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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

Untversal Dictionary

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

on,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

or

Arts, Sciences, and Literature.

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.B.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.
ee

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

a

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. III.

rrr

LONDON:
Printep ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, ParernosteEr-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING

MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, Je MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY

PARBURY AND ALLEN, R.SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING-

1819.

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OR,

A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS

and

SCLENC ES.

(SECOND EDITION.)

ARTERY.

RTERY, in Anatomy, from onp, air, and rnpew, to keep,
is the name by which thofe veffels are diftinguifhed
through which the blood flows from the heart to

every part of the body. The term was firft adopted by the
anatomilts of the Alexandrian fchool, in confequence of
the erroneous opinion which they entertained, that thefe
veffels were defigned for the diftribution of air throughout
the body.

ARTERIES, Strudure of. The larger arteries have thick
and elaftic fides, fo that they remain open when divided, and
prefent a regularly circular aperture. The fides may be
feparated into three ftrata of diffimilar fubftances, which are
technically called coats. ‘The innermoft, which is generally
termed the cuticular coat, 1s very thin, but very ftrong and
inelaftic. Upon this circumftance depends the regularly
circular form of an ‘injeéted artery 5 for if the cuticular coat
burfls from too great force being ufed in injeéting, the ex-
terior elaftic coats are diftended into an irregular and uncer-
tain igure. The internal furface of this coat is perfectly

{mooth, fo that the blood glides along it without impedi-

ment; the external furface is a little rough, and is conneéted
by cellular fubftance to that coat which furrqnnds it. The
middle or mufcular coat confifts of circular fibres which are
icarcely vifible in the largeft arteries, but are very manifeft
and {trong in the fmaller ones; they are feen projeGting in
circular ridges, beneath the thin cuticular coat of a {mall
artery, when it is flit open. ‘The great increafe of the muf-
cular power of the {mall arteries is not only evident to the
fight, but has been demonttrated by experiment. Mr.
Hunter bled a horfe to death, and afterwards examined the
itate of the arteries. The aorta was contraéted about th
part of its natural area, the iliac 1th, the radial 4. (See his
‘Treatife on the Blood, Inflammation, &c.) The external
er elaitic coat of the artery appears to be made of con-
Vou. Lit.

Strahan and Prefton,
New-Street Square, Lendon,

denfed cellular fubftance; it is powerfully elaftic, and
abounds in the larger arteries, but gradually diminifhes
in quantity as the fize of the veffel decreafes ; fo that the
{mall arteries are quite flaccid, and collapfe when divided.
It is eafy to perceive the ule of thefe various degrees of
elatticity and mufcular power, which are given to the dif-
ferent fets of arteries. In the large arteries, mufcular
power feems unneceffary, for the force of the heart is
fully adequate to the propulfion of the blood; but in the
f{maller arteries, where the effet of the heart’s aGtion de-
clines, a proportionate mufcular power is allotted to the
veffel to urge on the circulating fluids. ‘The arteries have
their nutrient arteries and veins; their abforbents, and their
nerves, All the arteries proceed from one great veffel, as
the branches {pring from the trunk of the tree; and we
proceed to notice certain circumftances obfervable in

Arrtertes, Ramification of the. 1. When a large ar-
tery gives off a branch, the conjoined areas of the two
veffels make a greater fpace for the blood to move in,
than the area of the original veffel. The increafe of
dimenfions in the branches of a large artery is flight,
but in thofe of a fmall one it is fo confiderable, that
Haller has eftimated it as furpafling by $d that of the
trunk from which they fprung. The conjoined areas of
all the fmall arteries fo greatly exceed that of the aorta,
that the fame anatomift, in oppofition to former opinions,
fays, thefe veflels may be confidered as conical, the bafis of
the cone being in the extreme arteries, and the apex in the
heart.

2. When a large artery fends off a branch, its courfe does
not, in general, deviate further from that of the trunk, than
an angle of 45 degrees. Sometimes a branch, which has
gone off at an acute angle, returns, and proceeds in a con-
trary direction to that of the trunk ; and thefe arteries are

B generally

te at

ARTE 2

generally called circumflex. Sometimes, indeed, a large

artery does proceed from the trunk at a greater angle,
nearly a right angle, as the renal arteries, &c. Though the
large arteries generally ramify at acute angles, there is great
diverfity in the branching of the fmaller ones. ’

3. Arteries, in general, do not purtue a ftraight, but
ferpentine courfe; in fome inftances it is remarkably the
cafe; as in the fpermatics, thofe of the face and occrput,
and in moft of the {maller arteries.

4. Though the ramification of arteries may be compared
to the branching of trees, yet it differs materially in this
particular, that the different branches frequently. copjoin.
This conjunétion is technically termed, 1f we borrow the
phrafe from the Greek language, their ‘ Anaftomofis ;”’
if from the Latin, their ‘ Inofculation.”” This union of
arteries rarely happens among the larger ones, but fre-
quently among the fmaller; and increafes in number in
proportion to the minutenefs of the veflels.. The utility of
the inofculatien of arteries is evident: were it not for this
circumftance, if any arterious trunk were accidentally com-
preffed, fo that the current of blood im it fhould be for fome
time obftruGed, the parts which it fupplied muft perith.
But in confequence of the frequent communication of the
arteries with one another, the blood can pafs from the
adjacent arteries into all the branches of any one accident-
ally obftru&ted.

When arteries inofculate, two currents of blood, moving
in oppofite directions, muft come together, and retard each
other’s motion. This probably is the reafon that larger
arteries, through which it feems neceflary that the blood
fhould flow with rapidity, fo feldom conjoin, whilit the
{mall arteries, in which it 1s requifite the blood fhould move
tardily, communicate in furprifing numbers, and with-a
frequency proportionate to their minutenefs. The very
frequent communication of the minute arteries, almoft as
effeCtually prevents the prejudicial confequences of obftruc-
tion in the larger trunks, asif thofe arteries themfelves were
made to communicate by more dire&t and larger channels.
All thefe minute arterious tubes are capable of enlargement,
and it is an afcertained fa, that even the aorta itfelf may
be gradually obftruéted, without the parts which it fupplies
being deprived of nourifhment. From an attentive confider-
ation of all thefe circumftances, it has been concluded, that
the moderate increafe of the area of the branches of large
arteries, the acute angles;at which they divide, their nearly
reCtilinear courfe, and the rare occurrence of inofculation
between them, are defigned to facilitate the rapid motion of
the blood in them, fo that it may arrive unchanged and in
the fame itate that it was projeGed from the heart, at that
part of the body for the sourifhment of which it is in-
tended ; whilft, on the contrary, the great increafe of the
area of the fmaller veffels, the variety of their angles, their
tortuous courfe, and their frequent communications, were
defigned to check the velocity of the blood’s motion, when
it has arrived at that part where fecretion is to be performed,
and nutrition is to take place. Contrary opinions have indeed
been maintained ; and for the further difcuffion of this fubjeét,
we mult refer the reader to the Circulation of the Boop.

Axreries, Termination of. When the arteries have be-
come very minute, they terminate in two ways; they either
turn back again and become veins, and return the blood to
the heart, or they fend off fine veffels which abftra& fome-
thing from the circulating blood, and which are therefore
ealled the fecerning arteries. ‘Though none but minute ar-
teries are ever reflefed fo as to become veins, yet many of
them are of fufficient magnitude to allow the paflage of
common waxen injection. The arrangement of the mmute

2

veins can be demonfirated by impelling common waxen ine
jection into the arteries, particularly if a degree of putreface
tion be fuffered to take place previoufly to the experiment,
In the diffeftion of fuch a preparation, the continuity of the
arteries and veins is very manifeit. It fsems therefore to
follow from this facility of communication, that the mafs of
blood is conftantly and freely circulating, in order to under-
go that change which is effeéted in the lungs, whilit but a
{mall part of it proceeds into the very minute arteries, for
the purpofe of having fecretions made from it. For thefe
arteries, however minute, mutt be confidered large in compa-
rifon to the exility of others, which cannot be injeGted-with
wax, and even reje@ the red globules of the blood, or admit
them in fuch {mall proportion, that they do not impart the
red colour to the fluid which moves in thefe veffels. Now
we may venture to affirm, that thefe globules do not much
exceed, in diameter, the 150,0coth part of an inch, which
circumitance fufliciently fhews the minutenefs of the leffer
arteries. See the article BLoop. But however minute arte-
ries may become, {lil they muft ail end in the fame manner;
they muft be continued into veins, for that is the route which
the blood, or fubtile injeG@tions purfue, and from the moft
minute arteries thofe which perform fecretion arife.

The fecerning arteries are too minute to admit commonly
of demonttration ; they are however evident in fome glands ;
in the kidney for inftance, they may be feen continued into
the excretory veffels or tubuli uriniferi. Subtile injeétions,
when thrown into the larger arterial trunks, may be feen
oozing out on the furfaces of membranes, and into the cel-
lular fubftance, and they are generally fuppofed to be poured
forth from the open orifices of the fecerning arteries. Ana-
logy therefore, rather than aGtual demonftration, leads us to
believe, that the fecerning arteries ab{ftraét the particles of
Nutrition, or the materials which compofe the fabric of the
body, from the circulating fluids, and depofit them from their
open mouths, fo as by this means to build up and keep in
repair the ftruCture of the body. ;

Arteriss, Diffribution of. The great artery, whofe
branches fupply the whole of the body, is named the “ aor-
ta.”” It comes off from the upper and back part of the left
ventricle, where it is furrounded fora fhort part of its courfe
by the flefhy fibres of the heart. Its origin appears externally
to be divided into three diftinét eminences, which denote the
fituation of its femilunar valves.

The aorta emerges from the bafis of the heart, between
the pulmonary artery, and the right auricle. It afcends at
firit rather to the right, till it arrives at the upper edge of the
fecond rib. Then it begins to bend backwards acrofs the
divifion of the pulmonary artery and of the trachea, till it
reaches the left fide of the fpine, in which fituation it de-
{cends from the fourth or fifth dorfal to the lait lumbar ver-
tebra.

By the “‘arch of the aorta,” is meant that part of the
veffel which arifes from the heart, and bends acrofs the cheft.
It fends off the following branches: viz. the two coronary
arteries, whofe mouths are fituated juft above the upper edge
of the femilunar valves. They depart from the trunk at
right angles, and are diftributed to the heart itfelf. The
mott convex part of the arch fends off three large branches ;
fir, the arteria innominata; fecondly, the left carotid arte-
ry ; and thirdly, the left fubclavian artery. Varieties not
unfrequently occur in the number of arteries which arife
from this upper part of the arch: a long lift of them may
be fcen in Soemmerring de corporis humani fabrica, tom. v.

BhiiXe}4 :
‘ The right coronary paffes in the groove between the

right auricle and ventricle, covered by fat, to the flat ae
ace

a

ARTERY.

face of the heart. It gives off five large branches chiefly to
the right ventricle; the laft of thefe, which is the longett,
anaftomofes near the apex of the heart with the left coronary
artery.

The left coronary artery is found between the pulmonary
artery, and the left auricle. It divides into two branches,
The anterior branch takes a ferpentine courfe along the con-
vex furface of the heart, in the diretion of the feptum ven-
triculorum; it communicates at the apex with the.right co-
ronary. ‘Ihe pofterior branch pafles between the left auri-
cle and ventricle towards the left margin of the heart, and is
difributed to the left ventricle.

Obfervation. Both the coronary arteries fend branches to
the roots of the great veflels, as they come off from the
heart, and they communicate with the phrenic, internal
mammary, and bronchial arteries.

The arteria innominata pafles obliquely in front of the
trachea, and behind the fubclavian vein. After a courfe of
an inch or an inch and a half, during which it gives off no
branch, it divides into the right carotid and right fubclavian
arteries: the reft of the defcription of thefe arteries, is the
fame on both fides of the body.

The common carotid artery emerges from the cheft by the
fide of the trachea, where it is covered by the infertion of
the flernocleidomaltoideus mufele. It mounts upwards in
front of the vertebrz, and parallel with the trachea, till it
reaches the upper margin of the thyroid cartilage, without
giving off a fingle branch. During its courfe along the
neck, it is clofely connected to the iaternal jugular vein, and
the eighth pair of nerves. At the upper margin of the thy-
roid cartilage, it divides into the external and internal caro-
tid arteries, the former of which is diftributed to the outfide
of the head, the latter to the brain.

The external carotid continues its courfe upwards between
the ramus of the jaw and the ear, being imbedded in the
fubftance of the parotid gland. About the middle of the
ramus of the jaw, it divides into the fuperficial temporal, and
the internal maxillary arteries.

The Branches of the External Carotid Artery.

The fuperior thyroideal is the firft branch of the external
carotid artery. It purfues a tortuous courfe downwards
and forwards to the upper part of the thyroid gland, to
which it is almoft entirely diftributed, communicating freely
with the thyroid branch of the inferior thyroideal artery.
It fends however a fuperficial branch under the os hyoides,
which unites with its fellow of the oppofite fide. Another
branch goes to the lower part of the thyroid cartilage, and
is diftributed to the neighbouring mufcles. The laryngeal
artery is the molt conftant branch of the fuperior thyroideal ;
it enters the larynx between the thyroid and cricoid cartila-
ges, together with the recurrent nerve, or ata hole in the fide
of the thyroid cartilage, and is diftributed to the mufcles of
the arytenoid cartilages, and to the membrane which lines
the larynx.

The lingual artery comes off from the external carotid
immediately above the former; it accompanies the lingual
nerve, pafling above the corner of the os hyoides, and within
the hyogloflus mufcle ; it gives a branch (the ramus hyoi-
deus of authors) to the mufcles above the os hyoides ; then
it fends a pretty large artery (dorfalis linguz) to the back
of the tongue, epiglottis, &c. Afterwards the trunk divides
into two branches : the fublingual, which paffes between the
fublingual gland and the geniohyoideus mufcle to the chin,
where it terminates fuperfcially ; and the raninal, which is
the larger and more important branch : it continues its courfe
along the inferior furface of the tongue, preferving a coni-
dcrable fize to the very apex.

The labial artery, which is-alfo called the facial, exter-
nal maxillary, or angular artery, arifes from the external
carotid under the digaftric and ftylohyoideus mofcles; it
advances in a tortuous manner to the bafis of the jaw, paif-
ing through a deep fiffure which is made for it in the fub-
maxillary gland; by a bold and fudden turn it bends over
the bafis of the jaw at the anterior margin of the maffeter
mufcle, and then follows a ferpentine courfe over the cheek
to the fide of the mouth and nofe, under the zygomatic
mufcles.

Before it pafles over the jaw, it fends off the following
branches, 1. The afcending palatine artery, goes under
the {tyloid mufcles to the pharynx, Euftachian tube, foft
palate, and uvula, 2. An artery to the back of the tongue
and tonlils. 3. A number of {mall branches to the fub-
maxillary gland, the neighbouring lymphatic glands, the
fkin, the membrane of the mouth, &c. 4. The fubmental
comes off juft before the artery makes its turn; it runs for-
ward on the mylohyoideus mufcle towards the chin; there
it turns over the fymphyfis of the jaw, and is diftributed to
the {kin and mufcles of tie chin, communicating with the
inferior labial artery.

When the artery has paffed over the bafis of the jaw, it
fends off; 1. A branch to the furface of the maffeter,
which communicates with the mafleteric branch of the
temporal. 2. The inferior labial artery, which fupplies the
lower part of the lower lip, and communicates with the
fubmental, and with the coronary artery of the lower lip.
3. The coronary artery of the lower lip, which purfues a
winding courfe under the orbicularis oris, till it meets and
inofculates with its fellow of the oppofite fide. It is fome-
times produced by the inferior Jabial. 4. The coronary
artery of the upper lip may from its fuperior magnitude be
confidered as the continuation of the trunk; it follows the
edge of the upper lip, lying on the membrane of the mouth,
and in the middle of the lip has a large and free communi-
cation with the oppofite artery ; it fends off a large branch
to the fide of the nofe, and two {maller branches which run
along the front of the feptum nafi; thefe communicate on
the ala nafi with the branches of the ophthalmic and infra-
orbitary arteries. ‘Ihe branches which the labial fends off
to the face vary much in fize and number; fometimes it
terminates in producing the coronary of the lower lip (vide
Halleri Tcon. fafe. ii. tab. arter. faciei); fometimes the na-
fal arteries are entirely given off from the ophthalmic ; fome-
times the nafal branches of the labial extend. over the nofe
to the forehead ; fometimes the branches of one tide differ
from thofe of the other.

The afcending pharyngeal artery of Haller (Halleri Icon.
fafcic. ii. tab. arter. pharyng.), which is the {malleit branch
of the external carotid except the pofterior auricular, either
arifes from the back of the carotid oppofite the lingual, or
from the point of bifurcation. Its courfe along the neck 1s
ftraight ; it is found in front of the rectus capitis major,
and on the fide of the pharynx, being abfolutely hidden by
the two carotids. Its anterior branches fupply the bag of
the pharynx ; its pofterior branches go to the fuperior cer-
vical ganglion of the great fympathetic nerve, to the par
vagum, and fternomaltoideus mufcle: the termination of
the trunk enters the fkull at the foramen jugulare, and ra-
mifies on the dura mater. ‘The occipital artery is covered
at its origin by the digaftric mufcle; it paffes in front of
the jugular vein, then gets between the mattoid procefs and
the atlas, under the mufcles of the meck. Arriving near
the ligamentum nuche, it penetrates the complexus mufcle, ,
and becomes cutaneous. It fends off branches to the muf-
cles along which it pafles, one of which is much larger,

Bz : thar

ART

than the reft, defcends along the cuter fide of the complexus,
and communicates with the tranfverfalis colli. A branch of
the occipital artery enters the fkull at the foramen jugulare,
and fupplics the dura mater of the cerebellum. The trunk
of the occipital artery branches over the back of the fealp,
being diftributed to the occipital portion of the occipito-
frontalis, and to the fkin. Its branches communicate freely
with thofe of the temporal artery.

The potterior artery of the ear, the {malleft branch of the
external carotid, is given off higher up than any of the above-
mentioned branches. Indeed it does not arife until the
trunk has entered the parotid gland. It follows the courfe
of the digaftric mufcle, afcends behind the external ear, and
diftributes its branches to the ear and fealp, communicating
with the temporal and occipital arteries. It fends off the
arteria ftylomaftoidea, which entering the foramen of that
name, fupplies the internal ear. :

The fuperficial temporal artery continues its courfe
through the parotid gland; it mounts over the zygomatic
arch, and diftributes its widely {preading branches over the
fide of the head.

Branches of the Temporal Artery.

Branches to the parotid gland; one or two {mall twigs to
the front of the ear, called the anterior auricular arteries ; a
branch’to the articulation of the lower jaw ; and one or two
branches to the maffeter mufcle. The tranfverfe artery of
the face is given off by the temporal, while it is paffing
through the parotid gland; it emerges from that gland in
company with the parotid duét, crofles over the maffeter
mufcle, and advances to the corner of the mouth, communi-
cating with all the arteries of the face. The middle tem-
poral artery, which is to be diftinguifhed from the fuperficial
temporal on the one hand, and the deep-feated temporal on
the other, runs under the temporal aponeurofis, and extends
as far as the fronto-occipitalis mufcle.

After the temporal artery has paffed over the zygoma,
it divides fooner or later into the anterior and pofterior
temporal branches ; thefe communicate with each other ; the
anterior branch communicates alfo with the frontal and
fupra-orbital branches of the ophthalmic; the pofterior
branch communicates with the pofterior auricular and occi-
pital arteries.

The internal maxillary artery is much larger than the
temporal, and fhould therefore, if fize be adopted as the
criterion, be confidered as the continuation of the carotid.
Tt paffes forwards and downwards between the external
pterygoid mufcle and the jaw; then following a ferpentine
courfe, it arrives at the {phenomaxillary fiflure, where it ter-
minates by dividing into three branches.

Branches of the Internal Maxillary Artery.

A. {mall twig entering the tympanum by the fiffura

Glafferi; another entering the fkull at the foramen
ovale. :
The fpinous or middle meningeal artery mounts ftraight
upwards through the fpinous hole of the fphenoid bone, and
is diftnbuted widely over the dura mater ; it caufes the deep
grooves which imprefs the inner furface of the parietal bone;
it communicates with the pofterior meningeal veffels, which
come from the vertebral and occipital arteries, and with the
anterior ones from the ophthalmic.

The inferior maxillary artery enters the canal of the lower
jaw, in company with the nerve of the fame name ; it fends
branches to the teeth and to the fubftance of the jaws; ar-
riving at the foramen mentale, it divides into two branches;
one of thefe goes forwards to fupply the incifor teeth ; the
other comes out at the foramen mentale, and inofculates
with the artery of the lower lip.

EK ¥.
The pterygoid branches are diftributed to the pterygoid

mut{cles.

The deep temporal arteries aretwo in number, and ramify
deeply in the temporal mufcle.

The artery of the cheek (arteria buccalis) runs along
the buccinator mufcle, and communicates with che arteries
of the face.

The alveolar artery, or artery of the upper jaw, bends
round the tubercle of the jaw, and advances towards the
face. Its chief branch enters a canal in the upper jaw, and
fupplies the teeth.

The infra-orbitary artery enters and paffes through the
infra-orbitary canal of the fuperior maxillary bone, and comes
out upon the face at the infra-orbitary foramen. It is diftri-
buted chiefly to the mufcles of the face, and communicates
with the coronary artery of the upper lip, and its nafal
branches; with the tranfverfe artery of the face, and the
artery of the cheek.

The fuperior or defcending palatine artery is one of the
three branches, into which the internal maxillary divides at
the fpheno-maxillary fiflure ; it pafles through the pterygo=
palatine canal, and comes out at the pofterior palatine fo-
ramen. After fending a branch backwards to the foft pa-
late, the artery comes forwards under the arch of the teeth.
A fmall branch of it pafles by the foramen incifivum into
the nofe.

The upper pharyngeal artery is fent to the upper and
back part of the pharynx.

The nafal artery, which is the continuation of the trunk,
goes through the {pheno-palatine foramen to the back of
the noftrils; there it gives fmall twigs to the ethmoid and
fphenoid cells, and larger branches to the feptum and floor
of the noftrils and antrum maxillare.

The internal carotid artery purfues a ferpentine courfe
along the front of the bodies of the vertebra, till it arrives
at the entrace of the carotid canal. It is conne&ed with
the par vagum, and the great fympathetic nerve, and alfo
with the rectus anterior mufcle. It follows the courfe of the
canal of the temporal bone, pafling firft dire&tly upwards,
then turning horizontally forwards, and then afcending
again in a ftraight direction, and entering the cavernous
finus. While in this finus, it paffes from the back of the
f{phenoid bone to the anterior clynoid procefs, where it fud-
denly doubles back upon itfelf, and branches out to the brain,

Branches of the Internal Carotid Artery.

While in the cavernous finus, it fends off the two arteries
of the receptaculum, which are fpread upon the neighbour-
ing parts of the dura mater. ,

Having rifen to the anterior clinoid procefs, it fends off
the ophthalmic artery, which enters the orbit with the optic
nerve. ‘The artery is fituated at firft on the outfide of the
nerve; entering the orbit, it croffes obliquely over the nerve,
and arrives at the internal angle of the eye. It fends off
the following branches.—The lacrymal artery fupplies the
lacrymal gland, and fends forward two {mall branches to the
tarfus of the upper and lower eye-lid. The pofterior eth-
moidal artery paffes through the pofterior orbitary hole to
the zthmoid cells. ‘The fupra-orbitary or fiperior mufcular
artery paffes along the upper part of the orbit, fupplies the
levator palpebra, the rectus fuperior, and reétus internus
oculi, quits the orbit at the fuperciliary foramen, and com-
municates with the arteries of the fcalp. The central artery
of the retina plunges into the optic nerve, runs along its
axis, and ramifies beautifully on the retina, One of its
branches penetrates the vitreus humor, and is diftributed to
the cryftalline lens. ‘The ciliary arteries do not all come off
from the trunk of the ophthalmic, but many are ee

Y

ARTERY.

by its branches. They may be divided into three claffes.—
The pofterior or {hért ciliary arteries furround the optic
nerve ; they divide into twenty or thirty branches, which
perforate the back of the {clerotica, and are diftributed to
the choroid. The long ciliary arteries are two in number ;
they perforate the fclerotica at one third of the diftance be-
tween the optic nerve and the cornea ; arriving at the orbi-
culus ciliaris, they divide into two branches, which follow
the outer circle of the iris, and communicating together,
form the zona major of the iris; the branches of this form
the zona minor on the inner circumference of the iris. The
anterior ciliary arteries penetrate the front of the fclerotica,
and contribiite to the formation of the zones of the iris.
‘Thefe vefle!s in the foetus produce the arteries of the mem-
brana pupillaris. The inferior mufcular artery goes to the
muicles which are found beneath the globe of the eye;
viz. the obliquus minor, the reétus inferior axd externus.
The anterior zthmoidal artery paffes through the anterior
orbitary hole; and entering the fkull, is diltributed to the
dura mater. The fuperior and inferior palpebral arteries are
deftined for the upper and lower eyelids. The trunk, ar-
riving at the inner angle of the eye, {plits into two branches:
the nafal branch crofles the lacrymal bag, defcends along
the ala nafi, and communicates with the labial artery. The
frontal branch is diftributed to the f{calp, and communicates
with the temporal.

After the carotid has arrived at the anterior clinoid pro-
cefs, it fends off feveral {mall branches, fome one of which
goes to the choroid plexus.

Then it fends off the communicating artery, which meet-
ing and analtomofing with a fimilar branch of the vertebral,
contributes to form the celebrated circle of Willis.

The artery then divides into an interior and a pofterior
branch.

‘The anterior branch, or the artery of the corpus callo-
fum, comes forward in the divifion betwen the two anterior
lobes of the brain. Here it approaches the artery of the
oppofite fide, and has a fhort bat large communication with
it juft above the junction of the optic nerves. This commu-
nication completes the circle of Willis in front. The-relft
of the trunk paffes firft upwards, and then turns backward

‘

over the corpus callofum, and between the two hemifpheres,

of the brain.

The pofterior branch, or artery of the fiffura fylvii, runs
dire&tiy outwards, and enters the fiffura Sylvii ; its branches
fupply the middle part of the brain chiefly.

Obfervation. All the arteries of the brain and cerebellum
ramify firft upon the pia mater, and then enter the cortical
fubftance of the brain. They do not follow the direétions
of the convolutions. They are compofed of thinner coats
than other arteries, whence the blood may be feen even
through the coats of the larger arteries.

The fubclavian artery afcends behind the head of the
clavicle and the infertion of the fterno-cleidomaftoideus mul-
cle, towards the fcaleni mufcles ; it paifes between the ante-
rior and middle fealenus, and then bends over the firft rib
into the axilla, where it takes the name of the axillary ar-
tery. The outer edge of the fcalenus may be confidered as
the boundary between the fubclavian and axillary portions of
the vefiel.

Branches of the Subclavian Artery.

The internal mammary artery comes off from the front
of the fubclavian ; it paffes behind the articulation of the
fternum and clavicle, then goes along the middle of the
cartilages of the ribs, and terminates on the rectus abdomi-
nis by communicating with the epigaftric, intercoftal, and
lumbar arteries. It fends an artery to the thymus; a {mall
branch which accompanies the phrenic nerve ; two arteries

to the pericardium ; and fome fmall twigs to the anterior
mediaftinum, and back of the fternum. Other branches
come off at the intervals between the cartilages of the ribs,
communicate with the intercoftal arterics, and then go out
to the mufcles on the outfide of the cheft.

The inferior thyroideal artery arifes from the upper part
of the trunk, where it is covered by the {terno-cleidomaltoi-
deus ; it divides almoft immediately into four branches.
1. The proper thyroid branch bends in a tortuous manner
under the carotid artery, till it arrives at the thyroid gland,
to which it is diftributed communicating with the fuperior
thyroideal artery. This branch fends one or two {mall twigs
down along the trachea. 2. The afcending thyroid branch
is a {mall but conftant artery, which paffes upwards in front
of the tranfverfe procefles of the cervical vertebre, and is
diltributed to the neighbouring mufcles and nerves. 3. The
tranverfe artery of the neck goes along the fide of the neck,
and is diftributed to the trapezius and neighbouring muf-
cles of the fcapula. 4. The tran{verfe artery of the fhoulder
(tranfverfalis {capularis, or fcapularis fuperior) pafles
along the root of the neck towards the fcapula, giving off
branches to the neighbouring mufcles. The trunk paffing
through the notch in the fuperior cofta of the fcapula,
takes the name of the fupra-feapulary artery ; it fends off
many branches to the fupra-{pinatus mufcle, then defcends
under the acromion to the lower part of the feapula, where
it communicates very largely and freely with the infra-{ca-
pulary artery.

Objervation. Sometimes the tranfverfe artery of the
fhoulder is a branch of the fuperficial cervical artery. Some-
times it comes off as a diftin@ trunk from the axillary
artery, and then the name of fupra-fcapulary is applied to the
whole of it. In thefe cafes the fourth branch of the thy-
roideal is {mali, and only reaches to the furface of the tra-
pezius, deltoid, &c.

The vertebral, which is an artery of great magnitude,
arifes from the upper part of the fubclavian, behind the
inferior cervical ganglion of the great fympathetic nerve :
it afcends through the foramina of the tranfverfe procefles
of the cervical vertebre, entering at the fixth, mfth, or
fourth vertebra. In pafling from the fecond to the firit
vertebra, it makes a great turn; then it again bends back-
wards along that groove of the atlas which is deftined to
receive it. Entering the fkull at the foramen magnum, it
afcends along the bafilary procefs of the occiput, and un-
der the medulla oblongata to meet the artery of the oppo-
fite fide at an acute angle; by the union of the two
trunks the bafilar artery is formed. The vertebral artery,
as it pafles through the tranfverfe proceffts, gives off fome
branches to the ipinal marrow, While it is pafliag through
the occipital hole, it fends off the pofterior meningeal
artery, which fupplies the dura mater on the occiput, and
extends as far as the {phenoid bone. The inferior artery of
the cerebellum arifes immediately before, or after the union
of the vertebrals; it comes off near the origin of the par
vagum, and having diftributed feveral branches to the inferior
furface of the cerebellum, terminates in the fourth ventricle.
The anterior and poiterior fpinal arteries are ufually given
off before the union of the vertebrals. ‘They defcend along
the front and the back part of the medulla fpinalis, and
keep up their fize almoft to the bottem of it by means of
frequent communications with branches from without. ‘The
bafilar artery paffes along the middle of the tuberculum
annulare to its anterior margin, giving feveral {mail branches
to its inferior furface. Then it divides into four branches,
two for each fide of the brain. The fuperior artery of the
cerebellum bends round the crura cerebri, and is diftnbuted
to the upper part of the cerebellum ; it alfo gives branches

te

ARTE R Y,

to the crura cerebri, thalami, tubercula quadrigemina,
and pineal gland. The deep-feated artery of the brain
is feparated from the former branch by the nerve of
the third pair. Afcending between the cerebellum and
potterior lobe of the cerebrum, it fends off the communi-
eating branch, which, meeting and inofculatng with a fimi-
lar branch of the carotid, completes the circle of Willis.
‘The reft of the artery is diftributed to the back of the brain.

‘he fuperior intercoltal artery goes off from the back
of the fubclavian, and defcends over the heads of the firft
and fecond ribs. It gives {mall twigs to the cefophagus ;
two branches to the fpinal marrow; two others which
penetrate to the mulcles of the back ; and two branches for
the firft and fecond intercoftal fpaces, which communicate
with the inferior intercoftal arteries.

Thefe four branches are ufually given off before the fub-
clavian paffes between the fcaleni; the two following arife
while it is pafling, or immediately after it has paffed.

The deep-feated cervical artery goes under the mufcles
of the neck, almoft touching the vertebre. It is entirely
diftributed to the furrounding mufcles, and reaches almolt
to the occiput.

The fuperficial cervical artery is hidden under the brachial
nerves ; its firft branches go to thofe nerves, and to the
fcaleni mufcles ; the reft of the trunk goes to the mufcles
behind the neck, as the fplenius, complexus, trapezius, and
levator feapule.

The artery, having left the fcaleni mufcles, recedes from
the trunk of the body, and affumes the name of axillary ;
it bends obliquely, downwards over the middle of the firft
and fecond ribs, and under the clavicle into the axiila.
Emerging from under the clavicle, it is covered by the
brachial nerves, by the axillary veins and glands ; externally
it is protected by the pe&toral mufcles. It is fituated in the
axilla, between the ferratus anticus and fub{fcapularis muf-
cles; at the lower margin of the tendon of the latiffimus
dorfi, it changes its name for that of the humeral artery.

Branches of the Axillary Artery.

The firft or upper thoracic artery arifes near the upper
margin of the pe€toralis minor mufcle, behind which it
defcends ; its branches fupply the ferratus anticus, pectoral,
and fome of the intercoftal mufcles.

The long or fecond thoracic artery, which is fometimes a
branch of the pofterior circumflex, or infra-fcapular arte-
ries, pafles alfo behind the peétoralis minor, as far as the
fixth rib. Its branches go to the axillary glands and
mammz, alfo to the ferratus, pectoralis minor, and inter-
coflal muicles.

Thefe two thoracic arteries inofculate with the intercoftals,
and the internal mammary.

The thoracic artery of the fhoulder (arteria thoracica
humeraria) comes off near the fecond rib, and penetrating
between the pectoralis major and deltoid is diftributed
chiefly to the former mufcle, and the neighbouring integu-
ments.

The deep or fourth thoracic branch (arteria thoracica
alaris) fupplies the axillary glands, the peétoralis minor,
and fubfcapularis.

Obfervation. The thoracic arteries are fubje& to confider-
able variety in number, fize, and diftribution.

The infrafcapular, or fubfcapular artery, which is a very
large trunk, comes off near the neck of the feapula. Its
firft branches go to the fub{capularis, to the capfule of the
fhoulder joint, and to the mufeles, which arife from the
coracoid procefs. A very large mufcular branch is dif-
tributed to the teres major and minor, the ferratus, latifli-
mus dorfi, fubfcapularis, &c. The principal part of the

trunk turns over the inferior cofta of the feapula, and rami-
fies on the dorfum of the bone, fupplying the infra-fpinatus,
and teres minor, and communicating with the fuprafcapular
artery.

The pofterior circumflex artery goes off between the
teres major and fub{capularis ; it pafles backwards between
thefe, and under the long head of the triceps, and is re-
flected round the head of the humerus, being conneéted
with the deltoid. Its branches go to the deltoid and other
mufcles about the fcapula, and communicate with the pro-
funda humeri. :

The anterior circumflex artery is a much more flender
branch ; it goes under the biceps and coracobrachialis, and
terminates on the deltoid.

The brachial or humeral artery leaving the axilla, purfues
its courfe along the middle of the biceps mufcle ; it paffes
over the brachialis internus, and advances gradually towards
the front of the arm. In this courfe the large median
nerve lies in front of it. Arriving at the bend of the elbow,
it gocs under that prodution which the tendon of the biceps
fends off to the fafcia of the fore-arm, and is lodged deep
in the hollow which is left between the two mafles of muf-
cles on the fore-arm, where it divides into the radial and
ulnar arteries. ‘The median nerve ftill remains in front of
the artery ; the cephalic vein is fituated confiderably on the
outfide of the artery ; and the median vein croffes over it
to join the cephalic.

Branches of the Brachial Artery.

Branches of little confequence go to the teres major,
latiffimus dorfi, triceps, coracobrachialis, biceps, and nerves
of the arm.

The larger deep-feated artery of the fhoulder (profunda
humeri major or collateralis magna) arifes high up in the
arm, and is frequently given off by the inferior f{capulary,
or pofterior circumflex arteries. It beads backwards be-
tween the long and the external head of the triceps, giving
many large branches to that mnufcle, and comes out at
the back of the arm, where it divides into two branches;
thefe communicate at the back of the elbow with the radial
and ulnar recurrents.

The nutrient artery of the humerus comes off near the
infertion of the coracobrachialis, and having diftributed
branches to the neighbouring mufcles, enters the fubftance
of the bone.

The fmaller deep-feated branch, or branches, go to the
outfide of the brachialis internus, fupinator radii longus,
extenfores carpi radiales, &c. and communicate with the
recurrents of the fore-arm,

The great anaftomofing branch (ramus anaftomoticus
magnus) comes off from the infide of the trunk, within e
fhort diftance of the joint, and proceeds towards the inner
condyle; its branches communicate above with the profunda
below with the recurrents.

The two laft-mentioned branches, with one or two more
which defcend along the triceps to communicate with the
arteries of the fore-arm, are fometir es defcribed under the
name of collaterales minores.

‘he radial artery, which is [mallet than the ulnar, feems
to be given off as a branch from the ulnar; it pafles
along the furface of the pronator teres, and then goes on
the infide of the fupinator longusto the wrift. It bends
under the extenfor tendons of the thumb, and penetrates
the abdutor indicis to arrive in the palm of the hand.
Here it pafles along the heads of the metacarpal bones, and
having formed the arcus profundus vole, communicates
on the oppolite fide of the hand with a large branch of the
ulnar.

Branches

ARTERY,

Branches of the Radial Artery. q

The recurrent branch of the radial artery is refleéte
towards the outer condyle, between the brachialis internus’
and the radial extenfors of the carpus; there it has nume-
rous communications with the collateral] arteries of the arm.

The fuperficia) artery of the palm of the hand is given
off juft as the trunk begins to turn over the radius; it goes
over the abduétor pollicis. or through its fibres, to commu-
nicate with the ulnar, and thereby complete the fuper-
ficial arch, This branch varies much in fize; fometimes
it is very {mail, and does not reach to the ulnar artery ;
fometimes it is fo large, asto give off the branch to the
outfide of the thumb; or even to both fides of the
thumb.

At the back of the hand, the radial gives off an artery or
two to the back of the thumb, another to the back of the
fore-finger, and a third to the back of the carpus (dorfalis
carpi), which communicates with the interoffe1, and fends
{mall branches between the metercarpal bones.

After the radial artery has entered the palm of the hand,
it fends off the great artery of the thumb, which rans along
the fide of the firft phalanx of the thumb, and then divides
into three branches. Two of thefe are for the two fides of
the thumb, and the third for the radial fide of the fore-
finger. The branches of the deep-feated arch are fmall,
and fupply the interoffei mufcles, and come out at the back
of the wrilt and hand.

The ulnar artery goes under the pronator teres, flexor car-
pi radialis, flexor digitorum fublimis, and palmaris longus,
and pafles within the edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris to the
wrift. There it is fituated juft within the pifiform bone,
bends acrofs the palm of the hand, over the flexor tendons,
fo as to form the fuperticial arch of the palm of the hand,
which is fituated under the palma fafcia, and oppofite to
the middle of the metacarpal bones. It terminates at the
oppofite fide of the palm by communicating with the fuper-
ficial branch of the radial artery.

Branches of the Ulnar Artery.

The recurrent branch of the ulnar goes under the flexor
mufcles to the back of the internal condyle, where it com-
municates freely with the collateral arteries of the arm.

The interofleous artery comes off very foon from the
ulnar: it immediately fends a large branch through the
interoffeous ligament to the back of the fore-arm; this
branch gives off the interoffeous recurrent, and then pailes
down the fore-arm to the wrift, fupplying the extenfor
mufcles. The trunk of the interofleous artery defcends
along the ligament to the pronator quadratus; there it per-
forates the interoffeous ligament, and communicates with the
other branch of the interoffeous artery and with the dorfal
branches of the radial and ulnar arteries.

An artery to the back of the hand (dorfalis manus), com-
municates with the interofleous arteries.

The deep palmar branch goes off juft below the pifiform
bone; it dips under the flexor tendons, and communicating
with the radial artery, completes the deep palmar arch.

The convex part of the fuperficial arch then produces
three large digital arteries, which, pafling between the
metacarpal bones, and arriving at the root of the fingers,
divide each into two branches, which go along the fide of
the fingers to their very apex, where they communicate.

Obfervation. The arteries of the fore-arm are fubje& to
great varieties. The brachial fometimes divides long before
it arrives at the elbow, even as high as the axilla, in fome
fubje&ts. ‘Then the courfe of thefe arteries is natural in
other refpe&s. Sometimes, however, where this high divi-
fion takes place, the ulnar artery, inftead of going under the

mufcles, which have been mentioned, goes over them and
jutt under the fin, Sometimes the radial, ulnar, and in-
terofleous arteries proceed ttraight into the palm of the
hand, and are diltributed to the fingers without forming any
arches at all.

The aorta having formed its arch, paffes gradually behind
the lungs to the left fide of the bodies of the vertebre. It
defcends in a ftraight courfe along the back of the pofterior
mediaftinum until it arrives at, and paffes through, the crura
of the diaphragm; this portion of the veffel is termed the
thoracic aorta.

Branches of the Thoracic Aorta.

The common bronchial artery comes off high up from
the front of the aorta; it divides into two branches, one
for either lung.

The right and left bronchial arteries arife lower down:
and often there is a fourth or inferior bronchial artery.

Thefe arteries are deftined for the nourifhment of the
fubftance of the lungs: they fupply alfo the bronchial glands,
and the roots of the great veflels, which come off from the
heart. They are remarkable on account of their communi-
cations with the pulmonary artery.

The cefophageal arteries are about five or fix in number :
they run upon the furface of the efophagus, and communis
cate below with the coronary artery of the ftomach.

The lower intercoltal arteries are nine or ten in number,
according to the number of ribs, which are unfupplied by
the intercoftal branch of the fubclavian artery. They arife
from the back of the aorta, and follow the courfe of the
lower or grooved edge of the ribs) The upper ones are
the {malleft, and afcend fomewhat; the lower ones are
nearly tranfverfe in their courfe. The arteries of the right
fide are longer, as they have to pafs over the bodies of the
vertebra. They all give off; 1. a branch which enters into
the fpinal marrow as the nerves pafs out: 2.a larger branch,
which goes to the mufcles at the back of the fpine: 3. an
upper branch which, coming off at the angle of the rib, goes
along the upper edge of the rib below. The continuation
of the trunk communicates with the mammary and thoracic
arterics above : with the epigaftric and lumbar arteries below.

The aorta, having pafled through the crura of the dia-
phragm, takes the name of the abdominal aorta. It is ftill
fituated on the left fide of the bodies of the vertebrx; it is
{eparated from the vena cava by the left lobe of the liver
and the crus of the diaphragm. It approaches gradually to
the middle of the vertebrae, and gets in company with the
vena cava, a little above the kidneys. At the laft Inmbar
vertebra, or at the interfpace between the fourth and fifth,
it divides into the two common iliac arteries.

Branches of the Abdominal Aorta.

The right and left phrenic arteries are the firft branches
of the abdominal aorta; fometimes they arife from the
celiac artery; fometimes a fingle trunk, either from the
aorta or from the cxliac, produces both the right and left
phrenic arteries: they crofs over the crura of the diaphragm,
and then bend round the central tendon, fending off branches
to the flefh of the diaphragm in all dire€tions: they give
branches to the renal capfule and fat of the kidney.

The celiac is a large fhort trunk, coming off from the
front of the aorta, while it is {till between the crura of the
diaphragm. It is furrounded by the lefler arch of the
ftomach ; beneath it is the pancreas, and on the left fide
the lobulus Spigelii. Aftera courfe of a few lines, it divides
into three branches ; the coronary artery of the ftomach,
the hepatic, and the fplenic arteries.

The coronary artery of the ftomach is the central branch
of the celiac; it mounts upwards towards the SRP HeEte

fends

Aly TLE hr %

fends a large branch to the great extremity of the itomach,
and then returns along the leffer arch: its branches are di-
{tributed over both furfaces of the ftomach, and it commu-
picates in the neighbourhood of the pylorus, with the fupe-
rior pyloric branch of the hepatic : fometimes the coronary
artery is much larger than ufual; then its trunk pafles from
the efophagus to the left lobe of the liver.

‘The hepatic or right branch of the celiac comes off be-
thind the pyloric extremity of the ftomach ; it afcends towards
tthe right, is contained in the left fide of Gliffon’s caplule,
and divides under the neck of the gall-bladder into the right
and left hepatic arteries, which are diftributed to the right
and left lobes of the liver; where the coronary ftomachic
artery is continued to the liver, the hepatic artery only fup-
plies the right lobe. The hepatic artery gives off the fol-
lowing branches. 1. The duodeno-galtric artery, which
paffes behind the duodenum, gives branches to the pylorus
(pylorica inferior), duodenum (duodenales fuperiores), and
pancreas (pancreatica tran{verfa) : it is continued under the
name of the right galtric, or galtro-epiploic artery, along the
greater curvature of the ftomach ; it gives branches, 1. to both
furfaces of the ftomach, and communicates by the termina-
tion of its trunk with the left gaftric artery. 2. The fuperior
pyloric artery is refleed towards the leffer arch of the {to-
mach, and commun‘cates with the coronary ftomachic. 3. The
cyitic, which is generally a branch of the right hepatic, goes
along the left fide of the gail-bladder, which it fupplies.

The fplenic artery is the largeft branch of the celiac,
in the adult. It purfues a tortuous courfe along the upper
edge of the pancrvas, then divides into fix or eight branches,
which enter the notch of the fpleen. As the fplenic artery
paffes along the pancreas, it fends off many fhort branches
to the fub{tance of that gland ; alfo the potterior gaitric ar-
teries to the back of the great extremity of the ftomach.
The artery fends off, after its divifion, the vafa brevia, which
are three or four branches to the great extremity of the
ftomach, and the left ga!tro-epiploic artery, which runs along
the greater curvature of the ftomach, and communicates
with the right artery of the fame name.

Obfervation. Both the gaftro-epiploic arteries fend many
{mall branches to the omentum.

The fuperior mefenteric artery is the largeft branch of
the abdominal aorta, and arifes a few lines below the czliac:
here it is fituated between the pancreas, and the laft turn
of the duodenum, to both of which it gives branches ;
then it defcends over the duodenum, and is received between
the two layers of the mefentery: it bends from the left
fide of the {pine towards the right groin, making a largé
arch, convex towards the left. From the left or convex fide
of this arch, are fent off from twelve to twenty arteries,
each of which foon after divides into two branches: Thefe
communicating with each other form arches, from the
convexity of which other branches come off, which divide
and recommunicate in a fimilar manner. ‘This is repeated
a third, and when the branchesare long, a fourth, and even
a fifth time, until the laft branches go ftraight to the intef-
tines, divide and furround them. From the oppolite or
concave fide of the artery are fent only two branches.
1. The middle colic artery paffes along the mefocolon to
fupply the afcending and tran{verfe parts of the colon: the
left branch of this has a very large communication with the
left colic artery ; the right branch communicates with the
ileocolic artery. 2. The ileocolic artery goes to the con-
junétion of the ileum with the cecum. It fends an afcend-
ing branch to communicate with the middle colic artery ;
and a defcending branch, which communicates with the
termination of the fuperior mefenteric trunk.

The renal or emulgent artery arifes from the fide of the
aorta, between the fuperior and inferior mefenteric arteries,
The left renal artery pafles over the vein near the kidney ;
the right renal artery goes under the vena cava, and is
covered by its correfponding vein. The artery divides
into three or four branches, which enter at the notch of
the kidney. ‘The renal artery gives branches to the renal
capfules, to the fat of the kidney, and ureter. :

The {permatic artery is a long flender veflel, arifing from
the front of the aorta. On the left fide it frequently
comes from the renal artery ; it purfues a tortuous courfe,
and gets into company with its vein upon the pfoas mufcle.
In men, it goes through the abdominal ring at the back of
the chord, and fupplies the teftes. It fends off branches
to the fat of the kidney, and to the ureter. ;

The f{permatic artery of females pafles along the liga-
ment of the uterus to the ovary. Its pofterior branches
fupply the ovary ; its anterior ones pafs on with the Falid-
pian tube to the uterus, where it communicates with thie
uterine arteries.

The inferior mefenteric artery comes off low down from
the left fide of the aorta. It defcends a little on the lett
fide of the two bodies of the vertebre, and fends off the
left colic artery. This fupplies the defcending colon, and
by communicating with the middle colic artery forms the
famous mefenteric arch. The continuation of the trunk,
under the name of the internal hemorrhoidal artery, goes
along the back of the reétum; its branches reach almoit
to the extremity of. that inte(tine, and communicate with
the middle and external hemorrhoidal arteries.

As the arteries of the renal capfule vary much in fize and
number, they may be divided into three claffes : the upper
capfular arteries are branches of the phrenic; the middle
ones generally arife from the fide of the aorta, between the
celiac and mefenteric arteries; the lower ones are from
the renal arteries. ,

The adipous arteries are thofe which fupply the renat
fat ; they arife above from the capfular arteries ; below from
the renal and {permatic arteries, and from the aorta.

The ereteric are alfo derived from various fources: the
upper ones are from the renal and f{permatic arteries; the
middle from the aorta or common iliac artery ; and the lower
ones from one of the vefical arteries.

The lumbar arteries are five in number, arifing from the
back of the aorta, at the intervals of the vertebrx, as the
intercoftal arteries do in the chett. ‘They fupply the mufcles
in the circumference of the body ; they give branches to the
{pinal marrow, and others which penetrate to the mufcles
of the back ; the lait lumbar artery communicates with the
ileolumba: artery.

The common iliac artery of the right fide paffes over the
lower part of the vena cava; on the left fide, it is fituated
exteriorly with refpe& to its vein: it pafles obliquely
downwards and outwards, and divides over the facro-iliac
fymphyftis into the internal iliac, or hypogaftric, and the ex-
ternal iliac arteries,

The middle facral artery ufually arifes from the point of
bifurcation of the aorta; it defcends along the middle of
the facrum to the coccyx, and communicates on both fides
with the lateral facral arteries.

The internal iliac artery defcends immediately into the
pelvis. In the adult it 1s of the fame fize as the external |
artery, but in the foetus it is four or five times larger; and
after having defcended into the pelvis, becomes attached to
the fide of the bladder, and rifes again to reach the
umbilicus, under the name of the hypogattric artery. At
this period, the arterieg of the pelvis are {mall branches

coming

A REE RY:

coming from the lower or conve part of the hypogaftric.
Where the artery approaches the bladder in the adult, it is
converted into a fibrous fubftance, which itill remains per-
vious to a certain extent.

Braaches of the Internal Iliac Artery.

The ileolumbar artery afcends between the pfoas magnus
and iliacus internus, towards the crifla of the iiium. Its
branches are diftributed to the neighbouring mufcles, and
communicate with the laft lumbar artery.

The lateral facral arteries vary in number from one to
three, four, or even five. They defcend on the fide of the
facrum, communicate with the middle facral artery, and
fend branches rhrough the facral holes to the cauda equina.

The vefical arteries are three or four in number, arifing
from that part of the hypogattric which ftill remains per-
vious, as it approaches the bladder. One or more of thefe,
which goes to the bottom of the bladder, and gives branches
to the veficul raminales, proftate, &c. in men, to the rec-
tum and vagina in women, is diltinguifhed by the name of
the lower vefical artery.

The midd!e hemorrhoidal artery comes off between the
pudendal and gluteal branches, paffes along the front of the
reStum, and communicates with the external arteries. It
fends branches to the bottom of the bladder, &c. in men;
anda large one (which fometimes comes of diltin@lly from
the internal iliac) to the vagina in women.

The uterine artery comes off near the former; it fends
a branch down to the vagina, then afcends along the fide
of the uterus, on which it communicates with the fpermatic
artery.

The obturator artery, which frequently arifes from the
epigaftric, paffes along the fide of the pelvis, at the upper
edge of the obturator internus, accompanied by the nerve
and vein of the fame name, and goes through the paflage
Which is left for it at the upper part of the thyroid hole.
Having quitted the pelvis, it divides into an external and an
internal branch, which are diftributed to the obturator muf-
cles, to the capfule of the hip, and to the origin of the tri-
ceps. They communicate with the internal circumflex
branch of the profunda femoris.

The gluteal or pofterior iliac artery is the largeft branch
ef the internal iliac. It arifes from the back part of the
trunk, bends dowi.wards and backwards, and quits the pel-
vis at the upper mergin of the pyriformis mufcle. It fends
a large branch between the gluteus maximus and medius.
Another branch, more deeply feated, goes under the gluteus
medius, and fends an artery clofe to the dorfum of the ilium
at the origin of the gluteus minimus.

The ifchiatic artery goes out of the pelvis at the lower
margin of the pyriform mufcle, together with the great
ifchiatic nerve: it is herecovered by the gluteus maximus,
and defcends towards the thigh: it fends off a coccyzeal
branch, which turns back between the facro-ifchiatic lipa-
ments towards the coccyx. The other branches of this ar-
tery are diftributed to the gluteus maximus, and other muf-
cles at the back of the thigh, and are remarkable on account
of their numerous communications with the circumflex
branches of the profunda.

~The pudendal artery goes out of the pelvis in company
with the ifchiatic : it 1s fmaller, and fituated further from
the facrum: it merely pafles over the great facro-ifchiatic
ligament, and enters the pelvis again at the fmaller facro-
ilchiatic hole. Thenit goes along the infide of the tubero-
fity and ramus of theifchium. It fometimes fends off {mall
branches before it quits the pelvis to the re€tum, proftate,
&e. While it is palling over the facro-ifchiatic hgament,
and the tuberofity of the ifchium, it gives off branches
Vou. -Lvi.

which communicate with the circumflex arteries; alfo the
external hemorrhoidal arteries to the fat of the perineum,
fphinter ani, &c. which communicate with the middle and in-
ternal hemorrhoidal arteries. At the ramus of the ifchinin the
artery divides into, 1. The perinzal artery, which afcends
between the accelerator urine and ereétor mufcles, and
fupplies the mufcles, fin, and fat of the perinzum. 2. The
artery of the penis, which is the continuation of the trunk.
At the fymphyfis of the pubis it divides into, 1. The dorfal
artery of the penis, which runs along the back of that organ
as far as the glans, the root of which it encircles. 2. The
deep-feated artery of the penis, which enters the corpus
cavernofum of its own fide, into the cells of which it opens,
and gives branches to the fpongy fubitance of the urethra.
The veffel, which is analogous to the artery of the penis of
males, is termed the clitoridea in females. Its diflribution
to the clitoris is the fame as that of the above-mentioned ar-
tery is to the penis.

Obfervation. "The branches of the internal iliac artery are
conftant in theer deltination, but vary much in the order
and manner of their origin.

The exterpal iliac artery paffes along the inner edge of the
pfoas mufcle, being fituated on the outfide of its vein. It
is furrounded by the lymphatic veffels, which come up from
the lower extremity, and by the glands, through which they
pafs. It defcends under Poupart’s ligament, {till keeping to
the inner edge of the pfoas muicle, and there it takes the
name of the femoral artery. Here the vein lies clofe on the
infide of it, and the anterior crural nerve is fituated on the
outfide, but at fome diltance from the artery.

Branches of the External Ilac Artery.

The epigaftric artery arifes from the inner fide of the
trunk, near Poupart’s ligament; frequently indeed its origin
is abfolutely below the ligament. It is refleed upwards
and inwards behind the {permatic chord; then crofling the
upper part of the abdominal ring, it gets behind the re&tus
mufcle, and afcends to the navel. The epigaftrie artery
generally fends a pretty large branch down the fpermatic
chord, which communicates with the fpermatic artery. The
other branches of this artery are merely mufcular ones: the
trunk communicates at the upper part of the rectus abdomi-
nis with the internal mammary artery.

The circumflex artery of the ilium arifes oppofite to the
epigaftric ; it turns back, and runs along the crilta ilii, be-
tween the attachments of the obliquus internus and tranf-
verfalis abdominis mufcles, as far as the back of the bone,
where it communicates with the lumbar and ileolumbas arte-
ries. Itsbranches are diflributed to the neighbouring mufcles.

The femoral artery is furrounded below Poupart’s liga-
ment by the inguinal glands, and much fat. After a courfe
of an inch and a half or two inches, it divides into two °
branches of nearly equal magnitude. The branch which
continues in the direction of the trunk retains the name of
the femoral artery; while the other, which defcends among tt
the mucles of the thigh, is named the deep-feated artery of
the thigh (arteria protunda femoris). The common trunk
fends off {ome trivial branches to the integuments, lymphatic
glands,and neighbouring mufcles: two or threelarger branches
{upply the fin and fat of the pudenda.

The profunda comes off from the back of the femoral
artery: it pafles backwards, and defcends for a fhort f{pace,
then gets between the heads of the triceps mufcle, and fends
its branches through that mufcle.

Branches of the Profunda.

The external circumflex artery, which isthe firft branch
of the profunda, eces under the fartorius and reGtus muf-
cles,

AR PE RY

cles, towards the root of the great trochanter, It fends off
in its courfe numerous branches to the mufcles along which
it pafles. Some of its branches communicate with the in-
terna! circumflex and perforating arteries at the back of the
thigh, A large branch defeends along the infide of the
vaitus internus to the knee, and communicates with the fu-
perior articular, and with the great anaftomotic branches.

The internal circumflex artery comes from the oppofite
part of the trunk. It goes backward to the trochanter
minor, and turning round the bone, appears between the
quadratus femoris and triceps mufcles, Its branches are
diftributed to the mufcles on all fides; they communicate
with the obturator, ifchiatic, and gluteal arteries.

The two perforating branches of the profunda (the fe-
cond is the continuation of the trunk) pierce the triceps
mufele, to which they give branches, and are diftributed to
the flexors of the lee. They communicate above with the
circumflex arteries, and below with the articular arteries.
The inferior perforating branch gives off the great nutri-
tious artéry of the thigh-bone. :

The femoral artery pafles from the front of the thigh
gradually towards theinfide. It is at firft covered by the
lymphatic glands, then it goes under the fartorius mufcle,
and arrives at the tendon of the triceps, through which it
penetrates into the ham, and takes the name of the popli-
teal artery. During this courfe, the femoral artery fends
off {mall branches to the glands, to the fartorius, rectus, and
other mufcles. ‘The great anaftomifing branch comes off as
the trunk enters the tendon of the triceps mufcle ; it plunges
jato the fubftance of the valtus internus, from which it
emerges at the knee to communicate with the articular ar-
teries, and alfo with the defcending branch of the external
circumflex. Two branches go through the tendon of the
triceps to the mufcles at the back of thethigh; they are
called by Murray the fuperior and inferior perforating
branches of the femoral. hey communicate with the per-
forating branches of the profunda.

The popliteal artery paifes from the tendon of the triceps
through the middle of that fpace which is termed the ham,
and arrives at the upper extremity of the foleus mufcle,
where it divides into the anterior and pofterior tibial arte-
ries. In this courfe it lies between the flexor mufcles, and
almoft clofe to the bone. It defcends between the con-
dyles of the thigh-bone and the heads of the gaftrocnemius,
jn conta with the capfule of the knee. It gives off fmall
mufcular branches to the flexor mufcles, and other larger
ones to the gaflrocnemius and foleus. The articular branches
of the popliteal are five in number: three of them come off
above the joint, and are therefore called the fuperior arti-
culararteries, the middle of thefe three is diftributed to the
back of the capfule; the other two bend round the former

_ jult above the external and internal condyles. The inferior
‘articular arteries are two in number, one for the inlide, the
other for the outfide of the joint. The four laft-mentioned
branches arrive in front of the knee, where they form a vaf-
cular net-work by their numerous communications with each
ether, and with the recurrent branch of the anterior tibial,
the anaftomotic branch of the femoral, and the defcending
branch of the external circumflex.

The anterior tibial artery comes off at the lower margin
of the poylteus mufcle, and immediately penetrates tke in-
teroffeous ligament. It defcends in the front of this liga-
ment between the tibialis anticus and the extenfor pollicis
Jongus, becoming more and more fuperficial as it approaches
the ankle. It paffes under the tranfverfe ligament of the
ankle in company with the extenfor tendons, then goes
petween the extenfor pollicis longus and the cxtenfor digi-
torum pedis longus to the root of the firft metatarfal bone,

where it plunges into the fole of the foot, and terminates by
a large communication with the external plantar artery.

Branches of the Anterior Tibial Artery.

The recurrent branch is given off immediately after the
trunk has paffed through the interoffeous ligament. It goes
through the tibialis anticus mufcle to the front of the knees,
where it communicates with the articular arteries.

Small mufeular branches arife throughout the whole
courfe of the artery along the leg.

The external and internal malleolar arteries fupply the
ankle joint and neighbouring part of thetarfus. The ex-
ternal malleolar artery communicates with both the anterior
and pofterior branches of the peroneal artery. The tarfeal
artery goes under the extenfor digitorum brevis along the
fecond phalanx of tarfal bones. It gives {mail branches to
the ankle-joint, extenfor brevis, &c, It alfo fends off three
arteries, which run along the intervals of the metatarfal
bones to the roots of the toes, where they join the digital
arteries at the point of bifurcation.

The metatarfal arty runs along the heads of the meta-
tarfal bones, and varies in fize according to the magnitude
of the tarfeal artery. Sometimes it is large, and produces
all the branches which have been defcribed as coming from
the tarfeal artery.

The artery of the back of the great toe comes off juft
before the anterior tibial defcends into the fole of the foot ;
it runs between the firlt and fecond metatarfal bores, and is
diltributed to the back of the great toe and of the fecond tor.

The pofterior tibial artery is fituated under the foleus
mufcle, and between the flexor communis digitorum and the
tibialis poflicus. It defcends to the lower extremity of the
tibia in this fituation; then becoming more fuperiicial, it
bends behind the inner ankle, and enters the fole of the foot
between the abduétor pollicis pedis and the concave furface
of the os calcis ; here it divides into the eaternal and inter
nal plantar arteries.

Branches of the Poflerior Tibial Artery.

Large mufcular branches to the foleus.

The nutritious artery of the tibia.

The peroneal or fibular artery, which varies much in
fize, defcends between the tibialis poiticus and flexor longus
pollicis, giving branches to thofe mufcles in its paflage to
the bottom of the leg, where it divides into an anterior
and a pofterior branch. ‘The pofterior branch defcends in
the direG&tion of the trunk to the outfide of the os calcis,
where it communicates with the external plantar and exter-
nal malleolar arteries. The anterior branch comes through
the lower part of the interoffeous ligament, and advancing to
the ankle, communicates with the external malleolar artery.

Branches throughout the courfe of this artery to the
neighbouring muicles.

Two large branches to the bottom of the os calcis.

The external plantar artery is the largeft branch of the
pofterior tibial ; it runs along the infide of the abduGtor mi-
nimi digiti till it reaches the fifth metatarfal bone: there
it bends inwards to the firft metatarfel bone, where it
jinofculates with the tibialis antica, and forms the plantar
arch. ‘This artery fends off many branches to the adjacent
mufcles, and to the bones of the tarfus. The convexity of
the arch gives off four arteries, which pafs between the meta-
tarfal bones to the roots of the toes, where each of them
divides into two ; thefeare diftributed along the fides of the
toes. ‘Te arch alfo fends off three or four branches, which
penetrate to the back of the foot. :

The internal plantal artery keeps along the infide of the
foot in the direétion of the abduétor pollicis ; it terminates

by

AR

by communicating with thofe branches of the external
plantar which fupply the great toe.

ARTERY, wounded. See ANEuURISM.

ARTHA, in Geography, a river of South Wales, which
yuns into the fea about*ten miles fouth of Aberyftwith in
Cardiganhire.

ARTHEDON, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Alia
Minor, upon the borders of the Troade. Pliny.

ARTHEL, fomething caft into a court, in Wales, or
its marches; whereby the court is letted or difcontinued for
the time. ‘The cafting of arthel is prohibited by 26 Hen.
VIII. cap. 6.

Arthel isa Briufh word, more-corre&tly written drdde/w,
or Ardhel, and fignifies to avouch ; as if a man were taken
with {tolen goods in his hand, he was to be allowed a lawful
arthel, or voucher, to clear him of the felony. This was
part of the law of Howel Dha, according to whofe laws,
every tenant, holding of any other than the prince, or the
lord of the fee, paid a fine * pro defenfione regia,”? which
was called arian ardhel.

ARTHEMIS, in Zoology, a genera of worms in the Jol-
dufea tribe eftablifhed by Poliin his work on the fhells of the
two Sicilies. See VerMEs.

ARTHE'S, in Geography, a town of France in the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton
in the diltri& of Orthes, five leagues north-weft of Pau. The
place contains 2078 and the canton 10,278 inhabitants: the
territory includes 195 kiliometres and 21 communes.

ARTHRITICA, in the Materia Medica, medicines fuit-
ed to cure the difeafes of the joints, particularly the gout ;
but the term is fo vague and of fo indeterminate a meaning
as to be altogether improper.

ARTHRITIS, formed from ap9pov, articulus, joint, in Me-
dicine, a difeafe better known under the name of the cour.

ARTHROCACE, in Sargery, isa difeafe of the joints,
or the extremities of bones, more commonly named Spina
Ventofa, which fee. When this diforder affedts children, it
is called PorparrHrocace. We do not recolleét any au-
thor to have diftintly treated of this complaint before
Rhazes the Arabian phyfician, who has entered at large
gato the confideration of difeafed joints.

ARTHRODIA, formed from epOpov, articulus, and d:-
xopes, recipio, I receive, in Anatomy, a fpecies of articulation,
admitting of a very {mall degree of motion; as each bone
compoling the joint muft have nearly a plain furface. Such
is the articulation of the humerus with the feapula. See
ARTICULATION.

ARTHRODYNIA, in Surgery, is a chronical rheumatic
affeGtion of the joints. This name was firlt impofed by Dr.
Cuilen, in his Synopfis Nofologie Methodice. See Rusvu-
MATISM and WHITE SWELLING.

ARTHROBUOSIS, is a fuppuration of the joints, or
at lealt a ftrong tendency to form pus. In this cafe there
is a deep-feated inflammation, obtufely painful, fometimes
throbbing, and accompanied with febrile fymptoms. The
treatment is defcribed under the articles, Asscess, Spina
Ventosa, Waite Swetiing, Inrrammarion, and
RueEumatism.

ARTHROSIS, formed from apo», articulus, in Ana-
tomy, a juncture of twe bones defigned for motion; called
alfo articulation, : ;

ARTHUR, in Biography and Hiflory, the moft re-
markable name among the Britons. As a hero and a con-
f{ummate warrior, he appears illuftrious in our hiftory; but
as a being of romance, his {plendgur has dazzled the world.
It has been generally inferred that the great achievements
’ of the hero created thofe illufory aétions and fcenes de-

Aves

piled in the Mabinogion, or Juvenile Tiales; and fome
authors, with fuch phantoms playing before their eyes,
have denied exiltence to {uch a perfon altogether. But that
there was a prince of this name, who often led the Britons
fuccefsfuily to battle againft the Saxons, in the commence-
ment of the fixth century, there ought not to be any
doubts; for he is mentioned by cotemporary writers, whole
works are {till extant; namely, Llyware, Merzin, and Ta-
licfin; and he is likewife often recorded -in the Triads,
which are documents worthy of credits but neither by
thefe poets, nor in the Triads, is he in any refpeét exalted
to that rank in which the world now beholds his name, or
extolled above other princes who held fimilar ftations in the
country.

About the year 516, or 517, Arthur was elected by the
ftates of Britain to exercife fovereign authority, as other
princes had been chofen, in dangerous times; and he cb-
tained that pre-eminence in confequence of his fuperior abi-
lities and bravery ; being until that time only a chieftain of
the Siluriab Britons. He continued to prefent a fuccefsful
oppofition to the increafing power of the Saxons, until a
fatal diffenfion broke out between him and Medrod; a ra-
dical evil among the Britons, in confequence of their being
divided into many fmall ftates; and which, about the year
540, kindled into a civil war; and Medrod joined his power
with the Saxons, which ultimately produced the battle of
Camlan, equally fatal to the leaders on both fides, and which
brought dilattrous ruin on the Britons.

Such was the career of Arthur, as exhibited by the bards
and the Triads. The hero under the fame name in the
dramatic tales called Mabinogion, is totally of different
features, and in faét is a diftinét perfonage altogethes. The
laft is then a mythological chara¢ter of times fo remote as to
be far beyond the {cope of hiftory: his attributes-in the
dramatic tales before mentioned point him out as fuch.
Memorials of this being, and of feveral others connected
with him, have been traditionally preferved in various and
very diltant parts of the world; and if we miftake not, their
memorials are written in the heavens, and fome of the con-
flellations bear their names. Arthur isthe Great Bear, as
the epithet literally implies: and perhaps this conttellation
being fituated fo near the north pole, and vifibly defcribing
a circle in a {mail {pace of the heavens, in the true origin of
the famous round table.

By confounding the Arthur of hiftory with that of my-
thology, the chroniclers of the middle ages have committed
a monitrous anachronism ; and thus have blended the real
feats of the former with the allegorical attributes of the
other ; and this confufion is ftill increafed by all the fuc-
ceeding writers of romance,

There are fome very extraordinary things related con-
cerning the mythological Arthur, in the Mabinogion, and
particularly in the ftory of the purfait of Olwen: therein
we recognife the Indian Menu, exactly by name, and with
fimilar attributes, a¢ting as one of the agents of Arthur to
recover Olwen, the reprefentative of the fecundity of nature.

To the above rational and credible account, for which
the editor is indebted to an ingenious writer, it may not be
improper to fubjoin, for the gratification of the curious
reader, fome other particulars, tran{mitted by Geoffrey of
Monmouth, and ather hiftorians, of more doubtful authen-
ticity.

From them we learn, that Arthur was the-fon of Uther,
the pendragon or diétator of the Britons, by an adulterous
conneétion with Igerna, wife of Gorlois duke of Cornwall,
favoured by the aid of Merlin’s magical fill. Upon the
death of Uther, in 516, Arthur, at the age of 15, or, ac-

C2 cording

ART

cording to Buchanan, 18 years, afcended the throne. With
a competent army, which his extraordinary fame enabled
him fpeedily to raife, he routed Colgrin, the Saxon duke,
and all his forces, confifting of Saxons, Scots, and Piéts,
who were committing horrid devaftations in Britain. Hav-
ing purfued him to York, he was obliged, in confequence of
the fuccour afforded to Colgrin by Cordic, king of the
Saxons, to raife the fiege and tomarchto London. Affifted
by a fupply of troops, furnifhed by his nephew, Hoel, king
of Armorica or Brittany, he marched to Lincoln, which
was befieged by the Saxons, whom he defeated ; and he
then compelled the furvivors to furrender, on condition of
being allowed to leave the kingdom. Thefe men, after
having embarked, repented, and relanded on the weftern
coaft ; and proceeding to lay fiege to Badon, or Bath,
Arthur was obliged to decline his intended purfuit of the
Scots and Pi&s, and to make forced marches for the relief
of the city. After a very obftinate and fevere engagement
which lalted two days, Arthur, having performed extra-
ordinary feats of valour, took their camp, and flew Colgrin,
and another of the principal leaders. He then haftily re-
turned to relieve his nephew Hoel, who was invefted by the
Scots and Piéts at Dumbritton in Scotland. Having fuc-
ceeded in this enterprife, he direéted his courfe to York ;
where he is faid to have eftablifhed the Chriftian worfhip
on the ruins of the Pagan, and to have married a lady called
Guanhumara, who, under the name of Guenever, became
the fubjeét of various metrical romances. T’abulous hiltory
reports, that he invaded and fubdued Ireland, Iceland,
Gothland, and the Orkneys; and having finifhed thefe
exploits, governed his kingdom for 12 years with undif-
turbed tranquillity, and very extraordinary fplendour. At
this time he inftituted his famous order of knights of the
round table. Having alfo, as fable relates, conquered Nor-
way and Denmark, invaded France, and taken Paris, and
in nine years made himfelf mafter of the whole kingdom, the
provinces of which he diftributed among his domeftics, he
returned, and held a grand aflembly of his tributary kings
and nobles at Caerleon in Monmouthfhire, where he was
folemnly crowned. Whilft he was afterwards purfuing his
conguelts, and marching for Rome, his nephew, Modred,
who in his abfence had prevailed on kis queen, Guanhumara,
‘to marry him, fet up the ftandard of revolt, and called in to
his affittance the Saxons and other barbarians. Arthur
haftily returned, and three battles were fought between him
and Modred ; in the laft of which, Arthur though vic-
torious, received fo many wounds, that, retiring to the ifle
of Avalon, he died, A. D. 542, and was buried in that
place. ‘ Every nation,” iays Gibbon (Hitt. vol. vi. p. 392),
** embraced and adorned the popular romance of Arthur and
the knights of the round table ; theirnames were celebrated
in Greece and Italy.”,—At length the light of fcience and
reafon was rekindled ; the talifman was broken ; the vifion-
ary fabric melted into air; and by a natural, though unjuft
reverfe of the public opinion, the feverity of the preient
age is inclined to queftion the exiffence of Arthur.?? Mr,
Whitaker (Hitt. Manchetter, vel. ii. p. gr— 71.) has
framed an intereiling, and even probable narrative of the
wars of Arthur: though it is impoffible to allow the
reality of the round table. He fuppofes him to have been
the Arth-uir, great man, or Sovereign of the Silures, and
to have fought under the aufpices of Ambrofius, the
pendragon of the Britons, who fent him to the rehef of
the northern Britons, oppreffed by the Saxons. After
great fuccefs in thofe parts, he fought his twelfth battle in
the fouth of England, after he was elefted to the pen-
dragonthip, againlt Cerdic the Saxon. Mr. W, believes in

ART
the reality of his inflitution of a military order, the origin
of all others of a like kind on the continent of Europe.
He fpeaks in high terms of the glories of his reign, at
length fatally terminated by the civil wars, which put an
end to the hero’s life. Biog. Brit.

Arruur Kutt, or Newark Bay, in Geography, lies on
the coaft of New Jerfey, in America, and is formed by the
union of Paffaic and Hackinfack rivers.

ARTIACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gaul, inv
the road from Milan to Geflioracum, by the Cottian Alps.

ARTICENA, a country of Afia, which made part of
the kingdom of Parthia. Ptolemy.

ARTICHOKE, in Botany. See Cynara.

ARTICHOKE, Ferufalem. See Hexiantuvs.

ARTICLE, Arricutus, a little part or divifion of a
book, writing, or the like.

ARTICLE is alfo applied to the feveral claufes or condi«
tions of a contract, treaty of peace, or the hike.

In this fenfe we fay, articles of marriage, articles of cae-
pitulation, preliminary articles, &c.

Arrtictes of the clergy, AnTicuti cleri, are certain fta-
tutes touching perfons and caules ecclefiaftical, made under
Edward IT. and III.

The Ratute made in the reign of Edw. IT. A.D. 1316,
was made for terminating the difputes between the temporal
and fpiritual courts, about the limits of their refpeGiive jurif- -
diGion. As this ftatute was procured by the clergy at a
time when their affiltance was much needed, it was very
favourable to their fhameful and exorbitant claims of exemp=
tion from civil authority. By the laft chapter it is granted,
that when clerks confefs before temporal judges their hei-
nous offences, as theft, robbery, and murder, they cannot be
judged or condemned by thofe temporal judges upon their
own confeffion, without violating the privilege of the church $
and that the privilege of the church being demanded in
due form by the ordinary fhall not be denied. ‘This ftatute
was atually pleaded, and admitted in favour of a bifhop of
Hereford, A.D. 1324, under accufation of high treafon.
The ftatute de clero, 25 Edw. III. tt. 3. c. 4. provided, that:
clerks convict for treafons or felonies touching other perfons
than the king himfelf, or his royal maje{ty, fhould have the
privilege of holy church.

Armice of faith is by fome defined a point of Chriftian
do@rine, which we are obliged to believe, as having been
revealed by God himfelf, and allowed and eitablifhed as fuch
by the church.

The thirty-nine articles of the church of England were-
founded, for the moft part, upon a body of articles com-
piled and publifhed in the reign of Edward VI.

The articles of king Edward were 42 in number, and
framed by archbifhop Cranmer and bifhop Ridley; and =
after having been fubmitted to the correGtion and amend-
ment of the other bithops and learned divines, they were re=
viewed by the archbifhop, and then prefented to the council,
where they received the royal fanction. 'Thefe articles,
though not breught into parliament, nor agreed upon in
convocation, as the title feems to exprefs, and as they ought .
to have been, were announced as ** Articles agreed upon by
the bifhops, and other learned men in the convocation held
at London in the year 1552, for the avoiding diverfity of.
opinions, and eftablifhing confent toucinng true religion.’?
In the reign of queen Elizabeth, they were reviewed by the
convocation, and the 42 articles were reduced to the prefent
39; the following articles were omitted: viz. Art. 39%
“ The refurretion of the dead is not paffed already’?
Art. 40. “ The fouls of men deceafed do neither perifh
with their bodies, nor fleep idly.’ iArt, 41.. Of the

Millea-

ART

Millenarians.”? Art. 42. ‘* All men not to be faved at
laft.’ Some ofthe other articles underwent a new divifion,
two being joined into one, and in other parts one is divided
into two ; but without any remarkable variation of doctrine.
It hasbeen a fubje& of difpute, whether the firlt claufe
of the zoth article, viz. ‘* The church has power to decree
rites and ceremonies, and authority in controverlies of
faith,”? was a part of the article which paffed the fynod,
and was afterwards confirmed by parliament in 1571. It is
certain it did not make a part of king Edward’s articles,
nor is it in the original MS. of the articles fubfcribed by
both houfes of convocation with their own hands, and
preferved in Bennet college library. The difpute, however,
is of little confequence to the prefent fubfcribers, as this
elaufe made a part of the article confirmed by parliament in
y562. Titefe articles, having pafled the convocation, Jan.
31, 1562, were fubfcribed immediately by moft of the
members of both houfes of convocation; but they did not
pals into a law, and become a part of the eftablifhment, till
nine years after this time. Inthe year 1571, an a€t was
paffed, confirming all the doétrinal articles agreed upon in
the fynod of 1562 ; and enjoining fub{cription on all perfons
ordained to be deacons or prielts, and on all who held any
ecclefiaftical livings, as well as licenfed le@turers and curates.
r3 Eliz. c. 12. It has been faid (Neal’s Hift. Puritans,
vol. i. p. 179, 4to.), that this a€t eftablifhed only the doc-
trinal articles; thofe, as they are exprefled, “ which only
eoncern the confeffion of the true faith, and the dodtrine of
the facraments ;”? and, therefore, that the articles of the
church, which relate to its difcipline, were not defigned to
be the terms of minifterial conformity. Thefe articles were
ratified by parliament at the reftoration of Charles I1., in
1662; and fubfcription to them enjoined on the heads of
colleges, chancellors, officials, and commiffaries, and alfo on
fchoolmafters, 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 4.

By 1 W. & M. ft. 1. c. 18. commonly called the tolera-
tion act, diffenting teachers are to fubfcribe all thefe articles
except the 34th, 35th, and 36th, and part of the zoth; and
in the cafe of anabaptifts, except alfo part of the 27th; or,
if they fcruple fubferibing the fame, they fhall make and
fubfcribe the declaration preferibed by flat. 19 Geo. III.
¢. 44. profeffing themfelves to be Chriftians and proteftants,
and that they believe the Scriptures to contain the revealed
will of God, and to be the rule of doétrine and practice ;
otherwife they are exempted from the benefits of the a&t of
toleration. Dhifienting {choolmafters are excufed from fub-
feription to the articles bythe fame act. See Torera-
TION. 4

Concerning thefe articles, very different opinions have
been entertained by thofe who fubferibe them; and they
have alfo differed in their fentiments and views with regard
to the nature and extent ef fubicripticn. Some have inter-
preted them more laxly, and others more rigidly ; and they
have not been agreed as to the {triGnefs or latitude with
which they may be fubferibed. For the reafons that have
been urged in favour of fubicription, and againft it, and the
mauner in which it has been interpreted and underitood,
fee SuuscripTioNn.

Articies, Lambeth, weve nine articles on the fubjec
of predeltination, perfeverance, and the limitation of faving
grace, drawn up by archbifhop Whitgift and other learned
divines, fubferibed by them, and enjoined on the ftudents
of the univerfity of Cambridge, in confequence of a com-
plaint occafioned by 2 debate in that univerfity, which
commenced with a fermon of a Mr. Barret, who attacked
the believers of predeftination with great fervor. The
primate, in his letter to the univerlity, reprefents them not

ACRE.

as new decrees, but as an explication of certain points,
** correfponding to the doétrine prefeffed by the church of
England, and already eftablifhed by the laws of the land.”
But as they had not the queen’s fan@ion, who, however, i3
faid to have been fully perfuaded of their truth, he defired
that they might not become a ** public aét,” but ufed pri-
vately and with difcretion.

Arricres, Statute of the fix, or bloody flatute, was an a&
for abolithing diverlity of opinion in certain articles concern-
ing the Chriftian religion; 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14. By this law,
the dofirine of the real prefence, the communion in one
kind, the perpetual obligation of vows of chaftity, the utili:y
of private maffes, the celibacy of the clergy, and the neceflity
of auricular confeffion, were cftablifhed. The denial of the
firft article fubjected the perfon to death by fire, and to the
fame forfeiture as in-cafes of treafon; and admitted nct
the privilege of abjuring ; a feverity unknown to the in-
quifition itfelf, The denial of any other of the five arti-
cles, even though recanted, was punifhable by the forfeiture

of goods and chattels, and imprifonment during the king’s

pleafure 5 an obftinate adherence to error, or a relapfe, was
judged to be felony, and punifhable with death. The mar-
riage of priefls was fubjected to the fame punifhment ; their
commerce with women was, on the firft offence, forfeiture
and imprifoument, on the fecond, death. The abttaining
from confeffion, and from receiving the eucharift at the
accuftemed times, fubjected the perfon to fineand imprifon-
ment during the king’s pleafure; and if the criminal per-
fitted after convi€tion, he was punifhed by death and for. -
feiture, as in cafes of felony. ‘The rigour of thefe articles
was fomewhat abated by the 35th Hen. VIII. c. 5. in con-
fequence of the interference of Cranmer. By this ftatute
perfons were not to be conviéted but upon the oaths of 12
men ; the profecution was required to be within a year ; and
a perfon who preached againft them, was to be informed
again{ft within 40 days. Neverthelefs feveral were burnt at
this time for denying the do¢trine of tranfubftantiation. Upon
the acceflion of Edw. VI. the ftatute of the fix articles was
repealed.

Arricres of War, in Military Language, denote certain
regulations for the better government of the army“ in the
kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, dominions beyond
the feas, and foreign parts dependent upon Great Britain. -
Thefe may be altered and enlarged at the king’s pleafure.
In certain cafes they extend to thofe that are not military
perfons ; as when, by proclamation, any place is put under
martial law, or when people follow any camp or army for
the fale of merchandife, or ferve in any menial capacity.
It is ordained, that the articles of war fhall be read in the
circle of each regiment belonging to the Britifh army every
month, or mere frequently if the commanding officer thinks
proper. A recruit or foldier is not liable to be tried by a
military tribunal, unlefs it can be proved that the articles of -
war have been duly read to him.

Articres of the Navy, are certain exprefs rules and
orders dire&ting the method of erdering feamen in the royal
fleet, and keeping up a regular difcipline ; fir ena@ed by
the authority of parliament foon after the reftoration, ftat.
13 Car. IT. ft. 1. c. 9. but.fince new modelled and altered
by ftat. 22 Geo. II. c. 23. amended by 19 Geo. III. c. 17.
In thefe articles of the navy almoft every poffible offence is
fet down, and the punifhment thereof annexed; in which
refpe@t the feamen have much the advantage over their
brethren in the land fervice ; whofe articles of war are not
ena€ted by parliament, but framed from time to time at
the pleafure of the crown. Judge Blackftone fuggefts, that
this diftin@tion proceeded from the perpetual canes

3 Q

A RAT

of the navy, which rendered a permanent law for their re-
gulation expedient, and the temporary duration of the army,
which fubfilted only from year to year, and might therefore
with lefs danger be fubje¢ted to difcretionary governmert.
He adds, “ whatever was apprehended at the formation of
the Mutiny </?, the regular renewal of our ftanding force
at the entrance of every year, has made this diftinGtion idle.
For if from experience paft we may judge of future events,
the army is now laflingly engrafted into the Britifh Conttitu-
tion, with this fingularly fortunate circumftance, that any
branch of the legiflature may annually put an end to its
legal exiltence, by refufing to concur in its continuance.”
Bi. Cem. vol.i. p. 420.

Arxticies, Lords of, in Scots Hiflory, a committee of
ancient inftitution in the Scotifh parliament, exifting as far
back as records enable us to trace the conftitution of par-
liaments in Scotland. It was their bufinefs to prepare, and
to digcit all matters which were to be laid before the par-
lament; every motion fora new law was firft made there,
and approved or rejeGted by them at pleafure; what they
approved of was formed into a bill, and prefented to par-
lament ;_ what they reje€ted could ndt be introduced into the
houfe. The lords of articles, then, not only direéted the
whole proceedings of parliament, but poffeffed a negative
before debate. The committee was chofen and conftituted
in fuch a manner as put this valuable privilege entirely in
the king’s hands. It is extremely probable, that the king
once had the fole right of nominating the lords of articies.
They were afterwards ele€ted by the parliament, and con-
fitted of an equal number out of each eftate ; and moft com-
monly of 8 temporal and 8 fpiritnal lords, of 8 reprefen-
tatives of boroughs, and of the § great officers of the
crown. Capable either of influencing their eleGtion, or of
gaining them when elected, the king commonly found them
no lefs obfequious to his will, than his own privy council ;
‘and by means of his authority with them, he could put a
negative upon his parliament before debate as well as after
it. James VI. in order the more effectually to preferve
his influence over the lords of articles, obtained an a& ap-
pointing four perfons to be named out of each eftate, who
fhould meet twenty days before the commencement of par-
liament, to rece:ve all fupplications, &c. and rejecting what
they thought frivolous, fhould engrofs in a book what they
thought worthy the attention of the lords of articles. This
felect body would of courfe be appointed by the king. In
1633, when Charles I. was beginning to introduce thofe
innovations which gave fo much offence to the nation, he
dreaded the oppofition of his parliament, and in order to
prevent it, ufed an artifice for fecuring in favour of the
crown the lords of articles. The temporal peers were ap-
pointed to choofe 8 bilhops, and the bifhops 8 peers; thefe
16 met together, and elected § knights of the fhire, and
8 burgeffes, and to thefe the crown officers were added as
ufual. In this way all the lords of articles would be the
tools and creatures of the king. This praétice, fo incon-
filtent with liberty, was abolifhed during the civil war,
and the ftatute of James VI. was repealed. After the re-
ftoration parliaments. became more fervile than ever; and
what was only a temporary device in the reign of Charles I.
was foon converted into a ftanding law. Upon the aecef-
fion -of king William Ill. this pra@ice was abolithed,
with many other oppreffive and defpotical powers, which
had rendered our nobles abject flaves to the crown, while
they were allowed to be tyrants over the people. Robert-
fon’s Hift. of Scotland, vol.i. p. $3.

ARTICLE, articulus, in Anatomy, denotes a joint or junce
ture of two or more bones of the body.

ART

Articre of Death, articulus mortis,the laf pangs or agony
of adying perfon. The pope ufually fends his bencdiétion
to the cardinals, &c. in articulo mortis.

Articre, in Arithmetic, fignifes the number 10, or any
number juitly divifible into ten parts; as 20, 30, 40, &c.
—Thefe are fometimes called decads, and fometimes round
numbers.

ARTICLE, in Grammar, denotes a particle ufed in moft
Janguages for the declining of nouns, and denoting the
feveral cafes and genders thereof.

The ufe of articles arifes chiefly hence, that in languages
which have no different terminations to exprefs the different
{tates and circum{tances of nouns, there is fomething required
to fupply that office.

The Latins have no articles; but the Greeks, and moft
of the modern languages, have had recourfe to them for
fixing and afcertaining the vague fignification of common
and appellative names.

The Greeks have their 6, the eaftern tongues their Ae
emphaticum, from which, perhaps, the Greek article was de-
rived, unlefs we derive the Greek 6, 7, ro from the relative os,
or both, by a kind of contraétion very common in words
much ufed, from the demonftrative ss. The Spaniards
and the Italians have their i/, Jo, and /a, which appear to
be the Latin #//e. The French their /e, Ja, and és, feem-
ingly derived from either the Spanifh or Italian. The
Germans their der, das, dat. The Englifh have alfo two
articles, a and the ; which being prefixed to fubitantives,
apply their general fignification to fome particular things.
See letter A.

Some grammarians make the article a diftin@ part of
fpeech; others will have it a pronoun; and others a noun
adjective. See SpeecH, and Pronoun.

Articles, in the diftribution of the ingenious Mr. Har-
ris, belong to the fpecies of words which he denominates
definitives ; becaufe, being aflociated with a noun, they_
ferve to define, determine, or afcertain any particular objet,
fo as to diltinguifh it from others of the clafs to which it
belongs, and, of courfe, to denote its individuality. Although
there be a near relation between pronouns and articles, an
it may be fometimes doubted concerning particular words
to which clafs they ought to be referred, yet they may be
commonly diftinguifhed by this rule; the genuine pronoun
always ftands by itfelf, afluming the power of a noun, and
fupplying its place; whereas the genuine article never
ftands by itfelf, but appears at all times affociated to fome-
thing elfe, requiring a noun for its fupport, as much as at-
tributives .or adjectives. Mr. Harris diftributes articles
into thofe ftri@ly and properly fo called, and the pronominal
articles, fuch as this, that, any, &c. The reafon and ufe of
the former he illultrates in the following manner. When a
certain obje& occurs, with which as an individual we are
unacquainted, we refer it to its proper fpecies, and call it
doz, horfe, lion, or the like. If none of thefe names {uit it,
we refer it to the genus, and cail it anima/. But the objeé&
which we are contemplating, is perhaps neither a fpecics
nor a genus, but an individual. Of what kind? known or
unknown? feen now for the fir/t time, or feen before, and
now remembered? In this caie we fhall difcover the ufe of
the two articles a and the. d refpecis our primary percep-
tion, and denotes individuals a3 uzénown. When an object
pafles by which I never faw before, I fay, “* There goes
a beggar with a long beard.” When the fame man returns
at fome future time, I fay: “ There goes the beggar with
the long beard.”? ‘The article only is changed, the reft re-
mains unaltered. ‘The individual oxce vague, is now recog~
nifed as fomething known, and that merely by the efficacy Ca

this

AUR TF.

this latter article, which tacitly infinuates a kind of previous
acquaintance, by referring the prefent perception to a like
perception already paft. The articles @ and ¢he are both of
them definitives, as they circumferibe the latitude of genus
and fpecies, by reducing them for the moft part to denote
individuals; with this difference, that the article a leaves
the individual it/elf unafcertained, whillt the article the a/cer-
tains the individual alfo y and on that account is the more
accurate definitive of the two. Hence the former article
.a, being applied to objeéts or names taken in their more
vague and general fignification, is called indefinite ; and ac-
cordingly fome have derived it by contraction, from any ;
whereas the article the is called definite, becaufe it appro-
priates or fixes the fenfe of the word to which it is prefixed
to one individual thing.

Befides, the article a, as it feparates one individual from the
clafs to which it belongs, cannot be applied to plurals; but
thearticle¢he, {pecifying or defining objects diftin& from others
of the fame clafs, is alike applicable to both numbers. ‘Lo
this rule, however, there is an exception, as in the ufe of the
adjectives fecu and magy, which, though joined with plural fub-
itantives, yet admit of the article a, as a few men and a great
many men. Mr. Lindley Murray (Grammar, p. 31.) obferves,
after Lowth Eng. Gram. p. 34. that the reafon of this is mani-
felt ; from the effe@ which the article has in thefe phrafes, it
means a {mall or great number colleétively taken, and there-
fore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity.—T hus like-
wife, a dozen, a fcore, a hundred, a thoufand, is, one whole
number, or an aggregate of many collectively taken; andthere-
fore ftill retains the article a, though joined as an adje¢tive toa
plural fubftantive. The indefinite article is much more limited
inits ufe than the definite: and therefore the Greek and He-
brew languages have it not, though they both have the defi-
nite article. The Greek 6 correfponds precifely to our the : as
6 Bacirteus, the king, ro dweos, the gift ; however they differ in
this refpect, that the Greek article admits of variation
adapted to number and gender, whereas the Englith she is
invariable. It has been already obferved, that the article
has no meaning but when it is aflociated to, fome other word;
and the words to which it may be annexed are thofe which,
though indefinite, are yet capable by means of the articles
of becoming definite. Upon this principle it is abfurd to
fay O Eyw, the J, or O Xv, the thou, becaufe nothing can
make thofe pronouns more definite than they are- The
fame is true of proper names. By the fame rule we cannot
fay in Greek Os Ay@clepos, or the both, becaufe thefe words
are in their own nature perfeily defined ; hence the nume-
ral ¢qvo, when it is indefinite, is found to affume the article
whenever it would become definite: thus the fwo in En-
glifh, and o Avo in Greek, mean nearly the fame thing
as both, er ApOckeo. As fome words admit of no ar-

icle, becaufe they are by nature as definite as may be,
there are others that do not admit it, becaufe they are not
to be defined at all: of this fort are all interrogatives.
Upon the whole, the natural affociates with articles are all
thofe common appellatives which denote the feveral genera
and fpecies of beings. ‘The definite article ¢4e is frequently
applied to adverbs in the comparative and fuperlative de-
gree, andits efleQis to mark the degree more ftrongly,
‘and to define it the more precifely ; as ‘¢¢e more I examine
it, the better I like it :”-—‘*I like this the leat of any.’’
Befides the articles already enumerated, which are articles
ftri€ily fo called, there are the pronominal articles, {uch as this,
that, any, other, fome, all, no, or none, &c. which may be
fometimes taken as pronouns, and fometimes as articles ;
but if it be the effence of an article to define and afcertain,
they are much more properly articles than any thing elfe.
See Pronoun. Hiarris’s Hermes, p. 214, Kc.

ART

Articles are of great fervice in a language, as they von-
tribute to the more neat and precife expreffing of feveral
properties and relations, which muft otherwife be loft.
Without articles, or fome equivalent invention, men could
not employ nouns to any of the purpofes of life, or indeed
communicate their thoughts at all. And hence one great
difadvantage of the Latin above other languages which
have articles, is, that the article being either expreffed, or
left out, makes an alteration in the fenfe, which the Latins
cannot diftinguifh. Thus, when the devil faid to our Saviour,
“fi tues Filius Dei,’ it may either be underftood, * if thou
art a Son of God, or, “ if thou art #4e Son of God.?—
Scaliger, from the want of articles in the Latin, has con-
cluded them ufelefs, and beftowed upon them opprobrious
language, calling the article, otiofum loquacifline gentis
inftrumentum ;”? and the abbé Girard has degraded them
tothe humble ftation of ‘ avant-coureurs,’? merely to an-
nounce the approach or entrance of a noun. Mr. Horne
Tooke, ‘ Diverfions of Purley,’? has vindicated the ho-
nour of the article, and endeavoured to reftore it to its
primitive dignity. Yor this purpofe herecurs to the reafon-
ings of Mr. Locke, on the ufe and importance of general
terms ; and he obferves, that it is the bufinefs of the article
to reduce the generality of terms, and, upon occafion, to
enable us to employ general terms for particulars. If in
combination with a general term, it i3 a fubftitute, yet it is
a neceflary fubftitute, which (he adds) is more than can be
faid of AsbreyraTions that have been advanced into diftin@
parts of fpeech, for they are not effential to the commu-
nication of our thoughts. The Italians even prefix articles.
to proper names, which do not naturally need any, becaufe
they of themfelves fignify things individually.—Thus they
fay, il Ariofto, il Taff, il Petrarcha.—Even the Frcnch join
the article to the proper names of kingdoms, provinces, &c.
as /a Suede, la Normandie. —And we likewife annex it to the:
names of certain mountains and rivers; as the Rhineythe
Danube, the Alps, &c.

