixed alkaline folutions, and by the precipitate which the falts of yttria afford with pruffiat of pot-ath. Glycine was confidered asa fimple body till the import- ant difcoveries of Mr. Davy. gave ri e to new analogies ; and though the compound nature of this earth is not yet fully demonttrated, yet there is every reafon to believe that gly- cine, like the alkalies and alkaline earths, is a metallic oxyd : and the refults of the experiments which Mr. Davy made on this body are explained beit on fucha fuppofition. This gentleman negatively electrified glycine, flightly moiftened: in contact with an amalgam of potaflium, under naphtha, by a battery of 5ooplates. After an hour the amalgam was thrown into water, and an alkaline folution was produced, which became cloudy when neutralized by acid, thus indi- cating the prefence of the earth. Mr. Davy, following the nomenclature which he has adopted in refpeé&t to the new metals, has propofed glucium for the name of the metal of glycine, when its exiftence is no longer doubtful. Carbonat of glycine,.as well as all the other falts ef this: earth, has not yet been difcovered ready formed in nature. It is procured by precipitating the fulphat, nitrat, or muriat of glycine, by either of the carbonated fixed alkalies. The precipitate, which is the falt fought after, being well wafhed and dried, appears in the form of foft white powder, having a grealy feel and great lightnefs. Carbonat of glycine is infoluble in water, and it is unaltered by expofure to the air. It is decompofed by all the acids, and by the ation of a red heat ; moit probably all the alkaline earths deprive it of carbonic acid in the moift way. According to Klaproth it is compofed of Glycire - ye - 53. Carbonic acid and water - 47 100 Phofphat of Glycine —Phofphat of foda,.added to a neu- tral folution of nitrat of glycine, throws down this falt either in a white pulverulent form,.or in a mucilaginous fcate. It is infoluble in water, infipid and-uncryflallizable. It is not decompoted by a violent heat, but it fufes into _a white tranfparent glafs, that does not. become opaque on cooling. Phofphat of glycine is foluble in phofphoric acid. ‘The fulphuric and nitric acids firft diffolve this falt, and GLY and afterwards decompofe it. Muriatic acid produces a fimilar effeét, but in alefs degree. It 1s likewife readily decompofed by the carbonated alkalies and by all the car- bonated earths, except carbonat of magnefia. With the ful- phat, nitrat, and muriat of alumine, it fuffers decompofi- tion, a mutual exchange of acids taking place between the two earths. Sulphat of Glycine—Glycine, both in its pure and car- bonated ftate, diffolves very readily in dilute fulphuric acid. The folution by fpontaneous evaporation affords oGtahedral cryftals, compofed of two oblique four-fided pyramids joined bafe to bafe, with their edges and folid angles trun- cated. It alfo, but with difficulty, yields when evaporated on a fand bath {mall needle-form cryftals. The folution, when evaporated nearly to drynefs, aflumes a fyrupy con- fiftence, Sulphat of glycine, has a remarkable {weet and altringent tafte. It is very foluble in water. Heated, it intumelces, fuffers the watery fulion, and becomes pul- verulent from the diffipation of its water. It is completely decompofed by a ftrong red heat, the acid being expelled and the earth left in its pure ftate. It has been already ob- ferved that fulphat of glycine is converted, when heated with charcoal, into a fulphuret: but this fulphuret, according to Fourcroy, does not become a pyrophorus, like alum thus treated, though fulphat of potafh be prefent. A folu- tion of nut-galls, added to this falt diflolved in water, pro- duces immediately a white precipitate. Previous to the knowledge of this fact, fuch a property was canceived to be peculiar to metallic falts. Sulphat of glycine, flowly evaporated with a {mall quantity of fulphat of potath, forms minute cry‘talline grains, which diflolve with eafe in feven or eight times their weight of cold water. Glycine, added to a folution of alum, precipitates the alumine, and moft probably pro- duces a compound, fimilar to the preceding one. Sulphat of glycine is decompofed by all the alkalies and earths, ex- cepting alumine, yttria, zircon, and filex. Nitrat of glycine is procured by faturating nitric acid with glycine. The folution of this falt does not afford cryitals by evaporation, but produces a ductile and adhefive mafs, which, when further dried, falls into powder. It is very foluble in water and deliquefcent in the air. It attracts moifture fo ftrongly, that it might, if eafily procured, be ad- vantageoufly employed for abforbing the hygrometrical water of gafes. Its taite is faccharine and aftringent. Tin@ure of galls dropt into a folution of this falt pro- duces a yellowifh brown precipitate. Nitrat of glycine fufes at a low heat, but if the heat is increafed, the’ acid 1s expelled. It is decompofed in the moiit way by fulphuric acid, and by the fame alkalies and earths as the fulphat. The proportions of its component parts are not known ; but Vauquelin has obferved that a given quantity of nitric acid requires rather more glycine than alumine for its complete faturation; yet the former earth, though in combination with nitric acid mere foluble than the latter, decompofes, with the afliftance of heat, nitrat of alumine, precipitating the alumine, and forming nitrat of glycine. Muriat’ of glycine is procured by diffolving glycine in muriatic acid. It is in fome refpects fimilar to the nitrat, but differs in its folution, affording by careful management {mall eryttals, the form of which, on account of their fize, have not yet been determined ; and in not being fubject to deliquefse on expofure to the atmofphere. Its talte is fimilar. A folution of this falt in dilute alcohol is faid to be an agreeable fweet liquid. When diftilled per /e, the acid flies off, and leaves the earth in a ftate of purity. It is alfo deeompofed when heated with phofphoric acid, The GLY fame effe&t is produced by fulphuric and nitric acids, and by the alkalies, and all the earths that decompofe the nitrat. Acetat of glycine, which is prepared by diffolving the earth in acetic acid, -has not yet been procured ina et Site form. Its folution, when evaporated, acquires a glutinous conlitenets and the falt becomes brittle as it flowly ries. Succinat of Glycine.