Fa. Buffer diftinguifhes a third kind of articles in French,
which he calls intermediate or partitive, ferving to denote part
of the thing expreffed by the fubftantives they are added to =
as, “des f{cavants ont cru,”? “* fome learned men have fup-
pofed,” &c. ; I want ‘de la lumiere,’? “ fome light,”? &c.
The ufe and diftinGion of the definite and indefinite articles
le orla,and deor du, make one of the greateft difficulties in
the French tongue, as being utterly arbitrary, and only to be
acquired by practice. —We may add, that in the Englifh,
though the articles be fo few, yet they are of fuch frequent
ufe, that they eafily difcover any ftranger from a natura}
Englifhman.

ARTICULARIS, in Medicine, an epithet applied to a
difeafe which more immediately infefts the articuli, or joints.
The morbus articularis is the fame with the Greek apbeitic,
and our gout,

ARTICULATE Sounds are thofe which exprefs the
letters, fyllables, &c. of any alphabet or language.

Brutes cannot form articulate founds, or they cannot ar
ticulate the founds of their voice ; excepting fome few birds,
as the parrot, pye, raven, ftarling, &c.

ARTICULATED Libel, libellus articulatus, that wherein
the parts of a fact are fet forth to the judge in fhort diftin&
articles. Chis amounts to much ¢he fame with what is
oterwife called dibellus pofitionalis.

ARTICULATED Leaf. See Lear.

ArricutatTed Radius,in Natural Hiflory. Se Ravivs
Ariiculatus.

ARTICULATION, apewors, in Anatomy, the juncture
or connection of two bones. Articulation is technically
divided into diarthrofis, or moveable articulation; fynarthrofisy

2

ART

sr immoveable ; and amphiarthrofis, which is defined to be
a compound of both the cthers. The immoveable connec-
tion of bones is faid to be by Symphyfis, Harmonia, Suture,
Gomphofis, Scindelefis, Synchondrofis, Syneurofis or Syn-
defmofis, and Syflarcofis ; for the explanation of which we
refer to the feparate articles. ‘The moveable articulations,
which alone appear to deferve that term, are divided into
Enarthrofis, Ginglymus, and Arthrodia. When the {pheri-
cal head of one bone is received into a correfponding cavity
of another, a joint is formed, which admits of motion in
every direction ; this is Enarthrofis, which is called in Eng-
lith a bali and focket joint, and of which the hip joint is a
good [pecimen. When the articular furface of one bone has
a middle groove with lateral eminences, and the correfpond-
ing bone has a middle ridge with lateral depreffions, a joint
is formed which admits of motion backwards and forwards
only, like ahinge; this is called giaglymus, and the elbow
_joiut, as far as the ulna is concerned in its formation, or the
fecond and third joints of the fingers and toes, exemplify this
mechanifm. Mr. Winflow divides ginglymus into the angular
ginglymus, or that joint by which the firft vertebra turns
round upon.the fecond; and he applies the fame term to
diftinguith the articular conneétions of bones at different
parts, as happens between the radius and ulna in the fore-
arm. When two bones forming a joint are applied together
by nearly plain furfaces, they may glide a little upon one
another, but no extent of motion can take place. This is
called arthrodia; and the junétion of the coilar-bone to
the acromion, and the metacarpal bones to the bones of
the carpus, may be mentioned as fpecimens of this kind of
articulation.

ARTICULATION, in Botany, denotes the conneéion of
parts that confilt of joints or knees, fuch as the pods of
French honey-fuckles, which, when ripe, divide into as many
parts as there are knees or joints, and which ufually fend
forth branches.

ARTICULATION, in a general fenfz, 1s that form or charac-
-ter which the voice acquires, by means of the mouth and its
feveral organs, the teeth, the tongue, the-lips, &c. The
voice by articulation is rot made more loud or foft, which
.are its primary qualities, but it acquires, in addition to thefe
charaéters, certain others, which may co-exift with them.
The fimpleft of thefe new charaGters are thofe acquired
through the mere openings of the mouth, as thefe openings
differ in giving the voice a paflage, and from the various
configurations of thefe openings proceed Vowets. There
are other articulate forms which the mouth makes, not by
mere openings, but by different conta&s of its feveral parts ;
fuch, e.g. as it makes by the junétion of the two lips, of the
tongue with the teeth, of the tongue with the palate, and
the like. Thefe contaéts are preceded or immediately fol-
lowed by fome opening of the mouth; and the articulations
fo produced are called Consonants. There are other fub-
ordinate diftinétions of thefe primary articulations, which are
denoted in the language of grammarians, by the name of
Exemenr ; becaufe articulations of every ocher kind are
‘derived from them and refolved into them. Under their
{malleft combination, they produce a Syiiasre; fyllables
properly-combined produce a Worn; words duly combined
produce a SenTEnce; and fentences properly combined pro-
duce an Oration or Discourse. Thus it is, fays Mr.
Harris (Hermes, p. 324.), that to principles apparently fo
trivial as about twenty plain elementary founds, we owe that
variety of articulate voices which have been fufficient to
explain the fentiments of fo innumerable a multitude as all
the prefent and palt generations of men. See Dr. Hutton’s
paper on the fubject of articulation, in Edinb. Tranf. vol. ii.
p. 7. .See alfo Consonants.

ART

AgTICcULATION, in a more confined fenfe, isa branch cf
Elocution ; and in this fenfe, a good articulation confifts in
giving every letter in a fyllable its due proportion of found,
according to the molt approved cuftom af pronouncing it ;
aud in making fuch a diftin@ion between the fyllables of
which words are compofed, that the ear fhall, without difii-
culty, acknowledge their number, and perceive at once to
which fyllable each letter belongs. Where thefe points are
not obferved, the articulation is proportionably defeCtive.
Exaétnefs in founding the words nightly, correfponds to
propriety in fpelling ; and the articulation fhould be fo clear
and diflin@, that the hearer may with eafe keep pace with
the fpeaker, Among the Greeks and Romans, who paid
particular attention to f{peaking, and regularly taught it, the
fmalleft error in pronouncing was equally difgraceful in them,
as falfe {peaking is with us. A good articulation is the
foundation of a good delivery, in the fame manner as the
founding of the fimple notes in mufic with exaétnefs, is the’
foundation of good finging. As for the groffer faults of ar-
ticulation, fuch as fluttering, hefitation, lifping, and inability
to pronounce certain letters, they cen never be cured by
mere precept, but require the conttant aid of a perfon {killed
in the caufes of chofe faults, who by teaching each individual
how to ufe the organs of fpeech rightly, and by thewing
him the proper pofition of the tongue, lips, &c. may gradu=
ally bring him to ajuttarticulation. Demofthenes, it is faid,
when he firft {poke in public, could not pronounce the firft
letter of his art, “* Rhetoric ;”? but by indefatigable pains he
overcame the difficulty, and fupplicd this deficiency in his
eloquence, even after he had arrived at the age of manhood.
The firft and moft effential point in articulation is diftinét-
nefs, and its oppofite is the greateft fault. The chief
fource of indiftin@inefs is too great precipitancy of fpeech.
To this hafty delivery, which drops fome letters, and pro-
nounces others too faintly ; which runs fyllables into each
other, and clufters words together, is owing that thick,
mumbling, cluttering utterance, of which examples are too
frequent. Demolthenes had this fault; and this, it is net
improbable, was the impediment or defe&t of fpeech, which
he remedied by exercifing himfelf in declaiming with pebbles
inhis mouth. For curing any imperfe&tions in fpeech arif-
ing originally from too quick an utterance, the moft effec-
tual method will be to employ an hour every morniug ig
reading aloud, in a manner much flower than is neceflary ;
let a friend or fome perfon attend, whofe bufinefs it fhall be
to remind the reader, if he fhould quicken his pace and reeur
to his old habit of rapid utterance. Thofe words fhould be
marked which are paffed over moft haflaly, and they fhould
be repeatedly pronounced every morning flowly and diftinétly.
Asin our language, words of more fyilables than one have
one fyllable accented, and peculiarly diflinguifhed from the
reft, either by a {mart percuffion of the voice, or by dwelling
longer upon it, the other fyllables are often negligently arti-
culated. In order to bring thofe, whofe utterance is fo ra-
pid, toa due medium, they fhould accuftom:themfelves to
pronounce the unaccented fyllables more fully, and to dwell
longer upon them. See Sheridan’s Leétures on Elocution,

.19—29.
ARTICULATION, in reference to Grammar, is that. part
of it which treats firft of founds and letters, then of their
combinations, for the compoling of fyllables and words.
Hence he who pronounces his words clearly and diftinétly,
is faid to pronounce them articulaiely.

ArticuLation, in Vocal Mufic. This word, which
belongs to every kind of elocution, as well as mefic,
is too familiar to be called technical. Yet, as it is ex-
vee important, and much neglected, it fhall furnifh an
article.

Mr. Fra-

ART

M. Framery (Encycl. Meth.) fays, that ‘in France, it
has for fome time pa{t been imagined, that the Italians,

articularly the women, f{carcely ever articulate their words .

in finging ; they even fuppofe inarticulation favourable to
the melody ; that it is even neceflary to conne& and {mooth
the founds ; and that in an art where all the confonants of a
language are facrificed that the vowels only may be heard,
melody is rendered more {weet and enchanting by this
means.”’

This does not indeed feem to have been an idea which the
Englifh have cherifhed, fyltematically ; for the Banti, in her
recitative, is admired even by thofe who are totally ignorant
of the Italian language, for the firm, pointed, clear, and
articulate manner in which fhe pronounces the words. Yet
our own vocal performers are fo deficient in this particular,
that it is difficult to difcover in what language they are
finging. :

It is not merely the foftnefs of the Italian language, which
renders it fo much fitter for fong than any other that is known;
but the neatneis and energy of articulation of the inhabit-
ants of Italy, in {peaking it. The number of nafal founds
in the French, of gutturals in the German, and of harlh
terminations of ‘our words by confonants, ob{trnét found
and refpiration. (See a lift of thefe in the Effay on the
Euphony of Languages, Hift. Muf, vol. iv.) In Dryden’s
fublime Ode for Mufic on St. Cecilia’s day, the letter d
predominates, terminating, in the courfe of the poem, no
lefs than three and thirty lines. The letter ¢, like a gag
at the end of a word, not only ftops all found, but re-
fpiration. A clear and diltinG articulation, without harfh-
nefs, is perhaps difficult in all languages; but there is a
degree of diftin@tnefs poffible, without injuring the melody,
even in our harfh language, which Mrs. Sheridan poffefled,
and for which Mr. Incledon is jultly admired, that conveys
both fenfe and found uninjured to the ears of an audience.
We with our public fingers, who have merit of other kinds,
would take this circumiftance into confiderationin the courfe
of their ftudies: as the not underflanding the words in our
theatres and concerts, however the voice and manner of fing-
ing may be approved, is a general complaint.

‘The Italians carry articulation, perhaps, to the extreme,
by not only pronouncing all the confonants in their feveral
words, according to the genius of their language, which has
no nafaLor guttural founds, but even adding a kind of mute
¢ at the end of words, terminated by contra€tion with a con-
fonant ; as thus, in finging

La pace del mio cor —
Foglia vederti almen—
Mi fanno delirar—

. They pronounce the laft fyllable as if it were written
cor-€, almen-é, delirar-é. But they will tell you, that thefe
words originally end with a vowel ; as cor at full length is
cuore ; almen, almeno ; and the infinitive mood of the laft
word, delirar,_is delirare ; and that it is~ for the fake of
euphony that they foften the termination of contracted
words by a mute ¢.

For the articulation of notes in the performance of inflru-
mental mufic, fee Sraccato and Scioto.

Articuation, difeafes of the, in Surgery. See Joints.

ARTIER, in Geography, a river of France, in the late
province of Auvergne, which runs into the Allier.

ARTIFICERS, thofe who work with the hands, and
manufacture any kind of commodity in iron, brafs, wood,
&e.

Artificers are the fame with what we otherwife call handi-
crafts and mechanics: fuch are {miths, carpénters, tailors,
fhoemakers, weayers, and the like.

Vout. III.

ART

The Roman artificers had their peculiar temples, where
they affembled, and chofe their own patron, to defend their
caufes : they were exempted from all perfonal fervices. Ta-
runtgnus Paternus reckons thirty-two [pecies of artificers,
and Conftantine thirty-five, who enjoyed this privilege. The
artificers were incorporated into divers colleges or companies,
each of which had their tutelar gods, to whom they offered
their worfhip ; and feveral of thefe, when they quitted their
profeffion, hung up their tools, a votive offering to their
gods. Artilicers were held a degree below merchants, and
argentarii, or money-changers, and their employment more
fordid. Some deny, thatin the earliclt ages of the Roman
ftate, artificers were ranked in the number of citizens;
others, who affert their citizenfhip, allow that they were
held in contempt, as being unft for war, and fo poor that
they could fcarce pay any taxes. Tor which reafon they
were not entered among the citizens, in the cenfor’s books ;
the defign of the cenfus being only to fee what number of
perfons were yearly fit to bear arms, and to pay taxes to-
wards the fupport of the flate. it may be added that much
of the bufinefs of artificers was done by flayes and fo-
reigners, who left little for the Romans to mind but their
hufbandry and war. Dion. Hal. lib.ii. By means of the
arts, the minds of men are engaged in inventions beneficial
to the community ; and thus prove the grand prefervative
again{t thebarbarifm and brutality which ever attend on
an indolent and inactive {tupidity. :

By the Englifh laws, a ftranger being an artificer in Lon-
don, &c. fhall not keep above two ttranger fervants; but
he may have as many Englith fervants and apprentices as he
can get. 21 Hen. VIII. c. 16. And as to artificers in
wool, iron, fleel, brafs, or other metal, &c. perfons con-
tracting with them to go out of the kingdom into any fo-
reign country, are to be imprifoned three months, and fined
in a fum not exceeding one hundred pounds. And {uch as
going abroad, and not returning on warning given by our
ambafladors, &c. fhall be difabled from holding lands by
defcent or devife, from receiving any legacy, &c. and be
deemed aliens. Stat. 5 Geo. I. c. 27. By 23 Geo. Il.c. 13.
§ 1. penalty of 500/., and of imprifonment for twelve
months, for the firft offence ; and for the fecond, of 1¢00/,
and of imprifonment for two years, is alfo inflicted on per-
fons feducing artificers to go abroad. By 14 Geo. III.
c. 71.15 Geo, III. c. 5. and 21 Geo. III. c. 37. heavy penal-
ties are infli€ted on matters of hips aflilting in {uch feduce
tion. See ManuFAcrurers.
~ Ramazini has a treatife on the difeafes of artificers.

Artiricer by fire, a denomination fometimes given to
chemifts and workers in metal.

ARTIFICIAL, fomething made by art ; not produced
naturally, or in the common courfe of things.

Artiriciar is alfo frequently ufed for faditious. Thus
we have artificial fal ammoniac, artificial borax, &c.

ARTIFICIAL fireworks are compofitions of inflammable
materials ; chiefly ufed on folemn occafions, by way of re-
joicing.

Artiriciat Graffes, in Agriculture, ave fuch graffes as
are introduced into field hufbandry, and cultivated either for
the purpofe of being made into hay, or for being fed off by
cattle. Clover, lucerne, faintfoin, trefoil, rye-gra/s, and {ome
others are of this nature. See thefe different heads.

The cultivation of artificial grafles has been pra@tifed in
fome diftri@ts of the kingdom for more than a century, while
in others it has only been attended to within thefe few years,
and there are {till others that have but juft begun to intro-
duce thefe kinds of grafles. Wherever they have, however,
been properly cultivated, fo various and fo mhanifeft have been

found

AREY

found the advantages arifing from them, that they form a very
lucrative branch of hufbandry, and are confequently grown in
abundance in many parts of the kingdom. ‘Thofe which, ac-
cording to the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry, are
mott ufually propagated and found to bring the moit conii-
derable profit to the farmer, are faintfoin or cinquefoil,
clover, trefoil, hop-clover or non-fuch, and. lucerne. One
or other of thefe different fpecies of grafs may indeed be
beneficially cultivated on almoft every foil; as where the
poverty of the ground will not admit of fowing either lu-
cerne or clover, faintfoin or trefoil, from their requiring a
Jefs depth of mould, may turn out a weighty crop. Saint-
foin, clover, and trefoil, are indeed now fo univerfally rarfed
from feed of Englifh growth, that they have become ina
manner naturalized to the foil, there being fearcely any
country in Europe where Jarger crops are grown than in this.
Lucerne, though it be fometimes referved for feed here, 1s
moft fuccefsfully raifed from feeds of foreign growth. In
re{pect to burnet, {purry, and timothy grafs, which are by
fome confidered as artificial graffes, although their virtues
have been higtly celebrated by many, they have, perhaps,
but feldom, it 1s obferved, been found to anfiwer in the culti-
vation in any degree equal to the fanguine commendations
beltowed on them.

It is judicioufly remarked by Mr. Kent, in the Agricul-
tural Survey of Norfolk, that artificial graffes fhould always
be chofen agreeably to the foil. Saintfoin fhould, fays he,
be introduced where there is a chalky, marly, or even a
gritty bottom. White clover fhould be the principal grafs,
where land is defigned to be laid for acontinvance. Trefoil
and burnet upon high and poor uplands, defigned for fheep-
walks. Perennial darnel, or what the farmers call rye-
grafs, is, he thinks, proper upon light arable land, for
though it isan exhaufter, it ferves better than any other to
brace the furface. A few acres ef lucerne he likewife recom-
mends ta every farmer who has a piece of loamy tillage, and
near his houfe.

And in the furvey of the County of Somerfet it is re-
marked, that on the ftone-brath and free-ftone-grit foils
faintfoin takes the lead; and that though the feed is very
expenfive, the quantity and quality of its produce, together
with its durability, make an ample return of profit, particu-
larly if fown when the land is clean. Next to faintfoin, rye-
grafs, marl-grafs, and white Dutch clover, are in deferved
repute, when the land is intended to remain fome years in
grafs; but when it is intended to be ploughed again in the
courfe of a year ortwo, broad clover is preferred to all other
artificial grafles. It is remarked, however, in the able Survey of
Northumberland, that there few of the artificial graffes are
ever grown alone, except red clover, when intended to conti-
nue only one year, and even then a {mall portion of rye-
grafs, as from one to three gallons per acre, are generally
{own with it; and the writers fuppofe, with much propri-
ety, as it not only comes early in the {pring, but thickens
the crop and facilitates making the clover into hay. When
the land is intended to continue for three or more years in
grafs, they are generally mixed in the proportion of eight
er ten pounds of red clover, four pounds of white clover,
and halfa bufhel of rye-grafs feed per acre; to the above
quantities are fometimes, it is obferved, added three or four
pounds of rib-grafs and hopmedick, as the foil fuits. See
Grass.

Agtiricrau Lightning. See Evectaricity, and Licut-
WING.

Aatirictan Lines ona fetor or feale, are certain lines
fo contrived, as to reprefent the logarithmic fines and
tangents ; which, by the help of the line of numbers, will

ART

folve all queftions in ¢rigonometry, navigation, &c. pretty
exadily.

Axtiricia, Magnets. See Macnets.

AatiriciaL Mu/ic, that which is compofed according to
the rules of art. There is no natural mufic but the warb-
ling of birds, which is confined to the melody of the aviary,
of which the tones are too high, and the intervals too mi-
nute for our appreciation. Rigoroufly fpeaking, all mufic is
a work of art, particularly inftrumental, in which the inftru-
ment itfelf is an artful contrivance for imitating vocal tones,
and the hand of the performer muit be guided by art. But
the artifices of compofition and performance are innumerable.
In compolition, fugues, canons, double counterpoint, inge-
nious and elaborate accompaniments, are included in artificial
mulic ; and in the performance upon inftruments, the artifi-
ces of bowing on'the violin, fingering on keyed inftruments,
double tonguing on the German flute, &c. are only knowa
and taught by great mafters. ‘The generating mufical tones
from glaffes and other fubftances, not included in the three
expedients for producing founds by inftruments, which the
ancients as well as the moderns have confined to three feve-
ral {pecics, as ftrings, pipes, and percuffion, is doubly enti-
tled to the epithet artificial. ‘The harmonies of a fingle
itring on the Zolian harp, have, perhaps, a better claim to
the title of natural mufic, than any other founds produced
without human affittance.

Arririciar Pafures,in Agriculture, {ach pafture grounds
as have been cultivated and {own down with plants of the
artificial grafs kind, or fuch others as are capable of afford-
ing a large proportion of green food for the feeding of cat-
tle and other animals. See Pasture.

ARTIGIS, in Ancient Geosraphy, a town of Spain,
in the country of the Turduli, tuppofed to be the prefent
Alhama, between Grenada and the fea.

ARTIGNI, Anruony Gacuet, in Biography, a
writer of literary hiftory, was born at Vienna, and became
cenfor of the archiepifcopal church of that city. His work,
intitled, ‘* Memoires d’Hiftoire de Critique et de la Lite-
rature,’’ publifhed in feven volumes 12mo. at Paris m 1749,
manifeits confiderable talents for literary refearch and criti-
cifm. He died at Viennain 1769. Nouv. Di&. Hiftor.

ARTIK-ABAD, in Geography, a town or diltri& of
Afiatic Turkey, in the government of Siwas, between the
town of Siwas and that of Tocat or Tokai; abounding
with grain and fruit.

ARTILLERY is originally a French word fignifying
archery. In a general fenfe, st denotes the offenfive appa-
ratus of war, particularly of the miffile kind; and in mo-
dern acceptation, is more immediately applied to fire-arms
mounted on carriages, and ready for action, with their
balls, bombs, grenades, &c. In a more extenfive meaning,
the term includes the powder, matches, utenfils of ord-
nance, the machines which facilitate their motion and tranf+
port them, the vehicles over which they traverfe rivers,
every thing neceffary to them, and all that enters into
the form of a train of artillery. The fame word, {till
farther extended in its meaning, likewife comprehends the
men deftined for the fervice of the artillery, the people who
provide the artillery with materials and implements when
engaged, the cannoniers, the bombardiers, the officers of
every rank, and engineers ofevery kind. By artillery islike-
wife underftood the feience which the officers of artillery
ought to poflefs. See ExcinrErinc.

In the molt ancient times, when war was made with
quicknefs and impetuofity, the ufe of artillery was un-
known. Something like military engines feem hinted at in
the book of Deuteronomy (chap. xx. v. 20.) ;_but the a

iel

ART

lich precife mention of artilleryis in the fecond book of Chro-
nicles (chap. xxvi. v. 15.), where we are told, that Uzziah,
who began his reign 509 years before the Chriftian ra,
*¢ made in Jerufalem engines invented by cunning men, to
be upon the towers and upon the bulwarks, to fhoot ar-
rows and great ftones withal.’? This alfo is particularly
mentioned by Jofephus, who reprefents Uzziah’s care of
Jerufalem as toward the end of his reign.

The Greeks, who were defirous of appropriating to
themfelves every improvement of fcience they gathered
from the Eaft, would fain have been believed the inventors
of artillery. But fo far from being in pofleffion of artil-
lery, they had not in their early times, if we may judge
from Homer’s writings, one military engine that was cal-
culated to fhake a wall. The earlieft in{ftance in profane
hiflory is probably to be fought for in the liege of Mo-
tya, about 370 years before Chrill, where Dionvfius, hav-
ing battered the fortifications with his rams, advanced to
the walls towers rolled upon wheels, whence he galled the
befieged with continual vollies of arrows and ftones thrown
from his catapults. (Anc. Univ. Hilt. vol. vi. p. 401.) The
next memorable inftance that occurs is the fiege of Rhodes
by Demetrius Poliorcetes, where even Grecian ingenuity
was exhautted in the invention and improvement of artil-
lery. (Diod. Siculus, l. xx.) Another inftance of notoriety
eccurs when Hannibal belieged Saguntum, 219 years be-
fore the Chriflian era; and the Saguntines hindered his
foldiers from ufing the battering-ram, by an inceffant
hurling of darts, ftones, and other miffile weapons. See
the account in Livy (|. xxi. c. 7. edit. Freinfh.), who has
alfo fupplied us (1. xxvi. c. 46, 47.) with a curious inven-
tory of the warlike engines which Scipio, eight years after-
wards, found among the iftores of Carthagena. There
were no lefs than an hundred and twenty catapults of the
larger fize, two hundred and eighty-one of the {maller ;
of the greater balifte twenty-three, of the leffer fifty-two ;
befide an innumerable quantity of fcorpions of different
fizes, arms, and miflile weapons. ‘lwo years, however,
previous to this, Marcellus had laid fiege to Syracufe, a
city proverbially fatal to the armies that attacked it. Ar-
chimedes was at that time refident in Syracufe ; and at the

earneft folicitation of Hiero, king of Sicily, exerted the.

powers of his mind in the invention of artillery and other
warlike engines. Marcellus had brought with him an
amazing engine called /ambuca, upon eight galleys ; which
the mathematician deftroyed by difcharging fingle ftones of
enormous weight upon it, while it was at a confiderable
diltance from the walls. The chief inftruments he ufed
were baliftz, a fort of crow lowered by a lever, which
hoifting the fhips of the Romans by the prow, plunged them
to the bottom of the fea; grapples; and fcorpions. Ar-
chimedea, however, left no account of thefe military en-
gines in writing ; becaufe he confidered all attention to me-
chanics as mean and fordid, placing his whole delight in
thofe intelleétual {peculations which, without any relation to
the neceffities of life, have an intrinfic excellence arifing from
truth and demonftration only ; and reckoning fuch inyen-
tions but among the amufements of geometry. See the
hife of Marcellus in Plutarch.

To multiply the enumeration of ancient fieges where ar-
tillery was ufed, would not only be tedious but endlef>.
Every fiege, itis probable, gave rife to fome invention or
improvement. ‘Tacitus indeed mentions an extraordinary
inftance (Hift. |. tii, c. 23. 29.) of an engine with which
the fifteenth legion fought againft the troops of Vefpafian,
at Cremona. It was a balifta of an enormous fize, which
the Vitellians played off with dreadful execution; and dif-

A

ART.

charged maffy ftones of weight to erufh whole ranks at
once. Inevitable ruin, we are told, mult have followed, if
two foldiers had not fignalized themfelves by a brave ex.
ploit. Covering themfelves with the fhields of the enemy,
which they found among the flain, they advanced undifco-
vered to the battering engine, and cut the ropes and {prings.
At latt, after + vigorous affault from Antonius, the Vitel-
lians being no longer able to futtain the fhock, and enraged
at their difappointment, in a fit of defpair, rolled down
their battering-engine on the heads of the befiegers. Num-
bers were crufhed by the fall of fuch a prodigious mafs.
It happened, however, that the machine drew after it a
neighbouring tower, the parapet and part of the wall af-
fording the befiegers an eafier accefs to the city. The
continued ufe of thefe enormous engines mult be remembered
by every reader of hiftory ; ‘as well as that the Romans had
regular batterigs both of baliltas and catapults.

The credit of introducing artillery into our own country
muft undoubtedly be given to the Normans, whom William
of Malmibury deferibes (1. i. p, 57. col. 2.) as having a
peculiar delight in war, and aflures us, that they excelled
in all the arts of attacking their enemies, when their forces
were fuflicient. “Che Normans firit introduced among our
caftles the keep, placed upon a mount, whence they annoyed
the furrounding enemy with their darts, ftones, and other
offenfive weapons. (Strutt’s Manners and Cultoms of the
Englih, vol. i. p..g3.) ‘heir method of attacking caftles
feems generally to have been by micre force; blockade
was little prattifed; and the iron ram, wiich the Ro-
mans-found fo ferviceable, was rendered in a yreat meafure
ufelefs by the deep ditches which furrounded their fortifica-
tions, ‘The principal machines which the Normans em-
ployed, were of courfe of the projeétile kind; and they
were not only ufed in regular fieges, but occafionally fo
contrived as to be ufed on fhip-board. See Matt. Paris,
p- 10gr.

Machines for throwing ftones occur fo early as in the
battle of Haftings (Will. Piétavien. p. 201.) ; and Robert
de Brunne, in his wars againit the Saracens, inferms us,
that when Richard the Firft fet out againit the Holy Land,
he had in his barges and galleys mills turned by the wind
which by force of the fails threw fire and ftones.

The benefit which the Englifh manners derived from the
crufades, is a topic on which we hall have other opportuni-
ties of enlarging ; but the acceffjons to the knowledge of
our anceftors in the art of war were fingularly confpicuous.
From the Saracens they obtained a fort of wild-fire of fo
fubtle a compolition, that there was no method of extin-
guulhing it but by {mothering it with heaps of duft or
vinegar. Jt was by this device that the Black Prince fet
fire to Remorentine ; and it was often thrown in pots from
the catapulta.

The Greek and Roman writers afford us many inftances of
the {uperior force which the catapults and baliltas of the
ancients could occafionally difplay ; nor are parallel inftances
wanting in the annals of Britain. Camden informs us, that
with the mangonels, trebuches, and briccolas, our forefathers
ufed to caft forth mill-ftones : and Holinfhed (p. 539.) re-
lates, that when Edward the Virlt befieged Strively caftle,
he caufed certain engines of wood to be raifed againft it,
which fhot off ftones of two and three hundred weight.

The catalogue of projectile machines in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, exclulive of the balifta, catapulta, onager,
and fcorpion, were the mangonel, the trebuchet, the pe-
trary, the robinet, the mategriffon, the bricolle, the bugle or
bible, the efpringal, the matafunda, the ribaudequin, engine
a verge, and the war-wolt (Grofe Milit. Hift. vol. i. p. 381.),

Dz whofe

ART

whofe form, conftru€tion, and particular hiftory, will be de-
fcribed under their refpective articles. Singular, however,
as it may feem, not only the form of thefe curious inftru-
ments, but even the method of ufing them, is entirely: loft.
And fo defeétive have our hiftorians been in this particular,
that after all the f{tri& examinations that have been made,
little more of fome of them can be collected than their
names.

The conneétion between the modern and the old artillery
need hardly be prefaced by recapitulating the difcovery of
gunpowder, For fome time after that fingular compofition
was applied to military purpofes, the machines and pieces
of ordnance were very ponderous and unwieldy, and of
courfe unfit for expeditious fervice. Military people at
that time pofleffed but a {mail fhare of learning of any kind,
and almoft none at all of a mechanical or mathematical na-
ture. What they did in their profeflion was entirely the
effeét of practice. ‘The form of their artillery, as well as
of the warlike engines and initrnments for condufting it,
_was only fuch as the moft obvious hints fuggefted, or the
rudeft and moit uncultivated invention diétated. ‘Ubeir firlt
pieces were not only clumfy and unmanageable, but as they
fucceeded to the machines of the ancients, they were em-
ployed like them in throwing flones of a prodigious weight,
and therefore were neceflarily of an huge and enormous
bore, confilting ufually of pieces of iron fitted together
lengthways, and hooped with iron rings. Some of them
were fo large that they could not be fired above four or five
timesaday. Such were thofe with which Mahomet II.
battered the walls of Conftantinople in 1453, being fome of
them of the calibre of no lefs than twelve hundred pounds ;
and Guicciardin, in the firlt book of his Hiftory, informs
us, that fo large a portion of time interfered between the
different chargings and difchargings of one of thofe pieces,
that the befieged had fufficient time to repair at their leifure
the breaches made in their walls by the fhock of fuch enor-
mous ftones. (See Glennie’s Hitt. of Gunnery, p. 1.)

After fuch a relation we cannot be furprifed to find that
not only the moveable towers, but catapults of various de-
{criptions, were retained in ufe. The extreme awkwardnefs
vifible in the conftruétion of cannon, and the great colt
of gunpowder, added to the difficulty of procuring it,
account for the preference which was ftill given to the
old engines for difcharging ftones. Henry V. in the fourth
year of his reign, employed the tripget, which fhews that
cannon had not then fuperfeded the old artillery. (Strutt’s
Manners and Cultoms, vol. i1. p.32.)

Under Henry III. of France, the ufe and pratice of
artillery was not advanced beyond its infancy. D’Etrces,
who occupied the polt of mafter-general of the ordnance,
in 1558, at the fiege of Calais by Francis duke of Guife,
and who eminently contributed to its capture, was the firft
perfon among the French who made any confiderable progrefs
in the conftruction of batteries. Anterior to D’Etrees,
continual accidents took place from the burfting of can-
non; and it was cuftomary to cool them with vinegar, in
order to prevent misfortunes. Armies were then but flen-
derly provided with artillery, which was cunfidered as more
requifite for fieges, than indifpenfable for the operations of
the field. (See Wraxall’s Hitt. of France, vol ii. p. 2409,
250.). In England, however, the fcience of artillery had
occupied attention at a more early period ; and lord Herbert
obferves, that in 1544, king Henry VIII. had himfelf
invented {mall pieces of artillery to defend his waggons.

The length and diameter of cannon were by degrees
mouch diminifhed, and of courfe their weight ; and practice
and experience in time difcovered how much might be re-

AR X

duced with propriety from their magnitude, without hurt
ing the grand effe&ts which it was neceflary on fome occa-
fions they fhould produce. See Cannon, Gunnery, and
ProjecTiLeEs.

Dr. Smith obferves (Wealth of Nations, vol. iii. p. 70.),
that the great change introduced into the art of war by the
invention of fire-arms, has enhanced ftill farther both the
expence of exercifing and difciplining any particular number
of foldiers in time of peace, and that of employing them
in time of war. Both their arms and their ammunition
have become more expentive. A mufquet is a more expen-
five machine than a javelin or a bow and arrows; a cannon
or a mortar, than a balilta or a catapulta. The powder
which is fpent ina mederate review is loft irrecoverably, and
occafions a very conliderable expence. The javelin’ and
arrows which were thrown or fhot in an ancient one, could
ealily be picked up again,-and were befides of very little
value. The cannon and the mortar are not only much
dearer, but much heavier machines than the balifta or cata-
pulta, and require a greater expence, not only to prepare
them for the field, but to carry them-to it. As the fupe-
riority of the modern artillery too, over that of the an-
cients, is very great, it has become much more difficult,
and confequently much more expenfive to fortify a town
fo as to refift even for a few weeks the attack of that fupe-
rior artillery. In modern times, many different caufes cons
tribute to render the defence of fociety more expenfive.
The unavoidable effets of the natural progrefs of improve-
ment have, in this refpect, been a good deal enhanced by
a great revolution in the art of war, to which a mere acci-
dent, the invention of gunpowder, feems to have given
occation.

Artitiery-Paré, the place in the rear of both lines
in the army for encamping the artillery, which is drawn up
in lines, of which one is formed by the guns; the ammuni-
tion waggons make twe or three lines, fixty paces behind
the guns, and thirty diltant from one another ; the pon-
toons and tumbrils make the laft line. ‘The whole is fur-
rounded with a rope, which forms the park; the gunners
and matrofles encamp on the flanks; and the bombardiers,
pontoon-men, and artificers, in the rear. Of late, when an
army has been upon the point of engaging, orin expeéta-
tion of an action, the artillery has been encamped in two
parks, upon both flanks.

Arritiery, Trail, or Train of, a certain number of
pieces of ordnance mounted on carriages, with all their fur-
niture, fit for marching.

AxtiLcEery Company, the, had its origin about 1585, when
London being wearied with continual mutters, a number
of its gallant citizens who had ferved abroad with credit,
voluntarily exercifed themfelves, and trained others to the
ready ufe of war. The ground they ufed was at the north-
ealt extremity of the city, nigh Bifhopfgate, and had before
been occupied by the “ fraternity of artillery,”’ or gun-
ners of the Tower. Within two years there were near
three hundred merchants and others fufficiently fkilled to
train common foldiers ; and in 1588, fome of them had
commiffions in the camp at Tilbury ; but their affociation
foon after fell to decay. (Ellis’s Hiftory of Shoreditch,

p- 341.) From the company’s regifter, the only book -

they faved in the civil wars, it appears that the affoci-
ation was revived in 1611, by warrant from the privy
council; and the volunteers foon amounted to fix thou-
fand. Three years after this they made a general mutter,
when according to contemporary authority, the men were
better armed than difciplined. (Sce Niccoll’s London
Artillerie, p. 104.) In 1622 they ereéted an armoury,

towards

.

ART

towards which the chamber of London gave above 300 /. ;
it was furnifhed with five hundred fets of arms of extra-
ordinary beauty, which were all loft in the civil wars.
Their captain, during a part of thofe affrighted times, was
a Mr. Manby, who irrecoverably detained, for his own pur-
pofes, the arms, plate, money, books, and other goods of
the company. The proteétor was in vain folicited to en-
force their being reftored. (Ellis’s Hilt. of Shored. p. 349.)
In 1640 they quitted their old field of difcipline, and
entered upon a plot of ground in Bunhill-fields, leafed to
them by the city. :

This company, at prefent, forms a regular battalion of
infantry, confifting of a grenadier, light infantry, and bat
divifions ; together with the matrofs divifion for the ufe of
two field pieces, prefented in the year 1780, by the city.
There is alfo kept up a divifion of archers; archery being
the art cultivated by the company in days when the bow
was an inftrument of war. ‘lhe command of the battalion
is velted in officers who are annually eleGted. This muni-
cipal corps is authorized and privileged by many royal pa-
tents and warrants; and particularly by one of his prefent
majefty, under the royal fign manual, wherein his royal
highnefs the prince of Wales is declared captain-general.
It confifts of gentlemen of charaéter and property, bound
by a folemn declaration and obligation of attachment and
fidelity to the king and-conllitution, and of readinefs to
join in fupporting the civil authority, and defending the
metropolis. Itis regulated by a court of affiltants, confilt-
ing of a prefident, vice-prefident, treafurer, the field officers ;
the lord mayor, aldermen, and fheriffs for the time being,
and twenty-four eletive members. (See the company’s
addrefs to the inhabitants of London.)

Arrittery is alfo ufed for what we otherwife call pyro-
technia, or the art of fire-works, with the inftruments and
apparatus belonging to it.

ARTINGAL, in Geography, one of the Petew lands
in the Pacific ocean.

ARTIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia Minor,
in Ionia. :

ARTISAN. See Argrist,and alfo Arrtiricers, and
Manuracturers.

ARTISIGA, in Ancient Geography, a village of Africa, in
Mauritania-Czfarienfis, fituate on the fea-coaft north-wett
of the mouth of the river Malva, about 27 miles weft of
Siga.

‘ARTISCUS, in Medicine, from aploc, bread, denotes a
troche, but more particularly that prepared of viper’s flefh,
mixed up with bread, te be ufed in the compofition of Ve-
nice treacle. Thefe are more particularly called arti/ci the-
riaci, or theriacal troches. They were formerly in great
vogue, and brought with much parade from Venice ; but
Zwelfer difcovered their vanity ; fince which time viper’s
powder has been generally fubftituted for them, in the pre-
paration of the treacle.

ARTISON, in Natural Hiffory,a common name among
the French for various kinds of infects that injure furniture,
fins, ftuffs, &c. fuch as the Dermettes, Mites, &c.

- ARTIST, ina general fenfe, a perfon fkilled in fome art ;
or, according to Mr. Harris’s definition, a perfon poffefling
an habitual power of becoming the caufe of fome effect,
according to a fyltem of various and well-approved precepts.
In this fenfe, we fay, an excellent, a curious artiit. The
pre-eminence is difputed between ancient and modern artifts,
efpecially as to what relates to fculpture, painting, and
the like. At Vicenza, we are told of a privilege granted
to artilts, like that of clergy in England ; in virtue of this,
criminals adjudged to death fave their lives, if they can

i

ph BBL

prove themfelves the molt excellent and confummate work-
men in any ufeful art. This benefit is allowed them in
favorem artis, for the fit offence, except for fome particu-
Jar crimes, of which coining is one. The exception is juft,
fince here the greater the artift, the more dangerous the
perfon. LEvelyn’s Difc. of Medals, ch. vii. p. 237, &c.
Ariifls are perfons who praétife thofe arts which mutt
neceflarily be combined with a confiderable degree of
{cience, diftinguifhing them from fuch as are properly artifans
or mechanics. Arrtifts are particularly thofe who ftudy and
effe&t what are termed the polite arts, i.e. painting, fculpture,
and architecture, to which may be added engraving. An
account of the moft eminent artifls, ancient and modern,
will be found in this work alphabetically arranged, to which
our readers are referred. It appears that all civilized
nations in every age have produced artifts, and that with a
degree of excellence generally anfwerable to their civiliza-
tion and opulence. In every nation where the arts have
flourifhed, the artifts have made but rude effays, and by
degrees they have been nurtured up to excellence, except
in fuch inftances where they have been tranfplanted, as from
Greece to Rome. It is univerfally acknowledged refpeGing
ftatuary and architecture, that ancient Greece has produced
the belt artifts in the world ; their works which have efcaped
the ravages of time are the ftanding monuments of their
fame, and are itill confidered as the models of perfe@ion ;
there is however an uncertainty whether their painters were
equally fkilled with their ftatuaries, With fome reafon,
many judicious perfons have fuppofed they were not, while
others contend, that fo much excellence produced in one
branch, mult have centemporary artilts who would excel
in the other alfo. While we cannot doubt of the genius of
the Grecian artilts, and of their ability to produce works
of excellence, yet it may not be allowed that this argument
will be found to be fo conclufive as it may at firft appear,
fince Chinefe and Indian models are found in a more perfeét
ftate than either their drawings or paintings. Sir Jofhua Rey-
nolds has given a hint upon this fubje& in his notes to Mr, Ma-
fon’s tranflation of Du Frefnoy, which may be confulted upon
one fide of the quettion ; and Mr. Webb, on the other, will not
fail to intereft any reader who may be inclined to believe in
favour of ancient painters. When the Goths overran Italy, the
arts were deltroyed; and, with Grecian architeGture, painting,
and {culpture, lay in one common grave forgotten, until they
revived under fome artilts in the twelfth and thirteenth cen~
turies, who ought not to be named as artifts, but for the fuc-
ceeding effeéts to which their efforts prepared the way, and
in a fhort time after produced Michael Angelo, Raphael,
Corregio, ‘Titian, Algardi, Bernini, &c. painters, fculp-
tors, and archite¢ts, to ‘whofé works the living artifts are
almoft as much indebted as thefe illuftrious characters were
to the ancient monuments they dug from the ruins of old
Rome. While painters continued to purfue their wretchedly
dry and barbaroufly Gothic method of defign, prior to
thefe enlightened artifts, even then, the bronze gates of the
baptiftery of the church at Florence were produced ; upon
a fight of which, M. Angelo cried out with emotion when
he faw them, that they deferved to be the gates of para-
dife! Cafts of thefe gates may be feen in the Royal Aca-
demy in London. This we notice to juftify a remark which
we have made, that painting does not always accompany
with equal fteps the efforts of {culpture.

An Englithman will obferve with pleafure the progrefs
which has lately been made, and is ftill making under
the protection of our gracious fovereign, in this once
barren land, by artifts in painting, fculpture, and archi-
tecture, -

ArrTIsT,

ART

Aagrisy, artifa, in an academical fenfe, denotes a phi-
lofopher or proticient in the faculty of arts. See Arts.

Artisy is more pecuharly underitood of a chemift or
alchymilt. In which fenfe it is that Paracelfus and other
adepts ufe the word.

ARTIZOOS, from 2¢, fhort, and gun, life, is ufed by
fome ancient phylficians for an infant fhort-lived, by reafon
of a difficult birth, whereby he was long detained in the

aflage from the womb. :

ARTOARTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India
on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

ARTOBRIGA, a town of Vindelicia, mentioned by
Ptolemy, and fuppofed by fome to be Altzburgh in Bava-
ria on the Danube, below Ingol{tadt ; but by Cluverius, to
be Labenau, on the Saltzbach, below Lauffen, in the
archbifhopric of Saltazburgh.

ARTOCARPUS, in Botany, bread-fruit tree (from apras
and xapro;). Linn. gen. Schr. 1393. Supp. 61. Forlt. gen.
gi. Juff. yo2. Sitodium Soland. Gertn, t. 71,72. Rader-
machia Thunb. Nov. Gen. 24. Clafs, AZonoccia monandria.
Nat. Ord. of Urtice. Juffl. Gen. Char. * Male flowers, Cal.
none; ament cylindrical, all covered with florets. Cor. to
each two petals, oblong, concave, blunt, villofe. Stam. fila-
ment fingle, within each corolla, filiform, the length of the
corolla; anther oblong. * Female flowers, on the fame
tree. Cal. and Cor. none. Pi. germs very many, connected
into a globe, hexangular ; ttyle to each, filiform; itigma
fingle or two, capillary, revolute. Per. fruit ovate, globular,
compound, muricate. Seed for each germ folitary, ob-
long, covered with a pulpy aml, placed on an ovate re-
ceptacle.

Eff. Gen. Char. Male, ament, calyx none. Cor. two-
petalled. Female. Cal. and Cor. none; ftyle one ; berries
one-feeded, conneGted, and forming a roundifh muricated fruit.

Species, 1. A. incifa, bread fruit tree. Forlt. Efcul.
Anitt. 23. Sitodium incifam. Thunb. Phil. Tranf. v. Ixix.
p- 465. Radermachia incifa. Thunb. Act. Holm. vol. xxxvi.
pe 250. Le Rima, ow fruit a pain. Sonnerat Voy. 99.
t. 57—60. See alfo the voyages of Dampier, Anton,
Hawkfw. Cook, King’s Narr. Ellis Monogr.

# Fruétu apyreno, fruit without feeds.

6 Fru@tu feminifero, with feeds in the fruit.

Leav-s gafoed. Fortter, whofe detcription of this tree
appears to be more complete than that of any other writer,
fays it is the thicknefs of a man, and upwards of forty feet
high; the trunk is upright, the wood foft, {mooth, and
yellowifh, the inner bark white, compofed of a net of {tififhh
fibres, the outer bark fmooth, but full of chinks, pale afh-
colour, with {mall tubercles thinly fcattered over it, Where-
ever the tree is wounded, it pours out a glutinous milky
liquor. The branches form an ample almolt globular head ;
the lower ones, which arethe longeft, {pring from the trunk
ten or twelve feet above the ground, fpreading almott hori-
zontally, fcattered, and ina fort of whorl; twigs afcending,
bearing flowers and fruit at their ends. Leaves alternate,
petioled, ovate, deeply divided above the middle into feven
or nine lanceolate acute lobes, with rounded finufes ; they
are otherwife quite entire. {mooth on both fides, even,
{fpreading, bright green, paler underneath, membranaceous,
a foot and a half in length, eleven inches wide, veined, hav-
ing a thick nerve to each lobe, diverging from the common
rachis. The younger leaves, like all the more tender parts
of the tree, are glutinous to the touch ; petioles roundifh,
even, alcending, two inches in length; ftipulesin pairs, in-

ART

axils of the upper leaves, folitary, round, upright, having a
few hairs, and two inches in length. ‘The male flowers are
among the upper leaves ; and the female flowers at the ends
of the twigs. The male ament is club-fhaped, fiefhy, up-
right, a {pan long, covered with innumerable {mall, feffile
florets. The proper perianth is very {mail, two-valved ; valves
equal, oblong, blunt, concave, clofely adhering, fhut, yel-
lowifh-brown. Thefe have nofpathes. The female flowers
have bivalve fpathes, ovate-lanceolate, compreffed, acumi-
nate, upright, bent at the tip, foft, a fpan in length, at firlt
clofed, then deciduous, placed at the end of the peduncle ; {pa-
dix globular, covered with many connate germs, thefe are
obconical, immerfed in the receptacle, fomewhat convex at the
top; ftyles {carcely any ; {tigmas projecting points, wither-
ing ; in fome varieties thefe are bifid, according to Thunberg,
The fruit is a globular berry, fmoothifh, marked with hexa-
gons on the furface, pale green, often nine inches in length,
filled with a white, farinaceous, fomewhat fibrous pulp,
which, when the fruit is ripe, becomes juicy and yellow ; it
is faflened toa club-fhaped, flefhy receptacle, which is longi-
tudinally fibreus, and a hand in length,

In captain Cook’s voyage it is obferved, that the bread-
fruit tree is about the fize of a middling oak ; its leaves are
frequently a foot and a half long, oblong, deeply finuated
like thofe of the fig-tree, which they refemble in confiltence
and colour, and in exuding a milky juice when broken. ‘The
fruit is the fize and thape of a child’s head, and the furface
is reticulated not much unlike a truffle ; it is covered with a
thin fkin, and has a core about as big as the handle of a
{mall knife; the eatable part lies between the fkin and
core ; it isas white as frow, and of the confiftence of new
bread. It mutt be roalted before it is eaten, being firft
divided into three or four parts; its tafte is infipid, witha
flight {weetnefs, fomewhat refembling that of the crumb of
wheaten bread mixed with Jerufalem artichoke. The fruit
not being in feafon all the year, there is a method of fupply-
ing this defe&, by reducing it to four paite called mahie ;
and befides this, cocoa-nuts, bananas, plantains, and a great
variety of other fruits, come in aid of it.

This tree not only fupplies food, but alfo clothing, for
the bark is ftripped off the fuckers, and formed into a kind
of cloth. To procure the fruit for feod colts the Otahei-
teans no trouble or labour but climbing a tree ; which though
it fhould not indeed fhoot up fpontaneoufly, yet, as captain
Cook obferves, ‘‘ if a man plant ten trees in his life-time, he
will as completely fulfil his duty to his own and future
generations, as the native of our lefs temperate climate can
do by ploughing ia the cold winter, and reaping in the
fummer’s heat, as often as thefe feafons return; even after
he has procured bread for his prefent houfehoid, he fhould
convert a furplus into money, and lay it up for his children.
But where the trees are once introduced in a favourable
foil and climate, fo far from being obliged to renew them
by planting, it feems probable that the inhabitants will rather
be under the neceffity of preventing their progrefs; for
young trees fpring abundantly from the roots of the old
ones, which run along near the furface. Accordingly the
never plant the bread-fruit tree at Otaheite.” - The fee
fruit is diftinguifhed into that which is deftitute of feeds, and
that in which feeds are found. The natives of Otaheite
reckon at leaft eight varieties of trees which produce the
former. The moft common of thefe is named uru or eoroo,
bearing a globular, fmooth, even fruit. The maira has an
oval, {mooth fruit, with the leaves more deeply cute The

volving the younger leaves, lanceolate, acuminate, concave, fatea has a fruit oblong and rough, with a {caly appearance-

entire, {mooth within, hairy on the outfide, deciduous, three
inches long ; peduncies at the ends of the twigs, and in the
4

The ¢atarra has an oval fruit, with mammillary germs, muri-
cated by the permaneat ftyle.—Probably, by extending the
; culture

o

AR TOC A REPU §.

culture to diftant countries, the varieties may be ftill farther
increafed. ‘he parts of fructification in thofe trees which
bear fruit without ftones, are faid to be defective, as the
ament never expands, and the ityles are alfo deficient. In
the variety 8, the fruit contains a confiderable number of
feeds, almoit as large as chefnuts, oblong, fomewhat angular,
produced into a point at each end. ‘They are farinaceous
like the chefnut, and are eaten in fome places by the favage
inhabitants, either boiled, or roalted in embers. It will
eafily be fuppofed that this fruit, abounding lefs in pulp,
and being both more fibrous and lefs juicy than that which
has no feeds, mutt be much inferior as an article of food;
and, accordingly, before the difcovery of the South Sea
iflands, the bread-fruit had not acquired that degree of repu-
tation which it is now found to deferve. It has been
long known in many parts of the Haft Indies, but not
being wanted there for food, and confequently not having
received any degree of cultivation, it has continued nearly
in its natural ftate, without receiving that improvement
from the care of men, which probably neceflity firtt urged
them to exercife. Accordingly, captam Cook remarked
the great inferiority of the /occum which he found at Batavia,
to the coroo of the South Sea iflands.

This moft ufeful tree is dillributed very extenfively over
the Eaft Indian continent and iflands, as well as the innu-
merable iflands of the South Seas. It was found by Dam-
pier in the Ladrone iflands: it is a native of Amboina,
Banda, and others of the Molucca iflands: of Java and others
of the Maldivy iflands: of Timor, Balega, and Madura, of
Prince’s ifland, &c. M. Sonnerat conveyed fume of the trees
from the ifland of Lucon to the ifleof France. M. Poivre
naturalized them both there and in the ifle of Bourbon:
and they are cultivated both in Malabar and Coromandel.
In the South Seas both varieties are {till found in the
Marian iflands, in the New Hebrides, and Friendly iflands ;
but moft abundantly in the Society, Marqueza, and Sand-
wich iflands. In Otaheite however, and fome others, the
evident fuperiority of the feedlefs variety for food, has caufed
the other to be neglected, and it is confequently aimoft
worn out. We are informed by captain King, that in the
Sandwich iflands thefe trees are planted and flourifh with great
luxuriance on rifing grounds; that they are not indeed in
fuch abundance, but that they produce double the quantity
of fruit which they do on the rich plains of Otaheite ; that
the trees are nearly of the fame height, but that the branches
begin to ftrike out from the trunk much lower, and with
greater luxuriance; and that the climate of thefe iflands
differs very little from that of the Welt Indian iflands,
which lie in the fame latitude.—This refle€tion probably
firft fuggetted the idea of conveying this valuable tree to our
iflands in the Weft Indies. For this purpofe, his majelty’s
fhip the Bounty failed for the South Seas, on the 23d of
December 1787, under the command of lieutenant William
Bligh. But a fatal mutiny prevented the accomplifhment
of this benevolent defign. His majefty, however, not dif-
couraged by the unfortunate event of this voyage, and fuily
impreffed with the importance of fecuring fo ufeful an article
of food as the bread-fruit to our Welt Indian iflands, deter-
mined, in the year 1791, to employ another fhip for a fecond
expedition on this fervice, and in order to fecure the fuccefs
of the voyage as much as poffible, it was thought proper
that two veffels fhould proceed together on this important
bufinefs. Accordingly, a fhip of four hundred tons, named
the Providence, was engaged for the purpofe, and the com-
mand of her given to captain Bligh ; and a {mall tender called
the Affilant, commanded by lieutenant Nathaniel Portlock.
Sir Jofeph Banks, as in the former voyage, dircéted the

equipment of the fhip for this particular purpofe. Two
flilful gardeners were appointed to fuperintend the trees and
plants, from their tranfplantation at Otaheite, to their delivery
at Jamaica, and captain Bligh fet fail on the fecond of
Augult 1791. He arrived at Teneriffe on the twenty-
eighth, at St. Jago on the thirteenth of September, and at
the Cape of Good Hope on the fixth of November. He
failed from thence on the nineteenth of December ; arrived
at Adventure’s Bay on the ninth of February 1792, and at
Otaheite on the eighth or ninth of April. The bufinefs of
procuring and embarking the bread-fruit trees, &c. took up
three months and nine days ; though the natives of Oraheite
gave all poffible afliftance to Captain Bligh and the gar-
deners. They failed on the eighteenth or nineteenth of
July 5 arrived at Coupang in Timor on the fecond of O¢to-
ber; at St. Helena on the feventeenth of December, and
at St. Vincent’s on the twenty-fecond of January 1793.
Here they ftayed feven days, to leave a part of their caryo,
and on the fifth of Iebruary they arrived at Jamaica, and
delivered the remainder. ‘he number of plants taken on
board at Otaheite, was 2634, in 1281 pots, tubs, and cales ;
and of thefe 1151 were bread-fruit trees. When they arriv-
ed at Coupang, 200 plants were dead, but the reft were in
good order. Here they procured ninety-two pots of the
fruits of that conntry.. They arrived at St. Helena with
830 fine bread fruit-trees, befides other plants. Here they
left fome of them, with different fruits of Otaheite and ‘Ti-
mor, befides mountain rice and other feeds ; and from hence
the Eaft Indies may be fupplied with them. On their ar-
rival at St. Vincent’s, they had 551 cafes, containing
fix hundred and feventy-eight bread-truit-trees, befides a
great number of other fruits and plants to the number of
1245. Near half this cargo was depofited here under the
care of Mr. Alexander Anderfon, the fuperintendant of his
majelty’s botanic garden, for the ule of the Windward
Iflands; and the remainder, intended for the Leeward
Iflands, was conveyed to Jamaica, and diftributed as the go-
vernor and council of Jamaica pleafed to direct. ‘The exact
number of bread-fruit-trees brought to Jamaica was 352,
out of which five only were referved for the botanic gar-
den at Kew. ‘Though the principal object of this voyage
was to procure the bread-fruit tree, yet it was not confined
to this only, for the defign was to furnifh the Welt Indian
ifles with the molt valuable productions of the South Seas
and the Eaft Indies. Accordingly, the gardeners were in-
{tructed to procure plants of {weet plantain called meia, the
Otaheitean apple or avee, the root called peah, of which the
iflanders make a kind of pudding, and a fpecies of yam
much larger and better than any in the Welt Indies.
They were alfo to obtain at Timor and other places in
the Ealt Indies fuch plants and fruits as are ufed for food
or otherwife by the natives, as the /anfu, mangoflan, durion,
jamboo, nanca, tchampadha, blimbing,jambolan, boabidarra, falac,
blech, long pepper, &c. together with fome bufhels of dry or
mountain rice, which is cultivated without being overflowed
with water ; and they were to make themfelves acquainted
with the mode of managing it in order to communicate the
fame to the inhabitants of the Welt Indies. Captain Bligh
had the fatisfaétion, before he quitted Jamaica, of feeing the
trees which he had brought with fo much fuccefs, in a
moft flourifhing ftate; infomuch that no doubt remained
of their growing well and fpeedily producing fruit; an
opinion which fubfequent reports have confirmed. But
though the fruit has been produced in great abundance, it
is faid not yet to have arrived at that high flate of perfec-
tion in which itis deferibed to be at Otaheite. ‘Thunberg
fent feeds of the Eaft Indian bread-fruit tree from Batavia

to

SA a ae

to the botanic garden at Amfterdam, in1775. In 1777,
he fent fome fmail living plants; and the year following, he
brought with him to Europe a great number of plants,
both of this and the following fpecies. But the true feed-
lefs fort, from the South Seas, was firft introduced into the
iflands of St. Vincent and Jamaica, and into the botanic
garden at Kew, by Captain Bligh, in 1793.

The bread-fruit, when perfectly ripe, is pulpy, fweetifh,
putrefcent, and in this ftate is thought to be too laxative ;
but when green it is farinaceous, and elteemed a very whole-
fome food, either baked under the coals, or roalted over
them. ‘The tafte is not unlike that of wheaten bread, but
with fome refemblauce to thet of Jerufalem artichokes or
potatoes. It was mentioned before that a fort of cloth was
made of the inner bark: to this we may add, that the
wood is ufed in building boats and houfes; the male cat-
kins ferve for tinder; the leaves for wrapping their food in,
and for wiping their hands inftead of towels; and the
jeice for making bird lime, and as a cement for filling up
the cracks of their veflels for holding water. Three trees
are {uppofed to yield fufficient nourifhment for one perfon.
In the Malay language the bread fruit is called /occun, in
Java fouku, in Amboina foun or fune, in Macaflar dakar,
in Ternate gomo, in Tinian rima; the Dutch call it /ocku/-
boom, the Germans brodbaum, the French rima or fruit a pain.

2. A. integrifolia, Indian Jaca tree ; ‘ leaves entire; ” fi-
todium macrocarpon, Thunb. Phil. Tranf. v. 69. p. 254.
Sitodium cauliflorum, Gertn. fruét. 1.345. Soccus arboreus
nanca, Rumph. Amb. 1. t. 30—31. ‘l'sjacca-maram, /-
Jacca, Rheed. Mal. 3. t. 26, 27, 28. The Eaft Indian
Jacea, or Jack-tree, is about the fame fize as the foregoing,
or perhaps larger. Branches alternate, {preading ; the
twigs hirfute with long ftiff hairs ; leaves alternate, petioled,
ovate-oblong, blunt, ob{curely ferrate, undivided, nerved,
bright-green, and very fmooth on the upper furface, paler
beneath, and hirfute with {tiff hairs, fpreading, a fpan in
length. The younger leaves are evidently toothed, but the
teeth difappear. ‘The foot-ftalk is fomewhat triangular,
fmooth, an inch in length; {ftipules as in the foregoing ;
flowers male and female diftinét on the fame {tem or branch;
peduncle either fimple or branched, ‘pendulous an inch thick,
and a foot long ; pedicels three, five, or more, the length
and thicknefs of a finger. ‘The fruit weighs thirty pounds
and upwards ; it has within it frequently from two to three
hunéred feeds, three or four times as big as almonds; they
are oyate-oblong, blunt at one end, fharp at the other, and
a little flatted on the fides. Thefe two f{pecies of artocarpus
cannot be dittinguifhed with certainty either by the form of
the leaves, or the fituation of the fruit; for the leaves in
this are fometimes lobed as on that; and the fituation of the
fruit varies with the age of this tree, being firft borne on the
branches and then on the trunk, and finally on the roots.
The Jacca tree isa native of Malabar and the other parts of
the Eaft Indies. ‘The fruit is ripe in December, and is then
eaten, but is efteemed difficult of digeftion ; the unripe fruit
is alfo ufed pickled, or cut into flices and boiled, or fried in
palm-oil. ‘The nuts are eaten roalted, and the skin which
immediately covers them, is ufed inftead of the areca nut in
chewing betel. ‘The wood of the tree ferves for building.
No lefs than thirty varieties of the fruit are enumerated in
Malabar. It was introduced into the royal botanic garden
at Kew, in 1778, by fir Edward Hughes knight of the bath.

Propagation and Culture. Thofe varieties which bear
feeds may be propagated by them, fown ina pot of rich
earth, and plunged in the bark-bed. Thofe which have no
feed in the fruit may be increafed by fuckers, in which
they abound very much, or by layers. In hot climates

Ane

they fucceed beft in a tich foil; for though they will grow
in an indifferent one, yet they by no means arrive at that
magnitude, nor is the fruit fo well flavoured as when they
are planted in a good one. In the Eaft Indies they thruft
a fruit of the Jacca into the ground whele, and when the
numerous feeds germinate and grow up, they tie the ftems
altogether with withee, and by degrees they form one item,
which will bear fruit in fix or feven years if not placed in
too wet a fituation. See Martyn’s Miller’s Dic.

ARTOIS, in Geography, a province of France before the
revolution, is one of the moft tertile and molt productive of
grain and fruit inthe whole kingdom. It was formerly one
of the feventeen provinces of the Netherlands; but fince
the revolution it 1s principaily included in the department of
pas de Calais, or ttraits of Cavais, The chief city is AgRAs.
‘This province is about twenty-three leagues long, and twelve
broad ; and is bcunded on the weit and fouth by Picardy,
on the north-eaft by Flanders, and on the ealt by Hai-
nault and Cambrefis. The name of 4rtois is derived from
the Afrebatii, who occupied this part of Gallia Belgica in the
time of Cefar. From the dominion of the Romans it pafled
to that of the French kings, who poflefied it in 863; in
1237 it was erected into a Comté by St. Louis, aad given to
his younger brother Robert I. It was furrendered by
Charles VIII. the fon and fucceffor of Louis XI. to Maxi-
milian of Auftria, by the treaty of Senlis, in 1493. The
houies of Auttria ard of Spain poffeffed it in fucceffion till
the year 1640,when Louis the XIII. obtained it by conquelt
from Philip 1V. king of Spain; and from his time it has
been fubject to France. ‘lhe peace of the Pyrenées, in
1650, fecured it to him, with the exception of the towns
of Aire and St. Omer, which, together with their refpec-
tive territories, were referved to Spain, but afterwards ceded
to Louis XIV. in 1675, by the treaty of Nimeguen, con-
firmed by fubfequent treaties, and particularly by that of
Utrecht in 1713. Its commerce confifts principally in
grain, flax, hops, wool, and linen cloth. 3

ARTOLICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Sa-
laflii, in Gallia Cifpadana, at the foot of the Alps, now
called /a Tuile by the inhabitants, a hamlet of Savoy, in the
duchy of Aoult, at the foot of mount St. Bernard the.
Lefs.

ARTOMELI, from epro:, bread, and prs, honey, in
Ancient Pharmacy, a kind of cataplafm prepared of bread
and honey, applied chiefly to the precordia.

ARTON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton
in the diftri& of Paimbeeuf, feveateen miles fouth-weft of
Nantes, '

ARTONNE, a town of France, in the department of
Puy de Dome, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict
of Riom, five leagues north of Clermont, and two anda
half north of Riom.

ARTOTYRITES, or Arrotyrir2, in Ecclefiafical
Hiftory, a branch of the ancient Montaniffs, who firlt ap-
peared in the fecond century, chiefly in Galatia.

They ufe bread and cheefe in the Eucharif, or perhaps
bread baked with cheefe.—Their reafon was, that the firft
men offered to God not enly the fruits of the earth but of
their flocks too. i

Hence, according to St. Auguftine, came their name,
which is compofed of proc, bread, and vgos, chee/e.

The Artotyrites admitted women to the priefthood and
epifcopacy; and Epiphanius fays, that it was common to
fee feven girls enter at once into their chureh, in white
robes with torches in their hand, where they bewailed with
tears the miferies of human life.

; ARTRO,

Ak T
ARTRO, in Gepsranlys a riyer of North Wales, which

runs into the fea near Lanbeder in Merionethfhire,

ARTUSI, Gio. Maria, of Bologna, in Biography,
though he is ranked only among the minor writers on mufic,
yet it his merit and importance are eftimated by the celebrity
and {ize of his volumes, certainly deferyed the attention of
ftudents and collectors of mufical tracts. In his ** Arte del
Contrappunto ridotta in tayole,’’ publifhed at Venice, 1586,
he has admirably analyfed and compreffed the voluminous
and diffufed works of Zarlino and other anterior writers on
mufical compoiition, into a compendium, in a manner almoft
as clear and geometrical as that in which M. d’Alembert
has abridged the theoretical works of Rameau. In 1589,
Artufi, who, like moft of the mufical writers of Italy, was
an ecclefialtic, publifhed a fecond part of his “ Arte del
Contrappunto,” which is a ufeful and excellent fupplement
to his former compendium. And in 1600 and 1603, this
intelligent writer publifhed at Venice the firft and fecond
part of another work, ‘ Delle Imperfettioni della moderna
mufica.’”’ Here the author gives a curious account of the
ftate of inftrumental mufic in his time; and in deferibing a
grand concert that was made by the nuns of a convent at
Ferrara, in 1598, on occafion of a double wedding between
Philip III. king of Spain with Margaret of Auitria, and the
archduke Albert with the infanta Ifabella, the king’s fifter,
he enumerates the feveral inftruments that were employed,
and points out their excellencies and defects. Among thefe,
though the violin is juft mentioned, yet nothing is faid of
its properties, while the cornet, trumpet, viol, double-harp,
lute, flute, and harpfichord, are honoured with particular re-
marks, both on their conitruction and ufe : but among thefe,
the cornet, which has been fupplanted in the favour of
the public by the hautbois, féems to have ftood the higheft
in the author’seftimation. The elder Doni, in his dialogue
written about fifty years before, mentions the cornet more
frequently than any other initrument: “ II divino An-
tonio, da cornetto pertettiffimo—et M. Battifta dal Fon-
daro con il fuo cornetto anchora; che lo fuona miracolofa-
mente.””

I have not been able, fays Dr. Burney, to difcover what
inftrument is to be underftood in this dialogue, when Giro-
lamo Parabofco fays, “ Io fuoneré lo ftrumento :”” and when
it is faid, «* M. Gio Vaniacopo Buzzino fuonando di violone
il foprano, come egli fa miracolofamente,”’ I am utterly un-
able to guefs what initrument is meant, unlefs the word violone,
by a typographical error, has been printed for violino. But
to return to Artufi’s remarks upon inftruments : his hero on
the cornet was Girolamo da Udine. In fpeaking of defects
in the intonations of different inftruments, I expedted the
violin would be celebrated for its fuperior perfeétion in that
particular ; but by the author’s filence on that fubje@&, Iam
convinced that it was either then but little ufed in concert,
-or was very ill played. Burney’s Hift. Muf. vol. iii. p. 174.

ARTYMNESUS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia,
‘in Lycia, where the Xanthians are faid to have eftablithed a
colony.

ARTZ, in Geography, a diftri& of the ifland of Zealand,
‘belonging to Denmark, in the prefecture of Kallundborg,
which includes nine churches.

ARTZBACH, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Ens, four miles fouth of Reiffling, in the duchy of Stiria.

ARTZBERG, a town of Germany, in the archduchy
of Auttria, near the Ens, twelve miles fouth-eaft of Steyr.

ARTZFELDT, a town of France, in the department of
the Foréts, and ch:ef place ofa canton in the diftri& of Bitt-
bourg. The place contains 503, and the canton 6054 in-

habitants: the territory comprehends 3222 kiliometres and
12 communes. :

Vor. IIT.

ARU

ARU, or Arrog, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, be-
tween the ifland of Sumatra and the peninfula of Malacca.

. See ARrRoo.

Axu, in Ichthyology, a name by which the Ruffians di-
ftinguifh a fpecies of mackerel found in the feas about
Kamtfchatka ; the natives call it kara.

ARUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in the
diftric&t:of Hifpalis, now d/clea, a citadel of Andalufia on
the Betis or Quadalquiver, feven leagues above Seville.

ARVA, in Geography, a town and caftle of Hungary,
the capital of a county which extends to Poland, between
the frontiers of Silefia and mount Crapack, fourteen miles
north of Rofenberg—Alfo, a river of Hungary, which
runs into the Waag, eleven miles north of Arva.

ARVAD, in Ancient Geography. See Aran.

ARVALES Fratres, in Roman Antiquity, were priefts
in ancient Rome, who affifted in the facrifices of the Am-
barvalia, offered every year to Ceres and Bacchus for the
profperity of the principal fruits of the earth, viz. the corn
and wine.

They were inftituted by Romulus, and were twelve in
number ; all of them perfons of the firft diftin@tion; the
founder himfelf having been of the body, They conftituted
a college called collegium fratrum arvalium.

The mark of their dignity was a yarland, compofed of
ears of corn tied with a white ribband: this, Pliny fays, was
the firft crown.in ufe at Rome.

According to Fulgentius, Acca Laurentia, Romulus’s
nurfe, was the firft founder of this order of priefts: fhe, it
feems, had twelve fons, who ufed to walk before her in pro-
ceffion to the facrifice ; one of whom dying, Romulus, in
favour of his nurfe, promifed to take his place ; and hence,
fays he, came this facrifice, the number twelve, and the
name of brother.—Pliny (lib. xvii. cap. 2.) feems to indicate
the fame thing, when he mentions that Romulus inftituted
priefts of the fields, after the example of Acca Laurentia,
his nurfe.

ARUANUS, in Conchology, a {pecies of the Murex
genus, that inhabits New Guinea. It is a coarfe and heavy
fhell, ufually of a black or bluifh colour, and encircled
with rings; the aperture is angulated; the tail rather long,
and {pire pointed. The f{pecific chara¢ter is thus defined:
tail patulous; {pire crowned with fpines. O4/ This is the
buccinum aruanum of Rumpfius.

ARVARI, in Ancient Geography, an ancient people of
India, on this fide of the Ganges.

ARVAS, a town of Afia in Hircania. Q. Curtius.

ARUBA, in Geograpiy, one of the Little Antilles
iflands in the Weft Indies, fubje&t to the Dutch; it lies
near the coaft of Terra Firma, fourteen leagues weft of
Curagoa, is uninhabited, and produces little elfe befides corn
and wood. N. lat. 12° 30’. W. long. 67° 35’.

Arusa, atown of Perfia, in the province of Mecran,
near a cape of the fame name in the Indian oceaa, thirty
leagues eaft of Mecrah.

ARUBIUM, or Arggusium, atown of Lower Mefia,
on the Danube. *

ARUBO, a river on the coaft of Guiana, weft of Iffe-
quibo gulf.

ARUBOTH, or Arasorn, in Ancient Geography, a
town or country of Paleftine, in the tribe of Judah.

ARUCCI Novum, a town fituate on the confines of
Lufitania and Betica, placed by Antonine thirty miles from
Pax Julia ; now Moura, a {mall town of Portugal, near
the confluence of the Ardila and Guadalquiver.

ARUCCI Veruvs, a {mall town of the Turdetani, in
Betica; now Aroche, a hamlet. of Andalufia, on the con-
fines of Portugal and Eftramadura, on the river a a

E even

ARV

feven leagues to the eaft of Arucci Novum. A mountain
in its vicinity called Arucitanus derives its name from it ;
now /a Sierra a’ Aroche. '

ARUCIA, a town of Illyria, in the interior parts of
Liburnia. Ptolemy. According to fome, it is now Srega;
bat according to others, Offo/barz, a citadel of Morlachia.

ARUDIS, a town of Afia, in Syria, fituate on the
Euphrates, fouth-caft of Samofata. Ptolemy.

ARUDY, ia Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
reat of the Lower Pyrenees, and chief place of a canton in
the diftri@ of Oleron, 11 miles fouth of Pau. The place
contains 1756 and the canton 10,696 inhabitants: the ter-
zitory includes 260 kiliometres and 12 communes.

ARVE, a fosorous and violent river of Savoy, which
rifes from the Alps, in the county of Faucigny, and runs
into the Rlione near Geneva.

ARVEDORUM Mosrts, in Ancient Geography, moun-
tains of India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

ARVENSIS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Curcurio
defcribed by Mull. Zool. Dan. It is grey, with three
lines on the thorax; wing-cafes rufous, and faintly tef-
fellated.

Aavensis, a fpecies of Crcapa found in Denmark,
It is yellow; front, abdomen beneath and fides black.
Mill. Gmel. &c.

Avensis, a fpecies of Puarzna (Nodua, Linn.) The
wings are brown, with a tranverfe yellow {pdt in the middle;
margin brown. Gmel. Fab. &c.—Naogua brunnea of Wien.
Schmetterl. This infe& is of the middle fize, and the un-
derfide is brown; the larva is naked, brown and {potted
with white; the lateral line is bluifh; head black, with two
white lines.

Arvensts, a fpecies of Vespa that inhabits Europe.
Tt has four yellow bands on the abdomen, the third of
which is interrupted. Linn. Fn. Su. Scheff. &c.

ARVERNI, in Ancient Geography, a denomination given
to one of the moft powerful nations of Gaul, whofe country,
according to Strabo, was fituated between the ocean, the
Pyrenées, and the Rhine. They claimed affinity with the
Romans, as the defcendants of Antenor; to this purpofe
Lucan fays of them,

« Arvernique aufi latio fe dicere fratres
Sanguine ab I[iaco populi.”’
And Pliny fays, that after their conqueft by the Romans,
their ancient liberty was preferved to them on account of
their bravery. When Cefar took pofleffion of Gaul, it was
divided into two factions, the Arverni, and the Aidui; and
it is faid, that the complaints preferred at Rome by the
JEdui againft the Arverni, were one of the caufes which
brought the arms of the Romans into Gaul, under the com-
mand of Fabius Maximus and Domitius Ahenobarbus.
According to Steph. Byz. they were one of the mof war-
hike nations among the Celte. Their country was comprifed
in Aquitania Prima, and their capital was “* Auguitone-
_ matum,” now Clermont, in Auvergne. N. lat. 45° 42’.
E. long. 3° 20’.

ARVERON, in Geography, a river which rifes in a

lacier of Montanvert, in the Alps, and runs into the Arve.

ARVICITO, a2 town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, on the eait coait of Calabria Ultra, four miles
fouth of Stilo,

ARVICOLA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Scanapaus
( Melolontha Fab.) found in Ruffia, and greatly refembiing
S. horticola. "The fhield of the head is refle&ed;- body
black and immaculate. Gmel. &c.—0Od/. It is hairy ; and
the thorax is tinged with blue. ’

ARVIEUX, Lavrenr p’, in Biography, was born of
a family of rack at Marfeilles, ia 1635, and accompanied a

AE U

relation to Seyde in 1653. In this place, and in other

parts of Syria and Paleftine, he refided 12 years, perfecting

himfelf in the eaftera languages, and extending his acquaint-

ance with the hiftory, manners, and politics of the Levant.

Returaing to France in 1665, he was deputed as an envoy

to Tunis in 1668, for the purpofe of negociating a treaty.

Whilft he was fuccefsfully conduting this bufineis, he pro-

cured the liberation of 380 French flaves, who, upon being

reftored to their country offered him-a purfe of 600 piltoles,

which he declined accepting. At Conftantinople, whither

he was fent in 1672, he obtained every thing he afked; and

furprifed the Turks by holding all his conferences without

an interpreter. He was afterwards, viz. in 1675, fent to

Algiers, and obtained the freedom of 240 French flayes:

In 1679, he was preferred to the confulate at Aleppo,

where he performed various fervices, which recommended

him fo much to pope Innocent XT. that he fent him a brief
for the bifhopric of Babylon, empowering him to appoint an-

other perfon if he himfelf chofe to decline it. Accordingly he

nominated father Pidon to the office. In 1686; he returned

to Marfeilles, and principally devoted himfelf to literary pur-
fuits. Hé wrote feveral memoirs on Modern Hiftory, and

the affairs of the Levant: and he employed the lait years of
his life in the ftudy of the feriptures in their original Jan-

guages, aided by the eaftern commentaries and paraphrafes.

He died in 1702, aged 67. In 1717, M. De la Rocque

printed, in r2mo., a MS. which he had left unfinifhed, con-

taining an account of a journey to the grand emir of the

Arabs, with a defcription of the manners and cuftoms of
that people; and in 1734 there appeared, “ Memoirs of”
the chevalier D’ Arvieux,” with an account of all his travels, .
&c. in 6 vols. 12mo. collected and arranged by. father -
Labat, a Dominican. Moreri. Gen. Biog. |

ARVIL, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia Lyon--
nenfis, mentioned by Ptolemy, who are fuppofed, by M.
d’Anville, to have occupied that part of Gau! which corre-
{ponds to part of Maine. Some veftiges of their ancient
capital have been difcoyered in La Cife, on the river Erve,
which runs into the Sarte.

ARVIL-Suffer, an entertainment made at funerals in the
northern parts of England; and arvi/-bread is the bread
delivered to the poor on fuch occafions.. Arvil has alfo ~
been ufed for the funeral rites themfelves. x

ARVIRAGUS, in Biography, a Britith king, flourifhed,
according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, and other native:
writers, in the time of the emperor Claudius. Geoffrey’s
account is generally deemed fabulous; however, he fays,
that he was the foa of Kymbeline;, that upon the death of ~
his father and brother, he headed the Britons, and gained a.
viGtory over Claudius; that upon Claudius’s return to Rome,
he became a powerful prince, and affumed independent au- ~
thority; that upon the arrival of Vefpafian, he made a com--
promife with him, and retained his dominions; and that,_
having governed the kingdom ia peace, his life was pro-.
tracted to a good old age; that he was loved and feared even
by the Romans; and that he was buried at Gloucefter, in a»
temple he had built and dedicated to the honour of the em-
peror Claudius. Ain old tradition reports, that, in the time
of this king, Jofeph of Arimathea-came over to Britain, and:

lanted the golpel in this country. Biog, Brit. ;

ARUM, in Botany, (fuppofed from <2, nosed AMET)
Lin. g. 1028. Schreb. 1387. Gertn.t. 84. Jufl. 24. Clafs,
gynandria polyandria. Monoecia monandria, Schreb. Nat.
Ord: Piperite —Aroide, Jufl. Gens Char, * Male flowers
on the fame fpadix with the females, clofely placed between
a double row of threads. Ciz/. fpathe one-leafed, very large,
oblong, convolute at the bafe, converging at the top ; the
belly compreffed, coloured within; fpadix club-fhaped, quite

I fimple,

AR UM.

fimple, a little fhorter than the fpathe, coloured, fenced at
bottom with germs, and fhrivelling above them; perianth
proper none. Cor. none; nectaries? thick at the bafe, ending
in threads or tendrils, in two rows, iffuing from the middle
of the fpadix. Stam. filament none; each anther feflile, four-
cornered. * Female flowers on the lower part.of the {padix,
clofe to each other. Co/. fpathe and fpadix common to them
with the males; perianth proper none. Cer. none. Pi/l.
germ each obovate; ftyle none; as bearded. Pir. berry
globular, one-celled. Seeds, fevera > roundifh.
_ Eff. Gen. Char. fpathe one-leafed, cowled; {padix naked
above, female below, {tamineous in the middle. Species:
* Without flems; leaves compound.
1. A. crini‘um, hairy fheathed arum; “ leayes pedate, with
the lateral fegments involute; {puthe hairy within; fpadix
ramentaceous above;’’ root leaves cut into feven parts,
which are lanceolate, nerved, middle part largelt; the firtt
Jeaves are fagittate, or five-cleft, various; petioles round,
fheathing at bottom, feape very {hort, round; {pathe as in
the common arum; fpadix fubcylindrical, a little fhorter
than the fpathe; club many times longer than the other
parts, haviag remote violet-coloured briltles fcattered over
it. The flower {mells {trong like carrion, by which flies are
-enticed to enter, but when they would retreat, the reverfed
hairs prevent them, and they are there ftarved to death. It
is a native of Minorca, and introduced in 1777, by Mr. Mal-
colm. It flowers in March. 2. A. dracunculus, long
fheathed arum or common dragon, “ leaves pedate, leaflets
Janceolate, entire; lamina ovate, longer than the {padix;’’
this has a large tuberous flefhy root, which in the fpriag
puts up a ftraight ftalk about three feet high, {potted like
the belly of a fnake; at the top it fpreads out into leaves,
which are cut into feveral narrow fegments almott to the
bottom; at the top of the ftalk the flower is produced,
which is in fhape like the common arum, having a very long
f{pathe, of a dark purple colour, ftanding ereét, with a large
Bx of the fame colour, fo that when it is in flower, it
makes no unpleafing appearance, but the flower has fo ftrong
a {cent of carrion, that few perfons can endure it. It is a
native of the fouthern parts of Europe, flowering in June
and July. Cultivated by Gerard in 1596. 3. A. dracen-
tium, thort-fheathed arum, or green dragon, “ leaves pedate,
leaflets lanceolate, entire, longer than the {pathe, which is
fhorter than the {padix;’’ it rifes about eight or nine inches
highs; leaves petioled, upright, fmaller than thofe of the
‘common dragon; leaflets broad, lanceolate, commonly in
threes; {padix awl-fhaped, flender, longer than both fpathe
and leaves. It flowers with us in June, and grows in moift
‘places in Virginia and New England, alfo in Japan and
China. Cultivated by Miller in 1759. 4. A. venofum,
purple-flowered arum, ‘leaves pedate, leaflets fuboval, en-
tire, lamina lanceolate, longer than the fpadix;’’ the native
country of this {pecies is not kaown. It flowers in March,
and was introduced by Mr. Malcolm in 1774. 5. A. fren-
tapthyllum, five-leaved arum; “ leaves quinate;”’ it grows
about a foot high, fubcaulefcent, upright; leaflets lanceo-
Tate, entire, {mooth. A native of the Eaft Indies aad
Ghmast '6:;° A. triphyllum, three-leaved _ green-ttalked
arum; “ leaves ternate, lamina lanceolate, acuminate,
the length of the fpadix; it is fubcaulefcent, with
the feape arifing from the petiole; fome {capes are male,
others female, from the fame root; the male fpathe is
ere€t, the female has the lip inflected. The Brafilian
plant has the fide leaflets lobed outwards. | The Vir-
~ginian plant has them only gibbous, but the {truture of the
flower is the fame in both. 'Fhis plant according to Lou-
reiro differs in China from the foreroing, in having the leaf-
Jets diflinG, not pedate. It flowers in Jung and July, and

appears from Evelyn’s kalendar to have been cultivated Lere,
in 1664. 7. A. atrorubens, three-leaved purple-ftalked arum.
A. triphyllum, y Lin. Spec. “ Leaves ternate, lamina ovate,
fhorter by half than the {padix.”? A native of Virginia, and
cultivated by Miller in 1758. It flowers in June and July.
8. A. kernalumy * leaves ternate, receptacle longer than the
{pathe.”? Found in Japan by 'Thunberg, flowering in May
and Juve.
** Without flems; leaves Simple.

9. A. cclocafia, Egyptian arum, Catefb. car. 2. t. 45.
‘« Leaves peltate, ovate, repand, {emibifid at- the bafe;?? it
hasa thick large oblong root, rounded at the bafe; leaves
thick, {mooth, afh-coloured, in form and fize refembling
thofe of the water lily; petioles thick, upright, roundith,
whitifh, fpreading out at the bottom; {cape fhort, with a
{ubulate reflex flat fpathe. A native of the Levant, Egypt.
Sicily, &e. Lhis plant is efteemed a wholefome food. 10.
A. bicslorum, two-coloured arum, “ leaves peltate, fagittate,
coloured on the difk, ipathe contraGted in the middle, fub-
globular at the bafe, lamina roundifh, acuminate; upright,
fomewhat convolute.”” This is cultivated in Madeira, and
was introduced here in 1773, by Mefl. Kennedy and Lee.
{It fowers in June ard July. 11. A.c/eulentum, efculent
arum, or Indian kale. Sloan. Jam, 1. t. 106. “ Leaves pel-
tate, ovate, entire, emarginate at the bafe;’? the root is
large, tuberous, fubovate, brown, with {mall tubers growing
at the fide of it. he plant is about three feet in height;
leaves fmooth, of a bright green, femibifid at the bafe, and
roundif{h; petioles round, dilated at the bafe, embracing the
inner ones; {pathe fpreading, {traight, not cowled, longer
than the fpadix. The Jamaica plant feems to be smaller
than that of the eafl; for Sloase fays that it only rifes a
foot from the ground. He fays, in that ifland this {pecies is
planted very carefully in\moift plantations; that the roots
are eaten, but that the leaves are moft valued, which are boil-
ed and ufed as coleworts, It would feem indeed that the
A. efculentum is a plant highly ufeful and very generally
cultivated in warm climates, and by none more than by the
natives of the South Sea Iflands. The acrimony of the
root in its recent ftate is fo great, that when eaten raw, it
will excoriate the mouth, but on being baked, this acrime-
nious quality is wholly diffipated. This fpecies was culti-
vated by Millerin1739. 12. A. macrorhizon, long-rooted
arum. Vlor. Autt. n. 329. <* Leaves peltate, cordatey re-
pand, two-parted at the bafe;”’ this has a very large root, or
rather fubterraneous trunk, the thicknefs and length of the
human arm; leaves very large and wide, fhining on both
fides, furnifhed with ftrong prominent nerves; their very
long hollowed petioles form at bottom, where they embrace
each other clofely; flem three feet long, and as thick as a
man’s arm. The flower is white and very fweet; allthe flo-
rets are hermaphrodite. his {pecies, which is diftinguifhed
by its great fize, is anative of China, and Cochinchina, the
Hatt Indies, Ceylon, and the iflands of the Southern
Ocean, and is eaten by the natives like the foregoing,
13. A. feregrinum, “ Leaves cordate, obtufe, mucronate ;
angles rounded.” A natiyeof America. Mr. Miller fays
that he has received three forts of arum from the Wet
Indies, by the title of Edder, but he fuppofes this to be
moit commonly cultiyated there forits roots. 14. A. diva-
ricatum, ‘* leaves cordate-haflate, divaricate.’? Rheed.
Mal. 11. 39. t. 20. Spathe revolute; fpadix fubulate,
longer than the fpathe. A native of Malabar and Ceylor,
15. A. trilotatum, three-lobed arum,. Mill. fig, t. 52. f.-z.
“« Leaves fagittate-trilobate; flower feflile.”” Muller defcribes
this plant as follows; root tuberous; leaves remaining
mott part of the year; f{pathe fix inches long, inclining
cownwards, having a long point twilted like a {crew, in-

: Ly2 : . fide

ARUM..

fide deep purple, outfide green; fpadix long, flender, pur-
ple; extending out of the fpathe, turning upwards; the
flower is fetid like carrion. It was brought from Ceylon in
1752, and flowered inthe Chelfea garden. It flowers here
in May and June, 16. A. /agittefolium, arrow-leaved arum,
Jacq. Hort. 2. 157. See alfo Brown Jam. and Sloanc’s
Jam. 1.t. 106. f. 3. Lour. Coch. 534. ‘ Leaves fagit-
tate triangular ; the angles divaricate, acute ;” upright, four
feet high; leaves large, dufky green, bifid at the bafe,
divaricate, all the angles acute ; footitalks round, fpotted
with red and black ; {pathe long, cowled, longer than the
fpadix, which is club-thaped. Aw native of the Spanifh
Weft Indies, China, and Cochinchina. Cultivated by
Miller in 1731. In Jamaica it is called fmaller Indian kale,
and cultivated there by feveral perfons for the fame pur-
pofes as the A. efeulentum. 17. A. maculatum, common arum,
Curt. Lond. 2. 63. Woody. t. 25. Smith Flor. Brit.
Hudf. Wither. Lightf. « Common arum without fpots. 8
Common {potted arum. y Italian arum. “¢ Leaves haftate,
entire ; fpadix club-fhaped.”” It has a tuberous whitifh root
about the fize of a large nutmeg, growing tranfverfely,
fending forth on every fide a great number of fingle fibres,
propagating itfelf by lateral tubercles ; leaves radical, from
two to four, fhining, veiny, frequently marked with dark
purple or black {pots, fometimes itreaked with white,
ftanding on fheathing triangular footftalks ; fpathe ufually
green, and often {potted like the leaves ; fpadix varies from
a yellowifh green, to a fine purple; berries fcarlet, in a
naked clufter, each containing one or two feeds. It is com-
mon in moit parts of Europe, and is the only f{pecies of
the genus indigenous in Britain. It is ufually found under
hedges, flowering in May, and ripening its berries in the
autumn. 18. A. virginicum, Virginian arum. “ Leaves
haftate-cordate, acute; angles obtufe.”” It grows wild in
wet places in Virginia, Carolina, Pennfylvania, &c. The
favages boil the fpadix with the berries, and devour it as a
great dainty. 19. A. i agi Apennine arum, arifa-
rum, Tournef. Bocc. Muff. 2. 61.t. 50. ‘* Leaves haftate,
fpathe declinate, filiform-fubulate.”” A native of the Apen-
nines. Spathe fhaped like a monk’s cowl ; leaves on very
fhort footftalks. 20. A. arifarum, broad-leaved hooded
arum, or friar’s cowl. Hort. Cliff. 435. Sabb. Hort. 2.
t. 79. % Leaves cordate oblong, aperture of the fpathe
ovate ; fpathe entire and bent inwards above, below not
conyolute ;”? about a foot and a half high ; leaves fharpith ;
fpathe fhorter than the leaves ; fpadix curved; berries red,
one-feeded. Avnativeofthe South of Europe. Dr. Smith ob-
ferves, thatthe Italians call this plant #/ /ume, from theftriking
refemblance of its flower, when reverfed, to a lamp with its
wick. Cultivated by Gerard in 1596. 21. A. fiicum, painted
arum. “ Leaves cordate, painted with coloured veins ;”’ root-
leaves three or four, petioled, painted on the upper furface
with white veins ; fpathe feffile, radical, inflated at the bafe,
green, except at the top, where it is purplifh; fpadix with an
ovate-oblong, dark purple club; germsfubglobofe, green; an-
thers immediately above them ; upper filaments remote. See
Supp. Plant. 410. 22. A. ovatum, Rumph. Amb. 5. 312. t.
108. ‘¢ Leaves ovate-oblong; fpathe {cabrous.”’ A native of
the Eaft Indies. 23. A. tenuifolium, grafs-leaved arum, or
narrow-leavedfriar’scowl. “ Leaves lanceolate; {padix briftle-
fhaped, declinate.”? This fpecies ufually has five or fix fhining
leavesrefembling thofe of narrow-leaved plantain ; fpathe long,
pointed, reflex, white; fpadix feven inches long, purple or
greenifh, pointed. It grows wild about Rome, Montpellier,
alfo in Dalmatia and the Levant. We learn from Lobel that
it was cultivated here in 1570. 24. A. cannefolium, Supp.
Plant. 470. “ Leaves lanceolate, veinlefs;”? leaves few, two
feet long, refembling thofe of canna; {eape very fhort; {pathe
6

rather obtufe, red without, white within, In the fpadix
there is no {pace between the itamens and’ piftils. A nae
tive of Surinam, on-trees, parafitical.