—Any of the fuccinats added to the nitrat, muriat, or fulphat of glycine, precipitate the falt in queftion. Its properties have not yet been enquired into. We are indebted for the imperfect knowledge wehave of the combinations of glycine, with the feveral acids above-men- tioned, principally to the celebrated difcoverer of this earth. Glycine, in no form as yet, has been ufefully employed; yet. Vauquelin conceives that the earth itfelf and fome of its falts, when they can be procured with facility, may admit of fuch an application in chemiltry, in medicine, and the arts. Its marked attraction for animal and vegetable co- louring fubftances induced him to thmk that there was. a probability of its being ferviceable as a mordant; and the peculiar tafte of fome of its falts gave rife to the hope that thefe combinations might produce falutary effects om the animal fyitem. If his expectations fhould be realized, we mult agree with Vauquelin, that thefe jalts will be fome of the moft agreeable medicines that exift. Ann, de Chem. vol. xxvi. 155. xii. 277. Fourgroy Connaiffance Chem. vols, ii.iii, Aikin’s Chem. Dict. vol. un. Philofoph, 'Tranf. part. i. 1808. p. 352. GLYCONIAN, Gryconivs. in the Greck and Latin poetry. ‘ A Glyconian verfe is that confifting of two feet and a fyllable ; at leaft this is Scaliger’s opinion: who adds, that the Glyconian verfe was alfo called the Euripidean verle. See VERSE. Others hold, that the Glyconian verfe confiited of three feet, afpondee and two dactyls ; or rather a fpondee, cho- riambus, and aniambus or a pyrrhic: which opinion is the molt followed. «« Sic te diva potens Cypri,’’ is a Glyconian verfe. GLYCYRRHIZA, in Botany, Liquorice, yauxippifos of Diofcorides, who defcribes the plant very faithfully and accurately ; but it is remarkable that he fays the flower is like a hyacinth, which can allude to the colour only, whether his vexite: be the Delphinium or Hyacinthus of modern bo- taniits. The word is compofed of yavxuc, /zweet, and fit, a root; and the name in apothecaries’ Latin, /iguiriti@, as well as the Englifh one, liquorice, the French regli/e, the Italian regalizza, &c. with all their corruptions, originate from it.—Linn. Gen. 380. Schreb. 502. Willd. Sp. Pl..v. 3. 1143. Mart. Mill. Di. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew, v. 3. 56. Jull. 359. Tourn. t. 210. Lamarck. Mluftr, t. 625. Gertn. t. 148 —Clafsand order, Diadelphia Decan- dria. Nat. Ord. Papi/onacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, two-lipped, permanent ; upper lip in three deep fegments, of which the lateral ones are linear, the central one broadeft and cloven; lower perfectly fimple, linear. Cor. papiliona- ceous. Standard ovato-lanceolate, ftraight, longelt. Wings oblong, very like the keel, but rather larger. Keel of two petals, acute, its claw thelength of the calyx. Stam. Vila~ ments in two fets, (ane fimple, the other in nine divifions,) traight; anthers fimple, roundith. Pi. Germen fhorter than the calyx; ftyle awl-thazed, as long as the ftamens ; ftigma obtule, afcending. Peric. Juegume ovate or oblong, comprefled, acute, of one cell. Seeds very few, kidney- fhaped. Ltt ” GEY CY RR! Z A. Eff. Ch. Calyx with two lips; the upper three-cleft ; lower fimple. Stamens in diftin& fets. Legume ovate, comprefied, of one cell. Seeds one or two. 1. G. echinata.. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1046. Jacq. Hort. Vind. vy. 1.t. 95+ (Dulcisradix ; Matth. Valer. v. 2.16. Camer. Epit. 423.)—‘* Legumes prickly. Flowers capitate. Sti- pulas lanceolate. Leaflets fmooth ; the terminal one nearly ey Netise of Italy, as well as of Tartary and the confines of China; alfo abundantly, according to Dr. Sib- thorp, on the fandy fhores of Crete, Samos, and other Greek iflands, where it ftill retains its ancient name un- changed. The long plant perennial roots, deeply defcend- ing into the ground in a favourable foil, are cultivated for their {weet talte and pectoral virtues, and are fufficiently well known. The /ems are two or three feet high, nearly fimple, leafy, round and ftriated. Leaves of feveral pair of equal, elliptical, entire, acute leaflets, the odd one on a little italk only like the refit, not on an elongation of the main footftalk. Svipu/as lanceolate, acute. lowers feve- ral, in axillary, folitary, ftalked heads; their colour a dull purple. Lesumes clothed, in their upper part efpecially, with numerous long rigid prickles, refemblizg the fruit of Xanthium firumarium. Diofcorides compares them to that of the Plane-tree. The whole herb is deftitute of pubef- cence, but fomewhat clammy to the touch. 2. G. fetida. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 170. t. 199.— Legumes prickly. Tlowers fpiked. Stipuias lanceolate. Leaflets fcaly beneath; the terminal one nearly feflile.— Found by Desfontaines on mount Atlas, and in cultivated fields near Mayane in Africa. We have it from Alcaffar. Whole plant extremely feetid. Zeaver much hike the laft in fize and fhape, but the fozwers are pale yellow, in long fpikes. Legumes crowned with the permanent ftyle, which is longer in this than in the former. The /fer, as well as both fides of the leaves, is befprinkled with mi- nute fcales. 3. G. glandulifera. Waldtt. and Kitaib. Hungar. v. 1. ao. t. 21. Willd. Sp. PL v. 3. 1144.—Legumes clothed with glandular briftles. Flowers {piked. Stipulas obfolete. Leaflets emarginate, glutinous and downy beneath —Native of Hungary. Flowers violet-coloured. 4. G. glabra. Linn. Sp, Pl. 1046. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 167. (G. vulgaris; Dod. Pempt. 341. Ger. em. 1302.)— Legumes fmooth. Flowers fpiked. Stipulas fearcely dif- cernible. Leaflets blunt; the terminal one on a long ftalk. —Native of the fouth of Europe. Mott commonly cul- tivated with us. The /eaflets are large, glutinous beneath. Flowers pale purple, m_long-ftalked axillary fpikes. Le- _gumes oblong, {mooth. - We have a {pecimen of this fpecies gathered in Circaffia, by the celebrated traveller Dr. Clarke of Cambridge. 5- G. afperrima. Linn. Suppl. 330. Pallas. Reis. v. 3. t. G, g. ft. 1, 2. (G. hifpida; ibid. 754.)—Legumes fmooth, beaded.. Flowers fpiked. Stipulas lanceolate. _ Leaflets roundifh, prickly beneath. Stem and footi{talks prickly. —Found by profeffor Pallas “ in fandy ground be- tween the river Wolga and the Tanais.” Pallas MSS. The root is extremely fweet, efpecially in the fpring. Stems ufually two, rarely three, afcending, a {pan high, nearly dimple, leafy, rough with numerous little rigid prominent prickles, as are the foot/falks, and backs of the leaflets. ‘The latter ate roundifh or obovate, obtufe with a little point, {mooth and veiny above. Yoqwers longifh, pale vio- det, with whitith wings and keel, in one or two thick {pikes about the top of each ftem, The /egumes are drawn by Pallas above an inch long, recurved, of a necklace-like form, and fmooth, containing many feeds. The ca/yx is Vou. XVI. ; oblong, purplifh, rather hairy. Jt has the habit of a Ghy- cyrrhiza, flowers of an Afiragalus, and fruit apparently of a Coronilla ; nor does the calyx anfwer to the generic cha, racter, being five-cleft. 6. G. hirfita. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1046. (G. orientalis, fii- quis hirfutiflimis ; Tourn. Cor. 26.)