*** Caulefcent.

25. At arborefeens, tree-arum, Plum. Amer. 44; t. 51. ge
& 60. Straight ; leaves fagittate.”? A native of South
America. 26. A. /eguinum, dumb cane arum, Jacq. Amer.
239. t. 151. pict. t. 229. Miller’s fig. 295. See Sloane and
Brown’s Jam. ‘ Nearly upright ; leaves lanceolate ovate’? ~
It rifes to the height of fix or feven feet, witha green-joint-
ed ftalk, as large asa walking-cane. Leaves placed irregu-
larly at the top ofthe fialks in a clufter; they are oblong,
of a light green colour, and fometimes punched with holes,,
as inthe dracontium prertufum. On the fide of the ftalks,
between the leaves, the fowers appear with a long fpathe of
a pale green colour, marked with white fpots. The female
flowers and ftamens are ranged only on one fide of the fpa-
dix, a circumftance which diftinguithes it from all its conge-
ners. It isa native of the Sugar Iflands, and the warmer parts
of America. Cultivated in 1759, by Miller. The whole
plant abounds with an acrid juice, fo that if applied to the
tongue, this organ fwells fo much as to lofe the power of
articulation, and hence the name of dumd-cane. In this way
it is faid to have been ufed as a punifhment for negroes.
The juice is: fometimes employed to affift the lime in promot-
ing the granulation of fugar. 27. A. hederaceum, ivy-leaved
arum, Jacq. Amer. t. 192. pi. 230. ‘** Radicant ; leaves
cordate, oblong, acuminate ; petioles round.” A native of
the Weft Indies. 28. A. ingulatum, tongue-leaved arum,
Brown Jam. 333. n. 12. Sloane’s Jam. 1. 75. t. 27. f. 2, 3-
“< Creeping; leaves cornate lanceolate; their footitalks edged
with membranes.”’ It readily climbs trees, and becomes more!
fucculent and luxuriant towards the top. A native of the
Welt Indies. 29. A. auritum, ear-leaved arum, Brown
Jam. 331. n. 2. Sloan. 1. 169. ‘¢ Radicant ; leaves ter-
nate; thofe on the fide one-lobed.”” _A climbing plant,
fending out roots from the {tems and branches ; leaves large
heart-fhaped, having three lobes or ears; flowers incloied
ina large fpathe. A native of the Weft Indies. Found on
all the hills of Jamaica, climbing the trees, and is the only
arum with compound leaves in that ifland. Cultivated by
Miller in 1748. 30. A. mdicum, Indian arum, Lour. Coch.
536. Rumph. Amb. 5. t. 106. * Nearly upright; leaves
ovate ; bifid at the bafe, rounded ; fpadices axillary ;” item
five feet high, as thick as a man’s arm ; leaves very large, ©
with many tranfverfe parallel ribs, on fubulate, ereét, ftem-
clafping footftalks ; fpathes axillary, {mall, acute, ftraight,
convolute ; fpadix tapering, ere€t; berries pale, fmall. A
native of the Eaft Indies. Cultivated in Cochinchina,
where the ftalk is boiled and eaten. 31. A. cucullatum,
cowled arum, Lour. Cochinch. 356. ‘ Upright; leaves
peltate, cordate, with the ears cowled ;” item two feet
high, leaves acuminate, on long round footitalks ; fpadix
fhort, almoft wholly covered with florets. A native of the
fuburbs of Canton. 32. A. /firale, fpiral arum, Retz.
Obf. 1. 30. n. 104. «* Stemlefs ; leaves lanceolate ; fpathe
fpiral feffile ;”? leaves acute, naked, with the footftalks
dilated at the bafe, membranaceous, veined. A native of
Tranquebar in the Eaft Indies, difcovered by Koenig.
This fpecies ought to have been placed in the fecond divi-
fion. It may here be obferved, that in the arum, every
piftil and every anther is to be confidered as a diftin& floret,
confequently it ought to be removed to the clafs monoecia ;
and this has been done by Screber and Withering. Thun-
berg and Swartz place it in the clafs jolyandria. We fee no
advantage however in removing it from the clafs gynandria,
where it was left by the great author of the fexual fyitem.
Medicinaz

ARU

Medicinal qualities, Common arum is the only fpecies of
this genus included in the Materia Medica; and its ufe is
confined to the root, which in a recent ftate is lactef{cent and
extremely acrimonious, infomuch that when cut into flices
and onic to the fkin, it has been found to blifter the
part; aud upon being chewed, it excites an intolerable fenfa-
tion of burning and pricking in the tongue, which continues
for feveral hours. This acrimony, however, is gradually
loft by drying, and may be fo completely diflipated by the
application of heat, as to leave the root a bland farinaccous
aliment. Its medicinal efficacy, therefore, refides wholly in
the active volatile matter. It isa very powerful ftimulant,
and by promoting the fecretions, may be properly employed
in cacheétic and chlorotic cafes, in rheumatic affections, aud
in various complaints of phlegmatic, torpid conttitutions;
but more efpecially in a weakened or relaxed ftate of the
ftomach, abounding with vifcid mucus. If the root is given
in powder, great care fhould be taken that it be young and
newly dried, when it may be ufed in the dofe of a fcruple
or more twice a day; but in rheumatifms and paralytic aftec-
tions, requiring the full effeGs of this medicine, the root
fhould be given in its recent ftate ; and to cover the infup-
portable pungency it difcovers on the tongue, Dr. Lewis
advifes us to adminifter it in the form of emulfion with gum
arabic and fpermaceti, increafing the dofe from ten grains
to upwards of a {eruple, three or four times a day ; in this
way, he fays, ‘it generally occafioned a fenfation of flight
warmth about the ftomach, and afterwards in the remoter
parts, manifeltly promoted perfpiration, and frequently pro-
duced a plentiful {weat.’’ As fevyeral obftinate rheumatic
pains were removed by this medicine, it is recommended to
further trial. See Woody. Med. Bot. p. 75. ;

Propagation and Culture. Species 2. is very hardy and will
grow in any foil or fituation; autumn is the proper time for
tranfplanting it. 3. fhould have a moifty, fhady fituation; it
is with difficulty preferved in gardens. 6, 7, 8. are propa-
gated by offsets ; they will live in the open air, if planted in
a fheltered fituation, or if the furface of the ground be
covered with tan. 9, I0, 11, 12, 13, 14. and 16. are to be
propagated by offsets planted in pots, and plunged into a
hot-bed, and after having acquired fufficient itrength, kept
upon fhelves in a dry ftove. 15. requires the tan-bed or
bark-ftove. Common arum ought to be tranfplanted foon
after the feeds are ripe. 19, 20,21. Thefe multiply fait
by offsets, and fhould have a fhady fituation, 25, 26, 27,

.28, 29. are propagated by cutting off the ftalks, into lengths
of three or four joints, which muft be laid to dry fix weeks
or more; for if the wounded part be not perfeétly healed
over before the cuttings are planted, they will rot and decay ;
they fhould be put in {mall pots filled with light fandy
earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed of tan, being
careful that they have little wet till they have made good
roots, when fome of them may be placed in a-dry ftove, and
others plunged in the tan-bed, in the bark ftove, where
they will produce more flowers. They are tender plants,
and mutt be conftantly kept in the ftove. See Martyn’s
'Miller’s Did.

Arum thiopicum. See Carva.

Arum Scandens. See Dracontium.

ARUMATITA, in Entomology, a name given by Mare-
graave, in his Natural Hiftory of Brafil, to the fpecies of
Manris called Gigas by Linnzus.

ARUN, in Ancient Geography, a village of Paleftine, in
the neizhbourhood of Samaria.

* Arun, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the fea at Little Hampton in Suffex, famous for its red
roullets,

ARU

ARUNCI. See Avruncr.

Arxunet, in Latomology, a {pecies of Crcana, defcribed
by Scopoli, This infeé is entirely of a ferruginous colour,
with brown eyes.

ARUNCO, in Zoology, a fpecies of Rana or toad, that
is larger than the common frog, but nearly of the fame co-
Jour. It inhabits Chili; and is deferibed by Molina. AU
the feet of this kind are palmated, and the body warted.
Dr. Shaw fpecifically defcribes it thus: R.corpore verrucofo
pedibus omnibus palmatis. Gmelin feems to think the pal-
mated feet are a fufficient criterion by which it may be dif.
eee “ pedibus omnibus palmatis.”? Gmel,

RUNCUS, in Botany. See Spire.

ARUNDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
Beetica, feated on the Annas or Guadiana ; now faid to be
Ronda, in the province of Granada, on the confines of An-
dalufia. N. lat. 36° 26’. W. long. 5° go’.

ARUNDEL, Tuomas, in Biography, archbifhop of
Canterbury in the reigns of Richard II. Henry IV. and
Henry V., was the fecond fon of Robert Fitz-Alan, earl
of Arundel and Warren; and at the age of twenty-one
years, in 1374, promoted from the archdeaconry of Taun~
ton to the fee of Ely, and enthroned with the ufual folem-
nities in 1376. While he held this fee he almoft rebuilt the
epifcopal palace in Holborn, and, befide other donations,
prefented it witha table of maffive gold, enriched with pre-
cious ftones, which he had bought of prince Edward for
three hundred marks. Upon his tranflation to the arch-
bifhopric of York, in 1388, he expended a large fum in
building an archiepifcopal palace, and in furnifhing the
church with feveral pieces of filver-gilt plate, and other or-
naments. After his advancement to the fee of Canterbury,
in 1396, he was a great benefaCtor to that church; for he
built the fouthern tower and great part of the nave, and
gave it a ring of five bells, called “ Arundel’s ring,’’ feve-
ral rich veftments, a mitre enchafed with jewels, a filver gilt
crofier, a golden chalice for the high altar, and another to
be ufed only on St. Thomas a Becket’s day.. He held the
office of lord high chancellor of England, with fome inter-.
ruptions, from the year 1386 to 1396; and im 1393, he re-
moved the courts of juitice from London to York ; partly
with a view of mortifying the pride and infolence of the in-
habitants of London, and principally for the purpofe of en-
riching thofe of the latter city, over the diocefe of which he
prefided: but after the experience of one or two terms, the
courts returned to their firft and more convenient ftation.
‘Soon after his acceffion to the metropolitan fee, he revived
an old inftitution, by which the inhabitants of the feveral
parifhes of London were obliged to pay their rector one half-
penny in the pound out of the rent of their houfes.

The interference of archbifhop Arundel in the civil affairs
of the kingdom terminated in his impeachment and exile.
Having taken an aétive part in the frft attempt that was
made to deliver the nation from the oppreffion of Richard
Il. by obtaining a commiffion to the duke of Gloucefter,
his brother the earl of Arundel, and others, in which cor -
miffion he himfelf was included, for governing the kingdom,
he was impeached by the commons, fentenced to be baaifhed,
and ordered to leave the kingdom within forty days, on pain
of death. Pope Boniface IX. feizing this opportunity of
teftifying his difpleafure againft the king and parliament of
England, gave Arundel a cordial reception at Rome, nomi-
nated him archbifhop of St. Andrews, and promifed him
other preferments. The king’s remonitrance, however, pre-
vailed with his holinefs to withhold the grant of the fur-
ther favours which he had intended to confer on the exiled
prelate. The diffatisfaction of the people of England ie

5 the

ARU

the government of Richard II. increafing, archbifhop Arun-
idel had an opportunity of returning to his country, and re-
gaining his digaities., Whilft he was in Brittany, in his way
home, he was employed to folicit Henry duke of Lancatfter,
:who had been banifhed by Richard, to return from France,
and affume the crown: and having “obviated the duke’s
{cruples, the acceflion of Henry IV. was accompanied with
the reftoration of Arundel to the metropolitan fee ; and he
had the pleafure of placicg the crown on the head of his
new mafter. At an early period of this reign, a defign was
.formed,of feizing the revenues of the church, in order to
fupply the exigencies of the public fervice.. Ina parliament
held at Coventry in 1404 er 1405, and called * Parria-
MENTUM INDOCTUM,”’ this meafure was propofed. for exe-
cution, Aruwidel was prefent, remonftrated againt the pro-
poial, and urged ‘that the clergy were at leaft as fervice-
able to the king by their prayers, as the laity by their arms;
and that the kingdom could not expeé to profper as long
as the prayers of the church were defpifed.”? iis fpirited
exertions prevented, for the prefent, the further profecution
of this violent meafure. The archbifhop having thus ref-
cued the temporalities of the church from depredation, ma-
wnifetted equal zeal in preferving inyiolate its interaal conti
tution. He exerted himfelf for-reftraining the progrefs of
thofe new opinions, with regard both to doctrine and wer-
fhip, which were diflemiaated by the Lollards ar Wicklifiites;
-aad as the univerlity of Oxford was beginning to be infected
with thefe opinions, he appointed vifitors to examine and to
report the ftate of that feminary. He proceeded, in con-
f{equence.of the information he received from the inguifitorial
committee, delegated and fan¢tioned by his authority, to
perfecute, with an abfurdity aad cruelty which nothing but
the ignorance and bigotry of the times can in any degree
extenuate, thofe who were found chargeable with this new
herefy. Upon the authority of the a& for burning heretics,
which paffed in the reign of Henry IV. and which remained
for a long time a difgrace to our flatute books, a Lollard
was condemned to the flames in 1410; and im the beginning
of the reign of Henry V. fir John Oldcaftle, lord Cobham,
.a principal patron of the Lollards, was indicted by the pri-
mate, convicted of herefy, and fentenced to the flames. He
had fome time before attempted to procure an order from
the pope to dig up the bones of Wickliffe, which was refuted;
.and he actually procured a fynodical conftitution, which pro-
hibited the tranflation of the {criptures into the vulgar
tongue. It is faid that whilit the archbifhop was pronounc-
ing fentence of excommunication and condemnation on lord
Cobham, he was feized with an inflammation in his throat,
which prevented his taking any fuitenance, and foon termi-
nated in his death, Feb. 2oth, 1413. The death of the
prelate, as to the time and manner of it, was attributed by
the Lollards to the immediate interpofition of God: but
however fuperftitious fuch judgments may be deemed in the
fent enlightened age, the intolerance and cruelty of the
arclibifhop will be univerfally condemned, and they will
eutail juft reproach on his name and character as long as any
records of him remain. , Bio. Brit.

ARUNDEL, in Geografiiy, a corporation and borough
town of England, in the county of Suflex, feated on the
river Arun, whence its name. It fends two members to

~ parliament; the corporation confifts of a mayor and twelve
burgeffes; it has two markets weekly, on Wednefday and
Saturday; and is diftant from London fixty-one miles. It
has a harbour which admits veffels of one hundred tons
burthen, and which was repaired in.1733. The caftle,
which ftands on the north-eaft part of the town, was con-
ferred by the emprefs Maud on William le Albano, as a

refe

ARU

recompence for his-defence of it againft king Stephen, It
defcended to the Norfolk family in 1579, and the prefent
duke has expended large fums in repairing and adorning it,
To this place belongs the peculiar privilege of conferring
the title of earl on its pofleflors without any patent or cre-
ation from the crown ; and Arundel is the-premier earldom
in England. _ N, lat. 50° 45’. W. long. 0° 25’. ‘
ARUNDEL, a townfhip of America, in York county and
diftrict of Maine, fituate between cape Porpoife and Bidde-
ford on the north-eait, on the river Saco, twenty-one miles
north-eaft from York, and ninety-fix north-eaft from Bof-
ton. It contains 1458 inhabitants.
ARUNDELIAN Marstes, Marmora Arindeliana,
or Oxford Marbles, called alfo Parian Chronicle, are fup-
pofed to be ancient ftones, whereon is inferibed a chro-

‘nicle of the city of Athens, engraven in capital letters in the

ifland of Paros, one of the Cyclades, 264 years before Jefus
Chrift, They take their rame from Thomas earl of Arun=
del, who procured them out of the Eait, or from Henry
his grandfon, who prefented them to the univerfity of Ox-
ford.

Thefe marbles, and other ancient relics, were purchafed
in Afia Minor, Greece, and the iflands of the Archipelago,
by Mr. William Petty, who was employed, in the year
1624, by Thomas earl of Arundel, in making fuch’ col-
lecticsstor him in the Eaft. They were brought into Eng-
land about the year 1627, and placed in the gardens be-
longing to Arundel houfe in London. Soon after their ar-
rival, they excited very general curiofity among inguifitive
and learned perfons; and fir Robert Cotton engaged Mr,
Selden to explain the Greek infcriptions. Accordingly
Selden and two of his friends, Patrick Young, or Patzi-
cius Junius, and Richard James, immediately undertook the
buiinefs ; and in the following year Selden publifhed a fimall
yolnime in 4to. undex the title of ** Marmora Arundeliana,”
containing about thirty-nine of the infcriptions, with anno-
tations. During the civil wars, Arundel houfe was often
deferted by its illuitrious proprietors, and fome of the mar-
bles were defaced or broken, and others ftolen or ufed for
the ordinary purpofes of architecture. The chronolo-
gical marble, in particular, was broken and defaced; and
the upper part, containing thirty-one epochas, is faid to
hayé been ufed in repairing a chimney in Arundel houfe,
In the year 1667, the honourable Henry Howard, after-
wards duke of Norfolk, the grandfon of the firft collector,
prefented thefe curious remaiis of antiquity to the univer-
fity of Oxford; and as Mr. Selden’s work was become
{carce, bifhep Fell engaged Dr. Prideaux, dean of Norwich, -
to publifh a new edition of the infcription, which was
printed at Oxford in 1676, with additional notes and tranf-
lations, under the title of «* Marmora Oxonienfia, ex Arun-
delianis, Seldenianis, et aliis conflata.”” In 1731, Mr. Mat-
taire favoured the public with a more comprehenfive view of
thefe marbles than either of his predeceffors ; and in 1763,
Dr. Chandler publifhed a new and improved copy of them,
in which he correGted the miftakes of the former editors,
and fupplied the Jacune in fome of the infcriptions, parti-.
cularly thofe of the Parian chronicle, by many ingenious
conjectures. ;

Thefe marbles, in their perfeé ftate, contained a chrono-
logical detail of the principal events of Greece during a
period of 1318 years, extending from the commencement of
the reign of Cecrops in the year before Chrift 1582, to the
clofe of the archonate of Diognetus in the year before Chrift
264. But the chronicle of tie lait 90 years is loft, fo that the
part now remaining terminates with the archonfhop of Dio-
timus, 354 years before Chriit; and in this fragment the
' infeription

—

»

ARU

infeription is very much corroded and effaced, and the fenfe

can only be difcovered by very learned and induftrious an-

tiquaries, or fupplied by their conjeGtures, For a _tranf-
lation from the Greek of this ancient remain, fee ‘Tab. i.
Playfair’s Chronology, p. 297. Almott every event in this
table between the deitruction of Troy and the annual ma-
giftracy of Athens, is dated twenty-fix years earlier than in
the canons of Enufebius, and thofe of other approved chro-
nologers ; fo that this number of years muft be fubtratted
from the dates in the marbles, during the time mentioned,
in order to accommodate them to thofe of Eratofthenes,
Dion. Halicarnaffenfis, Eufebius, and other ancient writers.
Thefe valuable remains of antiquity have .bcen applied to
the elucidation of many parts of ancient hiltory that had
been long inyolved in obfcurity. | However their incon-
fitency with other authentic hiftorical accounts has depre-
ciated their importance and ufe ; and fir Ifaac Newton, as
well as fome other modern philofophers, have paid little
er no regard to them. Their authenticity has indeed of
late-been the fubjeét of particular difcuffion between Mr.
Robertfon, who, in his “ Parian Chronicle,’ 8vo. 1788,
queltioned it ; and Mr. Hewlett, in his “ Vindication of the
Authenticity of the Parian Chronicle,” 8vo. 1789, de-
fended it. See an account of the arguments on both fides,
under the article Parran Chronicle.

ARUNDINACEA, in Concholozy, afpecies of SABELLA
found in rivers in fome parts of Europe. It is fubconic,
open at both ends, and compofed of fragments of the bark
of reeds placed on each other, Gmelin, &c.

_ Arunpinaces, in Entomology, a {pecies of ARANEA
that is found among reeds. ‘The abdomen is fub-globofe,
aad white {potted with pale brown. Linn. Fn. Suec.

ARUNDINACEUS, in Ornitholocy, a {pecies of Tur-
pus that inhabits reedy marfhes of Europe, and is called
La Roufferole, on Roucherolle, by Brifion, Buffon, and
other French writers. Ray and Willughby named it Junco,
or greater reed {parrow ; and Dr. Latham, the reed thrush.

his bird is rather larger than the common lark; the
colour is ferruginous brown ; white, with a teftaceous tinge
beneath ; quill-teathers brown, reddifh at the end. Gmel.
&c. Of this fpecies Gmelin enumerates three varieties ; viz.
8. Turdus arundinaceus uropygio caudaque rufis: var. with
rufous rump and tail. y. Turdus arundinaceus fupra fa-
gittis nigris varius: var. varied above with black arrow-
thaped fpots. 9. Turdus arundinaceus minimus, fupra ex
jutefcente virens, teétricibus alarum ferrugineis: var. fmall,
above yellowith-green, wing ferruginous.* In the fouthern
parts of Ruffia, and in Poland, this fpecies, it is faid, is very
common. It makes its neft on the mofly hillocks among
reeds and rufhes, or according to Cramer fufpends the
neft between two or three reeds which are faftened together
to fupport it. The female lays five or fix eggs; and the
male, it is likewife observed, is perpetually finging while
the female is fitting ; and hence it has acquired the name
of water nightingale.

ARUNDINETTI, in Entomology, a {pecies of Tripura
deferibed by Linneus and Fabricius. It is whitish; an-
tennz villofe; eyes black. A native of Europe, and in-
habits reedy marfhes. .

ARUNDINIS, a fpecies of Puatzna (Nodxa, Linn.)
that lives on the ftalks of reeds. It is an European kind ;
the wings are cinereous with black dots, and marginal li-
nules of the fame colour; and the wings beneath marked
with a central brown fpot. Fabricius, &c.

Arunpinis, a fpecies of Aris, that lives on the leaves
of arundo efiigeios. "The body is green; head and thorax
brown, and covered with white dots. Fabricius, Gmelin, &e.

ARU

ARUNDO, in Botany, Reed (fuppofed to be derived
from areo, becaufe it foo becomes dry). Linn. §- 93-Schreb.
124. Jufl. 32. Clas, triandria digynia. Nat. Ord. Gra-
mince or graffes. Gen. Char. Cal. glume one, or many-
flowered, two-valved, ereét; valves oblong, acuminate,
awnlefs ; one fhorter. Cor. two-valved; valves the length
of the calyx, oblong, acuminate; from their bafe arifes a
lanugo, almoft the length of the flower ; neétary, two-valved,
very {mall Stam. filaments three, capillary ; anthers fork-
ed at both ends. Pf. germ oblong ; ttyles two, capillary,
reflex, villofe ; ftigmas fimple. Per. none; corolla adheres
to the feed without gaping ; feed fingle, oblong, acuminate
at both ends, furnifhed with long down (pappus) at the bafe.

Eff. Gen. Char. Ca/. two-valved; florets congregated,
furrounded with wool.

Species, 1. A. ambos 3 bambu or bamboo-cane; A.
bambee. Lour. Cochinch. 56. A. arbor, Bauh. Pin. 18.—
va/aria, Bulu Java. Rumph. Amb. 1. 6, c. 4. Tly. Rheed.
Mal. i. 25. t. 16. Bambos arundinacea, Retz. Obf. 5. 240
n. 58.‘¢Calyxes many flowered, (one-flowered, Lour. ) {pikes
in threes, (unequal in number, Retz.) feffile.”” Lin. flowers
fix-ftamened; panicle diffufed, with | imbricate fpikelets,
branches of the culm fpiny ; calyxes one-flowered. Lou-
reiro. Panicle branched, divaricate, hard; fpikes heaped
alternately, unequal in number, feffile. Retzius. The bam-
boo has a woody hollow round {traight culm, forty feet high
and upwards, fimple and fhining ; the internodes a foot in
length and in circumference ; fheaths thick, hairy, rough,
convolute, deciduous; branches alternate, flender, folid;
{piny, reclining, fpringing out from the bafe to the top ;
the lower ones being ufually cut off; leaves {mall, entire,
lanceolate, roundifh at the bafe, ftriated, rough, on altey-
nate round petioles. For the parts of inflorefcence we
refer to the fpecific charaGters. It grows almoft every
where within the tropical regions. Over a great part of
Afia it is very common: in China, Cochinchina, Tonquin,
Cambodia, Japan, Ceylon, the peninfula of India, and the
iflands. The bamboo-cane has been long fince introduced
into the Weit Indies, and flourifhes alfo in South Carolina.
Mr. Miller cultivated it here in 1730, and if our ftoves
were high enough, thefe plants would probably rife to the
height of forty feet, as a {trong fhoot from the root has
been found to attain to half this height in fix weeks.

There is perhaps no plant ufed for fuch a variety of pur-
pofes as bamboo. In the Eaift Indies, great ufe is made of
it in building, and the houfes of the lower clafs of people
are almoit entirely compofed of it.- Bridges are alfo made
of it, mafts for their boats, boxes, cups, bafkets, mats, &c.
Paper is alfo made of it by bruifing and fteeping it jn water,
and thus forming it into a pafte. It is the common fence
for gardens and fields, and is frequently ufed as pipes for
conveying water. The leaves are generally put round the
tea which 1s fent in chefts to Europe from China. A fub-
ftance called Tabafher or Tabachir, which is a concretion
of tke liquor in the cavities of the cane, and extracted at
certain feafons, is faidto be indeftruétible by fire, to refift
the action of the ftrongeft acids, and by fufion with alkali
to form a tran{parent permanent glafs which may be decom-
pofed by acids, &c. The tabafher is much efteemed as a
medicine by the orientalifts, and indeed feveral parts of the
bamboo, according to Loureiro, poffefs medicinal virtues.
A. arborea, and A. orientalis, of Miller, feem to be only
varieties of A. Zambos, and we learn from Loureiro and others,
that there are ftillmore varieties, if not found to be diG@in& fpe~
cies. 2. A. donax, cultivated reed. A. /ativa. Bauh. Pin. 17
Rau Hitt. 1275. Mor. Hit f.8.t.8.f. 5. Calyxes five-
flowered, panicle diffufed, culm fhrubby 5” culm from fix

to

ARU

fo twenty feet’ in height, hard, almoft woody, jointed or
knatted, with diaphragms. Above each joint a leaf embrac-
ing thé culm, with a yellow fheath, two feet long, and three
inches broad. Thetop of the cuim ends in a point, the
leaves rolling in the form of a cone; panicle a foot anda
half long, erect, many flowered. Number of flowers in the
calyx variable, often two, but more commonly three. It is
a native of the fouth of Europe, Siberia, Egypt, Cochin-
china, &c. It was cultivated in 1648, in the Oxford bota-
nic garden, and flowers here in July and Auguit. The
eanes are brought to us from Spain and Portugal, for the
‘ufe of weavers, and for making fifhing rods, &c. There is
a variety of A. donax, with {triped leaves, noticed by Miller
and others. 3. A. frkragmitvs, common reed. Smith Flor.
Brit. 144. Hudf. 53. With. 166. Relh. 51. Eng. Bot. 4o1.
«Calyxes five flowered, panicle loofe 3” root perennial,
ereeping ; culms annual, erect, fimple, fix feet high, round,
jointed, leafy, fmooth, white within; leaves lanceolate,
acuminate, {preading, itriated, rough at the edges, under-
neath very fmooth and glaucous ; {heaths cylindric, ftriated,
fmooth ; ftipules very fhort, hairy on both fides ; panicle
erect, diffufed, much branched; glumes of the calyx very
unequal, lanceolate, acute, the larger three-nerved ; florets
from four to fix, furrounded at the bafe with a filky wool;
interior glume ciliated, half the length of the exterior ; feed
covered with the indurated corolla. A variety of this
fpecies with variegated leaves is noticed by Relhan. It is
common in ditches, ftanding waters, and on fides of rivers,
flowering from July till September. The common reed is
wfed for fereens in gardens, alfo as a foundation for plaifter
in ceilings, and for various other purpofes. 4. A. efiigejos,
wood reed. Eng. Bot. t. 402. Smith Flor. Brit. 145.
A. calamagroftis, Hudf 54. Relh. 52. Lightf. 106. calama-
oftis lanceolata, With. 122. gramen arundinaceum panicula
molli{padicea majus, Raii Syn. 4o1. ‘ Calyxes one-flowered,
longer then the corolla, panicle ereét, leaves lanceolate ;’’
root creeping; culm nearly as high as the preceding, but
tyveaker, and often branched at the bafe ; leaves lanceolate
acuminate, neryofe, underneath glaucous and rough at the
edges ; fheaths fmeoth, ftriated ;-ftipule lanceolate, many
times divided, naked on both fides; panicle erect rough,
fpreading ; flowers in clutters all-on the fame fide, nodding ;
glumes of the calyx nearly equal, lanceolate, acute, nervole,
rough on the keeled part; floret folitary, much fhorter
than the calyx, white, membranaceous, inferted in a
svoolly fubftance longer than the petals, often cloven at
the apex; near the bafe, and. from the back arifes an
awn, which is jointed, and nearly the length of the wool.
we are told by Dr. Smith, that the wool and awn here
noticed, were, from an error, not reprefented in the figure
referred to in Eng. Bot. It growsin fhaded ditches and
wet meadows: and flowers in July. 5. A. calamagroftis,
fmall reed, Eng. Bot. 403. Flor. Dan. 180. Smith Flor.
Brit. 146. 180. A. epigejos, Hudf. 54. Tehl. 51. Calam.
epigejos, With. 123. Cal. minor glumis rufis & viridibus,
Dill in Ray’s Syn. 401. “¢ Calyxes one-flowered, longer
than the corolla; panicle ereét, diffufed ; flowers {cattered,
ere@t; leaves lmear.”? Smith. Root perennial, fibrous,
fcarcely creeping ; culm ere¢t, three or four feet high, round,
very fmooth, leafy, much flenderer than the preceding, and
fometimes branched leaves linear, acute, narrow, fomewhat
involute, pale green underneath, rough above, fometimes
hairy; fheaths long, clofe, ftriated, almoit {mooth; ftipule lan-
ceolate, oftenlacerated, decurrent, {mooth on both fides ; pani-
cle very branching, diffufed; flowers feattered, ereét; glumes
of the calyx of a chefnut or purple colour, nearly equal, lan=
ceolate, acute, keeled, rough on the back, fcarcely nervofe ;
t

ARU

florets folitary, much fhorter than the calyx, white, torn at
the apex, inclofed in wool longer than ‘the petals, a {mali
awn at the apex, between the divifions of the larger petal.
It grows in groves, hedges, and wet fituations, flowering in
July. 6. “A. arenaria, fea-reed. Marram. Sea-matweed,
Smith, Flor, Brit. 148. Hudf. 54. Mart. Flor. Rutt. t. 32.
Dick{. H.S. Fafc. 12. 5. Flor. Dan. t. 917. Calamagroitis
arenaria, With. 123. ‘* Calyxes one-flowered, longer than
the corolla; panicle fpicated ; flowers erect, awnlefs ; leaves
rolled inwards, pungent.”” Root perennial, creeping, jointed,
{preading itfeli to a great extent; culm about three feet
high, iliff, round, fmooth, articulated, leafy ; leaves ereGto-
patent, rigid, turning inwards, fharply pointed, glaucous,
imooth on the under fide, on the upper furrowed; fheaths
nervoie, {mooth ; panicle erect, ipike-like, with fhort ereét
branches ; flowers lanceolate, acute, compreiled, keeled, ob-
fcurely three-nerved ; florets folitary, rather fhorter than the
calyx ; glumes lanceolate, unequal, nervofe, with a rough
keel, the outer broadeft, eroded at the apex, and embracing
the other; woolabout one-third the length of the floret.
Common on the fea-coatts, growing in the fand. By means
of its extenfive creeping roots, it is of great ufe in giving
ftability to driving fands which gather about it in hills or
banks. It is planted about Wells in Norfolk, to aid in
repelling the fea; a purpofe for which it feems peculiarly

well adapted. 7. A. calorata, Canary reed-grafs, Soland.*
in Ait. Hort. Kew. Smith, Flor. Brit. 147. Phalatis

arundinacea. Sp. Pl. Hudf. Relh. Flor. Dan. 259. Cal.
variegata. With. 124. Gramen arundinaceum acerofa
gluma noftras. Raii Syn. 400. f. G. arundinaceum acerofa
gluma Jerfeianum. Raii Syn. goo. y. Phalaris arundi-
nacea ; 8. pita. Sp. Pl. 80. “ Calyxes one-flowered, equal
to the corollas; panicle ereét, glomerate ; flowers inclining
to the fame fide, awnlefs; leaves flat.”? Root perennial,
creeping, {caly, or turfy ; culm ereét, three to five ae high,
round, leafy, itriated, {mooth, furnifhed with many joints ;
leaves {preading, lanceolate, ftriated, with a {mooth margin
on both fides, on the variety &. glaucous, in y. variegated ;
fheaths nervofe, fomewhat inflated, fmooth; ftipule fhort,
obtufe ; panicle ereét, branched, in lobes, branchlets angular,
rough ; flowers rolled together, inclining to one fide, varie~
gated with white and purple; glumes of the calyx equal,
comprefled, keeled, three-nerved ; florets folitary, the length
of the calyx, lanceolate, rather compreffed, awnlefs, furnifhed
with two neCtarious pencil-fhaped fubitances at the bafe ;
glumes or valves hairy, equal in length, but the exterior
broader than the other. It grows in ftagnant waters, and
on the banks of rivers. The variety y. cultivated in gardens,
and called ribband-grafs, was alfo found wild near Cambridge
by Mr. Relhan. ‘The following are new fpecies. 8. A
confpicua. Forft. Fl. Auft.n. 48. “ Calyxes one-flowered ;
panicle loofe, from ere&t, fpreading ; awn of the outer petal
reflex, and very long.”? A native of New Zealand. 9. A.
agreflis. Lour. Cochinch. 57. Arundarbor fpinofa, Rumph.
Amb. L 6. c. 7. t.4. Flowers fix-ftamened ; panicle
{piked ; fpikelets cluftered ; lower branches of the culm very
{piky ; calyxes one-flowered.”” It grows to the height of
thirty feet, and to the thicknefs of a man’sarm. A native of
Cochinchina, growing on mountains and dry defert places.
10. A. mitis, an Cochinch. 57. arundabor fera, Rumph.
Amb.1.6.c.7.t.4. Flowers fix-ftamened, panicle erect,
contracted ; {pikes long, imbricate ; culm very even, unarm-

ed; calyxes one-flowered.”’ This is rather a higher and thicker

plant than the A. agre/fis.. It is cultivated in Cochinchina,
and being cut into long pieces, it is ufed for weaving into
hats, coffers, bafkets, and a variety of utenfils, which are
very elegant. 11. A. multiplex, Lour. Cochinch. 58. Arun-
dabor,

o

_—

ARU

dabor, &c. Rumph. Amb. 1.6. c.1.t. 1. Flowers fix-fta-
mened; {pikes interrupted; {pikelets in whorls; culm di-
vided; calyxes one-flowered.”” Culm perennial, twelve feet
high, with very long internodes; leaves linear-lanceolate.
A native of the northern provinces of Cochinchina, 12. A.
bengalenfis, Retz. Obf. 5.20. n, 45. ‘*Calyxes two-flowered,

anicle erect, with three-flowered pedicels. “‘ Culms lofty,
thick, leafy; leaves two feet long. A native of Bengal.
13. A. pifeatoria, Lour.Cochinch. 55. ‘Calyxes one-flower-
ed, {pike terminating, culm branched, leaves minute.” Tt rites
eight feet, with a perennial culm; knots approximating ;
Jeaves lanceolate-linear. A native of Cochinchina. Being
tough and tapering towards the end, it is weil adapted for
filbing rods. 14. A. divica, Lour. Cochinch. 55. « Calyxes
one-flowered, {pikes in bundles, compound ; fpikelets li-
near ;”? culm perennial, eight feet high; knots diftant; flowers
dioecous. A native of Cochinchina, in woods.

Propagation and Culture. The bamboo mutt be preferved
in a warm {tove, and as the roots fpread very wide, it
fhould be planted in a large tub, filled with rich earth ;
this muft be plunged into the hot-bed in the bark ftove,
and muft have plenty of water. When the tub decays,
if the plant be permitted to root in the tan, it will grow to
a larger fize; but then care muit be taken, when the bed
is refrefhed with new tan, to leave a fufficient quantity
of the old tan about the roots. It may be propagated
by flips from the roots, taken off in the fpring, 2. The
cultivated reed will bear the cold of our winters in the open

‘round, provided it be planted in a foil not too wet ; and
if the winter fhould prove very fevere, a little mulch be
Jaid over the roots. The ftemdies in autumn, and a new
one rifes the fucceeding fpring, which will grow to teh or
twelye feet high during the fummer, if properly fupplied
with water in dry weather. It is very proper to be inter-
mixed with trees and fhrubs, where it will have a pleafing
effect in adding to the variety. It is propagated by parting
the roots in the fpring before they beginto fhoot. It never
flowers in England. The variety with variegated leaves is
more tender, and mutt be fheltered in this country during
the winter. See Martyn’s Miller’s Dia.

Arunpo. See Acrostis, ANDRopoGoN, CENCHRUS,
Me uica; Spinirex, and Z1zanta.

Arunno Florida et Indica. See Canna.

Arunpvo Rotang. See Caramus.

Arunvo Saccharifera. See SAccHARUM.

ARUPINUM, Aruprium, or Aryrium, in Ancient
Geosrafhy, a town of Liburnia, being one of the four
which were occupied by the Japodes or Japydes, according
to Strabo.

ARURA, in Antiquity. See Aroura.

Arura,in Middle Ave Writers, denotes a field ploushed
and fowed.

ARUSINI Camprr, in Ancient Geography, erroneoully
written by Cluverius Tauraffini, plains in Lucania famous
for the laft battle fought between Pyrrhus and the Romans.
Pyrrhus being at Tarentum, and hearing that the two
confuls, Curius Dentatus and Cornelius Lentulus, had di-
vided their forces, the one invading Lucania, and the other
Samnium, divided a chofen detachment of his army into
bodies, and marched with his Epirots againft Dentatus,
in hopes of furprifing him near Beneventum. The conful
prepared to meet him, repulfed his van-guard; and having
thus far fucceeded, marched into the Arufian felds, and
drew up his army in a plain, which was wide enough for
his troops, but too narrow for the Epirot phalanx to a&
with its full effect. However, the king’s eagernefs to try
his ftrength and flcill induced him to engage, notwithitanding

Vou. Ill,

ARW

this great difadvantage. Upon the firft fignal, the aétion
began, and as one of the king’s wings gave way, victory
feemed to incline to the Romans. But the wing under the
king’s own immediate command repulfed the enemy, and
drove them to their intrenchments. Dentatus perceiving
that this advantage was partly owing to the elephants,
commanded a corps de referve, pofted near the camp, to
advance, and to attack thofe animals with burning torches ;
which fo terrified them, that they turned about, broke into
the phalanx, and occafioned the utmoft diforder, The
Romans availing themfelves of the confufion, charged with
{uch fury, that the enemy were entirely broken and defeated.
Upon this difafter, Pyrrhus retired to Tarentum, leaving
the Romans in full poffeffion of his camp ; which they fo
much admired, that they made it a model which they followed
ever after. Pyrrhus, after this deféat, determined to leave
Italy, and prepared for fetting fail for Epirus, where he
at length arrived with 8000 foot and 500 horfe, regretting
that he had {pent fix years in Italy and Sicily to no purpofs. ,
Ane. Un. Hitt. vol. 1x. p. gt.

ARUSIS, a town of Afia, in the interior part of Media.
Ptolemy.

ARUSPICES, an order of priefts among the Ancient
Romans, who foretold things to come, chiefly by infpecting
the entrails of beafts which were killed in facrifice. They
alfo took their obfervations from the victims before they
were cut up, from the flame that ufed to rife while they
were burning; and from the flour, bran, frankincenfe,
wine, or water, ufed in the facrifice. The word feems more
properly written harufpices; as being derived from harugay
which fignifies the entrails of victims ; and a/piccre, to view
or confider ; others derive arufpices, ab aris afpiciendis, from
their looking on the altar. "Thefe diviners were all at firft
taken from Etruria, where their art was in great repute ;
but afterwards the fenate ordered twelve of the fons of the
chief men of Rome to be fent into that country to acquaint
themfelves with the rites and ceremonies of the Etrufcan
religion, of which this fcience was the chief part; the
ceremony, however, of confulting the entrails of vidiims
was practifed among the Greeks before it was iutreduced
into Hetruria. An inftance of it occurs at the battle of
Platea; and it was recurred to on other occafions among?
the Afiatics. But the Etrufcans were perhaps the firit who
reduced it to an art, and eftablifhed the rites by which it
was conducted. The doétrine or difcipline of the arufpices
was formed intoa precife art, called arufpicina. Cato, who
was an augur, ufed to fay, he wondered how one arufpex
could look at another without laughing in his face; by which
we learn what opinion he had of the {olidity of the arufpi-
cina, Conftantine pafled feveral laws againit the arufpices ;
and though he allowed the Pagans to confult them, he for-
bade their entering the houfes of private perfons, upon
pain of being burnt alive, and fuch as received them were to
forfeit their eftates, and be banifhed for life. His intention
was to prevent all private facrifices and confultations, and by:
one Jaw he obliged thofe who confulted the arufpices to fend
their anfwers to his fecretary.

ARUSPICI féri, a kind of facred writings among the
ancient Hetrurians, wherein the laws and dicipline of the
arufpices were defcribed. They were alfo called. ritualesy
fometimes fulgurales libri, as dire@ting how to take indica-
tions from thunder, lightning, é&e.

ARVUM, in Ancient Agriculture, properly denoted
ground ploughed, but not fowed. Though the word is alfo
{ometimes extended tovall arable or corn land, in contradif=
tinétion from paiture. j : ;

ARWACAS. Bay, in Geography, lies on the eat nie

FE 0

SARE Y.

of South America, and has the river Amona to the weft.
It has a good road for large fhips, well fheltered from fouth
and wefterly winds, but expofed to the north.

ARWANGEN,-a town and cattle of Swifferland, in the
canton of Berne, feated on the Aar, 12 miles eaft of Soleure.

ARX, in the Ancient Military Art, a town, fort, or
caftle, for the defence of a place. The arx, in ancient
Rome, was a diftin& edifice from the capitol, though fome
have confounded thetwo. According to Ryckius, the arx,
properly {peaking, was a place on the higheft part of the
Capitoline Mount, ftronger and better fortified than the
reft, with towers and pinnated walls; in which was alfo the
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Struy. Synt. Ant. Rom.
Cuixsip52z.

Axx alfo denoted a confecrated place on the Palatine
Mount, where the augurs publicly performed their office.
Some will have the arx to have been the augural temple;
but Varro exprefsly diftinguifhes between the two.

Arx was particularly ufed for a public place in Rome,
fet apart for the operations of the augurs. In this fenfe,
arx amounts to the fame with what is otherwife called gugu-
raculum, and auguratorium, and in the camp augurale. Out
of this arx it was that the fecia/es, or heralds, gathered the
grafs ufed in the ceremony of making leagues and treaties.
Liv. 1. c. 24.

Axx Britannica, in Ancient Geography, a citadel of Ba-
tavia, near the old mouth of the Middle Rhine. Its foun-
dation is feen at low water, and after a ftrong fouth-wetterly
wind. Some fuppofe it to be the pharos or very high
tower of Caligula, as Suetonius calls it; a monument of
his pretended conqueft of Britain; others imagine that it
was built by Drufus, with an altar, ere€ted by Claudius, on
his expedition into Britain. But the ufual paffage was from
Gefforiacum, and Suetonius fays exprefsly, that Claudius
paffed over from thence. Its ancient name is no where ex-
preffed; it is now called t’huys te Britten or Brittenburg,
i. e. Arx Britannica; but it does not appear from what
authority. Cellarius.

ARXAMA, a town of Afia, in the interior part of Me-
fopotamia. Ptolemy.

ARXANA, a town of Afia, in Armenia Major, near
the river Nymphias.

ARXATA, a town of Armenia Major, on the confines
of Atropatene. Strabo.

ARXEN, a town of Thrace.

ARXIANUS Acer, a plain of Afia, near the river
Lerma.

ARYCA, a town of Greece, in the country of the
Locrian Epicnemydii. Diod. Sic.

ARYCANDA, a town of Afia, in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

ARYCANDUS, a river of Afta, in Lycia, that dif-
charged itfelf into the Limyra. Pliny.

ARYES, in Geography, a people of South America, in
Brazil, in the neighbourhood of Capitania, or the govern-
ment of Porto Seguro.

ARYMAGDUS, or Orymacous, in Ancient-Geogra-
py, a river of Afia, in Cilicia, Ptolemy.

ARYMPHI, a people who inhabited the territory
adjoining to the Palus Meotis and Tanais. They were
clothed like the Scythians, {poke a peculiar language, and
lived in the woods. They were honoured as a facred peo-
ple, and their country ferved as an afylum. They are men-
tioned by Herodotus and Mela.

ARYS, in Geography, a town of Italy, belonging to the
republic of Sri Sat the province cf Frit ten miles
W. S. W. of Palma la Nuova.

ARYTENOIDES Carriraco, in Anatomy, a carti-

6

ARZ

lage fituated at the back part of the larynx. There are two
cartilages which bear this name.

ARYTENOIDEUS Muscutus, is fubfervient to the
motions of the above mentioned cartilages.
of both thefe articles, fee Larynx.

ARYTHMUS, or Arnytumus, formed from the pri-
vative «, and ju§.S-, modulus or meafure, in JZ dicine, is
ufed by fome for a finking or failure of the pulfe, fo that it
can no longer be felt; but it more properly denotes an irre-
gularity, or want of due order and proportion of the pulfe.

ARZAG, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a can-
ton in the diftriét of Orthes, five leagues north of Pau. The
place contains 1014, and the canton 10,531 inhabitants>
the territory includes 175 kiliometres and 2g communes.

ARZACHEL, or Arzcuatt, in Biography, a Spanith
mathematician, lived in the tenth or eleventh century, and
wrote a book on Aftronomy, intitled Obfervationes de
Obliquitate Zodiaca.”’ Voffius.

ARZAMAS, in Geography. See Arsamas.

ARZANNO, a town of France, in the department of
Finifterre, and the chief place of a canton inthe diftri@ of
Quimperlé, five miles E.N.E. from Quimperlé. The place
contains 4150, and the canton 9,680 inhabitants: the terri-
tory comprehends 1324 kiliometres, and 3 communes.

ARZBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Fran-
conia, and principality of Bareuth, feven miles eait of Won-
fiedel.

ARZENGAN, or AnzinGan, a town of Afiatic Tur-
key, in the province of Aladulia, eighty miles fouth-eaft of
Erzerum. It was taken in 1242 by the Mogul Tartars.

ARZENIT Bay lies on the coait of Barbary, in the Me-
diterranean, on the eait fide of cape Ferrat or Ferrol, and
extends to the north-eaft as far as cape Dyvy or Ivoy. The
town is at the fouth-weft, in the bottom of the bay, and be-
fore it is good anchorage. It ftands on the eait fide of the
river which here falls into the bay.

ARZENZA, or Cuervesra,a river of European Tur-
key, in Albania, difcharges itfelf into the gulph of Venice,
between Durazzo and Pirgo.

ARZES, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland of
Cyprus, formerly a confiderable city, and fee of «a Greek
bifhop, but finee the reduction of the ifland by the Turks,
reduced to a village.

ArzeEs, a town of Afia, fituate towards the middle of
the northern part of the lake Arfiffa.

ARZEW, in Geography, a fea-port of Africa, in the
weitern province or province of Tlemfan, twelve milesS.S.E.
of cape Ferrat. It is called by the Moors, the port of the
« Beni Zeian,” after the name of the neighbouring Kabyles,
who were formerly a confiderable community. Ptolemy places
his * Deorum portus”’ betwixt Quiza and Arfenaria, which,
fays Dr. Shaw, can be no other than this, provided Geeza
or Warran isthe ancient Quiza; as Arzew is, without doubt,
the ancient 4rfenaria. Arzew is at the diftance of three
Roman miles trom this port, as Pliny places his Arfenaria.
The country behind it is a rich champaign ground, but
towards the fea there are fteep rocks and precipices, which
mutt have ferved for its defence in that direction. The
water now ufed by the inhabitants lies lower than the fea,
and of courfe is brackifh. But for obtaining a fupply of
frefh water, the whole city was formerly built upon cifterns,
of which feveral ftill remain, and ferve for dwellings to the
inhabitants. Several ancient ruins of capitals, bafes, and
fhafts of pillars, with fepulchrak infcriptions, are fcattered
over this place. Five miles from the fea-coaft are the falt-
pits of Arzew, which fupply the neighbouring communities.

with

For an account

AS

with falt. This commodity, as the pits are exhauflible,
would be a very valuable branch of trade under any other
government than that of the Turks. Shaw’s Travels, p. 14.

ARZILLA, a fea port town of Africa, on the coak of
the Atlantic, in the empire of Morocco, built by the Romans
at the mouth of a river, fituate five leagues from Tangiers,
and now inhabited by Moors and Jews, who carry on no
trade. It was formerly a Roman colony, afterwards fell
under the Government of the Goths, and was next taken
bythe Mahometans. It was taken and burned by the Eng-
lifh ; after which it remained wafte and uninhabited for
thirty years, but was rebuilt by the caliphs of Cordova. In
the year 1470, it was taken by Alphonto king of Portugal,
called the Africans; and abandoned by the Portuguefe about
the end of the fixteenth century. N. lat. 35° 30’. W. long.
5° 30’. Chenier’s Morocco, vol. i. p. 22. ,

ARZUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Thrace, which
tan into the Propontis at the latitude of about 42°.—Alfo,
a town of Thrace, called alfo Arzum and Afus, fituate be-
tween Opizus and Sabzupara, eighteen miles from the for-
mer, and twenty miles from the latter.

AS, among Antiquaries, fometimes fignifies a particular
weight ; in which fenfe the Roman as is the fame with the
Roman /idra, or pound. See Linra.

The word is by fome derived from ac, which, in the
Doric diale@, is ufed for a-, one, q. d. an entire thing ;
though others will have this money named as, quali 2s, be-
caufe made of brafs.—Budeus has written nine books De
af, &F ejus partibus ; * Of the as, and its parts.”’

The as had feveral divifions. See the table under As, an
integer. See alfo WeicuT.

As was alfo the name of a Roman coin, which was made
of different materials and different weights, in different ages
of the commonwealth.

Under Numa Pompilius, according to Eufebius in his
* Chronicon,”’ the Roman money was either of wood, lea-
ther, or fhells. In the time of Servius Tullius, who reigned
in Rome about 578 years before Chrift, it was copper or
brafs, and was called as libra, libella, or ponds, becaufe actually
weighing a pound, or twelve ounces. Mr. Pinkerton jis of
opinion, that we may value the as /ibralis of ancient Rome
at about eight-pence Englifh. his was called As grave ;
and thefe a/és were weighed, and not counted. The coinage
of Tullius feems to have been confined to the as, or piece
of brafs, with the impreffion of Janus on the one fide, and
the prow of a fhip on the other, becaufe Janus arrived in
Ttaly by fea. Varro, however, informs us, that the firit
coins of Tullins had the figure of a bull, or of other cattle
upon them, like the Etrufcan coins, of which they were
imitations ; aad hence it is faid they were called fecunia.
Thofe afzs with the figure of Janus and the prow of a fhip
upon them, may be fuppofed, according to Mr. Pinkerton,
firit to haye appeared about 400 years before Chrift; but in
a fhort time, various fubdivilions of the as were coined. The
Jfemis, or half, is commonly ftamped with the head of Jupi-
ter laureated ; the friews, or third, with four cyphers, as being
originally of four ounces weight, has the head of Minerva ;
the guadrans, or quarter, marked with three cyphers, has the
head of Hercules wrapt ina lion’s {kin the /ex/ans, or fixth,
with two cyphers, is marked with the head of Mercury with
a cap and wings; and the uncia, having one cypher, is
marked with the head of Rome. All thefe coins appear to
have been caft in moulds, by a confiderable number at a
time ; afterwards the fmaller divifions were ftruck, in{tead
of being caft; but the larger continued to be caft until the
as fell to two ounces. Atthis time, however, it was called
4ibra, and accounted a pound of copper; though larger de-

>

AS

nominations of it were coined, fuch as the diffas or double
as, trefis and quadruffis of three and four afes, and even as
far as decuffis or ten affés, marked X. The {maller parts of
the as feldom occur, owing to their {mall value; though
fome are {till found, fuch as the femis, triens, quadrans, fex-
tans, and uncia, coined in the times of Nero and Domitian.
Some coins occur which exceed the as /ibralis in weight ;
and thefe are fuppofed to be prior to the time of Servius
Tullius. "Che Romans reckoned by afés before they coined
filver, in the 485th year of the city, or 269 before Chrift,
and afterwards they kept their accounts in fetterces.

Pliny fays, that when the firft Punic war had exhaufted
the treafury, they reduced the as to two ounces. They thus
gained fifteen parts, and were enabled to pay their debts.
Mr. Pinkerton is of opinion, that Pliny, in afferting that
the as continued of a pound weight till the end of the firft
Punic war, is miftaken. Coins, that refute this affertion,
are itill found; and he thinks it probable that the as de-
creafed gradually and flowly in weight, as from a pound to
eleven ounces, then to ten, nine, &c.; but neither the as
nor its parts were ever correétly fized. In the fecond Punic
war, when the Romans were much preffed by Hannibal,
about the year of Rome 538, or 216 before Chrift; Fabius
Maximus being diétator ; the afés were further reduced to
an ounce each ; and the filver denarius was made to paf{s
for fixteen afs, the quinarius for eight, and the fefterce for
four: and the republic gained upon the copper money one
half. This took place about thirty-fix years after the for-
mer reduction. The as /ibralis, with the face of Janus upon it,
is the form moft commonly occurring before it was reduced
to two ounces. Mr. Pinkerton fuppofes, that this continued
for at leaft a century and a half after the coinage of Tul-
lius, till about 300 before Chriit, in the year of Rome 454,
between which and the 502d year of Rome, a gradual di-
minution of the as to two ounces mutt have taken place.
The following table exhibits, according to Mr. Pinkerton,
the dates of the Roman coinage. The /ibralis coined by
Tullius with the figures of oxen, &c. about 167 years after
the building of Rome, according to fir Ifaac Newton, or
about the year before Chrift 460, or 587 according to Blair;

As Iibralis, with Janus and the prow of a fhip 400
ds of 10 ounces = = z 300
8 = - - - 290
6 5 = - - 280
4 a S . - 270
3 = = ~ = 260
2, according to Pliny = t 250

x, according tothe fame - - 21

Laftly, by the Papivian law, the as was reduced to half
an ounce; and it is generally thought that it refted here all
the time of the commonwealth, and event till Vefpafian’s
reign. ‘This laft was called the Papirian as, becaufe the law
juft_ mentioned was paffed in the year of Rome 563, or, ac-
cording to the Varronian computation, 191 before Chrift,
by C. Papirius Carbo, then tribune of the people. Thus,
there were four different ¢/és in the time of the common-
wealth. The figure ftamped on the as was at firfta fheep,
ox, or fow; and from the time of the kings, a Janus with
two faces on one fide, and the ro/rum or prow of a thip on
the reverfe.

The triens and quadrans of copper had the figure of a
fmall veffel called ratzs on the reverfe. Thus Pliny : Nota eris
(i. e. affis), fuit ex altera frarte Janus geminus, ex altera roftrum
navis: in triente vero & quadrante rates. Hitt. Nat. lib. xxxiii.
cap. 3. Hence thefe pieces were fometimes called ratiti.

After the Romans began to have an intercourfe with
Greece, various elegant figures appear upon the parts of the

mia” 4 aSs

ASA

as, though not on the as itfelf till after the time of Sylla,
Towards the latter end of the republic, dufondis, or double
afer were coined, together with the /¢/ertit erci, which
upplied the place of the guadreffis y when the denarius began
to be reckoned at fixteen afes ; probably at the time when
the latter was reduced to half an ounce. M. Paucton, in
his “ Metrologie,’”’ eftimates the value of the as, from the
foundation of Rome till the year 537, at 20 fols, or a livre;
though it was fometimes 29 fols: from the year of Rome
537 tothe year 544, at 3 French fols, its weight being two
Roman ounces of copper: from 544 to 586, at 1 fol 105
deniers, its weight being one Roman ounce; from 586 to the
reign of Cladius or of Nero, 1 fol 14 denier: from the reign
of Cladius or of Nero to that of Conftantine, about x fol.
See Coin, and CoinaGeE.

As was alfo ufed to denote any integer, or whole.—
Wheace the Englith word ace.

Thus, as figuified the whole inheritance ; whence heres
ex affe, the heir to the whole eftate.

So the jugerum, or Roman acre of land, being reckoned
the integers was called as, and divided, like it, inte twelve
uncia.

The as, and its parts or divifions, ftand thus:

1 | as 12 Uncie Z| Semis 6 Uncie
35 | Deunx II ty | Quincunx 5

% | Dextans | 10 1 | Triens 4

3 | Dodrans | 9 4 | Quadrans 3

Z| Bes 8 1 | Sextans 2
ax | Seftunx uF ty | Uncia sa) Ware

As, or d/h, in Mythology, a name given toa deity of
the inhabitants of the north. Sperlingius fuggeits, that
when the Afiatics were driven from their country by Pom-
pey,-they retired into the northern regions ; but as they
were a delicate and polifhed people, they defpifed the bar-
barous names of the north, and they were regarded among
the rude inhabitants of thefe countries as f{uperior to mortals,
or as a fpecies of divinities. Accuftomed therefore to ex-
prefs any thing that was fublime and excellent by the terms
Aja and “fis, they applied thefe appellations to their gods.

ASA, in Scripture Biography, a king of Judah, was the
fon of Abijam and fueceeded him A. M. 3049, B. C. 955.
He was zealous in the eftablifhment and maintenance of true
religion, and active in demolifhing altars created to idols,
and in reftraining and punifhing fuch as were addicted to
the infamous praCtices connected with idolatry, and reftoring
the worfhip of Jehovah. He obtained a decifive victory over
Zerah, king of /Ethiopia, in the plain of Zephathah or
Zephalah near Marefhah. In his conteft with Baafha, king
of Ifrael, he called in the affiftance of Benhadad, king of
Syria, for which he was reproached by the prophet Hanani,
whom he feverely punifhed. He died A. M. 3090. B.C.
913, after having held the fceptre of Judah nearly forty-one
years. 1 Kings xv. 8, &c, 2 Chron. xiii—xvi.

Asa, in Geography, 2 viver of Germany in the archduchy
of Auftria, which runs into the Danube two miles north of
Efferding.

Asa, among Naturalifis. "The writers of the later ages
have formed this word afa from the lafar of the ancients,
and attributed it to a gum very different from that anciently
known by the name they have thus corrupted. The afa of
the ancients was an odoriferous and fragrant gum; and the
afa of the after ages had fo little title to this epithet, that
they diftinguithed it by one, expreffing its being of an of-
fenfive or ftinking fmell. The Arabian writers, according
to this diftinGion, defcribe two kinds of afa, the one ftink-
ing, the other aromatic; and the modern Greeks appro-

ASA

priated the name a/z, or /afar, to the ftinking gum the La..
tins called by that name, but added a diftinctiye epithet to.
exprefs its fmell, and called it Jcardolafarum.

Asa Dulcis, in the Materia Medica, a name by which
fome authors have called the benjamin or Benzoin of the.
fhops. Dale,

Asa fetida, or Assa Fatida, See Ferua.

ASABORUM Promonrorium, in Ancient Geography.
a promontory of Arabia, in the ftraits of the Perfian rate
Ptolemy. “

ASABRA, in Geograph 7
into the Aragon near Moullo.

ASAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of Fariftan,.
forty-feven leagues north-eait of Schiras.

ASAD-ABAD), a large and populous town of Perfia,
in the province of Irac-Agemi, on the frontiers of Kur-
diftan, twenty-two leagues N, N. E. of Amadan.

ASI, in Aucient Geography, a people of Afia, in Sars
matia. Ptolemy.

ASAM, or Assam, in Geography, a country of Afia,
fituate to the north-eaft of Bengal, and bounded on the
north by Thibet, on the weft. by Hindoftan, on the fouth by
Meckley, and on the eaft by part of the Birmah empire, or
Ava. Its diftrifts commence, where thofe of Bengal end,
in N. lat. 26°, and E. long. 91°. This country is divided
into two parts by the river Brahmaputra, or Burrampooter, .
which flows from Khata. The northern part is called Ut-
tarcul, and the fouthern Dacfhincul: the former begins at
Gowahutty, the boundary of the Mogul pofieffions, and
terminates in mountains inhabited by a tribe called Meeri
Mechmi; and the latter extends from the village Sidea to
the hills of Strinagar. Afamris of an oblong figure; its
length about 200 itandard cofs, and its breadth from the
northern to the fouthern mountains about eight days’ jour-
ney. Several rivers flow from the fouthern mountains of
Afam, and fall into the Burrampooter; and the chief of
thefe is the Dhonec. Between thefe rivers is an ifland well
inhabited, and in an excellent fate of tillage, containing a
{pacious and pleafant country that extends about fifty cofs. .
The cultivated traét is bounded by a thick foreft, which
harbours elephants, and where thofe animals may be caught,
as well as in four or five other forefts of Afam. Thefe ani-
mals are fo numerous, that five or fix hundred may be pro-
cured in a year. Acrofs the Dhonec, on the fide of GHER-
GonG, whichis the capital of the country, is a wide, agree-
able, and level country, the-face of which is marked with
population and tillage, and prefents every where delightful
profpects of ploughed fields, harvefts, gardens, and groves.
This ifland lies in the part called Dac/bincul. As the coun-
try is overflowed in the rainy feafons, a high and broad
caufeway has been raifed for the convenience of travellers
from Salagereh to Ghergong ; each fide of which is planted
with bamboos, the branches of which meet and are inter-
twined, and thus afford a pleafant fhade. Amongft the
fruits which this country produces are mangoes, plantains,
jacks, oranges, citrons, limes, pine-apples, and punialeh, a
{pecies of amleh, which has fuch an excellent flavour, that
every perfon who tattes it prefers it to the plum. . There
are alfo cocoa-nut trees, pepper-vines, areca-trees, and the
fadii, or malabathrum, in great plenty. ‘The fugar-cane
excels in foftnefs and fweetnefs, and is of three colours,
red, black, aud white. There are ginger which is free from
fibres, and betel vines. Such are the ftrength and fertility
of the foil, that any feed that is fown, cr flips that are
planted, always thrive. The principal crop of the country
confifts in rice and math, which is a {pecies of grain: wheat
and barley are never fown.. The filks. are excellent, and

refemble-

a river of Spain, which runs

ASA

refemble thofe of China; but they manufacture few more
than are required for ufe. They embroider with flowers, and
weave velvet and alfo tautbund,.a kind of filk, of which they
make tents and kenauts, or the walls that furround them.
Salt is precious and fearce; but it is found at the bottom
of fome of the hills, of a bitter and purging quality; a
better fort, extraéted from the plantain-tree, is more com-
mon. The mountains, inhabited by a tribe called «* Nanac,’’
produce plenty of excellent lignum aloes, which the natives
annually import into Afam, and barter for falt and grain.
Thefe people are naked, and feed on dogs, cats, fnakes,
mice, rats, ants, and locufts. The hills of Camrup, Sidea,
and Lucttigereh, fupply a fine {pecies of lignum aloes,
which finks in water. Several of the mountains contain
mufk-deer.
The country of Uitarcu! on the northern fide of the Bur-
rampooter, is in the highett {tate of cultivation, and produces
lenty of pepper and areca nuts: it even furpafles Dac-
fhincal in population and tillage. The breadth from the
banks of the river to the foot of the mountains, where the
climate is cold, and in which there is fnow, is various;
but it is no where lefs than fifteen, nor greater than forty-
five cofs, The inhabitants of the mountains are ftrong,
have a robuit and refpeétable appearance, and are of the
middling fize. - Their complexions, like thofe of the natives
of all cold climates, are red and white; and they have alfo
trees and fruits peculiar to frigid regions: feveral of the hills
in the country of Dereng, on the fide of Gowahutty, fupply
mufk, kataus or mountain cows, bhoat and peree, which
are two kinds of blanket, and two fpecies of horfes called
goont and tanyans. Gold and filver are procured here,
as alfo in the whole country of Afam, by wathing the fand
of the rivers. This, indeed, is one of the fources of revenue.
It is fuppofed that 12,000, and fome fay 20,000 inhabitants,
are emplo¥ed in this occupation; and each of them pays a
fixed revenue of a tolaof gold to the rajah; a tola contain-
ing eighty reti weights, and eight retis being equal in
weight to twenty-four barley corns, or feven carats among
jewellers. The people of Afam (fays the writer whofe
account is here cited) are a bafe and unprincipled nation,
and have no fixed religion. They follow no rule but that
of their own inclinations, and make the approbation of
their own vicious minds the teft of the propriety of their
ations. They do not adopt any mode of worthip practifed
either by Mahometans or Heathens; nor do they concur with
any of the known feéts which prevail amongit mankind :
unlike the pagans of Hindoftan, they do not rejeét victuals
which have been dreiled by muffulmans, and they abflain
from no flefh except human. They even eat animals that
have died a natural death. It is not their cuftom to veil
their women. The men have often four or five wives each,
and publicly buy, fell, and change them. They fhave
their heads, beards, and whifkers, and reproach and admonith
every perfon who neglects this ceremony. It has been af-
ferted that their language has not the leaft affinity with
that of Bengal; but others fay, that young Brahmins often
come from Afam to Nadiya for infruction, and that their
vulgar diale& is underftood by the Bengal teachers. Their
ftrength and courage are apparent in their looks; but their
ferocious manners and-brutal tempers are alfo betrayed by
their phyfiognomy. They are fuperior to moft nations in
corporal force and hardy exertions. "They are enterprifing,
favage, fond of war, vindiétive, treacherous, and deceitful.
The virtues of compaffion, kindnefs, friendthip, fincerity,
truth, honour, good faith, and purity of morals, have been
Ieft out of their compofition. Their drefs confifts of a
cloth tied round their heads, another round their loins, and.

a

ASA

a fhect thrown upon their fhoulders ; but it is not cuftomary
to wear turbans,’ robes, drawers, or fhoes.* There are ho
buildings of brick or ftone, or with walls of earth, except
the gates of the city of Ghergong, and fome of their ido-
latrous temples. The habitations of the rich and poor are
conftruéted of wood, bamboos, and flraw. The rajah and
his courtierstravel in ftately litters; but the opulent and
refpeCiable perfons among his fubjeéts are carried in lower
vehicles, called doolies. Afam produces neither horfes,
camels, nor affes; but thofe animals are fometimes brought
thither from other countries. The brutal inhabitants, from
a congenial impulfe, are fond of feeing and keeping affes,
and they buy and fell them at a high price; but they are
nuch furprifed at feeing a camel; and are fo afraid of a horfe,
that if one trooper {hould attack 100 armed Afamians, they
would all throw down their arms and fly, or if unable to e1-
cape, would furrender themfelyes prifoners. Yet if one of
this deteftable race fhould encounter two men of another na-
tion on foot, he would defeat them,

The ancient inhabitants of this country were divided
into two tribes, the Afamans and the Cultanians. The
latter excel the former in all Occupations except war and
the conduét of hardy enterprizes, in which the former are
{uperior. A body guard of 6 or 7000 Afamians, fierce as
demons, of unfhaken courage, and well provided with arms
and warlike accoutrements, always keep watch near the ra-
jah’s fitting and fleeping apartments; thefe are his loyal con-
fidential troops and patrol. ‘The martial weapons of this
country are the mufket, fword, fpear, and arrow and bow
of bamboo. Intheir forts and boats they have plenty of
cannon; zerbzen or {wivels, and ramchangee, in the manage-
ment of which they are very expert. | Whenever any of
the rajahs, magiftrates, or principal men die, they dig a large
cave for the deceafed, in which they inter his women, attend-
ants, and fervants, and fome of the magnificent equipages
and ufeful furniture which he poffeffed in his life time, fuch
as elephants, gold and filver, badcafh or large fans, carpets,
clothes, vi€tuals, lamps, with plenty of oil ora torch burn-
ing, for they confider thefe articles as ftores for a future
ftate. They afterwards conftru@ a itrong roof over the
cave upoa thick timbers. The rajahs of this country
have never yielded fubmiffion and obedience, nor paid
tribute and revenue to the moft powerful monarch ; but
they have curbed the ambition, and checked the conquefts
of the moft victorious princes of Hindooftan. When an in-
yading army has entered their territories, the Afamians
have covered themfelves in ftrong pofts, and diftreffed the
enemy by firatagems, furprifes, and alarms, and by cutting
off their provifions. Ifthefe means have failed, they have
declined a battle in the field, but have carried the peafants
into the mountains, burnt the grain, and left the country
empty. But when the rainy feafon has fet in upon the ad-
vancing enemy, they have watched their opportunity to
make excurfions, and vent their rage; and the famithed in-
vaders have either become their prifoners, or been put to,
death.

The preceding account of the Afamians, who are pro-
bably fuperior in all refpeés to the Moguls, exhibits a
{pecimen of the malignity and intolerance with which it '
was ufual, in the reign of Aurengzebe, to treat all thofe
whom the crafty, cruel, and avaricious emperor, was’ pleafed
to condemn as infidels and barbarians. It is extracted
from “ A defcription of Afam,’’? written by Mohammed
Cazim, and tranflated from the Perfian by Henry Vapfit-
tart, efq. Afiatic Refearches, vol. ii. p. 171—185. It fhould
be recollected, in juitice to the people of Afam, that the
author was an enemy, and a rigid Mahometan, refident .

tue

AS A

‘the court of Aurengzebe. Tie dict of the Afamefe,
though lefs reltricted than that of the Hindoos of Bengal,
is by no means promifcucus; and their relyr’on does not
materially differ from that of Hindcottan, asn i sht be proved
by their coins, on which are inferibed the names of the
Hindoo deities.

ASAMA, or Asana, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana.

ASAMON,a mountain of Paleftine, in Galilee, over-
againit Sephori. Jofephus.

~ASANAMARA, a town of India, on this fide of the

Ganges. Ptolemy.

ASANCHA, a town of Germany. Ptolemy.

ASANCHIF, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the
country of Diarbekir, fituate on the Tigris, on the borders
of Armenia.

ASANGARO, a jurifdiGtion of South America, under
the bifhop of Cufco, in Peru, fifty leagues from that city, in
which are bred many cattle. In the north-ealt part of it
there are fome filyer mines.

ASAPH, in Sie » a celebrated mufician in the
time of David, was the fon of Barachias of the tribe of

Levi. Afaph, and alfo his defcendants, prefided over the
mufical band in the fervice of the temple. Several of the
pfalins, as the soth, the 73d to the 83d, have the name of
Afaph prefixed: but it is not certain, whether the words or
the mufic were compofed by him: with regard to fome of
them, which were written during the Babylonith captivity,
they cannot in any refpeét be afcribed to him. Perhaps
they were written or fet to mufic by his defcendants, who
prefixed to them his name, or by fome of that clafs of mufi-
cians of which the family of Afaph was the head. 1 Chron,
vi. 39. 2 Chron. xxix. 30. xxxv. 15. Nehem. xil. 46.

Asaru, St. a monk of North Wales, was defcended
of a good family, and belonged to the church of Llan-Elvy,
over which Kentigern the Scotch bifhop of that place pre-
fided. Upon the removal of this prelate to his own country,
he affigned his convent and cathedral to St. Afaph, fo that
after his death Llan-Elvy loft its name and took that of the
faint. He was a diligent preacher, and frequently repeated
this faying, “* They who withitand the preaching of God’s
word, envy man’s falvation.”” He flourifhed about the year
590, under Carentius king of the Britons; but the time of
his death is unknown. ‘The fee feems to have continued
vacant above 500 years, till it was filled by Geoffrey of
Monmouth. St. Afaph was eminent in his time for learning
and fanétity; he wrote the “ Ordinances” of his church,
the “ Life’? of Kentigern his mafter, and fome other pieces.
Biog. Brit.

Asapu, St. in Geography, a city and bifhop’s fee in
Flatfhire, which derived its name from S?. AsapH. The
diocefe confifts of part of Denbigh, Flmt, Montgomery, and
Merionethfhire, and a fmall part of Shropfhire; containing
(21 parifkes, and 131 churches and chapels, moft of which
are under the patronage of the bifhop. ‘The fee is valuable,
and the patronage extenfive. The town is feated on an
eminence near the fea, at the termination of the vale of
Clwydd. Although it is denominated a city, it is merely
a village inextent. Its fine Gothic cathedral has been lately
improved in its external decoration, and its palace has been
rebuilt by the tate bifhop (Bagot); which being fituated
above the town, fronting the hill towards Holywell, com-
mands a pleafant view.

ASAPHEIS, acx$sc, from x, negative, and caGns clear,
often, in Hippocrates, in Prorrh. & Coac. are fuch patients
as do not utter their words in a clear manner. The deft&
is occafioned, as Galen fays, Comm. 2. in Prorrh. “ either

ASA

by fome hurt which the organs of fpeech have contracted
from a diforder of the nerves, or clfe by a delirium.”

ASAPHIDAMA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Sy~
ria, in the Chalcidic territory. Ptolemy.

ASAPPES, or Azares, an order of foldiers in the
Turkifh army, whom they always expofe to the firft fhock
of the enemy; to the end that the enemy being thus fa-
tigued, and their fwords blunted, the fpahis and janiffaries
may fall on, and find an eafy conquett.

The word is derived from the Turkith fafh, which figni-
fies rank, from whence they have formed a/paph, to range in
battle.

The afappes are faid to be held of fo little value, that
they frequently ferve as bridges for the cavalry to pafs over
in bad roads, and as fafcines to fill up the ditches of places
befieged.—The greateft part of them are natural Turks ;
they travel on foot, and have no pay but the plunder they
can get from the enemy.

ASAR, in Commerce, a Perfian coin worth 6s. 8d. {terling.

ASARABACCA, or Assara-Bacara, in Botany.
See AsARUM. :

ASAR-HADDON, or AssaruHapon, in Biography,
fon of Sennacherib, king of Syria, fucceeded his father about
709 years before Chrift, and having reigned 29 years in Ni-
neveh, he became alfo king of Babylon, in the year 680 be-
fore Chrift. He fent a colony of Babylonians and Cuthzans
into Samaria; and his generals having taken captive king
Manaffes, fent him loaded with chains to Babylon. His
reign terminated in the year 667 before Chritt.

ASARINA, in Botany. See AnTiRRHINUM, and
CHELONE.

ASARO, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley
of Noto, eight miles fouth of Nicofia.

ASAROTA, woxpwre, from a and ceipw, J fweef, a kind

of painted pavements, in ufe before the invention of mofaic
work, The moft celebrated was that at Pergamus, painted
by Sefus, and exhibiting the appearance of crumbs, as if the
floor had not been swept after dinner, whence, according to
Pliny, the denomination. Perrault fuppofes them to have
been a black kind of pavements of a fpongy matter. Plin.
Nat. Hift. lib. xxxvi. cap. 25. Perrault ad Vitruv. lib. vi.
cap: 5:
SARUM, in Botany, Afarabacca. Lin. gen. 589.
Schreb. 801. Juff. 73. Gertn. t. 14. Clafs, dodecandria
monogynia. Nat. Ord. Sarmentacee. Ariftolochia, Juff. Gen.
Char. Ca/. perianth one-leafed, bell-thaped, three or four
cleft, coriaceous, coloured, parmanent; clefts erect, bent in
atthe apex. Cor. none. Stam. filaments twelve, fubulate,
half the length of the calyx; anthers oblong, faftened to the
middle partition of the filaments. Pi/. germ inferior or con-
cealed within the calyx; ftyle cylindric, the length of the fta-
mens; ftigma ftellate, fix-parted. Per. capfule coriaceous,
ufually fix-celled. Seeds, feveral, ovate.

EM. Gen. Char. Cal. three or four cleft, placed on the
germ. Cor. none. Cafifule coriaceous, crowned, Stigma
iix-cleft.

Species, 1. A. eurofieum, common afarabacca. Hudf. 205.
With. 440. Smith. Flor. Brit. 509. Med. Bot. t. 86. Flor.
Dan. t. 633. ‘ Leaves kidney-fhaped, obtufe, in pairs ;””
root perennial, creeping; {tems fhort; fimple, round, pubef-
cent, one-flowered, and commonly two-leaved ; leaves oppo-
fite, on long footftalks, reniform, perfectly entire, fomewhat
downy; flower terminal, pitcher-fhaped, of a dark purple co-
lour, villofe, on a flender peduncle. It has been found in the
north of England, in woods, particularly in Lancathire, but
it is a very fcarce plant in Britain. The time of its flower-

ing is in May. . Medicinal

ASB

Medicinal Properties. The leaves and roots of afarabacca
are {trongly emetic and cathartic; the latter indeed has been
obferved to excite vomiting fo invariably, that they have been
propoled asa fubttitute for ipecacuanha, At prefeut, however,
this plant is feldom given internally, as the evacuations ex~
pected from its ufe may be procured with more certainty
and fafety by various other medicines: it is now chiefly
employed as an errhine or fternutatory, and is found to be
the moft ufeful and convenient in the Materia Medica. For
this purpofe the leaves being lefs acrid than the roots, are
preferred. A few grains fnuffed up the nofe feveral evenings
produce a confiderable watery difcharge, which fometimes
continues for feveral days, by which head-ache, tooth-ache,
ophthalmia, and fome paralytic and foporific complaints, have
been effectually relieved. The college directs a pulvis afari
compofitus. See Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 238. 2. A. cana-
denfe, Canadian afarabacca. Mill. fig. 53.1.6. ‘ Leaves
kidney-fhaped, mucronate;”” the leaves of this are much
larger than thofe of the preceding; their foot-ftalks are alfo
longer; in this {pecies the leaves are pointed and hairy, and
the flower greeni{h on the outfide. A native of Canada, cul-
tivated by Miller in 1731. It flowers from April to July.
3. A. virginicum, {weet-{cented afarabacca. Lour. Cochinch.
292. Pluk. Alm. t. 78. f.2. Mor.t. 7. f. 3. Leaves
heart-fhaped, blunt, fmooth, petioled;”’ the leaves of this are
veined and {potted on their upper furface, like thofe of the
autumnal cyclamen. The flowers are fhaped like the others,
but ftand on longer peduncles, and are of a darker purple.
A native of Virginia and Carolina; ‘alfo of feveral provinces
in China. Both this and the fecond fpecies were found in
Japan by Thunberg. Cultivated by Miller in 1759.

Propagatian and Culture. Thefe plants delight in a moitt
fhady fituation, and may be increafed by parting the roots in
autumn. Much wet in winter will rot the Canadian fpecies,
_ and the laft {pecies will not bear too much fun. See Martyn’s
Miller’s Did. :

Assrum Hypociftis. See Cytinus.

ASASI, a name given by the people of Guinea toa
tree, the leaves of which being boiled in water, and held to
the mouth, cure the tooth-ache. This tree in its form and
manner of growing refembles the laurel; the leaves are very
hard and ftiff, and grow alternate on the ftalks; they have
fhort pedicles, and the branches are blackifh and rugged, but
they are variegated with {mall reddifh fpangles, or icaly pro-
tuberances. Phil. Tranf. N° 232.

ASAWNLLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Qudipour, eighteen miles fouth-weit of Oudi-

our.

ASBAMEA, in Ancient Geography, a fountain dedicated
to Jupiter, near Tyana in Cappadocia. Philoftratus, in his
life of Apollonius, fays, that the waters, though in a ftate
of ebullition, were cold, and that they were pleafant and re-
frefhing to thofe who obferved their oaths, but poifonous
and fatal to liars and perjured perfons. Jupiter had a tem-

le near this fountain.

ASBANIKEI, atown of Afia, in Mawaralnaher Trans-
Oxana, or Zagatai.

ASBECK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Weitphalia, four miles fouth-eaft of Ahauz.

ASBESTINE, fomething incombuttible, or that par-
takes of the nature and qualities of the /afis ajbeflos. Such
as afbeftine paper and cloth. See Assestus.

ASBESTINITE, and Assesrraipef Kirwan, in Mine-
ralogy. See STRAHLSTEIN.

ASBESTINUM, in Natural Hiftory, a{pecies of Aucy-
onium, defcribed by Petiver, Pallas, and others: It inha-
bits the American feas, i$ very porous, white, and rofy

ASC
within; the fpecific charaéter is, ftem rather fimple, round~
ifh, with largifh, oblong pores feattered on every part.
Gmelin, &c. Petiver calls this kind Porus /ponguides Ameri-
cana, Gaz, t. 23. f. 2. 2.

ASBESTOS, fa//, is a name given to plumealum. See
ALuM.

ASBESTUS, in Chemiftry, formed of the priv. ¢, and
oSevupi, to extinguifh, Afbeft non mir. Fr. Afbeflus imma-
turus of the old mineralogitts. Gemeiner afbe/l. Germ.
Talcum afbeflus vulgaris. Werner. The mott ufual colour
of afbeftus is leek-green; fometimes mountain or olive-green,
more rarely greenith or yellowifh grey. It occurs in mafs.
Hexahedral prifmatic cryttals of afbettus are alfo mentioned
as having been found at Griefbach near Paffau, and rhom-
boidal prifms of the fame at Gemundt in Carinthia, and at
Bagneres; according, however, to Emmerling and Lenz,
thefe are not cryftals of afbeftus, but of ftrahlitein. Inter-
nally it is fhining, or little fhining with a filky or waxy
luftre. Its fraéture is parallel fibrous, either ftraight or
curved, fometimes alfo i{plintery. It generally flies, when
broken, into long fplintery fragments. It is tranflucid at
the edges; is tender, pafling into half-hard; is brittle,
flightly elaftic ; fomewhat unctuous to the touch. Sp. gr.
according to Kirwan, 2.547.

Afbettus does not effervefce with acids; before the blow-
pipe it fufes without addition, but very difficultly, in a
greyifh black flag: at 160° of Wedgewood, it forms a grey
poe porcelain, of fufficient hardnefs to give fire with
fteei.

The refults of the analyfis of this mineral are as yet but
little fatisfactory. Bergman analyfed three fpecimens, from
which it appears, that afbeftus confifts of 60...67 per cent.
of filex, 13...16 carbonated magnefia, 6...12 carbonated lime,
anda very variable proportion of alumine and iron. Weigleb,
on the other hand, found in the afbeftus of Zoblitz 48.45
magnefia, 46.66 files, 4.79 iron. It is fo lately, however,
that the art of chemical analyfis has been brought even to
an approximation of certainty, and the caufes of error are
ftill fo numerous, that with the exception of Klaproth,
Vauquelin, Chenevix, and perhaps a few others, hardly any
authority is to be attached to the various chemifts who have
been engaged in this very important but moft difficult
branch of mineralogical fcience.

A(bettus is found in ferpentine rock, and, in general, in
the fame fituations as amianthus. It is fometimes mixed
with indurated tale and magnetic iron.

The more flexible varieties have been applied to the ma-
nufacture of incombuitible cloth, in the fame manner as
AmtantTuus; which fee. Kirwan’s Mineralog. vol. i. 159.
Brochant. Mineralog. v. i. 497. Widenmann. Handbuch.
der Mineral. p. 451. Lenz. Verfuch, &c. v. 1. p. 373.

ASBISI, in Geography, a {mall kingdom of Africa, in
Guinea, on the gold coait.

ASBOTUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
in Theffaly. Steph. Byz.

ASBROIT, in Geography,.a town of Sweden, in South
Gothland, fix miles north of Wardberg.

ASBURG, a town of Germany, im the circle of Wef-
phalia, and county of Meurs, two leagues-eaft.of Meurs, and
fix welt of Duifburg..

ASBYST&, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
in Libya, placed by Heredotus above Cyrene. Euttathius
places them near the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and the
fountain of the fun.

ASCA, in Geography, the name of a town of Arabia
Felix.

ASCAGNE, Aseanius, in Zoology, anew fpecies of

SIMIA

ASC
Sima or monkey, defcribed by Audebert in his * Hifloire

des Singes,” fam. 4. fed. 2. fig. 13 3 and by Sonnini in his
late edition of the works of Buffon, t. 36. This animal
was brought alive from Marfeilles to Paris, where it was
painted; but the native country is unknown. It is con-
jectured to be a native of the American continent, being of
the family which the French naturalifts call guenons, as it is
obferved that all the fpecies hitherto difcovered of that
family are inhabitants of America. This is a fmall kind,
meafuring about thirteen inches from the muzzle to the tail;
all the upper parts of the body are of a dufky olive colour ;
beneath a deep greyifh ; face violet-blue, with a flat white
nofe, and a kind of black whifkers that reach from the
mouth to the ears; on the temples are tufts of white hair;
the eyes are red beard and breatt grey.
lively, and agreeable animal, and yery partial to fruit.

ASCAIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenées, four leagues from Bayonne.

ASCALINGIUM, in Aacient Geography, a town of
Germany. Ptolemy.

ASCALON, a maritime town of Paleftine, and one of
the five Satrapies of the Philiftines, fituate on the Mediter-
ranean, and placed by Jofephus at the diftance of 320 fur-
longs welt of Jerufalem, between Azotus to the north, and
Gaza to the fouth. It was efteemed the ftrongeft on the
Philiftine coaft ; and yet the tribe of Judah, to whofe lot it
fell, made themfelves matters of it foon after the death of
Jofhua. Venus, called Urania or Ceelettis, was worfhipped
in this city; and Herodotus relates, that this temple was
pillaged by the Scythians about 630 years before the Chrif-
tian era. There was another divinity, which was the objec
of worthip in this place, called by Diodorus Siculus, Der-
ceto, reprefented as half a woman and half a fifh ; and near
it was a lake full of fifhes, confecrated to this goddefs,
which the inhabitants, on this account, refrained from eat-
ing, as they alfo did from pigeons, fuppofed to be under her
protection. This city had its own kings, and was fuccef-
fively under the dominion of the Affyrians, Perfians, Greeks,
and Romans. It was the native place of Herod the Great,
who was hence called Afcalonites, and who built a palace,
which Auguttus, after the death of Herod, gave to his fifter
Salome. The port of Afcalon was at fome diftance from
the city. This city was made an epifcopal fee from the
earlieft ages of Chriftianity ; and, during the holy war, was
adorned with many ftately edifices, all which have been fince
ruined by the Saracens and Turks. It is {till in being,
though reduced to a {mall village called Scalona. It was
anciently famous for its efcallions, which took their name
from this town. N. Jat. 31° 30. E. long. 16° 44’.

ASCALPHUS, in Entomology, the name of a Fabrician
genus of neuropterous infects, which in the Linnzan fyftem
belong to that of Myrmeleon. The charateris, palpi nearly
equal, and filiform; jaw ciliated; lip horny, rounded, and
entire. In-other works of Fabricius it is thus defined:
palpi fix, nearly equal, and filiform ; antenne elongated and
clubbed. Gmelin forms a fubdivifion of his genus Myrme-
/eon, under the name afcalpus, in which are included the fpe-
cies longicornis, barbarus, auftralis, and cayennenfis, all of
which are truly afcalphii of Fabricius.

ASCANDALIS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia
Minor, in Lycia. Pliny.

ASCANIA, a name given by Pliny to one of the iflaads
of the Archipelago.

ASCANIA, a country of Afia Minor, in Bithynia, ex-
tending from the river and lake Afcan, between the fea, the
river Sengar, and mount Olympus. Salluft.

ASCANLZ, {mall iflands on thetoatt of: the Troade. Pliny.

This is a fond, _

ASC

ASCANITL, in Entomology, a {peciesof Curcurro, of a
cylindrical fhape, black, and bluifh on the fides. Fabricius,
Herbit, &c.—O0Ol/. Curculio cylindricus of Herbft apud
Fuefsli te des InfeGtes), is confidered by Gmelinas a
variety (3) of this infect. Inhabits the fouth of Europe.

ASCANIUS, in Biography, called alfo ulus or Zlus, the
fon of Aineas by Cretifa, the daughter of Priam; or, as
others fay, by Lavinia, accompanied his father in his flight
and dangers, and fucceeded him in the government of La-
vinium, in the year before Chrift 1177. He was called
Afcanius from a river of that name in Phrygia, and Ilus,
changed into Iulus, from Ilium or Troy. Having defeated
Mezentius, king of the Tufcans, who demanded of the
Latins a tribute of all the wine produced in Latium, he
made peace with him upon condition that the Tiber fhould
be the boundary between the Latin and Hetrurian terri-
tories. When he found it expedient to refign Lavinium to
Lavinia and his fon Sylvius, he determined to build another
city for the place of his refidence, and the capital of his
kingdom, which he called Atsa Longa. Here he refided
about 12 years; and, after a reign of about 38 years, died
in this city in the year before Chrift11go. Dion. Hal. 1, i.
pry Fd ySCn. Lhivys (tter 3.

Ascanius, in Entomology, a {pecies of Parizio (£q.
Tro.). Above and beneath black, with a common white
band; poiterior wings clouded with red. Fabricius, &c.
Inhabits Brazil—The body of this infe&t is black, and the
breaft is {potted with red,

Ascantius, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor,
in Bithynia, according to Ptolemy, by which the lake Af-
cania or Afcanius diicharged its waters into the fea. Pliny
places it ina gulf near Etheleum.—Alfo, a port of Afia,
placed by Pliny néar the city of Phocea.—Alfo, a lake of
Afia Minor, in Bithynia, now the lake of [{nich, near which,
Pliny places the city of Nica.

ASCARA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the pros
vince of Simoodfuke.

ASCARDIC, the capital of the country of Afia, called
Little Tuiser. ’

ASCARINA, in Botany, (from acxzpic, a@ little worm:
the anther haying that {hape.) Schreb. 1487. Forlt. Gen.
59. Juff. 442. Clafs, dicecta monandria. _Generic Char.
* Male flowers. Ca/. amentum filiform ; flofevles feattered,
feflile; Perianth, a very fhoxt feale. Cor. none. Stam. fila=
ments fingle, very fhort; anther oblong, from fpreading re~
curve, four-furrowed, large. * Female flowers, in a differ-
ent plant. Calyx as in the male. Cor. none. Pifl. germ
globofe; ftyle none; ftigma flat, three-lobed, growing to
the germ. Per. drupe? Seed fingle.:

Eff. Gen. Char. Ament filiform. Cor. none. Male an<
ther worm-fhaped. Female, ftyle none; itigma three-lobeds
drupe?

Geeae 1. Afcarina polyffachya.
n. 364. A native of the Society iflands in the South feas..

ASCARIS, in Natural Hiftory, is the generic name of
thofe creatures belonging to the tribe of Vermes Znte/lina,
which have a round and elaflic body, tapering towards each
extremity ; three protuberances at the head; tail obtufe or
fubulate; and the inteflines fpiral, milky white, and pel-,
lucid.

The knowledge of the ancients concerning thefe ‘animals.
was apparently very limited; and they invariably confounded.
the afcarides with other inteftinal worms. To Redi much
credit is due for dire€ting his refearches to this intricate,
fubje@; and though his difcoveries are not of material
moment, he was certainly the jirft among modern writers,
who endeavoured to improve upon that knowledge one

I the

Forft. Flor. Auttral.,

A 5 -GoA RTS,

the anvients had left us. He defcribes the afcarides of the
eagle, the raven, the fwan, and feveral other creatures, in his
work, ‘ De animalculis vivis que 4n corporibus animalium
vivoram reperiuntur @bfervationes.”” Amft. 1708. Some
further obfervations were made by different perfons after the
time of Redi, but many years intervened before any contider-
able advances were made in this important branch of {cien-
tific inquiry.

Although it is evident that feveral fpecies of the afcarides
were mott clearly afcertained before the time of Linnzus,
that celebrated naturalift has thought proper to infert only
two tpecies of them in his Syftema Nature, which are A.
vermicularis and A. lumbricoides. — In the lait edition of that
work, Gmelin has availed himfelf of more recent difcoveries,
and has augmented that number to feventy-eight : fome {pe-
cies have even been difcovered by naturalifts fince the publi-
cation of that work, of which one or two is defcribed by
Dr. Pulteney in the Tranfactions of the Linnzan fociety of
London for the year 1800; and there can be no jutt reafon
to doubt, that many other kinds of them exift in different
animals, which have hitherto efcaped inveftigation.

Profeffor Pallas publifhed an elaborate work on the afca-
rides and other inteftinal vermes, intitled ‘ Thefis de in-
feitis viventibus intra viventia.”” It was printed at Leyden
in 1760, and defervedly acquired a very diitinguifhed reputa-
tion. In this book the author has judicioufly collated
every ufeful information the labours of his predeceflors could
afford him, as well as his own experience and obferva-
tions, and has given ample defcriptions and accurate f{peci-
fic diftinétions, by which the kinds he defcribes may be af-
certained.

O. F. Miiller has affiduoufly purfued the fame inquiry,
and greatly extended our knowledge of thefe creatures.
The royal fociety of Copenhagen alfo, aware of the vatt
importance of this fubje¢t to the welfare of mankind, pro-
pofeda premium for the beft differtation on the origin, ge-
neration, and beft means of deftroying the various kinds
of tenia, afcarides, fa/ciolz, and otherpernicious vermes, about
the year 1780. This excited the diligence both of M. Bloch
and M. Goéze, and to each of thema prize was affigned as
a reward for their labours. M. Bloch afterwards publifhed
his differtation in the German language, at Berlin, in 1782 ;
and in 1788, a tranflation of it imto French appeared
in Strafburgh, under the title of « Traité de la genera-
tion des vers des inteftines et des vermifuges.’? ‘That of
M. Goéze was publifhed in German with forty-four illuf-
trative plates, aad is alfo a work of confiderable merit and
utility.

Among the French naturalifts of the prefent day, M.
Lamarck’s “* Syfiéme des animaux fans vertébres,’”? and
« L’Hiiltoire naturelle des vers,’? a fequel to Deterville’s
edition of Buffon, are much efteemed. “ In fpite of the
obfervations of all the writers who have treated on the afca-
rides,’’ fays a modern French author, “ it isto Lamarck
and Cuivier we are indebted for circumfcribing the number
of f{pecies within the proper limits.”
of acknowledged {kill in the veterinary art, has alfo written
on the inteftinal vermes; as a naturalift, it feems he has
incurred fome blame; his fpecies may however be afcertained,
and what is of equal if not greater moment than the mere
accuracy of arrangement and {cientific definitions, he has
endeavoured to point out the beft means of extirpating
them.

From the obfervations of different writers it appears,
that the afcarides are of the two fexes; and that the female
is oviparous and very prolific. All the fpecies that are

Vor. IIL. é

M. Chabert, a man.

truly afcarides, live in the ftomach of man or of animals ;
and their origin, which it is of the utmoft confequence to
afcertain, is {tilla matter of profound obfcurity. The three
tubercles at the head have been miftaken by fome for the
accompaniments of the vent, becaufe there is obvioufly an
aperture or pore in the middle, but this is unqueftionably
the mouth, and Brugiere notices two little traniverfe open-
ings below, which he named ffigmates ; and thefe, it is con~
jectured, are the organs of re{piration.

It will be proper to obferve, that befides the prodigious
number of afcarides already afcertained, there is a numerous
hott of fimilar internal enemies peculiar to different animals
which do not pofiefs the generical charaGter of the afcaris,
and are therefore arranged in the new genera trichocephalus,
fiaria, uncinnaria, fcolex, ligula, Sfrongylus, echynorhynchus,
heruca, cucullanus, caryophylleus, linguatula, fafciola, tenia,
&c. The fpecies of afcaris defcribed by Gmelin are arranged
in the following order :

Infefting Man, and the Mammalia.

Vermicularis, lumbricoides ;—vefpertilionis, in the long~
eared bat :—Phocx, bifida, canis, vifceralis, lupi, vulpis,
leonis, tigridis, felis, cati, martis, bronchialis, renalis, me-
phitidis, gulonis, talpe, muris, hirci, vituli, equi, fuis,
apri.

Infefting Birds.

Aquilz, albicille, -buteonis, milvi, fubbuteonis, herma-
phrodita, cornicis, coraciz, cygni, anatis, fuligule, lari,
ciconi, tarde, papillofa, gallopavonis, galli, galline, pha-
fiani, tetraonis, columbz, alaudz, fturni, turdi.

Infefling Reptiles.

Teftudinis, lacerte, bufonis, pulmonalis, rubetre, tra~
chealis, rane, inteftinalis, dy{pnoos, infons.

Infefting Fifbes.
Anguille, marina, blennii, rhombi, percz, globicola, la-
cuitris, filuri, farionis, trutte, maraenz, acus, halecis, ar-
gentine, gobionis, rajz, fquali, lophii.

Infefing Worms.

Lumbrici. ee :

In the fequel of this article we fhall confine owrfelves to
the two fpectes of afcarides that belong to the human body ;
viz. the A. lumbricoides and vermicularis, referring for their
fcientific charaéters to their f{pecific names.

The afcarides of the firit {pecies generally infeft the fmall
inteftines ; fometimes they afcend through the duodenum in-
to the {tomach, and creep out of the mouth and noftrils ; they
feldom defcend into the large inteftines, except on the exhibi-
tion of medicines increafing the aétion of the inteftines. Some-
times they are very numerous. Dr. Hooper (to whofe excellent
Paper in the Memoirs of the Medical Society of London we
are indebted for much of this detail) relates a cafe of a girl
eight years old who voided per anum upwards of 200 in the
courle of aweek. Sometimes, however, they appear even fo-
litary. When recently excluded, they are tranfparent, and ap-
pear as if they-had been fucking water tinged with blood ;
this colour, however, foon difappears, and they become at
length of a light opaque yellow. After being evacuated, their
motion is feeble, and they foon die ; fometimes, when they
have been haftily evacuated, they will be very lively, and
by means of putting them into warm milk and water, they
will continue fo for fome time. Their motion is ferpentine,
and in no refpeét refembles the motion of the lumbricus
terreftris, or earth-worm, which has the power of diminifh-

aoe

ASCARIS.

ing its length and extending itfelf again, while the length
of the afcaris lumbricoides is never diminifhed ; the head is
always fent forward by the worm curling itfelf into circles,
and fuddenly extending it with confiderable force to fome
diftance.

It is faid that the afcaris lumbricoides «is not herma-

hrodite. ‘The worm here defcribed is confidered as the
ey Dr. Hooper fays he has examined a very confider-
able number, and has never met with any other appear-
ances than thefe.

Anatomical Defcrifation. Cuticle.—The covering or ex-
ternal membrane of the worm, which may be confidered as
the cuticle, is very ftrong, elaitic, thin, fmooth, and tranf-
parent, and eafily feparates from the parts underneath by
maceration in water; under this we find the cutis or true
fkin, which is confiderably thicker than the former, and
retains marks of the mufcles which it covers; it is alfo very
ftrong, elaitic, and tran{parent. When the cutis is removed,
the mufcles, obfervable through the {kin, prefent themfelves;
they do not entirely furround the worm as they at firft ap-
pear, but are two diltinét orders acting in oppofition to
each other, for the two longitudinal lines which extend
from one extremity of the worm to the other, are each of
them compofed of two diitinct tendons, feparable from one
another ; thefe tendons ferve for the attachment of the femi-
lunar mufcles which cover the worm from the head to the
tail. Upon carefully removing the femilunar muifcles from
the head to the depreffed band, a number of minute veficles
are to be feen (by means of a glafs) filled with a fubmu-
cous fluid which iffues out upon puncturing them, This
cellular or parenchymatous apparatus cloiely embraces
the inteftinal canal from the head to the depreffed band ;
but from thence to the tail there is merely a fibrous
kind of cellular membrane. When the mufcles are re-
moved from the deprefled band to the tail, an extremely
delicate membrane appears, which as a peritoneum embraces
the abdominal vifcera, and lines the cavity of the abdomen,
which cavity extends from the depreffed band to the tail ;
it is diftended with a tranfparent fluid, and contains the in-
teftinal tube, and an apparatus fuppofed to be fubfervient to
generation. The inteitinal tube or canal begins from the
mouth, and continues nearly half an inch in a parallel form,
which Dr. Bailie calls efophagus ; it then becomes larger
and tranfparent, increafing in fize till it arrives to the begin-
ning of the abdomen, clofely embraced by the parenchy-
matous fubftance ; it now obtains the dimenfions of a crow-
quill, and paffes itraight, ftill enlarging, through the whole
length of the worm to within an eighth part of an inch,
where it fuddenly becomes narrow, and terminates in an
anus. This canal is generally filled with a greenifh coloured
fluid of the confiftence of mucus. If a portion of this tube
be macerated a few daysin water, it exhibits diftinG tunics,
the external of which is a portion of the peritoneum ; it is
externally covered with filaments, which may be veflels of
nutrition. "The fecond vifcus is confidered by fome as pe-
culiar to the female, and all agree it is for the purpofe of
-generation; it begins about the middle of the worm, where
the cavity of the abdomen commences by a flender tube
which is continued from the pun¢tiform aperture fituated in
the depreffed band between the two longitudinal lines. This
tube, which is termed the vagina, an becomes larger,
when it commences uterus, and divaricates into two large
crura, which for the {pace of four or five inches are of an
uniform diameter, then fuddenly diminifh and appear like
opaque threads, embracing in every direCtion the inteftinal
tube. Werner confiders thefe as Fallopian tubes. This con-

voluted apparatus is compofed of very fine tranfparent
membranes ; it is never found empty, but always diitended
with an opaque fluid, in which are a number of ova contain=
ing young worms.. Some have confidered thefe threads
(which always protrude if the fin of the worm be divided )
as young worms, and have contended that the afcaris was vi-
viparous ; but it is not; and ova, fimilar to thofe found in
the Fallopian tubes, will be found in the mucus furrounding
the worm in the inteftines. 4
As the afcaris lumbricoides has long been confounded
with the lumbricus terreftris, or earth-worm, it may be pro-
per to mention that the lumbricus terreftris has but one ve-
ficle at its head, in the middle of which is its mouth ; it is
flat towards the tail, and is furnifhed with fharp briftles on
its under furface that ferve it for feet, which the animal
can ereét or deprefs at pleafure ; its annule are very lar,
and ftrongly marked, and its colour is of a dufky red.
Upon the under furface there is a large femilunar fold in the
fkin, into which the animal can draw its head or thru it
out at will; in all thefe it is ftrongly diftinguifhed from
the afcaris lumbricoides. This lumbricus has alfo an ele-
vated belt in its middle, the afcaris a deprefled band; on
each fide of the afcaris there is a longitudinal line; on the
lumbricus, there are three lines upon its upper furface.
The afcaris vermicularis, called the maw or thread worm,
when full grown, is about half an inch in length, and in
thickneis refembling a piece of fine thread; the head, or
obtufe extremity, is divided into three veficles or papilla,
in whofe middle is an aperture, which is the mouth. The
body is about a third of the length of the amimal, begin-
ning from the head, and terminating in the tail, and is of
a rugofe, pellucid, annular fabric ; the tail commences at the
{mall aperture or anus, and becomes lefs and lefs, terminating
in a fine point. P
Thefe worms are moftly confined to the rectum and colon,
and that principally of children; but they are often foundin
the ccecum and {mall inteftines, and even the ftomach, and
frequently get into the vagina, and even uterus, bladder,
&c. Their number fometimes exceeds all bounds ; in which
cafe the excrements, when firlt evacuated, appear quite
alive from being covered with them; generally a {mall
number are evacuated from the rectum every day, preduc-
ing a moft unpleafant fenfation of itching by their piercing
the fkin in a degree with their awl-thaped tails. Their
conftant action is one of their moft ftriking charaéters, ap-
pearing to be never at reft. On expofure to the air, they
have the power of piercing the feces, and burying them-
felves in it almoft inftantly. From the extreme action of
this fpecies, the genus has obtained the name afcaris, for
aznapicey fignifies the fame as oxaUpLCEbYy faltare, inguieté mo~
vere. ,
They are not hermaphrodite: the male does not exhibit
any of the gyrated apparatus ; the ftomach and inteftinal
canal have in appearance a different arrangement from thofe
in the female: but the male organs of generation have not”
been detected, probably they are too minute. The female
has upon its external furface, about the eighth of an inch
from the head, a fmall puntiform aperture through which
the young are protruded, and when highly magnified, its
internal cavity appears filled with the convoluted apparatus; ”
and Dr. Hooper fays he has feen upwards of one hundred
young ones efcape through this aperture all alive, and very
vivacious feveral hours after the death of the mother ; upona
little preffure being made upon it.
Anatomical Obfervations. 'The iateguments of this fpe-
cies are fimilar to thofe of the lumbricoid afcaris, and 47

ASCARIS,

fit of cuticle, cutis, and one fet of annular mufcles; there
do not appear to be any longitudinal lines on its external
furface. The cavity, containing the vifcera, begins at a
very {mall diftance from the head, and terminates where the
tail commences, at which place is a very fmall opening, or the
ais. The only vifcera in the male worm are cefophagus,
ftomach, and inteftines: the cefophagus begins at the mouth,

radually enlarges for a {mall {pace, and terminates in the
i, the {tomach is a round bag, fo that @fophagus
and ftomach together refemble a glafs pettle, which, accord-
ing to Goeze, conttitutes a diftinguifhing {pecific character.
The fLomach evacuates its contents into the inteftinal canal,
which continues through the worm more or leis contraéted
aid dilated to the anus: the contents of the ftomach and
inteftines are always of a brown colour. The female has,
belides thefe vifcera, an apparatus fubfervient to generation,
which begins by a flender tube leading from the {mall
punctiform opening fituated nearly in the body of the
worm ; it foon becomes much larger, embraces the inteftinal
tube in every direction, and fills up the cavity of the worm.
This gyrated apparatus is not bifurcated, as in the afcaris
Jumbricoides, nor has it the fame filiform appendages ; its end
or fundus is as large as any other part ; it appears under a
high magnifier like a bladder diftended with worms, for its
young are feen diitinctly moving about from one end to the
other.

Symptoms of Worms. When thefe worms exift in any
number, they produce more or lefs emaciation, palenefs of
the countenance, with fometimes flufhing of the face, a
bluifh circle about the eyes, itching of the nofe, inquietude
with ftarting and talking during fleep, thirft in the morning,
naufea and difguit for food, though more frequently great
appetite, fetid breath, pinching, griping, and tendernefs
in the belly, efpecially about the navel; belly frequently
much enlarged, flatulency, coftivenefs fometimes, at other
times purging, weaknefs, languor, epileptic fits, and more
or lefs fymptomatic fever, pulfle weak, and fometimes inter-
‘mitting. Thefe fymptoms arife more from the lumbricoides
than the vermicularis; but where the latter are numerous,
they will occafion nearly as violent fymptoms’; otherwife
they are more known by their effeéts in and about the rec-
tum and its neighbourhood, producing itching there more
or lefs intolerable, with tenefmus, and even fluor albus.
‘There are a number of other fymptoms brought on by
the exiftence of worms; thefe, however, are the principal
and mott decilive ; but the bett and moft fatisfactory evidence
is their being feen in the evacuations.

Cure. The indications for the cure of afcarides are of
two kinds ; firlt, the expulfion of them, their young, their
eva, and the mucus containing them, from the bowels:
and fecond, the correction of that weak ftate of the bowels,
or other morbid difpofitions of them, whatever they may be,
which favour the production of them, and that mucus which
becomes a nidus for their propagation. For although the
only place in nature where thefe two fpecies of infects are
known to be generated, is the human inteftines, during lite,
and therefore it might be reafonable to fuppofe, they might
exift in them (not in great numbers) in a ftate of health,
yet they are generally found in them when at leaft in a ftate
of lefs vigour, as in infancy and age, or when weakened by
any foreign means, among the caufes of which (it may be
proper to mention here) the draftic purgatives, employed
to get rid ofthem. Thefe frequently weaken fo much that
the patient rather fubmits to the inconvenience of them,
efpecially the afcaris vermicularis, than tothe pernicious ef-
fects oflvermifuges upon the digeftive organs.

There’is hardly a purgative, efpecially among thie draftic
ones, which has not been employed for this purpofe. ‘hefe
fhould be ufed with every precaution; and are hardly ever
neceflary for the expulfion of the afcarides. The lumbricoides
is not very tenacious of life, and is eafily deftroyed and eva-
cuated by means of calomel, with fcammony or jalap, and
other milder purgatives, in moderate dofes, adapted to the
ftrength of the patient. The purgative fhould be feveral
times repeated, at fhort intervals, in order to remove iuch
worms and ova as have been fereened by the folds of the in-
teftines, or in the mucus, from the action of the preceding
dofe. The fame means are employed to remove the a{-
caris vermicularis, but not with the fame fuccets. This is
much more tenacious ef life, and as it is generally feated fo
far from the ftomach, medicines adminiftered by the mouth
have little other effeét upon it than as they evacuate the
contents of the reétum in common with the other vifcera ;
but adminiftered by glytter, the relief they afford is very con-
fiderable, though not in all cafes certain. A fmall quantity
of aloes, diffolved in fome mucilaginous fluid, and employed
as a glyfter, is very powerful in this way, affifted at the fame
time by medicine, to evacuate them from above. There are
cafes where no effectual remedy has been found to remove
thefe troublefome vermin. We fhall below tran{cribe the ac-
curate hiftory of a cafe of thefe worms, given by the late
Dr. Heberden, in the firft volume of the Medical Tranfac-
tions, which will greatly iliuftrate this part of our fubject.

The fecond indication of cure, the removal of that weak
and morbid ftate of the inteftines which proves favourable to
the generation of the afcaris, is by no means the leait ; and
it is on this principle perhaps only that bitters have been
ranked with worm medicines; it is hardly probable that in-
fects always bred in bitternefs, and which have been found
in the duétus communis choledochus, and even gall bladder,
fhould be poifoned by bitters. Bitters, and tonics, as pre-
parations of fteel and other mineral and vegetable tonics,
will be found nearly as ufeful as the medicines which fimply
expel them. ‘The confideration of other remedies employ
ed in the removal of worms, we muft refer to the article
Tania.

Dr. Heberden tells us, that being acquainted with an ex
perienced and intelligent phyfician, who had from his in-
fancy been troubled with aicarides, he defired to be informed
by him what were the inconveniences which they had occa-
fioned, and what was the fuccefs of the remedies which he
had ufed: to which he replied, that according to his expe-
rience, the peculiar fymptoms of this fpecies of worms are a
great uneafinefs in the rectum, and an almoit intolerable
itching of the anus. Thefe fenfations ufually come on in
an evening, and prevent fleep for feveral hours ; they are at-
tended with a heat, which is fometimes fo confiderable as to
produce a {welling in the rectum, both in mally and exter-
nally ; and if thefe fymptoms be not foon \cheved, a tenef-
mus is brought on with a mucus dejeCtion.. Sometimes there:
is a griping pain in the lower part of the abdomen, a little
above the os pubis. If this pain be very fevere, there fol-
lows a bloody mucus, in which there are often found afearides
alive. They weré fometimes fufpected of occafioning dif-
turbed fleep, and fome degree of head-ache. Purging and
irritating clyfters were injected with very little fuccefs. One .
drachm aad a half of tobacco was infufed in fix ounces of
boiling water, and the itrained liquor being given as a
clyfter, occafioned a violent pain in the lower part of
the abdomen, with faintnefs and a cold fweat. "This. in-
jeCtion, though retained only one minute, acted as a {mart
purge, but did little or no ag Lime water was alfo ufed

2 as

ASC

as a clyfter, which brought on a coftivenefs, but had no
good effect. Six grains of falt of fteel were diffolved in
fix ounces of water, and “injected. This clyfter in a few
minutes occafioned an aching in the rectum, and griped a
little, without purging, and excited a tenefmus. Some few
afcarides were brought off with it, but all of them were alive.
The uneafy fenfation occafioned by this clyiter did not
abate till fome warm milk was thrown up. Wherever the
tenefmus cr mucus ftools were thought worth taking notice
of, warm milk and oil generally gave immediate relief. If
purging was neceflary, the lenient purges, fuch as manna,
with oil, were in this cafe made ufe of; rhubarb was found
too ftimulating. But, in general, the mott ufeful purge, and
which therefore was moit ufually taken, was cinnabar and
rhubarb, of each half a drachm: this powder feldom failed
to bring away a mucus as tranf{parent as the white of an egg,
and in this many afcarides were moving about. The cinna-
bar frequently adhered to this mucus, which did not come
off in fuch large quantities, when a purge was taken without
the cinnabar. Calomel did no more than any other purge,
which operates brifkly, would have done ; that is, it brought
away afcarides, with a great deal of mucus. Oil, given asa
clyfter, has fometimes brought off thefe animacules: the
oil fwam on the furface of the mucus, and the afcarides were
alive moving in the mucus, which probably hindered the oil
from coming in contaé with them and killing them. The
fame mucus may reafonably be fuppofed to preferve thefe
worms unhurt, though furrounded with many other liquors,
the immediate touch of which would be fatal. If the afca-
rides be taken out of their mucus, and expofed to the open
air, they become motionlefs, and feem to die in a very few
minutes.

The general health of this patient did not feem to have at
all fuffered by the long continuance of his diforder, nor the
immediate inconveniences of the diforder itfelf to have in-
creafed. It is perhaps univerfally trye that this kind of
worm, though as difficult to be cured as any, is yet the leait
dangerous of all. They have been known to accompany a
perfon through the whole of a long life, without any reafon
to fufpe@ that they have haftened its end. As in this ex-
ample there was no remarkable ficknefs, indigejlion, pain of
the ftomach, giddinefs, nor itching of the nofe, poffibly thefe
fymptoms, where they have happened to be joined with the
afcarides, did not properly belong to them, but arofe from
other caufes. There is indeed no one fign of worms, but
what in fome patients will be wanting. From this eafe it
further appears, that mucus or flime is the proper neft of
the afcarides, in which they live, and perhaps the food by
which they are nourifhed. It is hard to fatisfy ourfelves by
what infting they find it out in the human body, and by what
means they get at it; but it is obfervable im many other

arts of nature as well as here, that where there is a fit foil
as the hatching and growth of animals and vegetables, na-
ture has taken fufficient care that their feed fhould find the
way thither. Wormsare faid to have been found in the in-
teftines of infants who have been born dead. Purges, by
leffening this flime, never fail to relieve the patients ; and it
is not unlikely that.the’worms which are not forced away
by this quickened motion of the inteftines may, for want of
a proper quantity of it, languwifh, and at laft die. Experience
furnifhes no objeétions againft fuppofing that the kind of
purge is of little moment in the cure of all other forts of
worms as well as of the afcarides, the worms being always
defended from the immediate ation of medicines ;- and that
therefore thofe purges are the beft which a&t brifkly, and
ef which a frequent repetition can be moft eafily borne.

ASC

Purging waters are of this kind, and jalap, efpecially for
children ; two or more grains of which, mixed with ugar,
are eafily taken,,and may be daily repeated.

ASCAROIDES, a fpecies of Cucuttanus found in
the ftomach of the Si/urus glanus ; it refembles the larva of
the mufca, is about an inch i Jength, of a whitifh grey
colour, and is gregarious. Goéze and Gmel. thus define its
{pecific character: head orbicular, and hcoked on each
fide ; tail rounded, fhort, and pointed with two exferted
{picules.

ASCAUCALIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ger-
many. Ptolemy.

ASCAULUS, in Ancient Mufic, a wind inftrument, con-
cerning which mufical antiquaries are not agreed ; but it is
generally fuppofed to be fynonymous with the #idia articu-
laris, or bag-fiipe ; which fee.

ASCELUM, in Geography, a town of Venetia, north-
weit of Tavifium.

ASCENDANT, in Afrology, denotes the horofeope :
or the ecliptic which rifes upon the horizon, at the time of
the birth of any one. This is fuppofed to have an influ-
ence on the perion’s life and fortune, by giving him a bent
and propenfity to one thing more than another. In the ce-
leftial theme this is called the /r/? hou/e, the angle of the eaf?,
or oriental angle, and the fignificator of life.—Such a planet
ruled in his a/cendant.—Jupiter was in his afcendant, &c.
Hence the word is alfo ufed in a moral fenfe, for a certain
fuperiority which one-man has over another, from fome un-
known caufe.

AscenpantT, in Genealogy, is underftood of anceftors,
or fuch relations as have gone before us; fuch are father,
grandfather, &c.—They are thus called in contradiftinétion
to defcendants, or the defcending line. It is a canon
in law, that inheritances never lineally afcend. See In-
HERITANCE. Marriage is always forbid between the
afcendants and defcendants, in a direét line. See Mar-
RIAGE.

ASCENDENS obliquus. See Osriquus.

ASCENDING, in Afronomy; is underftood of thofe
flars or degrees of the heavens, &c. which are rifing above
the horizon, in any parallel of the equator.

AscenpinG Jatitude, is the latitude of a planet, wher
going towards the north pole. See Larirupe.

ASCENDING zode, is that point of a planet’s orbit, where-
in it paffes the ecliptic, to proceed northward.

Ascenpine figns, among Aftrologers, are thofe which
are upon their afcent, or rife from the nadir, or loweft part
of the heavens, to the zenith or highett. :

Ascenpinc, in Anatomy, is applied to fuch veffels as
carry the blood upwards; thus part of the aorta,.and the
inferior cava, have been termed the afcending aorta, and
afcending vena cava.

AscEnp1nG, in Botany, denotes growing firft horizon-.
tally, and then bowed upwards ; and the term in this fenfe
is applicable to leaves, to ftalks, to ftems, as in fpiked {peed-
well ; or to ftamens, as in all the fpeedwells. t

AscenpinG Harmony, in Mufic, is modulating by sths ;-
defcending harmony is acquired by the bafe moving by 4ths.

ASCENSION, Ascensio, a rifing or moving upward.

Ascension, in Theology, is particularly ufed for that-
miraculous elevation of our Saviour, when he mounted to.
heaven in the fight of his apoftles. Adtsi. 14, &c.

Ascension-Day, popularly called Holy Thurfday, a
feftival of the church, held ten days before Whitfuntide, in
memory of. our Saviour’s afcenfion, The appointment of
this day for the feftival of the afcenfion is traced to the

6 Apottolical

ASC

Apoftolical Conftitutions, I. v. ¢. 19. Its origin is not
known; and hence fome have been led to imagine, that it
was received by tradition from the apoitles.®,

Ascension, in Afronomy, is either right or oblique.

AscENSION, right, of the fun, orof a ftar, is that de-
gree of the equinoctial, accounted from the beginning of
Aries, which rifes with the fun, or ftar, in a right {phere.
Or, right afcention is that degree and minute of the equi-
no¢tial, counted as before, which comes to the meridian
with the fun, or tar, or other point of the heavens. The
reafon of thus referring it to the meridian, is, becaufe it is
always at right angles to the equino¢tial, whereas the hori-
zon is only fo in a right or direét fphere. The right
afcenfion ftands oppofed to the right defcenfion, and cor-
refponds to the longitude of places on the earth. Two
fixed ftars, hich have the fame right afcenfion, i. e. which
are at the fame diftance from the firft point of Aries, or,
which amounts to the fame, are in the fame meridian, rife at
the fame time in a right fphere, or with refpect to people
who live under the equator. Ifthey be not in the fame me-
ridian, the difference between the times of their rifing or
coming to the meridian is the precife difference of their
right afcenfion. In an oblique {phere, where the horizon
cuts all the meridians obliquely, different points of the
meridian never rife or fet together; fo that two ftars, on
the fame meridian, never rife or fet at the fame time; andthe
more oblique the fphere, the greater is the interval of time
between them. ‘’o find the right afcenfion of the fun,
flars, &c. trigonometrically, fay, for the fun, as radius ‘is
to the cofine of the fun’s greateit declination, or obliquity of
the ecliptic, fo is the tangent of the fun’s longitude to the
tangent of the right afcention.

Let PESO (Affronomy, Plate II. fig. 15.) reprefent the
folftitial colure, the centre of which is 9p, and let the dia-
meter EQ be the equator and the diameter PS be the equi-
notial colure. Suppofe the obliquity to be Ea = 23°28’,
and the diameter 9 Vf to be the ecliptic, in which take y~ ©
for the fun’s longitude or diftance from the point ~ = 43°
16’; and through POS deferibe a circle of right afcention.
Then in the right-angled fpherical triangle ~@©B, we
have ;

Radius Calor - 10.00000
to t. fun’s long. = 43° 16' = 9.97371
As cof. obl. ecl. = 23° 28’ ~—- 9.96251
to t. right afcenfion= 40° 48’ 9.93622

While the fun is moving from to 9%, or in the firft
quadrant of the ecliptic, the given longitude is the hypo-
thenufe in the triangle y © B, the declination B© ‘is north,
and y Bis the right afcenfion. When the fun has pafled the
folftice @, and is defcending towards +, or in the fecond
quadrant, his longitude or diftance from ~ being taken
from 180°, the remainder =~ © becomes the hypothenufe,
and the declination is ftil] north; but the arc B found for
the right afcenfion is only the fupplement, and mutt there-
forebe taken from 180°. The fun having paffed the point +,
and defcending towards V3, is in the third quadrant, and
his longitude, reckoned from sp, will be greater than 180°;
in which cafe the excefs above 180°, or his diftance from +,
will be the hypothenufe =-@; the declination will be fouth;
and the arc=A, found for the right afcenfion, mutt be added
to 180° in order to obtain the right afcenfion eftimated from
op. When the fun has paffed the folftice v9, and is afcending
towards p, he is then in the fourth quadrant; therefore the
longitude will be greater thaa 270%, and mutt be taken from
360°, for the hypothenufe ~ ©. In this cafe the decli-
nation is fouth, and the right afeenfion, found by the above

ASC

proportion, muft be taken from 360°, in order to have the
right afcenfion from 9.

If the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the fun’s declination
were given, the proportion for the right afcenfion would bes
radius to the cotangent of the obliquity of the ecliptic, as
the tangent of the fun’s declination to the fine of the right
afcenfion.

The fun’s right afcenfion in time is ufeful to the pra¢ti-
cal aftronomer in regular obfervatories, who adjufts his
clock by fidereal time.. It ferves alfo for converting appa-
rent into fidereal time ; as e.g. that of an eclipfe of Ju-
piter’s fatellites, in order to know at what time it may be
expected to happen by his clocks. For this purpofe, the
fun’s right afcenfion at the preceding noon, together with
the increafe of right afcenfion from noon, mutt be added
to the apparent time of the phenomenon fet down in the
ephemeris. The fun’s right afcenfion in time ferves alfo
for computing the apparent time of a known {tar’s pafling
the meridian: thus, fubtra& the fun’s right afcenfion in
time at noon from the ftar’s right afcenfion in time, the
remainder is the apparent time of the ftar’s paffing the meri-
dian nearly: from which the proportional part of the daily
increafe of the fun’s right afcenfion from this apparent
time from noon being fubtraéted, leaves the corre& time of
the ftar’s pafling the meridian. The fun’s right afcenfion
in time is alfo ufeful for computing the time of the moon
and planet’s pafling the meridian.

For finding the right afcenfion of a ftar, fuppofing its
latitude and longitude, and alfo the obliquity of the eclip-
tic, to be given, the method is as follows. Let PESQ,
(jig. 16.) or the primitive circle, be the folftitial colure ;
EQ the equator, P, S its poles, and cé a parallel of lati-
tude interfecting a circle of longitude # Ag in the place of
a ftar. Saguae the latitude of the ftar to be 7° 9’ N. and
its longitude 7 29° 1’, and the obliquity of the ecliptic
23° 28’. Inthe triangle PA”, we have Pf the diftance
of the poles of the equator and ecliptic, or the obliquity of
the ecliptic = 23° 28’, # A, or the complement of the lati-
tude = 82° 51’, and the contained angle PaA = 60° 59’,
or the longitude from the firft point of o, and we are to
find the angle #PA or the right afcenfion. The propor-
tion is as follows : rad. : cofine PA :: tang. AA : tang.
M,. Take the difference between the fide adjacent to the
required angle and M, and call it N: then fay, fine N: fine
M:: tang. PrA : tang. #PA. Or, firft find the decli-
nation (fee Decrination), which is 17° 49’ N. Then
fay, S. co-declin.: S. long. :: S. co-lat.: S. co-right-afcen-
LGW de es 72 EL ey OOo 5OMs:90. S20 5 T= Se ico=:
right-afcenfion:—or, 9.9786554 : 9.9417492 :: 9:9966096:-
9-9597034 the fine of 65°41 and therefore the right af-
cenfion will be 24° 19’.

The right afcenfion and declination of a fixed ftar or pla=-
net, whofe longitude and latitude, as well as (O) the obli-
quity of the ecliptic, are. given, may be found by the fol-
lowing problem, communicated by Dr. Mafkelyne to Dr.
A. Mackay.

Tan. lat. — fine long. = tang. A, north or fouth, as lati-
tude is. Call. O north in fix firft figns, and fouth in fix
latt figns.

ALE O— BE.
A’ lefs than 45”, co. ar. cof. A + cof. B + tang. long.)
A more than 45°, tang. A+ co. ar. fine A + cof. B. }=
+ tang. long. E
tang. right afeenfion of the fame kind as longitude ; unlefs
B be more than go”, when the quantity found of the fame
kind as longitude muit be fubtra¢ted from 12 figns. ae

ASC

AR (right afcenfion) nearer IIT and LX figns than
o and VI figns, fine AR +tang. B

AR nearer o and VI figns than III and IX figns,
tang. AR+ cof. AR + tang. B
tang. declination of fame title as B, true to the neareit fe-
cond by Taylor’s logarithms, to neareft 10” by Gardiner’s
logarithms, or to neareft minute by Sherwin’s or Hutton’s
logarithms, without proportioning.

Example.

Let the moon’s long. be 7° 14° 26 21”, and lat. 4° of 34”N.
and the obliquity of the ecliptic 23° 27’ 48". Required
the right afcenfion and declination ?

Lat. ) 4° o! 34” tang. 8.8456713.

Long. 224 26 21 fine 9-845 1920—tang. —9.9914974
A= 543 ©. 7 tang. g.0004793 ar. co. cof. 0.002165 4
O\=23'27.48. +9
B= 17 44 47. 3 S.—cof.—g.9788260 tang. 9.505 1970

RA. 223 21 11. 2— tang-—9.9724888 fine 9.3852940

Decl. 1221 14.6S.tangent. - - - - 9+3404910
N.B. The right afcenfion and declination may be found

by the following formule :

Co-v. f. Decl.=v. f. long. a. @ x f. co. lat. x f. ob.
ecl. + y. f.co. lat. 1 f. ob. ecl.

Cof. Right afcenfion from y or = =

fecant decl. x cof. lat. x cof. long. from 9 or *.

Mackay’s Theory and Practice of finding the Longitude, &c.

vol. I. p. 42.

For other methods of determining the right afcen-
fion of a fixed ftar by Mr. Flamitead, and Dr. Mafkelyne,
illuftrated by examples, fee Vince’s Aflronomy, vol. 1.
p- 31, &e.

The practical method of finding the right afcenfion of a
body from that of a fixed ftar, by a clock adjufted to fidereal
time, is this: —Let the clock begin its motion from of 0! 0”
at the inftant the firft point ee is on the meridian ;
then, when any itar comes to the meridian, the clock would
fhew the apparent right afcenfion of the ftar, the right
afcenfion being eftimated in time at the rate of 15° an hour,
provided the clock was fubjeé to no error, becaufe it would
then fhew at any time how far the firft point of aries was
from the meridian. But as the clock is liable to err, we
muft be able at any time to afcertain its error, or the dif-
ference between the right afcenfion fhewn by the clock and
the right afcenfion of that point of the equator which is at
that time on the meridian. T'o do this, we muft, when a
ftar, whofe apparent right afcenfion is known, pafles the
meridian, compare its apparent right afcenfion with the right
afcenfion fhewn by the clock, and the difference will fhew
the error of thé clock. E. g. let the apparent rjght afcenfion
of Aldebaran be 4" 23’ 50” at the time when its tranfit over
the meridian is obferved by the clock; and fu pole the time
fhewn by the clock to be 4" 23’ 52”, then ee is an error
of 2" in the clock, as it gives the right afcenfipn of the ftar
2" more than it ought. If the clock be campared with
feveral ftars, and the mean error taken, we fhall have more
accurately the error at the mean time of all the obfervations.
Thefe obfervations, being repeated every day, will give the
rate of the clock’s going, or fhew how much it gains or
lofes. ‘The error of the clock, and the rate of its going,
being thus afcertained, if the time of the tranfit of any body
be obferved, and the error of the clock at the time be ap-
plied, we fhall’ have the right afcenfion of the body. This
is the method by which the right afcenfion of the fun, moon
and planets are regularly found in obfervatories.

ASC

To find the right afcenfions mechanically by the globe,

fee GLoBE.
_ The arch of right afcenfion is that portion of the equator
intercepted between the beginning of aries, and the point
of the equator which is in the meridian: or, it is the num-
ber of degrees contained in it. This coincides with the
right afcenfion itfelf_—T he right afcenfion is the fame in
all parts of the globe.

We fometimes alfo fay, the right afcenfion of a point of
the ecliptic, or any other point of the heavens. The right
afcenfion of the mid-heayen is often ufed by aftronomers,
particularly in calculating eclipfes by the nonagefimal de-
gree; and it denotes the right afcenfion of that point of
the equator which is in the meridian, and is equal to, the
fum of the fun’s right afcenfion and the horary angle or
true time reduced to degrees, or to the fum of the mean
longitude of the fun and mean time.

ASCENSION, angle of right. See ANGLE.

Ascension, oblique, is an arch of the equator intercepted
between the firft point of aries, and that point of the equa-
tor which rifes together with a ftar, &c. in an oblique
fphere.

The oblique afcenfion is numbered from weft to eaft; and
is greater or lefs, according to the different obliquity of the
fphere.

To find the oblique afcenfion of the fun by the globe,
fee Grose. See alfo Ascensionar Difference.

The arch of oblique afcenfion is an arch of the horizon in-
tercepted between the begmning of aries, and the point of
the equator, which rifes with a {tar or planet in an oblique
{phere.—This coincides with the oblique afcenfion itfelf.
—The oblique afcenfions change according to the latitude of
the places.

Ascension and Defcenfion, Refradion of. See Rerrac~
TION.

__ Ascension, Sle of, in Geography, one of the African
iflands fituate mm the Southern Atlantic ocean. 5S. lat. 7°
56" 30". W. long. 14° 22’ 31”. This dreary defolate ifland
was firft difcovered in 1501, by J. de Nova Galego, a Portu-
guefe navigator, who called it “« Ilha de Noffa Senhora de.
Conceicao ;?? and it was feen a fecond time by Alfonfo d?
Albuquerque, on his voyage to India in 1503, probably on
Afcenfion-day when it received its prefent name. Capt.
Cook ftopped at this ifland in 1775; and he fays that it is
about ten miles in length, from north-weft to fouth-eaft, and
about five or fix in breadth. Its furface is compofed of bar-
ren hills and vallies, or a colleétion of rocks and hollows,
without a fhrub or plant for feveral miles, and exhibiting by
the ftones and athes which abound in it, fufficient evidence
that at fome period or other it was a volcanic production.
Mr. Forfter, in his account of this ifland, fays, that they
could difcern from the fhip, near the centre of it, a broad
white mountain of confiderable elevation, on which there
was fome verdure, and from this circumftance it obtained the
name of the “ Green Mountain.”? When they landed on
the beach, through a high furf, they found themfelves amidft
rocks, which contifted of minute fhell-fand, chiefly of a fnowy
white, deep and dry, and by the reflection of the fun intole-
rable to the eyes. In their progrefs, they afcended through
heaps of black cavernous ftone, which perfeétly refembled the
common lavas of Vefuvius and Iceland. After a perpendi-
cular afcent of about twelve or fifteen yards, they arrived at
an extenfive level plain, about fix or eight miles in circuit,
at the different corners of which they obferved large hills, of
a conical fhape, and ofa reddifh colour, which were perfectly
infulated. Between thefe hills the plain was covered with a
8 great

ay ee

ASC

great number of fmall hillocks, compofed of lava fimilar to
that which they found on the fea-fhore, and the pieces of
which founded like glafs when {truck againft each other.
Between the heaps of lava the foil wasa firm black earth,
and where the heaps did not appear, the whole was a red
earth, fo loofe and compofed of fuch minute particles, that
the wind raifed from it clouds of duft. ‘The conic hills con-
fitted of a different fort of lava, which was red and foft, and
crumbled into earth. One of thefe hills ftands direétly in
front of the bay, and has on its fummit a wooden crofs,
whence the bay is faid to take its name. The fides of the
hill are yery fteep, but a path about 3 of a mile long winds
to the fummit. The plain on which they ftood, they con-
cluded to have been once the crater of a volcano, by the ac-
cumulation of whofe cinders and pumice ftones the conic hills
had been gradually formed; the currents of lava which were
now diftributed in many heaps, had, as they conjectured, been
radually buried in freth cinders and afhes; and the waters
fas from the interior mountain in the rainy feafon, had
carried every thing before them, and thus filled up by de-
grees the cavity of the crater. The rocky black lava was
the rejidence of numberlefs men-of-war birds, and boobies,
which fat oa their eggs and allowed of a clofe approach.
Here they found a New York floop, which came to the
ifland to catch turtles, in order to fell them at the Windward
iflands. The Eaft India thips, it is faid, touch at this ifland
for the purpofe of furnifhing themfelves with turtles, which
are plentiful and very large. On a fecond vifit to the ifland,
Mr. Foriterand his companions crofled the plain, and arrived
at a prodigious current of lava, interfected by many chan-
nels from fix to eight yards deep, which appeared to have been
formed by torrents of water, but which they found dry, as
the fun was in the northern hemifphere. In thefe gullies
they perceived a {mall quantity of foil which was a black
volcanic earth mixed with fome whitifh particles, that were
gritty to the touch. This foil afforded fufficient nutriment
to purflane, and a fpecies of grafs, the “ panicum fangui-
neum.”” Having with difficulty climbed over this lava cur-
rent, they came to the foot of the “ Green mountain,”’
which was furrounded by a lava, that was covered with
purflane, and a kind of new fern, “ lonchites adfcenfio-
nis,” on which feveral wild goats were feeding. "This moun-
taiti is divided in its extremities by various clefts into feveral
bodies, which run together towards the centre, and form one
broad mais of great height. The whole appears to confift
of a gritty tophaceous limeftone, which has never been at-
tacked by the voloano, but probably exifted, as Mr. Forfter
fuggefts, prior to its eruption: its fides are covered with a
kind of grafs peculiar to the ifland, which Linneus has nam-
ed “ ariftida adfcenfionis.”” The goats which feed on it
were very numerous, but being very fhy, they fled with great
velocity over tremendous precipices, where it was impoffible
to purfuethem. Thisifland, with a little trouble, fays this
writer, might in a fhort {pace of time be rendered fit for the
refidence of men. The introduétion of furze, “ ulex Euro-
peus,”’ and fome other plants which thrive beft in a parched
foil, and which are not likely to be attacked by rats or
goats, would foon have the fame effeét as at St. Helena.
The moifture attracted from the atmofphere by the high
mountains in the centre of the ifland, would then not be eva-
porated. by the heat of the fun, but gradually be colle@ed
into rivulets, and fupply the whole ifland. A {od of graffes
would everywhere cover the furface of the ground, and
annually increafe the ftratum of the mould, till it could
be planted with more ufeful vegetables. The outfkirts of
the ifland are reprefented to be beyond defcription dreary.

ASC

It is faid that, ‘as this ifland is vifited by the homeward-
bound fhips on account of its fea-fowls, fifh, turtle, and’
oats, there is in the crevice of a rock a place called by the
failors the “* Poft Office,”? where letters are depofited, fhut
up ina well corked bottle, for the fhips that next vifit the
ifland. Mod. Un. Hitt. vol. xi. p. 458.

Ascension, or A/cencaon, Sfle of, a {mall ifland about
120 leagues ealt from the coaft of Brazil, N. lat. 20° 30'.
W. long. 35° 40’. Some have fuppofed this ifland to be
the fame with the ifle of Trinidad or Trinity. M. la Pe-
roufe, who wifhed to afcertain the exiftence of the ifland
of Afcenfion, made fearch for it, and avers (fee his voyage,
vol. i. p. 24.) that no fuch ifland exifts from the meridian
of Trinidad to about feven degrees weft longitude, between
the latitudes of 20° ro’, and 20° 50’. M. le Paute d’Agelet
alfo fufpeéts (Mem. Acad. Sc. Paris, for 1788) the French
geographers have committed an error with regard to the
ifle of Trinity, which they have laid down ia their maps of
the African feas, but which he thinks is really the ifle of
Afcengaon, which, by fome error of reckoning, occafioned
probably by currents, has been twice laid down. But M.
Dapres (Neptune Oriental, p. 10.) has placed the ifland of
Afcenfion 100 leagues weft of Trinidad, and fifteen miles
to the fouthward. It appears alfo, that though the latitudes
of thefe two iflands were nearly the fame, their longitudes
were very imperfe@ly afcertat:ed; and from the minute
and very different plans which Dalrymple has given of
thefe two iflands and their appearance, it is prefumed
that they are not the fame. La Peroufe did not purfue
his refearches far enough, as the ifle of Afcenfion is pro-
bebly fomewhat nearer the coaft of Brazil than Dapres has
placed it.

Ascension Bay, lies on the eaft fide of the peninfula of
Yucatan, in the bay of Honduras, haying Amber bay on
the north, and the northern point of Ambergreafe key
on the fouth, which forms a paffage into Hanover bay,
fouth from Afcenfion bay.—Alfo, a bay in’ the north part
of the gulf of Mexico, fituate between cape Balize at the
mouth of the Miffifippi, and the bay of Frefh-water on the
weit, in N. lat. 30°, and W. long. g2°.

ASCENSIONAL Difference, in Aftronomy, isthe differ-
ence between the right and oblique afcenfion of the fame
point on the furface of the fphere.

To find the afcenfional difference trigonometrically, hay-
ing the latitude of the place, and the fun’s declination given,
fay, As radius is to the tangent of the latitude, fois the
tangent of the fun’s declination to the fine of the afcenfional
difference.

E. G. Let it be required to find the fun’s afcenfional
difference at London, lat. 51° 32’ N. on the arit of
June, being the longeft day, when the fun’s declination
is 23° 28’ N. \

Let the primitive circle PESQ (Afron. P/. II. fg. 17:)
reprefent the meridian of the place, and the diameter HR.
the horizon; take RP from R, the north point, for the
latitude= 51° 32°; draw the axis, or 60’clock hour circle,
PS, and perpendicular to it draw the equator EQ; make
En, Qm, each=23° 28’, the declination, and defcribe the
parallel of declination xm, interfe€ting the horizon in ©,
the place of the fun at his rifing or fetting, and through this
point defcribe the hour circle POS. ;

In the f{pherical triangle ~@A, tight-angled at A, the.
angle Oy R, meafured by the are QR, is the co-latitude ;
A© is the fun’s declination ; and the required afcenfional
difference is yA, which may be found by the proportion ~
above ftated 3 viz. :

Rad.

ASC

Rad. - - a =10.000009
Te t. lat. Pe O=51° 32" 10.099913
As_t. decl. AQ =23° 28 9-637G6i1
To fine afe. dif. pA=22° 9/ 9-737524

This afcenfional difference, 33 , 7’, conyerted into time,
gives 2" 12° 28" for the time which the fun rifes before,
and fets after ‘the hour of fix, on the longeft day. Hence
it appears, that when the latitude and declination have the
fame name, the fun rifes before, and fets after fix; but when
they are.of contrary names, the fun rifes after, and fets be-
fore fix. And as the fun defcribes the parallel of declination
nin in.24 hours, being at 2 when it is noon, and at m when it
is midnight, the time in pafling from m to ©, or the time of
rifing being doubled, gives the length of the night; and the
time of fetting being doubled gives the length of the day.
Confequently, 6"+2" 12° 28”=8" 12’ 28", will be the time
of fetting, and 6"—2" 12’ 28”=3" 47’ 32”, tall be the time
of rifing; and 8‘ 12 28”x2=16° 24' 56" the length of
the day, and 3°47’ 32”x2=7" 35 4” the length of the

night.

But when it is the fhorteft day at London, that is, when
the fun has 23° 28’ fouth declination, the lengths of the
day and night will change places; the day being 7" 35’ 4",
and the night 16° 24’ 56”.

When the latitude and declination have the fame name,
the difference between the right afcenfion and the afcentional
difference, is the oblique afcenfion ; and their fum is the ob-
lique defcenfion ; but when they are of contrary names, the
fum is the oblique afcenfion, and the difference is the oblique
defcenfion. .

The above folution is applicable to a ftar, as well as to
the fun; but on account of the {mall change in the declina-
tion of the ftars, the fame {tar in any latitude may be con-
fidered as having the fame afcenfional difference through the
year. Hence it appears that the diurnal difference of the
fame ftar’s rifing, culminating, and fetting in the fame lati-
tude, is nearly equal to the diurnal difference of the fun’s
right afcenfion. As the fun’s mean apparent daily motion
is 59’ 8” nearly, or in time 3' 56” 32”, this will be the
daily difference in the rifing, fouthing, and fetting of any
fixed ftar in the fame latitude.

ASCENSIONIS, in Jchthyology, a {pecies of PERcA
that inhabits the fea about Afcention ifland; it is reddifh
above, whitifh beneath, and the tail is bifurcated. Ofb. It.
p- 388.

ASCENSORIUM fometimes occurs, in our ancient
writers, for a ftair or ftep.

ASCENT, in a general fenfe, the. motion of a body
tending upwards ; or the continual recefs of a body from
the earth. In this fenfe the word ftands oppofed to defcent.

The Peripatetics attribute the fpontaneous afcent of
bodies, to a principle of levity inherent in them. The mo-
derns deny any fuch thing as fpontaneous levity, and fhew,
that whatever afcends, does it in virtue of fome external im-
pulfe or extrufion. Thus it is that fmoke, and other rare
bodies afcend in the atmofphere ; and oil, light woods, &c.
in water: not by any internal principle of levity, but by the
fuperior gravity, or tendency downwards of the parts of the
medium in which they are.

The afcent of light bodies in heavy mediums is produced
after the fame manner as the afcent of the lighter fcale of a
balance.—It is not that fuch fcale has an internal principle
by which it immediately tends upwards; but it is impelled up-
wards by the preponderancy of the other feale, the excefs
ef the weight of the oue having the fame effect by augment-

juices from the blood.”?
If a drop of oil, water, or other fluid, be laid on a glafs

ASC

ing its impetus downwards, as fo mitch real levity in the
other: becaufe the tendencies mutually oppofe each other :
and that action and re-action are always equal. See this
farther iliuftrated under the articles Speciric Gravity, and
Fiuip.

Ascent of Bodies on inclined Planes.
and laws, under Jnclined PLANE.

Ascent of Fluids, is particularly underftood of their
rifing above their own level, between the furfaces of nearly

See its do@trine

contiguous bodies, or in flender capillary glafs tubes, or in-

veffels filled with fand, 2fhes, or the like porous fubftances.
This effe&t happens as well in vacuo, asin the open air,
and in crooked as well as ftraight tubes. Some liquors, as
{pirit of wine, and oil of turpentine, afcend with greater
celerity than others; and fome rife after a different man-
ner from others. Mercury does not afcend at all, but
rather fubfides. The phenomeron, with its caufes, &e.
in the inftance of capillary tubes, will be fpoken of more
at large under Caritrary Zuse. Uponthe fame noo
two {mooth polifhed plates of glafs, metal, ftone, or other
matter, being fo difpofed as to be almoit contiguous, have
the effet of feveral parallel capillary tubes ; and the fluid
rifes in them accordingly : the like may be faid of a vefiel
filled with fand, &c. the divers little interftices of which form
as it were a kind of capillary tubes. So that the fame prin-
ciple accounts for the appearance in them all. And to the
fame may probably be afcribed the “afcent of the fap in
vegetables. Thus Sir I. Newton.—* If a large pipe of
glafs be filled with fifted afhes, weil prefied together, and
one end dipped into ftagnant water, the fluid will afcend
flowly in the athes, fo as in the fpace of a week or fortnight
to reach the height of thirty or forty inches above the ftag-
nant water. This afcent is wholly owing to the action of
thofe particles of the afhes which are upon the furface of
the elevated water; thofe within the water attracting as
much downwards as upwards: it follows that the aGtion of
fuch particles is very flrong; though being lefs denfe and
clofe than thofe of the glafs, their a€tion is not equal to
that of glafs, which keeps quickfilver fufpended to the
height of fixty or feventy inches, and therefore aéts with a
force which would keep water fufpended to the height of
about fixty feet. By the fame principle; a fponge fucks
in water; and the glands in the bodies of animals, accord-
ing to their feveral natures and difpofitions, imbibe various
Optics, p. 367.

plane, perpendicular to the horizon, fo as to ftand without

5 cg or running off ; and another plane inclined to the

former fo as to meet a-top, be brought to touch the drop,
then will the drop break, and afcend towards the touching
end of the planes ; and it will afcend the faiter in proportion
as it is higher, becaufe the diftance between the planes is
conitantly decreafing. After the fame manner, the drop may
be bronght to any part of the planes, either upward or down-
ward, or fideways, by altering the angle of inclination.
Lattly, if the fame perpendicular planes be fo placed, as that
two of their fides meet, and form a {mall angle, the other
two only being kept apart by the interpofition of fome thin

body; and thus immerged ina fluid tinged with fome colour;

the fluid will afcend between the planes, and this the higheft
where the planes are neareft; fo as to form a curve line,
which is found to be a juft hyperbola, one of the afymptotes
whereof is the line of the fluid, the other being a line drawn
along the touching fides. The phyfical caufe, in all thefe
phznomena, is the fame power of attraction. See Hypro-
statics (Pi. I. fig. 1.), and Conesion.

ASCENT

~

ASC

Ascent of vapour, See Evaroration, Croup, and
Vapour.

Ascent, in Afronomy, kc. See Ascension. ;

Ascent, in Logic, denotes a kind of argumentation,
wherein we rife from particulars to univerfals. ts when
we fay, this man is an animal, and that man is an animal,
and the other man, &c, therefore, every man is an animal.

ASCESIS properly denotes exercife of the body. It is
formed from the verb acxev, ufed by the ancients in fpeak-
ing of the {ports and combats of the athlete.

Ascests is alfo ufed by philofophers to denote an exer-
cife conducive to virtue, or to the acquiring a greater de-
gree of virtue. Buddeus has a diflertation on this philofo-

hical afcefis.

ASCETERIUM, in £cclefiaffical Writer's, is frequently
ufed for a monaftery, or a place fet apart for the exercifes
of yirtue and religion. The word is formed from a/ce/is,
* exercife ;”” or a/cetra, one who performs exercife. Origi-
nally it fignified a place where the athlete, or gladiators,

erformed their exercifes.
~ ASCETIC, derived from ecxew, “ I exercife,’? an an-
cient appellation given to fuch perfons as, in the primitive
times, devoted themfelves more immediately to the exercifes
of piety and yirtue in a retired life; and, particularly, to

rayer, abitinence, and mortification. Mofheim (Eccl.
Tit, vol, i. p. 193.) traces the origin of this feé in the
Chriftian church to the fecond century. He fays, that the
afcetics owed their rife to certain Chriftian doftors, who
maintained, that Chrift had eftablifhed a double rule of
fanétity and virtue, for two different orders of Chriftians ;
the one was ordinary, and defigned for perfons*in the
active {cenes of life; the other extraordinary, aud more
fublime, and intended for thofe who, in a facred retreat,
afpired after the glory of a celeftial ftate. Accordingly,
‘they diftributed thofe moral doétrines which they had re-

‘ceived either by tradition or writing into the two clafles

of precepts and counfels; the former being univerfally
obligatory upon all orders of men, and the latter, relat-
ing to Chriftians of a more fublime rank, who propofed to
themfelves great and glorious ends, and breathed after an
Intimate communion with the Supreme Being. Perfons of

‘this_latter defeription declared their refolution of obeying

all the counfels of Chriit, in order to their enjoying com-
munion with God here; and alfo that, after the diffolution
of their mortal bodies, they might -afcend to him with the
greater facility, and find nothing to retard their approach
to the fupreme centre of perfection and happinefs. They
looked upon themfelves as prohibited the ufe of things
which other Chriftians were allowed to enjoy, fuch as
wine, flefh, matrimony, and commerce. See Athenagoras,
Apol. pro Chrift. c. 28: They thought it their indif-
penfable duty to extenuate the body by watchings, ab-
ftinence, labour, and hunger. They fought felicity in fo-
litary retreats, and in defert places, where, by fevere and
affiduous efforts of fublime meditation, they raifed the foul
above all external objets and all fenfual pleafures. Both
men and women impofed upon themfelves the motft auftere
difcipline, which, though at firft it was the fruit of pious
intention, proved in the iffue extremely detrimental to Chrif-
tianity. Thefe perfons were called afcevics, EvreSaos ExrexTety
and philofophers ; nor were they diftinguifhed from other
Chriltians merely by their appellation, but alfo by their

arb. In this century, fuch as embraced this kind of auftere

ie, contented themfelves with fubmitting to all thefe mor-

tifications in private, without breaking afunder their focial

bonds, or withdrawing themfelves from intercourfe with

mankind. In the next century, and particularly in the
Wor fit. ;

ASC

reign of Conftantine, thefe afcetics, who, as an elegant
hiftorian deferibes them, (Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. vi. p. 239.)
© obeyed and abufed the rigid precepts of the gofpel, and
were infpired by the favage enthufiafm which reprefents man
as acriminal, and God as a tyrant ;”’ fled from a profane
and degenerate world to perpetual folitude, or religious
fociety, and aflumed the name of ‘* Hermits,’’ “ Monks,”
and * Anachorets,”? expreflive of their lonely retreat in a
natural or artificial defert. The reafons which gave rife to
this auftere fect are fufficiently obvious. One of the prin-
cipal was, the ill-judged ambition of the Chriftians to re-
femble the Greeks and Romans, many of whofe fages and
philofophers diftinguifhed themfelves from the generality,
by their maxims, by their habit, and, indeed, by the whole
plan of life and manners which they had formed to them-
felves, and by which they acquired a degree of efteem
and authority. Of all thefe ancient philofophers, there
were none whofe fentiments and difcipline were fo well
received by the ancient Chriftians, as thofe of the Platonics
and Pythagoreans, who prefcribed in their leffons two rules
of conduét, one for the fage who afpired to the fublimett
heights of virtue, and another for the people involved in
the cares and agitation of an ative life. As the opinions
of fome of theie philofophers were adopted by the more
learned among the Chrittians, they were naturally led to
embrace alfo the moral difcipline which refulted from them.
Some of the religious feverities to which they recurred were
deduced from the genius and temper of the people by
whom they were firit practifed. This morofe difcipline
originated in Egypt, which abounded with perfons of a me-
lancholy complexion, and produced, in proportion to its ex—
tent, more gloomy fpirits than any other part of the world.
Here the Effenes and Therapeutz, thofe difmal and gloomy
feéts, principally dwelt, long before the coming of Chrift,,
and alfo many of the afcetic tribe, who, led by a certain
melancholy turn of mind, and a delufive notion of rendering
themfelves more acceptable to the Deity by their autterities,
withdrew themfelves from human fociety, and from all the
innocent pleafures and comforts of life. From Egypt this
four and unfociable difcipline paffed into Syria and the
neighbouring countries, which alfo abounded with perfons
of the fame difmal conftitution with that of the Egyptians;
and from thence, in procefs of time, its infe€tion reached
tothe European nations. Hence {prung that train of auitere
and fuperttitious rites, that yet, in many places, cait a veil
over the beauty and fimplicity of the Chriftian religion.
Hence the celibacy of the prieitly order, the rigour of un-
profitable penances and mortifications, the innumerable
fwarms of monks that withdrew their talents and labours
from fociety, and who did this in the fenfelefs purfuit of a
vifionary fort of perfeétion. Hence alfo proceeded the dif-
tin@tfon between the theoretical and myfttical life, and many
other fancies of a fimilar kind. The afcetics acquired the.
refpet of the world, which they defpifed ; andthe loudeft
applaufe was beftowed 6n this “ divine philofophy,” as it
was called, which furpafled, without the aid of f{cience or
reafon, the laborious virtues of the Grecian fchools. When
the monks came'in fafhion, the title of afcetic was beltow-
ed upon them ; efpecially upon fuch of them as lived in fo-
litude. See Hermit, and Monk.

Ascetic is alfo a title of feveral books of fpiritual exer-
cifes ; as, the 4/cetics or devout treatifes of St. Bafil, arch-
bifhop of Cefarea in Cappadocia.

We alfo fay the afcetic life, meaning the exercife of

rayer, meditation, and mortification.

A SCERETIS. See Secretary.

A-SCHACH, in Ornithology, the name by which the.

A. Laniys

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Lantus ScwAcu of Linneus, or Chinefe Shrike, is called in
China, and under which it is defcribed by Ofbeck, Voy. p.
227. See Lantus Schach.

ASCHACH, in-Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia and bifhoprick of Wurzburg, thuty-two
miles north of Wurzburg.

ASCHAFF, a {mali river of Germany, in the circle of
the Lower Rhine, which runs into the Mayne near Stock-
ttadt.

ASCHAFFENBURG, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia, fituate about twenty-five miles from
Francfort on an eminence near the Mayne.. It belongs to
the eleétor of Mentz, who has a palace here, in which he
refides during the greateft part of the year, on account of
the falubrity of the air, and the fingular beauty of the fitua-
tion. ‘ihe country furrounding the tewn is uncommonly
fertile. At the diftance of two miles towards the north-eatt
isfeen the * Speffart,”’ one of the largeft forefts in Europe,
forming a femicircle round part of this town, and fheltering
it from the bleak winds. ‘This foreft occupies a fpace of
fifty Englifh miles in length, and the traveller through it
meets with only one {mall village confifting of four houfes,
in which he may have any accommodation. The road
through it is very good, and the Elector of Mentz, to whom
the greateft part of the country~belongs, keeps it free from
robbers, fo that it may be paffed any time of the day or
night, without any apprehenficn of attack. For the {ecu-
rity of paflengers, a military eftablifhment, confifting of a
company of huffars, is fixed at Afchaffenburg ; and thefe are
traverfing the road at itated hours in order to prevent the

poffibility of a robbery. ~ N. lat. 49°55 E. long. 8°
55;
ASCHAM, Rocer, in Biography, an Englith fcholar

of diftinguifhed reputation, was born at Kirby-Wifke, near
North-Allerton in Yorkfhite, about the year 1515, of parents
who, having lived together for fixty-feven years, with unin-
terrupted harmony, died at the fame hour of the fame day.
Having difcovered very promifing talents at an early age, he
was taken under the patronage of Sir Anthony Wingfield,
and after making confiderable progrefs in claflical literature
under the inftruction of the domeftic tutor of his fons, Af-
cham was removed by his patron, in 1530, to St. John’s col-
lege at Cambridge. Here he enjoyed peculiar advantages
for improyement, under the tuition of two perfons who were
eminent for literature at a period when the ftudy of the
Greek and Roman claffics was the obje@ of particular at-
tention. Of thefe advantages he availed himfelf with fingu-
lar affidnity and emulation ; and his proficiency was fo con-
fiderable, that he gained very diftinguifhed reputation in the
univerfity at a very early age. In order to perfeét himfelf
in the Greek language, he taught it to others ; and learning
very foon to difcriminate with regard to the comparative ex-
cellence of different authors, he loft no time in the perufal
of mean or unprofitable books. Upon the model of Cicero
and Czfar, whofe works he diligently ftudied, he formed
his ftyle ; and among the philofophers he felected Plato and
Aviftotle; among the hiftorians, Thucydides and Herodotus;
and among the orators, Demofthenes and Ifecrates ; and on
thefe two laft authors he read lectures'to his pupils, as he
alfo did on the moft celebrated of the Greek poets. At
the age of eighteen, in 1534, he tock his degree of bachelor
of arts, and foon after in the fame year was elected fellow
of his college, though his attachment to the reformed reli-
gion raifed tome obitacles in the way of this appointment.
Thefe honours were confidered by Afcham as imducements
to his continued and increafing application; and fuch was
his improvement, particularly in the Greek language, that

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his leétures, both in the univerfity and in his own college,
were received with univerfal applaufe. In the year 1536,
and at the age of twenty-one years, he was inaugurated
matter of arts. Such was the proficiency of thofe who at-
tended hs lectures, that one of them, viz. William Grindal,
was, at his recommendation, appointed to be tutor in the
languages to the lady Elizabeth; an honour which it is pro-
bable he might have cbtained for himfelf, if he had not de-
clined it from a preference of the academical life to a flatioa
at court. At this time Sir John Cheke attempted to intro-
duce a new mode of pronouncing Greek into the univer-
fity, which for fome time was oppofed by Afcham ; but
upon maturer and more deliberate examination, he approved
of it, and concurred in adopting and promoting it; and it
has fince generally prevailed in the ichools of England.
The purity and elegance of his Latin ftyle were held in fuch
eftimation, that he was conftantly employed in writing the
public letters of the univerfity. As a relaxation amidit his
feverer ftudies, he amufed himfelf with the exercife of arch-
ery ; and having thus given offence to fome perfons who
were envious of his fuperior merit, he wrote a {mall treatife
on the fubjeét, intitled “ 'Toxophilus,’? which was publifhed
in 1544. His defign in writing this treatife was partly
to vindicate himfelf from the afperfions of his enemies, and
partly to improve the Englifh language, by introducing a
more natural, eafy, and truly Englifh diétion, than that
which was ufed by the common writers of his age. The
author’s views in both thefe refpeGts were fully accom-
plifhed. This work, befides the purity and perfpicuity of
its ftyle, abounds with learned allufions, with curious frag-
ments of Englifh hittory, and with ingenious obfervations
on life and manners. Afcham honeitly confefles, that he
was a€tuated by another more feliifh motive in the compo-
fition and publication of this treatife. He wifhed to make
a tour into Italy, which was then the republic of letters,
and particularly the feat of Greck learning, and he was de-
firous by dedicating his work to king Henry VIII. to ob-
tain his patronage and encouragement im the profecution of
his plan. In this refpect, his modeit and laudable with was
gratified; for in 1544, the king granted him a penfion of
1o/. a year, equal according to Dr. Johnfon, to more than
100/. at the prefent day. This penfion, which was difconti-
nued after the king’s death, was reftored by Edward VI.,
and doubled by Queen Mary. In the fame year, Afcham
received the pecuniary benefit as well as honour of an ap-
pointment to the office of Orator to the univerfity; which
office, whilit he continued there, he occupied with great
eredit. :

He had alfo for fome years received an annual gratuity
to an amount that is not afcertained, from Lee, axchbifhop
of York. At length, viz. in 1548, upon the death of his
pupil Grindal, he was called by the lady Elizabeth, to
whom he had already given leétures in writing, from his
college, to dired her ftudies. This charge he executed with
equal diligence and fuccefs ; but after two years, a cau‘e of
diflatisfaction occurred, and he returned from the fervice of
the princefs to the univerfity. Notwithftanding this circym-
itance, the princefs’s.regard for him continued; for in t e
fame year, 1550, he was recalled to court, and appointed lc-
cretary to fir Richard Moryfine, who was then going as am-
bafiador to the empe or Charles V. During this expedition,
which lafted three years, he had opportunity of converfing
with many learned men in various parts of Germany which
he vifited, and made an excurfion into Italy, where he was
much difguited with the manners of the inhabitants, par-
ticularly of the Venetians. One of the fruits of this tour
was a curious tract, intitled, « A Report and Difcourfe e

the

ASC

the Affairs and State of Germany,” &c. which contains
valuable information and judicious reflections.

On the death of Edward VI. in 1553, Moryfine was
recalled, and Afcham returned to his college, with no other
fupport than his fellowfhip and falary as orator to the uni-
veriity, and the liberality of his friends. But by the inter-
ett of Bithop Gardiner, who, though he kuew him to bea
proteftant, did not defert him, he was appointed Latin fe-
cretary to queen Mary, with a falary of ten pounds a year,
and permiffion to retain his college preferment. Afcham by
his prudence, without any fervile comphiances that re-
proached his integrity, enjoyed the favour of the queen, and
in the molt perilous times, he maintained his intereft with Eli-
zabeth; and he was partly indebted to thefidelity of his friend-
fhip with Cecil for his profperity in the next reign. Indeed,
his learning, and the facility with whieh he wrote Latin, made
him neceffary at court. In his capacity as Latin fecretary,
he is faid to have written in three days forty-feven hitters
to perfons of fuch rank that the lowelt of them was a car-
dinal. Upon the acceffion of Elizabeth, Afcham was con-
tinued in his former employments with the fame {lipend.
He had daily accefs to the queen, and read with her fome
portions of works in the learned languages for fome hours
every day, and of her proficiency under fuch a matter
many proofs remain. Notwithftanding the benefit which
the queen derived from his fervices, and the intimasy with
which fhe honoured him by permitting him to play with her
ai draughts and chefs, he obtained from her no other re-
compence than a penfion, of twenty pounds a year, and the
prebend of Weftwang in the church of York. This poor
pittance has been afcribed by fome to the parfimony of the

ueen, and by others to her knowledge of the extravagance
of Afcham. He has been charged, and not unjuttly, with
a propenfity, difgraceful to aman of letters and humanity,
to cock-fighting. In his ** Schoolmatter,” he intimates a
defign of writing a book “ Of the Cockpit,’? which he
reckons among the paftimes fit fora gentleman. It is a fub-

jet, however, of regret, that whilft the queen did not”

think him unworthy of her patronage, fhe did not think
proper to remunerate him for his fervices with a liberality
more fuitable to her high ftation. In the year 1563, a con-
verfation occurred at fir William Cecil’s on the fubje& of
education. Whilft the fubject was much agitated, and dif-
ferent opinions were entertained, fir Richard Sackville was
fo much prepoffeffed in favour of Afcham, by the argu-
ments which he ufed for the mildtreatment of boys, that he
{clicited his counfel and affiftance with regard to the edu-
catiow of his fon, and at the fame time requefted that he
would write a treatife on the general fubject of education.
Thus was produced Afcham’s excellent performance, inti-
titled, “ The Schoolmatter ;” a work replete with erudition,
and fuggefting ufeful advice on the beft method of teaching
the claffics. Afcham particularly recommends the method
of “ double tranflation,” which merits adoption in fchools.
This treatife was publifhed after the author’s death by his
widow, in 1571; and reprinted with nctes, in 8vo. at Lon-
don, by Upton, in 1711. Afcham’s lait illnefs was occa-
fioned by too fedulous application to the compofition of
a poem, which he intended to prefent to the queen on the
New Year’s day of 1569. He died in his 53d year, De-
cember 23d, 1568. His-death was generally lamented, and
the queen exprefled her concern by exclaiming, that « fhe
would rather have loft 1o,oool. than her tutor Afcham.’?
His epiftles, which have been much commended for the ele-
gance of their ftyle, and alfo for the abundance of hiftorical
matter which they contain, were publifhed in 1577, by Grant,
and dedicated to queen Elizabeth; and his mifcellaneous

ASC

pieces have been fince collected by Bennett into one volume,
with a life by Dr. Johnfon prefixed, and publifhed in 1761,
in gto. Aicham 1s faid to have been an elegant poet; but
his verfes are not to be found in the belt edition of his
works. One of his biographers, {peaking of his works,
fays, ‘¢ His 'Toxophilus was a good book for young men,
his Schoolmafter for old men, and his Epiftles for all men.”
Mr. Wood afcribes another work to our author, intitled,
© Apologia contra Miffam,” printed in 1577, 8vo.

It appears from the writings of A{chain, aad thofe re-
cords of him that remain, that his temper was amiable ;
that he was kind to his friends, and grateful to his
factors ; that he was inclined to free inquiry on the fubject
of religion, but too much engaged in other purfuits to be-
ftow much attentionon this obiect; that he was, as a man,
re{peCiable ; and that, as a fcholar, he promoted correét
tafte and found learning; and by thus ferving both his co-
temporaries aad pofterity, he deferved much more ample re-
compence than he received. [He died poor, and left a wi-
dow and feveral orphans in detftitute circumftances. His
poverty has been afcribed by fome to his attachment to
dice and cock-fighting ; and it is noticed by Buchanan in
the following {hort epigram, faid by fome to difplay more
wit than friendfhip, which he confecrated to his memory :

«© Afchamum extinétum patriz, Grajeque Camene

Et Latiz vera cum pietate, dolent ;
Principibus vixit carus, jucundus amicis,
Re modica, in mores dicere fama nequit.””
Thus tranflated and paraphrafed :
« Phe Attic and the Latian mufe deplore
The fate of Afcham, once their joy and pride:
His lays fhall charm the lift’ning crowd no more ;
Efteem’d by kings, lov’d by his friends, he died.
Fortune denied her treafures ;—jufter fame
Honour’d his worth, and {pread abroad his name.’
Grant. Oratio de vita et obitu R. Afchami. Bios. Brit.
Johnion’s Life of Afcham. Andrews’s Hittory of Great
Britain, vol. ii. p. 85. t

ASCHARIANS, or Asuarians, followers’ of Af-
chari, or Afhari, one of the moft celebrated doCtors among
the Mahometans, who died at Bagdat, about the year of
the Hegira 329, or of Chrift 940, and who was fecretly
buried, left the Hanbalites, by whom his opinions were
reckoned impious, fhould tear up his remains from the
grave. The Afcharians were a branch of the SEFATIANS 5
and their opinions were, 1. That they allowed the attributes
of God to be diftin& from his effence, yet fo as to forbid
any comparifon to be made between God and his creatures.
2. Asto predeftination, they held that God hath one eter-
nal will, which is applied to whatfoever he willeth, both of
his own actions and thofe of men, fo far as they are created
by him, but not as they are acquired or gained by them ;
that he willeth both their good and evil, their profit and
their hurt ; and as he willeth and knoweth, he willeth con-
cerning them that which he knoweth. They went. fo far
as to fay, that it may be agreeable to the will of God
that man fhould be commanded what he is unable to per-
form. But while they allow man fome power, they reftrain
it to fuch a power that cannot produce any thing new.
God, they fay, orders his providence fo, that he creates
after or under, and together with, every created or new
power, an action which is ready whenever a man wills it and
fets about it; and this a€tion is called * caab,”’ or acquili-
tion, being, in refpect to its creation, from God, but in re-
fpect to its being produced, employed, and acquired, from
man. This is generally efteemed the orthodox opinion,
and has been varieufly explained. 3. As to mortal fin, the

H2 Afcharians.

pecic=

AS CG

-Afcliarians taught, that if a believer, guilty of fuch a hi,
die without repentance, his fentence is to be left to God,
whether he pardon him out of Ins mercy, or whether the
prophet intercede for him, or whether he punifh him in
proportion to his demerit, and afterwards, through his
mercy, admit him into paradife ; ut that it is not to be
fuppofed he will remain for ever in hell with the infidels,
fince it is declared, that whofoever fhall have faith if his
heart, but of the weight of an ant, fhall be delivered from
hell-fire. This is generally received as the othoedox doc-
trine in this point,-and is diametrically oppofite to that of
the MWotazalites. D’Herbelot’s Bibl. Orient. Sale’s Koran.
Prel. Difc. p- 165.

ASCHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Suabia, eight miles north of Ravenfpurg.

ASCHBARAT, a town of Turqueltan, in the country
of the Getz, on the other fide of the river Sihon.

ASCHBOURKAN, or Ascu-FourKAn, a town of
Perfia, in:the province of Chorafan,

. ASCHEION, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pelo-
onnefus, in Achaia.

ASCHENGINSKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of Si-
beria, on the confines of China, 130 miles $.S.W. of Se-
linginfk.

ASCHER, a diftri& of the fief of Aggers-Herred, in
the diocefe of Chriftiaiia, or Aggerhuus, in Norway.

ASCHERSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony, and principality of Halberitadt, feated
ou the Eine. It was once the capital of a country to which
it gave name, and was one of the moft ancient provinces
of the houfe of Anhalt. The circle of Afcherfleben, or
Afcan, comprehends the trat which was once the Afcherf-
leben, or Gaterfleben lake, about two German miles long
and half a mile broad ; but being drained between the years
1703 and 1709, is now become good cora and pafture
land.

ASCHIA, Ascu Cramer, Ascuer Gefner, &c. in
Ichthyology, fynonymous names of the fith called Grayling.
in England ; and by Linnzus Samo Tuymatuus 3 which
fee.

‘ASCHOUR, in Geography, a river that pafles by the
town of Kafch in Turqueitan, towards the north.

ASCHRAFF, in Ancient Geography, a city of Perfia,
in the province of Mazendran, near the Cafpian fea, was
once the favourite refidenc€ of Abbas the great, but now
fallen into decay ; the fplendid palaces and gardens being
funk into a ruinous ftate, fince the commotions that follow-
ed the death of Nadir Shah.

ASCHTIKAN, in Geography, a town of Afia, in In-
dependent Tartary, fixteen leagues from Samarcand.

ASCHWOMSEE, a lake of Pruffia, forty miles fouth-
eaft of Konigiberg.

ASCIA, in Antiguity, an inftrument, fuppofed to be of
the axe kind, ufed in the fabric of the Roman tombs, and
frequently reprefented on them.

The formula ‘* fub afcia dedicare,’’ is frequently found
inferibed on ancient tomb-{tones. We alfo meet with “ ro-
gum afcia ne polito,”” among the antique laws of the Twelve
Tables. Thefe expreflions, and the figure of the afcia, as
feen on the tombs, have puzzled feveral antiquaries, who
have formed very curious conjectures concerning it. F, Mar-
tin reje€ts all their opinions, and with confiderable probabi-
lity affirms, that the afcia was hoe, or fort of pick-axe, for
digging up the ground, which is to this day called affados,
or affaidos, in Languedoc. This afcia, he pretends, was
not an inftrument of common ufe, but confecrated and em-
ployed only for digging of graves ; and that it is the fame

.

ASC

with what Sidonius A pollinarius calls ra/rum funebre, where~
with the Gauls diggéd their graves. Lib. iii. ep. 12.

This, he thinks, appears’ plainly to be the fignification of
the word, from the Latin proverb, “ ipfe mihi afciam in
crus impegi,”? which often happens to thofe who work
with this inftrument. ee

On this footing the famous law of the Twelve Tables,
wherein the afcia is mentioned, and the explication of which
has puzzled all our antiquaries, contained only a prohibition
to dig graves with an initrument of iron or copper, fuch as
the alicia. In reality it was a tradition obferyed by the re-
moteit antiquity, that no inftrument made of thofe metals
fhould be uied in fepulchres, ;

Dom. Martin has given a differtation concerning the fu-
neral monuments of the Romans, confecrated * fub afcia.”?
La Relig. des Gaul. tom. ii, liv. 5.

Mabillon, in his explication of the formula “ fub afcia
dedicare,’’ &c. conjectures that the ancients, in dedicating
their tombs to the manes, made imprecations againit thoie
who violated their fanétity ; and thefe imprecations, he con-
ceives, were expreffed by the figure of the afcia, which
bore a threatentig afpeét. Much to the fame purpofe is the
opinion of Muratori, who apprehends that the formula “ fub
aicia,’’ or the afcia itfelf placed upon the tombs, was.a tacit
but well-known fupplication addreffed by the perfon interred
to the gwner of the field in‘ which the grave was dug, that
the adiacent foil might be hoed, the briars removed, and the
earth rendered light over the afhes of the deceafed. Ac-
cordingly, ‘ fit tibi terra levis,” is part of an epitaph found
on ancient monuments. The fentiments of Mabillon and
Muratori have been illuftrated aud confirmed by count Cay-
lus. Moreover it appears, that the Romans annexed no
fuperftitious idea to the formula “ {ub afcia dedicavit,” as
the firft Chriftians made ufe of it on their monuments.

Asciais alfo ufed, in Surgery, for a kind of bandage fome-
what oblique or crooked ; whofe form and ufe are well de-
fcribed by Scultetus, in his Armam. Chirurg. p. 1. tab.
54 fig. 3. ies fits: J

ASCIBURGIUM, in Ancient Geography, a citadel on
the Rhine, mentioned by Tacitus, in which were a Roman
camp and garrifon ; fituated in a place correfponding with
a {mall hamlet, now called /burg, not far from Meurs, in
the duchy of Cleves. :

ASCIDIA, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a genus of
Vermes that belong to the Mollu/ca tribe, the body of
which is fixed, roundifh, and apparently iffuing from a
fheath ; the apertures two, generally placed near the fum-~
mit, one below the other, Gmel. &c. Thefe creatures are
more or lefs gelatinous, and have the power of contracting
and dilating themfelves at pleafure ; fome are furnifhed with -
a long ftem, but moft of them are feffile. Gmelin enume-
rates the following fpecies : papillofa, gelatinofa, inteftinalis, ~
quadridentata, ruftica, echinata, mentula, venofa, prunum,
conchilega, parallelogramma, virginea, canina, patula, af--
perfa, {cabra, orbicularis, corrugata, lepadiformis, compla-
nata, tuberculum, villofa, clavata, pedunculata, mammillaris,
globularis, phufca, gelatina, cryftallina, o¢todentata, patellj-
formis, pyura, aurantium, globularis: which fee refpec-
tively. ;

ASCII, formed of the primitive «, and cx, /hadozw, ih
Geography, axe thofe inhabitants of the globe, who at certain
times of the year have no fhadow ; fuch are the inhabitants
of the torrid zone, becaufe the fun is twice a year yertical
to them, and they have then no fhadow.—To find on what
days the people of any parallel are a/cii, tee GLOBE. - ;

ASCINDOE, in Botany, a name given by the people of
Guinea to a fhrub, which they ufe in medicine, boiling it in

water,

‘petalled ; berry ? one-celled, with very many feeds.

ASC

water, and giving the decoction in gonorrheeas, and the like
complaints. Petiver has named it the prickly Guinea fhrub,
with roundifh crenated leaves, and filamentous flowers. ‘The
leavés are about an inch wide, and about an inch and a half
long ; they ftand on fhort foot-flalls ; and at the ends of
“the branches, there ftand clufters of {tamineous flowers.
The thorns on the large branches are very ftrong. Phil,
Tranf. No. 232.

ASCITA, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Siturvs, that
differs in feveral refpects from other creatures of the fame
tribe, and is {pecifically defcribed as having the dorfal fin
flefhy, and eighteen rays in the anal fin. This fifh inhabits
the Indian feas, and is figured both by Bloch, and in Deter-
ville’s edition of Buffon. The mode of generation, or
manner in which the young are produced, is fingular, for
it is neither oviparous, nor viviparous, but, partaking of both,
forms a diftin@ily conneéting link between thofe two natural
divifions of fifhes: the eggs are not compofed like thofe of
moit other creatures, but confiit merely of a yolk, without
white, and furrounded by a thin {kin to which the embryo
is attached by means of an umbilical yeffel on the outfide,
and by which it receives its proper nourifhment till it
is difengaged. Among other reafons it is afferted that
it cannot be viviparous, becaufe it does not receive its nou-
rifhment from the parent by means of a placenta, but from
the yolk of the ege to which it is affixed while it remains
in the matrixs and that it cannot be oviparous, becaufe the
eggs are not as ufual depofited when completely formed, nor
are the young contained within the egg, but only attached
to the outfide of it. r

ASCIT&, derived from xzx0, a bag, or bottle, in Anti-
quity, a {e& or branch of Montaniits, who appeared in the
fecond century.

The Afcite were fo called, becaufe they introduced a
kind of Bacchanals into their aflemblies, who danced round
a bag or fkin blowed up; faying, thefe were thofe new
bottles filled with new wine, whereof Jefus Chrift makes
mention, Matiz. ix. 17.—Tliey are fometimes alfo called
Afeodrogite. :

Ascira, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, placed
by Pliny and Ptolemy in Arabia Felix.

ASCITES, in Medicine, (from acxs:, uter, a facculus, or
bladder ), denotes a {pecies of Dropsy which is feated in the
abdomen. This difeafe is commonly divided into two kinds;
viz. . 1. When the water is contained within the perito-
neum invelting the general cavity of the lower belly ; and
2. When the fluid is included within a bag, or cytt, in
which cafe it is called an incy/fed dropfy: but the defcrip-
tion of this difeafe, and its appropriate treatment, will be
found under the articles Dropsy, and Paracenresis or
Tappinc. ; :

Ascites, the oferation for, in Surgery, is named Tap-

PinG, which fee. ‘This operation is likewile technically
called Paracentesis. It confifts in drawing off from the
abdomen, by means of a trocar, the water or other fluid
which is contained therein.
_ ASCIUM, in Botany, Schreb.903. Norantea, Aubl,220.
Jul. 245. Clals, polyandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Putami-
nee? Capparides Juil. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth five-leaved,
leaflets roundifh, concave, coriaceous, coloured on the mar-
gin. Cor. petals five, ovate, acute, larger than the calyx, in-
ferted into the receptacle. Stam. filaments very many (40 or
5°): fhort, three-fided, inferted into the receptacle; anthers
oblong, Pi/?. germ ovate ; ityle very fhort ; itigma headed.
Per. berry? one-celled ; containing niany feeds.

Ef. Gen. Char. Cal. five-leaved, coriaceous. . Cor. five-

ASC

Species, 1. Afcium norantea, Aublet Guian.t. 220. This
is a tree furnifhed with alternate entire thick leaves. The
flowers grow in loofe {pikes from the ends of the branches ;
they are alternate, fubfeffile, and to each is a long braéte,
with a claw to it, refembling the cowled bag, of marcgravia,
to which genus this feems nearly allied. It is a native of
Guiana. ? ,

ASCLEPIA, in Antiquity, feaits celebrgted in various
parts of Greece in honour of Atfeulapius. They chiefly
confilted of mufic, and a conteft between muficians and poets.
They were alfo called Mnyarwaxrumesc, or the great feftivals
of Asfeulapius.

ASCLEPIAD, Ascreptapevus, a Greek or Latinverfe
of four feet, containing a {pondee, a choriambus, and: two
daétyls ; or, which amounts to the fame, a {pondee, two
choriambufes, and pyrrhichius,

Such are the vertes,

“« Mzcenas atavis edite regibus.’”’
se Sublimi feriam fidera vertice.’’ .

ASCLEPIADA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Curyso-
MELA, difcovered by Pallas in the vicinity of the rivers
Volga and Irtin, in Siberia. It is of a dufky blue, and
gloffy ; antenne black; dots on the thorax feattered; on
the wing-cafes difpofed in lines. Pallas, Gmelin, &c.

ASCLEPIADES, Arrortivs, in Biography, phyfician
and friend to Cefar O@avianus, by whofe advice the empe-
ror left his camp the evening before the battle at Philippiy,.
by which his life was probably preferved, that part of the
army being furprized and cut to pieces by Brutus. Artorius
perithed by fhip-wreck foon after the battle at AGium, and
the emperor caufed a magnificent monument to be erected
to his memory at Smyrna. He is faid to have maintained,
that the ftomach is the part principally affected in the hy-
drophobia. Haller Bib. Med. Prac.

AscueriapEs, defcendants of Aifculapius, fo called,
who were fuppefed to have preferved the tenets of their pro-
genitor, and to have founded fchools of medicine in various
parts of Greece, which continued many ages. ‘The moft
famous were thofe of Rhodes, Cnidos, and Cos, formed by
different branches of the family.. Hippocrates was derived
from the latter branch; fee article Hippocrates.

sAscLeriapes, a celebrated phyfician, born at Prufa in
Bithynia, fourifhed fomewhat before the time of Pompey,
and formed an intimacy with Licinius Craffus, the orator,
and other perfons of diftinguifhed character. It is not
known whence he took his name, as he was not of the fa-
mily of Aifculapius. After completing his education, he
went to Rome, where he commenced by teaching rhetoric:
but not fucceeding in that line, he applied ,himfelf to the
fludy of medicine, in which he foon became famous ; for,
rejecting the do@trines of his predeceffors in ‘that art, hé
formed a new theory of difeafes, and initituted hew methods
of curing them. He avoided all harfh and violent drug,
particularly vomiting and’ purging medicines, whieh, he con,
tended, injured the flomach, and induced complaints more
dangerous than. thofe they were given to remedy, and pro-
feffed to’ cure difeafes, “ tuto, citd, et jucunde.”?” Rome cuni
viveret (Haller fays) ad luxum et mollitiem Romanorma
artem accommodavit. He was attached to the corpufculat
philofophy, and fupfofed that the free motion of the cdr:
putcles in’ the vefiels conitituted health, and that’ difeafe
enfued' when they were reftrided or checked in their mo-
tion by the ftraitnefs of the veffels. * Thus pains, ardent
fevers, intermittents, &c. were occafioned (he faid) by cor-
pufcles impacted in the pores.” “A -doétrine full’as intelli-
gible, * as the lentor of the humours obitructing the ‘vef-

~ “fels;?? the favourite thedry of one of the meft celebrated

teachers

ASC

teachers in the laft century, In fevers, he prohibited all
food, and even drink to his patients for three or more days,
but when by this means, the violence of the fever was aba-
ted, he indulged them with animal food, and with wine.
When coftive, he ufed glyfters, which he frequently employ-
ed. In pleurifies, and ia other complaints attended with
violent pain, he prefcribed bleeding, but in chronic com-
plaints, he depended principally on abitinence, exercife,
baths, and frictions. Thefe, he faid, opened the pores, and
gave free exit to the obftruéted particles.

That he was in high repute in his time, we have the au-
thority of Celius, Czlius Aurelianus, Galen, and Scribo-
nius Largus, from whofe writings what is known of his
opinions and practice is principally taken, as none of his
works have been preferved. Mithridates, king of Pontus,
invited him to his court; but his employment at Rome was
too lucrative to permit him to accept the offer.

But befides the reputation he acquired by his prattice,
his fame was further increafed by the number of pupils or
difeiples. who attended his fchool, and who continued to
follow his method long after his deceafe. Themifon, one
of his difciples, in part adopting, and in part deviating from
his doGtrine, formed a new feét, under the title of the Me-
thodic, which in its turnbecame popular. A felepiades is
faid to haye pledged his reputation on preferving his health,
to have lived to a great age, and to have died at length in
eonfequence of a fall. Ie Clerc Hiftoire de la Medicine.
Haller Bib. Med. Pra&. who gives a detailed and particular
account of his practice in a variety of difeafes.

Ascrepiapes, a Greek philofopher of the Eliac fchool,
was born at Phlia, in Peloponnefus, and flcurifhed about
350 years before Chrift. He was the intimate friend and
affociate of Menedemus, whilft they both attended the
{chool of Stilpo, and afterwards when they attended Phedo’s
fchoo] at Elis. They were under a neceflity of fupporting
themfelves by the manual labour of mafons. They left their
country for the’ fake of enjoying the advantages of Plato’s
fchool at Athens, and gained a fubfiftence by grinding in
the night in one of the public prifons, that they might be
able to {pend the day in the academy. When the Athenian
magiltrates. upon inquiring into their mode of fubfiftence,
were informed of this circumitance, which manifefted their
ardent defire of knowledge, they applauded their zeal,
and prefented them vith zoo drachmas. In advanced life
Afclepiades loft his fight, but bore the afliGtion with cheer-
fulnefs. Athen. 1. iv. c. 19. Cicero Tufc. Difp. 1. v. c. 39.
Diog. Laert. vit. Mened. Brucker by Enfield, vol. i.
p- 197-

ASCLEPIAS, in Botany, fwallow-wort. (From
ZEfculapius, the god of medicine,) Linn. gen. 306. Schreb.
429. Juff. 147. Gaertn. t.117. Clafs, pentaydria digynia.
Nat. Order, Contorte.—Apocinee, Jul. Gen. Char. Cal. pe-
rianth five-cleft, fharp, very fmall, permanent. Cor. mono-
petalous, flat, or reflex, five-parted; divifions ovate-acumi-
nate, flightly bending with the fun ; neétaries five, growing
to the tube of the filaments, flefhy, or cowled; a fharp horn
protruding from the bsttom, bending inwards. Stam. fila-
ments five, collected into a tube, fwelling at the bafe; an-
thers oblong, upright, two-celled, terminated by an inflex
membrane lying on the ftigma, having a reverfed wing on
each fide; the pollen is colleed into ten corpufcles, inverfe-
ly lanceolate, flat, hanging down into the cells of the anther,
by fhort threads, which are annexed by pairs to five cartila-
ginous twin tubercles, each placed on the tip of the wings
of the anthers, adhering to the angles of the ftigma, be-
tween the anthers. Pi/f. germs two, oblong, acuminate ;
#yles two, fubulate; ftigma common to both, large, thick,

ASC

five-cornered, covered at the top by the apexes of the an-
thers, umbilicate inthe middle, Per. follicles two, large,
oblong, acuminate, {welling, one-celled, one-valved. Seeds,
numerous, imbricate, crowned with down; receptacle mem-
branaceous, free.

Eff, Gen. Char. Conterted; neGaries five, ovate, concaves
putting forth a little horn. Species:—

* Leaves oppcfite, flat.

1. A. undulata, waved-leaved fwallow-wort, apocynumafri-
canum, lapathi folio, Comm. Rar. t. 16. * Leaves feffile,
oblong, lanceolate, waved, {mooth.” A native of the Cape
of Good Hope. It was introduced into our gardens in
1783. Its flowers appear in July. 2 A. eri/pa, curled-
leaved fwallow-wort ; apoc. ere€tum afric., &c. Herm.
par. 25. Comm. Rar. t. 17.“ Leaves cordate, lanceolate,
waved, fcabrous, oppofite ; umbel terminal.” Its ftem is
pibefcent, branching at the bottom; leaves fubfeffile, repand 5
one umbel of yellow flowers terminates the item. Found at
the Cape by Sparrman. Introduced into the Kew garden
by Mr. Maffon, in 1774. 3. A. fubefcens, pubefcent {wal-
low-wort ; apoc. afr. tuberofum, &c. Morr. Hilt. 3. G10.
Pluk. 139. f. 1. “ Leaves ovate, veined, naked; item fhrub-
by ; peduncles villofe;’? the ftem is fhrubby, fimple or little
branched, very fhortly villofe; leaves on very fhert footitalks,
villofe, pointed, much veined, rather crowded; péduncles »
and umbels villofe; flowers purple. A native of the Cape
of Good Hope. 4. A. volubilis, twining {wallow-wort,
Rheed. Mal. 9. 21. t.13. Rumph. Amb. 5. t. 175. f 1.
«« Leaves ovate, entire, acuminate; {tem arboreous, twining ;
umbels erect;” ftem fmooth; branches fhining; leaves pe-
tioled, ovate-fubcordate, veined; umbels fimple, on pedun-
cles the length of the petiole; flowers greenifh. A native
of Malabar and Ceylon. 5. A. a/hmatica, afthmatic fwal-
low-wort. “ Leaves petiolate, cordate-ovate, above fmooth,
entire ; ftem fhrubby, twining, hirfute; umbels few-flow-
ered.”” The whole plant is villofe, except the upper furface
of the leaves, which refemble thofe of laurel, heart-fhaped
at the bafe, pointed at the apex; umbels fhorter’ than the
leaves, often proliferous; flowers fmall.. Found in the
woods of Ceylon by Koénig. The root is efteemed in afth-
matic cafes. 6. A. givantea, curled flowered gigantic
fwallow-wort, Brown, Jam. 182, 1. ‘ Leaves obovate-
oblong; petioles very fhort; fegments of the corolla reflex,
involute.”’ It rifes ix or feven feet in height; leaves thick 5
flowers white; pods very large; nectaries without horas.
Brown fays, in Jamaica it is called auricula, or French ja‘-
min. Cultivated at the royal garden, Hampton court, in
1690. It flowers from July to September. 7. A. /yriacds
Syrian fwallow-wort. Hort. Cliff. 78. 6 A. exal/ata. Lin.
Spec. 313. ‘ Leaves oval, tomentofe underneath; ftem fim-
ple; umbels nodding;” root creeping; item itrong, four
feet high, on the fides’ of which, and near the top, the
flowers appear, thefe are of a dingy purple, fucceeded by
large oval pods. A native of North America, and cultiyat-
ed by Parkinfon in 1629. In Canada, the lrench eat the
tender fhoots as afparagus. Poor people colleét the cotton, ,
from the pods, with which they fill their beds. On.account
of the filkineis of this cottoa, Parkinfon calls the plant
Virginian filk. 8. A. amorna, oval-leaved fwallow-wort 5
apocynum, Dill. Elth. 31. t. 27. f. 30. Leaves ovate,
rather hairy underneath; item fimple ; umbels and neétarics
ereG.”? From a foot and half to more than three feet high 5
ftems round, fmooth, the fize of a fwan’s quill. At each
joint are placed two large leaves, which are blunt, thickifh,
tiff, fmooth, with purple nerves; lower leayes fmaller and
rounder; the umbels arife from the top of the ftalk, aud
fome of the upper axis; the ne@aries approximate more,

are

‘

ASC

are ftraighter, longer, ftiffer, more acute, and lefs exca-
vated than in the other {pecies ; the flowers are of a bright
purple colour. Cultivated by Dr. Sherard, at Eltham, in
1732. Acnative of North America. 9. A. purpura/cens,
purple Virginian fwallow-wort, Dill. Elth, 32. t. 28. f. 21.
* Jueaves ovate, villofs underneath ; ttems fimple ; umbels
ere; neCtaries reftpinate ;” flems many, as thick as the
httle finger, at bottom obtufely quadrangular ; leaves on
fhort footitalks, from four to fix inches long, with a purple
midrib; flowers of a dufky herbaceous colour ; horns of
the nectaries horizontal. A native of North America. Cul-
tivated by Dr. Sherard, in 1732. | Lianaus obferves that
this {pecies is nearly related to A. Syriaca. 10. A. varie-
gatas variegated {wallow-wort, apoc. americanum. Dill.
Elth. 32. Pluk. Alm. 34. t. 77. f. 1.‘ Leaves ovate,
wrinkled, naked ; ftem fimple ; umbels fubfeffile ; pedicels
tomentofe.’? According to Miller, this refembles the fore-
ing fort, but the leaves are rough, and the umbels of the
Baars are more compa ; they come out on the fide of the
ftalk, are of an herbaceous colour, and not fucceeded by
pods inthis country. A native of North America. We
Jearn from Plukenet, that it was cultivated here in 1696.
tr. A. curaffavica, Curailoa f{wallow-wort, baftard ipecacu-
anha, Brown, Jam. 183, 2. Apocynum, Dill. Elth. 34.
ft. 30. f. 33. Sloan. 1. t. 129. f. 4, 5. “Leaves lanceolate,
fmooth, fhining ; ftem fimple ; umbels erect, folitary, late-
ral.’? The ftem is from one to two or three feet in height;
leaves opofite,and decuffated, petioled, acute, entire, {meoth
_ on both fides; flowers in umbels ; umbellules terminal ; in-
voluere a few fubulate leaflets; pedicels one-flowered ; corolla
reflex ; the flowers, according to Brown, are of a faffron
eélour in the low lands, but in the cooler inland paitures
they change to a white. This fpecies fo. much refem-
bles A. nivea, that Swartz doubts whether it be really dif-
ting from it. Miller affirms that the roots have been fent
to England for ipecacuanha. ‘The juice of the plant has
been ufed as avermifuge. It is a native of South America,
the Wet Indian iflands, and Chjna. In 1692, it was culti-
vated in the royal garden at Hampton-court, where it flow-
ered from June till September. 12. A. nivea, white or al-
mond leaved fwallow-wort. Apocynum, Dill. Eth. 33.t.29.
f. 32. Plum. Spec. 2. Ic. 30. ‘¢ Leaves ovate-lanceolate,
fmoothifh ; ftem fimple ; umbels ereét, lateral, folitary ;”
ftems two feet high, ftraight, round, the fize of a fwan’s
quill, dark green ; leaves like thofe of common perficaria,
deep green above, pale beneath, {mooth, rather fff, The
principal difference between this and the curaflavica is in the
flowers, which are green with white nectaries. A native of
North America. Cultivated by Dr. Sherardin 1732. 13.
A. incarnata, flefh-coloured {wallow-wort, Jacq. hort. 2.
t. 107. ‘ Leaves lanceolate ; ftem divided at the top; um-
hels ere, twin.’’? This puts out feveral upright ttalks,
about two feet high; at the top of which are produced clofe
whbels of purple flowers in Auguft. A native of North
America. Cultivated by Miller in 1731. 14. A. decumbens,
decumbent fwallow-wort. “ Leaves villofe; item decum-
bent.” The ftalks are declining, hairy, a foot and a half
high ; leaves narrow ; umbels compact, at the extremity of
the branches; flowers of a bright orange colour. A native
of North America. 15. A. ladifera, milky {wallow-wort ;
* le wes ovate; ftem erect; umbels proliferous, very fhort.”
This is fo like the vincetoxicum as {carcely to be diftin-
guithed from it ; the leaves however are le{s cordate, the
corymbs compound, and fearcely longer than the petioles.
A native of Ceylon. 16. A. vincetoxicum, officinai {wallow-
wort, Flor. Dan. 849. Woodv. Med. Bot. Supp. @ A.
~ lutea. Mill. Dig. “* Leaves ovate, bearded at the bafe;

‘tive of the Cape of Good Hope.