—* Legumes hairy. Leaflets oblong-lanceolate, the terminal one ona long italk. Flowers {piked.’*— Found by Tournefort in the Levant. Root perennial. Of this we have feen neither a {pecimen, figure, nor any further defeription. Guiycyrruiza, in Gardening, furnifhes a plant of the herbaceous perennial kind, the common liqucrice (G. glabra). It is a plant which has the roots running’ very deep into the ground, and creeping to a confiderable diltance, efpe- cially where they ftand long unremoved. Method of Culture.—A light fandy foil is the moft adapted to the growth of this fort of crop, as its goodnefs confifts in the length of the roots. The ground in which it is intended to be planted fhould be well dug and dunged the year before planting, that it may have become perfectly mellow, and the dung well rotted and mixed with the earth, other- wife it will be apt to {top the roots from running down and being properly {upported ; and immediately before planting it fhould be well dug again to the depth of three {fpades, and be laid very light and open. When the land is thus prepared, freth plants taken from the fides or heads of the old roots fhould be provided, care being taken that they hare each a good bud or eye, be- ing about ten inches long and perfetly found. The operation of planting them fhould be performed about the middle of March, which is done in this manner: a line is firft fet acrofs the ground, then, with a long dibble made on purpofe, the fhoots or cuttings are put in, fo that the whole plants may be fet into the ground, with the heads about an inch under the furface, in a ftraight line about a foot afunder in the rows, and a foot and a half or two feet rew from row. When the whole {pot of ground has been thus planted, a thin crop of cnions may be fown over the land. Thef= mult be kept perfectly clean by the hoe, care being takea not to cut off the top fhoots of the liquorice plants, as it would greatly injure them. All the onions which grow near the heade of the liquorice fhould alfo be removed. In October, the fhoots of the liquorice fhould be removed, and a little very rotten dung fpread upon the furface. In the following {pring, about March, the ground fhould be flightly dug between the rows of liquorice, burying the remaining part of the dung, being very careful not to cut the roots. During the fummer they muft be kept quite clean by occafional hoeing. ‘The fame operations mutt be annually performed, fo as to keep the ground and plants in perfect order. Thefe plants muft remain three years from the time of planting, when they will be fit to take up for ufe, whick fhould be done when the ftalks are perfeétly decayed ; as, when taken up too foon, the roots fhrink greatly, and lofe. in weight. In taking up the roots the ground is trenched over, row after row, to the full depth, and the young fhoots taken from the old roots cut into fets for new plantations ; which fhould be made annually, in order to keep a conftant fuce ceffion of roots fit for being taken up. The great art in this culture is to have the earth well trenched to a proper depth, to have good fets, and to keep gC the GiLy the ground afterwards quite clean by hoeing and other pro- per means. The liquorice is a native of the fouth of Europe, but it has-been cultivated in Britain ever fince the time ot Turner. (See Tourn. Herb. p*. 2. fol. 12. publifhed in 1562.) "The chief places in which it has been long propa- ated for fale are, Pontefract, in Yorkfhire ; Workfop, in Rieeeinpehiataihites and Godalming, in Surry ; but it isnow planted by many gardeners in the vicinity of London, who fupply the metropolis with the roots. Guiyceyrrinza, in the Materia Medica. ‘The root of the common liquorice, boiled flightly in a httle water, cives out nearly all its fweetnefs. The decoétion, preffed through a ftrainer, and infpiffated with a gentle heat, till it will no longer ftick to the fingers, affords a better extract than that brotight from abroad, and particularly from Spain, whence our fhops are chiefly fupplied with it, and its quantity amounts to near half the weight of the root. The extra@t that is prepared here, is made. by macerating, for four hours, liquorice root fliced, a pound, in a gallon of boiling water; then boiling down to four pints, itraining the hot liquor, and evaporating it to a proper confiftence. A purer extraét may be made by a repetition of the pro- ceffes of folution and eyaporation ; and itis kept in the fhops under the name of “ refined liquorice.’’ Re&tified {pinit takes up the fweet matter of the liquorice equally with water; and as it diffolves much lefs of the infipid mucilaginous fub- ftance of the root, the {pirituous tin€tures and extracts are proportionably fweeter than the watery. This root con- tains a great quantity of faccharine matter, lefs difpofed to run into fermentation than that of other vegetables, which is joined with fome proportion of mucilage, and hence has a vifcid {weet tafte. Fromthe time of Theophraitus it has been a received opinion that it very powerfully extinguifhes thirft; accordingly it was named a2s)o, and the root di- reéted to be chewed in dropfies and other diforders where great thirft prevailed. If this fa€t ge true, it is the more remarkable, as fweet fubftances in general have a contrary effe&. Accordingly Dr. Cullen obferves, that the fweet of liquorice, feparated from the root, does not quench hirft more than other fweets: and he aferibes the error refpeting it to this cireumftance, that if a piece of the root is ehewed till the whole of the fWeetnefs is extraéted, farther chewing brings ont the acrid and bitteriih: matter, which ftimulates the mouth and fauces, fo as to produce an excretion of fluid, and thereby takes off the thirft which the fweetnefs had produced. Liquorice is in common ule as ‘a pectoral or emolient in catarrhal defluxious on the breaft, coughs, hoarfenefles, &c. Infufions or extracts from it afford likewife very commodious vehicles for the exhibition of other medicines. Lewis’s M.M. Cullen M.M. Woody. Med. Bot. GLYN, in Geography, a county in the lower diftiG of Georgia, in the United States, bounded FE. by the ocean, N. by Alatamaha river, which feparates it trom Liberty county, and S. by Camden county. It contains 1374 inha- bitants, inckuding 1092 flaves. Its chief town is Bruns- wick. ‘ GLYPH, in Architefure or Sculpture, is any canal or cavity ufed as an ornament. : The Greek word is yav¢n, which literally fign‘fies grav- mg, uitching. : Tavugis is properly a nitch or indenture made in graving ; or, more properly, it is the notch in the end of an arrow, in which the ftring goes. GLYPTIC Anz, the art of engraving precious ftones. See Gems, ° : ; GME GLYSTER. See Crysren. GMELIN, Joun Gronce, in Biography, a phyficiar and eminent botanilt, was born at Tubingen on the rath of Auguit, 1709. He was diltinguifhed by his diligence and early attainments at fehool, and at the age of fourteen was deemed ready for entrance upon the academical {tudies of his native place. In ¥727, he took the desrce of doc- tor of phytic, and went to Peterfburgh, whither fome of his teachers had been invited. Here he gained many fa- vours from Blumentoolt, the dire&tor of the academy, and was fo highly efteemed, that, in 1729, he was eleéted one of the members of the academy, and=in 1731 was ap- pointed profeffor of chemiftry and natural hiftory. ~ In 1733, he was’ feleCted for the department of natural hiftory, in @ commiffion formed by the Ruflian government, for the pur- pofe of exploring the beundaries of Siberia; and fet out on the rgth of Auguft, with G. F. Muller, and Louis de V’Ifle de la Croyere, and a party’ of twenty-eight perfons, conlifting of draughtfmen, miners, hunters, land furveyors, and twelve foldiers, with a ferjeant and drummer. In the month of February, 1743, Gmelin returned fafe to: Peterf- burgh, after having employed nine years and a half in this long and dangerous journey, which proved highly interefting to the fciences, and he refumed the offices which he had be- fore filled. In the year 1749, he entered upon a new pro- fefforfhip, to which he had been appointed, on the death of Bachmeitter, while on a vilit to Tubingen. He died of a fever in May, 1755, in the forty-fixth year of his age- The works, which were the refult of his travels through Siberia, obtained for him a confiderable celebrity, efpecially his “* Flora Siberica, feu Hittoria Plantarum Siberiz,”’ Peterfburgh, 1747, 1749, in two parts, large ato. with one hundred plates: the third and fourth parts were pub- lifhed by S: G. Gmelin. He alfo publithed his « Reife durch Sibirien,”” &c.; or Travels through Siberia between the Years 1733 and 1743, Gottingen, 1751, 3752, m four parts, 8vo. with plates. Gen. Biog. . Gaetty, Saucer Gorriimer, fon of Philp Frederick Gmelin, was born at Tubingen in 1743; where he obtained both his {cholaftic and academical education, and graduated M. D. in 1763. He gave carly proofs of genius, and ‘during his travels in France and Holland diftinguifhed him- felf fo much by his knowledge -of natural hiitery, that he was appointed profeffor in the Academy of Sciences at Peterfburgh. ‘Like the fubject of the preceding article, he {pent feveral years in travelling through the diftant pro- vinces of the Ruffian empire, for the purpofes of feientific inveitigation ; but ultimately with a lefs fortunate refult. He was appointed, together with /profeflor Guldenftadt, to explore the province of Adtracan, at the time that the tranfit of Venus over the fun’s difk was expected, and fet out in June, 1768. Having examined the countries on the weftern fide ef the Don, the Perfian provinces on the fouth and fouth-weit fide of the Cafpian fea, the banks of the Wolga, and, lailly, the eaftern fide of the Cafpian, fo dan- gerous to travellers, he was recalled to Peterfburgh., But when he had arrived within three days journey of Kiflar, a fortrefs on the Ruffian borders, he was feized by the chan of Chaitaks; who plundered him of all his property, treated him with great barbarity, and imprifoned him. The health of Gmelin fuffered confiderably at this time, and he laboured under a flux, brought on by improper food and the effets of climate; yet the barbarian chief intercepted the provifions fent to him from Kiflar. The emprefs gave orders that he fhould be refeued by force; but this was rendered impofMible at that time by the rebellion of Pu- gatchef; and Gmelin died in confinement, on the 27th of July, GME July, 1774. His death was much regretted by Catherine II., who made a liberal provifion for his widow. His works are; * Hiitoria Fucorum,” printed at Peterf- burgh in 1768, 4to.; a fubjeét to which botanifts had paid little attention before him. Reifen durch Rufsland, &c.;? or, Travels through Ruffia, for the purpofe of ex- ploring the three kingdoms of nature. This work was publifhed m feparate parts, as follows :—Part I. Journey from St. Peterfburgh to Tfcherkafk, in the years 1768 and 1769. Peterfburgh 1771 with thirty-two plates. Part IT. Journey from Tfcherkafk to Aitracan, from Augult 1769 to June 1770; ibid. 1774, with forty plates. Part II]. Journey through the northern diltri@s of Perfia, from that period to April 1772; ibid. 1774, with fifty-one plates.— Part IV. edited after the author’s death, by profeflor Pallas, Journey from Aitracan to Czarizyn; and alfo a fecond Perfian Journey, 1772-74; ibid. 1786, with eighteen plates. The various and important information, contained im thefe publications, renders the imperfeétions of the dtyle of this author of little moment. Gen. Biog. GMELINA, in Botany, received. its name trom Lin- nzus, in honour of John George Gmelin, a native of Tu- bingen, profeffor of chemiltry and natural hiltory at Pe- terfburg, who fpent ten years in travelling through Siberia, at the expence of the Ruffian government, and whofe Flora Sibirica, in four vols. quarto, with plates, is a book of great reputation and merit. The firlt and fecond yolumes were publifhed in his lifetime ; the third and fourth long after his death, which happened in 1755, at the age of 46. He took his arrangement from Van Royen. Hialler fays the plates are unworthy of the beautiful drawings, which he himfelf had feen—This genus alfo ferves to commemorate four or ftve more botanilts of the fame family, efpecially Samuel Theophilus Gmelin, nephew of the former, and his fucceflor in the profefforfhip, who publifhed a Hifforia Fu- corum, with plates, in 1768, one of the moft popular books on fubmarine botany, and who died in 1774, aged 31.— Linn. Gen 315. Schreb. 412. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 313. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2. Juff. 108. Lamarck. Illuftr. t.542. Grertn.t. 56. (Michelia; Amman. in A&. Pe- trop. v. 8. 218. t. 18.)—Clafs and order, Didynamia Angi- ofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Vitices, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth very {mall, inferior, of one leaf, nearly globular, with four finall unequal teeth, permanent. Cor. of one petal, ringent, inflated; its limb four-cleft ; the upper fegment large and vaulted; lower, and lateral ones, {maller, obtufe, rounded, fpreading. Stam. Filaments four; the two uppermoft thicker and fhorter ; two lower- molt curved upwards; anthers two-lobed; two of them fometimes fmaller and fimple. Pi/. Germen fuperior, roundifh or obovate; ftyle as long as the longer ftamens, afcendine ; ftigma acute. Peric. Drupa ovate, of one cell. Nut obovate, {mooth, of three cells, the lowermoft abortive. Seeds folitary. Eff. Ch. Calyx with four flight teeth. Corolla four- cleft, ringent, bell-fhaped. Anthers cloven. Drupa fupe- rior. Nut of two fertile cells. \1. G. afatica. Winn. Sp. Pl. 873. Burm. Ind. 132. (Jambuia fylvettris parvifolia; Rumph. Amb. v. 1. 