ASC

ftem ereét ; umbels proliferous;’’ root divided and fibrous;
{tems about two feet high, flender, woody, round, hairy,
fimple ; leaves cordate-ovate, acuminate, fmooth, entire, on
fhort foot{talks ; peduncles axillary, many-flowered ; corolla
white ; follicles ovate-acuminate; feeds fimall, brown, in-
clofed in cotton. It flowers during the month of June,
July, and Auguft. It is common in the northern parts of
the continent. ‘The medical virtues of the root are flated by
Bergius to be diuretic, {udorific, emmenagogue, and alex:-
pharinic. 17. A. nigra, black fwallow-wort, Villars’ Dauph.
487. ‘* Leaves ovate, bearded at the bafe ; {tem twining a
little at the top.”” This agrees with the officinal {pecies in
the fhape of its roots, leaves, and flowers, but the flalks ex-
tend to a greater length, aud at the upper part twift round
other plants, &c. near them; the flowers are black, A
native of the fouth of France.
** Leaves r volute at the fides.
18. A. arbore/cens, arborefcent fwallow-wort, apoe. frutefe.
&c. Burm. Afr. 21. t. 13. “Leaves ovate ; ftem fhrubby,
fubvillofe ;” item upright, as thick as the finger, rough,
with hairs; leaves oppotite, on yery fhort petioles, cbtufe,
but with a minute fmooth point ; peduncles from the fum-
mit of the {tem, umbelled, villofe ; corollas white. A na-
Cultivated by the duch-
efs of Beaufort in 1714. It flowers in December. 109. A.
jrutico/a, {hrubby, or willow-leaved {wallow-wort, A. glabra,
Mill. Dig, n. 2. apoc. erectum africanum, &e. Mill. Ag. a5.
6 A. craffifolia, Lin. Syit. ed. 13. Leaves linear-lan-
ceolate, item fhrubby ;’’ the neétaries are comprefled, with-
out aclaw, inftead of which are two long reflex ears; folli-
cles inflated, fet with foft prickles. This is a native of the
fame place, and was cultivated in the fame year, and by the
fame perfon, as the A. arborefcens. 20. A. refianday re-
pand twallow-wort, apoc. ereétum afric. fubhirfutum, &c.
Herm. Par. 45. Comm. Rar. t. 17. Leaves revolute, re-
pand, hairy ;”’ this is given on the authority of Reichard,
Its native country is unknown. 21. A. Sfiirica, Siberian
f{wallow-wort, Murr. Comm. Gott. 1779. t. 7. Gmel. Sib. 4.
77.n.21. ‘* Leaves linear-lanceolate, oppolite, or in threes,
ftem decumbent.’’? This varies with alternate leaves. It is
anative of Siberia, and cultivated in 1775, by Mr. J. Gor-
don. It flowers in July. 22. A. verticillata, verticillate
{wallow-wort, apoc. marianum, &c. Pluk. Mant. EAwatty
336. f. 4. ‘ Leaves linear verticillate, {tem ereét;”? talks
flender, upright ; flowers fmall, white, in umbels at the top
of the ftems ; leaves frequently four together. A native of
North America. Cultivated by Miller in 1759.
*#* Leaves alternate.

23. A. rubra, red {wallow-wort. Leaves ovate, umbels
many, from the fame common pedunele.’? Stem upright,
fimple, annual; leaves acuminate; feveral umbels on a
peduncle. A native of Virginia. 24. A. tuberc/a, tuberous
{wallow-wort, apoc. Nove Anglie, &c. Herm. Lugdb.
t. 647. Dill. Elth. 35. t. 50. f. 34. ‘ Leaves lanceolate ;
ftem divaricate, hairy.’ Stems a foot high, hairy, round,
dufky red 5 leaves alternate, except at the upper part of the
ftem, and where the branches arife; flowers of a bright
orange colour ; the tuberous roots are very laree. A native
of North America, flowering in Auguft. Cultivated in
1690, inthe royal garden at Hampton-court.

AEE 25. A. filiformis, narrow-leayed fwallow-wort.
“ Leaves filiform; {tem ereét ; umbels lateral, elongate, pe-
duncled.” This fpecies was found at the Cape of Good
Hope, by Thunberg. 26. A. grandiflora, great flowering
fwallow-wort. “ Leayes petiolate, oblong, hairy ; tem fim-
ple, rough, ereét ; flowers axillary, peduncled.”” The flower
of this is very large, coloured, and teffelated like that of the
3 fritillary

ASC

fritillary, It alfo was fourd at the Cape by Thurberg. 27.
A. carnofa, flethy-leaved {wallow-wort, ‘* Leaves ovate,

fiefhy, very fmooth ;’’ leaves about four inches long, with->

>
out veins ; petioles flefhy, half the length of the leaves;
-umbel fimple, axillary, folitary; calyx minute; corolla
fearcely half five cleft, flat. ‘Chis differs much. from the
other f{pecies, A native of Caina. 28. A. /candens, climb-
‘ing fwallow-wort, Mill. Di&. n. 19. ‘ Leaves oblong, lan-
ceolate, fubhirfute ; ftem fhrubby, climbing; umbels late-
Fal, compact.”? It climbs to the height of ten or twelve
feet. At the joints are two oppofite leaves, on fhort foot-
ftalks. Flowers of a fulphur colour, and appear in Augutt.
A native of Carthagena. Cultivated by Miller in_1759..
29. A. procera, bell-flowered gigantic fwallow-wort, Aut.
Hort. Kew. A. gigantea, Jacq. Obf. 3. 17. te Gg. “ Leaves
obovate-oblong, petioles very fhort; corollas {ubcampanu-
late.” A native of Perfia. Cultivated in 1714 by the
duchefs of Beaufort. It flowers from July till September.
This ought to be placed before A. gigantea at 6. 30. A.
parvifiora, fmall-flowered fwallow-wert, Ait. Hort. Kew.
1. 307. Anative of Carolina and Eaft Florida. Intro-
duced by Dr. Fothergill in 1774. 31. A. linaria, toad flax-
leaved {wallow-wort, Cavan. Hifp. 42. t. 57. “ Leaves
{eattered, fubulate, channelled; umbels lateral, many-flow-
ered.” A foot high; leaves*narrower at the bafe, nume-
rous; corolla white. Weare ignorant of its native country,
It has been cultivated in the royal garden at Madrid fince
1788, and flowers in autumn. 32. A. mexicana, Mexican
{fwallow-wort, Cavan. Hifp. 42. t. 58. -‘* Leaves fix to-
gether in whorls lanceolate; flowers umbelled.”” Stems up-
right, fmooth, a foot and a half high; leaves quite entire,
with a fhort petiole ; corolla white, deeply five-parted.. A
native of Mexico, and cultivated at the royal garden Ma-
drid. 33. A. fujea, Lour. Cochinch. 170. “ Stem creep-
ing ; leaves cordate, lanceolate ; umbels axillary, in pairs.”
Stem herbaceous, twining, flender, much branched at the
top; leaves oppofite, fmall, bearded at the bafe; flowers
dufky purple, {mall, with five ear-fhaped neftaries. A na-
tive of Cochinchina. 34. A. viminalis, Swartz. Prodr. 53.
Brown, Jam. 183.-3. Sloane, 1. 207. t. 131. ‘* Stem
fuffruticofe, twining, filiform; leaves oppofite, lanceolate,
fmooth ; umbels lateral, many-flowered.”” Stalks flender,
weak, {preading to the diftance of fome yards. It has very
few leaves, but many flowers difpofed in large umbellate
groups; it abounds with a milky juice. A native of Ja-
maicay in woods. /

Propagation and Culture. In this numerous genus, only
two {pecies, viz. 16. and 17. are European ; two or three
are from South America; the reft are natives of North
America, the Eaft and Weft Indies, or Africa. Such as
are inhabitants of North America, 7—I0, 12, 13, 14, 22—
24. are, as well as the European, hardy enough to bear
the open air, and therefore are proper for large borders in
pleafure grounds, and to mix with fhrubs. The other fpe-
cies require the prote¢tion of the green-houfe or ftove ; all
of them are tall perennials, flowering from June till Augutt
or September, moftly dying down to the root in autumn.
“They fhould have little water, efpecially in winter: they
may be propagated by feeds, where they can be obtained, or
by cuttings; the hardy forts may be increafed by parting
the roots. 1, 2, 3, 18—2z0, 25—27, 30, muft have the
fhelter of a green-houfe in winter; 4, 5, 6, 11, 15, 28; 29,
31—34. eh live but in a ftove. Thefe muft be raifed
trom feeds fown in the {pring on a hot-bed, and being tranf-
planted into pots filled with rich earth, muit be plunged
into the tan-bed in the ftove. After the fecond year, the
iith fort becomes naked, and does not produce many

’ I pr

ASC

flowers, fo that young plants ought to be raifed to fuceeed
them, efpecially as it produces plenty of feeds in England,
All the Cape forts, 1, 2, 3, &c. may be propagated by
feeds fown in April on a bed of light earth in the opea
air, and when the plants are three or four inches high,
they fhould be each planted in a {mall pot filled with light
earth, and fhaded till they have taken new root; then they
may be placed with other exotic plants in a fheltered fitua-
tion until October, when they may be removed into the
green houfe or dry itove. They may alfo be increafed by
cuttings. .The roots of the 8th and 22d fhould be-planted
in a warm border, and in winter covered with old tan. The
14th and 24th are propagated by feeds in pots placed in a
moderate hot-bed, and gradually enured to the open air as”
foon as the weather will permit, When they are of a pro-
per itrength they may be planted in a warm border, and
treated as other tender plants. See Martyn’s Miller’s Did,

ASCLOSTER, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
South Gothland, twelve miles fouth of Wardberg.

ASCO, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, feated-on the
Ebro, ten leagues from Tortofa.

ASCODRUT A, in dutiquity, a fe& in the fecond cen=
tury, who rejecied all ufe of ~fymbols and facraments ; on
this principle, that incorporeal things cannot be commni-
ae by things corporeal, nor divine mytfteries by any thing
vifible.

ASCOGEPHYRUS, in Middle Age Writers, denotes.

a bridge fupported on bags made of leather or -bullocks
hides. Such bridges appear to have been in ufe among the
ancients, and to have given the denomination to a tribe of
Arabs, hence called 4/cite. ‘

Hence alfo the appellation a/comanni, given to pirates, by
reafon of their ufing bridges, or rather boats made of leather.
Plin. Hitt, Nat. lib. vi. c.g. Du-Cange,

ASCOLI, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the eftate
of the church, and marquifate of Ancona, feated on a moun-
tain between the rivers Tronto and Caltillano.; twenty
leagues fouth of Ancona, twelve north-eait of Aquila, and
thirty north-eaft of Rome. N. lat. 42° 50’. Ev. long.

°

ress th

Ascoxt de Satriaco, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Capitanata, the fee of a bifhop.
This town was almoft deitroyed by an earthquake in 1399.
N. lat. 41° 8’. E. long. 15° 32’.

ASCOLIA, in Antiquity, a feaft which the peafants of
Attica celebrated in honour of Bacchus. _ ;
- They facrificed a he-goat to him (as beihg the deftroyer
of vines); and of the vitim’s fkin made a foot-ball, which
they blew up, and anointed with fome un€tuous matter; or,
as Potter thinks, they made a bottle of it, which they filled
with oil and wine. ‘The young people playing at this, and
keeping themfelves always on one foot, whilft the other was
fufpended in air, by their frequent falls gave occafion of di-
verfion to the fpeGtators. He that held the {port longeft,
and made the largeft hops, was the conqueror. Hence the

ame called afcolia/m. Pitifcus.

ASCOMARII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia,
in Sarmatia. Pliny.

ASCONA, in Geography, a town of Swiflerland, lying
on the Locarno lake, in which is a college for the inftruc-.
tion of youth, founded in the fixteenth century.

ASCONIUS, Papianvs, in Biography, a Roman gram--

marian, was a native of Padua, and lived in the time of Au~
guttus ; the friend of Virgil, and the acquaintance of Quinc~
tilian and Livy. His notes on Cicero’s orations are judicious,
and {till exift, though in a mutilated ftate.. They’ were firft
publifhed, with thofe ef Lufcus, in folio, at. Venice, in 14775

and

— oe

ASC

and at Padua in 1493. ‘They have been intermixed with
thofe of other commentators, and may be found in Grono-
vius’s edition of Cicero, publifhed in 4to. in 1692. Fabr.
Bib. Lat. 1 ii. c. 6.

ASCORA, in Geography, a province of the empire of
Morocco. See Escura.

ASCORDUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece,
in Macedonia, one day’s journey from Agafla. Livy.

ASCOTANE J, a people of Afia, in Scythia, on this
fide of Imaus. Ptolemy.

ASCOYTIA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Guipufcoa, on the river Urola, welt of Tolofa,
and two leagues eaft of Placentia.

ASCRA,-in Ancient Geography, atown of Greece, in
Beeotia, near mount Helicon. lrom its having been the
place where Hefiod was brought up, though he was bora at
Cuma in Eolis, it was called his country.

ASCRIPTI, or Apscripri,-in Antiquity, thofe who
entered their names in the colonies, and became co/oni.

ASCRIPTITII, or Apscairtritit, a kind of villains,
who. coming from abroad, fettle in the lands of fome new
lord, whofe fubjects or fervants they commence; being fo
annexed to the lands, that they may be transferred and fold
with the fame.

The afcriptitii are annexed to the land they hold, fo that
they cannot ftir from it; befides that, whatever they acquire
accedes to the benefit of the lord of the land. Du-Cange
and Caly. Lex. Jur.

_ Ascripririt is fometimes alfo ufed in fpeaking of aliens
or foreigners, newly admitted to the freedom of the city
or country.

Ascripritis wasalfo ufed inthe Military Laws, for the
recruits appointed to fupply the loffes of the legions; called
alfo AccENs1.

ASCULUM Aputum, or Afculum of Apulia, in An-
cient Geography, now Afcoli of Capitanata, was fituated in
the Trajan way which paffed from Beneventum to Canu-
fium, between Trivicum to the weft, and Canufium to the
north-eaft. This place is-famous as the fcene of the firit
battle in which the Romans obtained fuccefs againit the
Epirots, under the command of Pyrrhus. Of this aétion,
however, hiftorians give a different account. Plutarch
pretends that Pyrrhus gained a complete victory; whereas
Eutropius affirms, that he was entirely defeated, and fled to
Tarentum. Dionyfius of Halicarnaflus. fays, that the
victory was doubtful and claimed on both fides, and that
Pyrrhus being congratulated upon his fuccefs, replied,
“ Such another victory would undo me.”

Ascutum Picenum, now Ajcoli of Ancona, was the ca-
pital of the Piceni. It was a municipal town, anda Roman
colony. Cicero (De Orat. c. 46.) commends an orator,
named “ Betucius Barrus,’’ who was born in this city, and
af whofe difcourfes delivered at Afculum, fome remained in
his time. ©

ASCURA, a town of Afia, in the greater Armenia.
Ptolemy.

ASCURUS, a river of Colchis, according to Arrian.—
Alfo a town of Africa, in Mauritania. “as

ASCUS, in Natural Hiftory, a word ufed by De Laet,
as the name of that pouch or bag with which nature has
fupplied the animals of the Diadelphis or Opoffum tribe, for the
protection of their young; and in which they are contained
ina flate of imbecility, or time of danger. Later writers, as
Linnzus, Gmelin, and others, call this abdominal pouch, or
receptacle, folliculus: it is not the womb, as is vulgarly

Vor. Ill. .

ASD

imagined, but a kind of fkinny bag, fituated under the belly,
and in moft {pecies containing the teats of the animal.

ASCYRUM, in Botany, genus of plants refembling
St. John’s wort (fuppofed from «, and cxipos, or cxvposy c/-
pferatus, not rough, a foft plant). Lin. g. 903. Schreb.
1225. Gertn. 62. Jufl. 254. Clals, polyadelphia polyandria.
Nat. Ord. Rotacee.—Hyperica, Jufl, Gen. Char. Cal,
perianth four-leaved : the outer leaves oppofite, very minute-
linear; the inner heart-fhaped, large, flat, ereét, all perma-
nent. Cor. petals four, ovate; the outer oppofite, very
large; the inner lefs. Sam. filaments numerous, briftle-
fhaped, flightly united at the bafe in four parts; anthers
roundifh. Pi/le germ oblong; ftyle fearcely any; ftigma
fimple. Per. capfule oblong, acummate, one-celied, two-
valved, inclofed by the larger leaves of the calyx. Seeds,
numerous, fmall, roundifh, fixed-to the edge of the valves. ©

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. four-leaved; petals four; filaments
many, in four divifions.

Species, r. A. crux Andree, common afcyrum, or St. An-
drew’s crofs. «¢ Leaves ovate; ftem round; panicle dichoto-
mous.” Stalks about fix inches high, flender, dividing into
two towards the top; from between the divifions of the
branches loofe panicles of fmall yellow flowers are produced;
capfule {mall, pointed at the ends, comprefied le a lens,
obicurely .two-farrowed. ~ A native of North America.
Cultivated by Miller, in 1759. It flowers in July and
Auguft. 2. A. Aypericoides. Brown, Jam. 309. Swartz.
Obi. 294. Hypericoides, &c. Plum. Gen. 51. t. 152. f. 1.
« Leaves oblong; branches ancipital.”” An elegant little
fhrub, three feet high, full of leaves and branches. Branches
dichotomous; twigs compreffed and ancipital; leaves oppo-
fite, fubfeffile, lanceolate, obtufe, entire, very finely per-
forated, fmooth, at their bafe {mall glands; flowers termi-
nating, folitary, yellow; two leaflets of the calyx four times
larger than the others. A native of South Carolina, Vir-
givia, Maryland, and the cooler mountains of Jamaica.
Cultivated by Miller. 3. A. villofum. ‘ Leaves hirfute ;
item itiffand ftraight.”” This grows about three feet high.
The flowers are produced at the ends of the ftalks, and are
of the fame fhape and colour as thofe of common St. John’s
wort. It grows wild in Virginia, and was cultivated by
Miller in 1759. :

Propagation and Culture. Thefe are perennial plants, the
ftems decaying in the autumn. The firft may be increafed
by laying down its branches; it loves a moift foil and {hady
fituation. The fecond fort rarely produces feeds in Eng-
land, but may be propagated by cuttings of the young
fhoots in May, planted in pots, and plunged in a moderate
hot-bed, and afterwards tranfplanted into a warm border;
but in fevere winters they mutt be defended from the frofts
by covering the roots with tan. The third may be increafed
by parting the roots in autumn, and planting them ina loamy
foil. See Martyn’s Miller’s Dict.

Ascyrum. See Hypericum,

ASDRUBAL, in Biography, a name given to feveral of
the Carthaginian generals. d/drubal, the fon-in-law of
Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal, accompanied Hamilcar
into Spain after the firft Punic war; and on his death, was
elected by the‘army’ his fucceffor. Having made confider-
able conquefts in Spain, he built a city called New Carthage,
now Carthagena, in order to fecure them. Hannibal ferved
during three campaigns under him. His adminiftration in
Spain was profperous for eight years ; but it terminated,
with his affaffination, which was effeéted by a Gaul, whofe’
matter he hdd-put to death. The affaffin was fo gratified
with his revenge, that he ky in the midft of the aire

wi

ASE

with which he was executed.—4/#rubal Barca was the fon
of Hamilcar and brother of Hannibal. He commanded in
Spain, while his brother was in Italy, After extinguifh-
ing a rebellion of the natives, he was f{ummoned to the affiit-
anée of his brother, but in his progrefs was completely
defeated by the Romans, Afdrubal and the other Cartha-
ginian generals maintained themfelves with difficulty in
Spain, and were frequently defeated by the two Scipios ;
but at length thefe two leaders were overpowered by the
Carthaginians, and killed. Whilft he was advancing along
the coait of the Adriatic to join his brother, and the exiit-
ence of the Roman itate was threatened by his numerous
army, he was met at the river Metaurus, now Metaro, by
the two.confuls Livius and Claudius Nero with their united
forces; and a bloody engagement enfued, which proved
deciiive, for Afdrubal was flain, and almoit the whole of his
army deftroyed. Claudius Nero carried the head of Afdru-
bal to his jtation before Hannibal ; and when it was thrown
inté’ the Carthaginian trenches, it was prefented to Hanni-
bal, who recognizing his brother’s features, exclaimed “ I
perceive the fortune of Carthage,” and then retired, in the
year before Chriit 203, into the extremity of Italy.—<//-
drubal, the fon of Gifco, ferved in Spain with the former
Afdrubal; and afterwards in Africa, againit Scipio. He
was father of the celebrated Sophonifba.—Another d/drubal
defended Carthage in its lait fieze by Scipio, and forefeeing
its fate, furrendered himfelf to the Romans. When his
wife, who was left behind him with her two children
in the temple of /E{culapius, perceived that the temple was
fet on fire, fhe appeared on the walls magnificently adorned,
with her two children ; and having reproached and execrated
her hufband for bafely deferting her, fhe firft ftabbed her
children, and then threw herfelf into the flames. See Car-
THAGE.

ASDYNIS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Egypt, in
the lake Morris, according to Eudoxus, cited by Steph. Byz.

ASE, in Biography, a celebrated Jewifh rabbi, was born
at Sorain Perfia, and was chofen chief of the famous aca-
demy in that place, in the fourteenth year of his age, which
dignity he retained during fixty years, that is, till the year
427, in which he died. Afe was the principal compiler of
the Babylonifh talmud. During his long refidence at Sora,
he publifhed a collection of his decifions, which he divided
into four parts: the firft contained the rules and maxims
of the Mifchna, with the doubts and folutions relating to
them: the fecond was chiefly occupied with the various
queitions of their doctors, and the-fentiments of the Tha-
naim and Gemarifts: the third comprehended the decifions
and maxims publifhed fince Judah the faint : and the lait re-
capitulated the texts of {cripture relating to law-fuits, with
the comments of their learned men. This was the jfirit di-
vifion of the Babylonifhtalmud; but. as Afe did not liye to

complete it, his difciples altered his method, and made feye-.

ral additions, which are thought-to have rendered the work
more obf{cure. See Taumup.

ASEA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Arcadia, north-
eait of Megalopolis.

ASEERGUR, in Geography, 4 town of Hindooftan, in
the Candeith, fifteen miles. from Burhampour, and eighty-
five fouth of Indore.

ASEIAC, «town of Perfia, in the province of Chufi-
ftan, thirty leagues fouth-weitof [{pahan.

ASEKYI, er Asexat, the name which the Turks give to
the favourite fultaneifes. who have brought forth fons.
Theie are greatly diftinguifhéd above others in their apart-

ments, attendants, penfious, and honours. They have.

ASE

fometimes fhared the government. The fultana, who firt
prefents the emperor with a male, child, is reckoned the chief
fayourite, is called buyuk a/eki, and ranks as a legitimate —
wife: though from the time of Bajazet L. the fultans are
forbid to marry by a public law, which Solyman II. violat-
ed in favour of Roxalana.

ASELE, Afele-Lapmark, ox Angermannland Lapmarky
in Geography, a province of Lapland, lying near the An-
germannland river, borders on Angermannland, towards
the eait, on Umea-Lapmark towards the north, ‘and joins
to the mountains on the weft, and to Jamtland on the
fouth. In length it is about thirty Swedifh miles. In
the reign of Charles XI. about the year 1673, meafures!
were taken for improving the population of this countrys
In this Lapmark lies the parifh of Afele, about eight or
nine Swedith miles long, of which the fouthern part is
inhabited by Swedifh peafants. This diftriG is not capable -
of much improvement, and few parts of it.have been cul-
tivated. Barley is the only grain that is fown, and whenthe *
crop fails, the inhabitants are reduced to the neceffity of
mixing the bark of fir-trees dried and pulverized with their
barley-meal, and of this mixture to make their bread. They
chiefly fubfitt by breeding of cattle and fifhing, The coun-
try is infeited by a kind of fetid guats, which are very
troublefome, againit which. they fecure themfelves by be~
{mearing their faces with an ointment of tar and greafe, and
which they drive from the houfes by imoke. | Service is
performed in a wooden church, built by queen Chriftina in
1648, once on every other Sunday ; and the Lapps meet
once a fortnight, on Friday evening, and continue till Sun-
day evening in their huts erected near the church, and the
peafants in the houfes built by them for the fame purpoie.
At the fair which is held every year at Kenac near Afele
church, the Lapps fell the flefh and fkins of rein-deer, furs,
whitings, fowls, &c. ; and the Lapland peafants carry but
ter, cheefe, dried fifh, fowls, and fome jort of furs, to the
fame market. 7

ASELLA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Puarzna that
is found in Germany. The wings are brownith, and with-
out fpots. Fab. It belongs to the Bombyx family.

ASELLI, in Afronomy, two fixed ftars of the fourth
magnitude, in the conitellation Cancer. 1

ASELLII Pancreas, in Anatomy. See Pancreas.

ASELLINA, in Natural Hiflory, a {pecies of Lenn wa
defcribed by Linneus. Fn. Sy. The body is lunated, and
the thorax heart-fhaped. Found on the gills of fome fithes.

ASELLIUS, Gaspar, of Cremona, in Biography,
born toward the end of the fixteenth century, taught ana=
tomy at Paris with great reputation. In 1622, while pro~
fecuting his ‘tudies, he difcovered ‘‘cafu magis quam conci-
lio,” Douglas fays, the laéteals running acrofs the mefentery,
in a dog that had been opened alive foon after eating a
plentiful meal. He defcribes thefe veflels as paffing from,
the inteftines to the liver, not knowing their real courfe, and,
miftaking the lymphatics of that vifcus for them. He faw,
their valves, preventing the regurgitation of the chyle.
The lacteals, he candidly obferves, had been mentioned by
fome of the earlieft medical writers, but not defcribed, or
their functions ftated, and as none of the modern reitorers
of anatomy noticed them, the difcovery is properly attribut-
ed to him. Cafpar Hoffman ridiculed the invention of
them ; and our great countryman, Harvey, fuppofed them
to be only deitined to convey the lymph.

Adellius miftook a collection of glands in the mefentery
for the pancreas, and defcribed, the pancreas as a new difco-
vered gland, which, with his error in defcribing the me :

©

‘ASF

of the lacteals, threw much obfcurity on his difeovery. He
died fome time in the year 1626, and was buried at St. Peter’s
at Milan, aged, as appears by the infeription on his tomb,
oily forty-five years. ‘The year following, his friends, Alex-
ander Padinus and Senator Septalius, publithed, from a ma-
nufeript that had been prepared by the author, * De Laéti-
bus few LaGeis Venis, quarto Vaforum Mefaraicorum Genere,
novo invento, Differtatio, cum figuris elegantiflimis, Mediola-
ni, 1627, 4to.”? It was republithed at Bafle 1628, at Leyden
‘1648, and afterwards amone the works of Spigclius and
Mangeti, in folio. Haller Bib. Anat. Eloy Dict Hitt.
* SASELLUS, io Zehthyology, the name of a tribe or ge-
‘nus of fifhes adopted by Willuehby, Ray, and other old
writers on Natural Hittory. Linnicus arranges the fithes of
this kind in'the Gapus genus ; as for example :/a/el/us ma-
jor of Aldrovandus, is gadus acylefinus Lin. ( Hadoclk.) a/el-
lus fufous of Ray, is gadus lufcus Lin (Bib.) ajillus mollis
minor of Willughby and Ray, is gadus minutus Lin. (Poor),
&e. &e. Sée i fame

VAsettus, in Lntomology, a {pecific name of the com-
mon wood-loufe, or hog-loule, as it is called in England. It
‘belongs to the Ontscus genus. | It is of an oval fhape ;
and has an obtufe tail, which is furnifhed with two dimple
ftyles. This well-known creature delights in moitt places,
lurking under ftones, in walls, in damp and rotten wood,
&c. The young are contained in a four-valved receptacle,
under the abdomen of the female.

»- ~AsELtus, in Conchology, afpecies of Curron, found

‘

in the North feas, moit frequently adhering to mytilus mo-
‘diolus. "The fhell confilts of eight valves, is very black,
‘convex above, with a yellowifh dorfal fpot on each valve.
‘Chemnitz, Gmel. &c.

Asetuus, a fpecies of Cyprara, very common about
the Madeira iflands. It is white, with three brown bands.

Linn, © This fhell is called 4/i/us alfo by Rumpfius and
Argenville. The “fhape is oblong; and the brown bands

vare bordered with yellow, or fometimes reddiih.

‘AASEMOS, ecnjaoz, from » negative, and oyna, a _fign, is
‘an epithet applied to events that fall out contrary to all ap-
‘pearance, and without any manifeit caufe.

— ASENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in the
territory of the Carpetani.

«* ASENT, a people of India, whofe capital was Bucephala.
Pliny. é

ASEPTA, in Medicine, ecurre, from «@ negative, and
“cure, to fiutrefy ; fignifies any thing unputrefied, or uncon-
~cotted. = Ds

ASER, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the Arabian
‘Trac, fituatedon the Tigris, eight miles wett-north-wett of
Baffora.

ASES, in Aucient Geography, a Scythian people, who
inhabited the vicinity of the Cimmerian Bofphorus.

ASFACA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Mecran, 52 leagues north-welt of Mecran.
STASFELD LA Vitter, a town of: France, in the de-
partment of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri@ of Rethel, thirteen miles north of Rheims. ‘The
»place contains ro80 and the canton’ 7832 inhabitants: the
‘territory includes 230 kiliometres and 19 communes.

ASFUN, or Asroun. a town of Egypt, four miles
northof Erment. This is the fite of one of the cities called
-APHRODITOPOLTS.

ASFUR, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Cxarronon, found
on the coafts of Arabia. It is black, with a yellow tranf-
verfe Junar-wedged band. Forfk. Fn. Arab. ‘The fame
author deferibes a variety of this fifth, of a bluifh colour,
with oblique’ bands, blotches, and fine’ lines of violet.

nal Ts

ASH

Length five inches; body oval, covered with rhombic feales,
difpofed in a quicuns order, and fiaely dentated; a flrong
{pine on the gill-cover half an inch in length ; lateral line
curved; dorfal and anal fin faleated; tail rounded, fulvous,
and edged with black.

ASGILIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated. in
the Perfian gulf, on the coaft of Arabia Felix. — Pliny.

ASGILL, Joun, in Biography, an Englifh barvifter of
fingular character, was born about the middle of the 17th
century, and educated at Lincoln’s Inn, under Mr. Eyre,
a very eminent lawyer. His political talents and fingular
vein of himhour were manifefted in two pamphlets, which
were printed in 7698, and which attra¢ted public notice;
the firit was entitled, * Several Affertions proved in order to
create another Species of Money than Gold and Silver ;??
and the fecond, “ An Effay’on a Regittry: for Titles of
Lands.”” Thefe were followed, in t700, by another whim-
fical and enthufiaftical treatife, intitled, “ An Argument,
proving, that, according to the Covenant of eternal Life, re-
vealed in the Scriptures, Man may be tranflated from hence,
without paffing through Death, although the human Nature
of Chrift himfelf could not be thus tranflated, till he had
paffed through Death.’” This publication excited a general
clamour again{t the author as an infidel and a blafphemer.
Before this time he had removed into Ireland, and purfued
the practice of the law with fo much fuécefs, that he was
enabled to purchafe an eltate, and to obtain a feat in the
Irifh parliament; but this publication oceafioned his expul-
fion from the houfe, as a perfon whofe blafphemous writings
rendered him unworthy of reprefenting a ‘Chriftian people.
On his return to England, he obtained a return'to the’ Brit
tifh parliament, in 1705,‘for the borough of Bramber in
Suffex, ‘and held his feat for two years. But) his’ want of
economy involved him in debts which he was'unablé'to dif-
charge, and during the interval of ‘privilere, he was arrefted
and committed te the Fleet prifon. On the opening of the
next feflion of parliament, in'1707, he was demanded by the
ferjeant ‘at arms, releafed from cuftody, and refumed lis
feat. However, his embarraffed ‘cireumiftances, and | the
confideration of his being a privileged debtor, created ‘a
prejudice againit him in the houfe, anda committee was ap-
pointed to examine his offenfive publication, in order to juf-
tify the propofed meafure of his expulfion. This commit-
tee reported tliat his book’ contained feveral blafphemous ex-
preflions,’and that it feemed to be intended for expofing the
feriptures; and though Afgill made a fpirited dekinces and
folemnly protefted, that he publifhed his treatife under a
firm belief of the truth of the feriptures as well as of his own
argument, he was expelled.’ In’confequence of this mea-
fure, as his debts inereafed, he was thrown by his creditors
into the King’s Bench prifon, where he remained thirty
years; furnifhing himfelf with amufement and occafional
fupplies, by writing pamphlets, chiefly political, againit the
pretender, and by practifing in the way of his profeffion
Notwithftanding his misfortunes, and the confcioufnefs of
his own indiferetion, he retained great vivacity of {pirits, and
peculiar powers of entertaining converfation, till his death,
which happened within the rules of the King’s Bench, in
1738, at the age, as fome fay, of 80, or according to others,
roo years. Afgill feems to have been a vifionary and en-
thufiatt, rather than an infidel or blafphemer; ‘and his eccen-
tricities rendered him more the object of contempt or pity,
than perfecution and punifhment. Biog. Brit.

ASH, Common, Flowering, and Manna, in Botany. See
Fraxinus. ; f
~ Asu, Mountain. See Sorsus.

Asu, Poifon. See Ruvs.

T2 Asu-

ASH
Asu-Balls; are formed of the afhes produced by a flow

incineration of the green plants of fern, which contain a
confiderable portion of alkali, and are ufed in making lye
for the fcouring of linen. See Firrx.

Asu-Tree, in Planting, a tree of the deciduous kind,
of which there are feveral {pecies cultivated either for the
fake of variety, or for the purpofe of ornamenting pleafure
grounds, &c.; but the kind which deferves attention here, is
the common afh, fo well known as a timber tree as to need
no defcription. See Fraxinus.

The ath tree will thrive in barren foils, and in the bleakeft
and moft expofed fituations; but it grows to the greateit
advantage on fuch lands as have a tolerable depth of foil,
and on which water is not liable to ftagnate. It is found
to be of fo hardy a nature, as to withitand the effects of the
fea-winds ; it may therefore be planted on the coafts
where but few other kinds of trees are found to profper.
When planted on the fides of ditches, or in moift meadow
lands, from the fpreading of its roots it has been found to
render the ground more firm and dry. From this, as well as
other caufes, it is, howeyer, highly prejudicial when planted
onarable land ; it ought therefore to be chiefly planted on
the waite nooks and corners of fields, or perhaps, on im-
proveable fwampy lands, and on the {pringy fides of hills,
as it would not only render them ufeful as plantations, but,
from'the fpreading of its roots, make them more firm and dry.

This fort of tree propagates itfelf plentifully by means
ef feeds, which being {cattered in autumn in places where
cattle do not come, plenty of plants come up in the fpring.
Where any perfon is defirous of raifing a quantity of thefe
trees expeditioufly, the feeds fhould be fown as foon as
they are ripe, and the plants will then come up in the fol-
lowing {pring ; but if the feeds be kept out of the ground
till {pring, they will not come up till the fecond year. The
ground fhould be kept clean all the fummer where they are
fown, and not difturbed, left the feeds be turned out of
the ground, or buried too deep to grow. When the plants
are come up they muft be kept perfectly clean from weeds
during the fummer months, and if they make good progrefs
in the feed-bed, they will be fit to tranfplant by the fol-
lowing autumn ; fome ground fhould therefore be prepared
to receive them, and as foon as their leaves begin to fall,
they fhould be tranfplanted. In removing the plants, care
fhould be taken not to break or tear off their roots; to
prevent which, they fhould be taken up with a fpade, and
not drawn up, as is frequently practifed; for as many of
the plants which rife firft from feed will outitrip the others
in their growth, as is a frequent practice to draw out the
Jargeft, and leave the others to grow a year longer before
they are tranfplanted ; and to avoid hurting thofe that are
left, the others are drawn out by hand, and confequently
many of their roots torn off or broken. It is therefore
much the better way to take all up, little or big, together,
and tranfplant them out, placing the large ones together in
rows, and the {mall ones by themfelves, The rows fhould
be three feet afunder, and the plants a foot and a half
diftant in the rows. In this nurfery they fhould remain two
years, by which time they will be ftrong enough to plant
out where they are to remain; as the younger they are
planted out the better they will grow, fo that where they
are defigned for ufe they fhould be planted very young, and
the ground where they are raifed fhould not be better than
that where they are to grow. For when plants are raifed
in good land, and afterwards planted into worfe, they ve
rarely thrive well; on which account it is much the beft
method to make the nurfery upon a part of the fame land
where the trees are defigned to be planted, and then a fuffi-

ASH

cient number of trees may be left ftanding upon the ground,
which will generally outitrip thofe which are removed, and
grow to a larger fize.

Where planters refide in the neighbourhood of afh-treesy
they may fupply themfelves with plenty of felf-fown
plants, provided cattle are not fuffered to graze on the
land; and where the feeds fall in hedge-rows and are pro-
tected by bufhes, the plants moftly come up and thrive
well ; in fuch hedge-rows the trees are frequently permitted
to grow till they have deftroyed the hedge, for there is
{carcely any tree fo hurtful to all kinds of vegetables as the
ath, as it robs every plant of its nourifhment within the
reach of its roots; it fhould therefore never be fuffered to
grow in hedge-rows, as the hedges are not only killed, but
corn, or whatever is fown near them, greatly impoverifhed.
If a plantation of this kind of trees be rightly managed, it -
will turn greatly to the advantage of the owner; for by the
underwood which will be fit to cut every eight or ten
years, there will be a continual income more than fufficient
to pay the rent of the ground and all other charges, and
ftill a ftock will be eed for timber, which, in a few
years, may be worth forty or fifty fhillings, or perhaps much
more, per acre. In the fixth volume of the Bath papers,
Mr. South obferves, that the growth of afh, in foils adapt-
ed to its nature, is little inferior to that of elm or beech ;
but that there is no timber whatfoever that differs more im
its value than this does, according to its fituation. The
productions of dry and healthy grounds will prove accept-
able to moft purchafers ; thofe of woods are generally clean
in the fhaft, and more valuable than the former. The
nearer the ground the tougher is the timber; the fhaft
therefore is coveted, the brittle branch is rejeéted ; the
buyers of this timber accepting the fhaft ard its continua-
tion, or beft bough ; the reft, be they ever fo large, go with
the top. When this fort of timber is raifed in damp mea-
dows or moorifh foils, it becomes light, fpongy, brittle,
and of {mall value in comparifon of that on dry and healthy
{pots. In meadows thefe trees will attain a fize which can-
not be expected in moors and bogs; for when the roots
reach the peat, the bark grows mofly, and the top decays:
how long itubs may be productive of poles in fuch fituations,
remains to be determined; but experience determines that
afh thus planted will never become timber of any value, as
the roots muft perifh before the tree arrives to perfection.
If ath-trees get difbarked, though in appearance they
fhould be flourifhing, on being felled, the roots will be fre-
quently found decayed, aud the ftems at bottom a com-
plete fhell ; they ought not, therefore, in point of profit,
to be fuffered to fland, Thefe trees, when they ftand among
firs and larches if planted clofe, will grow too tall and flen-
der, but thrive well when planted alone. They are fre-
quently known to haye thriven for at leaft ninety years, as
may be feen by their ring, But in the firft ten years, as
well as the laft, the growth has been obferved flow. It is
remarked by Mr. Marfhall, in his “ Rural Economy of the
Midland Counties,” that in the intermediate years, the dif-
ferent thjcknefles of the rings in different years were ftrik-
ing. This kind of timber is generally efteemed next in va-
lue to that of the oak, and in fome places even nearly equal
to it. It is of great value to the coach-maker, the wheel-
wright, and cart-wright, for ploughs, axletrees, fellies of
wheels, harrows, ladders, and other-implements of hufban-
ary; and alfo to the fhip-builder, for oar-blocks, for pulleys,
and many other purpofes.

The bef feafon for felling this fort of timber is from
November to February ; for if it be done either too early
in the autumn, or too early ia the {pring, the wood will he

fabje&

Ae5

fubjeét to be infefted with worms and other infects ; but for
lopping of pollards, the {pring is preferable for all foft woods.

Great attention has lately been paid to the planting of
this ufeful timber tree in different parts of the kingdom.
According to the Tranfaétions of the Society of Arts, near
Great Finborough in Suffolk, Mr. Wollafton has planted
twenty acres; and at Butsfield near Durham, Mr. White has
covered thirty-five acres; in Kent a ftill larger extent of
land has been planted by Mr. Day of Friendibury ; and at
Bufcot, near Farringdon, Berkfhire, Edward Loveden Love-
den, efquire, is faid to have planted thirty-three thoufand on
feven acres and nine perches; in Staffordfhire, fix thoufand
have been fet by Mr. Sneyd of Belmont ; and in Weftmore-
land, the bifhop of Landaff has planted eleven acres with
twenty thoufand. In Scotland, likewife, fomething has been
done in the cultivation of afh-timber ; in Cromarty forty-two
thoufand have been planted by Mr. Rofs; and fifty-feven
thoufand by the earl of Fife, in the county of Murray.

The afhes refulting from the combuition of this kind of
wood, are found to contain good potath ina larger propor-
tion than moft other kinds of green wood.

Asu, Bitter. See Quassia Amara.

Asu-Weed. See /Ecoropium.

ASHA, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the arch-
duchy of Auttria, four miles north of Effending.

ASHAJA-TUSLA. See Sout.

ASHAN, in Scripture Geography, a city in the tribe of
Judah (Jofhua xv. 42.): but, perhaps, afterwards furren-
dered to Simeon. (Jofh. xix. 7.) According to Eufebius,
Beth-A than was 16 miles weit from Jerufalem.

ASHARIANS, a branch of the Mahometan feét of Se-
fatians. See Ascuartans.

ASHAU, in Geography, ariver of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony, which runs into the Lechte, near Zell.

ASHBOURN, a town of England, in the county of
Derby, on the eait fide of the river Dove; its weekly mar-
het is on Saturday ; diitant north-north-welt 139 miles from
London. N. lat. 53°. W. long. 1° 35’.

ASHBURNHAM, formerly Dorche/ter-Canada, a town
o} America, in Worcefter County, in Maffachufets, 30
miles north of Worcefter, and 54 from Botton, was incor-
perated in 1765, and contains g51 inhabitants. In this
tovnfhip is a white fand, which is thought to be fit for
miking fine glafs.

ASHBURTON, an ancient borough town of England,
inthe county of Devon, which fends two members to par-
lianent ; it lies in a valley, with hills to the north and
foith. It is one of the four ftannary towns of Devonfhire ;
anl has in its neighbourhood mines of tin and copper. It
hastwo weekly markets, one on T'uelday, chiefly for woollen
yans, for the accommodation of the ferge manufacture
whch is carried on in the town; and one on Saturday, for
proifions. This town gives the title of baron to the
famly of Dunning. It is diftant weft-fouth-weft from
Exter 19 miles, and 1914 weft from London. N. lat. 50°
30’. W. long. 3° 10’.

ASHBY, a towafhip of America, in Middlefex county,
Mafachufets, 50 miles north-weft from Boiton ; containing
751 inhabitants.

Asupy de la Zouch, a town of England, in the county
of Leicefter, near the borders of Derbythire ; the principal
trade of the town depends upon the making of malt ; its
markt is on Saturday. The decayed caitle, which was
formely the property of the family of de la Zouch, now
belon;s to the earl of Huntingdon, It is diitant 17 miles
northsveit from Leicefter, and 114% north from London.
N. lat 52° 40’. Welong. 1° 20’. ;

ASH

, ASHCUTNEY, or Asacutney, a mountain of Ame-
rica, in Vermont, fituate partly in the townfhips of Wind-
for and Weathersfield, and oppofite Claremont, on Sugar-
river, in the ftate of New Hampbhire. It is 2031 feet above
the fea, and 1732 feet above high water in Connecticut ri-
ver, which runs by its eaftern fide.

ASHDOD, in Ancient Geography. See Azorus.

ASHDOTH-PISGAH, a city in the tribe of Reuben,
fo called from FW, well-watered places, and fituated in
the fertile plains at the foot of mount Pifgah, or at the
fprings of Pifgah ; whence its name.

ASHENAGUR, a province of India, correfponding
with the country of the Affacani, in which Alexander war-
red, on the weit of the Indus, fituate at or,near the conflux
of the Penje-korch and Sewad rivers, and two marches from
Bijore. The prefent Sewad is part of the ancient province
Adhenagur. Rennell’s Memoirs, p. 159.

ASHER, the fon of Jacob, by Zilpah, gave deno-
mination to one of the twelve tribes which was fettled
on the north-weit of the province of Lower Galilee,. in
a very fertile country producing abundance of corn, ard
wine, and oil, of the beft kinds, with Pheenicia weft, mount
Libanus north, mount Carmel and the tribe of Iffachar
fouth, and Zebulun and Naphtali eaft. It contained fome
confiderable cities near the fea, but no fea-port of any note.
This tribe never poflefled the whole extent of diftri@ af-
figned to it, which was to reach to Libanus, Syria, and
Pheenicia.

AsHER, acity of Paleftine between Scythopolis and She-
chem.—Alfo, according to Eufebius, a large town between
Azoth and Afcalon.

ASHES, in Chemi/lry. This is a term of general im-
port, which is applied to the pulverulent refidue left after
the combuftion of any fubftance whatever. In this fenfe,
the combuttion of metallic bodies has been faid to yield me-
tallic afbes, but to thefe the terms ca/x and oxyd have been
{ubftituted ; and it is only vegetable and animal matters that,
are now faid to afford afhes after burning.

To confume vegetable or animal fubftance to afhes, the
free acce(s of air is requilite, more particularly with the latter.

Vegetable Afbes. When a vegetable is fet on fire, a vaft

quantity of aqueous vapour firit efeapes, together with the
¢gmponent partsof moft of the other vegetable principles, fuch
as the native juices, the acids, the fugar, the oil, &c. which
latter either burn with flame, or are driven off in a denfe
{moke. The more folid carbonaceous part requires a longer
continuance of heat, and a free accefs of air for its complete
combuition ; but when this is effected, a certain portion of
white or grey afhes remains behind, confiting of the fixed
faline, the earthy, and the metallic ingredients. In general,
it is found (as would be expected) that the watery, fuccu-
lent, and herbaceous plants, yield a lefs quantity of afhes
than the hard and woody parts of vegetables; but there
are numerous exceptions to this rule, as the hardnefs of
texture is more determined by the quantity of carbonaceous
matter. A very violent heat either melts the afhes into a
Slag ox fcoria, or diffipates their faline ingredient, and leaves
only the earthy and metallic ; fo that a: certaim management
of the fire is requifite in order to procure the greateft pof-
itble quantity of afhes from vegetable matter.

From the faline ingredient are procured thofe very im-
portant articles in chemiftry and manufaCture, the fixed al-
kalies, both vegetable and mineral ;, the former diftinguifhed
according to its {fpecies and purity by the terms cwood-
foes, pearl-afh, pot-afo of commerce, falt of tartar, or falt-of
wormwood ; the latter by the terms.nairon, barilla, kelfiy
aad /oda.

2 As

ASHE S&. ;

‘As the combuftion of vegetables, when carried on in the
large way, is always directed to the object of procuring the
alkeline falt, and as this fubjeét includes a variety of intereit-
ing obfervations, aud the particulars of the analyfis of afhes,
we fhall refer the whole of this article tothofe above mention-
ed, and efpecially to that of Carzonar of Potafh and of Soda.

Wemay add, however, that though vegetable afhes are
compofed of fixed earths and alkalies combined with acids,
and of fome metallic oxyds, efpecially thofe of iron and
manganefe, almoft every poflible variety of combination and
proportional quantity of ingredients is to be met with, ac-
cording to the nature of the plant, the compofition of the
foil, the feafon of the year, climate, and the’ like. | In ge-
neral, chemical analyfis has detected the following fubftances
in’ vegetable aihes; filex, magnefia, lime, pot-afh, foda;
the fulphuric, carbonic, phefphoric, and muriatic acids $
and the oxyds of iron and maganefe. The moft ufual
ftates of combination of thefe ingredients are, the fulphats
of pot-ath, foda, lime, and mazrefia; the muriates and
carbonats of the fame, and the phoiphat of lime. It is
ftill a queition, which of the faline ingredients reprefent the
actual ftate of the vegetable juices, and which of them are
formed by the procefs of combultion ; the acid of the car-
bonatsmay with great probability be fuppofed to arife from
the latter caufe.

When the faline part) of vegetable afhes has been fepa-
rated by lixiviation, the light earth that remains, probably

_ ftill mixed with a portion of fulphat of lime, 1s fometimes
employed, after being well wathed, for the formation of the
large Cures ufed in the refining of filver.

The ancient alchemitts paid confiderable attention to the
afhes of different plants; andfome of the Roficrufian fchool
of deceived and deceiving impottors, pretended to beable, by
a ipecies of fralingenefia or re-production, to exhibit in the
afhes of a plant a complete mimature reprefentation of the
gradual growth and maturity of the individual vege-
table.

Animal Afpes. Avery few words will be requifite on this
fubjeét taken feparately. Animal matter is much more dif-
ficult of complete combuftion than vegetable; the volatile
part of each is driven off by heat without much difficulty,
but the coal of anima! fubftance is of very difficult incinera-
tion, often requiring a very long continued and violent fire.
This is probably owing in part to the greater quantity’
of oxyd of iron which, uniting with the carbonaceous mat-
ter by the affiftance of heat, forms a carburet of iron that
burns with extreme difficulty. The faline and earthy parts
almoft peculiar to animal afhes are the phofphat of foda,
phofphat of ammonia, and phofphat of lime, and often the
carbonats of foda and lime. The proportion of earthy falt
in bones, hora, and the harder parts of animals, is general-
ly full one half the weight of the fubftance when frefh from
the body: in Jone it is almoft entirely phofphat of lime, mixed
however with a fmall portion of fulphat and carbonat of
lime ; in /Zell the earthy part is principally carbonat of
lime.

For further particulars concerning animal afhes we mutt
refer the reader to the individual articles of animal matter ;
fuch as Broop, Bonr, Harrsxorn, SHELL, and to the
above-mentioned earthy and alkaline falts.

The only animal afhes employed to,any extent in the arts
are the lixiviated afhes from bones, which when mixed up
in water, and caft in proper moulds, form the Curets that
are employed in assayinc and REFINING of gold and /fil-
ver. ‘The finer and whiter ath of calcined horn is employed

~ to a fmall extent in medicine, under the term cornu cervi cal-
éinatum, ox calcined hartfhorn.

' Asues, in Agriculture, the earthy or other particles of
combuitible fubitances after they have been burnt in the
fire. The beneficial effects of fuch matters, as’ manures,
may probably, in a great meafure, arife from the portton of
alkaline faline matter which they contain, which by its action
on, and combination with the materials that are prefent in
foils, may render them more foluble and proper for the
nutrition of plants. Confiderable utility may alfo be derived
from their operating mechanically, and in that way leffening
the tenacity and ftiffnefs. of the heavier “kinds of foils, and
likewile by their abforbent powers in lands of the more
moilt-kind: Ahes are of different forts, as beachers? afhes,
coal afkes, peat afbes, pot afbes, foapers? afhes, turf-afhes,
wood afbes. 1 has!

The firft fort confilts: principally of the hard undiffolved
parts of pot-afh, kelp, weed-afh, and barilla. Laid on Jand
alone, they are too ftimulating 3 they ought therefore, per+
haps, never to be ufed but in union with earth, or earth and
dung. It is faid, however, they anfwer well with blood, gar-
bage, and putrid animal {ubitances. They are generally laid
upon fallows for. wheat. The greateft advantage derived
from them is upon clays or deep loams. Upon ruthy grounds,
or coarfe wet meadows, .they will be found particularly ufe-
ful, in deftroying the coarfe plants that infeft them.

The fecond fort, or coal afhes, probably from their com
taining a portion of calcareous matter, are found to be
highly beneficial on {tiff and four lands; for which purpote
they are fuccefsfully ufed in the neighbourhood of many
great cities, where coal is much burnt for fuel. They alfo
open the texture of clayey grounds, and’correé their tena-
city, and other bad qualities. The gardeners and farmers
about London know their value, and make a very profitable
ufe of them; particularly in bringing into order thof>
grounds which have been dug up for. brick-earth. Mn
Bradley long ago, indeed, blamed the people of Stafforc-
fhire, and the countries adjoiming, where there are coal-piti,
for not improving their heavy grounds around them, ky
manuring them with coal afhes, which might be eatily bumit
out of the wafte coals. of fuch pits; and fuggefts “ that
wherever there are plenty of coal-pits, there can be no wait
of good profitable land.’’ Mortimer held the fame opinion,
efteeming fea-coal afhes as the beft manure of any for old
lands, as well as the moft lafting and fitteft to kill woms
and flugs. And Worley looked upon them as an excelknt
compoft, when mixed with horfe dung; remarking, that
they have great effets in removing mofs and rufhes in moift
grounds. Ahes of this kind are employed in different pro-
portions, in different places according to the particular cir-
cumftances of the crop, and the land on which they are
applied. It is obferved by Mr. Farey, in the Annak of
Agriculture, that about Dunitable they are ufed at therate
of from fifty to fixty buthels to the ftatute acre, for a «om-
plete drefling ; and that they fucceed, well fown on clver,
in March or April, on dry chalky Jands. They have alfo
much effeét on fward-land, when applied during the wnter
or {pring ; but they are never ufed on wheat. It is likiwife
further remarked by the fame writer, that in very dry fea-
fons they do little fervice, except on cold fwards, vhich
they invariably improve ; and that on light land they rquire
rain, after being fown or ‘fpread over the land, in orer to
promote their operation. :

The afhes formed from peat, are found, from longexpe+
rience, to be a very good manure. The author of Modern
Agriculture remarks, that in many parts of the kiigdom
peat-earth cut and dried in the courfe of the fumner, is
the only fuel; and that the peat.dug from the moffis: that
are fo firm as to bear cattle to tread on them, is tie rom

bot

ASHES.

both for fuel, and.afterwards for manure. The afhes of the
{ward, or what is pared from the furface of heaths and com-
mons by the cottagers in many parts, as about Bedford,
are, he fays, of little value, when compared to thofe above
mentioned, It is probable that Berkthire is the only diftrict
of Great Britain, where peat afhes, without the mixture of
any other fubltance, are at prefent generally ufed as manure.
The athes of peat, dug fromextenfive meadows in that county,
haye been proved by the experience of fixty or feventy years,
to be a moit excelleat manure, when ufed as a top dreffing on
almott all kinds of crops; as oats, wheat, barley, turnips, clo-
ver, fainfoin, meadows, pattures, &c. The quantity generally
uled is about twenty buthels, more or lefs, as the condition
of the land feems to require; and the price about three-
pence or four-pence a buthel. To fuch an extent is this
mode of manuring carried on ia that county, that the
proprietors often receive two or three hundred pounds the
acre for the liberty of cutting and carrying off peat to the
depth of five or fix feet. It would be abfurd to fuppote,
fays he, that the peat athes of Berkthire are fuperior, as
manure, to thofe in every other part of the ifland ;:and as
their effects in that country, when applied to the foil, have
been confpicuons for a great number of years, it is certainly
a circumitance meriting the attention of thofe who refide
where peat is the only fuel, to afcertain whether peat afhes
in fuch diftricts do not poffefs all the fertilizing: qualities of
thofe in Berkthire. The experiment is eafily made; all that
is neceffary being to keep the athes dry, and under cover
during winter; and to fprinkle them with the hand over the
crops in {pring, at the rate that has been juft mentioned.
Lord Dundonald, in his Treatife on the Conne@ion of
Agriculture with Chemittry, however, remarks, that the
afhes procured from peat in the neighbourhood of Reading,
in Berkthire, feem to poffefs a fertilizing power infinitely
greater than afhes obtained from moft other peat. They
certainly, he believes, contain no alkaline falts; and in an
haity analytis made fome years fince, no faline matter, fays
he, is recollected to have been got from them, but a {mall
proportion of Epfom falt. Had thefe athes, however, been
analyfed with more care, and when newly made, they pro-
bably would, he thinks, have been found to contain a hepar
of dime, 2 falt which is foluble in water; whilit gypfum, to
which it reverts on expofure to the air, is infoluble. Tio
this hepar, therefore, fays he, may the fertilizing power of
thefe athes mott probably be attributed. And the writer
of the furvey of the County of Middlefex fuggeits, that as
the hills on each fide of the meadows which ptoduce the
Newbury peat afhes, confift of chalk, eafily diffolvable by
heavy rains, which wath. it off the ridges, down the fur-
rows, ditches, and ftreamlets, to the low grounds, where
mixing with the floods, it is Noated over the meadows, and
depofited with the peat; confequently the peat of that dif-
trict differs from that of moit others, by the quantity of
chalk which it contains, and that when dug, dried, and
burnt, the fire reduces the chalk to lime, and the reft to
afhes. Hence Newbury afhes are a mixture of lime and ve-
getable afhes; aad it is very probable, he thinks, that any
common peat afhes, or the afhes of rough grafs land, of
turf, heath, furze, ling, wood, &c. produced by the ope-
ration of paring and burning, being mixed with chalk-lime
in due proportion, would be equally fertilizing as thofe
noted afhes. It has indeed been long fince obferved by Mil-
ler, that thefe afhes are greatly bettered by being mixed
‘with lime before they are put on the land. ‘Thefe athes are
produced from land that is black and crumbly at top, under
which lies the peat to the depth of feveral feet. They do
fet burn the peat in the field by choice, becaufe the peat:

is burnt for afhes, when it cannot be dried for fale; and then:
it is burnt in large heaps, with a jnotherin , as is likewife
the fuperficial black earth, or moory foil, together with
the refufe of the peat: the afhes of thefe are laid up in
round or long heaps, rifingyat top like the ridge of a houfe,
in order to throw off the rain and keep them dry till they
are fold. Sometimes they are laid under dry fheds or in houfes
to fave them from wet, which they cannot be wholly. pro-
tected from by laying them up in ridges expofed to the wea-
ther, into which the rain penetrates for fome inches deep; but
thefe afhes are never fo good manure as thofe that are kept
dry. Near the furface of the peat earth there is fometimes a
bed of whitith earth called maurn, which is acompolition of
earth and very {mall fhells of the periwinkle kind; this
is alfo bnrnt to afhes for manure, and the quantity of it in
fome places is fo great, that the afhes are of @ whitifh colour,
while thofe from the peat or moorifh earth are reddifh.
The white are efteemed to b? as good manure as the red;
and being a kind of fhell-marl, would make goed manure
without being burnt; as indeed they rarely are thoroughly,
though they feldom lay them upon land till thes: have paffed
the fire, or are mixed with the afhes of the peat-earth.
The afhes of the peat fold for fuel, and burnt in chimnies,
are much ftronger manure than the afhes burnt in the field;
and if care be taken to keep them dry, are fold for nearly
double the fum of the field athes. Mr. Farey tates, in
the Annals of Agriculture, that he has found ficld afhes to
improve the chalky foils about Dunftable, but on the wet
lands, or cold fwards, and hot fandy lands, they did little
good. They may be employed on the fame kinds of crops,
and in the fame way as coal afhes, and alfo on the wheat crops

about April. But Mr. Middleton fays that he has tried

_ the Newbury peat afhes on wheat, tares, feeds, and mea-

dows, in various quantities to the acre, without producing
any fenfible effeG. In Norfolk, athes are not in eftimation
as manure; even thofe of the hearth are in fome degree
neglected. But the meadows and fens abound with peat-
bogs, which in fome places would be confidered as inetti-
mable fources of manure; and the peat earth in fuch
meadows, when burnt, would no doubt afford an ample
fupply of afhes. In many places, much advantage has been
fuppofed to arife from the practice of mixing lime with
peat afhes before they are applied to the ground.
The refufe, or athes, remaining after the burning of differ-
ent green vegetable matters from which the alkaline falt
called pot-afh has been extraéted,.is a kind of afhes which
has been found of great fervice to moft forts of land; but as
they have been in a great meafure deprived of their faline
property, it is neceffary to lay them on much thicker than
any other fort of afhes. Mr. Bradley afferts that a hufhel
and a half of thefe may be ufed in the room of a buthel of
freth afhes; and that they fhould always be mixed with fome
other light ingredient which may be ufed in any quantity
when laid on very ftiff land; but if the land be not over
ftiff, they may be laid on it with lefs mixture. As in places
far removed from the means of improvement, a fubftitute for
common manures, that is of eafy carriage, and can be had at
a moderate expence, muft be valuable, pot-afh may be em-
ployed; for, from experiments that have been made, it ap-
pears that two. hundred pounds of it are fufficjent for an acre
of ftrong land. For lighter foils much lefs is required, if
laid on by itfelf; on thefe, however, a compoft of this and
train or refufe oil incorporated with mould, will be the beft
way of employing it. Upon ftrong clays and deep loams,
however, it ought always to be applied by itfelf. When
the expence of carriage is confidered, this will often’ be
found a cheaper manure than lime; and in one refpeét it
8 is

3 ASHES.

is fuperior, for the union of pot-afh with all the different

acids forms a neutral ialt which is in fome degree ufeful in
vegetation; whereas when lime meets with vitriolic acid, it
is almoit entirely leit to the purpofes of agriculture. A con-
fiderable part of what is wed in manufactures (glafs ex-
-epted) may be ufeful as a manure, after the purpofes of
the different manufactures have been ferved; particularly
in bleaching, the alkali of which will be found improved in
confeguence of the mucilage or oil which it has imbibed
from the cloth or other matters.

The foapers’ afhes are a compofition of wood afhes and
lime, remaining after the foap-makers have drawn off their
lye. Thefe are in general a very valuable manure; brt
there is great difference in the quality and effeéts of them.
Thofe from wood afhes are the weakeit fort, as, wood afhes
being very light -and fpengy, their falts are foon diffolved,
and extracted by the lye; to that there remains but a very
flight portion of falt in the afhes. But when the foap-boil-
ers make ufe of kelp inftead of wood afhes, the kelp, from
its being of a harder nature than wood afhes, is not fo
eafily feparated and diffolved by the lye; confequeutly,
much more of the faline matter remains in the afhes. The
foap-boilers alfo make ufe of another kind of potafh called
barilla, which is imported from Spain and other places in
large lumps, and which is much harder than common pot-
afh; and though they break this fort very fmall, and fome-
. times fcreen or fift it, much. more falt remains than when

“pot-afh is employed; fo that the afhes from barilla are for
the moft part fronger than any other; and if the fame
quantity of them were laid upon land as is commonly the
cafe with wood afhes, they would burn and dettroy the
crop. Farmers fhould therefore ufe foap-boilers’ afhes with
caution, till they know their qualities and ftrength. Wood
afhes and pot afhes are ufed in yarious places for making
foap ; but in and near London, very little of any thing but
barillais employed. The afhes from the barilla are a trong
rich manure, and fold at five fhillings per cart-load. They
are not now however fo good as they were formerly, the
foap-makers having found means to extract’ more of their
falt from them; as they alfo take the falt from the lye
which was formerly rather fuperior to the athes as a manure,
and to be had for nothing, being all thrown away as ufelefs.
This excellent manure was firit ufed by the Flemings with
great fuccefe. Two loads of thefe afhes are {fufficient for
an acre of arable land. ‘They thould be laid on the ground
when the weather is inclined to be moift, in order that the
rain may more eafily diffolve and wafh them in. As foapers’
afhes principally confift of lime, which is ufed by foap-mak-
ers to deprive the alkaline falts of their fixed air, the addition
of lime to the afhes is unneceflary. They are ufed to mott
advantage when made into compofts with earth and well-
fermented dung in the proportion of two loads of dung to
one of earth; the afhes being then added in the quantity of
one load to ten of this mixture, turning and incorporating
the whole completely. The quantity neceffary for ftrong
clays or deep loams is ten cart loads to an acre. If the
dung has been well fermented, perhaps the moit profitable
way of ufing this compoft may be as a top-drefling harrowed
in with the grain, taking care, however, that the cauttic
quality of the afhes be properly blunted by a fufficient mixture
of dung and earth, or rich earth only. ‘Thefe afhes, when
beat fmall, may. be made into a rich compoft with refufe
oil and earth, and ufed as a top-drefling for young crops.
They will deftroy flugs and vermin of every deicription,
and are therefore highly valuable on lands where the early
wheat is injured by the worm. Laid upon grafs lands in
the end of autumn, this manure, it is faid, produces a deep

verdure during the winter, and an early vigorous vegetation
in the fpring ; it is therefore particularly calculated fos cold
wet paiture lands.

In refpeét to turf afhes, produced by burning turf or the
paring of the furface of heathy, moorifh, and other lands,
their utility as a manure, perhans, chiefly depends upon the
proportion of alkaline faline matter which they contain, and
which is produced by the burning of the frefh vegetable
fubitances of turf, and the combination of vital air or oxy-
gen, with the clayey part of the foil during the procefs of
combuttion, as well as by the mechanical action of fuch fub-
{tances on the tenacious earthy matters of the foils. Accord-
ing to the Rev. Mr. Comber, the afhes in the moors of
Yorkthire are carried out daily, or once in two or three days,
to the dunghill ; and the farmer takes the opportunity of
his firft leifure towards the end of the year, to carry them
out to his meadow lands on which he lays them thicker or
thinner as he has more or lefs land which he apprehends to
want them, and more or lefsof them. The firlt rains wath
them in, and the next {ummer never fails to fhew their good
effeéts. It would however be probably a much better practice
to apply them to the land in the early {pring when the wea-
ther is rather wet, and not to leave thern to be wafhed away
by the heavy rains and land-floods during the winter months.
They would alfo be much more efficacious if kept in fheds,
or other fuitable places, inftead of being carried out to the
dung-{tead ; where the rains muft diilolve and carry away
their mo{l nutrient properties; as thefe afhes are much finer
or more pulverized than thofe of coal, they may. infinuate
themfelyes more into the foil, but they are probably not fo
lafting in their effects. Of the truth of this a remarkable
inftance is mentioned.—A field, whereof the foil was a poor
gravel, that had a crop of the broad or red clover growing
upon it, was dreffed, one fide of it with peat afhes, and the
other fide with turf afhes. The farmer laid upon this field
ali the afhes he had of thefe two forts, and the middle of
the field had no dreffing. The clover in the middle part
not drefled was a very poor crop, the plants being fhort,
yellow, and ftunted; the fide drefled with turf afhes was
much better than the middle ; the plants being taller, of a
better colour, and promifed to be double the crop of the
undrefled,part ; but that fide dreffed with peat afhes pro-
duced a crop that appeared to be'as much fuperior to the
part drefled with the turf athes, as this lait was fuperior to
the middle that had no dreffing at all. The afhes were fown
upon the clover by hand, and the improvement made vpon
the clover was fo great, that the cat of the fower’s hand
was extremely plain next to the middle, and appeared like
an indenture; and the vigour of the plants there was fo
much greater than the undreffed plants, that the extent of
the peat afhes might be plainly diftinguifhed almoft to an
inch. ‘This obfervation was however made in the beginning
of fummer, before the clover had arrived to its full growth.
See Parina, and Burnine.

Athes produced from wood and moft green vegetable
products contain a confiderable quantity of fixed alkaline falt
blended with the earthy particles; but none or very little
can be produced by the combuition of dead or decayed ve-’
getable matters. It is from the afhes of the former kinds
of vegetable matter that the alkaline falts called potafh
and pearl-afhes are commonly extra¢ted. It feems alfo pro-
bable, from the obfervations of the earl of Dundonald, that
the effects produced upon land by the application of the
afhes of freth vegetable produéts, arife from the vegetable al-
kaline falt which they contain, which, by its aétion on what
he terms the oxygenated or inert mould or earth of the foil,
renders it foluble, and more fuitable to the nutrition of

plants,

ASH

plants, Asthe fuline matters contained in thefe fubflances
are liable to be lixiviated and carried away by moitture,
they fhould always be kept dry and free from water, either by
means of fheds or other conveniences, It has been long ago
obferved by Mortimer, that one load of dry athes ‘val go
as far as two not kept fo; but though rain-water diminifhes
their falts, fo the moiftening them with chamber-ley or
» foap-fuds will add greatly to their ftrength. Two loads of
theie afhes will manure an acre of land, eae than fix loads
of thofe that are expofed to the rain, and that are not or-
deved fo, which is the common allowance for an acre, though
fome lands require more, and fome lefs, ‘That the athes of
any fort of vegetables are very advantageous to land, is
what is experienced in moit parts of England, by theimprove-
ment that is made by burning of furze and ttubble, itraw,
heath, furze, fedge, bean-ftalks, &c. Mr. Young, in the firt
volume of the Annals of Agriculture, approves of charcoal-
afhes, in preference to powdered charcoal itfelf. And wood
athes mixed with mud (he feys) are fuperior to athes
alone, and four times better than mud alone, as a manure. In
the fecond volume of the fame ufeful work, he adds, that
wood afhes appear to be a moft powerful manure. In a
neighbourhood abounding with vitriolic acid (he fays), they
more than neutralize that falt; they furnith, befides, the food
of plants. In neutralizing it, the fixed vegetable alkali they
contain forms with the acid a vitriolated tartar, which is
beneficial to vegetation. From the alkaline faline matter
contained in afhes, and its known operation on earthy fub-
ftances, they may probably be ufed to great advantage in
combination with good mould or earthy materials, and dung,
in the proportion of one load of afhes to ten of the compott;
aud thus may be applied to tillage-lands as well as thofe
under grafs, in their fimple ftate; but in the former they
would feem to be the moft proper, when conjoined with
other matters, fuch as have been mentioned above. They
may, whea employed in the unmixed way, be fown upon
the furface, and harrowed in with the crop to which they
are ufed. But in whatever way they are made ufe of, they
fhould be fpread out as equally as poffible on the land. Moft
grais-lands are improved by their application, but more efpe-
cially thofe that are wet, aad given to the produdtion of
wild iorrel, rufhes, er other coarfe plants of the fame kind.
When ufed in the way of compott on tillage lands, they are
generally laid on at the rate of about ten or twelve loads to
the acre, but on paitureé or grafs-lands, the quantity applied
varies very confiderably, as from one hundred to one hundred
and fixty buthels. Thefe fubftances have been found highly
ufeful, when fown on the green wheat and clover crops in
the fpring, and alfo when harrowed in with turnip feeds, or
fown over the young plants when they firit appear, as by
this practice the ravages of the fly are faid to be greatly lef.
fened in many cafes. See Manure.
‘Asues, Volcanic. See Vorcano.

ASHFIELD, in Geggraphy,a townthip of America, in
Hamphhire county, Maffachufets, about 15 miles north-weft
ef Northampton, and 117 weft from Bofton; containing
1459 inhabitants,

ASHFORD, a town of England, in the county of
Kent, feated on the river Stour. It has a monthly market
for cattle on the firft Tuefday, and a weekly market on Sa-
turday for corn, &e. It is diftant 45 miles E.S.E. from
London. N. lat. 51° 15’. E. long. 0° 45’.

Asirorp, a townfhip of America, in Windham county,
Connecticut, incorporated in 1710; diftant about 38 miles
north-eaft from Hartford, and 76 fouth-weit from Bofton.

Asurorn, New, a townfhip of America, in Berkhhire

Vou. Til.

ASH

county, Maffachufets, 155 miles weft from Bofton; con-
taining 460 inhabitants.

ASHKENAZ, in Ancient Geography and Miflory, one of
the fons of Gomer, is fuppofed to have fettled near Ar-
menia, in the ealtern part of Afia Minor; or towards the
north-weft of that continent ; for it is faid, that with refer-
ence to his name, there was in Bithynia the Afcanian lake,
a river called Afcanius, and a bay of the fame name; and
in Leffer Phrygia there was Xcity called Afcania, with ifles
called the Afcanian iflands : and it is further obferved, that
befides Afcanius, the fon of Aéneas, Homer mentions a
king of that period who was at the fiege of Troy; and as
a proof that the Afhkenaz, mentioned by Jeremiah, were
people of thefe parts, it is fhewn from Xenophon, that
Hyitafpes having conquered Phrygia, that lies on the Hel-
lefpont, brought thence many of the horfes and foldiers
which Cyrus carried with him to the fiege of Babylon.
Moreover, the Pontus Euxinus, or Axinus as the Greeks
firft called it, is fuppofed to be a corruption for the fea of
Athkenaz.

ASHKOKO, in Zoology, a very fingular kind of qua-
druped, defcribed by modern naturalift; under the names of
Syrian hyrax, hyrax fyriacus, and briftly cavy : for a full
and accurate delcription of this fpecies we are however ine
debted to that indefatigable and learned traveller,“Mr, Bruce,
who obferved it in feveral parts of Abyffinia, and gives us the
following account of it in the Append’x to his ‘Travels.

«« This curious animal,”’ fays Mr. Bruce, ‘is found in
Ethiopia, in the caverns of the rocks, or under the great
{tones in the mountain of the fun, behiid the queen’s pa-
lace at Kofcam. It is alfo frequent in the deep caverns in
the rocks in many other parts of Abyflinia, It does not
burrow or make holes as the rat and rabbit; nature having
interdiéted him this pra@ice by furnifhing him with feet,
the toes of which are perfectly round, and of a foft, pulpy,
tender fubitance ; the flefhy parts of the toes projeét beyond
the nails, which are rather broad thas fharp, much fimilar
to a man’s nail ill grown, and thefe appear rather given him
for the defence®f his foft toes than for any ative ufe ia
digging, to which they are by no means adapted.

“« His hind foot is long and narrow, divided with two
deep wrinkles or clefts in the middle. drawn acrofs the cen-
tre, on each fide »f which the flefh rifes with confiderable
protuberancy, and it is terminated by three claws ; the mid-
dle one is the longeft. The fore-foot has four toes; three
¢{pofed in the fame proportion as the hind-foot ; the fourth,
the largeft of the whole, is placed lower on the fide of the
foot, fo that the top of it arrives no farther than the bot-
tom of the top of the toe next to it. The fole of the foot
is divided in the centre by deep clefts like the other, and
this cleft reaches down to the heel, which it nearly divides.
The whole of the fore-foot is very thick, flethy, and foft,
and of a deep black colour, altogether void of hair, though
the back or upper part of it is thick-covered, like the ref
of the body, down to where the ioes divide, there the hair
ends, fo that thefe long toes very much refemble the fingers
of a man.

“In place of holes, it feems to delight in lefs clote
or more airy places, in the mouths of caves, or clefts in
the rock, or where one projecting, and being epen before,
affords a long retreat under it, without fear that this can
ever be removed by the ftrength or operations of man.
The afhkoko are gregarious, and frequently. feveral dozeas
of them fit upen the great ftones at the mouths of caves,
and warm themfelves in the fun, or even come out and
enjoy the frefhnefs of tae fummer evening. They do not
ftand upright upon their feet, but feem to iteal along as in

K fear,

ASH

fear, their belly being nearly clofe to the ground, advancing
a few fteps at a time, and then paufing. They have fome-
thing very mild, feeble, and timid in their deportment, are
gentle, and eafily tamed ; though when roughly handled at
the firit, they bite very feverely,

“© This animal is found plentifully on mount Libanus:
T have feen them alfo among the rocks at the Pharan pro-
montorium, or cape Mahomet, which divides the Elanitic
from the Heroopolitic gulf, or gulf of Suez. In all places
they feem to be the fame ; if there is any difference, it is
in favour of the fize and fatnefs which thofe in the moun-
tain of the fun feem to enjoy above the others. What is
his food I cannot determine with any degree of certainty :
when in my pofleflion he ate bread and milk, and feemed to
be rather a moderate than-a voracious feeder. I fuppofe he
lives on grain, fruit, and roots. He feemed too timid and
backward in his own nature to feed upon living food, or
catch it by hunting.

<¢ The total lencth of this animal, as he fits, from the
point of his nofe to the extremity of his body, is feventeen
inches and a quarter: the length of his fnout, from the ex-
tremity of the nofe to the occiput, is three inches and
three eighths ; his upper jaw is longer than his under ; -his
nofe ftretches half an inch beyond his chin. The aperture
of the mouth, when he keeps it clofe, in profile, is little
more than an inch. ‘The circumference of his fnout around
both his jaws is three inches and three eighths ; and round
his head juit above his ears, eight inches and five eighths ;
the circumference of his neck is eight inches and a half, and
its length one inch and a half. He feems more willing to
turn his body altogether, than his neck alone. The circum-
ference of his body, meafured behind his fore-legs, is nine
inches and three quarters; and that of his body, where
greateft, eleven inches and three eighths; the length of his
fore-leg and toe is three inches and a half; the length of
his hind thigh is three inches and one eighth, and the length
of his hind leg to the toe, taken together, is two feet two
inches ; the length of the fore-foot is one inch and three
eighths; the length of the middle toe fix lines, and its
breadth fix lines alfo. The diftance between the point of
the nofe and the firft corner of the eye is one inch and five
eighths; and the length of his eye from one angle to the
other four lines. The difference from the fore angle of his
eye to the root of his ear is one inch and three lines 5 and
the opening of his eye two lines and a half. His upper
lip is covered with a pencil of ftrong hairs for muttachoes;
the length of which is three inches and five eighths, and
thofe of his eye-brows are two inches and two eighths. He
has no tail, and gives at firft fight the idea-of a rat rather
than of any other creature. His colour is a grey mixed
with a reddifh brown, perfectly like the wild or warren
rabbit. His belly is white from the point of the lower
jaw to where his tail would begin if he had one. All
over his body he has fcattered hairs, ftrong, and polithed
like his muftachoes; thefe are for the moit part two inches
and a quarter in length :. his ears are round, not pointed :
he makes no noife that ever I heard; but certainly chews
the cud. [Dr. Shaw obferves, that this particular of the
afhkoko feems very doubtful, and may probably be owing
to the peculiar motions of the mouth refembling thofe of
the hare, which has alfo been fuppofed by fome to ruminate.
Gen. Zool.] To difcover this was the principal reafon of
my keeping him alive: thofe with whom he is acquainted
he follows with great affiduity. The arrival of any living
creature, even of a bird, makes him feek for a hiding-place ;
and I fhut him up in a cage with a {mall chicken, after
- omitting to feed him a whole day; the next morning the

ASH

ehicken was unhurt, though the afhkoko came to me with
great figns of having fuffered with hunger. I likewife made
a fecond experiment, by inclofing two fmaller birds with
him for the {pace of feveral weeks ; neither were thefe hurt,
though both of them fed without impediment of the meat’
that was thrown into his cage; and the f{malleit <f thele,
a titmoufe, feemed to be advancing in a fort of familiarity”
with him, though I never faw it venture to perch upon him,
yet it would eat frequently, and at the jame time, of the’
food upon which the afhkoko was feeding; and in this’
confifted chiefly the familiarity I fpeak of, for the afhkoko’
himfelf never fhewed any: alteration of behaviour upon the
prefence of the bird, but treated it with a kind of abfolute
indifference. The cage indeed was large, and the bires
haying a perch to fit upon in the upper part of it, they did
not annoy one another.

“In Amhara, this animal is called afhkoko, which,
I apprehend, is derived from the fingularity of thofe long
herinacious hairs, which, like {mall thorns, “grow about his
back, and which, in Amhara, are called athok. In Ara-’
bia and Syria, he is called Iiraei’s fheep, or Gannim Iifrael,
for what reafon I know not, unlefs it is chiefly from his’
frequenting the rocks of Horeb and Sinai, where the’
children of Ifrael made their forty years peregrination ;
perhaps this name obtains only among the Arabians. I
apprehend he is known by that of Saphan m the Hebrew,
and is the animal erroneoufly called by our tranflators. eu-
niculus, the rabbit er coney.’”’? Bruce Append.

M. Schreber, who names this animal hyrax Syriacus, gives
it this fpecific character: H. plantis trida¢tylis, ungutbus’
omnibus fubequalibus. (Feet trida¢tyle, with all the claws
nearly equal.) To this Dr. Shaw, in his Zoology, adds,
that it is rufous-grey, and white beneath. Gmelin alfo has
hyrax Jyriacus, pedibus unguiculatis, See Hyrax Sy-
riacus.

ASHLAR, a term ufed among Builders, by which
they mean common or free itones, as they come out of the
quarry, and of different lengths and thickneffes.

ASHLEP, in Agr culture, a term fometimes applied to
foapers’ afhes or wafh. See Svafers’? AsHEs. :

ASHLERING, among Builders, fignifies quartering,
to lath to, in garrets, zbout 24, or 3 feet high, perpeadicu-
lar to the floor, up to the underfide of the rafters.

ASHLEY, in Geography, a river of North America,
which runs into the fea on the fouth-weit fide of Charlef-
town, in South Carolina.

ASHMOLE, E ias, in Biography, an eminent antiqua-
rian of the 17th century, was born at Uchfield in 1617; and
at the age of fixteen was received into the family of his
kinfman James Paget, efq. a baron of the exchequer, where
he ftudied the law and other branches of knowledge. Hay-
ing married in 1638, he fettled in London as an attorney 5
but on the commencement of the civil war, his wife being
dead, he entered into the king’s jervice, and was employed
in the department of the Ordnance, firft at Oxford, and
afterwards at Worceiter. At Oxford he became a ftudent
of Brazen-nofe college, and directed his attention to mathe-
matics, natural philofophy, and aitronomy. From the ftudy
of the latter important and ufeful fcience he deviated to that
of aftrology, to which he feems to have been much addicted.
In 1646, he was admitted into the fociety of free and ac-
cepted mafons, and his eleétion into this fociety was confi-
dered by him as a diftinguifhing era of his life. His valua-
ble colleétions very much contributed to the iluftration of
its hiftory in this kingdom. Upon the furrender of Wor-
cefter to the parliament in this. year, he withdrew firit to
Chefhire, and afterwards came to London, where he formed

an

AS H

,an intimate acquaintance with the aftrologers of that period,
Moore, Lilly, and Booker. In 1647, he retired to Engle-
field in Berkthire, and applied to the ftudy of botany.
Here he became acquainted with a rich widow, whom he
married in 1649, and then removed with her to London,
where his houfe was a place of refort for all the proficients
in the curious and occult feiences. Having acquired from
an adept in Berkthire a tatte for alchemy, he publifhed, un-

_der a feigned name, a treatife by the famous Dr. Dee, and

another by an anonyinous author, on this fubject ; and with

great labour and expence he mad* a collection of the MS.

works of Englith chemitts, which he publifhed in 1652, un-
der the title of “ Theatrum Chymicum Britannicum,’’ in
4to. Having brought to a favourable termination fome le-
gal difputes occalioned by his wealthy marriage, he devoted
himflf with fingular affiduity to the ttudy of antiquity and
the perufal of records ; and relinquifhing hermetic philofophy
witha preface to a treatife on the philofopher’s tone, which

he edited, he began to make collections for the work which

_& Hittory of the Order of the Garter.””

conduced much more to his literary reputation, than any of
his aftrological and alchemical purfuits, and this was his
As he was fond

_ of the ftudy of botany, he chofe for the place of his retidence

the houfe of John Tradefcant, a fcientific gardener of Lam-

beth; and became pofleflor of the collection of rarities that

had been made by Tradefcant and his father, and which
was conveyed to Mr. Athmole, by a deed of gift, in 1659.
On the reftoration, Athmole was particularly noticed, on

_account both of his loyalty and learning, by the king, who

_ defcription of the royal medals.

appointed him Wind{for herald, and cominitted to him the
He was alfo made a com-
miflioner, and afterwards comptroller of the excife; he was

_ called to the bar in the Middle Temple, admitted a fellow
_ of the Royal Society that had been recently eftablithed ;
. prefented, by the univerfity of Oxford, with the degree of
_ doétor of phyfic ; and promoted to other offices, both ho-

nourable and lucrative. Upon the death of his fecond wife,

_ he married the daughter of his friend Sir W. Dugdale. In

_ lio, in 1672.

1672, he prefented to the king his book «* On the Order of
the Garter,”’ intitled “ The Inftitutions, Laws, and Cere-
monies of the Moit Noble Order of the Garter, collected
and digetted into one body ;” and printed at London in fo-
In 1679, he refigned his office of Windfor

_ herald, and declined accepting that of garter king at arms,

on two vacancies which occurred.

His valuable library,
which he had been thirty-three years in collecting, and allo

. his cabinet, confifting of nine thoufand coins, and many cu-
_ rious antiquities, were deftroyed by a fire, which happened

in the chambers adjoining his own, in the Middle Temple;

but his MSS. and gold medals were preferved at Lambeth.

When the univerfity of Oxford had finifhed an edifice for a
mufeum, in 1683, Mr. Afhmole fent thither his Tradefean-

_ tian colleétion of rarities, with the additions which he had

madeto it; and he afterwards added to this donation, his books

_ and MSS. Thus commenced the «¢ Mufeum Afhmoleanum,”’

now fubfifting at Oxford. Mr. Athmole, having attained
the 76th year of hisage, died in 1692, and was buried in the
church of Great Lambeth. Some few of his numerous
MSS. chiefly on antiquities, have been publifhed fince his
death ; and alfo « A Diary of his Life,”’ written by himfelf.

. His rank in literature and philofophy may be eftimated by

the brief account that has now been given of his refearches
and purfuits. Whilft a fober judgment will hefitate in ad-
mitting the extravagant panegyric of the ‘* Biographia
Britannica,” which records him as ‘ one of the greateft
men in the laft century,’? he will be allowed to have poffeff-
ed, in a high degree, induftry, perfeverance, curiofity, and

ASI

exaéinefs; and « Anthony Wood,’” fays one of his bio-
graphers (fee Aikin’s Gen. Biog.), “ in his quaint lan-
guage, has perhaps not ill characterifed him, as—the greateit
virtuofo or curiofo that was ever known or read of, in Eng-
land, before his time.” Biog. Brit. : :

ASHMOT, in Geography, the principal harbour in Kile
Madame, which is dependant on Cape Breton. ;

ASHMOUNEIN, probably, fays Bruce (Trav. vol. i.
p- g1-), the ancient Latopolis, a large town of Egypt,
which gives name to the province. See AcHMOUNAIN.

ASHMUN-TANAH, atown of Egypt, ona canal, be-
tween the Nile and the lake of Tennis, twelve miles eaft of
Manfora, aud twenty fouth of Damietta. Lent

A-SHORE, in Nautical Language, a term fignifying
on the fhore, as oppofed to a-board. It alfo means
A-GROUND. j

ASH-PIT, is the lower part of any air-furnace, which
ferves to receive the afhes of the fuel as it is confumed, and
in general to fupply the air neceflary for the combuttion.
See Furnace.

ASHUELOT, or Asuwituer, in Geography, a fmall
river of America, having many branches, whole mott re-
mote fource is at the north end of the Sunapee mountains,
in New Hampfhire. It runs fouth-wetterly through part
of Chefhire county ; below Winchetter, its courle is welt
by north, and it difcharges itfelf into Conneéticut river at
Hinidale.

- ASHUR, in Ancient Geography and Hiffory, the fecond
fon of Shem, occupied at the difperfion the country called
after his name, and by the Greeks Affyria, at prefent Cur-
diftan, or the country of the Curds. Pezron fuppofes that
he was driven out of Shinaar by Nimrod, the grandfon of
Ham ; but however this be, it feems to have been Afhiurs
(Gen. x. rr.), and not Nimrod, who went out of Shinaar
into Affy-ia, and built Nineveh, and other cities ; and thus
Perizonius maintains, that the text ought to be underftood.
See Assyria.

ASH-Wepnespay, the firft day of Lent, fuppofed to
have been fo called from a cuftom in the church, of {prink-
ling afhes that day on the heads of penitents then admitted
to penance.

ASHWELL, Groreg, in Biography, an epifcopalian di-
vine, was born in London in 1612, and educated at Wadham
college, Oxford. He was rector of Hanwell in Oxfordihire
for thirty-five years, and diftinguifhed as a zealous advocate
for the doétrine and worfhip of the church of England, in
defence of which he wrote fevera! treatifes ; * Fides Apof-
tolica,”’ or “ A Difcourfe on the Authors and Authority
of the Apoftles’ Creed,” with « A double Appendix on
the Athanafian and Nicene Creeds,’”’ printed at Oxford, in
8vo. in 1653; “ Geltus Eucharifticus,” or ‘ The Gel-
tures to be ufed at the receiving of the Sacrament,’” Svo.
Oxford, 1663; © De Socino et Sociitanifmo ;” De Eccle-
fia Romana ;” 4to. Oxford, 1688; and an Englith tranfla-
tion of Pococke’s Latin tranflation of an Arabic work, in-
titled « Philofophus Autodidaétus,” or * The felf-taught
Philofopher, Hai Ebn Yokdan,” by 'Tophail. Biog. Brit.

ASIA, in Geography, one of the four grand divifions of
the earth, and the fecond in order, though the firft inhabit-
ed. It is feparated from Kurope by the Mediterranean, the
Archipelago, the Euxine, the Palus Meotides or ica of
Azxot, the Don, and the Dvina; from Africa by the Red
fea and the ifthmus of Suez. On the other fides, it is fur-
rounded by the Great South fea. It does not join to Ame-
rica. IJt§ principal parts are, Arabia, Afiatic Turkey,
Perfia, India, Tartary, Afiatic Ruffia, China, Japan, the

fia Kg kingdom

ASIA.

kingdom of Ava, that of Siam, the ifland of Ceylon, and the
Sunda iflands, whereof the chief are Sumatra, Borneo, Java,
Celebes, the Moluceas, the Philippines, the Maldives.
Afia, according to Mr. Pinkerton, ‘extends in length, from
the Hellefpont to what is called the Eait cape; that is
from about the twenty-fixth degree of longitude, eaft from
London, into the other hemifphere to near 190 degrees of
ealt longitude, or 170 degrees weit from London; being
no lefs than 164 degrees, or (taking the degree at a medial
latitude) more than 6500 geographical miles. From the
fouthers cape of Malacca, to the Severovoftot{hnoi-nofs the
north-caftern cape, now called the cape of Taimura, which
braves the ice of the Artic ocean, the breadth extends from
about the fecond degree of northern latitude, to about the
feventy-feverth, or neacly 4500 geographical miles. Tf, for
the fake of a rude and merely comparative calculation, one-
fixth part be added for the difference between the flatute
and geographical mile, the length of Afia in Britifh miles
would be about 7583, and the breadth 5250.—Under their
proper heads, will be found the names of the places it con-
tains, and fuch general accounts of them as the limits to
which we are confined on this fubject will allow.

For afcertaining the real length of the continent of Afia,
there was no guide as to its fouthern and ealtern part, even
beyond the Ganges, except from the accounts that were
obtained from the time that the navigations began in the fix-
teenth century, and. their difagreements with the arbitrary
alterations that had been made. A long period elapfed before
it was poflible to fettle the pofition of that portion of Afia,
fill fufceptible of much correction, notwithitanding the
ebfervations of the Jefuits at Pekin, the moft accurate of
any extant. We fhall content ourfelves then with relating
the refult of the lateft obfervations of the academy of
feiences at St. Peterfburg, of the latitude and longitude of
the following places in the north of Afia:

Long. from — fiom Green-
Lat. | afer g

Ferro- wich.
Bolcheretik, - =) 52° eel yg? mgt) 16M a8

Harbour of St. 1
ive and Paul, CHM iy set) 158.130
oa caer t 66170" "200100. 182 25
mity of Siberia, J

Unalafhka, by the general map of Ruffia, ltes in 58° of
latitude from Ferro, 223° of longitude; and from Green-
wich, 205° 25’. The fame place, according to the chart of
Krenitzin and Levathef, is in 53° 30° latitude, longitude
from Ferro 205° 30’, from Greenwich 187° 55’; the longi-
tude from Ferro to Greenwich being computed at 17° 34’
45".

If the ancients fad fo flight a knowledge of the fouthern
countries of Afia on the other itde the Ganges, we ought
not to be furprifed if what they have been able to hand
down to us concerning the hyperborean regions, coaits,
and feas, or the northern extremities, fhould be confiderably
more fo; and it muit have been rherely by chance that
Pliny obtained fome flight knowledge of cape Tabin and
of the iiland Tazzata; as we have learnt a few uncertain
notices ahout thofe valt lakes towards the weft of America,
from fayages taken prifoners, and others, and from vague
report, with which we are obliged to be fatished for want of
better information. It was impoffible to acquire any more
authentic exeept by the means of the Ruffians, with'whom, till
the feventeenth century, we were fcarcely any more ac-
quaiuted than with the favage inmates of thofe northern
coafts. Nay, had it not been for the Ruffian, Anika
Stroganof, who formed {peculations for profiting by the
Jucrative commerce which the Samoyedes carried on at

Mofco, in -peltries brought from countries beyond them,
Siberia, properly fo called, would have remained a great
while longer unknown to the Ruffians themfelves. Thus,
as a thirft for riches had been the chief motive that excited
the Spaniards to the difcovery of America, and attracted
the attention of other maritime nations to that quarter, fs
the fame greedinefs of gain occafioned the difcovery and
conqueft of northern Afia, a country till then unknown to
the Europeans. The firft foundation of this conqueft was
laid by the celebrated Yermak Timofeiyef, at the head of a
band of adventurers, lefs civilized, though not fo inhuman,
as the conquerors of America. By the acceflion of this
vait territory, now known by the name of Siberia, the
Ruffians have acquired an extent of empire, never before
attained by any other people. (Tooke’s View -of the
Ruffian Empire, vol. i. p. 303.) It was however owing to
Anika Stroganof and his comrades, that this conqueft was
undertaken, who alfo fhewed the way to fubjugate, by de-
grees, farther diftant nations. The Ruffians themielves
became known to the Europeans, through the voyages un~
dertaken by the latter. The Englith and Dutch obtained
fome intimation of them whi in queft of a north-eaft
paflage; they learnt of the Samoyedes that the hitle fea
froze over in winter, but the great fea was never frozen;
that they went thither to fith between the mouths of the
Piafida and the Yenifey; that oppofite to the eaft and
north point of Nova Zemla, was another, making a great
fallant angle, from which the coaft afterwards declined
towards the eaft and fouth-eait, nearly to the hot countries.
Here we fee to what a {mall matter was confined the know-
ledge at that time obtained of the fouthern part of Affa,
and the only materials from which they could lay down
their charts. They were puzzled how to reconcile thefe
flatements, and the more, as the coaft between the Piafida
and the ea{ternmoft point of its cape was unknown to them.
Some knowledge of it by land had indeed been obtained ;
and even the coatts of the fea to the weftward of it as far as
its mouth, are filled with fimovies, or winter-huts, confe-‘

quently peopled; but thofe fituate beyond that little river -

were fo indiitinctly known to them, that they thought it
beit to mark them down in an indeterminate manner,

They reafoned thus: cape Tabin mutt form a finis terra,
the extremity of Afia towards the north. There is a fea
that wafhes ail thofe fhores; and we are affured there is
another that divides Afia from America: thefe two feas
therefore muit join, and at that place form an angle, which
will prove to be this ‘abin; having an ifland to the weit-
ward which they aid down as lying at the mouth of a
river. This notion, notwithftanding the numerous difco-
veries that might have deftroyed it, has always fubfifted,
under one form or another, to the very times in which we
live. Some, building on the report of the Samoyedes,
marked the coaft from the cape to the Taimura, as de-
clining gradually towards the fouth-caft. Others, will-
ing to reconcile one with the ether, laid down this declen-
fion only to the Lena, at its mouth, having got intelligence
of fome iflands there; accordingly they carried the coaft
north-eaflwards, for the fake of prefervitg this Tabin. On
learning that the Ruffians and others regarded Svetoi-nofs
as the moft advanced promontory, they gave its name, or
Promontorium Sacrum, to the pretended Tabin. After-
wards, being informed that this Svetoi-nols lay to the ealt of
the Lena, they marked it accordingly, and hence were more
firmly perfuaded, that the ifles at the mouth of that river
were thofe of Tazzata; while, on the other hand, they per-
fifted in the idea of a cape finis terre, which they left fub-
fitting under the names of ‘Tabin (which we fhall continue

to

Se. ae

y

ASTA.