129. t. 40.—Leaves roundifh, fomewhat three-lobed, acute, downy beneath.—Native of Java, Amboina, and other parts of the Ealt Indies. A fee, with ftraight, roundifh, flightly downy branches. © Leaves oppofite, fcarcely two inches long, of a roundith or elliptical’ form, acute, moft gene- rally furnifhed with a fhort broad lobe at each fide, entire ; fmocth above ; pale and downy beneath ;, the midrib fending off two principal lateral ones, a little above its bafe, and {e- GME veral fmaller ones higher up, all which are branched. Foot- Jflalks downy, various in length, often nearly equal to the leaf, each with a fmall hairy bud above its infertion, and above that ufually a ftraight, downy, horizontal fpine. Flowers in a fhort, fimple, downy, terminal racemus. Calyx downy, befprinkled with feveral large, fhield-lke, fmooth glands. Co~ rolla large, yellow. Rumphius’s figure unquettionably belongs to this plant, but his defcription feems that of an Eugenia. Plukenet’s t. 305. f. 3. is certainly Gardenia dumetorum, and refembles our Gmelina only in being thorny ; his t. 97. f. 2. may pof- fibly be intended for Gmelina parvifolia, but is of no ufe as to determining it. 2. G. elliptica—Leaves elliptical, undivided, obtufe, downy beneath. Thorns none.—Native, we prefume, of the Eaft Indies, confounded in the Linnzan herbarium with the foregoing, from which it differs in having rather larger leaves, which are exa€tly elliptical and blunt, more dentely downy beneath, and not lobed. There are no traces of thorns. The inflorefcence 1s rather more compound, but the remarkable glandular ca/yx is the fame. If a variety it is a very extraordinary one. 3. G. parvifolia. Roxb. Corom, v. 2. 31. t. 162. (G. coromandelica ; Burm. Ind. 132.)—Leaves obovate, undi- vided or three-lobed, {mooth on both fides.—Common ix every fore(t and uncultivated place on the coaft of Coroman- del, flowering in October and November. Roxburgh. It is often intermixed with G. a/atica, from which at differs in its mere humble fize, larger and conftant thorns, and efpeciall in its {maller eves, which are {mooth on both fides. Their flowers and fruits are alike, the latter being yellow, obovate, the fize of a {mall cherry. We perceive on one calyx in our f{pecimen a folitary gland, like thofe defcribed in the two former.—Dr. Roxburgh mentions that cold water, ftirred with a leafy branch of this fhrub, becomes thick, from the abundant mucilage of the leaves, and is ufed in that flate as a remedy for the heat of urine which accompa- nies gonorrhea. Water {tirred with branches and leaves of Pedalium Murex becomes in like manner mucilaginous, and is ufed for the fame purpofe, but foon lofes its confiltency, which is not the cafe with fuch as is prepared with this Gme- lina. The Telingas call the plant Shier? goomoodoo. It may poflibly be Plukenet's Lycium Maderafpatanum, t. 97. £. 2, as Burmann takes it to be, but Sloane’s Rhamnus, Hilt. of Jamaica, v. 2. t. 207. f. 1, cannot be the fame, though his vile figure affords no diftinét indication of what he means. 4. G. arborea. Roxb. MSS. (Cumbulu; Rheede Hort. Mal. v. 1. 75. t. 41.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, undivided, pointed, downy beneath; their lateral ribs cloven. Thorns none—Sent from the coaft of Coromandel by the Rev. Dr. Rottler, with the above name of Dr. Roxburgh, Gertner has moitt jultly pointed out the Cumbulu of ._Rheede as a Gmelina, though quoted by Linnzus, doubtingly in- deed, for his Bignonia Catalpa. This is a tall and upright free, growing in fandy ground, with downy leanches, and large, oppolite, italked, heart-fhaped, entire aves, downy and veiny beneath. Thorns none, as far as we can learn. The flowers are numerous and handfome, yellow, growing in compound, hairy, terminal cluiters, /ruit yellow, obo~ vate, rather fmall. : ! .G? indica. Burm, Ind. 132. t. 39. f. 5. (Doery Zoce kan of the Malays.) L.caves alternate, heart-thaped, crenate, fmooth on both fides—Native of Java. Herb: Linns A. Shrub ox treey with round, fomewhat zig-zag, flightly downy branches. eaves from half an inch to an mch long, alter- nate, on hort’ hairy ttalks, veitiy, bluntly crenate. Thorns : 2C2 ftraight, GN& ftraight, flender, acute, moftly longer than the leaves. Vhe focwers and fruit feem to be unknown. We have only mann’s very feeble authority for making this a Gmelina, which its alternate crenate leaves ftrongly difcountenance, nor did Linnzus ever venture to adopt it. S. GMUND, in Geography. See GEMUNDEN. GNAA, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 24 miles S.E. of Gratz. GNADENHUETTEN, a fettlement of the Moravi- ans in America, fituated on Mufkingum river, oppofite to Salem, in the lands which belonged to the Mahikan Indians. —Alfo, the name of a Moravian fettlement, on the S.W. baak of Lehigh river, in Pennfylvania, about 29 miles N.W. of Bethlehem.—Alfo, a Moravian fettlement, called New Gnadeuhuetten, on Huron river, about 22 miles from lake St. Clair, in the county of Wayne, and 28 N.W. of De- troit. GNAPEEZEIK, a town of Birmah, on the Irawaddy ; fo called from Gnapee, or Napee, a fort of fprat, half pickled and half putrid, ufed as a fauce by the Birmans, and forming an extenfive branch of trade: 110 miles N.N.W. of Rangoon. GNAPHALIUM, in Botany, yxta21-7, an ancient Greek name, from yiaOzAcx, foft down or wool, fuch as is plucked from cloth in dreffing it, alluding to the woollinefs of the herbage. Many writers have contended that Santolina mari- tima of Linnzus, and Sm. FI. Brit. 860, is the true y2¢- as of Diofcorides, an opinion extremely difficult to efta- blith or to contradiét, as all he fays of it is, that ‘its leaves are white and foft, ufeful for ituffiag.’? However this may be, Tournefort, and lately Gertner, have retained that plant, as the true and only fpecies of Gnaphalium. The Guaphalium of Linneus however is a very extenfive and eomprchenfive genus, from which fome {pecies have of late been feparated. See Exicurysum.—Cud-weed—Linn. Gen. 419. Schreb. 550. Willd. Sp. Pl. v- 3. 1849. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 173. Sm. Fl. Brit. 867. Juffl. 179. (Elichryfum; Gertn. t. 166. Antennaria; Gertn t. 167. Anaxeton; Gertn. t. 166? Filago ; Gertn. t. 166. See Firaco.) Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fuperfiua. Nat. Ord. Compofite Nuca- mentacee, Linn. Corymbifere, Jul. Gen. Ch. Common calyx imbricated, rounded; feales numerous, the marginal ones rounded, {cariofe, coloured. Cor. compound ; florets of the difk perfect, tubular, funnel- fhaped, in five equal reflexed marginal fegments; fome female ones, without a corolla, are often intermixed towards the margin. Stam. (in the perfect florets) Filaments five, very fhort, capillary; anthers forming a cylinder. Pi/f. (in the fame florets) Germen ovate; ityle thread-fhaped, the iength of the itamens; ftigma cloven. In the female ones the fame. Peric. none, except the permanent thining calyx. Szeds in both kinds of florets alike, folitary, oblong, {mall, crowned with capillary or feathery down. Recept. naked. EW. Ch. Receptacle naked. Down capillary or fea- thery. Calyx imbricated, its inner feales rounded, {cariofe, coloured. Willdenow reckons 144 {pecies of Gaaphalium, of which 32 are fhrub>y, with filvery, white or crimfon flowers, or rather without any golden tinge; 12 are of a yellow or golden colour, hikewife fhrubby ; 19 are herbaceous, with yellowith flowers; 28 herbaceous, with white or reddifly ones; and 29 have the inconfpicuons whitifh bloffoms of the Filago family. The remaining 26 are f{pecies defined by Thuvberg, without any attention to thefe leading fec- tions of the genus, fo that it is impoffible to fay to which 2 GNA they belonr. ‘Ten fpecies, all herbaceous, are defcribed as natives of Britain. In this large genus it is by no means certain that all the {pecies correctly anfwer to the generic character, particu- larly in the receptacle, which is not always ftri¢tly naked, but bears a few briftles towards the margin, thus becoming an Anaxeton of Gertner. } ‘The marginal fcales alfo, being fometimes a little pointed aud reflexed, intrench upon the proper character of Llichry- jum; fee that article. In faét thefe genera are naturally one and the fame, but, on account of their great extent, are conveniently feparated by the character, though an imperfect one, of the more radiating calyx of Llichry/um. Linnzus’s error confifted in referring the latter to Xe- ranthemum, which has a different habit and a chafly re- ceptacle. i The firft fpecies in Willdenow, G. eximium, Linn. Mant. 573. Curt. Mag. t. 300, is one of the moit fplendid. The saves are clothed with very thick white wool, and. the fhrubby ftem is terminated by a large corymbus of. flowers, whofe calyx is the fize and fhape of a rafpberry- fruit, of a rich fhinirg crimfon. The forefs are orange- coloured. It grows about 500 miles up the country above. the Cape of Good Hope, and was for a long time known, to European botaniits merely by dried fpecimens, (one of which is figured by Edwards in his Hiitory of Birds, t. 183), brought occaiionally to the Cape by the diftant fettlers. Several others of the fhrubby kinds are very ornamental to our green-houfes. Of the herbaceous forts G. fetidum, whofe flowers, ufually yellow, are occafionally white or filvery, always very fplendid, is one of the moft remarkable, but the {trong fmell of its vifcid herbage when touched is offenfive to moit people. G. orientale is fomewhat fhrubby, though ranged with the herbaceous ones. Its fhining lemon-coloured flowers frequently ferve for ornamental purpofes, and are known by the name of Everlafing, a name appropriate te the whole genus. G. margaritaceum, Engl. Bot. t. 2018, ferves in Wales, where it grows wild, to adorn the graves of the departed, elegantly alluding to immortality by the unfading nature of its flowers, and to {potlefs purity by their fhowy white- nefs. This plant is often cultivated in cottage gardens. G. disicum, Engl. Bot. t. 267, the ntennaria of Gert~ ner, fo called from its plumy crown to the feed, is one of our mot elegant fpecies, found on dry rather moun- tainous heaths. The flowers are of a beautiful rofe~ colour. The Cape of Good Hope is moft fertile in this genus, but feveral fine fpecies grow in South America, and there are fome from New Holland to be added to what are enu- merated in Willdenow. The mountains and fields of differ- ent parts of Europe produce various fpecies, but few of the more handfome, except G. arenarium, F). Dan. t. 641, and its near relation G. o/ympicum of our gardens, gathered about the Bithynian Olympus by Dr. Sibthorp ; both which vie with G. orientale in their {hining golden or lemon colour,, and the olympicum at leat is a hardy perennial, of eafy culture. GnapuaLium, in Gardaing, affords plants of the herba-. ceous and under fhrubby kinds: of which the fpecies moftly cultivated are, the tree everlafting (G. arboreum); the red-flowered everlafting (G. ignefcens) ; the eaftern ever- lafting, or immortal Hoe (G. orientale); the f{weet- {cented everlafting, or eternal flower ee odoratiffimum ) ;, the American everlafting, or eternal flower (G. margari- taceum) 5 GN taceum) ; the plantaii-leaved everlafting (G. plantagineum) ; the common f{hrubby everlafting, or {techas (G. ftechas). Many of thefe are curious plants. Method of Culture. —The firtt four forts may be increafed y flips from the heads or cuttings; by planting them in pots of light earth in the {pring or fummer months, and plunging them in a moderate het bed, refrefhing them often with water. When they have taken full root, they may be removed into feparate pots, and be placed among other plants of the hardy exotic fort. They require the pro- tection of a frame in the winter feafon. The feventh f{pecies may be increafed im the fame manner, being placed at once where it 1s to remain, in a fhady fhel- tered border, or other place that is proper. The fifth and fixth forts may be eafily raifed by dividing and planting their creeping roots where they are to grow, either in the autumn or {pring months. Vhefe three lait are fufhciently hardy to ftand the open. air in warm fituatious. They are all ornamental plants, the former in the green- houfe collection, and the latter in the open ground. GNAPHEUS, in Schthyolagy, a name given by Athe- nzus and other of the Greek writers to the tench. GNARP, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro- vince of Helfingland; 20 miles N. of Hudwickfwal. GNAT, in Entomology. See Curex. There is no fpecies of infect that we have fo much reafon to diflike in regard to the injury it does us as the gnat. Others indeed give us more pain with their flings, but it is but by accident that we are ftruck by them; the gnats thirt for our blood, and follow us about in whole com- panies for it. There are many marfhy places where the legs and arms are all the fummer fwelled to an enormous fize by the repeated bitings of thefe infects, and in many other countries they are much more troublefome than with us. But as troublefome enemies as thefe little creatures are to us, there is that about them which is extremely worthy our admiration; nor can we indeed fail greatly to admire even the very inftrument of the mifchief they do. They have befide this many very obfervable particulars in the courfe of their lives. _ All the naturalilts of late years have applied the