“to ufe while fpeaking of it in this fenfe), Svetoi-nofs, Caput
Sacrum, Tfhukchitnofs, Thhalakfkoi-nols, &c.
+ Strahlemberg notices this cape in a ftriking manner ;
‘and the navigators of the feventeenth century, likewife, even
‘fo early as Linfchotten and his contemporaries, were per-
fuaded that it was no other than that prominent angle
‘towards the Taimura; indeed it is the moit advanced cape
of all that coaft, lying beyond the 774° or in 78’, and there-
fore the finis terre towards the north. But Strahlemberg at
~the fame time points out the ifle of ‘Tazzata, which he proves
to be Novaya Zemla, fince the ancient Scythians and their
~fucceffors began with the northern nations of Europe, by
»the river Taas, whence they denominate the great gulf to
which we’ give the same of Oby, the gulf of Taas, and from
which Novaya Zemla, fituate over againit it, was called
azzata. This is io natural, and can be the lefs doubted
of, as that ifland has always been reputed as lying to the
weft of cape Tabin, near the mouth of ariver. Whence
Strahlemberg-concludes, that thofe geographers who mark
it more to the ealt are greatly miltaken, ¢* hue ufpiam Taz-
gata infula a Plinio ponitur.”’
After the conquelt of Siberia, fome Ruffians fell upon
the fame refleGions as Anika Stroganof and his companions

had doie concerning the wealth that might be drawn from -

thefe oriental parts by the articles of peltry, on going
direst to obtain them, either by the chace or by commerce ;
feyeral companies were accordingly formed of people who
awere then, and are ftill known by the name of Promytch-
~Jenniye.
They confidered that the method of making‘the greateft
\ profit poilible would be by going to fea coaitwile, and traf-
ficking with thefe unknown tribes, who, being ignorant of
the value of their peltries,; would give them for a low
price. In thisthey were not deceived: and, notwithftand-
ing the great rik they ran, as their vefiels were fmall aad
crazy ; a3 they were no Jefs uafkilful in the art of conftrucét-
ing than in managing them; as in not venturing far from
fhore, they were in jeopardy every moment ef foundering
amon@ the ice; yet the thirit of lucre was too itrong to
prevent them from being deterred from their projects; and
the government was well fatisfied with them, as they fur-
nifhed it with the means of rendezing all thefe people tri-
butary.

Titey began their courfes from Yakutik about the year
1636: proceediag in this manner ftep by ftep, they every
year alinoft difcovered fome new river, fome new cape, the
Yena, the Indigirka, the Alufea, the Kovyma. No fooner
were they come to the lait of thefe rivers, than their
curiofity was excited to know ghat other itreams might
be beyond it, in the two-fold view of rendeving the nations
bordering on them tributary to the empire, and of profe-
cuting the expected capture of fables for their own emolu-
ment. The rit voyage from the river Kovyma was under-
taken in 1646, by a free company of thefe Piromyfchleni,
under the conduct of a certaia Lfaac Ignatief, a native of
Mefen. Tney found the fea full of ice; between the ice,
however, and the main land, was an open paiflage, along
which they proceeded twice 24 hours; when, coming to
au ialet between the rocks and the fhore, they raa into it.
Thefe 48 hours make feven degrees and a half, and the bay
they catered lies in 72 deg. Here they met with people
of the Tihuktthi nation, with whom they began to trade
in the manner cuftomary with uncivilized people ; {preading
their commodities on the fhore, of which the Tihuktthi
tock what they pleafed, and depofited in their place walrufs-
teeth, and articles made of that fsecies of ivory. None
of the mariners would venture on fhove te the Thhuktihi,

particularly as they had nobody on beard who could ferve
as eure Contenting themfelves, therefore, with hav-
ing made this firft difcovery, they returned to the river Ko-
vyma.

The accounts brought home by thefe people of the wal-
rufs-teeth, induced fome other Promyfchleni fome years
afterwards to undertake a fecond voyage. 'To this end
Fedot Alexeyef, a native of Kolmogor, affociated him-
felf with a Mofco merchant of the Goltinna fora, a vaffal
of Alexey Uffof, and was immediately confidered as the
chief of the enterprife. He thought it, however, expedient
to afk of the commandant 2t Kovyma, one of his kozaks,
to look after the concerns of the crown during the voyage,
who appointed one Simeon Ivanof fin Defchnef, to attend
him, with proper inftructions. Four kotf{ches, a fpecies
of barks, failed at the fame time in June 1647, from the
river Kovyma. Some loofe information having been obtained
of a river Anadir, or, as it was’ then pronounced, Anandir,
the borders of which were inhabited by nuterous tribes
of ftrange people, it was calculated that this river muift
fall into the Frozen ocean ; one of the objects, therefore,
of the prefent voyage was to difcover its mouth. How-
ever, in this as well as ail the reft, they completely failed ;
the fea, even in fummer, being too full of ice to permit
them a free navigation.

Neverthelefs, the paffion for difcoveries for" augmenting
the revenues of the crown, and the wealth cf private in-
dividuals, was fo great, that no thoughts were entertained
of giving them up. Indeed the number of adventurers
feemed rather to increafe, both among the Kozaks and the
Promyfehlent, fo that the following year feven kotfches
were fitted out in the fame defign; what became of four
of thefe veffels the accounts received make no mention? Of
the three others, Simeon Defhnef, and Gerafin Ankudinof,
were commanders on the part of the Kozaks, and Fedot
Alexeief, the principal of the Promyfchleni. Previous to
their departure, a quarrel broke out between the two for-
mer, arifing from the jealoufy of Dethaef, that Ankudinof
fhould {hare in the honouras well as in the profits to accrue
from the future difcoveries. The crew of each veffel
might confiit of about thirty perfons ; at lealt that was the
number of Ankudinot’s people.

Tt is to be lamented that the accounts of Defhnef, the
original whereof Mr. Miiller was lucky enough to find
among the archives of Yakutik, fhould fay fo little, and.
eyen nothing at all conceraing the fate of four of thofe
kotfches ;, nothing of what happened to him and his com-
paaions on board the other three till they came to the
Great Cape; nothing about the ice, beeaufe, doubtlefs,
fays Mr. Miiller, there was none; and, as Defhoef remarks
in another place, the fea is not every year navigable.

The relation begins at this cape. His words are: « This
cape is entirely different from that which projects near the
river Tihukottha, wettward from the Kovyma. It is fituate
between the north and-north-eaft, forming a femicircle to-
wards the Anadyr. On the Ruffian, or weftera fide, the
Tihuktthy have raifed by the fide of a river, a number of
whalebones in the form of a tower_(according to other
reports they are the tuthes of the walrufs). Oppofite to
the promontory (it is not mentioned on which fide) are two
iflands, whereon were feen people of the nation of Tfhukt-
fhy, dulinguifhed by ‘wearing pieces of the teeth of the
walruis inferted in their upper lip. It is poffible, with a
very good wind, to ftretch from the promontory.as far as
the river Anadyr in three times 24 hours; and it would
require no longer time to do it by land, as the Anadyr
difcharges itfelf into a bay.”? On this promontory it was

* that

ArS 1A.

othat ~Auikudinof’s kotfch perithed; the people, however,
were faved, and put on board the other two kotfches.

Shortly afterwards thefe were feparated, and never again -

got fight of each other. *Dethnef, after being driven about
by wind and weather till October, fuffered thipwreck, as
far as can be colleéted from circumitances, confiderably to
the fouth of the river Anadyr, fomewhere about the river

Olutora. What became of Fedot Alexeief and his thip’s
company, we {hall mention prefently.

Dethnef, ‘with his followers, five and twenty-in number,
now fet out in fearch of the Anadyr, which they did not
difcover till after they had wandered about, for want of a
guide, the tedious {pace of ten weeks. The region where
they came up to the Anadyr was not far from its mouth,
a country entirely void of-inhabitants, and deftitute of
foreits.; circumftances that naturally threw them into the
extremity of diftrefs, as perceiving no means of obtaining
fuftenance. Wild animals were not to be expected, as they
ufually haunt the woods; andthey had no implements for
fithing. In this perplexity, twelve of the company went up
the courfe of the river; but after a devious journey of
twenty days, full finding no traces of menkind, they turaed
about to regain the itation where Dethnef and the reit were
waiting for them ; which, however, on account of hunger
and fatigue, only a few of them reached.

After undergoing incredible hardfhips, Dethnef, in the
fummer of 1649, with the fmall remains of his people,
went up the Anadyr by water, till he came to a people,
called Anauli ; and there he founded the Anadyrikoi oftrog,
which was followed by ether buildings. _Dethnef obferved
a great fand-bank lying at the mouth of the Anadyr, ad-
vancing on the northern fide far into the fea, the refort

~-of a vait number of morthes and other amphibiovs animals.
This circumftance was too flattering to be neglected. Ac-
cordingly, he began to fell timber, in 1653, for the con-
ftruction of a kotiche, to be employed ia conveying the
tribute to Yakutik by fea; but was obliged to defiit from
his purpofe, from the want of other materials, and becaufe
he learnt that the fea about Tfhukotikoi-nofs was nct every
year equally free from ice.

In 1654, he made anoth>r expedition to the korga, or
fand-bank, for the purpoie of colleéting morfhe-teeth. He
now affociated with him a Kozak named Yuiko Seliverftof,
who had accompanied Mikhaila Stadikin on his voyage
of difcovery in the Frozen Ocean, and was fent from Ya-
kutfk to collect thefe teeth for the benefit of the crown.
In his initruétions, mention is made of a river Shendon,
falling into the bay at Penfhink, as well as of the Anadyr;
and he was ordered to levy a tribute on the inhabitants
dwelling about both thefs rivers ; as what Defhnet had been
doing was not as yet known at Yakutfk. Onthis occafion
new difcontents arofe.’ ‘Seliveritof arrogated to himfelf the
difcovery of the korga, as having failed to that place
with Stadukin, in 1649. Defhnef however proved that he
had not even reached the great Tihuktthi-nofs, which he
affirmed to be formed of nothing but bare rocks, as was
but too well known to him, fince Ankudinof’s veffel had
been wrecked uponthem. He farther alleged, that this
was by no means the firft promontory that appeared under
the appellation of Svetoi-nofs. The two iflands lying
oppofite the Tfhuktfhi-nofs, belonging to the tocth-lipped

eople before mentioned, being the peculiar marks of it.
That Defhnef alone, and neither Stadukin nor Seliveritof,.
had feen thefe people: and concluded by infifting that the
korga at the mouth of the Anadyr was at a great diftance
from them.

Defhnef, while furveying the fea-coaft, learnt of the

Keriacs the fate’of/ the two Ankudinofs Fedot, and Gera-
fim, as well as of Fedot Alexeief.

In 1659, other expeditions were again undertaken; but,
from the foregoing impediments, though they fet fail in
July, they fuffered fo much damage from the floating ice
between the eaftern mouths of the Lena and Svetoi-nofs,
that they were deterred from fuch voyages for a long time;
and it was not till the reign of Peter the Great that thefe
enterprifes were refumed. It is well known that his com-
prehenfive mind conceived only vaft ideas and grand pre-
jects; that being principally defirous to eftablifh an exten-
jive comme*ce by means of navigation, he began by open-
ing to Limielf the navigation of the Baltic, by the founda-
tion of St. Peterfburg; Archangel already exifted on the
fhore of the White Sea; he thought himfelf fecure in the
navigat 01 of the Euxine, by the pofleffion of Azof, and
that of the Cafpian by Aitrakhan, which he fucceeded in
bringing to effect. He now conceived that it might not be
impoffible for him to participate in the lucrative commerce
of the Indies, of Japan, ot China, and of America, by
eftablifhing factories at the extremity of Afia, in the prox-
nity of thofe countries. The Dutch Eaft India company
declining to attempt the difcovery of the north-caft paflage,
the tzar adopted the proje@, as well as that of fubjeG@ing
the countries adjacent to the objets of his commerce, be-
ginning by Kamtthatka, of which fome ob{cure information
had been obtained.

Thither, in 1696, he fent Vladimir Atlaffof, ftationed as
commandant of the Kozaks at Anadyrfkoi-oftrog, a fettle-
ment that had been retained ever fince its firit ereétion by
Dethnef, as before related, who was naturally fuppofed to
have acquired an extenfive knowledge of all the neighbour-
ing countries. He accordingly difpatched fixteen icaks
of Yakutflk, to render the Koriaks on the river Opuka tri-
butary ; Morofko, their chief, acquitted himfelf well of his
commiffion, and even took a Kamtfhadale oftrog. Atlaffof,
profiting by this advantage, put himfelf at the head of fixty
Kozaks, and as many Yukagirs, and led them to the river
Kamtfhatka, and the furrounding diftris. In his juridical
declaration, he relates, among other things, before he con-
tinues the ‘recital of his progrefs to Kamtfhatka; that,
between the Kovyma and Anadyr is a double cape, wiich
fome have called Shalatfkoi cape and Anadyrikoi cape. Of
the latter he affirms, that: it can never be doubled in veffels
of the ordinary contruction, becaufe on the weftern or north=
ern fide are always vaft pieces of floating ice (ftationary
and folid in winter) ; and that the other fide of the fea of the
Anadyrfkoi cape is at all times free from ice. That, though
he himfelf\wvas not perfonally at the height of thefe capes,
yet he learnt from the Tfhuktthi, who dwelt about the mouth
of the Anadyr, that over againft this cape is a large ifland,
inhabited by people who come to them in winter over the
ice, and bring them bad fables.

To avoid prolixity, we omit the remainder of his ae-
count, only obferving, that Mr. Miiller feems rather to de-
part from his ufual candour, in regard to this narrative,
which he acknowledges to be really Atlaffof’s, but fuggeits
that it does not exactly tally with a letter of his in 1700,
nor with his juridical depofition in 1701. In order to have
given validity to his doubts, he fhould have communicated
thefe pieces among the great number with which he has en-
riched his valuable colleétion. This he has not done. And
fince the tzar, who was an excellent judge of mankind, was
fo well fatisfied with him, that he made him colonel of the
Kozaks at Yakutfk, this circumftance ought to haye its
proper weight with us.

Parties were repeatedly fent againft the Thhukthhis, with-

out

: ASIA.

out being able to fubdue them. In rytr, the Yakuttk-
Kozak Peter Ilin fin Popof, the promythlenik Yegor Vaffilief
fin Toldia, and the Hew baptized Ivan Vaffilief fin ‘Tereth-
kin, made a vigorous attempt to compel thofe who dwell on
the other fide of the bay, and of the cape or nofs, to pay
the tribute ; which they as ftrenuoufly Hefeted They, how-
ever, obtained from them a great number of particulars
concerning the fituation of the furrounding countries ; and,
among others, that oppolite, whether to the Kovyma or to
the Anadyr they could not fufficiently comprehend, is fituate
af{pacious ifland, to which the Tihuktthi gave-the name of
the great land, the inhabitants whereof pierce their cheeks,
and pafs large pieces of teeth through the orifice; not
having the fame language with the 'Tfhuktthi, who have
been at war with them from’ time immemorial. Popof faw
ten of them, who were prifoners to the TYfhuktfhi; and he
remarked that thefe pieces were thofe of the walrufs. He
learnt that in fummer they pafs over to this ifland in baidars
in one day, and in winter likewife in one day in fledges on
the ice.

On the promontory or land of this cape no other ani-
mals than wolves and foxes are feen, fince there are no fo-
relts ; whereas on the other land are all forts of animals that
furnifh the finer forts of furs. The inhabitants keep nume-
rous herds of rein-deer. The country produces cedars, firs,
pines, larches, and other trees. Popof fuppoied that the
number of the Tfhuktfhi at the cape might amount to two
thoufand men, and that of the iflanders to triple that fum ;
that, from the Anadyrfkoi-oftrog they go by land to the
nofs, along the rock Matkol, which runs out from a great

ulf.

Fr At the time of which we are fpeaking, there being yet
no implements for navigation at Okhot{k, and the ufe of the
eompafs not being kuowa there till the year 1714, by the
exprefs command of the great tzar Peter [., the governor
prince Gagarin fupplied both thefe defe€s. Probably the
governor at firft imagined. that the purpofes of difcovery
might be effected without thefe helps ; for the frft order
relating to the difcovery of a paflage by fea to Kamtfhatka,
dated the 17th of February 1713, directed to the voivode
Yeltthin, contains not a word about the conftruction of vef-
fels, nor of people expert in the art of navigation: accord-
ingly, nothing farther appears than that the dyoranin Ivan
Sorokaumof, who was charged with the bufinefs at Yakut‘k,
after arriving with twelve Kozaks at Okhotfk in the autumn
of that year, committed a great many blunders, and was
brought back to Yakutfk in cuftody. It was now found
neceflary that the governor fhould immediately fend fome
able feamen and fhip-carpenters. By thefe, who arrived at
Yakutk the 23d of May 1714, and were, fent off to Ok-
hotfk the 3d of July, under the command of a Kozak named
Kofmas Sokolof, with about twenty Kozaks, the long-with-
ed-for difcovery was made.

One of the failors, by birth a Dutchman, a native of Hoorn;
(Strahlemberg calls hima Swedith corporal, who had formerly
been a fhip-carpenter ;, hut Bufch himfelf fays, that he had
ferved in various places many years asa failor, and at laft in the
Swedith cavalry, and fo came to be taken prifoner at Vyborg,
in the year 1706), named Henry Bufch, was flill: living at
Yakutik in 1736, when Mr. Miller made fome flay there ;
and, in anfwer to his inquiries, he learnt of him the following
particulars. After they were come to Okhotfk, the car-
penters built a veflel of the fame kind with the Ruffian
foddies, in which they ufed formerly to go from Archangel
to Mefen, Puftozero, and Nova Zemlia. Thefe labours oc-
cupied the whole of the year 1715. The veffel was very
stout and fubftantial. It was eight fathoms and a half in

length, and in breadth three fathoms. When loaded, it drew
three feet and a half of water. All things neceflary for the
yoyage being ready, the firlt expedition was undertaken in
June 1716. They coafted north-eaftwards, as far as the
region of the river Oka. It was intended to purfue the
fame courle farther; but a contrary wind drove the veflel,
as it were againit the will of the navigators, acrofs the fea
to Kamtfhatka. What they firft deferied, as they after-
wards were informed, was a promontory, ftarting northwards
from the mouth of the river Vigil. The coalt feemed fteep
and rocky, therefore they would not venture on fhove, deit:-
tute as they were of any pilot or guide. Proceeding, how-
ever, to keep the fea, a contrary wind arofe, which drove
the veflel back upon the Okhotfician fhore. The wind after-
wards coming fayourable, the navigators tacked about, and
came exactly back to the Tigil, where they now calt anchor.
Some of the people went on fhore in fearch of human beings,
but found only empty huts. The Mamtthadales had per-
ceived the veflel approaching, and had fled for fear into the
forefts and mountains. Our mariaers therefore again fet fail,
pafled the Tigil, and inthe fpace of a day reached the
itream Chariufofca, having two {mall iflands lying in its vi-
cinity. ‘The former, being the largeft, isat the diftance of
five verlts from the main land; the other, confilting only
of barren recks, a little farther. _ Leaving the Chariufofca,
they ttood out to fea the whole night, and the next morn-
ing found themfelves in with the land at the river Itfha.
Here they fent fome of the crew on fhore; who, finding
however neither people nor habitations, prefently returned.
Continuing to fail along the coatk, they came up with the
river Krutogorova, into which they would have run, but
miffed the inlet ; luckily, however, a bay opening to the
fouth of the river being found convenient, in it they dropped
their anchor. A detachment of them, while exploring the
country, met with a Kamtthadale girl picking up edible
roots im the fields. ‘She directed them to fome huts, where
juit at that time a party of Kozaks had put up for the pur-
pofe of collecting the tribute. Thefe, on being fent to,
came and ferved them as guides and interpreters. The veffel
was brought to the mouth of the river Kompakova, which
they found a good birth to moor in for the winter. Here
they had not been many days when a whale was thrown alhore
by the fea: in the body of the fith was flicking a
harpoon of European manufacture, marked with Ronan
letters. If I could have furmifed, continues Mr. Muller,
that the failor who related to me this fa@t, had” known of
the hke accident that happened to the fhipwrecked Dutch-
men on the coait of Korea, in 1653, ( Witfen, ed. 2. p. 45.
Voyage au Nord, tom. ix. p. 308.) I might have been led
to futpeét, that he perhaps was amuling me with a tale that
had no other foundation than what he borrowed from the
former. ‘This, however, was not the cafe. For he was a
completely illiterate man, could neither read nor write, and
feareely knew that there was fuclra place as Korea in the
world ; confequently the faét is only the more confirmed by
two examples. . The commander Sokolof, during the win-
ter, made a journey to Nifhnei Kamtthatfkoi oftrog, whence
he returned to the fhip in {pring, and at the beginning of
May 1717, put again to fea. The fea, however, was fo
full of ice, that on the fourth day from their departure they
were completely jammed in between fome fields of it, where
they were obliged to remain fixed upwards of fix weeks,
before they could proceed on the voyage. In. the mean
time they were in great want of provifions. Happily they
regained the Okhotfkian fhore, between the river Ola and
Tanifkoi oftrog, where they remained at anchor a few days ;
and about the middle of July returned to Okhotik. wie

- this

ASIA.

this time a navigation has heen uninterruptedly kept up be-
tween Okhotik and Kamtthatka.

While all this was tranfaG@ting, governor prince Gagarin,
in the year 1716, difpatched colonel Jacob Ageef fia Yelt-
fhin, tormerly voivode at Yakutfk, with a confiderable
party of officers and people, to the fame regions, with or-
ders to make diligent inquiries concerning Kanathhatka, and
chiefly fuch as related to the object in queftion. _Kofirefiky
mentions, that fhips from Japan came to the fixth of the
Kurilli ilands, Shokoki, for ores or minerals, which: they
carried back to their ifland. ‘This, however, feems to be
not quite correct, as differing widely from all the other ac-
counts, which fay, that the Japanefe (probably when
driven about by adverfe winds aad fiorms) ufed never to
preceed farther than Matmai. Nor had any fubfequent
information confirmed what he advances. This therefore
was one of the principal matters into which the colonel was
inftradted by the governor to inquire; he was likewife to
proceed from Tihukotfkoi-nofs to the oppofite iflands, and
thence to the main land. By his initructions alfo he was to

“gain accurate information about the iflands of Shantary ;
to attempt to fettle a regular traffic with the Japanefe, and
whatever elfe he could effect in confequence of his owa ob-
fervations : nething, however, of importance enfued from
it. The governor had giventhe colonel, a Swedith lieute-
nant named Ambiorn Molyn, who was to conftrné the
veflels proper for the fevera! enterprifes at Okhothk. This
man pretended that there was no timber to be found at
that place fit for the purpofe. (See alfo Strahlenberg, p. 17-)
Difputes arofe now between the colonel and the voivode of
Yakutk, Ivan Vaffilief fin Rakitin, which likewife proba-
bly threvr great impediments in the way of this expedition ;
aad the difgrace of prince Gagarin happening foon after, the
whole bulinefs came to nothing. The only benefit accruing
from it was a voyage fet on foot by Yeltthin, in the year
1718, to the Shantary iflands, and performed by the fin boy-
arfkoi Prokofey Philkeief. This perfon was ftill living
when Mr. Miller was at Yakutfk, and from whom he learnt
the following particulars of his voyage.

Philkeief was provided with able feamen, the better to
enfure fuccefs: when they were out at fea, thefe men de-
clared to him that they were refolved to vifit not only the
Shantary, but all the other iflands lying in thofe feas, as
far as the Kurilly; which done, they would winter on the
largeit of the Shantary iflands, which by way of eminence
is denominated Shantar. This not being agreeable to Phil-
keief, he caufed himfelf, with a couple of Kozaks, to be
put on fhore at the mouth of the river Tugur. The reft
accomplifhed their defign, paffed the winter on the ifle of
Shantar, and had a rich capture of fables. Having negli-
gently, however, left a fire they had been ufing, the flames
caught the trees, fo that the whole foreft of the ifland was
ina blaze, by which they alfo loft their fables. The next
fummer they returned to the continent, where, intending
to fifh along the coait between the Tugur and the Amoor,
the greater part of them were flain by the Giliaks. They
computed the ifle of Shantar to be from fouth to north
about twenty verfts, and three or four verfts in breadth,
without any mountain upon it. How then were thefe
iflands to be feen from the mouth of the river Ud? This
therefore feems to confirm Philteief’s affertion, that they
are fituate in the proximity of the Tugur, and that it re-
quires eight days to pafs from the Ud to the Tugur, in lod-
kas or {mall craft. If we admit the fituation of the coats
to be as they appear upon the maps, namely, as ftretching
direGily fouth from Okhotik to the Amoor, then the diffi-
culty is much increafed; becaufe in that cafe there muit be

feveral _promontorie> projeét'ng fo far as to conceal thefe
iflands from the view. But various reafons may be found
for believing that the coalt frem Okhotfk to the river Ud
runs fouth-weftwards, and from the Ud to the Amoor
fouth-aitwards. _ If fo, as it is highly probable it will here-
after be found, thea the Shantarian iflands may lie in fuch
a manner as to follow one another in fucceffion northwards,
from the river Tugur. ‘T'here may be more of them than,
we imagine, fince the number of them is by no meansafcer-
tained. In that cafe, the neareit may unqueitionably be dif-
cerned from the river Ud. ;

In 1718, a tribe of Tihukthhis came voluntarily to fur-
render themfelves at the Anadirikoi oftrog, declaring that
they inhabited the promontory between the Anadyr and
the Kovyma; that they were in number about 3500 men 5
that this promontory was covered with rocks aad moun-
tains, but that the flat country confifted of turfland; that
oppolite to the cape was feen an ifle of moderate dimenfions,
the inhabitants whereof bore a refemblance to the Tfhukt-
fhis, but {poke a different language; that from the point
they could go over to the ifle im halfa day ; that beyond it
was a large continent, which might be feen from the ifland
in fair weather: that its inhahitants likewife refembled the
Tihuktfhis, had a different dialeét, numerous forefts, &c¢.
(giving an exa& defeription of the great ifland mentioned
above); that with their batdars, or boats, by coafting the
promontory, they could make the voyage from the bottom

of the bay of Anadyr, to the extreme point of the promon-

tory, in three weeks, and often in lefs tame. .

Peterthe Great, defirous of obtaining a more aecurate
knowledge of thefe parts and paflages; and, unable to in-
duce the Dutch Eait India Company to take up the matter,
refolved himfelf to profecute the defign with vigour. Ac-
cordingly, in 1727, he fent two geodelifts, or geometers, to
Kamtfhatke. Of what they executed or difcovered, nothing,
ever came to the ears of the public. Itis only known, that
on their return, the tzar gave them a very gracious recep-
tion ; whence it may be prefumed, that they acquitted them-
felves of their truft to his fatisfaction. ,

In fhort, the tzar being refolved to fatisfy his curiofity,,
by caufing thefe latitudes to be explored, and, above all, to
be certified whether Afia was contiguous to America on
the north-eaftern fide, towards Tfhuktthi-nofs, fince on the
north fide it undoubtedly was not; he made choice of
Vitus Beering, an expert Danifh mariner, for that purpofe,
to whom he joined lieutenants Spangberg and Tihinkof,
Peter had this bufinefs fo much at heart, that, though con-
fined to his bed by the difeafe that put an end to his life,
he converfed with Beering, and even drew up with his own
hand a fet of inftructions for his guidance, which pa
was delivered to him five days after the demife of that great
monarch.

He fet fail the rath of July 1728, from the river of
Kamtfhatka, and fteered north-eaftwards, following the land
fo as feldom to lofe fight of it.
fo accurate asto be ftill the beft extant.

The 8th of Auguft, being in lat. 64° 30’, a baidar, hay-
ing eight men on board, came up to his veffel. Thefe prev-
ed to be Tfhuktthi, who told him that the coaft was cover-
ed with the dwellings of their people, aud gave him to un-
derftand, that not far off the land trended towards the weit ;
they alfo pointed out an ifle at no pe diftance, which
Beering came up with on the roth of Auguft, and gave it
the name of Saint Lawrence.

On the rth of the fame month, in 67° 18’, lat. perceiv-
ing that, asthe ‘Tfhuktfhi had faid, the coaft bent towards
the weft, and no longer to the north, it is faid that he orev.

2 is

Of this he drew a chart, _

“=

AS

this falfe confequence, that he had reached the extremity
of the north-eaft of Afia; that the coalt thenceforward
taking a weltern direction, ,it was impoflible there could be
a junction of Afia with America; and that he had ful-
filled his commiffion. Mr. Miller adds, that he was mif-
taken, fince he was only then at Serdzekamen, whence the
coalt indeed turns to the weit, forming a large gulf; but
that it afterwards returns to the north and north-eatt, as far
as the great ‘I'fhukthhi-nofs. On his paffage back, the 20th
of Augutt, forty Tfhuktthi approached his fhip in four bai-
dars, and informed him, that their countrymen frequently
went to the Kovyma by land, with merchandifes, but never
by water.

Afanaly Sheftakof, colonel of the Yakutikoi Kozaks,
having made feveral propofals to the fenate, to render the
obitinate Tihuktihi tributary, it will be neéceflary to fay
fomething of his expedition, as being of fome conlequence
to the hiltory of navigation. Sheitakof was refolved to
reduce not only the Tihuktthi, but likewife the Koriaks,
who dwell on the Siberian coat of the Penthin{kian fea,
and likewife inhabit both fhores of the northera part of
Kamtfhatka, and were frequently in a ftate of rebellion, to
obedience. He purpofed to vilit the country lymg oppofite
to Tfhukotfkoi-nofs, and fubject the inhabitants to the Ruf.
fian authority. Jt was part of his plan likewife to make an
attempt to difcover the pretended land in the Frozen ocean ;
and, laftly, before his return, to-explore the Shantarian and
Korilly iflands. The eloquence, with which he accom-
panied the deliyery of his projeét, gained him univerfal ap-
probation, and high and low became intereited in the fuc-
cefs of his enterprife, all conceiving it extremely probable
that great public benefit might accrue from it. Accordingly
he was appointed commander of a particular expedition.
The admiralty of St. Peterfburg gave him a pilot, named
Jacob Hens, with an affiltant, Ivan Fedorof,a geodelift, Mi-
chael Gyofdef, a mineralogift, named Herdehol, and ten
failors. At Ekatarinenburg, he was fupjtied with field-
pieces and mortars, with all proper appurtenances. At To-
bolfk, a captain of the Siberian regiment of dragoons,
Dmitri Pavluzki, was ordered to join him, with four hun-
dred Kozaks, under their united command ; and they were
farther empowered to increafe their ftrength from all the
garrifons, oftrogs, and fimovies, in the territory of Yakutik,
wherever they fhould come, at their diferetion,

Thefe preparatives being made, Sheftakof fet out from
St. Peterfburg for Siberia in the month of June 1727. At
‘Tobolflc he tarried till the 28th of November, paffled the
winter in the upper regions of the Lena, and reached Yak-
utfk in the fummer of 1728. Here a violent quarrel arofe
between Sheftakof and Pavluzki, which probably occafioned
them to part, though they profecuted their feveral purpofes

. to the fame end. Sheftakof, in 1729, repaired to Okhotik,
and there took to his ufe the veffels with which captain
Beering had lately returned from Kamtfhatka. Having dif-
patched his kinfman, the fin boyarfkoi Ivan Sheftakof, on
the firit of September, in one of them, the Gabriel, to go to
the river Ud andthence to Kamtthatka, for the purpofe of
examining and deferibing all the iflands he might meet with
on that voyage ; he failed in the other veflel, the Fortuna,
for Tavifkoi oitrog, but had the misfortune to fuffer fhip-
wreck, and to fee the greater part of his people perifh in
the billows, with great difficulty faving himfelf and four
other perfons from fharing their fate. The 30th of Sep-
tember, he fent from Tavifkoi oftrog a kozak, Ivan Ofta-
fief, in company with an elder of the Koriaks, forwards
along the coaft, with orders to proceed to the river Pen-
ae sae by kind words and fair promifes, to perfuade the

On. LLL, ‘

1 A.

refractory Koriaks dwelling in that traét, to fubmit to the
Ruffian government. He hismfelf followed, at the coim-
mencement of December, with the rett of his men, took up
Oftafief by the way, and arrived withm two days journey
from the benfhina, where he fell in with a prodigious hoft of
Tfhuktfhi on their march to make war upon the Koriaks.
Though the number of Sheftakof’s followers, Ruffians,
Okhotikian Tungufes, Lamutes and Koriaks, all together
confifted of not more than 150 men, yet he did not hefitate
to rif a battle with the Tfhutkthi, This, however, had
an unfortunate ifflue: Sheftakof was iftzuck by an arrow
from the enemy, which deprived him of life, and thofe who
efcaped falling with him, were entirely put to flight. This
happened the 14th of March 1730, near the itream Ye-
gatth, which falls into the Penfhinflian gulf between the
rivers Paren and Penfhina,

Three days prior to this difaftrous event, Sheftakof had
fent an order to Tavifkoi oftrog, direéting the Kozak,
Trypho Krupihef, to proceed in one of the veffels to Bol
fheretzkoi ojtrog, from thence doubling the fouthern point
of Kamtfhatka, to fail on towards Nithnei Kamtthatfkoi
oitrog, to continue his voyage in the fame fhip to the river
Anadyr, and invite the inhabitants of the vait tra@ of
country lying oppbliite, to pay tribute to Ruffia. In this
difpatch he recommended Krupifhef to take with him the
geodetift, Gvofdef, in cafe he were inclined ta go, and to
treat him with all pofhtble kindnefs. Concerning what came
of it, no accounts are extant. Only thus much is known,
obferves Mr. Muiler, that the geodefift, Gvofdef, was aétu-
ally, in the year 1730, between the 65th and 66th degrees
of latitude, at a fhort diftance from the country of the
Tfhuktfhi, on an unknown hore, fituate over againtt the faid
country; that he even found people there, with whom, how-
ever, he was unable to converfe for want of jan interpreters

During thefe tranfactions, the fin boyarfkoi Ivan Shef-
takof, was failing on board the Gabriel to Kamtfhatka, and,
on the 19th of Septeniber 1729, arrived at Bolfheretzkoi.
For, though his initructions were to proceed firft to the river
Ud, he was prevented from doing fo by violent adverfe
ftorms. The following fummer, however, he made the
vevege to the Ud, touched at Udikoi oftrog, where he found
people who had been fent thither by colonel Sheftakof, and
had built a veffel; but that not being fit for his purpofe,
he returned to Kamtfhatka, having feen both on his paf-
fage outwards, and on his way back, feveral iflands, and
at laft made again the port of Okhotfk,

While Sheitakof was on his paffage back to Okhotik,
Jacob Hens, the pilot, received a difpatch from captain
Pavluzki, who had come dire@tly from Yakutfk, by the come
mon inland road, to Nifhney Koyymfkoi Simovie, or oftrog,
informing him that he had heard, by way of Anadyrikoi
oftrog, of the death of the Kozak, colonel Sheftakof; but
that this would caufe no impediment to the progrefs of the
expedition : at the fame time ordering the pilot Hens to £0,
with one of the yeffels which captain Beering hed left at
Okhotik, round by Kamtthatka to Anadirfk, whither like-
wife captain, Pavluzki would proceed without delay. In
purfuance of this order, Hens went on board the Gabriel,
and failed for Kamtfhatka. On the 20th of July 1731,
he arrived at the mouth of the river Kamtfhatka, intending
to purfue his voyage to the Anadyr, when a report was
brought to him, that the fame daya rebellious crew of
Kamtfhadales were come to Nifhney Kamtfhatkoi oftrog,
where, after murdering moft of the Ruffians, they had fet
fire to the dwelling of the inhabitants. ‘The few remain
ing Ruffians took refuge on board the veffel, and Hens fent
a party of his people on fhore to reduce the Kamtfhadales

to

ASIA.

to obedience ; in which they fucceeded ; but the event effec-
tually ftopped the navigation of the river Anadyr,

In the mean time, captain Pavluzky had arrived, the 3d
of September 1730) at Anadyrfkoi oftrog. From that place
in the enfuing fummer, he marched on an expedition againit

-the refraGtory Tihuktthi. Payluzky opened his campaign
the 12th of March 1731, his force confiiting of 215 Ruf-
fians, 160 Koriaks, and 60 Yukagirs. He took the road
acrofs the fources of the rivers Uboina, Bela, and Ticherna,
which fall into the Anadyr, advancing dire@tly north towards
the Frozen ocean, and leaving the head of the Anadyr to
the lefts Of the other rivers which he croffed, nothing is
known, as there was nobody to inform him of them, or tell
their names. After a courfe of two months, in which they
could not proceed above ten verfts a day, and that only by
refting at times, Payluzky came to the I'rozen ocean, at a
place where a confiderable river difembogues into it, but the
name of which he could not learn. He now proceeded four-

teen days eaitward along the coaft, moftly over the ice,
without obferving any mouths of rivers, as they were often-
times obliged to keep out on the ice at a diftance from land.
At length they perceived a great troop of Tfhutthi ad-
vancing towards them, apparently intending to come to an
engagement with them. Pavluzky, by an interpreter, fum-
moned them to furrender to Ruffia; which, on their per-
emptorily refufing to obey, he immediately attacked them,
and had the good fortune to give them a total defeat. This
happened on the 7th of June.

After refting one week, Pavluzky continued his march,
and at the latter end of June came to two rivers that dif-
charge themfelves into the Frozen ocean, at the diftance of
a day’s journey afunder. On the bank of the latter of thefe
rivers, on the 30th of June, a fecond battle was fought,
which terminated as happily as the former.

They now lay ftill for three days, then proceeded to
Tthukotikoi-nofs, refolving to go right acrofs it to the Ana-
dyrikian fea, when a third time they faw advancing towards
‘them a numerous army of Tfhuktthi, collected together from
both coafts. Here on the fourteenth of July was fought the
third battle, in which the flaughter on the enemy’s fide
was greater than the advantage on that of the Ruffians; as,
notwithftanding their defeat, the Tfhuktfhi would hearken
to no terms of fubmiffion or tribute. Among the fpoil
were found many articles that had belonged to the Kozak,
colonel] Sheftakof, and were loft in the engagement that hap-
pened near the ftream Yegatfh. That affair therefore was
thus amply revenged ; efpecially as in all the three battles,
not more than three Ruffians, one Yukagir, and five Koriaks,
were left on the field. It was affirmed, that among the
killed of the enemy in the Jaft encounter, one was found
who had a hole in the upper lip on each fide of the mouth,
tn which pieces of the walrufs tooth were inferted.

Pavluzky now marched triumphantly acrofs Tfhukotfkoi-
nofs, in which he had to climb over the fummits of huge
mountains, and at the end of ten days happily reached the
other coaft. Here he feat off fome of his people by water
in baidars ; but remained himfelf with the greater part of
his followers on fhore, and kept along the coat, which there
ftretches fouth-ealtward, fo that every evening he received
reports from the baidars. On the feventh day they came
up to the mouth of a river, and twelve days after, to that
of another, from which, at the diltance of about ten verfts,
a point of land runs far out into the fea, which at firft is
mountainous, but terminates in a plain extending as far as the
eye can fee. This point is probably the fame that obliged
captain Beering to put back. One of the mountains is b
the inhabitants of Anadyrfkoi-oftrog called Serdzekamen.

Pavluzky henee turned in land, and returned to Anadyrfk
the twenty-firlt of October, by the fame way that he went
out.

Mr. Muller fpeaks of the ardent zeal which M. Kerilof,
at that time fecretary of the fenate, manifefted for the fuc-
cefs of thefe difcoveries in 1732.

Having related what information has been obtained from
the Ruffians, and particularly from the indefatigable Mr. Mul-
ler, we fhall now proceed to deliver, as briefly as poilible,
what we gather from other authors, more ancient.

Pere Avril was informed by a vaivode, that the people
dwelling about the Kovyma frequently went to the fhores of
the Frozen ocean to purfue the morfes, for the fake of their
teeth. M, Witfen, juftly celebrated for his perfevering
diligence, from about 1670 to 1692, in the difcovery of thete
unknown countries, fays, that * the great projecting point,
which he calls cape Tabin, extends near to America; that
about fifty or threefcore men, coming from the Lena, alittle
before 1692, put out to fea in the Frozen ocean; and, having
turned to the right, came to the point againit which the
fields of ice driving from the north ftrike with their whole .
force, &c. It was therefore not poflible for them to double
this cape, nor to perceive its extremity from the mountains
of the north-ealt of that point of Afia which is not extreme-
ly wide in that place; they remarked that the fea was free
from ice on the other fide, that is, the fouthern, whence it
may be inferred that the land of that point extends fo far to.
the north-ealt, that the floating ice, coming down from the
north, cannot pafs on the fouthern fide.”

Mr. Buache, from whom this paflage is taken (Confider.
Geograph. p. 105, 106.) corroborates and illuftrates the ac-
count thus: “ The firlt pieces of ice (he fays) coming
from: the north, ftop at the ifland between the cape and
America, and on the fhallows which conne& it to the two
continents ; thefe large flakes, accumulating on one another,
form a fort of bridge; and it is only then, that the others
which afterwarls come down from the north, are unable to
pafs to the fouth, &c. On this point (continues M. Wit-
fen) are found men who wear little {tones and pieces of bone
inferted in their cheeks, and fezm to have a {trong affiniaity
with the North Americans.” f

Kempfer, in 1683, fparing no pains that might any way
lead to the knowledge of the northern regions, was inform-
ed by feveral perfons, that the Greater ‘Tartary was joined
by an ifthmus, compofed of lofty mountains, to a neighbour-
ing continent, which they fuppofed to be America. He
was {hewn the firft maps of the Ruffian empire, laid down
fome years before, without degrecs of longitude. On them
appeared feveral confiderable capes on the eaftern fhores of
Siberia ; one of them, too large for being comprifed within
the border of the map, which was cut in wood, was abrupt-
ly fhortened by it. This is the point fpoken of by M. Wit-
fen ; but at that time, it is faid to have been thought more
near to Ruffia than it really is.

Ifbrandt Ides, from informations carefully taken in 1693
and 1694, {peaks of Kamtthatka, as of a town, which, with
the furrounding country, was inhabited by the Xuxi and
Keeliki (Tfhut{ki and Koriaks) ; fays, that the cape of ice
is a tongue of land projeGting into the fea, where it is inter-
fe&ted by feveral arms of water, which form gulfs and ifles
above Kamtfhatka; the fea has an entrance frequented by
the fifhermen ; here are the towns Anadyrfkoi and Sabathka
(on the map, and according to others Sabatfia), inhabited
by the two nations above mentioned. The inhabitants of
Yakutik go to cape St. Sabatfia, Anadyr, Kamtthatka, &c.
in queft of the narval.

The Swedith officer, who was a prifoner in Siberia from

1709

“ASIA.

1709 to 1921, contending againft the opinion of thofe who
imagined that Afia was contiguous to America, pofitively
afferts that the Ruffian veilels, coafting along the main land,
ordinarily pafs the Syetoi-nofs, in order to trade with the
Kamtfhadales on the fhore of the Eaftern ocean, about the
fiftieth degree of latitude: but forethis purpofe they are
obliged to pafs between the main land, and a great iland
lying to the north-eaft of Svetoi nofs, and that this ifle is
the north-weft of America. Strahlemberg mentions nothing
farther in his work than the faéts already related, except-
ing thatthe Yukagirs are a people fettled near the Frozen
ocean, between the mouth akthe Lena and cape Tabin. It
has been found, that inthe part of the continent of America
of which fome knowledge has been obtained, oppofite the
cape, there is a large river, wafting down its current numbers
of great trees, &c.

rom all thefe, and various other documents and data,
M. Engel endeavours to eftablifh fome important facts ;
fuch as, that the pofition of this pretended cape Tabin owes
its origin to the defire of fixing that of Pliny fpoken of above;
and this motive haying fubfifted till within a few years pai,
or at leaft the idea of a finis terre towards the north-eaft, it
has been preferved, and fome cape or other was to be found
for that purpofe. That the largeft of atl, that which extends
fartheft into the fea; and the moft formidable, according to
all accounts, is the double cape, called Serdzekamen, or heart
of ftone, north of the Anadyr, which may in feme years, at
leait, without difficulty be doubled; fince it is not owing to
its proximity to the pole, but to the occafional conjunétion
of vait bodies of ice, that renders it at fuch times impracti-
cable.

M. Gmelin fays: «« There are even traces of a man who
ina {mall boat, not much bigger than a fifherman’s canoe,
doubled the Shalaginfkoy cape, and made the voyage from
the Kovyma to Kamtfhatka.” It may be aflked, adds M. Ea-

el, whether I am fo credulous as to believe it ? No: if L
fhould grant what he means by that cape; fince this man
mut have failed, according to the arbitrary diftances laid
down in the charts, five or fix hundred leagues. But if ac-
cording to my fyftem, we banifh cape Tabin into its proper
nonentity, diminifh the extent of the coaits, approximate
the rivers, efpecially the Kovyma (for the fuppofed declen-
fion of the coaft, and the greater proximity of the Indigirka
andthe Kovyma, are- confirmed by various arguments); by
doubling the Serdzekamen, as the fole and real cape Shala-
ginfkoy, then it would be by no means impoffible, in one
of thofe years, when, as M. Miiller allows, there are no matf-
fes of ice in its environs.

The authorities whereon M. Miiller and the Ruffian geo-
graphers fix the longitude of the eaftern extremity of Afia
beyond the two hundredth degree from the firft meridian of
Ferro, or 180° 6 15” from Paris, are derived from the ob-
fervations of Jupiter’s fatellites, taken by Kraffilnikof, at
Kamtfhatka and in feveral parts of Siberia; as alfo from the
expeditions, both by land and fea, of the Ruffians towards
Tfhukot fkoi-nofs.

M. Engel difputes the accuracy of thefe obfervations,
and dedués no lefs than twenty-nine degrees from the lon-
gitude of Kamtfhatka as ftated by the Ruffians. M. de
Vaugondy, however, fees no fufficient reafons for fo extra-
ordinary a fubtraétion ; and contents himfelf with curtailing
the continent of Afia of no more than eleven degrees of
longitude. M. Buache diffeats from the opinions both of
Engel and Vaugondy ; defending the fyftem of the Ruffian
geographers onthe authority oftablesdrawnup by M.Maraldi.

It is certain that Kraffilnikof compared his ftatements
with correfpondent obfervations made at Peteriburg, and the

refults were } on comparing an obfervation of an eclipfe of
the firft fatellite of Jupiter, taken at Okhotfk, Jan. 17, 1742,
with an obfervation of an,eclipfe of the fame fatellite taken
at Peterfburg, Jan. 15, of the fame year, the difference of
longitude between Peterfburg and Okhot{k appeared to be
7 hours, 31 minutes, 29 feconds; from a comparifon of two
{ubfequent fimiJar obfervations, the difference of longitude
was found to be 7 hours, 31 minutes, 34 feconds; the pro-
portional mean whereof, rejecting the half fecond, is 7 hours,
31 minutes, 31 feconds, the true difference between the me-
ridians of Peterfourg and Okhotik according to thefe ebfer-
vations. Adding the longitudinal difference between Peter!-
burg and Paris. which is 1 hour, 52 minutes, 25 feconds,
we get the longitude of Okhot{k from Paris, 7 hours, 23
minutes, 56 feconds, differing only 26 feconds from the
refult of M. Maraldi. (See Novy. Comm. Petropol. tom. iii.
p- 470.) So likewife the longitude of Boltheretfk, from
correfpondent obfervations taken there and at St. Peterfbure,
appears to be 10 hours, zo minutes, 22 feconds, differing
from Maraldi about 2 minutes, 5 feconds. (Id. ib. p. 460.)
But the: longitude of the haven of Peterpavloviky, calcu-
lated in like manner by corre{pondent obfervations, difagrees
with the longitude as computed by Maraldi no more tl.aa
20 feconds. (Ibid.) Befides, the refults deduced from cor-
refpondent obfervations of the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites
taken at Boltheretfk, and at the haven of Peter and Paul,
by Kraffilnikof, and at Pekin by the jefuit miffionaries, evince
by their near agreement the care and attention with which
the obfervations muft have been conducted; whence theie
is great reafon to fuppofe, that the fufpicions of inaccuracy
imputed to Kraffilnikof are deititute of any juft foundation.
(Obferv. Aitron. ecl. Sat. Jovis, &c. Nov. Comm., Petro-
pol. tom. iii. p. 452, & feq. Obfery. Attron. Pekini fate.
Ant. Haller{tein. Curante Max. Hell. Vindibone, 1768.)

For fupporting, however, in fome fort, thefe {fufpicions,
H. Vaugondy pretends, that the time-pieces and other
inftruments ufed by Kraflilnikof at Kamtfhatka, were greatly
damaged by the length of the journey ; and that the perfon
who was fent to repair them was not expert in his bufinefs.
But this opinion feems to have been too haftily adopted ;
for, though Kraflilnikof does indeed allow that his time-
piece fometimes ftopt, and that too,when he wanted to
afcertain the true time of the obferyation; and farther
admits, that confequently the obfervations taken by him
under thefe difadvantages, when he was unable to correét
them by former or fubfequent obfervations of the fun or
ftars, are not to be relied on, and which he has therefore
diftinguifhed by an afterifm; there are neverthelefs many
others not liable to any objections of this nature; and the
obfervations alluded to above fall under this defcription.
(See Nov. Comment. Petrop. tom. iii. p. -) However,
the teftimony of the late profeffor Miller, who was in thofe
parts with Kraffilnikof, as to the fufficiency of the inftru-
ments, entirely removes that ohje¢tion. i

The beit way of trying the accuracy of the Ruffian geo-
graphers in fettling the longitude of Kamtfhatka, will be
by comparing it with that of Yakutfk, which has been
clearly eftablifhed by a variety of obfervations taken at dif-
ferent times and by different perfens. If therefore any error
be in placing Kamtthatka fo far to the eaft, it is in the lon-
gitude between Yakutfk and Boltheretik.

Now, Krafflnikof, on his return from Kamtfhatka, ob-
ferved at Yakutfk feveral eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites, from
which it appears, on comparing them with calculations of
the fame eclipfes made by M. Wargentin for the meridian
of Paris, that the mean of the refult is 8 hours, 29 mutes,
5 feconds. The obfervations of M. Iflenief, taken at Ya-

Liz kutik

ASIA.

kutfk in 1769, whither he had been fent to obferve the
tranfit of Venus, received the fanétion of the imperial aca-
demy of {ciences. (Nov. Comment. Acad, Petrop, tom.
xiv. pars iii. p. 268—321.) The longitude given by him
to Yakutfl is eight hours, 29 minutes, 34 fecords, a fuffi-
ciently accurate agreement with the longitude refulting from
the obfervations of Krafilnikof.

The longitude therefore of Yakutfk from Paris being 8
hours, 29 minutes, 5 feconds, or 127° 16'0°; and of Bol-
fheret{k 10 hours, 17 minutes, 17 feconds, or 150° 19 155
the longitudinal differerce of thefe two places, from aitro-
nomical obfervations, is : hour, 48 minutes, 8 feconds, or
27° 3/0". The latitude of Bolfheretik is 52” 55° 3", and
that of Yakutfk 62° 1’ 50”; then the difference of their
longitude being from the foregoing itatement 27° 3’ 0", the
dire& diftance between the places meafured ona great circle
of the earth will appear by trigonometry to be 16° 57, or
about 1773 verfts, reckoning 104% verits to a degree. This
diftance confifts partly of fea and partly of land ; and a con-
ftant intercourfe is kept up between the two places, by
means of Okhotfk, which ftands in the intermediate f{pace.
The diftance by fea from Bolfheret{k to Okhot{k is eftimat-
ed by nautical reckonings to be 1254 yerits, and the diftance
by land from Okhot‘k to Yakutik is 927, making together
2181 verits. The direét diftance deduced by trigonometry,
fuppofing the difference of longitude between Bolfherctilc
and Yakutfk to be 27° 3', 1s 1773, falling fhort of 2187 by
408; a difference naturally to be expected, on confidering
that neither journies by land, nor voyages by fea, are ever
performed precifely on a great circle of the globe, which is
the fhorteft line between any two places.

Such being the agreement between the diftance thus
eftimated, and that deduced by calculation, admitting the
difference of longitude between Yakutik and Bolfheret{x to
be 27° 3’, it feems highly improbable that there fhould be
an error of many degrees in the aftronomical determin-
ation.

Since then the longitude between Ferro and St. Peterf-
burg is confeffedly 48; that between St. Peterfburg and
Yakutfk 99° 21’; and, as the diftance in longitude between
Yakutfk and Boltheretfk cammot be materially lefs than 27°
3/: it follows, that the longitude of Bolfheretfic from Ferro
cannot be much fhort of 174° 24. How then are we to
find room for fo confiderable an error as 29 degrees, which,
according to M. Engel, or even of 11 , which, 2 ccording to
M. Vaugondy, is chargeable on the Ruffian geographers in
determining the longitude of Kamtfhatfika ?

From the ifle of Ferro the longitude of

Yakutile is - - lay 20 FO
Okhotfk - - 160 7 0
Boltherettk - - 174 13.0
Peter and Paul - 176 10 Oo

As no afronomical obfervations have been made farther
to the eaft than the havea of Peter and Paul, itis impoffible
. to afcertain with precifion the longitude of the north-eaitern
promontory of Afia. It is neverthelefs apparent, from
Beering’s and Synd’s coaiting voyages towards Tthukotfkoi-
nofs, as well as from other expeditions to thofe parts by
land and fea, that the coait of Afia, in lat. 64°, itretches at
leaft 23° 2' 30" from port Peter and Paul, or to about 200°
longitude from the ifle of Ferro. But the accuracy of
Kraflilnikof’s obfervations at the harbour of Peter and Paul
has fince been confirmed by captain Cook, who places that
harbour in Jat. 53° 1’. longit. 158° 36. eait from Greenwich;
Kraffilnikof ftating it to lie in lat. 53° 0 38”. long. 176°
10. from Ferro, or 158° 35’. from Greenwich. The differ-
eace therefore is only twenty-two feconds in the latitude,

and one minute in the longitude. Confequently, the affer»
tion of Vaugondy, that the Ruffians had advanced the
peninfula of Kamtthatka eleven degrees too much to the eait ;
and of Engel, who fuppofes that error to be no lefs than
twenty-nine degrees, is manifeftly refuted ; and the accu-
racy of the aftronomical obfervations made by the Ruffian
geographers is now incontetftably afcertained. : ap

The next point ‘of land obferved by our Englifh navi-
gators, was that promontory, by Beering called Tfhukot-
fkoi-nofs, a name adopted by captain Cook, but which is
fometimes denominated Anadyrfkoi-rofs, from its fituation
on the bay of the river Anadyr. The application of the
term Tihukot{koi-nofs to this promontory, may perhaps
oceafion fome confulion to future navigators and geogra-
phers, as that denomimation hes been ufually given, and
ought therefore to be appropriated to the eaftern extremity
of Afia, the eaft cape of Cook.

From Anadyrfkoi-nofs, laid down by the Englifh in lat
64° 13, under the appellative of Tfhukotfkoi-nofs, to cape
Serdzekamen, in lat. 67°, the utmoft extent of Beering’s
navigation to the north, captain Cook does juitice to the
memory of Beering, by obferving, that “he has here deli-
neated the coaft very well, and fixed the latitude and
longitude of the places better than could be -expected
from the methods he had to go by.” (Cook’s Voyage,
vol. il. p. 474.)

Within this track our great navigator has correéted the
errors of the Ruffian charts, and afcertained the pofition of
the real Tfhukotikoi-nofs, which Miller. had erroneoufly
conjectured to lie above the-7oth degree of latitude. He
gives the name of Eait-cape to this great promontory of the
Tfhuktthi, proves it to be the moit eaftern extremity of
Afia, and fixes its latitude in 66° 6’, and longit. 190° 22's
inconteftably fhewing, that the Ruffians were not wrong in
aflerting that the north-eaitern extremity of Afia ftretched
beyond the zooth degree of longitude from the ifle of Ferro,

yr 182° from Greenwich.

That remarkable expedition cf Defhnef, in which, ac-
cording to profeflor Muller, he failed from the mouth of
the Kovyma, weathered Tfhukottkoi-nofs, or Eait-cape,
and was fhipwrecked in the fea of Kamtfhatka, was not
only the earlieft, but the moit important of the Ruffian
enterpriles in thefe latitudes; as it firft afcertained the fe-
paration of the two continents.

Dethnef’s defeription of the north-eaftern cape agrees
in feveral material cireumftances with that of the fame pro-
montory given by captain Cook. According to Defhnef,
it coniiits entirely ef rocks.”? Cook fays, that * it:
fhews a fteep rocky cliff next the fea ; and at ‘the very point
are fome rocks like fpires. The land about this promon-
tory is compofed of hills and vailies ; the former terminate
at the fea in fteep rocky points, and the latter in low fhores.
The hills feemed to be naked rock.” (Voyage, vol. ii,
Pp: 472-)

Defhnef adds, that, on the coaft near the promontory,
the natives had reared a ‘ pile refembling a tower, with the
bones of whales.”? Cook likewife noticed thefe piles as
very common on the coaft of the Tihuktfhi. “ Over the
dwelling itands a kind of fentry-box, compofed of the large
bones of large fifh;’? and again, ‘ near the dwellings were
erected ftages of bones, fuch as before defcribed.”? (Ib.
p- 451-472.) Cook alfo coincides with Defhnef in placing
two iflands directly oppofite to the promontory ; and capt.
King confirms another affertion of the Ruffian navigator,
that the paflage from the fame promontory to the-mouth
of the Anadyr, may with a. fair wind be performed in
feventy-two hours. (Id. vol. iii. p. 264.)

: Tt

\ AS

It has been objeéted to Defhnef’s narrative, that Cook
and Clerke were, in two fucceflive years, prevented by the
ice from pufhing ferward into the Frozen ocean; but in
reply to this, it fhould be obferved, that Dethnef failed in
a {mall veflel, more eafily worked than the Englith thips ;
and that the year in which he pafled round is reprefented
as more than ufually free from ice. "The feafon alfo in which
Defhnef doubled the great Siberian promontory, probably
was more favourable to navigation in the Frozen fea, than
the time of year adopted by the Englith. For, though
he failed on the firft of July, or June ‘0, O. 5. yet he
appears not to have arrived in the Eattern ocean till towards
the end of September. Shortly after Ankudinof’s fhip-
wreck on Tihukotfkoi-nofs, Dethnef mentions that he land-
ed on the firft of October, or September 20, O. S. and
fkirmifhed with the Tfhuktthi. Confequently, from the
length of the interval between the day of his departure
from the mouth of the Kovyma,\ to his entrance on the
Eaftern ocean, it may reafonably be inferred that he was
waiting for an opportunity of getting through the ice,
which he at length effected. Whereas Cook quitted that
dreary region on the 29th of Auguft; and Clerke fo early
as the month of July. The middle and the latter end of
September are generally efteemed the moft proper periods
for navigating the Frozen ocean.

The fole aim of Defhnef being to fail from the Kovyma
to the Anadyr, it was not incompatible with his plan to
continue on the coaft, and to perfevere in expecting a fa-
vourable occafion for effectuating his purpofe, without expof-
ing himfelf to thofe difficulties and dangers which feamen
from more diftant quarters muft neceffarily experience.
Whereas the grand defign of the Englith navigators being to
afcertain the practicability of a north-ealtern paflage, and
having incontrovertibly determined that important queition

- inthe negative, they accomplifhed the primary objec of their
expedition. They could not therefore, confittently with
their views and initructions, by delaying their departure
from thofe frozen regions, expofe themfelves to the hazard
of being hemmed in by the ice, merely for the fake of
evincing the poffibility of getting round to the Kovyma.

| Thee circumitances feem to prove that Defhnef aQually
performed this voyage ; yet as he neither made any aftrono-
mical obfervations, nor traced a chart on the coatt, his ex-
pedition, though it decided the long controverfy concerning
the feparation of the two continents, contributed, however,
nothing towards an accurate-knowledge of the north-eaftern
extremity of Afia, for which we are indebted to captain
Cook alone. (See Coxe’s Ruffian Difcoveries. )

In the year 1785, capt. Billings, an Englifhman in the
Ruffian fervice, was fent by Catharine II. on a voyage
of difcovery into thofe parts ; and the refults of his obfer-
vations are found to agree with thofe of captain Cook,
Bee fhe eafternmoft extremity of Afia in lat. 66° 6’.
and afcertaining its longitude at 190° 22’. from Green-
wich,

The population of Afia, fays Mr. Pinkerton, is by all
authors allowed to be wholly primitive and original; if we
except that of the Tfhuktfhi, who by the Ruffian travellers
-and Mr. Tooke are fuppofed to have paffed from the oppo-
fite coaft of America. A few colonies have migrated from
Ruffia to the northern parts, as far as the fea of Kamt-
fhatka ; and well-known European fettlements are in Hin-
doftan, and the ifles to the fouth-eaft ; but the firft ferious
attempt to colonize what is deemed'a part of Afia, was
the recent fettlement at Port Jackfon.- With thefe and
other trifling exceptions, Afia prefents a prodigious original
population, as may be judged from the following table,

I A.

which will be found more clear than any prolix difquifition
on the fubject.

Lixnnawzan Taste or tur Nations anp Lancuaces
In Asia.

Of the three feveral appellatives, the firlt denotes ordo,
the fecond genus, the third /pecies.

1. Affyrians.—Affyrians, Arabians, Egyptians.—Chal-
dee, Hebrew, &c.

2. Scythians.—Perfians, Seythians intra and extra Imaum,
&e. Armenians.—(The Parfi and Zend are cognate with
the Gothic, Greek, Latin, according te fir William Jones.
Indian Differt. vol. i. p. 206. The Pehlavi is Affyrian or
Chaldaic. Id. 187, 188. 206.).

3. Sarmats.—Medes and Parthians. —Georgians and Cir-
caflians.

4. Seres and Indi.—Hindoos, northern and fouthern,
&e.

5. Sine.—Chinefe and Japanefe-—Thefe have a Tataric
form and face ; they are probably highly-civilized Tatars,
Mongoles, or Mandfhurs.

Barbaric Nations from north to fouth, and according to the
degrees of barbarifm.

6. Samoyedes, Oftiaks, Yurals, &c.

7. Yakutes.—Yukagirs. (Expelled ‘Tartars, according to
Tooke and Leffeps. )

8. Koriaks.—Tfhuktfhi. (From the oppofite coaft of
America. Tooke’s Ruffia. The Yukagirsare a tribe of the
Yakutes, around Yakutfk, and both are expelled Tatars.
Tooke’s View, ii. 80. Lefleps, ii. 312.)

g- Kamtfhatdales.—Kurillans—(Thefe refemble the Ja-
panefe. )

10. Mandfhures or Tungufes.—Lamutes.—( Ruling peo-
ple in China. )

11. Mongoles.—Kalmuks.—Soongares, Tungutes, Bu-
rets, &c. >

12. Tatars or Huns.—Turks, Khafares, Uzes, and
Siberians.—Nogays, Bathkirs, Kirghifikaizaki or Kirghife
Kaizaks, Teleutes.

After the deftruGtion of Attila’s fwarms, and the effets
of unfortunate inroads, the Huns became fubje@t to the
Mongoles, who under Zingis or Chingis khan, Timur,
&c. conftituted the fupreme nation in Atfia—The great
fhare of population which Europe has received from Afia
will appear from the following brief ftatement.

Primitive Inhabitants.

1. Celts.—Inth, Welch, Armorican.—E:fe, Maiks,
Cornifh.

2. Fins (chief god Yummala).—Finlanders, Efthonians,
Laplanders, Hungarians, Permians or Biarmians, Livonians,
Votiaks and Cheremiffes, Vogules and Oftiaks.

Colonies from Afia.

3. Scythians or Goths (Odin. )—Icelanders, Norwegians,
Swedes, Danes, Germans, Englifh.—Swifs, Frific, Flemith,
Dutch.

4. Sarmats or Slavons (Perune).—Poles, Ruffians, Kai-
zaks.—Heruli, Vendi, Lettes.

The inhabitants of France, Italy, and Spain, are alfo of
Afiatic origin; and fpeak corrupted Roman, which, like
the Greek, is a polifhed diale&t of the Gothic, according
to fir William Jones, and other able antiquaries. The He-
ruli, Vendes, and Lettes, ufed mixed and imperfect dialects
of the Sclavonic.

Befides thefe numerous original nations, the Malays and
Afiatic iflanders conftitute another large and diftinct clats
of mankind, with a peculiar fpeech, in the fouth of the ex-
tenfive continent of Afia.

It

ASDA.

It appears that not above one quarter of Afia was known
to the ancients; and this knowledge was little increaied till
Marco Polo, whofe travels became well known in Europe
in the fourteenth century, eftablifhed a memorable epoch
in geography, by paffing to China, and difclofing the ex-
tent of that country, the iflands of Japan, and a faint in-
telligence of other regions, illuitrated and confirmed by re-
cent accounts. The wide conquefts of the famous Tthinghis-
khan, commonly called Zingis, in the beginning of the 13th
century, firft opened the difcovery of the diftant parts of
Afia; the Mongoles, whofe fovereign he was, being fituat-
ed to the eaft of the Huns, who had before diffufed terror
over Europe. The primitive feat of the Mongoles was in
the mountains which give fource to the river Onon; and at
a fhort diftance to the fouth-weft was Kara-kum, the firft
capital of the Mongole empire. The viftories of Zingis
extended from Cathay, or the northern part of China, to
the river Indus; and his fucceffors profecuted them over
Ruffia, while they made incurfions as far as Hungary and
Germany. The power of the Mongoles, thus widely
diffufed, naturally excited an attention, never ftimulated by
a number of petty barbaric tribes; and’ at the fame time
facilitated the progreis of the traveller, who, as in Africa
at prefent, had been formerly impeded by the enmities of
diminutive potentates. By force of arms the Mongoles
alfo firft opened the obfcure recefles of Siberia. Sheibani
khan, in the year 1242, led a horde of fifteen thoufand
families into thofe northern regions ; and his defcendants
reizned in the Tobolfky above three centuries, till the
Ruffian conqueft. (Gibbon, xi. 424.) Two European
travellers, Carpini and Rubruquis, being commiffioned
to infpect the power and refources of the new empire of
the Mongoles, the latter found at Kara-kum a Parifian
gold{mith employed in the fervice of the khan: and by
Carpini’s relation it appears, that from their brethren in
Siberia, the Mongoles had received fome intelligence con-
cerning the Samoyedes.

Thus the difcovery of Afia, which had lain nearly dormant
fince the time of Ptolemy, began to revive in the thirteenth
century. Yet after the publication of Marco Polo’s travels,
little was done for two centuries; and the authenticity of
his accounts even began to be queftioned. From the map
of the world by Andrea Bianco, the Venetian, 1440, it
fufficiently appears that the difcoveries of Polo had, even
in his native country, been rather diminifhed than increafed.
(See Formalconi, faggia fulla nautica antica de Veneziani,
Ven. 1783, 8vo.) See alfo the defeription of Afia by pope
Pius II. who appears not even to have feen the travels of
Polo. One man indeed of great mental powers, was im-
preffed with their veracity, and in confequence accomplifhed
a memorable enterprife. ‘This was Chriftoval Colon, or as
we call him, Chriftopher Columbus; who, led by the rela-
tion of Polo, conceived, that as Afia extended fo far to the
-eaft, its fhores might be reached by a fhort navigation from
the weftern extremity of Europe. In this erroneous idea,
when that great man difcovered the iflands now called the
Wett Indies, he thought that he had arrived at the Zipango
of Polo, or Japan ; and thus the name of India was abfurdly
beftowed on thofe new regions.

After the difeovery of America and the cape of Good
Hope, the maritime parts and iflands of Afia were fuc-
eeffively difclofed.. Yet the recent veyages of the Ruffiaa
navigators, of our immortal Cook, and of the unfortunate
La Peyroufe, evince that much remained to be done. Con-
cerning the interior of Siberia, fearcely any folid informa-
tion was had till Peter the Great, after the battle of Pul-
tava, fent many Swedifh prifoners into that region ; and

Strahlemberg, one of the officers, publifhed an account of

Siberia ; which, though extremely inaccurate and defe€tive,

opened the way to farther intelligence. The knowledge
thus obtained was greatly improved and augmented by the
well-known journies of Palizs and the other academicians.
Our acquaintance with Afia is ftill however far from being
perfec, efpecially in regard to Daouria, and other regions
near the confines of the Ruffian and Chinefe empires; not
to mention central Afia ia general, Thibet and fome more
fouthern traéts; nor had even the geography of Hindoftan
been treated with tolerable accuracy, till major Rennell pub-
lifhed his excellent map and memoir.

The religions of Afia are various; and the climate ads
mits of every variety, from the equator to the Arétie fea.

Though Afia cannot vie with Europe in the advanta
of inland feas, yet, in addition to a fhare of the Mediterra-
nean, it poffefles the Red fea (the Arabian fea), and the
gulf of Perfia, the bays of Bengal and Nankin, with other
gulfs, which diverfify the coaits much more than thofe of
Africa or America, and have doubtlefs contributed greatly
to the civilization of this celebrated quarter of the globe.»

The Red fea, or the Arabian gulf of antiquity, conftis
tutes the grand natural divifion between Afia and Africas
but its advantages have been chiefly felt by the latter, which
is enttrely deftitute of other inland feas; Egypt and Abyis
finia, two of the moft civilized countries in that divifion,
having derived great benefits from that famous gulf, which,
from the ftraits of Babelmandel to Suez, extends about 21°
or 1470 Britifh miles; terminating, not in two equal branches,
as delineated in old maps, but in an extenfive weftern branch,

while the eaftern afcends little beyond the parallel of mount

Sinai. d
The Perfian gulf is another noted inland fea, about half
the length of the former, being the grand receptacle of thofe
celebrated rivers the Euphrates and the Tigris. ‘
The other gulfs do not afford fuch ftrong features of what
are properly termed inland feas. But the vaft extent of
Afia contains feas totally detached, and of a different de-
{cription from any that occur in Europe or other quarters
of the world. Such is the Euxine, and likewife the
Cafpian, which extends about ten degrees, or 700 miles in
length, and from roo to 200 in breadth. Strabo and Pliny
idly fuppofed this fea to be a gulf, extending from the
northern ocean: though Herodotus, many centuries befores
had delivered juiter notions of it. The Cafpian, however,
feems, at fome remote period, to have fpread farther to the
north, where the deferts are {till fandy and faline, and pres
fent the fame fhells that are found in the Cafpian; yet that
chain of mountains which branches from the weft of the
Urals to the north of Orenburg, and reaches to the Volga,
muit in all ages have reftri€ted the northern bounds ef the
Cafpian. ‘To the eait, this remarkable fea, in the opinion
of moft geographers, extended, in times not very diftant,
to the Aral. This fea, or lake Aral, a hundred miles
eaitward of the Cafpian, is about 200 miles in Jength, and
about 7o miles in breadth; receiving the river ancientl
called Jexartes, more recently the Sirr or Sihon, and the
river Gihon, the Oxus of antiquity ; both ftreams of con-
fiderable courfe, flowing from the mountains Belur Tag, of
Imaus. The Aral fea being furrounded with fandy defarts,
has been little explored ; but it is falt, like the Cafpian,
having many {mall faline lakes ia its vicinity. .
Another remarkable detached fea is the Baikal in Siberia,
or Afiatic Ruffia, extending from about the fifty-firft to the
fifty-fifth degree of north latitude, being about 35e Britifh
miles in length, though its greateit breadth is not above 35:
The water is freth and pellucid, yet of a green or fea tinge,
commonly

es es

ASIA.

commonly frozen in the latter end of December, and clear
of ice in May.

Pafling by the other Afiatic feas of inferior note, a few
obfervations may be offered on the remarkable {trait that
divides Afia from America. This ftrait, which, as we have
already feen, was difcovered by Beering, and afterwards by
Cook, is about thirteen leagues or near forty miles ia
breadth, Beering actually pafied this frait in 1728, pro-
bably in the fuel fogs of the climate, without difcovering
land to the eaft; but our great navigator gave the name of
that Danifh adventurer to thefe ftraits, when he afterwards
explored them with his ufual accuracy. On the Afiatic
fhore is the Eaft-cape; and on the American that called
Prince of Wales. ‘The depth of water in the ftrait is from
twelve to thirty fathoms. ‘T'o the north of thefe ftraits the
Atfiatic fhore tends rapidly to the weft, while the American
proceeds nearly in a northern direction, till, at the diftance
of about four or five degrees, the continents are joined by
folid and impenetrable bonds of ice.

In the Atfiatic feas are numerous fhoals or fand-banks ;.
but few of them have been defcribed as conducive to human
indultry. ’

The chief rivers of Afia are the Kianku and Hoang Ho,
the Lena, the Yenifey, and the Oby, ftreams which rival in
the length of their courfe any others on the globe. Next in
cconfequence are the Amoor, and the Makaung of Laos, if
the courfe be rightly delineated, the Sampoo or Burram-
pooter, and the Ganges; compared with all which the Eu-
phrates and Indus are but moderate {treams.

The Afiatic mountains are reputed not to equal the
European in height. The Uralian chain forms one of the
boundaries. of Europe; and the Altaian ridge may be clafled
among the moit extenfive of the globe, reaching from about
the feventieth to the hundred and fortieth degree of longitude
eat from London, or about 5000 miles, thus rivalling in
length the Andes of South America, But, as chains of
mountains rarely receive uniform appellations, except from
nations highly civilized, the Altaian chain, beyond the fources
of the Yeniley, is called the mountains of Sayanfk; and
from the fouth of the fea Baikal, the Yablonnoy mountains,
branches wherecf extend even to the country of the
Tthuktfhi, or extreme boundaries of Afia. The chain of
Alak may perhaps be regarded as a part of the Altaian,
branching to the fouth ; while the Taurus, now known by
various names in different countries, was by the ancients con-
fidered as a range of great length, reaching from cape Keli-
doni, on the weit of the gulf of Satalia, through Armenia,
eyen to India: this lait chain, however, has not imprefled
modern trayellers with the fame idea of its extent. ‘I’o the
fouth of the Altaian range extends the elevated defert Goby
or Shamo, running in a parallel direétion from eaft to weit ;
and the high region of Thibet may be included in this
central prominence of Afia. Other confiderable ranges of
mountains are Bogdo, Khangay, Belur, thofe of Thibet,
the eaftern and weitern Gauts of Hindottan, and the Cau-
cafian chain between the Euxine and the Cafpian.

The Afiatic governments are almoft univerfally defpotic;
and the very idea of a commonwealth feems utterly unknowa
to that quarter of the world. The mildeit fyftems are
perhaps thofe found in Arabia. (See Pinkerton’s Modern
Geography, vol. ii.) /

Asta, Proper, in Ancient Geography. Much perplexity
has arifen among authors by the diverfe acceptations of the
term Afia; fo as to render it extremely difficult for their
readers to know what region was diftin¢tly underftood by
that appellation; nor is it eafy to reconcile the apparent in-
confiftency between the facred and profane writers as to the

provinces comprifed under this denomination. The ancient
geographers divided the vaft contineit that was known to the
Greeks and Romaus under the word A fia, firftinto the Great-
er and Leffler Afia. The Lefler, commonly termed Afia
Minor, comprehended a great number of provinces; but that
which included Phrygia, Myfie, Caria, and Lydia, was de-
nominated Afia Proper, or Afia properly fo called. Cicero
(Orat. pro. Flacco.), enumerating the regions contained
in Afia Proper, makes no mention of /Zolis or Tolia, though
undoubtedly a diftrict of it, as being comprehended partly
in Lydia and partly in Myfia. Lydia, befide the inland
country commonly known by that name, contained alfo
Ionia, lying on the fea fide, between the rivers Hermus and
Meander; and Atolis, extending from Hermus to the river
Caicus (Ptol. lib. y. cap. 2.), or to the promontory Lefium
(Strabo, lib. xii. p. 393.), the ancient boundary between
Troas and the fea-coatt of the greater Myfia. Accordingly,
Afia Preper comprehended Phrygia, Myfia, Lydia, Caria,
féolia, and Tonia. This tra was bounded, according to
Ptolemy, on the north by PBithynia and Pontus, extencing
from Galatia to Propontis; on the eaft by Galatia, Pam-
phylia, and Lycia; on the fouth by part of Lycia and the
Rhodian fea; on the weft by the Hellefpont, by the gear,
Scarian, and Myrtoan feas. It lies between the thirty-fifth
and forty-firft degrce of north latitude, and extends in lon-
gitude from 55° to 62°.

As Afia Proper is but a part of Afia Minor, fo the
Lydian Afia is only a part of Afia Proper. Afia, in this
acceptation, comprehends Lydia, Afolia, and Ionia; and is
that Afia whereof mention is made in the Acts, and the
Apocalypfe. Ariftotle tells us that Smyrna was at ‘frit
pofleffed by the Lydians (Ariftot. lib. de poetica apud
Plutarch in lib. de vita & poefi Homeri) ; and Scylax Co-
ryandenfis reckons it among the cities of Lydia, as alfo
Ephefus, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Thyatira, are reckoned:
by Ptolemy among the cities of Lydia, as is Laodicea by
Stephanus. (Steph. de Urbib.)

That in ancient times Lydia was called Mzonia, and the
Lydians Mzonians, is manifeft from Herodotus, Diodorus
Siculus, Dionyfius Afer, Strabo, Pliny, Stephanus, and
others; and that Mzonia was called Ajia, is no lefs plain
from Callinius, who flourifhed before Archilochus, from
Demetrius Scepfius, contemporary with Crates, and Arit-
tarchus the grammarian, from Euripides, Suidas, the great
etymologilt, &c.; nay, that Lydia was formerly called Afia
is exprefsly affirmed by the ancient {choliaft of Apollonius
Rhodius. From whence Lydia borrowed the name of
Afia is altogether uncertain; fome deriving it froma city of
Lydia, feated on mount Tmolus; others from one Atfias,
king of Lydia, who, according to the Lydians, communicat-
ed his name to the whole continent.’ But, be that as it
may, it is certain that Lydia has a better claim to the name
of Afia than any other part of that continent.

Asia, in Modern Geography, falls into the following divi-
fions: T'artary, China, India, Perfia, Turkey in Afia.
Tartary is divided into Chinele, Independent, and Ruffian ;
Chinefe Tartary contains the country of the Mandfhu, and
that of the Mongole Tartars; Independent Tartary contains
the dominions of the khan of the G&lets er (Kalmuks,
Turkeftan, the country of the Ufbec Tartars, the Daghef-
tan, Circaffia, and the tribes inhabiting mount Caucafus 5.
Ruffian 'Tartary contains the governments of Aftrakhan and
Kazan, and Siberia. China is divided into the northern
provinces of Pecheli or Pekin, Changfi, Xenfi, Honan, Can-
ton, from caft to weit, and the fouthern provinces of Nankin,
Chekian, Kiangfi, Fokien, Huquang, Quanton, Quangfi,,
Queicheu, Yunnan, Suchuen, from eaft to weft. India is

: 8

divided

ASI

divided into the ftates of the Great Mogul, ‘comprifing the
kingdoms of Delhi, Agra, Guzarate, Bengal ; the peninfula
of India beyond the Ganges, comprifing the kingdoms of
Vifapoor, Golconda, to the north; Bifnagar, Malabar, in
the middle towards the fouth ; the peninfula of India within
the Ganges, comprifing the kingdoms of Pegu, Tonkeen, Co-
chin-china; Siam, containing Martaban, Siam, Malacca, from
north to fouth. Perfiais divided into the northern provinces
of Shirvan, Kilan, Khorazan, from weit to eaft; the middle
provinces of Erakatzem, Sabluitan, Sitziitan, from weft to
eaft ; the fouthern provinces of Khufiftan, Fars, Kirman,
Makran, from welt to eaft. Turkey in Afia is divided into
Natolia or Anatolia, comprifing the provirces of Natolia
Proper, Amafia, from north-welt to ealt; Karamania, Ala-
duly, from fouth-weit to ealt. Syria, comprehending the
provinces of Syria Proper, Phoenicia, Paletline, from nokth
to fouth. Arabia, containing the provinces of Beriara or
Arabia Deferta, Barraab or Arabia Petrea, Hyaman or
Arabia Felix, comprifing Hagia, heama, Hadramut, Se-
cer, Oman, Bahraim, Yuhama, from north to fouth; the
provinces of the Euphrates, viz. Diarbek, containing Diar-
bek Proper, Erzerum, Yerrack, from north to fouth ; Turco-
mania, containing Turcomania Proper, the Kurdiftan, from
weft to eaft. Georgia, containing Mingrelia, Gurgiftan,
from weft to eaft. The ifles of Japan; Japan, the ifle of
Xicoco or Tocoefi, Bongo, &c., the ifle of Niphon, &c.,
from north-eaft to fouth-weft. The Philippine iflands ;
Lucon or Luconia, among which is Manilla, T’andare, Min-
danas, &c., from north to fouth. The Molucca iflands ;
Ternate, theifle of Gilolo, Celebes, ifle of Geram, Amboyna,
&c., from weit to eaft. The Ladrones ; Guan, Tinian, Pa-
gon, &c., from fouth to north. ‘The Sonda ifles; Borneo,
Sumatra, under ti:e equator, Java, &c. fouth of the two for-
mer. The Maldive iflands, the principal whereof is Male.
The number of thefe is very confiderable, but all of them
are {mall. The ifland of Ceylon, in which are feven king-
doms, the moft confiderable being that of Candi.

Asta, in Ancient Geography, the name of an ifland of
Ethiopia. Steph. Byz.—A port of the Jews and Pheeni-
‘cians, on the Red fea. Eufebius——A lake of Afia, near
the Caifter. Virgil. /En. 1, vii. v. 700.—A town of Afia
Minor, in Lydia, fituate near mount Tmolus. Suidas——A
burgh or town of Afia, in Sufiana. Ptolemy.—A moun-
tain of Peloponnefus, in Laconia. Paufanias.

Asta, Proconfular, fo called becaufe it was governed by
a proconful, comprehended, according to Auguitus’s dil-
tribution of the provinces of the Roman empire, Lydia,
Tonia, Caria, Myfia, Phrygia, and the proconfular Hellef-
pont. In the time of Conttantine the Great, the procon-
{ular Afia was much abridged, and a diftin€tion was intro-
duced between this and the Afiatic diocefe; the former being
governed by the proconful of Afin, and the latter by the
vicarius or lieutenant of Afia. The proconfular A fia feems,
’ by the defeription given of it by Hunapius (in Vit. Maximi.>,
to have been much the fame with the Lydian Afia, which
comprehended Lydia, /Eolis, and Tonia, and which is the
Afia mentioned in Aéts, ch. xvi., and including the feven
churches of the book of Revelation, ch. ii. and iii. This
Lydian Afia was only a part of Afia Proper, or Afia pro-

erly fo called, which according to Cicero (in Orat. pro
Flacco) confifted of four regions, viz. Phrygia, Mytia, Ca-
ria, and Lydia. In the reign of Theodofius the elder, who
fucceeded Valens, the confular Hellefpont was taken from
the vicarius of Afia, and added to the proconfular Afia;
but under Arcadius, the proconfular Afia was abridged of
all the inland part of Lydia. However, the fouthern part
of Lydia, lying between the Meander, and Cailter, and the

/

ASI

maritime provinces from Ephefus to Affos, and the promon-
tory Lectum, were left to the proconfular Afia.

Asta, in Geography, an ifland on the coaft of Peru, fitu-
ate at the diftance of feven leagues from Canette on the
fouth-eaft, and Chilcaon the north-weft. It is a white
ifland under the fhore, about half a league in circuit. S. lat.
13°63

Asia, in Mythology, was one of the nymphs, called
Oceanides; and according to Diodorus, the wife of Japetus.

ASIANO, in Geography, atown of Italy, in the princi-
pality of Piedmont and lordfhip of Vercelli, four miles fouth
of Vercelli.

ASIANTE, a country of Africa, eaftward of the Gold
Coait, fituated about N. lat. 5° 35’. and the fame longitude
with London.

ASIARCHA, in Antiquity, the fuperintendant of the
facred games in Afia, Montfaucon. Pal. Grec. lib. il. ¢. 6,

3) 1635 :
e The afiarcha differed from the Galatarcha, Syriarcha, &c.
Some will have the afiarchs to have been perfons of rank,
chofen in the way of honour, to procure the celebration of
the folemn games at their own expence.

As the afiarchs united the magiltracy and priefthood,
they were entruited with the care ef the temples and facred
edifices; and the expence of the office being confiderable,
they were felected from perfons of great wealth and reputa~
tion. In the election of thefe officers, affemblies were con-
vened in all the towns of Afia at the commencement of the
Afiatic year, or about the autumnal equinox. From each
of thefe a deputy was fent to the general affembly of the
nation; and of ten perfons who were returned to the pro-
conful, he appointed one to the office of afiarch. The at-
tributes of the afiarch were a crown of gold, with a toga
ornamented with gold and purple. This officer exifted for
fome time under the Chriftian emperors, although they had
abolifhed the facred games and temples. To thefe officers
there is a reference in Ads, xix. 31. And as they were
perfons of opulence and dignity, they aéted with civility
and kindnefs towards the apoftle Paul, in fending a meflage
from the theatre to apprife him of the temper of the peo-
ple, and to diffuade him from coming thither.

ASIATIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any perfon or
thing that bears relation to Afia. ‘

Astaric, in Biography, is a furname given to L. Scipio,
the brother of Scipio Africanus, after his defeat of Antio-
chus king of Syria.

Asiatic dioce/e, in Geography, a part of Afia, which
comprehended eight provinces that were goyerned by the
vicarius, or lieutenant of Afia, viz. Lydia, Caria, Phrygia
Salutaris, Phrygia Pacatiana, Pamphylia, Lycia, Lycaonia,
and Pifidia. ‘Sometimes it is taken in a more ftriét fenfe,
as diftin@t from the proconfular Afia, and the provinces
under the jurifdiétion of the proconful; and fometimes in
a more extenfive fenfe, as comprehending alfo the procon-
fular Afia,

Asiatic Society, in the Hiflory of Literary Eftablifh
ments. See SociETY.

Asiaric Style, in Rhetoric. See Sry.

ASTATICA, in Entomology, a {pecies of CHRYSOMELA,
found in Siberia. ‘The form is oval; colour braffy-green,
very glofiy ; wing-cafes blue. Tabr. Spec. Inf. Gmel. &c.

Asrarica, an Afiatic fpecies of Brarra, defcribed by
Profeffor Pallas, It. 3. p. 263. It is of a grey colour,
and oblong form; the wings and wing-cafes are longer
than the body, and narrow or pointed at the end. Gmel.
&c.

Astatica, 4 fpecies of Spurx, found in the ifland of

; Antigua,

= ee —-_.-

f

ASI

Antigua. The abdomen is black, with a yellow lunar mark
on the firft fegment. Fabricius, &c.

Asiatic, in Ornithology, a bird of the Mycrerta ge-
nu:, or Jabiru. This is of a large fize, white colour, with
a black band through the eyes; lower part of the back,
quill, and tail feathers, black. Ind. Orn. The bill of this
bird is dufky, and the legs pale red. It is a native of the
Eat Indies, and feeds on fnails.

~.stAtica, a fpecies of Emperiza, found’in the Eaft
Indies, where it is called Gaur. We know very little of
this bird; it is of a fmall fize, being about four inches and
a half in length. Bill pale rofe colour; head, neck, back,
breaft, and belly cinereous, paleft beneath ; wings and tail
brown, with paler edges; legs pale blue. Lath. In the
Ind. Orn. it is defcribed fpecitically, as being of a cinereous
colour ; wings and tail brown. ;

Asrarica, a f{pecies of Corumsa, that inhabits India.

‘The colour is greenith ath; head afh; under fide of the

body white, and a fpot of the fame on the wings; quill-
feathers black with a white exterior margin. The length
of this bird is eleven inches; bill bluifh at the bafe, and
white towards the tip ; tail greenifh ath, duflcy at the end ;
legs bluifh; claws black. It is called the Indian pigeon.
Lath. Ind. Orn.

Asiatica, a fpecies of CerTuia, or creeper, that in-
habits India. It is about four inches in length, and briefly
defcribed as being of a deep blue, with brown wings ; black
bill, and legs of the fame colour. Lath. Ind. Orn.

ASIATICUS, a new fpecies of Fauco, defenbed by
Dr. Latham in the Supplement to his Synopfis of Birds.
‘The length is twenty-one inches; and though fmaller, it
refembles the common buzzard. The bill is bluifh black;
breait cream colour, dafhed down the fhafts with dufky
black; belly, thighs, and vent white; quills grey, barred
with black; on the fecondaries a bar of the fame._ In his
Ind. Orn. this bird is thus fpecifically deferibed: legs half-
downy and yellow; body brown above, beneath white ;
breatt ilreaked, tail-feathers filvery grey, with five obfolete
ands on the exterior ones. Inhabits China, and is called
in England the Affatic falcon. | 3

Asraticus, a fpecies of Caprimutcus, defcribed by
Dr. Latham, Sup. Gen. Syn. under the name of Bombay
Goat-fucker. \t 1s pale afh colour clouded with black, and
ferruginous breait fafciated with afh-colour; a blackifh

ak on the crown of the head, a pale one on each fide
Of the jaw, and a pale fpot on the throat; length. eight
inches and a half. Inhabits India. In addition to the
foregoing {pecific character, it may be obferved, that the
umage of this bird is an elegant intermixture of afh-co-
ur and brawn; and that between the legs it is of a pale
aufous; quills dufky, barred with rufous; four of the
greater quills haye a fpot of white on the inner web; tail
rked in the fame manner as the quills, except the two
rmaddle ones, which are mottled like the back, and the two
outer ones have the ends white for about an inch; the mid-
dle toe is greatly pectinated.

SIATICUS, a fpecies of Trocon, in Latham’s Ind.
Orn. uanoticed by Gmelin. It is green; forehead, crown,
aad back of the neck red; throat blue, with a red fpot ;
quill and tail feathers black. The length of this bird is
nine inches ; the red on the forehead is bounded by a white
dine, and on the crown and neck is bounded below by a
white line, and on the fides by a black one ; legs green. [n-
habits India. :

. sASIDZZANS.. See-‘Cuasip#ans.

ASIGRAMMA, in Ancient Geagraphy, a town of In-
dia, feated on the Ganges. Ptolemy.

MOL. LL. ,

ASI

ASIGRUM, in Botany. See Hypericum.

ASII, in Ancient Geography, a tribe or horde of Scy-
thian Nomades, who came from the country beyond the
Taxartes, and deprived the Greeks of Baétria. Strabo,
l. xi. p. 779;

ASILIFORMIS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Spuinx,
the wings of which are deeply f{calloped and dentated ; aa-
terior ones cinereous, with a dark band and black dot upon
it; polterior pair red, with a black margin. Inhabits In-
dia. Fabricius. _

Asiuirormis, a fpecies of Musca (Syrphus Fabr.}
that inhabits Germany. The thorax is hairy and yellow-
ith ; abdomen black ; firft and fecond fegment whitifh. Fa-
bricius, Gmelin, &c.

ASILUS, a genus of dipterous infe€ts in the Linnzan
fyftem, the character of svhich is, that the mouth is furnith-
ed with a horny, projecting, ftraight, bivalve, fucking trunk
that is gibbous at the bafe; and the antenne filiform.
Thefe are the wafp flies of fome writers; they prey chiefly
on infects, but are very troublefome to cattle.

The {pecies defcribed by Gmelin are numerous; viz.
groffus, maurus, algirus, barbarus, crabroniformis, ephip-
pium, eftuans, fafciatus, barbatus, gibbofus, ater, diadema,
calidus, flavus, violaceus, gilyus, pundtatus, marginatus,
plumbeus, cayenfis, teutomus, germanicus, rufipes, macu~
latus, marginellus, annulatus, ftylatus, cingulatus, nigri-
pes, brunneus, forcipatus, tipuloides, cin@tus, lineatus, cy-
aneus, oelandicus, morio, lufitanicus, conopfoides, linearis,
culiciformis, villofus, pubefcens, flriatus, albi{rons, xitivus,
nigerrimus, and podagricus; which fee reipeGtively. d//-
girus has the bedy entirely brown,-and inhabits Africa.
Fab. and Gmel. £/luans is a native of North America, is
cinereous, and has tie three laft fegments of the abdomen
white. Linn. Gmel. /ivus inhabits Europe ; the colour
is cinereous, with three black lines on the thorax; legs
black; thanks teltaceous. Schrank. Scopoli deferibes a
variety in which the legs are entirely black.

Asttus, a fpecies of Ontscus, that inhabits the Euro-
pean ocean. ‘The abdomen is covered with two {cales; and
the tail is femioval. Linn. Fn. Suec. Fabr. &c. This is
pediculus marinus of Rondel. ;

ASINARA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Medi-
terranean, near the north-weit coat of Sardinia, about ten
leagues in circumference, is fertile and populous. The
mountains abound with wild boars, deer, buffaloes, and
falcons. N. lat. 41° 5’. E. long. 8° 30. t

ASINARIA, in Antiquity, feafts of the Syracufans, in-
fituted in commemoration of the vitory gained by them
over Nicias and Demofthenes, the Athenian generals, near
the river Afinarius, now Falunera, from which they took
their name.

ASINARII, in Lecl2faftical Hiffory, an appellation
given by way of reproach to the Chriftians, as well as Jews,
from a miftaken opinion, among heathens, that they wor-
fhipped an afs- The appellation was originally given to the
Jews, and only became applied to the Chriftians: the Jews
were charged with keeping a golden afs’5 head in the fane-
tuary of the temple, to whith on certain occafions they paid
adoration ; in memory of a herd of affes, which, in their
pafliag through the wildernefs, fhewed Mofes the way,
under a diftrefling want of water, to afpring. Tacit. Hifi.
lib. vy.

Some had even the impiety to resrefent Chrift with an
afs’s ears, and one foot hoofed, holding a book, with the
infeription Deus Chrifianorum, ooxndx:. Crinit. de Horeit.
Difcip!. lib. i. c.g. See Asinus. ;

ASINATA, im Latemology, a {pecies of Puarana

M ( Geometra J,

ASI

( Geometra), about the fize of Pasrzna chaerophyllata, or

chimney-{weeper moth of the Englifh Aurellans. It inha-

bits Auftria. The wings are greyifh, afh co 9ur, and with-

out fpots. Fabricius, Gmelin. O2/, This i Puarzna
rifeata of Wien, Schmetterl. t

ASINDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

ASINDO, or Ass1zo, a town of Spain, in Betica,
feated on a mountain, nearly eaft of Gades.