micro- {cope to the examination of the parts of this little animal, and Swammerdam, Hook, Bonanni, Leeuwenhoeck, &c. have given very goed accounts, and very valuable drawings of the creature. There is a great number of very fimall fpecies of gnats, and though fome are confiderably large, yet none even of thefe approaches to the fize of the tipula, or father long- legs, as commonly called. The larger tipulz are therefore ealily diftinguifhed from the gnats; but Swammerdam, Goedart, Litter, and others, have very often given us the fmaller tipule among the fpecies of gnats. Both have long flender bodies, and both prominent corcelets, which make them look hump-backed; but when either of thefe infects is taken into the hand it is very eafily known, the gnat having a very long trunk, and the tipula no trunk at ail. There is a prodigiows number of fpecies of the gnat kind, comprehending the {maller ones; Dr. Derham obferved pear forty different {pecies about Upminfter in Effex: but of thofe of a fize to be remarked with eafe, and without the help of glaffes, there are three principal kinds : the one has its body variegated with white and black ; this is the larger kind, and its corcelet is ftreaked with black or deep brown, and white lines or greyifh ones ; thefe have brown eyes 3 an- other is fmaller than this {pecies, and has a plain brown body, GNA the colour of the coreclet, and that of the eyes is the fame as in the larger er firlt {pecies ; the third kind is the imallefl of the three and the moft common, has its corcelet reddifh, or of a faded reddifh yellow, and the body whitifh, and on the under part of the belly every ring has one fingle brown fpot ; the refLis grey ; the eyes of this fpecies are of a very pleafant green. All the gnats have a long cylindric body compofed of eight tings; their corcelet is fhort but large, in proportion to the fize of the fly, and to this are fixed the fix legs, which are hairy, with fix joints to each, and at the end two little claws, the wings, and the balancers: four ftigmata are alfo found here, as is the cafe in other flies: the two firit of thefe are placed near the head, and have been millaken for ears. The antenne of gnats.are extremely worth obfervation, and differ much from one another. Someof them are ele- gantly feathered ; thefe belong to the males of certain fpe- cies, for the antenne of the females are not fo beantiful. The brufh-horned or male gnat has two pair, one of which is furrounded, at {mail diftances, with long hair, iffuing out circularly, each circle leftening as it approaches the extremity of the antenne ; the other pair are longer and much thicker, and hairy from end toend. In the great bellied or female gnat, the firlt pair of antenne, though of the fame figure as the male’s, has hairs not near fo long, and the fecond pait is fhorter than the firit by at leaft three parts in four. Reaumur, Hit. Inf. vol. iv. p. 574, &c. Baker’s Microf. 1743. p. 203, &c. For the trunk and wings of the gnat, fee TRUNK and Wives. Gwats, Eggs of. See Eaas. For the Eyes of Gna'ts, fee Eyes of Flies. Gwat-worm, in Natural Hiffory, afmall water infe&t, pro- duced of a gnat, and which is, after its feveral changes, tranf{- formed into a gnat again. From the eggs, cepofited by the gnat on the furface of the water, proceed a number of minute worms, which fink- ing to the bottom of the water, form for themfelves cover- ings of fine fand or earth, cemented together with a fort of glue, but open at both. ends, that they may come out and’ enter as occalion requires. Thefe worms do not frequent rivers ; but ditches, ponds, and other ftanding waters, afford theny in vaft abundance, from the middle of May till toward the beginning of winter. This is the reafon why watery and marfhy places are found: moft to abound with gnats, and why the wet fummers are found to produce the greateft numbers of them ;, becaufe in dry feafons, the ponds and ditches, where they are to pafs their worm-ftate, are dried up, and the worms killed. Thefe- are creatures, however, that one need not go far to feek, fince a veffel of water, expofed inany open place in the fum- mer months, will not fail to afford plenty of thefe worms in a little time. Before thefe worms are arrived at their full growth, though they are then but finall, they are eatly found, becaufe they are under a neeeflity of commp frequently to the top ofthe water, by having occation for frequent refpiration ; and to do this, they are obliged to keep the end of a {mall pipe they are furnifhed with, from the lait ring of their body, above water. The end of this pipe is hollow and indented, and forms a fort of funnel on the furface of the water: it is of the length of about three rings of the body, and is fomewhat thicker at its infertion than at its ex- tremity. As there is a vaft number of fpecies of gnats, there is no lefs of the worms from whence they are produced: and to. this isin a great meafure owing the variety im the figures given. of. GNE of the worms by the authors who have treated of them; which may alfo be not a little added to by the particular views in which thofe draughts ‘have been taken. Notwith- ftanding all the variations of thefe figures, the general form of the animal is however the fame in all, and the fpecies can- not but be known from any of them. While the worm is young, the body is whitith or greenifh ; but when it is at its . full growth, and draws near the time of its changes, it be- comes greyifh. The great tranfparence of the body of this worm gives a fine view of what paffes within it ; it isat any time eafy to fee into the motion of the inteftines, by which the food is pufhed on towards the anus. ‘The two princi- pal trachez are alfo feen very diftinétly in this creature ; they are two white tubes placed ina parallel dire€tion one to another, and run from the firft ring to the tube of refpiration. © ereat worm feveral times changes its fin in the courfe After three changes of this kind, which ufually happen in the fpace of three weeks, or thereabout, it under- goes a fourth, where the old fkin is as eafily thrown off as in the reft, but the animal now appears in a new form, that of anymph; it isnow fhorter and rounder than before, and the body is fo bent that the tail is applied to the under part of the head ; this, however, is only its form ina voluntary itate of relt, for it can yet move, and when it pleafes extends its tail, and fwims about as {wiftly as when in its other ftate. When the creatures have quitted their fir habitations and the figure of worms, they re-afcend to the top of the water, inclofed in a kind of fhell, with a large head and mouth, two black eyes, two horns, feveral tufts of hairs on different parts of the body, and a tail witha bruh of hair at the end of it, which, being {meared over with an oily fluid, ferves to keep them above water; their heads being fomcetimes lifted in the air, and fometimes plunged into the water, while the tail fides along the furface : and when the oil cn the tail begins to dry, they fhed from their mouth a freth fupfly, which renders it capable of fteering where they pleafe, with- out being wetted and damaged by the water. Allthe parts of the future gnat may be feen in this nymph ; the {kin of it is extremely thin and tranfparent, yet fufficiently tough and firm for the ufe it is intended for. It is uncertain how long exaétly the animal lives in this nymph ftate; but after the time is accomplifhed, its change into a gnat is very quick, and is attended with great danger to the animal, jince multitudes are drowned in the act of getting out and fpringing into the air. Reaumur, Hitt. Inf. vol.iv. Baker’s Microf. 1743. p. 88. Gwat, in Rural Economy, a {mall well-known infe&, which is faid to deitroy the leaves of fome tender vegetables asfoonas they appear, fuch as the turnip, &c. GNEISS, in Mineralogy, a primitive rock, compofed of feld{par, quartz, and mica; ingredients whichare likewife thofe of granite, from which it differs in the arrangement of thofe parts ; for while in the latter rock they ufually appear as gra- nular aggregations, thofe of gneifs-are difpofed in fuch a man- ner as to exhibit a more or lefs flaty itructure. This ftructure pafles through various degrees of diftinétnefs ; on one hand it approaches fo near to the granular texture, that the di!tinc- tion between gneifs and granite ceafes to exift, while, on the other hand, when its peculiar texture is very obvious, and becomes what is termed thin flaty, a paflage is formed into the primitive rock, next toit in antiquity, called mica-flate. In its progrefs towards the nature of granite, the feldfpar is generally predominant with regard to the mica; while thofe varieties approaching mica-flate gradually exhibit a fmaller proportion of feldfpar and much mica. Sometimes,. however, the mica is only apparently predominating, owing to the circumftance, that on breaking a mafs of gueifs, the I Gn.2 line of feparation wiil more frequently pafs through the mica than through the other layers, and difplay a whole fur- faceof thatfubilance ; but another fracture, perpendicular-to the firft, will, in this cafe, foon undeceive the obferver. Though feldfpar is, generally fpeaking, the predominant ingredient of gaeifs, yet the propertion of mica in this rock is, upon the whole, greaterthan what we fee it in granite : and the lefs this is the cafe, the more the mafs appears granu- lar, and the more it approaches to cranite. It is oftena matter. of difficulty, in viewing {mall {pecimens only, to dif- tinguilh fome kinds of gneifs from the laft-mentioned primi- tive rock ; when the inipeétion of the former in their natural fituation, and ona large feale, would have left but little doubt in the mind of the examiner. Gneifs, viewed inthe large, as a mountain mafs, always exhibits thick and diitinét {trata, whofe outgoings, or upper terminations, are generally lower than the fubjacent granite, and higher than thofe of the fuperincumbent mica-flate. Werner (to whom we owe more correé ideas refpeéting this rock,) diitinguifhes four kindsof gneifs, wiz. thatapproaching the granular ttructure, the waved or undulated, the common, and the thin flaty gneifs. As particular varieties of thefe, we have 1. The ftriped gneifs, in which the quartz is difpofed in narrow bars, furrounded-by feld{par; producin &, on its longi- tudinal fracture, a ftriped appearance, not unlike that of fome kinds of petritied wood; while its traniverfal fraGure exhibits a granular difpoiition of the parts. This ftriped variety gene- rally occurs together with the waved ; fuch as at Ober-New- fhonberg, Reitand and Hartmanfdorf, near the Bohemian frontiers. 2. The f{prinkled, or that kind of gneifs in which the feld{par and mica exhibit themfelves in the form of {mall nefts: fuch as that found at Hartmanfdorf and Bobritfch, near Freiberg, and at Kuffenberg in Bohemia. sueahe fhort lamellar or flaky variety, fuch as it is found at Marien- berg. ; ‘Lhe colour of the ingredients of gneifs is not fubje€& to great variation. The teldfpar is generally of a greyith, yel- lowifh, and reddifh-white colour, feldom yellowith-grey, or deep fiefh-red, as it appears iz many varieties of granite ; upon the whole, its tint refembles that of the quartz with which it is accompanied, and which feldom appears {moke- grey orbrown. ‘The colour of the mica is generally black or brownifh-black, fometimes brownifh, yellowith, and afh- grey, and rarely filver-white or of a golden hue.. ‘ Thefe component parts are found to vary alfo in regard to their fre/bnc/s; m general the feldfpar is perfeétly fo- liated and fhining.; but fometimes it appears in incipient de- compofition, or even converted into petunze ; in the fame manner as the mica is now and then feen pafling into a greenifh fubftance refembling iteatite. Dr. Reufs found that the porcelain earth dug at the Galgenberg, near Pufchwitz, in the Saatz diftrict of Bohemia, where it is ufed for white- wafhing walls, is the refult of the higheft itage of decompo- fition of gneifs ; it forms thick ftrata, and contains a great quantity of {mall greyith white, light grey, and pale clove- brown grains of quartz. In the fame manner this minera- logift obferved in that country frequent preofs ef the con- vertion of the feldfpar of gneifs into a ferruginous clayey mafs. Near Kloiterly it is feen converted into bunt-thon or variegated clay. Befides the more effential feldfpar, quartz, and mica, the following accidental ingredients are now and then met with in gneifs. 1. Shorl: both the commén and black tourmaline fhorl, fometimes eccur in the gneifs of Freiberg, and parti- cularly of Spain. 2. Garnet: rarely, but muchmore frequently than in granite; it occurs at Wiefenthal in Saxony, in Nor- way, in the ifland of Zealand, in Moravia, &c. 3. Horn- blende GNOE biende: is but feldom found, and only in the thin flaty variety of gneifs, which pafles into mica and hornblende {late. 4. Steatite: occurs principally in the gneifs formimg the walls of the metalliferous veins in the Freiberg diftri€t ; it is con- fidered by fome as mica thus transformed by fulphuric acid. 5. AGtinote : is faid fometimes to conititute an ingredient-of gneifs in Switzerland and Hungary. Metallic fub{tances that are fometimes found diffeminated in gneifs, in the vici- nity of veins, cannot properly be enumerated even as acci- dental component parts ot this rock. Gneits abounds in metals more than any other rock, as may be feen from the richnefs of the Saxon and Bohemian mines, thofe of Salzburg, &c. There are but few among the known metals that are not found in it, either in veins or beds.