ASINDUM, a town of Spain, in the country of the
Turdetani.

ASINE, a town of Greece, in the Arfolide, fituate up-
on the Argolic gulf, north-weit of Hermione, and fouth-
weit of Epidaurus—A town of Meffenia, fouth-welt of
Meffene, founded by the Afinwans, after they had been
driven from their former city in the Argolide, by the Ar-
gives.—A town of the ifland of Cyprus.—A town of Afia,

“in Cilicia. Steph. Byz.

ASINELLA, in Geography, a river of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, which runs into the Adriatic near Pe-
nac, in the Abruzzo citra.

ASINI, in Entomology, a {fpecies of Pepicurus that
infefts the afs. The head is porrected and obtufe ; abdo-
men ovate and ftriated with brown. Fabricius, Redi,

&c.

ASINIUS Lapis, a name given by fome writers of the
middle ages to a ftone faid to be found in thofe places fre-
quented by the wildafs. See Bezoar.

Asinius Pellio, in Biography. See Pottio.

ASINUS, orAss, in Zoology, a quadruped of the Horse
kind, or genus Equus in the Linnzan fyitem of animals ;
a native originally of the mountainous deferts of Tartary,
of Arabia, Perfia,.and fome other fouthern parts of ee
Afiatic continent, and Africa; and at prefent very gene-
rally domefticated throughout mott civilized countries.

In point of fize, of ftrength, and of beauty, the varieties of
this fpecies, like other domeftic animals, have undergone
many changes, and differ confiderably from each other.
Thofe of the eaftern parts of the world, who continue to en-
joy the advantages of a climate entirely congenial with their
nature, are {till obferved to poffefs nearly all that a&tivity,
that energetic fpirit and beauty of appearance which charac-
terife this animal in a ftate of independent wildnefs ; they
prefent a race ef beings in almoft every refpeét the very
reverie of thofe abjeét creatures, their degenerate offspring,
which we are daily accuftomed to fee employed in the
meaneft aéts of fervitude in the northern parts of Europe.
But although the fhades of degradation are fo much more
ftrongly marked in the latter kinds, than in the reft, all may
be definitively traced to a few diftin@ varieties, and thofe
again to the fingle fpecies, the primeval ftock from which
they were at firit derved.

The charaGter of the afs, as Linnzus defines it, confifts in
having the tail briftly at the extremity, and a black crofs
ever the fhoulders. To this his editor Gmelin adds, that
the hoofs are folid; and that the black crofs on the fhoul-
ders is peculiar to the male. According to Briffon Quad.
it is an Lguus with long flouching ears, and fhort mane.

Gmelin divides the {pecies Afinus into four varieties, viz.
Jerus a, afinus filveftris, domefticus 2, mulus y, and hinnus 3.
The firft is the wild afs, onager of Pliny and other ancient
writers ; onagrus, onager, five afinus filveftris of Gefner:
equus (onager) auriculis longis, juba brevi,' pelle tuberculis
parvis fcabra of Briflon; V’afne fauvage of Marmol; af.
and wilder effel of Pallas—The domeftic, or fecond variety,
varying much in different countries, is notwithftanding well

Kaown in Europe by the feveral names of common aft, Eng.

ASI

Pane, and Paneffe, Fren. Afino miccio, f. miccia, Ital. Ajno
borrico, f. borrica, Span. Afno borrico, J: afna burra, Port.
Efel, Germ. Lezel, Dut. Afna, Swed. Ajen, efel, Danith.
—Mulus, or mule, the third variety, it is almoft unneceflary
to remark, is the hybrid offspring of the male afs with a
mare ; and Ainnus, the hinay, a fimilar hybrid produ of
the male horfe with the female afs, and, ftriGly fpeaking,
ought not to be deemed varieties of the ipecies, a/inus, but
rather moniters, as being out of the courfe of nature.

Wild affes were perie¢tly well known to the ancients;
they are faithfully deferibed by Pliny and Oppian; and
among the facred writings are frequent allufions to them.
They uniformly attraéted the notice of travellers in A fia and-
Africa; and profeffor Pallas in particular has treated on
them with his accuftomed accuracy. The appearance both
of the wild and tame affes in thofe parts of the world is al-
together ftriking. ‘* It was with difficulty,” fays Adanfon, °
when {peaking of the affes of Senegal, «* that I could recog=
nize this animal, fo different did it appear from thofe of
Europe; the hair was fine, and of a bright moufe colour;
and the black lift that croffes the back and fhoulders had a
good effet. Thefe were the afles brought by the Moors
from the interior of the country.’? From the beit authonities
it appears, that in a natural ftate, the afs has a foft woolly
mane ; a forehead greatly arched ; and ears long, ere&t, and
pointed, particulars in which it differs moft obvioufly from
the dometticated kind, which has the ears flouching, and
the forehead flattifh. The former ftands alfo higher on its
limbs, and the legs are more flender in proportion. The
colour of the hair is white or filvery grey; the upper part
of the face, the fides of the neck, and body, inclining toa
ftraw colour, and the hind part of the thighs the fame ;
the fore part divided from the flank by a white line, which
extends quite round from the rump to the tail: the belly
and legs are alfo white ; along the very top of the back,
from the mane quite to the tail, runs a ftripe of bufhy waved
hairs of a coffee colour, broadeit above the hind part, and
growing narrower towards the tail; another of the fame co-
lour croffes it at the fhoulders, and forming a fimilar mark to
that by which the tame afs is diftinguifhed. This is peculiar
to the male, and is bounded on each fide by a line of white.
Its winter coat is very fine, foft, and filky, much undulated,
and not unlike that of the camel; greafy to the touch,
and the flaxen colour more vivid than in the fummer.
In its fummer drefs, there are certain fhaded rays that mark
the fides of the neck, pointing downwards. ‘Thefe animals
inhabit the dry and mountainous parts of the deferts of
Great Tartary, but not higher than lat. 48°. They are
migratory, and arrive in vaft troops, to feed during the fur =
mer, in the tra¢ts to the eaft and north of lake Aral. About.
autumn they colleé in herds of hundreds, and even thou- ©
fands, and dire&t their courfe towards the north of India,
to enjoy a warm retreat during winter. But they more
ufuaily retire to Perfia, where they are found in the moun~
tains of Cafbin, and where part of them remain during the
whole year. According to Barbago, they penetrate even
into the fouthern parts of India, to the mountains of Mala-
bar and Golconda. The Kirgifees and Arabs hunt them,
or take them in fnares, for the fake of their flefh. At firft
when the animal is killed, the meat is hot and unfavoury ;
but if kept two days after it is boiled, it becomes excellent.
The fleth of wild affes, it is well known, was efteemed an
article of food among the ancient Romans.

The wild afs feeds chiefly on the moft faline or bitter
plants of the defert, as the kalis, atriplex, chenopedium, &c..
and alfo prefers the falteft and moft brackifh water to that
which is frefh.. Of this the hunters are aware, and prec

on.

ASINUS.

ftation themfelves near 'the ponds to which they refort to

drink, Their manners greatly refemble thofe of the wild
horfe. ‘hey affemble in troops under the conduct of a

leader, or centinel; and are extremely fhy and’ vigilant.
‘They will however ftop in the midft of their courfe, and
even fuller the approach of man at that inftant, and then
dart off with the utmolt rapidity. They have been at all
times celebrated for their {wiftuefs. ‘Their voice refembles
that of the common afs, but is fhriller.

The Perfians catch thefe animals alive for the fake of
domefticating them, or improving the breed of tame afles ;
they fink, for this purpofe, pits of a convenient fize and
depth, which they half fill with plants, both as a temp-
tation to the creature, and to break its fall. The breed of
affes in fuch high eiteem in the eaft, is produced by croffing
the tame kind with the afs reclaimed from a ftate of wildnefs.
Thefe animals were anciently found in the Holy Land,
Syria, Arabia Deferta, Mefopotamia, Phrygia, and Lycao-
nia; but they rarely occur in thofe parts at this time; and
feem to be almoft entirely confined to Tartary, fome parts
of India, and Africa.

It is faid, that neither affes nor horfes were found in
America, although the climate of South Ameriea is per-
fetly adapted for them. Thofe which the Spaniards
tran{ported |from Europe, and left in various parts of the
New Continent, have greatly multiplied, and are fourd in
troops in a ftate of nature at this period.

The excellencies and defeéts of the common or domettic
als have amply engaged the lively pens of feveral defcriptive
writers on the hiftory of animals; and of none with more
happy effeét than thofe of the eloquent Buffon, and the in-
genious abbé la Pluche: of the latter we fhall fpeak here-
after: the former after entering minutely into a comparifon
between the horfe and the afs, and endeavouring to prove
that the two fpécies are diftin&t (a faé& which cannot well be
doubted), concludes in a ftyle of language fo beautiful, fo
animated, and well calculated to tee the tenor of his
pecisine arguments, that we cannot refrain inferting fome

ew extracts from it. ‘

¢ The afs is then an afs,’’? fays Buffon, “ and not ahorfe
degenerated, a horfe witha naked tail. The afs is neithera
itranger, an intruder, nor a baftard; he has, like other animals,
his family, his fpecies, and his rank ; his blood is pure and
untainted, and although his race is lefs noble, yet it is equally
good, equally ancient, with that of the horfe. Why then
is there fo much contempt for an animal fo good, fo patient,
fo fteady, and fo ufeful ? do men defpife, even among ani-
mals, thofe which ferve them beft, and at the f{malleft ex-
pence? We educate the horfe, take care of, inftrua, and
exercife him, whilft the afs is abandoned to the power of
the loweft fervant, or the tricks of children ; fo that inftead
of improving, he muft lofe by his education, and if he had
hot a fund of good qualities, he would certainly lofe. them
by the manner in which he is treated. He is the fport of
_the ruftics, who beat him with faves, abufe him, overload
him, and work him beyond his ftrength. We do not con-
fider that the afs would be in himfelf, and, with refpe@ to
us, the mot beautiful, bef formed, and moft diftinguithed
of animals, if there were no horfes in the world; he, how-
ever, holds the fecond, inftead of the firlt rank, and it is
from that only that he appears to be of no value. It is
comparifon alone degrades him; we look at, and give our
opinions, not of himfelf, but comparatively with the horfe.
We forget that he is an afs, that he has all the qualities of
his nature, all the gifts attached to his fpecies, and only

¢ - think of the figure and qualities of the horfe, which are

wanting in him, and which he ought not to have.

“* He is naturally as humble, patient, and quiet, as the horfe
is proud, ardent, and impetuous ; he fuffers with conftancy,
and perhaps with courage, chaftifement and blows ; he is
moderate both as to the quantity and quality of his food ;
he is contented with the hardedt and molt difagreeable herbs,
which the horfe, or other-arimals, will leave with difdain ;
he is very delicate with refpeét to his water, for he will
drink none but the cleareft, and from rivalets which he is
acquainted with; he drinks as moderately as he eats, and
does not put his nofe in the water through fear, as fome fay,
of the fhadow of his ears: as care is not taken to comb
him, he frequently rolls on the grafs, thiftles, and in the
duft ; without regarding his road, he lies down and rolls
as often as he can, and feemingly to reproach his mafter for
the little care he takes of him, for he never wallows in the
mud or in the water; he even fears to wet his feet, and will
turn out of his road to avoid it; his legs are alfo drier and
cleaner than thofe of the horfe ; he is fufceptible of educa-
tion, and fome have been feen fufficiently difciplined for a
public fhow.””

«« When young, they are fprightly, handfome, light, and
even graceful; but they foon lofe thofe qualities, either from
age or bad treatment, and become flow, ftubborn, and head-
ftrong. The afs is ardent in nothing but love ; or rather when
under the influence of that paflion, he is fo furious that no-
thing can reftrain him: he has been known to exhautt himfeli
by exceiffive indulgence, and die fome moments afterwards.
As he loves with a kind of madnefs, he has alfo the ftrong-
eft attachment to his progeny. Pliny affures us, that
when they feparate the mother from her young, fhe will go
through fire to recover it. The afs is alfo ttrongly attached
to his mafter, notwithftanding he is ufually ill-treated ; he
will fcent him at a diftance, and diftinguifh him from all
other men. He alfo knows the places where he has lived,
and the ways which he has frequented. His eyes are good,
and his {mell acute, efpecially with regard to females ; his ears
are alfo excellent, which has contributed to his being num-
bered among timid animals, who, it is pretended, have all
long ears, and the hearing extremely delicate. When he is
overloaded, he fhews it by lowering his head, and bending
down his ears: when greatly abufed, he opens his mouth,
and draws back his lips in a moft difagreeable manner, which
gives him an air of derifion and fcorn. If his eyes are cover-
ed, he remains motionlefs ; and when he is laid down, and
his head fo fixed, that one eye refts on the ground, and the
other being covered with a piece of wood, he will remain in
that fituation without endeavouring to get up. . He walks,
trots, and gallops like the horfe, but all his motions are
fmaller and much flower. He can however run with tole-
rable fwiftnefs, but he can hold it only for a {mall fpace,
and whatever pace he ufes, if hard preffed, he is foon fa-
tigued.”

“ The horfe neighs, but the afs brays; which he does
by along, difagreeable, and difcordant cry, by alternative
difeords of fharps and fats, He feldom cries but when he
is prefled by love or appetite. The fhe-afs has her voice
clearer and more fhrill.’’? Buff.

“¢ T confefs,”’ fays the abbé la Pluche, * that the afs is not
mafter of very fhining qualities; but then he enjoys
thofe which are very folid. If we refort to other animals
for diftinguifhed fervices, this at leaft furnifhes us with
fuch as are moft necefflary. His voice is not altogether
melodious, nor his air majeftic, nor his manners very lively ;
but then a fine voice has very little merit with people
of folidity. With him the want of a noble air hath
its compenfation in a mild and modeft countenance; and
inftead of the boiiterous and irregular qualities of the horfe,

Mz which

ASINUS.

which are frequently more incommodious than agreeable, the

behaviour of the ais is entirely fimple and unafieGted; no
fupercilious and felf-fufficient air. He marches with an
uniform pace, and though he is not extraordinarily fwift, he
purfues his journey for a long time, and without intermiflion.
He finifhes his work in filence, ferves you with a tteady per-
feverance, and difcovers no oftentation in his proceedings,
which is certainly a confiderable accomplifhment in a dome-
ftic. His meats require no preparation, for he is perfectly
well contented with the firit thiltle that prefents itfelf in his
way. He does not pretend that any thing is due to him, and
never appears {queamifh or diflatisfied: he thankfully ac-
cepts whatever is offered Kim: he hath an elegant relith
for the beit things, and very civilly contents himfelf
with the moft indifferent. If he happens to be forgot-
ten, or is faitened a little too far from his fodder, he in-
treats his mafter, in the moft pathetic language he can
utter, to be fo good as fupply his neceffities. It is very
jut that he fhould live, and he employs all his rhetoric with
that view. When he has finifhed his expoftulations, he
patiently awaits the arrival of a little bran, or a few withered
leaves ; and the moment he di!patches his meal, he returns
to his bufinefs, and marches‘on, without a murmur or reply.
Fis occupations have a tinge ot the meannefs of thofe who
fet him to work ; but the judgments that are formed, both
of the afs and Iris matter, are equally partial. .'The employ-
ments of a judge, aman of confequence, amd an officer of
the yevenue, have an important air, and their habit impofes
on the fpectators: on the contrary, the labour of the
peafant has a mean and.contemptible appearance, becaufe
his drefs is poor, and his condition defpifed. But we really
make a falfe eflimate of thefe particulars. It is the labour
of the peafant which is moft valuable, and alone truly necef-
fary. Of what importance is it to us when a manager of
ihe revenue glitters from head to foot with gold; we
have no advantage from his labours. I confefs, judges and
advocates are, in fome meafure, neceflary ; but they are
made fo by our folly and mifbehaviour ; for they would be
no longer wanted, could we condué ourfelves in a rational
manner. But, on the other hand, we could on no account,
and in no feafon or condition of life, be without the peafant
and the artifan. Thefe people may be confidered as the
fouls and finews of the community, and the fupport of our
life. It is from them we are conftantly deriving fome
accommodations for our wants. Our houfes, our habits,
our furniture, and our futtenance, rife out of their labours.
Now what would become of your vine-dreflers, gardeners,
mafons, and the generality of country people, that is to fay
of two-thirds of all mankind, if they were deftitute of either

men or horfes to convey the commodities and materials they .

employ and manufacture? The afs is perpetually at their
fervice : he carries fruit, herbs, coal, wood, bricks, tiles,
plaiiter, lime, and ftraw. ‘The moft abjeét offices are his
ordinary lot, and it is a fingular advantage to this multitude
of workmen, as well as ourfelves, to find a gentle, ftrong,
and indefatigable animal, who, without either expence or
pride, replenifhes our cities and villages with all forts of
commodities. A {hort comparifon will complete the il-
loftration of his fervices, and in fome meafure raife them out
of their obfcurity. The horfe very much refembles thofe
nations who are fond of glitter and hurry ; who are per-
petually finging and dancing, and extremely ftudious to fet
off their exterior, and mix gaiety in all their aGtisns. They
are admirable on fome diftinguithed and decifive occafions ;
but their fire frequently serenerates into romantic enthu-
fiafm ; they fall into wild tranfports ; they exhauft them-
felves, and lofe the moft favourable conjunétures for want of

management and moderation, The afs, on the contrary,
refembles thole people who are naturally heavy and pacific,
whofe underitandings and capacity are limited to hufbandry
or commerce, and who proceed in the fame track without
difeompofure, and complete, with a pofitive air, whatever
they have once undertaken.”?

OF all animals that are covered with hair, it is believed
the afs is the leaf fubje@t to vagmin ; and the authors of the
Encyclopedia Britannica have even yentured to fay, that it is
never troubled with lice. This opinion is altogether erro-
neous, and the more unaccountable, fince a flight acquaintance
with the entomological writings of Redi, of Linnzus, Va-
bricius, and feyeral others, might have convinced them that
it is not only infefted with hce, but even with a {pecies:
peculiar to itfelf, and for that very reafon wamed afini, or
loufe of the afs. Pediculus afini, Red. Exp. 21. Pediculus
afini, Linn. Pediculus afiai, capite porreto obtufo abdo-
mine ovato fufco ftriato, Fabr. &c. The fkin of the afs is
extremely hard and very elaftic, and is ufed for various pur=
pefes ; fuch as to cover drums, make hoes, or parchment.
Tt is of the fkin of this animal that the orientals make the
fagri, or, as we call it, fhagreen.

At two years and a half old, the firft middle incifive teeth
fall out, and the others on each fide foon follow; they are
renewed at the fame time, and in the fame order as thofe of
the horfe. The age of the ats is alfo known by his teeth
in the fame, manner. From the age of two years and a half
the afs is capable of procreating its kind, and the female
fill earlier. The females are in heat in May and June,
which, when pregnant, foon goes off. In the tenth month,
milk is found in her dugs, and fhe brings forth in the twelfth,
and very rarely has more than one foal. Seven days after
fhe is capable of again receiving the male. At the end of
five or fix months the foal may be weaned ; and it is even
neceflary, if the mother be again pregnant. The flallion
afs fhould be chofen from the largeit and ftrongelft of his
fpecies ; he muft at leaft be three years old, but fhould not
exceed ten; his legs fhould be long, his body plump, head.
long and light, eyes brifk, noftrils and cheft large, neck long,
loins flefhy, ribs broad, rump flat, tail hort, hair fhining, ok
to the touch, and of a deep grey. F

The afs, like the horfe, is three or four years in growing,
and lives alfo like him twenty-five or thirty years ; it is faid
the female lives longer than the male; but perhaps this
happens from their being often pregnant, and at thofe times
having fome care taken of them, inftead of which the males
are conftantly worn out with fatigue and blows. They
fleep lefs than the horfe, and do not lie down to fleep, ex-
cept when they are exceedingly tired. The male afs alfo lafts
much longer than the ftallion; the older he is, the more ardent.
he appears; and, in general, the health of this animal is
much better than that of the horfe ; he is lefs delicate, and
not nearly fo fubjeé& to maladies.

There are among affes, as among horfes, different races,
though they are much lefs known, becanfe they have not
been taken the fame care of, ér followed with the fame
attention. ‘Travellers inform us, that there are two forts
of affes in Perfia, one of which, being flow and heavy, is _
ufed for burdens ; and the other is kept like horfes for the
faddle. 'The latter have fmooth hair, carry their head well,
and are much quicker in their motion ; but when they ride
them they fit nearer the buttocks than when on horfeback.
They are dreffed like horfes, and like them are taught to
amble ; and they cleave their noftrils to give them more
room for breathing. According to Dr. Ruffel, there are
two forts in Syria, one of which are like ours, and the other

very

, S
ye
cate

ean! oy all

: —

i

t
~

- tians, hearing

AS tI

very large, with remarkable'long ears ; but both kinds are
employed for the purpofe of carrying burdens.

; Whe wild mule, the Aemonius of Pallas, has no claim to
confideration in this place. It conititutes a diftin& {pecies
of equus from the f{pecies efinus, in Gmelin’s arrange-
ment, under the name afligned to it by Pallas ; and will be
noticed hereafter in the article Hemonius. The com-
mon mule, engendered between) the male afs and mare, is
much cultivated in Spain, and is little inferior in fize to its
female parent. i

The afs was one of the unclean animals under the Jewish
law, as it did not chew the cud; and it prohibited coupling
an.afs with an ox for draught: Lev. xi.26. The Jews were ac-
eufed by the Pagans of worthipping the head of an ais, See
Asinaru. The author of this calumny feems to have been
Appion the grammarian ; for he affirmed (Jofephus, contra
Appion,],ii.) that the Jews kept the head of an ais in the fanc-
tuary; and that it was difcovered there when Antiochus Epi-
phanes took the temple, and entered into the moft holy

lace. Suidas alfo fays {in Damocrito and in Juda) that

amocritus, or Democritus, the hiftorian, averred, that the
Jews adored the head of an afs, made of gold, and facrificed
a man to it every three or every feven years, after having
firft cut him in pieces. Plutarch (Sympof. liv. c. 5.) and
Tacitus (Hitt. 1. v.) feem to have been impofed upon by this
flander. They believed that the Hebrews adored an afs,
from gratitude for the dilcovery of a fountain by one of
thefe animals, at a time when they were exceedingly fatigued
and parched with thirft in the wildernefs. The fame abfurd
idolatrous worfhip was imputed by the heathens to the

Chriftians. The Czecilius (apud Minut.) fays, « Audio
Chriftianos turpiffime pecudis afini caput confecratum inepta
nefcio quam perfuafione venerari.”” To the fame purpole
Tertullian tells us (Apolog. c. 16.), that fome enemies to
the Chriftians expofed,to public view a picture, reprefenting
a perfon with a book in his hand, dreffed in along robe,
with afs’s ears, and one foot like that of anafs, upon which
was inferibed, “« The God of the Chrittians has an afs’s
hoof.” Learned Chriitians have attempted to .inveltigate
the origin of this calumny. _The report of the Jews wor-
fhipping an afs, might originally have been derived from
Egypt; to this country it is traced by Tanaquil Faber,
who deduces it from the temple in Egypt called Onion,
derived, as it is fuppofed, from Ov:, an a/s. To this purpofe
it may be added, that the Alexandrians hated the Jews,
and were much addicted to raillery and defamation. And
they might have been informed, that the temple Onion, at
Heliopolis, was named from Onias, the high-prieft of the
Jews, who built it in tie reign of Ptolemy Philometor and
Cleopatra, A. M. 3854, ante Chrift. 150. Jofeph. 1. xiii.
¢. 6. Bochart is of opinion (De Animal. Sacr. 1. ii. c. 18.)
that the error took its rife from a paflage of {cripture,

_“ The mouth of the Lord hath {poken it,” in the Hebrew

WH, pi-Jehovah, or pi-Jeo. Hence, as pieo, in the
Egyptian language, fignifies an afs, the Alexandrian Egyp-
the Jews often pronouncing the word pieo,
might believe that they called on their god, and thence infer
that they adored an afs. Omitting other conjetures, we
fhall add, that M. Le Moine fuppofes, that the golden urn
containing the manna, which was preferved in the fanétu-
ary, was taken for the head of an ais, and that the omer, or

-affarion, of manna, might have been confounded with the

Hebrew hamor, which fignifies an afs. Calmet. ~~
Asinus Pifcis, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome old
writers, to the cammon haddock. It was alfo called onos.

_ ~~ Willughby, &c.
——-ASIO, in Ornithology, a Species of Strix or owl, defcribed

ASK

by Linnus, the body of which is brown above, and white
beneath ; and the wings marked with five white dots. his
is /e petit duc de la caroline of Briflon, litle owl of Catetby,
red ow! of Pen. ArGt. Zool. and red-eared ow! of Latham.
Its native place is North America.

Cateiby fays it is about the fize of a jackdaw. The bill
and iris are of a faffren colour; tail brown; edge of the
ballard wing whitifh ; on the quills a few white fpots; legs
covered to the toes with light brown feathers ; toes brown ;
claws black. Buffon feemed to imagine this bird might be
only a variety of the long-eaved and American owls, both
of which he deemed the fame {pecies. °

As1o, is alio a name given by Aldrovandus to the Italian
eared-owl, and fynonymous with otus: afio five otus. Aldr.
Ray applied the fame name ‘to the long-eared owl or horn-
owl of Willughby and Albin, and /rix otus of Linnzus.

ASIONGABER. | See Ezioncaper.

ASIOT AS, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
Scythia, on this fide cf Imatis. Ptolemy.

ASIREF, in Geography, a town of Perfia, on the fouth
of the Cafpian fea, in the province of Taberiftan, eleven
leagues eait of Ferabad.

ASISARATH, in Ancient Geography, atownof Africa,

in Mauritania Cefarienfis, between the rivers Gulus and
Ampiagus. Ptolemy.
ASISIA, a town of Liburnia, the Affefia or Afferia of
Pliay, now in ruins. he traces of ancieat magnificence
diicermible at Podgraje, the feat of Afifia, are numerous.
Among the Liburaian cities which atteaded the congrels or
diet of Scardona, Pliny mentions the iree Afferians, who
created their own magiitrates, and were governed by their
own municipal laws, and who were of courfe more opulent
and powerful than their neighbours. The walls of this
city appear to have meafured in circumference 3600 Roman
feet, and to have been conftrucéted with Dalmatian marble,
fome pieces of which are of large dimenfions, and brought
from a confiderable diftance.

ASISIUM, or Assisium, now Afifi, a town of Italy,
in Umpria, was a Roman municipium, and fituated to
the eait of Arna. Pliny mentions the Afifinates. See
Assisi.

ASITCHOU Acuasnuisn, in Ornithology, the name by
whiclra fpecies of grofbeak is known in Hudifon’s bay ;- and
which Dr. Latham fuppofes to be the white-winged crofs-
bill of his General Synoptis.

ASITIA, in Medicine, a lofs of appetite, from , priva-
tive, and clos, food. A fymptom which occurs in numer-
ous difeafes,

ASIUS, in Entomology, afpecies of Pariiio (Lg. Tro.)
that inhabits South America. The wings are tailed, black,
with a common white band; bafe and tip of the pofterior
pair beneath {potted with red. Fabricius.

ASISA, in Geography, a river of Japan.

ASKER, in Zoology a name ufed in fome parts of
England for the water-newt or eft.

ASKER-MOKREM, in Geography, a town of Afia, on
the eaftern bank of the Tigris, in the Arabic Irac; called
alfo Sermenrai.

ASKERSUND, 2a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nericia, on the Wetter fea, five miles from Orcbro.

ASKEYTON, a market, and, till the union, borough

~ town of the county of Limerick, in Ireland, feated on the °

{mall river Deel, near its junétion with the Shannon ; famous
for its caftle built by the earl of Defmond, and for one of
the moft beautiful and perfect abheys in Ireland. Diftance
from Dublin 1102 miles. Long. 8° 54’ W. Lat. 52° 34”

30’ N.
ASKRIG,

AJREN

ASKRIG, a town of England, in the north riding of
Yorkshire, beautifully fituated on the banks of the river
Ure, at the upper extremity of Wenfiey dale. It has a
weekly market on Thurfday : diflant 247 miles north from
London.

ASLA, a river of Spain, on the northern coaft, which
falls into a bay in the bay of Bifcay, where it forms a good
harbour to the eaft of cape Pinas.

ASLANT, in Commerce, a name given to the Dutch
dollar, current in mot parts of the Levant. The word is
alfo written corruptly, afé/ani. It is originally Turkith,
and fignifies a lion, which is the figure ftamped on it. The
Arabs taking the figure of a lion for a dog, called it abuf-
keith. The ailani is filver, but of a bafe alloy, and oftentimes
counterfeit. It is current for 15 or 120 afpers. See
ASPER.

ASLAPATH, in Geogreshy, a town and diftri& of
Afia, in Armenia, near Nackfivan, onthe banks ofthe Aras.
{tis inhabited by Armenians ; and the women are {aid to be
fo beautiful, that the king of Perfia fupplies his feraglio
from this place.

ASLING, or Jessenize, a town of Germany, in Car-
niola, fixteen miles S. S. W. of Clagenfurt. In this
town, which is not far from the river Sau, is dug a fine
marble ; and near it are lead furnaces, and other works,
in which confiderable quantities of iron and fteel are
Imelted.

ASMER, a {mall town of Hindooftan, in the ftates of
the Mogul, fouth-weft of Agra, and in the extremity of
the province of Bando, called alfo Afmer.

ASMEROEA, a mountain of Afia, in the country of
the Seres, inhabited by a people called Afmirceans, who are
difperfed through the province of Cataja, a part of Tar-
tary.—Alfo, a town of Affa, in the fame country, accord-
ing to Ptolemy.

ASMODAL, in Mythology, the name given by the Jews
to the prince of demons; and, according to R. Elias, the
fame with Sammael.

ASMONEANS, in Ancient Hiftory, the name given to
the Maccasees, the defcendants of Mattathias, who, ac-
cording to Jofephus, was the grandfon of Afmonzus ;
though others derive the appellation from mount Afamar,
placed by Jofephus in the midft of Galilee, near Sephoris ;
and others again confider it merely as a title of honour given
to Mattathias and his defcendants, alleging that chafchma-
zim lignifies in Hebrew, princes. However this be, the fa-
mily of the Afmoneans became very illuftrious in the latter
period of the Hebrew commonwealth, and poffeffed the fu-
preme authority and the high-priefthood from the com-
mencement of the government of Judas Maccabeus ‘to He-
rod the Great, during a period of 129 years, or 126 years,
according to Jofephus, who reckons from the time in which
Judas was eftablifhed in the government by his peace with
Antiochus Eupator, three years after he firft affumed it. It
was the practice of the Afmonean princes to impofe their
religion upon all the countries which they conquered, leay-
ing to the vanquifhed no other choice, but either to become
Jews, or elfe to have their dwellings demolifhed, and to feek
new habitations.

ASMURA, or Asmurwna, in Ancient Geography, atown
of Aifia, in the interior of Hyrcania. N. lat. 39° 30’. Pto-
lemy. ‘
ASNAH, in Geography. See Esné.

ASNAUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Europe,
in Macedonia, between which and Oeropus was a valley, in
which flowed the river Oéas. f

ASNEN, in Grography, a lake of Sweden, in the pro-

3

Ae, 838

vince of Smoland, about North lat. 56° 36'. Eat longi-
tude 14° 48’.

ASNID, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Candahar,
23 leagues north of Salem.

ASNIERES, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton in the diltrié
of Bellac, ro miles north-weft of Bellac.

ASO, a town of Japan, in the province of Simood- -
fuke.

ASODES, in Medicine, a term applied to fevers accom-
panied with anxiety and opprefiion about the ftomach and
precordia. It is derived from ez, which, in its primary
fenfe, means a loathing ef food; but which is ufed by Hip-
pocrates, and other ancient phyficians, to denote great un-
eafinefs and reftleffnefs, whether with or without naufea. It
is fometimes written aflodes. . a

ASOLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the territory
of Brefcia, on the river Chiefe ; which was formerly a for-
tified place, belonging to the republic of Venice.

ASOLO, a town of Italy, in the diftriG of Trevifo, fitu-
ate on a mountain at the fource of the river Mufona ; {mall,
but well-peopled. N. lat. 45°49’. E. long. 12° 2’.

ASONA, a river of Italy, in the marquifate of Ancona;
which rifes in the Appennines, on the frontiers of Umbria, ~
and runs into the Adriatic fea, ten miles fouth-eaft of ~
Fermo.

ASOPH. See Azor.

ASOPIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Pelopon-
nefus, in Sicyonia. Strabo.

ASOPUS, a town of Laconia, in which was a temple of
Minerva Cypariffenfis, fouth-eaft of Cyparifla. At the dif
tance of twelve ftadia was a temple of Eiculapius, furnam-
ed Philolaus, the friend of the people. The citadel is now
ftanding, and called by the failors Ca/el Rampano.—Alio,
a river of Bootia, which had its fource in mount Citheron,
north-weit of Platza ; and paffing eaft by north of this city,
difcharged itfelf into that part of the fea which feparated
the ifle of Euboea from the continent over againft Eretria,
now called 4/ope.—Alfo, a river of Sicyonia, which rofe to
the fouth-weft, on the frontiers of Arcadia, near mount
Cyllene, ran eaft of Sicyone, and difcharged itfelf into the
gulf of Corinth.—A lf, a river of Greece, in Theflaly, which
had two fources in that part of mount Oeta that was conti-
guous to mount Pindus, and running eaitward, emptied it-
{elf into the Maliac gulf, north of ‘Thermopyle.—Alfo, a
river of Afia Minor, which watered the town of Laodicea
upon the Lycus. Pliny. ; ;

ASOTUS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Siturus foundin
Afia. It has a fingle dorfal fin, and four cirri at the mouth,
two on the upper and two on the lower jaw. The teeth of
this kind are numerous ; the dorfal fin is deftitute of {pinous
rays; firft ray of the pectoral fin is ferrated; and the anak
fin is long, and conneéted with the tail. a

ASOUPAS, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Farfiftan, twenty-three leagues north of
Schiras. f

ASP, or Aspis, in Zoology, a {pecies of CoruseEr, de-
{cribed by Linnzus, as having 146 plates on the belly, and
46 feales on the tail. Dr. Shaw has fome doubt are
the Linnzan afpis, but concludes it is the ferpent deferibe
under the name of afpic by the count de Cepede, who in-
forms us that it is a native of France, and particularly of the
northern provinces of that country. The length is about
three feet; the head rather large, and covered with {mall
carinated {eales; the fcales of the body fmaller, but of a
fimilar ftruéture. In the ftru€iure of its fangs it refembles
the viper, and is'faid to be equally poifonous. M. Sa ct

ASP

is not willing to allow this to be the real Coluber afpis of
Linneus.

In addition to the fpecific charaéter of the coluber afpis
(taken from the number of abominal plates, and feales of
the tail), Gmelin obferves, that the nofe is terminated by an
erect wart ; the body rufous, with figured {treaks, which
are alternately confluent, and the under fide fteel-blue dotted
with yellow. Dr. Shaw calls his coluber afpis, the rufef-
cent viper, with roundifh, alternate, duflcy, dortal {pots, fub-
confluent towards the tail; and ftates the number of abdo-
minal fcuta to be 155, fubcaudal {cales 37.

The true afp of the ancients feems to be entirely unknown.
It is very frequently mentioned by ancient writers, but in
fuch a carelefs and indefinite manner, that it is impoffible to
afcertain the fpecies with precifion. With the afp it is faid
the high-{pirited princefs Cleopatra effected her death, rather
than dubmit herfelf as a captive to grace the triumphal entry
of her conqueror Auguftus into Rome. ‘This trait of he-
roifm in that diftinguifhed chara&ter is copteited. The in-
dications of Cleopatra’s having occafioned her death by
means of an afp, were only two almoft infenfible punGures
obferved in her arm; and it is aflerted by Plutarch, that it
is unknown of what death fhe died.

Brown places the popular report of her death in this
manner among his vulgar errors. Others are of a different
opinion. Some have imagined it was the Egyptian viper,
deferibed by Haffelquilt, which Cleopatra made ufe of on
that occafion. Mr. Bruce is led to conclude, from various
eircumftances, that it might be the ceraftes, coluber ceraftes
of Linnzus. ;

« Tapprehend,” fays Mr. Bruce, in {peaking ‘of the ce-
raftes, ‘¢ this to be the afpic which Cleopatra employed to
precure her death. Alexandria, plentifully fupplied by
water, mutt then have had fruits of all kinds in its gardens :
the bafket of figs mult have come from thence, and the afpic
or ceraftes that was hid in them, from the adjoining defert,
where they are plentiful to this day ; for to the weitward in
Egypt, where the Nile overflows, there is no fort of ferpents
whatever that ever I faw, nor, as I have before faid, is there
any other of the mortal kind that I know in thofe parts of
Africa adjoining to Egypt, except the ceraftes. It fhould
feem very natural for any one, who, from motives of diftrefs,
has refolyed to put a period to his exiftence, efpecially wo-
men and weak perfons, unaccuftomed to handle arms, to feek
the gentleit method to free themfelves from the load of life,
now become infupportable.’’—“ It is not to be doubted,”
adds Mr. Bruce ftill further, «* but that a woman, high-{pi-
rited like Cleopatra, was alfo above the momentary differ-
ences in feeling ; and had the way in which fhe died not been
ordinary and ufual, fhe certainly would not have applied her-
felf to the invention of anew one. We are therefore to
look upon her dying by the bite of the ceraftes, as only fol-
lowing the manner of death which fhe had feen adopted by
thofe who intended to die without torment. Galen, fpeak-
ing of the afpic in the great city of Alexandria, fays, I have
feen how fpeedily they (the afpics) occafioned death. When-
ever any perfon is condemned to die, whom they with to end
quickly and without torment, they put the viper to his
breaft, and fuffering him there to creep a little, the man is
prefently killed.””

Lord Bacon makes the afp the leaft painful of all the
inftruments of death; he fuppofes its poifon to have an
affinity to opium, but to be lefs difagreeable in its operation ;
which does not fo well agree with the defcription of the
fymptoms given by Diofcorides and others. Immediately
after the bite, the fight becomes dim, a fenfible tumour
arifes, and a moderate pain is felt in the ftomach. Matthi-

ASP

olus adds, that the bite is followed by a ftupor of the whole
body, palenefs, coldnefs of the forehead, continual yawn-
ing, nictitation of the eyelids, inclination of the neck, hea-~
vinefs of the head, finking into a profound fleep, and laflly,
convulfions. ‘The bite of the afp is faid by Ariftotle to
admit of no remedy. Pliny and A®gineta allow of no other
cure, but to cut off the wounded part. Others recommend
burning the part, with the internal ufe of hot alexipharmic
medicines. ‘I'he ancients had a platter called 3vwomidw, made
of this terrible animal, of great efficacy as a difcutient of
Jirume and other indurations, and ufed likewife againtt
pains of the gout. The fleth and fkin, or exuvia of the
creature, had alfo their fhare in the ancient JZateria Me~
dica.

Asp, or A/pen-Tree, in Botany. Sce Porurus.

ASPA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Par-
thia, fuppofed to be //pahan. Ptolemy.

ASPABO'TA,/a town of the Scythians, on this fide of
Imaus. Ptolemy. ;
ASPACARAE, a people of Afia, in Serica.
emy.

ASPAGORA, or Aspacora, a county of Afia, in
Serica.

ASPAH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auttria, twelve miles eaft of Steyr. .

ASPALATH, Aspataruum, in Pharmacy, the wood
or root of a foreign tree, heavy, oleaginous, fomewhat fharp,
and bitter to the tafte, and of a itrong fmell, and purple
colour.

It is brought from the Canary iflands, in long crooked
pieces full of knots, externally of a whitifh colour, internally
of deep yellow, with a reddifh caft. Digefted in rectified
fpirit, it gives out pretty readily the whole of its active mat-
ter, and tinges the menitruum of a reddifh colour ; infufed
in water, it gives out likewife great part of its {mell and
tafte, together with a bright yellow colour; and dittilled
with water, it gives over {lowly and with difficulty, a highly
odoriferous effential oil, at firft of areddifh colour, becoming
reddith with age, and amounting, if the rhodium be good, to
about an ounce from 50: the diftilled water is likewife im-
pregnated agreeably with the fragrance of the rhodium, and
refembles that of damafk rofes. ‘This oil is ufed as a per-
fume for fcenting pomatums, &c. in this light only it is now
generally regarded. Dr. Lewis (Mat. Med.) obierves that
it promifes to be applicable to more important purpofes, and
bids fair to prove a valuable cordial and corroborant.

The afpalath is otherwife called /ignum Rhodium, or rofe-
wood, and by fome Cyprus-eood ; the former on account of
its fweet fmell, or growth in the ifland of Rhodes ; the lat-
ter from its being alfo found in the ifland of Cyprus.
Though fome will have afpalathum a different. wood from
the lignum Rhodium.

Afpalath was anciently in much repute as an aftringenty,
flrengthener, and drier; but it is now much difufed in in--
ternal practice.

ASPALATHIS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
Afia Minor, on the coaft of Lycia. Steph. Byz.

ASPALATHUS, in Botany, the name of a thorny
fhrub in Diofcorides, (from « and zrew, becaufe the thorns
were not eafily drawn out of the wounds they made.) Lin.
gen. 860. Reich. 931. Schreb. 1168. Gertn.t.144. Juff.
353- Clafs, diadelphia decandria. Nat. ord. papilionacees
or /eguminofe. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth one-leafed, five-
cleft, divifions acuminate, equal, except that the upper is
larger ; Cor. papilionaceous, banner comprefled, afcending,
obovate, generally hirfute on the outfide, obtufe, with a
point ; wings lunate, obtule, {preading, fhorter than the ban-

NeTs-

Pto-

ASP

ner, keel bifid, conformable with the wings; Stam. filaments
ten, united into a fheath, gaping longitudinally at the top,
afcending, anthers oblong; Pi//. germ ovate, ftyle fimple,
afceading, ftigma harp ; Per. legume ovate, awnlefs ; Seeds,
gererail y two, kidney-thaped.

Eff. Geo. Cisar. Cal. five-cleft, upper divifions largelt ;
Legume ovate, awalefs, with about two feeds.

Olf. This genus is fingular in having feveral leaves from
the fame bud, in a fhrabby p

Species, 1. A. /pino/a, thorny afpalathus. Geniftella, &c.
Brey. Cent. t. 26, Pluk. Phyt..t.297.f.6. ‘ Leaves faf.
cicled, linear, naked, furrounding a gummaceous {pine.’?
Tlowers lateral, fearcely longer than the leaves; legume
fmall, ovate at the bafe, triangular, upwards drawn to a
point, comprefled like a lens, containmg two feeds, one
compreffed kidaey-fhaped, the other globular. 2. A. ver-
rucofé, warted A. “ Leaves fafcicled, filiform; buds wart-
ed, naked, tomentofe.”” A fhrub two feet high, with large
buds or warts; leaves flefhy, fmooth, fharpifh, an inch long ;
flowers lateral, fhorter than the leaves, fubfeffile ; calyx pu-
befcent ; banner villofe. 3. A. capitata, headed A.~ Pluk.
Payt. 307. £. 6.. Seba Muf.1.t.23.£6. Leaves fafci-
cled, linear, fharp, flowers headed, braces naked.’’ Leaves
pubefcent; flowers covered with ferruginous down; feg-
ments of the calyx fubulate; keel of the flower arched and
the length of the banner. _4. A. glomerata, glomerate A.
s¢ Leaves fafcicled, linear, fharp, villofe bent wards, flow-
ers headed, divifions ef the calyx ovate, coroilas {mooth.”
This differs from the third, in having its leaves bent inwards,
the calyxes ovate, and the corollas fmooth.. 5. A. a/froites,
flarry A. Pluk. Mant. 88. t. 413. £ 3. Seba Muf. 1. t. 24,
£.6. Leaves fafcicled, fubulate, mucronate, fmooth, item
villofe, flowers f{cattered.”? This has the appearance, of ju-
niper; it branches vary much, and the twigs are covered
with hoary dowa, and loaded with a profution of flowers.
6. A. chenopodia; genitta africana lutea, &c. Herm. Aft:
rr. Chamelarix. Breya. Cert. 23. t. 11. Seba Mof. 1. t.
23. f.4. “ Leaves fafcicled, fubulate, mucronate, rough with
hairs, flowers headed, very hirfute.” A fhrub about three
feet high, with flender branches terminated by the flowers,
which are yellow, colleGted in woolly heads; the leaves are
prickly like thofe of juniper. Cultivated in1759, by Miller.
7. A. albens, white A. « Leaves fafcicled, fubulate, jilky,
{preading at top, bunches of flowers f{eattered.”” Shrubby,
upright, and covered with brown bark, which is full of
chinks ; leaves in fives, fharp, fpreading at the tip, ofa filky
whitenefs; flowers terminating in bunches, tomentofe, {mall,
of a filky white; calyx pubefcent. Introduced here in
1774, by Mr. Maffon. It flowers in July. 8. A. thym fo-
dia, thyme-leaved A. Gea. minima, &c. Pluk. Mant. 88.
t.413.f.1. “ Leaves faivicled, fubulate, unarmed, fmooth,
very fhort, flowers alternate.” This is a very {mall fhrub ;
the leaves are crowded together and fhining, refembling
thofe of thyme. 9. A. ericifolia, heath-leaved A. - Gen.
aeth. non fpisofa, &c. Pluk. Maat. $8. t. 413. f. 6. ‘ Leaves
fafcicled, linear, unarmed, hirfute, flowers alternate, calyxes
linear.” A {mall fhrub, very much-branched, pubefcent, or
extremely hirfute ; leaves minute; flowers lateral, fearcely
longer than the leaves ; banner villofe.. 10. A. nigra, black
A. “ Leaves fafcicled, linear, rather ohtife, flowers
head-fpiked, pubefceat.” .A branching-firab, three feet
Jitgh ; bads and twigs pubefcent ; leaves minute, and become
black on drying ; flowers terminating, pubefcent, brattes in
pairs, narrow. 11. A. carnofa, fichhy A. “ Leaves fafci-
led, almoft columnar obtufe, calyxes fubpubefcent, tharp,
corollas fmooth.”? About the height of the tenth fpecies ;
branches naked, determinate; leaves fubcyliadric, fiefhy,

mt.

ASP

bent in, fmooth, four or feven together; flowers yellow,
terminal, umbelled ; calyx bell-fhaped ; braétes three, ovate
lanceolate. 12. A. ciliaris, “ leaves fafcicled, filiform, fea-
brous, flowers terminal feffile, banners pubefcent.”? Stem
fhrubby, two feet high, branching determinately, fomewhat
hairy, with naked warts ; leaves roundifh, fharp, erect, rough
beneath, and when young ciliate; flowers three or five,
with a yellow corolla, and an afhceloured banner.
13. A. genifloides, broom-like A. * Leaves fafcicled, fili-
form, polithed, calyxes fubracemed, pendulous, which as well
as the corollas areimooth.”? Shrubby, nine feet high, branch-
ing, with a reticulate bark, and white villofe buds ; leaves
roundifh, half an inch long ; flowers three or four, terminal,

pendulous; calyxes {mooth, with fhort teeth; braGies two,

minute; corollas yellow ; ityle protruding. 14. A. Ayfrix,
porcupine A. ‘ Leaves fafcicled, filiform, rigid, fpiny, dilky,
flowers lateral, fefiile, folitary, corollas villofe.” ‘This fhrub dif-
fers much from the other {pecies by its leaves refembling filky
white fpines. 15. A. galtoides. “ Leaves fatcicled, linear, po-
lithed ; peduncles two-flowered, elongate, leafy at the ae
Stem two feet high, decumbent, branching, fmooth; warts of
the buds fmall, remote, tomentofe; leaves like thofe of
Alparagus acute; teeth of the calyx the length of the
corolla, which is imooth, yellow ; legume ovate; lanceolate,
fmoothifk. 16. A. retroflexa. Leaves fafcicled, fubulate;
fmooth, very fmall; branches filiform, very f{preading;
flowers folitary, terminal.”? 17. A. uniflora, one-flowered,
A. Gen, /Ethiop. glabra, &c. Pluk. Mant. 88. t. g3q.
f.7. ‘ Leaves fafcicled, linear, unarmed, fmooth ; ‘ftipules
fharp, permanent; flowers folitary, divifions of the calyxes
boat-fhaped.””? Branches alternate, crowded, tomentofe ;
flowers one or two, terminal, pubefcent, keel of the corolla
tomertofe. 18. A. aranea/a, Gen. &c. Pluk. Mant. 88.
t. 414. f£.4. Seba ‘Thef. 1. p. 58. t-23. £6. © Deaves
fafcicled, briftle-fhaped, unarmed, hifpid ; flowers headed.”*
Leaves hairy, befet with tubercles,, a: drough on both fides;
banner hairy outwardly. 19. A. a/jarugoides. “* Leaves
fafcicled, fetaceous, rather hairy ; calyxes leaf-fhaped, the
length of the corolla, folitary.”” A {hrub much branched,
with {mall pubefcent warts where the leaves fall off; leaves
pointed, thinly feattered with hairs; flowers folitary, fef-
file. 20. A. fericea, filky A. “ Leaves fafcicled, lanceo-
late, filky; peduncles two-flowered, terminal, banner al-
moft naked.”? This refembles the preceding, but the leaves
are flat, and none of them in heads; flowers large, fmooth.
21. A. canefcens, hoary A. “ Leaves fafcicled, {ubulate,
tomentofe, filky ; flowers lateral ; banners pubefcent.’” An
ere&t, ftiff, hoary fhrub, with alternate branches; legyes
fharpith ; flowers feffile, at the fides of the branches; calyx

ell-fhaped, with fubulate teeth, fhorter than the body of
it; bractes two, fhort, fetaceous ; corolla yellow ; banner
hoary. 22. A. heterophylla, various-leaved A. Leaves
of the branches fafcicled, of the branchlets ternate, linear,

branches; leaves alternate; leaflets oblong, obtufe, bluntith,

°o

{mooth, broader towards the end ; peduncles axillary, n
longer than the leaves, -but fhorter than the \
flowers of a pale red colour, which appear in May.
of the Eaft Indies, and in 1759, cultivated by |
24. A. eretica, evergreen A. “ Leaves trine, wedge- d,
fmooth, lateral ones fhorter; ftipules obfolete, flowers
headed.’”? About four feet high, with very flexible branches;

leaves

*

iil allaiad

7

*Cochinch. 431.

ASP

leaves many, fmall, narrow, oblong, flethy, evergreen, re-
flex at the edge, with a hard point, fometimes eared at the
bafe ; ethaneles axillary; flowers of-a pleafant fmell, in
two rows, yellow, very fmall; legume fmall, yellowith,
containing a fingle round comprefled fhining feed. A native
ofthe Cape. 25. A. quinquefolia, five-leaved A. Pluk.
Alm. 128. t. 273, f. 4. ‘ Leaves in fives; feffile; pe-
duncles fpiked.”” The leaflets are lanceolate, petioled; a
little hairy, mucronate ; peduncles many times longer than
the leaves, raceme-{piked; corollas tomeatofe. A native
of the Cape. 26. A. tridentata, three-toothed A. « Leaves
trine lanceolate, fmooth ; ftipules three-toothed, mucrohate,
flowers headed.”” A native of the cape of Good Hope.
27. A. pilofa, hairy A. “ Leaves in threes, linear villoie ;
heads terminal, very hairy; corollas pubefcent.’? Stems
fhrubby fimple, a little hairy; leaves {preading, fefiile,
acute, fubpubefcent ; head of flowers protected by bractes
and calyxes, which have white hairs. A native of the
Cape. 28. A. anthylloides. . “ Leaves trine lanceolate,
equal fubpubefcent ; flipules none, heads termina!.’? This
fhrub hasa hirfute flem; the leaves are feffile, rather flefhy,
the upper ones fomewhat hairy ; heads folitary, feffile, ob-
long ; three bractes under each calyx. It has the appear-
ance of a lotus oranthyllus. Cape. 29. A. /axata, loofe
Jeaved A. ‘ Leaves tern linear, villofe; flowers in bunches
of five; calyxes woolly ; ftems proftrate round.’? Stem
fubherbaceous, decumbent, round, flexile, pubefcent ;
branches alternate ; leaves loofe, on very {hort petioles;
flowers terminal, feffile, no bra¢tes; corolla {mooth, yellow.
‘Cape. 30. A. argentea, filvery A. cytifus, &c. Pluk. Mant.
63. t. 345. f.2. “ Leaves trine linear filky; f{tipules fim-

le mucronate ; flowers fcattered toméntofe ;” fhrubby,
ie feet high, flowers fometimes in {pikes, purple, downy.
Cultivated by Miller in 1759. A native of the Cape. 31.
A. callofa, callous A. Pluk. Mant. 63. t. 345. f. 4.“ Leaves
trine {ubulate equal; ftipules roundifh, callous; flowers
fpiked, fmooth.” An underfhrub, having the branches
covered with round callufes, occafioned by the falling of
leaves, which are feffile, with a callous bafe like thofe of
juniper ; {pikes loofe; bractes one-leafed; flowers yellow,
fmooth. Cape. 32. A. orientalis, Levant A. ‘ Leaves
ternate, lanceolate, pubefcent ; flowers in bunches of five ;
calyxes pubefcent; ftems erect, angular.’? Stems a foot
high; leaves feffile, refembling thofe of flax ; corollas yel-
low, the fize of thofe of laburnum ; {tamens connate. Found
in the Levant by Tournefort. 33. A. mucronata. “ Leaves
tern, polifhed, branches acuminate; flowers in racemes.’
Stem {mooth ; branches remote, tapering to a point ; leaves
lanceolate, on fhort petioles; racemes terminate, ereét, on
very fhort pedicles. Cape. 34 A. pinnata, pinnate-leaved
A. “ Leaves pinnate-quinate obcordate ; peduncles headed’?
leaflets five, clofe, a little hairy, tomentofe underneath, on
fhort petioles; peduncle longer than the leaves; corollas
rather tomentofe. It refembles A. quinquefolia, n. 25.
Cape. 35. A pedunculata, {mall-leaved A. L? Herit. Ang.
t. 26. “ Leaves fafcicled, fubulate, fmooth; peduncles
filiform, twice the length of the leaf.’”? Found.at the Cape
by Maffon, ‘and introduced into the Kew garden in 1775.
It flowers in June. 36. A. candicans, fair A. “ Leaves
trine and fafcicled, filiform, filky ; flowers fublateral, ban-
ners naked’? This was alfo found at the Cape by Maffon
and introduced in 1774. 37. A. arborea, tree A. Lour.
: «¢ Leaves pinnate-quinate 5 Yacemes ter-
minating.’? This is a middle-fized tree with a ftraight

‘trank, and weak recliniag branches; leaves fmeoth, entire, fef-
file; flowers white, fmall, banner obcordate, broadifh, afcend-
_ing; wings oblong, equal to the banner ; {tamens all connate.

Sven. LiL

ASP

Propagationand Culture. Few of thefe firubshave hitherto
been cultivated in Europe. They are to be propagated by
feeds, which mutt be obtained from the country where they
grow {poutaneoufly, and fhould be fown in pots filled with
light earth as foon as they arrive: if this happen in the
autumn, the pots fhould be plunged into an old tan-bed
whofe heat is fpent, where they may remain till {pring,
when they fhould be removed into a temperate hot-bed,
which will bring up the plants. But when the feeds arrive
in the {pring, the pots in which the feeds are fown fhould
be then plunged into a moderate hot-bed ; and in warm
weather the glafles muft be fhaded during the middle of
the day, and the plants frequently refrefhed with water.
Yhofe feeds that are fown in the {pring, feldom grow the
fame year; therefore, in the autumn, the pots fhould be
put into an old tan-bed as above direéted, and the following
{pring put intoa hot-bed. When the plants become ftrong
enough to remove, they fhould each be planted in a feparate
{mall pot filled with light earth and plunged into a mode-
rate hot-bed to promote their rooting again, and as foon
as they are eftablifhed in the pots, they fhould gradually be
enured to the open air, into which they are to be removed
in the fummer, and remain in a fheltered fitvation till
autumn, when they muft be placed in the green-houfe, al-
lowing them very little water during the winter. See
Martyn’s Miiler’s Did.

AsPALATHUS. See Ropinia and Spartium.

Asparatuus Lbenus. See AMERIMNUM.

ASPALAX, in Zoology, an animal mentioned by Ari-
ftotle, as being blind. The Romans and fome moderns
tranflating the term a/palax, mole, and knowing that this
animal is not blind, have thought themzlves warranted in
denying the affertion of Ariftotle. Olivier, however, has
not long fince brought from the Levant an animal actually
blind, with its fkin not fo much as pierced in the place of
the eyes. ‘This animal lives under ground, and has all the
characters afcribed by Ariftotle tothe afpalax. It is known
to Zoologiits under the name of mus typhlus, and zemni.

Asparax, a f{pecies of Mus, called by Pennant and
later Englifh naturalifts the Daurian rat ; Laxmann names
it Mus myofpalax ; and Pallas, Schreber, Gmelin, &c.
fpecifically defcribe it as having a fhort tail, cuneated or
wedged fore-teeth, no ears, and claws of the fore-feet elon-
gated. It is a native of the Altaic mountains, and of the
country beyond the lake Baikal; like other fubterranean
or ground rats, it burrows with its fnout and feet, raifes
numerous hillocks of earth in its progrefs, and feeds on
bulbous roots. In refpeét of fize, it varies confiderably,
being from five to eight inches and a half or more in length.

Dr Shaw obferves that this {pecies in form and manners
of life agrees with the mus typhlus, or blind rat; but is in
general of a fmaller fize and of a yellowih afh colour, and
in fome {pecimens a whitifh line or longitudinal fireak ap-<
pears on the top of the head; the upper fore-tecth are naked,
but the lower are covered with a moveable lip ; there is no
appearance of external ears, and the eyes are extremely
{mall and deeply feated; the head is flat and blunt; the
body fhort and fomewhat depreffed; the limbs very
ftrong, efpecially the fore-legs, the feet of which are large,
naked, and well adapted for burrowing into the ground,
having five toes, the three middle of which are furnifhed
with long and ftrong flightly curved claws; the hind feet
are alfo naked, and have five toes with {mall claws ; the tail
is very fhort. Gen. Zool.

ASPALUCA, in Ancient Geography, a valley of the
Pyrenées, now the valley of A/pe, in which was the Gaba
rus, or Gave.

N ASPA-}

ASP

ASPANEUS, a foreft of Afia Minor, in the Troas,
being a part of the foreit of Ida. Strabo.

ASPANG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auftria, feventeen miles fouth of Eben-
furth. ‘

ASPARAGI, in Entomology, afpecies of CurysoMuLa
(Linn.), with ared thorax marked with two dots of black ;
wing-cafes yellow, with a cruciform mark, and four {pots
of black. Geoffroy calls it le criocere porte croix de l’at-
perge; it is attelabus afparagi of Scopoli; lema afparagi of
Fab. Ent. Syit. Supp.; cryptocephalus afparagi of Gmelin;
and auchenia afparagi of Marfh. Ent. Brit. This mifchiey-
ous intruder into the kitchen garden, is but too well known
by its depredations in the larva ftate upon the beds of afpa-
ragus; it isa little grub of a blackifh-brown colour, that
feeds exclufively on thefe plants; and, if neglected, will in
the courfe of a few days leave nothing but the naked ftalks
of the afparagus remaining in thofe beds where they can
once take up their refidence. Donov. Brit. Inf. &c.

ASPARAGUS, in Botany (Asrapayes, a young fhoot,
before its leaves unfold). Linn. g. 424. Schreb. 573.
Gaertn. 16. Jufl. 41. Clafs, hexandria monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Sarmentacee. Gen. Char. Cal. none. Cor. petals fix,
cohering by the claws, oblong, ereéted into a tube, three
alternately interior, permanent. Svam. filaments fix, fili-
form, inferted into the petals, erect, fhorter than the co-
rolla; anthers roundifh. /i/?. germ. turbinate, three cor-
nered; ftyle very fhort; flizma, a prominent point. Per.
berry globular, umbilicated with a point, three-celled.
Seeds, two, round, angular on the infide, {mooth. 02/: Ac-
cording to Dr. Smith, there are three ftigmata; the flower
appears as if it were monopetalous.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cor. fix-parted, ére€&t, equal. Cal. none;
ftyle very fhort; ftigmas three; berry fuperior, three-celled;
feeds two, externally convex. Smith.

Species, 1. A. officinalis, common afparagus or fperage,
Hudf. 145. With. 340. Smith Brit. 369. Eng. Bot. 339.
Flor. Dan. 805. ‘¢ Stem herbaceous, round, ereét, leaves
fetaceous; ftipules uniform, fubfolitary.”” It grows wild in
maritime places in the fouth of England, abundantly on
the pebbly beach oppofite the ferry going from Weymouth
to Portland ifland. A variety @. viz. A. maritimus craffiore
folio, (Dill. in Ray’s Synop.) has been found in Anglefea.
Root perennial, creeping, with very long, thick, fimple
fibres ; ftem erect, occafionally procumbent, round, fimple,
and bearing alternate fcales (or {tipules without leaves blow)
in the upper part, branching in a panicled alternate manner :
leaves in tufts, very narrow, and briftly, but flexible; {ti-
pules folitary, membranous, triangular, acute, the upper
ones ovate and jagged; flowers from the axille of the
branches on capillary.fimple ftalks, drooping, white, none
of the fegments inflexed, in fome the ftamens, in others
the piftillum occafionally abortive ; ftyle deeply three-cleft ;
berry red. It flowers in Auguft. The above is a defcrip-
tion of the plant in its wild ftate, in which its ftems are
ufually about the fize of a goofe’s quill, yet this is now
well known to be the origin of our luxuriant garden afpa-
ragus, for the cultivation of which ample inftruGtions are
fubjomed. 2. A. declinatus, long-leaved A. ‘ Stem un-
armed, round ; branches declined ; leaves fetaceous.’? his
refembles the common fort, but it is higher, has more and
much longer leaves; ftipules folitary, lanceolate-fubulate,
with a membranaceous point at the bafe downwards ; leaves
feven or ten in a bunch, filiform, fpreading. A native of
the Cape. Introduced in 1787, by Mr. Maffon. 3. A.
falcatus, fickle-leaved A. Burm. Flor. Zeyl. 36. t. 13. f 2.
* Prickles folitary, reverfed; branches round; leayes enfi-

ASP

form, falcated.’? A native of Ceylon. 4, A. retrofratus,
arch-leaved A, ‘* Prickles folitary, branches round,
refle&ted, and retrofracted; leaves fetaceous, fafcicled.??
Its branches are round dichetomous, warted at the divifions
with a minute nodding prickle. The ftailks are fhubby,
crooked, irregular, eight or ten feet high ; leaves long, nar-
row, in clufters like thofe of the larch. A native of the
Cape. Cultivated by Miller in 1759. The leaves preferve
their verdure all the year. 5. A. ethiopicus. ‘ Prickles
folitary, reverfed; branches angulate; leaves lanceolate.
linear.””? This is nearly allied to A. falcatus, but the leaves
are {maller, and about feven ina bunch. The ftipules put
forth-a reverfed fpine. A native of the Cape. . 6. A; afia-
ticus, flender-ftalked A. ‘ Prickles folitary; ftem ere@ ;
branches filiform; leaves fafcicled, fetaceous.?? It fends
up many weak fhoots in cluiters, and armed with fharp
{pines at the fides and ends of the fhoots; leaves in {mall
clufters, and continuing green all the year. 7. A. albus,
white A. “ Prickles Bie branches angular, flexuofe ;
Icaves fa{cicled, triquetrous, awnlefs, deciduous.” Stems
fhrubby, covered with white bark, armed with thorns, three
or four feet high, furnithed. with many branches, bearing
fhort narrow leaves. Thefe continue green all the winter,
if {ereened from the froft. A native of Spain and Portugal ;
cultivated here in 1640. 8. A. acutifolius, acute-leaved A.
« Stem unarmed, angular, fhrubby; leaves needle-fhaped ;
rather rigid, perennial, mucronate, equal.” It has white,
crooked, fhrubby ftalks, four or five feet high, without
fpines; leaves like thofe of larch, but fhort, and end in
prickles. It refembles A. aphyllus, from which it differs,
in ufually having feven leaves together, which are much
fmaller. A native of Spain and the Levant. Cultivated
by Millerin 1739. 9. A. horridus, thorny A. Leaflefs,
fhrubby, pentagonal; prickles four-cornered, comprefled,
{triated.’” The fpines are about the length of the finger.
A native of Spain. 10. A. aphyllus, prickly A. “ Stem
unarmed, angular, fhrubby; leaves fubulate, ftriated, une-
qual, diverging. Stems weak, irregular, furnifhed with
ftiff, fhort {pines, inftead of leaves; flowers {mali, of an
herbaceous colour; berries very large, and black when

ripe. A native of the South of Europe. Cultivated here
in 1640. 11. A. capenfis, cape A. ‘ Spines in fours ;

branches aggregate, round ; leaves fetaceous.” Pluk. Alm.
t. 78. f. 3. Root tuberous; ftems fruticofe, filiform, flex-
uofe; branchlets from the axille of the fpines, filiform, loofe,
unarmed, deciduous; leaflets fetaceous, acute, fhort. A
native of the Cape. Cultivated in the royal garden Hamp-
ton-court, in 1691. 12. A. /armentofus, linear-leaved A.
“¢ Leaves folitary, linear-lanceolate ; ftem flexuofe; prickles
recurved.”? It rifes five or fix feet high; and its fhoots are
fo clofely befet with fhort crooked fpines that it is diffi-
cult to touch the branches. The roots, which are lone
and fufiform, are eaten with broth or milk by the inhabit-
ants of Ceylon, who are very fond of them. Cultivated
in 1714, by the duchefs of Beaufort. 13. A. veérticillaris,
whorl-leaved A. “ Leaves verticillate.”” Found by Tourne-
fort in the Levant.

ASPARAGUS, in Gardening, comprehends one of the
moft valuable efculent vegetables of the kitchen garden* it
has ere&t, herbaceous ftalks, three or four feet in height,
and very fine briftly leaves; it is a perennial fibrous rooted
vegetable, the roots being of many years duration, but the
tops or ftalks annual. The plants being raifed from feed,
after having acquired a period of three or four years growth,
produce proper fized afparagus, of which the fame roots
furnifh an annual fupply for many years, continuing to rife
in perfection for fix or eight weeks in the fummer eb

the

.
+

2y hw

ASPARAGUS.

the fhoots afterwards run up to {talks and flowers, and per-
fe& feeds in autumn.

But befides the crop raifed in the fummer feafon, it may
alfo be obtained im perfection during the winter, and early
in the fpring, by the aid of hot-beds, in the manner ex-
plained below.

Propagation of the Plants. It isobferved by the authors
of the Univerfal Gardener, that the propagation of this

lant is by feed only, which may be eafily obtained from
jJeed-fhops. It fhould be fown in February, or any time in
March, ‘in a four feet wide bed of rich earth, either broad
caft on the furface, and direétly raked in, or in drills long-
ways fix inches afunder, the ground being afterwards raked.
In ix weeks or thereabouts, the plants will generally ap-
pear; they fhould be kept clean from weeds all the fummer,
and in winter a little fhort flable litter fpread on the grownd
to defend the crowns of the roots from frofts; and in the
{pring following they will be fit for tran{planting where they
are finally to remain, and in two or three years afterwards,
as has been juit obferved, they will produce afparagus fit to
gather.

Afparagus is always three years at leaft from the time of
fowing the feed before the plants obtain ftrength enough to
produce fhoots of due fize for the table; that is, one year
in the feed-bed, and two after being tranfplanted, though it
is fometimes three or four years after planting before they
produce good full-fized fhoots. But the fame bed or plan-
tation will continue producing good afparagus ten or twelve
years, and even endure fifteen or twenty years; however,
at that age the fhoots are generally {mall, and the whole
annual produce inconfiderable; a new plantation fhould
therefore be made every eight, ten, or twelve years, as may
be judged neceflary. When new plantations of afparagus
are required to be raifed in the quickeft manner for ufe, it
fhould be done by purchafing ready-raifed year-old plants of
the nurferymen or kitchen gardeners, as in this way a year
may be gained.

The beft feafon of the year to make a plantation of thefe
plants is in March, in common light ground, or at the
Tateft, the firft or fecond week in April; but in cold moitt
foils, from about the twentieth of March to the fifteenth of
April.

In regard to foil and fituation, the plants fucceed tolera-
bly well in any that is light and mellow, and that is fuffi-
ciently rich; but it is eligible to allow them a {pot that
is rich and light in one of the open quarters of the garden,
that is expofed to the free air and full fun, as this is of
much importance. Dung muit be added fix or eight inches
thick at leaft; the ground is then to be trenched one or
two {pits deep, as may be neceffary, burying the dung re-
gularly in each trench, obferving that where the trench
is but one fpade depth, the dung be buried well in the
bottom; but if two fpades depth, betwixt the firft and
fecond pit, or about ten or twelve inches below the furface.
Where the trenching is performed in winter, or any confider-
able time before the planting feafon, it is proper to throw
the ground into ridges to meliorate and improve by the wea-
ther into better preparation for planting, as well as for the
benefit of the young plants. When the time of planting
arrives, it is to be levelled down, which will be a further
improvement. See Trencuine and Ripeine of Ground.

The fpace of ground neceffary to plant for private ufe
is generally from about four or five to twenty rod, accord-
ing to the extent of the family; and the proper quantity
of plants to a rod, exclufive of the alleys, is about 260;
one year old plants are to be preferred to fuch as are older ;
as thofe of that age will eftablifh themfelves fooner and
more effeCtually than older roots. The plants at the time

of being put into the beds, confifting ufually of only roots,
are at the proper time to be taken up from the feed-bed
witha dung-fork as entire as poffible, and the ttrongeft fort-
ed out for ufe, but not trimmed, only fuch parts as are
broken or bruifed being cut off.

In planting, they are to be placed in rows a foot afunder,
and formed into beds, each bed to confift of four rows
ranging lengthways of them, and planted in drills, or in
{mall narrow trenches, as explained below, allowing three
feet and a half interval between every four rows, two feet
of which to be afterwards allotted for an alley between the
beds, and the reft to be annexed to the beds, which, as well
as the alleys, muit be regularly laid out in their proper di-
menfions, four feet and a half for the beds, and two feet for
each alley between bed and bed. Orthey may be at firft mark-
ed out and formed into beds and alleys régularly and of their
refpective dimenfions ; the beds four feet and a half, and the
alleys trodden out between the different beds two feet wide ;
then four fpaces a foot afunder marked out for four rows
lengthways of each bed, the two outfide rows of each nine
inches from the edge; {tretch a line tight along the length
of the bed in the firit outfide row, and with the f{pade held
in an ere@ pofition, the back being towards the line, cut out
a {mall neat trench'along clofe to the line about fix inches
deep, forming the fide next the line upright, turning out
the earth evenly to lie clofe along the edge of the trench,
ready to earth in the roots as planted; this being done,
proceed to planting the row, placing the plants in the trench
clofe againit the upright fide ten or twelve inches afunder,
with the crowns upright about two inches below the fur-
face, {preading the roots both ways, and drawing a little
earth up to thofe of each plant as they are put in, juft fo as
to fix them in their places till the whole of the row is plant-
ed; then dire@tly rake the excavated earth into the trench
over the roots and crowns of the plants evenly ; which done
move the line a foot further for the next row, and cut out
another trench as above, and plant it in the fame manner,
dire@tly earthing over the plants as in the firft row ; and
thus proceeding regularly with the reit till the whole is com-
pleted. Having finifhed the planting in either of the above
methods, the bed and alleys may either be lined out now re-
gularly,; or deferred until the winter and {pring drefling,
though where the beds, &c. are formed previous to the
planting, it may be eligible to line them neatly in their
proper dimenfions as foon as planted, making the edges
of the beds full and ftraight, and the alleys level and even.
In the other method, either forming the beds and alleys now
or afterwards, as hinted above; obierving that of the wide
intervals of three feet and'an half between the beds, two feet
only are to be allowed fer alleys, the other eighteen inches
mult be added to the beds, which will make each bed four
feet and a half wide, nine inches on each fide wider than the
outfide rows; and noting that in either method, if the beds,
&c. are formed as foon as planted, the alleys at this time
are only to be trodden out gently the proper width, with-
out caiting out any of the earth upon the beds, fo as to-
ftand in the alleys, and lightly to rake the bed even, draw-
ing off any large ftones and lumpy clods, fo as to leave a
fmooth furface.

In performing the above, if you have occafion to make
the moft of every part of the ground, a thin crop of onions
may be fown the firft year on the fame plat as foon as
the afparagus is planted; but in this cafe, fow the feed
moderately thin, raking it in regularly with a light and
even hand, fo as net to difplace any of the afparagus
plants. : ;

The afparagus being planted in this manner, it requires
the following culture.—The fhoots moftly appear above

Nz ground

ASPARAGUS.

ground the beginning of May, commonly not much bigger
than ftraws; all fuch muft be permitted to rua wholly to ftalk.
During fummer, they muft be kept clean from weeds by
{mall hoeing or hand weeding them three or four times in
the courfe of that feafon; and if there be a crop of onions,
thin them in the ufual way, cutting out all fuch as grow
immediately clofe about the afparagus plants. In OGober,
when the afparagus ftalks decay, cut them down, and clear
off all weeds from the beds into the alleys, and then dig
the alleys two feet wide, burying the weeds therein, and
f{pread fome of the earth over the beds. See Winter Dreff-
Inge.

“This is all that is neceffary to be done until March, at
which time the beds fhould be deeply hoed and raked
{mooth, permitting all the fhoots to rua as in the firft fum-
mer; and in October, cut down the decayed haulm as be-
fore, and land up the beds: in the {pring following, being
the fecond after planting, flightly fork-dig the beds, and
. rake them level. See Spring Dreffing. In this fpring, as
the fhoots rife of fome tolerable fubftance, begin the firft
gathering of the largeft plants in the firlt fortnight, but do
not practife any general gathering till the third year. See
Gathering Produce.

Winter Dreffing, or landing up the Beds.—From about the
middle of Oétober to the latter end of November, is the
time to give the afparagus beds their winter dreffing. This
confifts in cutting down the decayed ftalks of the plants an-
nually at the above time, and clearing the bed from weeds,
digging the alleys, and f{preading fome of the earth upon
the top of the beds, which is called landing up the beds.
It is done in the following manner.—The decayed ftalks, or
haulm, are cut down with a knife clofe or within an inch
or two of the ground; then with a fharp hoe cut up all
weeds, drawing them off at the fame time into the alleys
to be buried; after this, proceed to line out the alleys,
itretching the line along the edges of the beds about nine
inches from each outward row of plants, the ftakes that are
to be placed at the comers of the beds, or otherwife the
ftumps of the ftalks, will bea guide; then with a fpade
chop the ground along: by the direétion of the line, by
which you will form each bed four feet wide, and the alleys
two feet.. The alleys are then to be dug one fpade deep,
and a good portion of the earth fpread over each bed two or
three inches thick. As you proceed in digging, let the
weeds drawn off the beds be trimmed into the bottom, and
buried a due depth, obferving to land the beds all a regular
thicknefs, fo as to make them about fix or eight inches
higher than the level of the alleys, forming the edge of
each bed full and ftraight. ‘This work muft be repeated
every autumn. It may be fuppofed by fome that in anaual
landing of the beds, they may in feveral years be confider-
ably raifed; but by the fpring forking and raking, toge-
ther with the repeated hoeings and clearing off weeds in
fummer, and at the time of preparing for landing up in
autumn, a confiderable part of the earth is annually drawn
off again into the alleys.

After thus performing the winter dreffing of the beds, a
row or two of cabbage plants may be planted in each alley,
as a place of fhelter during winter, by which they will be
forwarded for early {pring coleworts; or a row of mazayan
dwarf or other beans may. be planted in November or De-
cember in the warmeit fide of each alley, for an early crop ;
or oceafionally, where ground is fcarce, fome of the bed
might be occupied during winter by planting a crop of
cabbage lettuce on it for {pring ufe, which being all ga-
thered, or tranfplanted into other places, by the begin-
ning of April, are fuppofed to do little harm. It mutt,
however, be done with great care, and fuch crops not fuf-

7

fered to remain long, otherwife they may injure the afparae
gus plants in a high degree.

Spring Dreffing the Beds—The {pring dreffing confifts
in fork digging the beds annually at that feafon to a mode-
rate depth, to loofen the foil, that the buds may freely
advance and {well to their due fize. The feafon for per-
forming this work is any time in March, but not later
than the firft or fecond week in April, becaufe many of the
buds will then be formed, and, in forward feafons, begin to
advance in growth.

This work is motly performed with a fhort flat three=
pronged fork. Inthe fir fpriag drefling after planting, itis
proper to leofen the iurface only with a hoe, two or three
inches deep, and then rake the beds {mooth. But the general
{pring drefling is to be annualty performed by fork-digging
all fuch beds as have been planted more than one year, three
or four inches deep, with the afparagus fork ; being careful
to loofen all the earth as deep as the furface of the roots,
having regard however not to wound the crowns of them 5
and afterwards all the beds fhould be neatly raked, to break
clods, clear off ftones, and form a level fmooth furface,
drawing off all rough earth, &c. into the alleys, which af-
terwards alfo rake up in a neat order.

Manuring the Beds.—Thele fhould be enriched with an
addition of good rotten dung, once every two or three years
at fartheft, the benefit of which will be evident in the
quantity, as well as the fize and quality of the produce ;
the feafon of applying this manure is at the time of winter
dreffing or landing up the beds. ‘The dung for this pur-
pofe fhould be perfectly well rotted, as the dung of old
cucumber and melon beds, or any other of fimilar quality,
which fhould be applied after the ftalks and weeds are
cleared oif ; fpread two or three inches thick over the fur-
face of each bed, and a double portion in the alleys; the
beds being then flightly fork-digged to bury it; after this
dig the alleys in the ufual way, and fpread a portion of the
earth evenly over the beds. In this way the winter rains
may wafh the enriching quality of the mantre into the beds.
and the roots, from the vegetation of the fpring. :

Gathering Preduce—As efparagus plants fometimes, in
very rich ground, afford tolerably large buds the fecond.
year, here and there, one of the largeft that happens to ap-
pear the firft week or fortnight may be cut, afterwards per-
mitting the whole to run to ftalk; but in the third year, a:
more general gathering may be prattifed, and continue a
month or fix weeks; and in the fourth year the general pro-
duce will rife in its utmoft perfection. Then, and every
fucceeding year, gather all the buds arifing from every plant
during the feafon of cutting. The proper fize of the afpas-
ragus for ufe, is when the fhoots are about two or three in= ~
ches above the furface of the earth, while the heads remain
compaét and plump. The principal feafon of cutting them,..
is from the latter end of April, or beginning of May, ac-
cording to the forwardnefs of the feafon, till the middle or
latter end of June. They might, however, be obtained a.
month or two longer in the feafon, by continuing to cut all
the buds, according as they attain proper fize; but this
would be a very wrong practice, as the roots would thereby
continue fending up a frefh fupply, till they in a manner ex-
hautt their vegetable food, as would be apparent by the in-
confiderablenefs of the future crop, and fhort duration of
the plants. The principal gatherings fhould therefore be
terminated generally towards the latter end of June, efpeci=
ally as by that time there will be plenty of young peas to be
ufed as a fubftitute in its place at table.

In cutting the afparagus for ufe, it is neceflary to be furs
nifhed with a ftraight. narrow-pointed knife, the blade fix or
eight inches long, toothed on the edge like a faw, which is

to

A: STP AAR MANGEU §,

to be flipped down clofe to each feparate bud, in order to
cut it off flanting, three or four inches within the ground ;
being careful not to injure any of the younger buds rifing in
fucceffion, as there are generally {everal from the fame root,
advancing in different ftages of growth.

Forcing Ajparagus.—As afparagus is frequently required
in winter, and early in {pring, anether method muit be prac-
tiled for obtaining: it in thele feafons. This is by means of
planting the roots in fubftantial hot-beds, covered with frames
and glaffes. When it is intended to have a conftant fuccef-
fion.of afparagus during the winter and {pring, a new hot-
bed muft be made, and planted with freth plants every three
or four weeks. As thefe roots when forced in hot-beds do
not continue to yield any tolerable produce longer than that

eriod ef time, when they will in a manner be quite ex-
haufted, and are not fit for that or any other purpofe after-
wards; therefore, for this purpefe, a frefin quantity of plants
mutt be in readinefs for every new hot-bed. Thefe are raifed
in the natural ground to a proper age: they mutt be three
or four years old, the plants being railed from feed, as direct-
ed for the natural ground afparagus, and when they are
one year old, tranfplanted into beds of rich earth, as dire¢t-
ed alfo for the natural plantations, in rows a foot afunder;
but they need not to be more than nine inches diftant in each
row, forming them in beds of fix rows in each, with only
two feet alleys, juit to go into clean off weeds, &c. as the
beds need not be landed up in winter, as in the natural afpa-
ragus ; but when the plants have had two fummers’ growth,
they will, in good ground, be fit for forcing, though they
are in greater perfection if permitted to ftand three years.
During the time they remain in the natural ground, none,
er very few, buds fhould be gathered, the whole being per-
mitted to'run to flalk each fummer. It is alfo neceflary,
when intended to force afparagus annually, that fome feed
fhould be fown every {pring, and a due quantity of plants
tranfplanted as before direéted, fo as to have three diflerent
pieces of ground always employed ‘at the fame time with
plants for the above purpofe; that is, one piece with feed-
lings in the feed-beds, the other two with tranfplanted
plants, one to be of a year’s growth before the other ;
by which practice, after the three firlt years, an annual fuc-
ceffion of plants fit for forcing may be procured. But
where it is inconvenient to wait the raifing of the plants in
this manner, they may be furnifhed by mott of the kitchen
gardeners in the neighbourhood of great towns, where when
raifed to proper growth for this purpofe, they commonly
fell by meafurement of the ground they grow upon, gene-
rally from fix to ten fhillings per rod, according to the age
and fize of the plants, and fulnefs of the crop.

Mr. Nicol, in-his Forcing Gardener, obferves, that plants
for this ufe fhould not be older thaa feven or eight years,
nor younger then four years, and that they fhould be covered
with litter or ilraw, m order to have accefs to them durmg
frofts. The neceflary quantity of plants for hot-beds is (he
fays) confiderable, fince about as many as grow upon three
rods of ground, are requifite for a bed intended for a com-
mon three-light garden frame. The common allowance of
the London gardeners is about one rod to a light; for the
plants are to be placed as clofe as they can poflibly ftand to
one another, tothe amount of five, fix, or feven hundred, or
more, according to their fize, in a three-light frame, other-
wile a bed would not fupply a quantity adequate to the ex-
pence and trouble neceflary in the culture of thefe plants in
hot-beds ; for, from a bed of the above dimenfions, we com-
monly expect about three hundred large buds or ware,
befides fprew, weekly, and in the whole, about eight or nine
hundred good afparagus, and near as many {mall ones, in
three weeks, in which period of time, the rocts will have

exhautted their ftrength, and produce very little more. There-
fore, in raifing or procuring plants for the above purpofes,
the quantity muft be proportioned to the number of lights
you intend working, and the fucceffion of afparagus requir-
ed. The feafon for beginning the above work, is according
to the time the afparagus is required for ufe; as for in-
ftance, if you would have good aiparagus at Chriitmas, it is
proper to make the hot-bed in the frit or fecond week in
November, and fo on in proportion to any other time in win-
ter or {pring it 1s defired to have it ft to gather. The rule
is this: if aconitant fucceffion is required trom about Chritt-
mas till the time when the natural afparagus come in, a
new hot-bed fhould be made every three weeks or a month
from the beginning of November until that of March: but
fome begin about the latter end of September, in order to
obtain afparacus about the fecond week in November. The
proper materials for this fort of hot-bed are, according to
the authors of the Dictionary of Gardening, a fufficient
quantity of horfe ftable dung, frefh and full.of heat ;. for
one or more three-light frames, two feet and an half
or a yard high; alfo iome to line the fides of the bed, when
the heat declines, a quantity of good kitchen garden earth,
and one or two three-light garden frames to place over the
beds, and fome large garden mats, to cover occatfionally in
nights and bad weather; the dung being previoufly pre-
pared as directed under the article Hor-zep. The beit
fituations for the hot-beds are fome of the warmeft and
moit fheltered compartments of the kitchen garden, or
the melon or cucumber ground if there be room; though
the London gardeners, when they make a confiderable
extent of afparagus hot-beds, often form them in or near
fome of the large quarters of the kitchen ground, where
the foil is rich and light, for the convenience of having
plenty of good proper earth at hand for earthing the beds,
banking: up the outfide plants, and moulding at top, &c.
The expofure fhould be open to the full fouthern fun, and.-
well defended from the northerly winds. ‘The beds may be
made either wholly on level ground, or occafionally m a
fhallow trench, four or five feet wide and fix or eight inches:
deep, or if intended to make them m any of the quarters
of the kitchen ground, a trench might be formed as above,
in which to make the beds far the fake of the earth being
laid ready for earthing the beds and plants, and to fave the
trouble of bringing it from a diftance, efpeciaily for beds»
of confiderable length; but otherwife they may be made,
as has been juft feen, entirely on even ground in the moft
convenient fituations.. As to the general dimenfions of the
beds, they muft be in proportion to the width and length:
of the intended frames, or rather a little wider and longer,
to allow from three or four to five er fix inches clear
on each fide and end, whereon to back up fome earth
againit the outlide roots, &c. and they fhould be abouta yard”
high, earthed at top about fix iches thick for the veception
of the plants, before the frames are put on, keeping them
within the compafs of them upright and as clofe as they.
can ftand, as directed below. ‘The clear fpace of a few
inches on each outfide end is, as fuggetted above, to»
receive a {mall bank of earth againit the outfide roots,
both to defend them from the weather, and for the fupport
of the frame; the latter of which, on account of the
firft: violent. heat, is not put on till fome time after
planting the roots: thefe, as foon as planted and banked
up on the outfides, are earthed over the crowns of the
plants an inch deep, which fhould be increafed to five or
fix when the buds appear through the firit earthing, at
which time, as the heat of the bed will be moderate, the
frame and glailes fhould be placed om See General Cul--

tures
The-

AS! POAL RZ AAG IU Ss

The author of the Scotch Forcing Gardener, however,
faggefts that the forcing of afparagus in fiued pits, 1s by
far the meft eligible method, as fuch pits may if sam feveral
other purp 3 belides the grafs is of a much better colour
and higher favour than that produced on a dung hot-bed.
Such a pit as is reprefented at fz. 1,in Platel.(GarpENING},
will compi=tely anfwer the intentions of the cultivator. As
it frequently occurs in large families, where much company
is kept, that this efculent is wanted in a hurry, the coa-
veniency of a pit will be found to be a great relief in this
refpect ; as it 1s much er (by aid of flues) to forward or
protraé the growth cf the plants here, than in a common
hot-bed ; oa the one hand, 17 the plants are advancing too
rapidly, you are, it is obferved, under the neceflity of
cooling the bed in a certain degree ; and on the other, if
they are not advancing fo faft as you could wifh, you are
under the neceflity.of applying linings, which is attended
with trouble and lofs of time. The author fays, that a pit
twenty-five or thirty feet long, and iix wide, and which
one fire can perfe@tly command, is fufficient to force afpa-
ragus to ferve a large family from November to May, in a
conitant and regular fuccefiion ; after which it may be ad-
vantageoufly employed in raifing a late crop of melons or
cucumbers, or in ftriking young pine-apple plants, &c.
The triflmg coniumption of fuel, even where it is moit
valuabie, ought not, he thinks, to deter any who require
alparagus, French beans, fallads, &c. at an early feafon,
from building fo ufeful a compartment in the forcing gar-
den. If, continues he, a fcrupulous attention is paid to
the defign in general, particularly to the conftruétion of the
fire-places and flues, it will give more fatisfaction to the
gardener than any other hot-bed whatever, and in the end
be a faving to the proprietor. In the coniftruction of this
kind of pit, as is fhewn by the plate, the firft courfe of the
flue runs along the front, the bottom of which is about the
ground level, and as the outer wall of the flue is only a brick
in bed, it is obvious that early cellery, carrots, lettuces,
radihes, cauliflowers, &c. &c. fown on a well-prepared
border about two feet broad, immediately adjoining the
breait of the pit, would reap infinite advantage from the
flue. At the time of any operation within the pit, a board
or plank, fupported by bricks, &c. would defend the border
frominjury. The pit is about four feet in the back and
three in the front, deeper than the bottom of the flues;
which great depth is made on the prefumption that it may
be frequently ufed for pine-apple plants; but where it is
ufed for afparagus alone, half the depth would be fufficient.
It is immaterial whether the pit is entirely filled with tan or
not ; the author frequently ufed three-fourths of itable dung,
prepared in the fame manner as for a hot-bed, with equal
fuccefs ; but has always found that dung is worfe to manage
than the tan, as it is more liable to heat violently ;_befides,
from the nature of the building, there is not a poffibility of
drawing off the rank heat, as ina hot-bed ; for which reafon,
if dung is to be ufed, it ought to be {weated in a more
careful manner. It is added, that a very {mall degree of
bottom heat is fufficient for the purpofe ; and that if the pit
has been previoufly employed with young pines, it will
require no preparation whatever for afparagusroots, except-
ing to level and put a few inches of very rotten tan upon
the furface. But if melons were the laft thing the pit pro-
duced, it will be neceflary to ftir up the bed about two feet
deep, and add a little new tan or dung ; then level the furface
with old rotten tan, as before. In either cafe the furface
fhould be levelled in a floping manner to the fun, about fix
inches above the bottom of the flues, allowing fo much for
the tan fettling; the roots are then to be placed in and
covered, as directed for the common hot-bed. If the. pits

are from twenty to thirty feet long, ore half will be fufficieat
for atime; and, to keep a conitant fucceffion, the other
half may be filled in about fifteen or twenty days, which
will begin to come up before the firlt is all ufed; after
which, once a month or fix weeks, according to the
fize of the pit and confumption of the family, may be
fufficient, till it be fit for cutting in the open ground. It
is recommended that no fires be made if the thermometer
{tands as high as forty-eight to fifty degrees; but, if necef-
fary, covered with mats at night; alfo to admit plenty of
air through the day, if the weather will permit. When it
is neceflary to make fires, it fhould be done with caution ;
a {mall one made in the evening will ferve the whole night,
and it will be unneceflary to make any in the morning,
unlefs it be a great ftorm. He has, however, {Ometimes
found it convenient to make a fmall fire in the morning,
that he might have it in his power to admit air, and at the
fame time keep uv a proper degree of heat. It is added,
that warmth will here be required in a more plentiful degree
than recommended for hot-beds ; but due obfervation of the
ftate of the tan and the health of the buds fhould always
determine the warmth that may be neceflary. In filling the
firft end of the pit a fecond time with frefh roots, it will be
unneceflary to ftir up the tan, &c. and perhaps it may be
fo even at the third filling ; but by keeping a thermometer
plunged in the bed, or watch-fticks, you will be beft enabled
to judge: at all events, there will be no neceflity for adding
freth materials, as he has always found that trenching the
bed to the depth of two feet or fo has anfwered the purpofe
for the whole feafon. If dung or oak leaves are uied, the
bed fhould be turfed; and at leaft a foot of very rotten tan
or light mould laid on before the roots are placed in. This
precaution is unneceffary, he fays, when tan alone is ufed ;

in which cafe, however, not more than an eighth part of -

new tan ought to be trenched in. ’

Method of making the Beds, planting the Roots, and Culture.
When the firfl method is followed in the fituation and ex-
pofure above defcribed, it is advifed by the authors of the
Univerfal Gardener, to mark out the place of the hot-bed,
of the proper width and length proportionably to that of
the intended frame or frames, whether one, two, or more ;
and if a trench is intended, to dig out the cavity, only one
moderate {pit deep, and the width as above; then wheel in
the dung, and with it form the bed of the proper width and
length, either on level ground or in a trench, as juit direéted,
raifing it regularly of the fame dimenfions, about a yard
high, efpecially in winter; but for the final {pring beds,
two feet and a half depth of dung may be fufficient, work-
ing the whole upright and firm in the ufual manner.

Mr. Nicol, however, recommends that a fufficient quantity
of ftable dung be fhaken up to heat and fweeten, and that
after it has lain fix or eight days, it be turned over and
fhaken well up again, in which ftate it may lie four or five
days more ; by which time it will be ready for building the
bed; this muit be done in the common way, to the height
of four feet in the back and three in front, and about a foot
larger than the frame all round; it is then to be well
levelled, the whole covered with {quares of turf, cut fo as to
join again exaétly, which are to be laid the green fide down,
and {moothed well with the back of the fpade; then place
the frame thereon, which fhould be thirty inches deep in the
back, and twenty in front, in which dry well-reduced old
tan fhould be laid to the thicknefs of fix or eight inches ;
which alfo level, and gently fmooth with the fpade.
Where old tan cannot be procured, he adyifes a light fandy
earth, with a fourth part of good vegetable mould. The
bed will begin to heat in twenty-four hours, and muit then
have air admitted to pafs off any iteam that may arife, oer

wi

A S)P AC RY ARGU S,

will however in general be inconfiderable; the only reafon of
turfing the furface is to prevent the fteam, which, if care-
fully see will have the defired effect. Yet, it fometimes
happens, that there will be a little, efpecially if the dung did
not undergo a proper fermentation; but until the grafs begin
to appear, it 1s of no great confequence if there is a little
fteam in the frame, nor, provided there is not much fteam,
whether it has any air admitted or not. But, from the
moment the buds begin to peep through, the greatett
attention muft be paid to prevent fteam, which is fure
to give the grafs a difagreeable flavour and bad colour,
In order to prevent the grafs from drawing up weak, a
large portion of air muft be admitted every day, if the
weather be not ftormy ; and a little air fhould be let in at
night: while the bed has a rank heat in it, Fahrenheit’s
thermometer fhould not ftand above 50° at any time,
unlefs in funfhine, and then not above 60°. By the above
rule, it will eafily be feen, whether matting at night is ne-
ceffary, and to what extent, but it muft be attended to, till
it entirely difappears.

When the beds are formed in the firft method, they are
advifed in the Diftionary of Gardening to be direétly earthed
at top for the reception of the plants, with finely broken earth
fix inches thick, to the full width and length of the beds,
the furface being raked level and fmooth. Then imme-
diately proceed to place the roots, for no time mutt be
loft in afparagus hot-beds, in waiting for the temperature
of the heat; previoufly to planting the roots, mark ont on
the furface of the beds the exaét width and length of the
frames, fo as to have a clear fpace on each outfide of a few
inches width, to receive the banking of earth againft the
outfide roots, &c. as before mentioned; then begin at one
end, and raife a {mall ridge of earth crofs-ways upon the
furface, five or fix inches high, again{ft which lay the firft
row of rots, then having the roots which are not to be
trimmed, place the firft courfe clofe againft the above
ridge, and entirely upon the furface of the bed, with the
crowns upright, and as clofe to one another as you can
poflibly place them, either wholly upon the top of the
earth, or only draw a little to the lower ends of the roots,
or infert the ends a little into the earth, though they are
often planted without either drawing any earth about
the fibres, or inferting them therein; and when one
courfe or row is thus placed, lay another againft thefe in
the fame manner; and fo proceed, laying them one againtt
andther, every way as you can poflibly crowd them, from
one end of the bed to another, being careful to place all
the crowns of fuch an equal height, that the whole may
form as it were a level furface, keeping the whole rather
within the meafure of the frame, for they will unavoidably
fwell out a little on each fide. If more frames than
one are intended for the fame bed, then, at the ter-
mination of the length of each frame, raife a crofs ridge
of earth, as at firft, about fix inches in height ; fo proceed
laying the roots as before; and when all the roots are thus
placed the whole length of the bed, direétly bank up fome
earth on each fide and end as above hinted, againit the
outfide roots, raifing it an inch higher than the crowns;
then cover the crowns all over evenly with finely broken
light earth an inch deep, which finifhes the work until
the buds appear; forthe roots muft not till then be earthed
deeper, nor the frame and glafles placed upon the beds till
the violent heat has fubfided, becaufe they would confine
the burning fteam, and occafion the bed to heat too vehe-
mently to the deftruétion of the plants.

In forming the above beds, they fometimes, where
neceflary to the faving of dung, are only made the exact

width of the frame, fo as to fecure the outfide roots; but
for the fupport of the frame, raife a bank of earth quite
from the ground, fix inches broad at bottom, drawing it
in gradually to the top, banking it clofe againit the fides of
the beds; and that of the outfrde roots, raifing it an inch
higher than the crowns at bottom of them, fo earthing
them all over the top an inch deep as before obferved ;
which method of banking quite from the ground may alfo
prove effectual in preferving the temperature of the bed,
by defending the dung from driving rains, fnow, and piercing
winds. As foon as the beds are made and planted in
either of the above methods, in order to judge of the tem-
perature of the heat, it is proper to thruft fome’ fharp-
pointed fticks, two feet long, down betwixt the roots into
the dung of the bed, and by drawing thefe up daily, and
feeling the lower part, you will be able to judge of the
degree of heat, whether too violent or weak, which is to
be regulated accordingly.

The beds being made and planted, the roots will foon
after fend forth frefh fibres into the earth, and even in
time into the very dung, and the buds of the afparagus
begin to appear in a fortnight or three weeks; but till
that period, as the heat will probably be very {trong, the
bed is to remain unframed and uncovered, except being
occafionally defended at top; or at leaft, if the frames are
placed on the beds, the glaffes not fully put on, only
ufing them occafionally, if very inclement weather fhould
happen at that time, juft to proteét the bed and crowns
of the plants from exceffive wet or rigorous froft ; or the
bed may be occafionally defended with long litter or garden
mats from violent rains, fnow, and fevere frofty weather ;
obferving, however, to ufe only occafional covering juft to
preferve the heat of the bed and the crowns of the plants
till the buds begin to appear, and the heat becomes quite
moderate, as at this period too much covering would in-
creafe the heat to a violent degree, and fcorch or fteam-
{cald the roots, which, in {trong beds, mutt be particularly
guarded againft. ‘The temperature of heat muit therefore
be every day examined by the trying-ftick ; and if it is
found fo vehement that you judge the roots are in danger
of fcorching, the remedy is to bore with a large rake-handle,
&c. the fides of the bed quite through in, feveral places,
both in the dung, and betwixt the top of the dung and
the earth, that the rank fteam and burning quality may
evaporate at the holes; at the fame time the free air may
have accefs, and in two or three days the bed will be reduced
to a moderate temperature. On the other hand, it fhould
likewife be obferved, that if the bed in a week or two after
being made does not heat kindly, or feems rather to de-
cline, it may be proper to lay dry or warm ftable-litter
round the fides and over the top, which will forward and
revive the heat more effectually. When the afparagus
begin to appear, they are then to have their final earthing
of four or five inches depth of additional mould all. over
the crowns of the roots, and the frame and glaffes put
on. At this period prepare fome light, rich, finely-broken
earth, fufficient to mould them the above depth; at the
fame time, in order to fecure the outfides of the faid final
earthing, it is proper to form a fort of wreathing or em-
palement round the top of the edges of the bed four or
five inches high, which is done either with a thick ftraw-
band, or by railing the outfide banking an additional four
or five inches; either of which, as juit obferved, is necef-
fary, not only to fecure the fides and ends of the faid final
top covering of earth, but alfo to fupport the frames when
finally placed on the beds.

The beds being now finally earthed and framed, at ie
eat

ASP

heat become moderate, the glaffes or lights are to be kept
conftantly upon the frames, which in the night fhould be co-
vered with mats, or dry long litter, but muft be uncovered
every-day, except in uncommonly fevere weather; for it is
of importance, when the afparagus fhoots begin to advance,
to admit as much light and fun as poflible, to promote a
green colour in the tops of the buds; and as to the admif-

fion cf frefh air, if the heat is moderate, the glaffes need”

only be fhoved a little open in fine days, efpecially if you
require the plants to be drawn up quick ; but by admitting
a large portion of air, the buds rife flower, and will acquire
a larger fize and greener colour ; on which confideration you
may fometimes, in the fpring-made beds, take the glailes
entirely off a few hours in fine mild dry days, particularly
when the heat of the bed is confiderable at the firft appear-
ance of the buds after the bed is framed.

This is alfo the proper period to examine the temperature
of heat in the beds. When they have been made about three
weeks, if but {mall beds, the heat will probably begin to de-
cline confiderably, which fhould be renewed by a lining of
hot dung applied to the fides; this is not to be omitted, par-
ticularly when the buds begin to appear through the lait
covering of earth, if there feem occafion for it ; though beds
of more confiderable length feldom require lining till after
the firlt breaking, or gathering of the buds, then adding
good linings, they will maintain the beds in the due tempera-
ture from fifteen to eighteen days longer, which is generally
as long as the roots continue yielding any tolerable produce.
Mr. Nicol has however remarked, that he has feldom found
it neceflary to line afparagus beds; yet that fometimes in a
ftorm it may be requifite. This, when neceffary, fhould
therefore be done with caution; and never more than one
fide of the beds atatime. Let the dung for this purpofe,
fays he, be prepared in the fame manner as fora bed at firlt ;
then cut, with a fharp fpade or dung knife, the part you
intend to line, perpendicularly by the fide of the frame ;
reject the tan and turf, sand ufe the reft along with the new
dung, unlefs very much'wafted ; from twenty-four to thirty
inches will be a fufficient breadth for the lining ; raifing it
to about fix inches above the bottom of the frame, and ob-
ferving to tread it well towards the old dung, giving it a
confiderable flope on the outfide, which naturally makes it
lean that way. If the lining fhould raife too great a heat
in the bed, or caufe a fteam, draw it off as directed above ;
and when it has done fubfiding, let it be turfed in the fame
way as the bed was. In refpeé to water, he fays, he has
frequently produced a whole crop of afparagus without
either earth or water. This, however, is not always the
cafe, nor is it defirable; as if a little water is not required,
the dung muft be in too moift a ftate, and confequently too
much noxious vapour muit have attended the whole procefs.
Tt will be advifable, however, he fays, from the little fun
there is, to be fparing in the ufe of that element at this
feafon of the year.

The afparagus is moftly in a fituation to be cut about
five or Ox weeks after the planting of the beds, or when the
plants are advanced five or fix inches above the furface of
the earth with which the beds are covered. In gathering
the fhoots in hot-beds, it is the beft method to break them
off as clofe to the bottom as pofiible, by thruiting the fingers
and thumbs down into the beds. .

AsparaGus Draco. See Dracezna.

Asparacus Scandens. See Mepeora.

Asraracus was alfo ufed, by the ancient Greeks, to ex-
prefs not only the young fhoots of the plant of that name,
but any other young fprouts of an eatable plant. The {prouts
of the feveral kinds of cabbage were particularly exprefled
by this word, or fometimes by the compound term cramb-
ajparagus. -

aS. P

ASPARN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the”

atch-duchy of Auftria, ten miles fouth-eaft of Laab.

ASPASIA, in Biography, a native of Miletus, and daugh-
ter of one Axiochus, was one of the mot celebrated ladies.
of antiquity, for her beauty, talents, and diflolute life. He-
raclides fays, that fhe kept an houfe of ill fame at Megara,
and after her removal to Athens, fhe purfued the profeffion
of a courtefan, and of a procurefs. She was as much dif-
tinguifhed, however,. by her mental accomplifhments, as by
the attractions of her perfon and the infamy of her conduat,
In eloquence fhe furpafied her contemporaries; and her
converfation was fo pleafing and inftruétive, that perfons of
the firft diftin@tion, male and female, reforted to her houfe,
as toaf{chool of rhetoric and f{cience; and fhe numbered even
Socrates among her hearers and admirers. Such were her
attainments in philofophy and politics, as well as the graces
of her perfon, that the captivated Pericles, the great Athe-
nian ftatefman ; fo that after an illegitimate conne&tion with
her, he divorced his own wife, and married Afpafia. By
her extenfive knowledge, irrefiftible elocution, and intriguing
genius, fhe for fome time direCted and influenced the admi-
niftration of Athens. Accordingly, to her have been im-
puted the war againit Samos, and alfo that with Megara.
At length Afpatia was criminally profecuted by Hermippus
the comedian, on the two charges of impiety, and of entic-
ing women to her houfe for the gratification of Pericles;
and it required all the tears and entreaties of Pericles to fave
her. After his death, fhe formed a conneétion with a per-
fon of low condition; and by her intereft and influence ad-
vanced him to the firft offices of the itate. Plut. in Vit.
Pericl. Athen. lib. xii. p. 560. Cicer. in Brut. Bayle, art.

Pericles.

Aspasta was alfo the name given by Cyrus to a young
woman of exquifite beauty, whofe original name was AZi/to,
and who was the daughter of Hermotimus of Phocza, a
perfon of mean cireumftances. Having been taken captive
by the commander of Cyrus, brother of Artaxerxes Mne-
mon, he fent her to his mafter, whom fhe fo much capti-
vated by her modefty and referve, as well as by her perfonal
charms, that he treated her more like a wife than a concubine.
Cyrus made her the partner of his counfels, and the compa-
nion of his expeditions; and {uch was her moderation, that
fhe ufed her influence merely in making the fortune of her
father, without aiming at any wealth’and fplendour on her
own account. Her refpectful attention to Paryfatis fecured
her favour; and her magnificence was only difplayed in her
offerings to Venus, whom fhe confidered as the patronefs of
her fortunes. When Cyrus loft his life in an engagement
with his brother, fhe was equally favoured by him, into
whofe hands fhe fell, as by her former mafter. Plutarch
and Juftin relate, that when Darius, fon of Artaxerxes, was
declared his fucceffor, and according to the cuftomary privi-
lege allowed him, afked of his father this Afpafia; the fair
female, being permitted to make her ele¢tion, preferred the
fon. Upon which Artaxerxes took her out of his fon’s
poffeffion, and made her prieftefs of Diana, thus obliging
her to perpetual continence ; but the artifice occafioned the
rebellion of Darius. The ftory, however, is attended with
fome circumftances which weaken its credibility. Bayle,
art. Cyrus.

Aspasia. A&tius has preferved fome fragments of the
works of this female phyfician, and commends fome of her
compoiitions. She pretended to be acquainted with the ufe
of certain drugs that were efficacious in procuring abortion,
and even in preventing women from conceiving. Thefe,
however, were only to be adminiitered, fhe faid, to women
who were incapable ‘from diltortion, or fome natural defe&,

we

swe Te

— |’

ASP

wwe fuppofe) of bearing living children, or of undergoing
the pains of labour, without manifelt danger of their lives.
There have never been wanting perfons profefling to be able
to procure abortion, with perfect {afety to the women ; but
either thefe have been the vain boafts of impudent pretenders,
or the art has been long loft, no drug or compofition now
known poflefling fuch powers. See the article Asorrion
in this work. It is not known who this Afpafia was, or in
what age fhe lived. Le Clerc Hilt. de Med.

ASPASIA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Parixio, in the

family. Heliconius. Ut inhabits Tranquebar: the wings are
black, with tranfparent ftreaks and {pots ; and the poiterior
ones yellow at the bafe. Fabricius, &c.
_ Aspasta, among Ancient Phyficians, a conftrictive medi-
cine for the pudenda muliebra. It confilted only of wool,
moiftened with an infufion of unripe galls. Caltell, Lex.
Med, -3hs

ASPASL/E, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia,
placed by Polybius between the Oxus and the Tanais; pro-
bably tlie fame with the 4/pafiatre of Strabo, and the Afpafi
of Ptolemy. :

ASPASTICUM, in Zeclefiaflical Writers, a place or
apartment adjoining to the ancient churches, wherein the
bifhop and prefbyters fat, to receive-the falutations of the
perfons who came to vilit them, defire their blefling, or con-
fult them on bufisefs.

This is alio called a/paticum, diaconicum, receptorium, me-
tatorium, or msfatorium, and falutatorium ; in Englith, greet-
ing-houfe.

ASPATHIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges.. Ptolemy.
~ ASPE, in Geography, atown of Spain, in, Valencia, fi-
tuate on the Elda, four leagues weft of Alicant.

Aspe, a valley of Berne, in Swiflerland, between the
Pyreneés and the town of Oleron. The river of Oleron
pafles through this valley, and is called the Gave of
Ape.

* Asre Vicjo, a town of Spain, in Valencia, three leagues
and a half weft of Alicant.

ASPECT, in Afronomy, is ufed for the fituation of the
ftars, or planets, in refpeét of each other’; or, in Afrology,
it denotes a certain configuration, and mutual relation -be-
tween the planets, arifing from their fituations in the
zodiac, whereby their powers are {uppofed to be mutually
either increafed or diminifhed, as they happen to agree or
difagree in their aCtive or paffive qualities. Though fuch
configurations may be varied and combined a thoufand
sways, yet only a few. of them are confidered. Hence
Wolfius more ‘accurately defines afpect to be the meeting
‘of luminous rays emitted from two Mader to the earth, either
fituate in the fame right line, or including an angle which
is one or more aliquot parts of four right angles.

The doétrine of afpects was introduced by the aftrologers
as the foundation of their predi€tions. Hence, Kepler
defines afpeét. an angle formed by the rays of two planets
‘meeting on the earth, able to excite fome natural power or
influence. 1
The ancients reckoned five afpects, viz. conjundion, when
the planets are in the fame fign and degree, or have the
fame longitude, denoted by the character 4 ; oppofition,
where they are in oppofite points of the circle, or at the
diitance from one another of 180 degreees, exprefied by 8 +
trine, when they are diftant one-third of the circle, or 120
degrees, denoted by A ; guadrate, or quartile, when they
are diftant one-fourth of the circle, or go degrees, marked
by o ; and /extile, when their diftance is the fixth part of
a circle, or 60 degrees, denoted by *.

Vor. IIi.

ASP

ConjunGtion, and oppofition, are the two extremes of the
afpeéts; the firlt being the ‘beginning, and the fecond the
higheft or ultimate term: :
_ The afpects are divided, with regard to their fuppofed
influences, into benirn, malign, and indifferent:

The quadrate afpe& and oppofition are reputed malign, or
unfriendly 5 trine and fextile, benign or friendly ; and cour
junction, an indifferent afpeét.

To the five ancient afpeéts, the modern writers have
added feveral more; as decile, containing the tenth part of
a circle; ¢ridecile, three-tenths; quintile, a fitth part of the
circle; and biguintile, four-tenths, or two-fifths —Kepler
adds others, as he tells us, from meteorological clferva-
tions; as the femt-/extile, containing the twelfth part of
the circle ;- and guincunx, containing five-twelfths.—Laflly,
to the aftrological phylicians we owe, offile, containing one-
eighth ; and ¢rioéile, containing three-cig

The angle intercepted between two planets in the afpe&
of conjunétion is 0 in the femi-fextile afpett, 30°; in de-
cile, 36°5 in oGtile, 45°; in fextile, 60°; in quiatile, 72°5
in quartile, go°®; in trideciie, 108°; in trine, 120° in tri-
ottile, 135°; in biquintile, 144°; in quincunx, 150° 5 in op=
pofition, 180°. . .

Thefe angles, or intervals, ave reckoned on the fecondary
circles, or according to the longitudes of the planets; fo
that the afpeéts are the fame, whether a planet be im the
ecliptic, or cut of it.

The afpetts are alfo divided into partile and platic.

Aspects, Partile, are when the planetg are juft fo many
degrees diftant, as is above exprefled. 'Thefe alone are the
proper afpects. see

Aspects, Platic, are when the planets do not regard
each other from thefe very degrees; but the one exceeds as
much as the other falls fhort.So that the one does not catt
its rays immediately on the body of the other, but only on
its orb or {phere of light.

Aspect, Double, is ufed in painting, where a fingle figure
is fo contrived, as to reprefent two cr more’ different ob-
jects, either by changing the pofition of the eye, or by
means of ancular glaffes——Inflances herecf, fee under
the articles AnamorPHosis, Caroprric, Cistuva, and
Mirror.

Aspect, in Gardening, is uied for what we ctherwife
call expafure.

Aspect, in Military Language, is applied to a country
and to an army thus; a country is faid to have a mililary
afped, when its general fituation prefents appropriate cbitacles
or facilities for an army’s acting on the offeafive or defentive.
An army is fard to hold a menacing afpec, when by advanced
movements or pofitions it gives the oppofing army reafon
for apprehending offenfive operations. An,army is faid to
have an impofing a/pedt, when it appears ftronger than it really
is; and this afpect is affumed for the purpofe of deceiving
an enemy, and ferves as a kind of feint in war.

ASPEN-TREE, in Planting, a {peciesof the poplar, having
{mall roundifh leaves with an angular indenture, and {mooth
furfaces on both fides. According to Marthall the leaves of
this tree ftand upon long, flat, flender footftalks, which ren-
der them liable to be fhaken by the leaft wind; whence it
has been called the trembiing poplar or afpen-tree. ‘This
tree will grow on moft kinds of foil, but may be cultivated
to the greateft advantage on fuch as are inclined to be moift,
without having much ftagnant furface water. In fuch
fituations, they will fometimes grow to a confiderable fize.
They may be raifed in the fame way and with equal facility
as the common poplar.. The wood of the afpen-tree is
light, porous, and open ; confequently of little value as

O : timber.

yest

timber. From its lightnefs, it might however prohably be
ufed to advantage for the purpofe of common field-gates,
hurdles, and other fimilar utes. In Mr. Marfhall’s Treatife
on Planting, it is reprefented as wholly unfit for being fet in
fuch grounds as are intended to be kept for pleafure, on ac-
count of the great number of fuccours that are annually
thrown up by it. See Porutus.

ASPENDII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Pamphy-
lia, who inhabited the town of Afpendus. They fortified
their town in order to difpute the payment of the tribute
which they had promifed to Alexander; but he marched
againft them, and compelled them to fubmit ; and after-
wards doubled the tribute which he had at firft demanded.

ASPENDUS, a town of Pamphylia, fituate upon the
Eurymedon, at the diftance of 60 ftadia from the fea, accor-
ding to Strabo, who fays that it was well-peopled, and that it
had been founded by a colony from Argos. In M. D’An-
ville’s map, it is placed between Perga and Sida.

ASPER, or Spirtrus Asper, in Grammar, denotesa
charaéter, or accent, in form of ac; placed over certain let-
ters, in the Greek tonoue, to fhew they are to be ftrongly
afpirated, and that the breath is here to fupply the place of
an As: as udee, water. ‘The f{piritus afper, or that mark
which correfponds to the letter H, was undoubtedly in ufe
among the ancient Greeks. Their H was at firlt a {piritus
af{per, and was taken from the Hebrew , and was retained
in the fame figure H in Latin. The Geek H was ufed in
ancient monuments, inftead of.a fpiritus afper, and the fame
letter ftands for 100, becaufe they wrote the word xen,
thus, HEKATON. Neverthelefs, the ancient Grecians did
not judge it neceflary always to exprefs this a{piration upon
their monuments. Thus upon a medal of the Tyrians we find
IEPAC. Hence it is very doubtful, whether this afpira-
tion was in common ufe in the time of the apoftles; and
it becomes much more doubtful, when we confider, that
the moft ancient verfions fo frequently confound avios with
cvloc, that both words feem to have been written without an
afpiration. Marfh’s Michaelis, vol. ii. p. 522. See Aspi-
RATE.

Asper, or Aspre, in Commerce, fignifies a {mall Turkitfh
filver coin, wherein moft of the grand fignior’s revenues
are paid.

The afper may be eftimated at 6 deniers (one farthing).
—The only impreflion it bears is that of the prince’s name
under whom it was ftruck.—The pay of the janizaries is
only diftributed every three months, and ‘has a progreffive
increafe from 3 afpers to 993 and og afpers are equivalent
to 49% fous, or about two-fhillings and three-farthings.
But from an eftimate made of the refpeCtive currency, the
courfe of exchange reduces it to 39 fous 6 deniers (1s.
qd. =); though this calculation is much above the intrinfic
value of this coin.

Asrer, in Conchology, a {pecies of Murex defcribed by
Martin, (Conch. 4. t. 150.) The fhell is plaited longitudi-
nally, and ribbed tranfyerfely ; {pire rather prominent ; aper-
ture ovate; and the lip crenulated. This kind is reddith ;
whorls about five or fix, and the ribs acute. Gmelin. Inthe
Gmelinian Sy/lema Nature, there is alfo another f{pecies of
Murex under the fame name, which is a native of Guinea;
the whorls of the fpire are fulcated tranfverfely, ftriated,
and muricated; and the tail (or beak) afcending. The
colour is milky white, with rows of brown dots; folid,
with from twelve to fourteen furrows; aperture rather
oval; and a fingle plait on the pillar lip. Gmelin.

The firft fpecies belongs to the feCtion Caudigeri, cauda
fubulata claufa reGta elongata, tefta inermi (or murices,

with fubulate, ftraight, elongated, and clofed beak, and
él

‘A (SP

fhell unarmed); and the fecond to turriti fubulati, cauda
breviffima (murices tapering, fubulate, and furnifhed with
a very fhort beak).

“\sper, a fpecies of Trockus, figured by Chemnitz,
the native place of which is unknown. The hell is obtufe;
whorls round, with many rows of tubercles, fuleated and
itriated tranfyerfely ; pillar-lip dentated; aperture lunated,
This kind is of the middle fize, cinereous, or teftaceous ;
lip plaited and rugofe within.

Asper, in Entomolog, a {pecies of CERAMBYX ( Steno-
corus Fab.), a native of Italy, and figured by Sulzer. It is
black, rough, thorax armed with two fpines; wing-cafes
tuberculated in the middle. Sulzer, &c. ’

Asrer, a fpecies of Scaran£us found in Europe; the
head and thorax are grooved traniverfely ; wing-cafes ftriated.
Fabricius, &c. ;

AspeR, afpecies of Cancer found on the Britifh coafts,
The thorax is heart-fhaped, fpinous; two fpines on the
probofcis ; legs and arms fpinous.

Asper, in /chthyology, a f{pecies of Perca, It is faf-
ciated with yellowith, and has thirteen rays in the fecond
dorfal fin, Jolhniton, Ray, and others, call this afper pif-
ciculus ; and afper pifciculus, gobionis fimilis. :

ASPERA Arteria, in dnatomy. See Arteria A/-

era.
: Asrera, in Conchology, a {pecies of Teiiina, about
an inch and three quarters in length, and three inches in
breadth. This fhell is pointed at one end, yellowifh with-
in, and externally radiated, and rough, with tranfverfe
ftrie. Gmelin. Country unknown.

ASPERANA, in Entomology, a fpecies of PHALANA
(Tortrix ), found in the vicinity ef Hamburgh, and other
parts of Europe. The anterior wings are white at the
bafe, brown at the tip, and rough. This infect belongs to
the Yortrix feCtion in the Linnzan and Gmelinian arrange-
ments; in that of Fabricius to the fection Pyralis.

ASPERELLA, an European fpecies of PHALENA, of
the Tinea tribe. The anterior wings are whitifh, emarginate
at the tip, with two common black {pots. This is phalena
tinea alis albidis; macula communi fufca, apicibus nigro
punctatus retufis of Linn. Fn. Sy.

ASPEREN, in Geography, a {mall town of Holland
in the country of Gorkum or Arkel, feated on the Linge,
two leagues north-eaft from Gorkum, and five fouth from
Utrecht.

ASPERGELLOUS, in Botany, the name given by
Micheli to that genus of moffes called by Dillenius and
others, dy/Jus.

ASPERGILLUM, in Antiquity, a long brufh made of
horfe-hair, fixed to a handle, wherewith the luftral water
was f{prinkled on the people, in luftrations and purifications,
Horfley Brit. Rom. lib. ii. cap. 1.

This is alfo denominated afpergile, and a/perforium. The
ancients, inftead of a brufh, made ufe of branches of laurel
and olive. It is alfo ufed in Eeclefiaftical Writers, to denote
the inftrument, in Romifh churches, wherewith holy water
is {prinkled.

ASPERIFOLIOUS, in Botany, one of the divifions or
claffes of plants in the Fragmenta Methodi Naturalis of Lin-
neus; fo, denominated, becaufe they are ufually rough-
leaved. According to Mr. Ray, thefe plants make a di-
ftiné&t genus, the characters of which are, that the leaves
ftand alternately, or without any certain order, on the
ftalks: the flowers are monopetalous, but they have the
margin cut into five divifions, fometimes deep, fometimes
fhallow ; and the upper {pike or top of the plant is often
curved back, fomething like a fcorpion’s tail.

Tn

ASP

In the place of each flower, there wfually fucceed four
feeds; Mr. Ray fuppofes the cerinthe the only plant of this
renus that hath lels than four feeds at the bafe of each
hes this indeed hath but two.

To the clafs of herbe alperifoliz, referred in the Linnzan
fyftem to the monopetalous tetraf{permous diltinétion, under
the clafs of pentandria and crder of monogynia, belong the
pulmonaria, cynogloffum, borago, anchuia, echium, heli-
tropium, lithofpermum, cerinthe, heliotropium, myofotus,
fymphytum, onofma, afperugo, lycopfis, porana, tourne-
fortia, and meflerchmidia.

They all poffefs the fame general virtues, and are ac-
counted glutinous and vulnerary.

ASPERITY, implies the inequality or roughnefs of the
furface of any body ; by which fome parts of it are fo much
more prominent than the reit, as to hinder the hand, &c.
from pafling over it with eafe and freedom,

Afperity, or roughnefs, itands oppofed to fmoothnefs,
evennefs, politure, &c.—From the afperity of the furfaces
of contiguous bodies arifes fiction.

According to the relations of Vermaufen, the blind man
fo famous fer diftinguifhing colours by the touch, it fhould
appear, that every colour has its particular degree and kind
of afperity. He makes black the rougheft, as it is the
darkeit of colours: but the others are not fmoother in pro-
portion as they are lighter; i.e. the rougheft do not always
reflect the leaft ight: for, according to him, yellow is two
degrees rougher than blue, and as much fmoother than

reen. See CoLours.

ASPERNATA, in Entomology, afpecies of PHALANA,
of the geometra family, deferibed by Linneus. The wings
are whitifh ; anterior margin fubferruginous. Inhabits Eu-
rope. Muf. Lefk. Gmel. &c.

ASPEROSA, in Geography, a town of European Tur-
key, which is a bifhop’s fee, feated on the north-eatt of the
Archipelago, and not far from the ifland of Tailo, oppofite
to the northern point of which is a cape of this name.
N. lat. 40° 58’. E. long. 24° 20’.

ASPERRIMUS, in Conchology, a {pecies of Murex.
The fhell is brown, varied with yellow and white, and ribbed ;
whorls oblique, with a tuberculated margin; a brown band
in the middle, and another of white; tail fhort, dilated,
and afcending ; length about two inches. Gmelin, &c.

ASPERSA, isa fpecies of Hexix that inhabits Italy.
The ‘hell is fubimperforate, rather globofe, pale yellow,
with four rufous bands interrupted with white fpots; lip
white. Mull. Gmel. This kind is from an inch to an inch
and a half in diameter; fubrugofe, with minute impreffed
dots; rarely white; whorls four, and the aperture elongated.
The fynonyms, quoted by Gmelin, are very doubtful, if
not incorreét.

Aspersa, in Natural Hiffory, a fpecies of Ascipia,
deferibed by Miiller, Zool. Dan. as a:native of the Norway
fea. This is rather comprefled, and fomewhat rough,
white, bag {potted with red. Adheres to fea-weeds; is
heart-fhaped; {kin pellucid, and fmooth within; bag yel-
lowith.

ASPERSED, in Heraldry, aterm fometimes ufed in-
ftead of powdered or itrewed.

ASPERSION, formed ot the Latin a/pergere, to /prinkle ;
ef ad, to, and /pargo, I fcatter, the aét of {prinkling with
water, or fome other fluid.

i Some contend for baptifm by a/perfion, others by immer-
fon.

ASPERSKIRCH, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the archduchy of Auitria, five miles to the fouth-eaft of
Peyrbach,

ASS) F

ASPERSTORFT, 2 town of Germany, in the archduchy
of Auftria, two miles north-eaft of Sonneberg.

ASPERUGO, in Botany (ab afperitate), a rough-leaved
plant. Lin. g. 189. Schreb. 249. Jufl. 131. Clafs, pen-
tandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. a/perifoliae. Borraginee Jufl.
Gen. Char. Ca/. perianth one-leafed, five-cleft, ereét, with
unequal toothlets, permanent. Cor. one-petalled, funnel-
fhaped; tube cylindrical, very fhort; border femiquinquefid,
obtufe, fmall; throat clofed with five convex, prominent,
conyerging, little feales. S/am. filaments five, in the throat,
very fhort ; anthers oblongifh; covered. Pi/l. gerins four,
compreffed; ityle filiform, thort; #igma obtufe. Per. none.
Calyx very large, ereét, compreled; lamellas flat-parallel,
finuate. Széds four,*oblong, compreffed, diftant, by pairs.

Eff. Gen. Char. Calyx of the fruit compreffed ; lamellas
flat-parallel, finuated.

Species, 1. A. procumbens, procumbent afperugo, or
German madwort. Hudf. 82. With. 231. Smith Brit,
220. Flor. Dan. 552. Eng. Bot. 661- “¢ Calyx of the
fruit flat.” Root annual, fmall, attenuated ; ftems procum-

ent, angular, rough, leafy ; leaves oppofite, afcending, ob-
long, rough; flowers axillary, folitary, pedunculated, imall,
blue; calyx of the fruit large, comprefied, clofe, reticulated,
with a fetaceous margin, concealing the feeds. It grows
among rubbifh in reads, &c. flowering in April and May.
Small wild buglofs, or borrage, great goofe-grafs, are alfo
names under which it has been known. 2. A. egyftiacay
Egyptian afperugo. Jacq. Hort. v. 3. t. 21. ‘* Calyx of
the fruit fwelling.”’ Root annual; ftem eight inches high,
with divaricating hifpid branches; leaves broad-lanceolate,
alternate, befet with rough hairs; flowers yellow, all directed
the fame way, on thick italks. A native of Egypt, flower-
ing from June till Auguit.

Propagation and Culture. The fecond, or Egyptiaa fpe-
cies, may be raifed from feeds fown in a temperate hot-bed.
The plants will flower in the open air in fummer, but they
muft be houfed in winter. 7

ASPERULA, (a diminutive of a/per, the feeds of
the plant being roughifh). Lin. g. 121. Schreb. 157.
Juff. 196. Chak, tetrandria monogynia. Nat. Order, frellata,
Rubiacee Juffl. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth fuperior, {mall,
four-toothed. Cor. one-petalled, funnel-fhaped ; tube cy-
lindric, long; border four-parted; divifions oblong, obtufe,
reflex. Stam. filaments four, at the top of the tube ; anthers
fimple. Pi/?. germ twin, roundifh, inferior ; ftyle filiform,
bifid; ftigmas headed. Per. two dry globular united ber-
ries. Seeds, folitary, roundith, large.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cor. one-petalled, funnel-fhaped. Seeds,
two, globular.

Species, 1. A. odorata, {weet woodruff or woodroof. Hudf.
66. With. 185. Smith Brit. 172. Curt. Lond. f. 4. t. 19.
Flor. Dan. 562. Eng. Bot. 755. ‘‘ Leaves eight in a whorl,
lanceolate ; flowers fafcicled, peduncled; fruit hifpid.’”
Root perennial, creeping ; ftems ereét, fimple, {fmooth ;
leaves feven, nine, but moft commonly eight in every whorl,
elliptic-lanceolate, rough at the edge; panicles terminal,
trifid, or dichotomous; flowers white, fometimes fweet-
{cented, about four; fruit rough, with fetaceous hairs.
When recent, the plant is inodorous; but on being dried,
it is very fragrant like vernal grafs. It gréws in woods,
flowering in May. 2. A. arvenjis, blue woodroof; “leaves
fix in a whorl; flowers feffile, terminal, aggregate.’’? Root
annual, flender; ftem a foot high, roughifh, jointed, dicho-
tomous ; leaves linear-lanceolate, beneath whitifh with hairs ;
a clofe umbel of feffile flowers terminates the ftem and
branches; flowers blue. A native of the fouth of Europe,
flowering in July. It was introduced here, in 1772, by M.

O2 Richard.

AS'SA 8B.

Richard. 3. A. faurina, broad-leaved woodreof ; “ leaves
four in a whorl, ovate-lanceolate; flowers in terminal
bunches.” Root perennial,» woody; items a foot high,
branched; leaves hairy, nerved; peduncles one or two;
braétes ciliate. A native of the mountains of Swifferland
and Italy, flowering in June. It was cultivated by Miller
in 1739. 4. A. craffifolia, thick-leaved woodroof ; ‘leaves
four in a whorl, obleag-lateral, revolute, bluntith, pubef-
cent.”? Stem alternately branching ; leaves the length of
the internodes; the whorls on the branches more remote,
and leaves narrower, unequal; flowers few, in upright ter-
minal branches, pubefcent on the outfide. A native of
Crete and the Levant, flowering in June, Introduced here
by Monf. Thouin, in 1775. 5. A. calabrica, Calabrian
woodroof,: LL’ Herit! flirp. nov. 4. 65. t. 32. '“ Leaves
four in a whorl, oblong, cbtufe, {mooth, and even.”? An
underfhrub, acubit high, dzcumbent, foetid. Leaves linear-
lanceolate, one-nerved ; there is a fhort fharp upright ftipule
between the leaves, half embracing the ftem ; flowers three
or four, in terminating corymbs ; bracte two-leaved, acute,
fpreading a little below the germs. A\sative of Syria. The
Fostid fmell of this fufficientiy diftinguifhes it from the other
pecies. 6. A. findoria, narrow-leaved woodroof; “‘ leaves
linear, the lower fix, the middle four, in a whorl; ftem
flaccid; flowers generally trifd.’? Stem branching, pro-
cumbent, three feet in length; leaves refembling thofe
of wild thyme; peduncles from the axille of the leaves,
forming little umbels;' flowers white; feeds fmooth.
The roots are ufed in Gothland for dying wool. of a
red colour. A native of Sweden, Germany, Swifferland,
&c. Cultivated by Mr. James Gordon in 1764. 7. A. py-
renaica, Pyrenean woodroof; * leaves four in a whorl, lan-
ceolate-linear ; ttem.ere& ; flowers generally trifid.”? Roct
perennial; ftems fix or feven inches high; leaves keeled,
acute, {mooth; lower ones fhorter, more obtufe, lanceolate ;
upper and floral leaves oppofite, broader; flowers red. A
native of the Pyreneés, and about Bafil. 8. A. cynanchica,
fquinancy-wort, or {mall woodroof. Hudf. 66. With. 186.
Smith But. 173. Eng. Bot. 33. Rubicola vulg. &e. Ray
Syn. 225. “ Leaves four in a whorl, linear; the upper ones
very unequal; flowers all quadrifid; fruit fmooth.”? Root
nerennial, fibrous; lower leaves in fours, on the branches

nm, Mts,

obovate; upper leaves linear, and thofe near the top very ~

unequal, fo that the mtermediate pair feems diminifhed into
{tipules ; umbels terminal ; corollas of a frefh colour, marked
with red lines, fragrant; fruit fmooth. It grows in Eng-
Jand on warm banks, affe€ting a calcareous foil. 9. A. ari-
(iia, avm-flowered woodroof ; ** leaves linear, rather flethy ;
lower ones four in a whorl, flowers fubtern awned.”? Stem
upright; flowers pale, yellowifh, placed parallel, divifions
bluntly awned. A native of the fouth of Europe. 10. A.
laviga‘a, fhining woodroof; galium rotundifolium, Jacq.
Aait, 1. 58. t. g4. “¢ Leaves four in a whorl, elliptic,
nérvelefs, {moothifh; peduncles divaricate, trichutomous ;
feeds roughifh.”? Stems fimple, fmooth, fpreading ; leaves
fubpetioled, obtufe ; flowering branches horizontal, bifid ;
brates two, fimall, lanceolate; flowers white, ufually in
threes, 11. A, hexaphylia, fix-leaved woodroof, Allion Ped.
t. 77.. “ Leayes fix in a whorl, linear; flowers umbelled,
terminal, fubfeffile.”” Root perennial; ftéms genorally
fimple ; leaves acuminate, flat, erect; umbels accompanied
with ten or twelve leaves; corollas purple, white within ;
fegments a little revolute; feeds oblong, comprefled. It
gtows in the fiffures of rocks near 'T'ende.

Propagation and Culture. AM thefe plants being peren-
nial, except the fecond, may be increafed by the roots as

well as by the feeds.. The firit fort will protper under the’

AS P

fhade of fhrubs in wildernefs quarters. The fifth muft have
the protection of a green-houfe, and does net continue
many years; but may be increafed both by feeds and cut-
tings. The eighth sac naturally in chalk, and moft of -
the others being natives of rocks, muft have a dry open
fituation. Martyn’s Miller’s Dict.

ASPERUM, in Conchology, a f{pecies of Buccinum,
about an inch and an half in length.It is figured by Lifter,
but its Aabizat is unknowu. The whorls of the fpire are

ribbed, and ftriated tranfverfely ; the firft 1s gibbous, and —

the tail (or beak) rather prominent. Gmelhn, &e.

ASPET, in Geoeraph;, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a can-
ton in the diftri& of St. Gaudens; two leagues fouth-eaft
of St. Gaudens. The place contains 3223, and the canton
12,106 inhabitants: the territory includes 250 kihometres
and 18 communes.

ASPEYTIA, a town of Spain, in the province of Gui-

pufcoa, feven leagues from St. Sebattian.
* ASPHALITES, in Anatomy, the fifth vertebra of the-
loins. It is thus called, becaufe conceived as the fupport of
the whole fpme of the loins; from the privative # and
ofanrn, I fupplcit.

ASPITALTITE Laxe, in Geozraphy, a lake of Pa-
leftine, fo called from the great quantity of bitumen, called
afphaltum, which it produces. It-has alfo been called the
Dead Sea, from a fuppofition that no fifhes will live in it,
and that birds, which have attempted to fly over it, have’
been fuffocated. From its fituation, it has been denomi-;
nated the Laf Sea ; and diftinguithed by other appellations,
as the Salt Sea, the Sea of Sodom, the Sea of the Defert,’
and the Sea of the Plain, by the facred writings. Its origin
has been afcribed to the fubmerfion of the vale of Siddim,
where once food, according to common report, the three
cities which perifhed, in the miraculous conflagration, with
thofe of Sodom and Gomorrah. Thefe cities have, on ae--
count of their number, been called Pentapolis. Strabo,”
however, on the authority of an ancient and received tra-
dition, reckoned thirteen of thele cities, of which Sodom
was the capital; and he adds, that they were overthrown
by a violent earthquake occafioned by fubterraneous fire,
that threw up this great and fulphureous lake, in which all
thofe cities were fwallowed up. Jofephus likewife affures:
us, that in the overthrow of Sodom, this vale became the
lake Afphaltites. It has been faid, that the ruins of thefe
cities are ftill to be feen in clear weather; and we likewife
read of apples th=t grew about it, fair without, but bitter
to the talte and filled with afhes; which added to the deadly
nature of its water and fmoke, afforded another evidence of
the divine indignation. Some of the circumitances that have -
been recited concerning this lake, and which have long ob-
tained credit, have been contradifted by the teftimony of
more modern travellers. Although it was long thought that
nothing would fink in the waters of this lake, and that no
animal could live in it, yet Dr. Pococke aflures us, that
much as their fpecific gravity is augmented by the falt with .
which they are impregnated, feveral perfons, and among
others this writer himfelf, fwam and dived in this lake,
and birds have flown over it with fafety. It is poffible,
indeed, that the fpecific gravity of the water of this lake
may have been diminifhed fince the experiments made by
Vefpafian, and recited by Pliny (N..H. 1. v. c. 15), be-
caufe great quantities of the bitumen have been collected»
and removed, and this lake has been fupplied with copious |
ftreams of frefh water. Mr. Kirwan fays (Analyfis of Mi-
neral Waters, p. 144.), that the heaviett water of which he

has met with any account is that of this lake. lLavoifier. .

found »

ee

AS P

found it 1.2403, and that it contained 44.4 per cent. of fa
line matter, of which 6.25 parts were common falt, and
38.15 were muriated lime and muriated magnefia, See
‘Mem. Paris, 1778, p» 63. From thefe falts the water
derives its bitter tafte ; and the bitumen which floats upon
the furface of this lake, and which arifes from its borders
or its bottom, does not communicate to it any quality. As
to the falt which it produces, the Arabs furni{h themfelves
with large quantities by digging pits about the fhore of the
lake, filling them with water, aad leaving them to be cry-
ftallized by the fun. As to the bitumen, which gaye name
to this lake, it is faid to have thrown up great quantities
of it, and that it is much ufed by the Egyptians aud the in-
habitants of other countries for the purpefe of embalming
dead bodies. Indeed Jofephus affures us, that it alcended
in mafles as big as an ox without its head, and even ofa
larger fize. Mr. Maundrell fays (Journey, p. 84.),. that
there was no bitumen in the place where he happened to
be; but that it is gathered near the mountains on both fides
in great plenty. Pococke, however (Travels, p. 56), ob-
ferved it to fioat on the furface of the water, and after
windy weather to be found on the fhore, where the Arabs
gather*it for the purpofe of applying it to the fame ufe
with common pitch ; and Dr. Shaw (Travels, p. 347.) in-
forms us, that he was affured that the bitumen is raifed at
certain times from the bottom of the lake in large hemt-
fpheres, which, as foon as they touch the furface, and are
aéted upon by the external air, burft at once with great
fmoke and noife, like the pulvis fulminans of the chemitls,
and difperfe themfelves into a thoufand pieces. This, ne
adds, only happens near the fhore; for in greater depths,
the eruptions are fuppofed to difcover themfelves in fuch
columns of fmoke as are now and then obferved to arife
from the lake. This bitumen is deferibed as refembling
our black pitch, and. not to be diitinguifhed from it except
by its fulphureous and fcetid {mell, occafioned either by
friGtion or by fetting it on fire. Some perfons have con-
founded it with a blackifh combuftible one thrown on the
fhore, and fometimes called “ Mofes’s ftone,”” which held
in the flame of a candle, will foon burn, and emit a fmoke
and intolerable ftench. Whilft its weight is much diminithed,
it retains its bulk, and becomes of a whitifh colour. Dr.
Pococke obferves, that thefe {tones are found about two or
three leagues from the fhore; and he fappofes, that a ftra-
tum of this kind of ftone under the lake is probably one
part of the matter that feeds the fubterraneous fire, and
caufes the ebullition of the bitumen.

Mr. Maundrell iaforms us, that he faw feveral birds flying
about and over this fea without any vifible barm; and he
fufpects that the tradition which reports, that no animals
ean live in thefe waters is falfe, as he obferved among the
pebbles on the hore two or three fhells of fith refembling
oyfter fhells, which were caft up by the waves. He’ fur-
veyed the waters with attention, in order, if poffible, to dif-
cern the ruins of the abforbed cities, but he failed in his at=
tempts to difcover them; he was told, however, by two
aged perfons, not deftitute of underftanding or probity, that
they had once actually feen one of thefe ruins near the fhore,
and the waters being fhallow, they went to it, and found
there feveral pillars and other fragments of buildings. As for
the apples of Sodom, Mr. Maundrell neither faw nor heard
of any; nor was any tree to be feen near the lake from
which fuch kind of fruit might be expected. A late tra-
veller, Mr. V-Iney (Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. ‘i.
p- 310.) fays, that this lake contains neither animal nor vege-
ta ble life. . No verdure is perceived on its banks, nor are fifh
to be found in its waters; but it is not true, adds this writer,
that its exhalations are peftiferous fo as to deftroy birds

ASP

flying over it, It is very common to fee fwallows ‘kimming
its\furface, and dipping for the water neceffary to build their
nefts. he real caufe which deprives it of vegetables and
animals, is the extreme faltnefs of the water, which very
much exceeds that of the fea; the foil around it, impregnated
with this falt, produces no plants, and the air itfeif, loaded
with it by evaporation, and receiving the fulphureous and
bituminous vapours, cannot be fayourable to vegetation; and
hence proceeds the deadiy afpect which reigns around this
lake. The origin of this mineral (fays Mr. Volney) may
be eafily difcovered: for on the fouth-welt thore are mines
of foffil falt, which are fituated in the fides of the mountains
extending along that border, and which have, for time
immemorial, fupplied the neighbouring Arabs, and even the
city of Jerufalem. On this thore are alfo found fragments-
of {uiphur and bitumen, which the Axabs convert into a
trifiing article of commerce... There is aito founda fort of
flone, which, with friGion, emits a noxious {mell,. burns,
like bitemen, receives a polith like white alabafter, and is.
ufed for the paving intervals there may
be alfo feen unfhapen blocks, which prejudice has miitaken
for mutilated {fatues, and which pais with ignorant and
fuperititious ims for'monuments of the adventure of.
TLot’s wife. Dir. Maundrell was informed that on the weit
fide of the fea is a {mall premontory, near-which flocd the

mel bg 4 “A Sow 4s
Ox COUTL yoras. ENE AY

moi t of Lot’s metamorphofed wife, part of which, as
he was told, is vifible at this day. But he had neither
faith enough m the report oi his iniormers, ner {ufficient -

leifvre fer examining the truth of this fabulous relation.
One remarkabte property of this lake remains to be men-
tioned ; and this is, that though it receives the Jordan, the
brooks of Jabok, Kifhon, Arson, and other fprings, which
rufh down from the adjaceit mountains, yet it never over-
flows; this cireumftance has led fome naturalifts to imagine
that there isa fubterraneous. communication between this lake
and the Mediterranean, or the Red Sea. But no gulf of
this kind has been difcovered; nor, indeed, is it neceflary
to-recur to any hypothefis of this kind; fince it has been
demonftrated by accurate calculations, that evaporation is.
more than fufficient to carry off the waters with which the
lake is fupplied. This evaporation is, in fa&, very confide-
rable, and frequently becomes fenfible to the eye by the
fogs with which the lake is covered at the rifing of the fun,
and which are afterwards difperfed by the heat. This lake»
is inclofed on the eaft and weit by very high mountains; on
the noith it is bounded by the plain of Jericho, on which
fide it receives the waters of Jordan; on-the fouth it is open
and extends beyond the reach of the eye. Jofephtis (Antiq..
I-viiiec. 2. De Bell. 1. iv. c. 14.) affigns this lake the length
of 580 furlongs, from the mouth of Jordan, to the town of
Segor or Zohar on the oppofite fhore, or about twenty-two
leagues; anda breadth of about 150 furlongs, or five leagues:
but Mr. Maundvell (ubi fupra, p. $4.) fays, that it is twenty-
four leagues long, and fix or feven broad.

ASPHALTUM, in Mineralogy, denotes a kind of bitumi-.
nous ftone, found near the ancient Babylon, and lately in the
province of Neufchatel ; which, mixed with other matters, ,
makes an excellent cement, incorruptible by air, and impene-
trable by water ; this was fuppofed to be the mortar fo much
celebrated among the ancients, wherewith the walls of Baby-
lon, and the temple of Jerufalem were cemented.

It yields an oil which defends fhips from water, worms, &cs
much better than the ordinary compofition; and which is
alfo of good fervice for the cleanfing and healing of ulcers,
&c. See Jfineral Pircu. - ‘
ASPHAX, in Ancient Geography, a nation of the ifle of
Cyprus. Steph. Byz.

ASPHODELUS, in Botany, afphodel or ia eli

5 in.

BS P

Lin. Gen. 421. Schreb. 569. Gaertn. 17. Juff. 52. Clafs,
hexandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. coronarie. Afphodeli Sull.
Gen. Char. Ca/. none; corolla one-petalled, fix-parted ;
divifions lanceolate, flat, {preading ; neétary, fix very {mall
valves, converging into a globe, inferted into the bafe of
the corolla. Stam. filaments fix, fubulate, inferted into the
valves of the neGtary, bowed ; alternately fhorter ; anthers
oblong, incumbent, rifing. Pi. germ roundifh within the
nectary; ftyle fubulate, in the fame fituation with the ftamens;
fligma truncate. Per. capfule globular, flefhy, three-lobed,
three-celled. Sveds, feveral, triangular, gibbous on one fide.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cor. fix-parted; neétary fix valves cover-
ing the germ.

Species, 1. A. /ufeus ; yellow afphodel, or king’s-{pear,
Jacq. Hort. 1. 32. t. 77. ‘¢ Stem leafy, leaves three-fided,
fiviated.”? Root compoied of flethy long thick tubers ; ftalks
round, fimple, about three feet high, and wholly covered
with long triangular boat-fhaped leaves. The upper part of
ky med with yellow ftar-fhaped flowers, which

pen in fucceifion, about the beginning of June. Pedun-
cles one-flowered, arifing from the axi!le of the braétes,
which are membranaceous, fmail, whitifh. The corolla has
a {weet {mell, and is fo deeply divided as not to feem mono-
petalous, and the divifions or petals are alternately narrower.
{t isa native of Sicily. 2. A. ramofus; branched afphodel.
Villar’s Dauph. 2. 265. Murray in Com. Gott. 1776. 37.
t.7.@ A. albus. Mill. Di&. n. 3. “ Stem naked, leaves
enfiform, keeled, {mooth.’”? Root compofed of many tubers
and fibres ; leaves long, flexible, fharp at the edges, growing
in irregular clufters from the crown of the root; ftalks three
feet high, fending off naked branches, from the upper part
of which arife many ftar-fhaped flowers, which are white,
with a longitudinal purple line along the outfide of each
fegment. A native of the fouth of Europe. 3. A. fflulofus ;
onion-leaved afphodel. Gertn. Fruct. 1. 68. Gouan. Hort.
174. “Stemnaked, leaves ftiff, {ubulate, ftriated, fubfittulofe ;””
annual; roots confift of many flefhy yellow fibres; leaves
in a large cluiter from the crown of the root, convex on
their under fide, flat above and hollow. Flower ftalks rife
immediately from the root, and grow to the height of two
feet, dividing towards the top into three or four branches,
which are adorned with white {tarry flowers, having purple
lines on the outfide; thefe come out in July and Augutt,
and their feeds ripen in O&tober. A native of the fouth of
France, Spain, and the ifland of Crete. Scopoli has de-
feribed and figured another fpecies, which he named afpho-
delius libernicus ; it has yellow pendulous flowers, ftreaked with
five brownifh lines, and has faffron-coloured filaments. It was
found in Iitria by Mygind. See Flor. Carn. n. AVY ow tanh2 =
The three former {pecies were cultivated by Gerard in 1596.

Propagation and Culture. "The firlt {pecies multiplies very
fait by roots, and will foon overfpread a large border, if
fuffered to remain undifturbed. The fecond does not in-
creafe very rapidly by roots, nor fhould it be often tran{plant-
ed, for that will weaken it; therefore the beft way 1s to
propagate it by feeds. Thefe afphodels are pretty orna-
ments ina garden, and requiring very little trouble to cul-
tivate, are rendered more acceptable. ‘They may be propa-
gated by feeds which fhould be fown foon after they are
ripe, on a warm border of light frefh earth: in the {prin
the plants will appear, when they are to be carefully cleared
from weeds, and in dry weather frequently watered, by
which means the plants will be in a proper ftate to be tranf-
planted the Michaelmas following. A bed muft then be
prepared in the flower nurfery of frefh earth, into which you
fhould plant the roots, at about fix inches difiance, and fo
deep that the top of the roots may be three or four inches ua-

ASP

der the furface of the bed ; and fome old tan or dung fpread
over the bed to keep out the froft. In this bed they are to
remain one year, by which time the roots having acquired
ftrength enough to produce flowers the following year, they
fhould in autumn, when their leaves are decayed, be carefully
taken up and tranfplanted into the flower garden, obferving
to place them in the middle of the borders among other hardy
kinds of flowers, where being properly intermixed, they will
make an agreeable variety, and continue a long time in flower.
The third fort is an annual, and can only be propagated by
feeds which fhould be fown in autumn, and not removed till
they have put out four or five leaves, whea they are to be
tranfplanted into the places where they are to remain. If
the feeds of this plant are permitted to featter, they will
come up without care, and thofe which are not removed
will be the itrongeft, aad produce a greater number of
flowers. See Martyn’s Miller’s Di.

ASPHYXIA, in Medicine, a term which, in its literal
fenfe, fignifies a want of pulfation, being derived from @
privative, and sQué:c, pul/us. It is ufed to denote apparent
death. Such fufpenfions of the vital actions are referred by
Cullen to apoplexy and fyncope; but in the fyftem of Sau-
vages they con{utute a diltinét genus, under the above name.
The laft-mentioned nofologiit has been tco minute in his
fubdivifion of this, as well as of many other difeafes. The
following appear to us to be the only legitimate f{pecies;
viz. A. fubmerforum, apparent death from Drownine ;
which fee. A. /u/penforum, apparent death from Hansine ;
which fee. A. congelatorum, apparent death from expofure
to extreme cold. This we fhall notice here, as the moft
convenient place. In the northern latitudes, frequent in-
ftances occur, during the winter feafon, of perfons being
frozen to death. Before this event takes place, they are
feized with a general numbnefs, and an irrefiftible propenfity
to fleep, followed by ftupor, and infenfibility. In this ap-
parently lifelefs ftate they lie for feveral hours, more or lefs,
according to the intenfity of the cold, and the previous
condition of the body. They are, however, yet recover-
able by proper treatment ; which confifts in taking off the
perfon’s clothes, and rubbing the body all over with fnow,
or dafhing cold water upon it. The fri@tion fhould be con-
tinued for many hours, until figns of life appear; when the
patient fhould be wiped dry, and put into a cold bed, ina
room without fire: he fhould have but few clothes upon him
at firft. When the power of {wallowing is reftored, a {mall
quantity of white wine and water (two parts of water to
one of wine) fhould be given in a tepid ftate; but on no
account any f{pirituovs liquors, fuch as brandy, rum, &c.
Afterwards he may have tea, with a large proportion of milk, .
increafing the quantity of nourifhment gradually. He fhould
avoid a heated room for a day or two, as well as all trong,
drinks and feafoned food ; otherwife a fever, or dangerous
local inflammations, will be excited. Travellers or others who
are about to be expofed to extreme degrees of cold, fhould be
cautioned againft the ufe of {pirituous liquors, and every effort
fhould be exerted by their companions to prevent them from
falling afleep. For the treatment of partial injuries from
cold, fee the article Frost-pirrren. A. a carbone (A.
carbonica, as we would term it), fuffocation from the fumes
of charcoal, from the gas thrown out by fermenting liquors,
&c. (i.e. fuffocation from the carbonic acid gas.) See
Surrocation. A. a mephidite (A. azotica), fuffocation
from foul air or azotic gas. SeeSurrocation. A. acophy-
torum, apparent death of new-born infants. See Mup-
WIFERY.

ASPIA, in Ancient Geography a river of Italy, in Pice-
num, north-eaft of Auxinum.

ASPIC,

ASP

ASPIC, Fr. in Artillery, a piece of ordnance, weighing
4250 {b, and carrying a 12 th fhot,

Asric, in Botany, a plant which grows in plenty in Lan-
guedec, in Provence, and efpecially on the mountain of St.
Baume, in France. It is a kind of lavender, nearly like what
grows in our gardens; both with regard to the figure and
colour of its leaves and flowers. The botanifts call it ma/e
lavender, lawondula mas, or {pica nardi, pfeudo nardus, &c.

Aspic, Oil of. See Oil of Seixe.

ASPIDO, in Geography, a river of Italy, in the marqui-
fate of Ancona: it rifes near Polverigo, and runs into the
Maufona, a little above its mouth in the Adriatic Sea.

ASPIDOPHORE, ia Lchthyology, the name of a new
genus of fifhes in Lacépede’s arrangement. This genus is
compofed of the two {pecies of Corrus, in the Linnean
fyftem called cataphradus and japonicus, the former of which
M. Lacépéde names ?a/pidophore armé, and the latter Pafpi-
dophore lifiza. See Cotrus.

ASPII, in Ancient Geography, a powerful people of India,
whom Alexander defeated in a pitched battle near the river
Euafpia. He had previoufly croffed this river, as well, as
the Choe; and after the battle he paffed through the terri-
tory of the Gurai, and croffed the river Gureus, fuppofed
by major Rennell to be the Kameh or Cabul river. This
ingenious geographer conjeétures, that the nations of the
Aipii, Thyrei, and Arafaci were inferior divifions of the mo-
dern Cabul, and fituated between the rivers of Ghizni and Ca-
bul, at the height of Irjab and Dukkah. Mem. p. 172.

ASPING, in Zoology, a name given ‘by the inhabitants
ef Smoland to a venomous {mall fnake, not more than fix
inches long, found in Ofieries and Willow-holts, the bite of
which is frequently fatal, and which is much dreaded by the
Smolanders. It is the Coruser Cuersea of Linneus,
with 150 abdominal fcuta, and 34 fubcaudal f{cales.

ASPIRAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Herault, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Lodeve, two leagues north of Pezenas.

ASPIRATE, Aspigavio, in Grammar, a character ufed
to denote an afpiration.

The afpirate, by the Greeks called /piritus afper, and
marked over their vowels, feems to be of a very different
nature from the letters, but is neverthelefs a true letter, as
well as the reit, and a real confonant.—By letters we do not
mean the charaéters of the alphabet, which are changeable
according to the languages and the people, and among the
fame people, according to time and cuftom; and even ac-
cording to the fancy of particular perfons. Thus, fome
for inftance, write the afpirates, or letters afpirated ; which
by others are omitted; though both the one and the other
pronounce alike ; as in huomo, huomini, an Italian word fre-
quently written womo, uomini. But by letters we mean arti-
-culate founds, marked by them, and formed by the or-
gans of fpeech, viz. the throat, mouth, tongue, palate,
teeth, &c.

Thefe founds are of two kinds, the one /imp/e, and the other
compound, or modified. Simple founds are thofe pronounced
bya fingle motion of the organ, fuch are the vowels. Com-
pound founds are thofe fame fimple founds modified by a
motion of the organ, fuperadded to the motion neceflary
to pronounce the fimple found ; of which kind are the
confonants.

Now an afpirate is an effe& or confequence of a motion
made by fome of the organs of fpeech ; and therefore it muft
either be a vowel or aconfonant. The former it cannot be,
as not being a fimple found, or a found that may be pro-
nounced by itfelf, It muft therefore be a modificative, or
confonant ; and in effeét it has all the properties of one.

4.5 2

For, 1it, It refults from a motion of the organ, which
of itfelf produces no found. Thus the /Piri/ws of the Greeks,
our / afpirate, as well as that of the French, and other
people, has no more found of itfelf than 2, c, d, &c. and
the fame thing may be obferved of the aleph, Lheth, and caphy
of the Eaftern languages.

2dly, On the contrary, our 4, the /piritus of the Greeks,
and the other afpirates jut mentioned, are pronounced with
all the vowels, in the fame manner as confonauts are. They
modify thofe vowels, and are effects of a motion of the
organ fuperadded to the motion neceffary to form the vowel.
Thus, to pronounce ha, two motions of the organ are re-
quired as well as for 6a, or ca, &c. one for a, which itfelf
is a found; the other for 4, which yields ne found, no more
than 4; but adds fomething to 2 which modifies it, and makes
that 4a is not mere a, nor da, nor ca, &e. And this mut
hold {till more fenfibly in the ftronger afpirates, as thofe of
the oriental tongues . Ff, 97, YR Wb D>, 2, &e. in all
which there are evidently two motions, the one to exprefs
the vowel, and the other to modify it: now this being the
nature and effence of a confonant, it follows, that let them
be denoted in what mannerthey will, whether as our 4, as
the orientals do, 1. e. by proper charaéters in the courfe of
the words themfelves; or, as the Greeks do fome of theirs,
by a fign of afpiration placed over the vowel, it matters not.
The afpirate is no lefs a confonant in apw, than in x23 in
iw, than in yew 3 in 6a7, than in y22n3 and fo of others.

The third and laft reafon urged by fome, is, that the
Faftera languages, which, according to them, do not ex-
prefs the vowels, do yet exprefs the afpirates. This kind
of argument feems, however, to be grounded on a miftake ;
fince it is more than probable, that the ¥, 7, 9, y of thofe
languages, fhould be ranked among the vowels, and were
fo ufed.

Add, that the afpirate is frequently changed into a con-
fonant, and exprefled by a confonant. Thus of ££ is made
Jex3 of inte, feptems of towego:, vefperus, kc. of the Hebrew
2, owG, and thence vinum, &c. Nay even in the fame lan-

uage, Hefiod, fpeaking of Hercules’s buckler, ufes “Hycw
i ©npzvv; making no difference between a © and an afpirate.

Hence it follows, that afpirates are real confonants ; and
that we ought not to exclude the 4 in our language, out of
the number of letters.

Other grammarians contend, that the 4 is founded only
by a ftrong emiffion of the breath, without any conforma-
tion of the orgass of fpeech, and confequently is no letter.
See H.

ASPIRATION, the a& of afpirating, i. e. of pronounc-
ing any fyllable, or word, ftrongly ; with a good deal of
breath, and vehemence.

This we do, for inftance, in thofe words which have the
letter 4 before them ; as harangue, hook, Holland, hero, &c-
whereas the like fyllables are founded much fofter and eafier
without the 4; asin ear, eat, &c. See H.

ASPIS, in Ancient Geography, -a town of Spain, north-
weft of Ilicis and very near it on the fame river.—Alfo, a
town of Africa Propria, in 33° 20’ N. lat. according to
Ptolemy.—A nother town of the fame country, about 30° 20!
N. lat. according to Ptolemy. Strabo places it in the Greater
Syrtis, and fays it is the beft port of that coaft.—Alfo, a hill
or territory cf Africa, in the promortory of Taphitis, accord-
ing to Strabo.—Alfo, a town of the Carthaginiavs, ealled
Clypea. M.d? Anville thinks this to be the fame with the for-
mer; but Ptolemy diftinguifhes them.— ANo,an iflandof Afia,
upon the coaft.of Afia Minor, between Tenedos and Teos.
It was called, according to Strabo, Arconnefus.— Alfo, a
promontory of Ethiopia, near Egypt.—An ifland in the

vieluty

ASP

vicinity of the Cyclades.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Macedo-
nia, founded by Philip, the father of Perfeus. Steph. Byz.

ASPITHRA, a town of Afia, in the country of the
Sines. Ptolemy.—Alfe, a river of Afia, in the fame coun-

_

ASPIUS, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Cyprinus, that

inhabits the frefh water ftreams in moft of the northern’

parts of Europe. Linnzus, in his Fauna Suecica, defcribes
it fpecifically as having fixteen rays in the anal fin, and the
lower jaw longer than the upper one,-and recurved. It
grows to the weight of twelve pounds; is blackith above,
and bluifh-white on the fides; feeds on vegetables, worms,
and little fifh; {pawns in March; flefh white, foft, fat,
and well tatted. This is Cyprinus rapax ovatus fubcem-
preffus cerulefcens, &c. of Lefk.; leucifeus argentcus, &c.
of Klein; and rappe of Gefner.

ASPLEDON, in Ancient Geosraphy, a town of Beeotia,
north-daft of Orchomene, from which it was feparated by
the {mall river Melas.

‘ -ASPLENIUM, in Botany, fpleenwort (faid ‘to be de-
rived from « and emt, becaufe it was fuppofed to diy
upon the fpleen). Lin. g. 1178. Schreb. 1631. Lingua
cervina, trichomanes Tournef. Clafs, cryptogamia filices.
Generic Char. Fructifications difpofed in right lines along
the under difk of the frond.

* Frond fimple.

Species, 1. A. rhixophyllum, root-leaved fpleenwert, Phyl-
itis Pluk. Alm. 154. t. 105. f. 3. Morr. Hiit. 3. 557. 14.
f. 4, t. 1. f. 14. “ Fronds cordate-enfiform undivided, top
filiform, rooting.” Root fibrous; fronds triangular acu-
minate, point long linear; at the bafe hollowed, eared, on
long footitalks; fru€tifications irregularly difperfed over
the whole difx of the leaf in oblong fpots; the ends of
the fronds bent down to the ground, and there ftriking
roct. Avnative ef North America. Introduced here by
Mr, Bartram ia 1764. 2. A. hemionitis, mule’s-tongue
fpleen-wort. Lour. Cochin. 677. ‘ Fronds fimple, cordate-
chaitate, five-lobed, entire: iflipes fmooth and even.” It
rifes about fix inches in height, aud nearly refembles N° 3.
(hart’s-tongue\, but the longitudinal diameter of the frond
{carcely exceeds the tranfverfe one; the flipes are fleader
and in tufts; the lobes of the fronds are fublinear, unequal;
frutifications in, oblique lines. A native of the fouth of
Europe. Introduced here in1779. 3. A. /colopendrinm,
hart’s-tongue fpleenwort. Hudf. 452. With. 2. 51. Lightf.
660. Curt. Lond. 1. 67. Bolton Fil, 13. t. 11. Woody.
Med. Bot. f. 272. The varieties are £. phyllitis crifpa.
Bauh Hitt. >. P. £. Lingua cervina maxima, undulato folio
auriculato per bafim. Pluk. phyt. 3. Lingua cervina, multi-
0. Bauh. pir. «. P. f. Lingua cervina, minor crifpa,
fol. multifido, ramofa, Pluk. phyt. « Fronds fimple, cor-
@ate-lingulate, quite entire; fiipes hirfute.?? Root black,
hard, fealy, furnifhed with numerous fibres ; ftipe and
lower part of the mid-rib covered with chaffy feales;
fronds trom i¥é inches to a foot long, and from an inch to
two inches broad, lanceolate, rounded, and hollowed at
tae bafe, of a firm tough texture, and of a fhining green
en the upper fide, and more or lefs waved at the edges ;
fruGtifications in parallel lines; thefe are at firft covered
with a pellucid involucre, which burfts whea the capiules
fwell; they then appear globular and brown, and each is
furrounded with a jomted elafic ring, by which the feeds
when ripe are forced out of the capfule and difperfed to a
onfiderable diitance. Ik grows commonly on old walls,
rocks, and in fhady lanes. This plant, likg fome others of
the fame genus, was formerly ufed to flrengthen the vifcera,
reftrain hemorrhages, and alyine fluxes, expel gravel, and

R ASP

open obftruétions of the liver and fpleen; but its medi-
cinal qualities are now little valued. It is one of thofe
termed the five capillary herbs.
fpieenwort ; ‘* fronds fimple, lanceolate, quite entire,
fmooth.”? Leaves two feet long, broad, firm, thick, {mooth,
ftreaked; fru@tifications in parallel lines, extending one-
third of the breadth of the leaf. It roots into the top
of trees; the leaves come out in a circle, and form a kind
of umbel, in the middle of which birds make their netts.
A native of Java and the Society Ifles. 5. A. /erratum,
ferrate-leaved {pleenwort. Phyllitis, &c. Sloan. Jam. f. 72.
n. 5. Fronds fimple, lanceolate, ferrate, fubfeffile.”?
Root compofed of brown fibres, which fend forth eight
or nine fronds about three inches long, gradually broader
near the end, which is formed into a blunt poiat. A na-
tive of woods in the inland parts of Jamaica: 6. A. plan-
tagincum, plaintain-leaved fpleenwort, Brown Jam. 92.
«“ Fronds fimple, ovate-lanceolate, fubternate, flipe qua-
drangular.’”? ‘The fronds rife from a thick fibrous root to
the height of ‘ten or twelve inches, with an even margin
and a {mooth ftipe. A native of Jamaica. 7. A. Janceum,
lance-leaved {pleenwort. Thumb. Japon. 333. ‘* Frond fim-
ple, elliptic, entire, fmooth; ftipe reund, fealy.” Stipe
fexuofe, decumbext; lines of fructifications nedr the edge
of the leaf, which is lanceolate. A native of Jamaica.
8. A. difolium, double-leaved fpleenwort, lingua, cerv. &¢.
Plum. fil. 116. t. 133. “ Fronds pinnate ; leaflets lancee-
late, fubfinuate, connate.” Fronds ail double, or ¢om-
pofed of two equal fimilar leaflets, united at the bafe by a
common membrane; the common peduncle forks a very
little above the bafe, and forms the mid-rib. A native of
South America. :
: ** Frond pinnatifid.

9. A ceterach, common ipleenwort, Hudf. 452. Lightf.
661. Bolton Fil. 20. t. 12. ‘* Fronds pinnatifid; lobes
alternate, confluent, obtufe.’? Fronds may, from three to
fix inches long; lobes of the frond fhort, broad, roundifh,
entire, about twenty pairs ina frond. ‘This grows in fimi-
lar fituations to thefe mentioned of A. fcolopendrium: ro.
As obtufifolium, blunt-leaved fpleenwort, adiantum alis Tlatio-
ribus, Pet. Fil. 117. t. 2. f. 4. ‘¢ Fronds fubpinnate ; pine

nas obtufe, finuate, decurrent, alternate.” A native of
South America. iad
** Frond pinnate. t

11. A. nedofum, knotted-falked fpleenwort. Brown Jam.
9g. Lour. Cochinch. 678. Sloane Jam. 1. 85. t. 41. fi 7.
“Fronds pinnate; pinnas cppofite, lanceolate, entire.”
Abeve a foot and a half high, upright, fmooth; pinnas
long, itriated; fru@tifications in oblique, ftraight, parallel
lines. A native of the: Weft Indies and Cochinchina..
12. A. falicifolium, willow-leaved fpleenwort. ' Lonchitis,
&c. Plum. Amer. 4. t. 6. Pet. Fil. rro. t. 3. £3. Sleane
Jam. 1. 78. 24. Fronds pinnate; pinnas fickle-lanceo-
late, crenate from the bafe upwards, angular”? A foot
high or more; pinnas alternate; middle pinnas largeft, fer-
rate at the edges. A native of Jamaica and the Antilles.
13. A. trichomanes, common maiden hair. Hudf. 452. With.
3. 52. Bolton 22. t. 13. Woodv. Med. Bot. 204. Eng.
Bot. 576: Fronds pinnate; pinnas roundifh, crenate.’?
Fronds about five or fix inches long, lanceolate; ftipe and
rachis {mooth, gloffy, blackifh, purple; pinnas fifteen or
twenty pairs, the loweft moft remote, of an irrecular oval
figure, largeit below ; feminal lines oblique to the mid-rib,
three, four, or five in number. It grows in the crevices
of rocks and walls, and in fhady places among ftones. The

leaves have been ufed in diforders of the breaft proceeding _

from an acrimony of the fluids, and alfo to promote the
expectoration

4. A. nidus, bird’s-nett.

|
.

ASP

expectoration of tough phlegm, and to open obfiruétions
of the vifcera. They are ulually directed in infufion or
decoétion, with the addition of a little liquorice. A fyrup
prepared from them is common in our fhops, both as_made
here and imported from abroad ; this latter has an admixture
of orange-flower water. A little of thefe fyrups, mixed
with water, makes a very pleafant draught. 14. A. viride,
green fpleenwort. Hudf. 453. With. 3. 52. Lightf, 663.
Bolton Fil.24. t.14. ‘Trich. cofta viridi, &e. Rati Syn. 119.
@. Trich. fol. eleganter incilis. Tournef. Inft. 539. t. 350.
f.1.c. ‘ Fronds pinnate ; pinnas roundifh, crenate, trun-
cate at the bafe.’? Pinnas eighteen or twenty pairs 3 leat-
Jets fometimes alternate, thomboidal, or trapezium-fhaped.
It is found on rocks in mountainous fituations in the
north of England. 15. A. ebeneum, ivory-ftalked fpleen-
wort. Ait. Hort. Kew. “ Frond pinnate; pinnas lanceo-
late, fubfalcate, ferrate, eared at the’ bafe ; tipe very
cloffy, fimple.”? A native of North America. Cultivated
by Dr. Fothergill in 1779. 16. A. deniatum, togtheleayed
fpleenwort. Brown Jam. 93.5. Plum. Fil. t. ror. Pet.
t.2.f.15. ‘ Fronds pinnate; pinnas wedge-thaped, ob-
tufe, crenate, emareinate.”” A native of South America
and the Weit Indies. We learn from Swartz, that the A.

yemeum |. is nothing more than the young plant of this
Sacties. 17. A. marinum, tea {pleenwort, or dwarf fea fern.
Hudf. With. Lightf Bolton, 26. t. 15. Eng. Bot. 392.
<¢ Frond pinnate ; pinnas obovate, ferrate, gibbous, above
obtufe, wedged at the bate.” Fronds from three inches
to a foot in length, but commonly five er fix inches ; ihipes
fmooth, reddifh-brown ; pinnas utually about twelve pairs,
nearly rhemboidal, fometimes lanceolate, tharply crenate ;
lines of fru@tification four or five on each 1de of the nerve
in an oblique direction. It grows on rocks on the fea coat.
18. A. ealirifolium, fckle-leaved {pleenwort. Plum. Fil. 45.
here Ga es Fronds pinnate; pinnas fickle lanceolate, gath-
ferrate, from the bale downwards angular.’? A native of Mar=
tinico. 19. A.rhizophorum, Swartz. Obf. 399. Brown Jam. 92.
Pluk. Alm. 9. t. 253-4. ‘* Fronds pinnate, rooting at top;
pinnas ovate, repand, fomewhat eared ; very {mall ones re-
mote, entire.” About ten or twelve inches in length, with
the top bending to the ground; the old plant is bipinnate.
A native of Jamaica. 20. A. monanthemumy one-flowered
¥pleenwort. Smith ic. ined. 3. 73. “ Fronds pinnate ; pinnas
trapeziumed, obtufe, ferrate, behind entire; one line of
fructifications.’’ Fronds numerous, linear-lanceolate, a foot
high, often twilted ; leaflets numerous, rather alternate, fef-
file ; line of fructification fingle. The younger Linneus has
confounded this plant with A. refectum. A native of the
Cape. 21. A. ruta murariay wall-rue, tent-wort, white
fpleenwort. Hudf. 453. With. 3. 53. Bolt. Fil. 28. t. 16.
Eng. Bot. 150. “« Fronds alternately decompound ; leaflets
wedge-fhaped crenulate.”” Fronds three or four inches high,
“furmifhed at the end with two, or more commonly three al-
“ternate pinnas; they are fhort, broad, and fomewhat of a
rhomboidal figure ; fructifications appear in two or three
white dots on each fide of the nerve. it grows on fiffures
of walls and rocks. 22. A. a/ternifolium, alternate-leaved
fpleenwort. Jacq. Mifc.2. 51. t. 5. f.2. “ Fronds imply

innate ; leaflets alternate, wedge-fhaped, gafhed above.
Tine regarded this as a vartety of the preceding {pecies,
from which it differs in having the {tems more fimple, black
at the bafe, with one or two fhort divifions only, having
-three leaves lobed and two-lobed; the other leaves are foli-
tary ; in the lower part of the leaf are two or three lines of
alongifh form. A. native of Swifferland and Auttria. 23.
A. adiantum nigrum, black maidenhair. Audf. 454. Ww ith.
Bolt. 30. ‘ Fronds fubtripinnate, leaflets alternate, pinnas
~ Vor. III.

ASP

lanceolate, gath-ferrate.’? Fronds eight or nine inches high,
their outline triangular ; ftipes glofly, black, or very dark
red; pinnas alternately pinnate. It grows on fiflures. of
rocks and old walls, and among {tones and fhady places.
24. A. lanceolatum, lanceolate {pleenwort. Eng. Bot. 240.
Hudf. 454. With. 3-54. A. trichomanes ramofum. Lin.
Sp. Plant. «© Fronds doubly pinnate, lanceolate; pinnas
obovate, crenate ;*root crowned with tufts of long narrow
dark feales.’? Fronds in fize and habit fomewhat like pol.
fragile ; pinnas lanceolate, lobed above; pinnulz aad lobes
obovate, veiny, fharply crenate or toothed. Found on the
great rocks at Tunbridge, and in Fayal one of the Azores,
by Forfter. 25. A. marginatum, margined fpleenwort.
Pet. Fil. 108. t. 12. f. 2. Plum. 88. t. 106. « Fronds piu-
nate ; pinnas oppolite, cordate, lanceolate, fubmarginate, en-
tire.” A native of South America. 26. A. /quamofum,
{caly-ftiped f{pleenwort. Pet. Fil. 112. t. 5. f.2. Plam. Fil.
86. t. 103.“ Fronds pinnate piunas acuminate, gathed ;
ftipe fealy.”? A native of South America. 27. A. firiatumy
ftriated {pleenwort. Plum, Fil. 15, 16.t. 18, 19, ‘ Fronds
pinnate ; pinnas pinnatifd, obtufe, crenate, the terminal one
acuminate.”? A native of South America. 28. A. erofun,
lacerated {pleenwort. Brown Jam. 94. Sloane Jam. 1. 78.
t. 33. f.2. “ Fronds pinnate; pinnas trapeze-oblong, ftriated,
erofe, eared at the bafe.”? From fourteen to eighteen inches
high ; ftipe black, fimple ; leaves pointed, and appearing as
if torn at the margin. A native of Jamaica. 29. A. ja-
ponicum, Japonefe fpleenwert. Thunb. Jap. 334. . ‘© Fronds
pinnate; pinnas acute, gath-pinnatifid, ferrulate; ftipe fealy.”’
Stipe comprefled, furrowed, {caly at bottom, two feet high ;
pinnas oppofite, feffile, lanceolate. Lines of fructification
approximating. A native of Japan, 30. A. refedum, half-
leaved fpleenwort. Smith ic. ined. 3-t.72. “ Fronds pin-
nate ; pinnas trapezium-thaped, acuminate, gath-crenate.’”
Frond-lanceolate, a foot high ; leaflets numerous, alternate,
fubfeffile, an inch long, entire at the bafe, and alongs the
hinder edge, and appearing as if cut off at the nerve in front,
and at the tip, unequally gafh-crenate, veined; lines of
fructification two or three. Found b Commerfon in the
ifle of Bourbon. 31. A. dulbofum, bulbous-rooted fpleen-
wort. Lour. Coch. @78. I'ronds pinnate ; pinnas lanceo-
late, flightly crenate ; root bulbous.” A foot high, diffu-
fed; {tipes flefhy, thick, tubercled, recliing 5 leaflets
{mooth ; fruétification in oblique parallellines. A native of
the mountains of Cochinchina, where the roots are eaten.
The following cight /pzcies are from Swartz.

32. A. proliferum. Swartz Prodr. 129. Sloan. Jam. 1. 71.
t, 26. f. 1. -** Fronds fubfefile, broad-lanceolate, the firft
leaves obovate, rooting at the end.’??. Leaves two inches
long, ending in a point, which bows down to the ground,
takes root, and fends out other leaves 3; feeds in around {pot
on each fide of the midrib. A native of Jamaica. Bons
pumilum. Swartz 129. A. anthrifcifolium, Jacq. coll,
« Frond ternate, leaflets three-parted, gafhed.””?. Fronds
about four inches highs leaflets elongate, triangulat, acute,
divided into round, blunt lobes; fructification on the whole
back of the frond. A native of Jamaica and Martinico.
34. A. dimidiatum. Swartz 129. “ Fronds plunate ; pinnas
trapeze-oblong, acuminate, angular upwards, entire, and flat
downwards. A native of Jamaica, 35. A. fragrans. Swartz
130. ‘ Fronds fubtripimnate, leaflets alternate, pinnas lan-
ceolate, broadifh, ferrate at the tip.” 36. A. grandiflorum,
Swartz 130. <“ Fronds pinnate ; pinuas alternate, laneco-
late, fubferrate, at the bafe reCtangular, lo-ver ones rounded.
37- A. diffedum. Swartz 130. “+ Fronds pinnate; pinnas
lanceolate, gathferrate, tailed at the tip. 38. A. pramor fim.
Swartz.130. .** Fronds tripinnatifid ; ‘pinnas fomewhat

wedge.

ASS

wedge-fhaped, pinnulas erofe, toothed at the tip. 39. A.

cicutarium. Swartz 130. ‘¢ Frond tripinnate, very fmooth,

the upper one pinnatifid, leaflets lanceolate, entire.’ The

fix laft fpecies are natives of Jamaica.

Lhe following Species are from Forfler, and are all Natives of
New Zealand.

40. A. flaccidum. Forft. Flor. Auft. n. 426.“ Fronds
pinnate ; leaflets alternate, remote, pinnatifid, linear, fluiff.
41. A. lucidum. Forft. n. 427. ‘ Fronds pinnate ; leaflets
oppofite, oblong-ovate, acuminate, ferrulate.” 42. A. po-
lyodon. Forit. n. 128. ‘ Fronds pinnate ; leaflets trapezoid,
acuminate, acute, doubly-ferrate.”? 43. A. obliquum. Forft.
n. 129. ‘ Fronds pinnate; ftipes fealy; leaflets oblong, oppo-
fite, acuminate, ferrate, the outer margin fhorter.”” 44. iA.
obtufatum. Fort. n. 130. ‘ Fronds pinnate; leaflets oppolite,
oblong, obtufe, ferrate.”” 45. A. tenerum. Forft. n. 131.
«¢ Tronds pinnate ; leaflets rhomb-oblong, obtufe, gafh-fer-
rate.” 46. A.caudatum. Forit. n. 132. ‘ Fronds pinnate ;
leaflets pinnatifid, linear, briftle-fhaped at the tip, fegments
blunt, gafh-ferrate at the tip, flipe rough with hairs.” 47.
A. bulbiferum. Fortt. n. 133. Fronds fubbipinnate ; leaf-
lets decurrent, oblong, obtufe, pinnatifid ; fructifications
proliferous.

Propagation and Culture. Whoever is defirous of culti-
vating any of thefe ferns, mutt have walls or rocks or heaps
of ftones to fet the hardy fpecies in, or pots may be filled
with loamy undunged earth, or fand gravel and lime rubbifh
for that purpofe, placing them in the fhade. Hart’s-tongue
has been raifed from feed; but all the forts may be in-
creafed by parting the roots. Some of the foreign {pecies
mutt be placed under a common frame in winter; and
jt is evident that fuch as areinatives of the Weft Indies
and other hot climates, require the protection of a ftove.

A:sspLeENiuM. See AcrosticHum, and Meniscium.

ASPOE, in Geography, a {mall ifland of Sweden, in the
Baltic, two miles fouth-weft of Carlfcron.

ASPONA, in Ancient Geography, a municipal town of
Afia Minor, in Galatia, in the road from Ancyrato Cefarea,
according to Antonine’s Itinerary.

ASPORENUM, a diftri& of Afia Minor, near Per-
gamus 3 which, according to Strabo, was barren and ftony,
and in which was-a temple dedicated to the mother of the
gods, called Afporéne.

ASPOTAGOEN Mounrarin, in Geography, a high
Jand of America, that lies on the promontory which feparates

Tahone from Margaret’s bay, on the coaft of Nova Scotia.
This land, which is feen at a diftance, is that which is
generally made by the fhips bound from Europe and the
Weit Indies to Halifax. Its fummit*is about 500 feet
above the level of the fea. :

ASPRA, a town of Italy, in the territory of the church,
upon the* river Aja, between Tivoli and Terni. It was
formerly in the diftri€t of the Sabines, and called Ca/peria,
and Gafperula.

ASPREDO, in Schihyolacy, a {pecies of Strurus that
inhabits the rivers in America. This kind has a fingle dorfal
fin, with five rays, and has eight cirri. Gmel.. The back is
carinated, and the tail forked. Klein names it batrachus.

ASPRELLA, in Botany. See Leersia.

ASPREMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department cf the Meufe, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri@ of St. Michiel, four miles fouth-eaft of St. Michiel.—
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Maritime
Alps, and chief place of a canton in the diflri& of Nice. The
place contains 1291, and the canton 5236 inhabitants: the
territory includes 82% kiliometres and eight communes.

ASPRES Les Varnes, a town of France, in the de-

ASS

partment of the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton im
the diftriét of Serres, fifteen miles weft of Gap.

ASPRIE‘RES, a town of France, in the department of
Aveyron, and chief place of a canten in the diftni&t of Ville-
franche. he place contains 685, and the canton 9086 in-
habitants: the territory includes 165 kiliometres and 23
communes.

ASPRO, ariver of European Turkey, which runs into
the fea, twenty-eight miles weft of Lepanto.

ASPRONISI, formerly Automate, a fmall ifland of the
Archipelago, which, by fome convulfion at a former period,
was feparated from Thera, now Santorin. ‘This feparation
is faid to have happened 237 years before the Chniitian era.
The coalt of the gulf between thefe two iflands, compofed
of thefe rocks, black, calcined, and towering upwards of
300 feet above the level of the fea, appears to be the edge
of an enormous crater, the bottom of which has never been
fathomed. Afpronifi is rent internally, and covered with
pumice ftone ; whence it has obtained the name of the
«© White Ifland,”? which it now bears. Sonnini’s Travels in
Greece, &c. p. 188. Olivier’s Travels in the Ottoman Em-
pire, p. 161.

ASPROPITI, a fmall town of European Turkey, in
Livadia, upon the gulf of Lepanto.

ASPROPOTAMO, a river of the fouthern part of
Greece, has its fource in mount Mezzovo, and difcharges
itfelf into the Ionian fea.

ASPROSPIZIA, a town of European Turkey, ten
miles $.S.W. of Livadia.

ASPUCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria. Ptolemy.

ASPUNGITANI, a people of Afia, near the Palus
Meotis. Strabo.

ASPURGIANI, a barbarous nation about the Bof-
phorus. Strabo.

ASS, Afinus, in Zoology.

Ass’s Milk. . See Mixx.

Ass Bay, in Geography, lies on the fouth coaft of the
ifland of Newfoundland. p

Ass, Cucumber. See Momornvica.

Ass, Feaft of the, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, a feftival which
was celebrated in feveral churches of France, during the
dark ages, in commemoration of the Virgin Mary’s flight
into Egypt. On this occafion a young girl richly dreffed,
with a child in her arms, was fet upon an afs richly capari-
foned. ‘The afs was led to the altar in folemn proceflion, and
high mafs was faid with great pomp. ‘The afs was taught
to kneel at proper places: a hymn no lefs childith than im-
pious was fung in his praife ; and when the ceremony was
ended, the prieft, inftead of the ufual words with which
he difmiffed the people, brayed three times like an afs ; and
the people, inftead of their ufual refponfe, *¢ We blefs the
Lord,’’ brayed three times in the fame manner. ‘This was
an act of devotion performed by the minifters of religion,
and by the authority of the church. However, as this
practice did not prevail univerfally in the Catholic church,
its abfurdity contributed at laft to abolith it. Du-Cange,
Voc. Feftum.

ASSA, ih Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the
ifland of Cephalonia, 16 miles N.N.W. of Cephalonia.

ASSABA, in Botany, the name given by the people of
Guinea to a fhrub which they are very fond of for its medi-
cinal virtue; they boil it m water, and rub it on a dudo, and
it proves acure. Phil. Tranf. N° 232. >

ASSABENSIS, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal fee
of Africa, in Numidia. :

ASSABET, in Geography, a river of America, which

rifes

See Asinus.

.

ASS

nifes itt Grafton, Worcelter county, Maffachufetts, and runs
north-ealt into Merrimack river.

ASSACANT, or Assacent, in Ancient Geography, a
people of India, who inhabited a country fituated between
Bazira, now Bijore, and Peucelaotis, correfponding to the
prefent Puckhols The government of the country, when
Alexander invaded it, was poffeffed by a woman, as Plu-
tarch, Curtius, and Juitin, agree: fhe was, as they fay, the
wife of Affacenus, and, according to the latter, her name
was Cleophes. The Affaceni, when they were attacked by
Alexander, had, according to Arrian, (1. iv. c. 24, 25.)
20,000 horfe, 30,000 foot, and 30 elephants, ready to take
the field. Their capital was Maflaga, called by Curtius
Mazaga, by Strabo Magofa, and by Diodorus Maflaca,
which Alexander took by aflault, though he was wounded
on the occafion, and repeatedly repulfed; and he then pro-
ceeded to fummon Bazira, the capital of the next adjoining
territory. After the capture of the rock Aornus, Alex-
ander made a fecond expedition into the country ef the
Affacani, in order to get poffeffion of fome elephants which

were fent thither that they might not fall-into his hands.,

Thefe elephants were at lait found in the paftures near the
Indus, and fent off by landtothe grandarmy. The country
of the Affaceni, afterwards called A/henagur, anfwers, fays
major Rennell, ‘ear tae p- 173-) to the prefent Sewad or
Sewhad; or at leaft Sewad was one of the divifions of
Athenagur. See AsHENaGur, and Sewap.

ASSACH, or Assarn, in Antiquity, a kind of pur-
gation, anciently ufed in Wales, by the oaths of three
hundred men. , It was abrogated by 1 Hen. V. c. 6.

ASSAD, in Zoology, the name by which fome Arabic
writers call the lion.

ASSA-Dutcis. See Asa-Dulcis.

ASSAFA, Assarensis, in Ancient Geography, an epif-
copal fee of Africa, in Mauritania Sitifenfis.

ASSA-FETIDA, or Asa-foeripa, in Pharmacy,
Teuffel’s Dreck, Germ. (Devil’s Dung.)

his curious and valuable article of the Materia Medica
is a gum refin procured from the root of a large umbellife-
rous plant, growing in the mountains of feveral provinces in
Perfia, and on the borders of the Perfian gulf, and called in
the language of the country Aingi/eh. For the botanical
defeription of this plant, fee Frruta Affa-Fetida.

The afla-foctida is brought over in mafles of various fize
and form, of a yellow brown, or bluith colour, inter{perfed
with roundifh pieces, white in the infide, which are the afla-
foctida in teare, and the purett.

The tafte of this gum is bitterifh, acrid or biting, and
very permanent on the tongue; when chewed, it becomes
pie and foon diffolves in the faliva into a white milky
iquid. A ffa-foetida is principally diltinguifhed (as its name
imports) by its exceflively ftrong fcetid {mell, fomewhat re-
fembling that of garlic; which is extremely diffufible and
permanent. The odour, however, is not of a Ackening or
very oppreflive quality, and fo readily can the organs be ac-
euftomed to it, that this gum makes a favourite feafoning
for food in many countries of the Eat.

By chemical analyfis, affa-foetida is found to confilt of an
effential oil, a refin, anda gummy fubftance, fo that it is
with great propriety reckoned among the gum reiins.
Trommsdorf obtained about fifteen or fixteen grains of
effential oil from an ounce of the gum, which in one experi-
ment fwam upon the water with which it was diftilled, and
in another partly fank to the bottom. The remaining gum
yielded 108 grains of refin, and 292 grains of gum. The
analyfes of Neuman and Cartheufer exhibit the fame ingre-
dients, but in different proportions. Both fpirit and water

As &

diflilled off this gum refin are ftrongly impregnated with its
ungrateful odour. If affa-foetida be digetted with warm wa-
ter, the liquor prefently whitens, and by long ftanding the
whole is reduced into a foft pulpy mals of a dirty yellow.
owing to the folution of the gummy part. “By trituration
with water, this gum is entirely diffolved into a milky liquor
which remains uniformly turbid for a confiderable time.
It is partly foluble in expreffed oil, but fearcely fo ia the
effential oils. ;

The following curious and authentic aecount of the mo-
thod of colleéting the affa-feetida is given from ocular tefli-
mony by Kcempfer, who vilited the country in the year 1687,
The plant which yields this valuable gum refi (and called
in Perfia_hingifeh) is found abundantly on the mountaius
around Heraat, the eapital town of the provinee of Chorafan,
and in the province of Laar, which extends frem the river

Beyond

its {trong odour and acrid guality, fo tl
upon it with gréat delight and advantage,
foil, the more valuable ig the gum. "fhe pri
of this fubftance is made onthe i
town of Difruum, .ia the province of Laar.

The roct of the hingifeh grows for many years incteafing
in fize, till fooner or later it fends forth the flowering um-
belliferous ftem, after which, on the fucceeding year, the
whole plant perifhes. The crop of gum therefore is pro-
cured from the root before the time of flowering. When
the root is four years old, it is about the thicknefs of aman’s
arm, and of confiderable length; it feldom yields any gum
before this age, and the older it is, the greater is the quan=
tity of produét: The root is heavy, {mooth externally, whea
growing in a rich foil; but fcaly in a fandy foil. It is often
found bifurcated or further divided at about a foct below the
furface. The upper part, which rifes above the foil, is
thickly befet with fhort fibres ftanding up like hairs. .The
rind of the root is eafily feparable when frefh, the fubitance
within is fmooth and moiit, confilting of a tough fibrous
part, inclofing a pulpy cellular portion, full of an oily white:
juice, of a moft intenfely foctid fmell, which when expofed
to the air becomes firft clammy and yellow, and at lait hardens
inte the gum afla-feetida. The intenfity of the fmell is the
teft of the goodnefs of the gum, and the odour of the freth
juice or recent gum is beyond all comparifon more feetid than
that of the gum as it is received by us. Hence in the
gathering feafon, the whole town of Difguum fimells of it;
a fingle fhip is exclufively devoted to tranfporting the bulk
of this commodity to the ports in the Perfian gulf; and in
carrying fmaller parcels they are tied to the top of the mait
to prevent their infeéting every thing on board. Ina short
time, however, this intenfity of {mell goes off,

The-whole gathering of the affa-foetida is performed» by
the inhabitants of Difguum in four different journeys to the
mountains. The demand for the article in foreign countries
being firft afcertained to be fufficient: to faders the
trouble of colleGing, the gatherers divide into companies. of
four or five each, and proceed to the mountains about the
middle of April, when the leaves of the plant are turned
yellow and decaying, a fign that the root is im a proper
flate to yield the juice. The firft operation is to remove
the foil for a hand’s breadth from the plant, and to {trip
off the leaves and the hair-like fibres, leaving the root per.
feGly bare-and fmooth, which is again earthed round and
covered with a bundle of its own or any other leaves at
hand, to -fcreen it from the fun. Thefe bundles of leaves
are confined by a large ftone, leit the wind fhould blow
them of; for without this precautions the heat of the fun

Pe would

ASS

would deftroy the roots in a day’s time, and the juice
would be fpoiled. Each party of four or five men take to
themfelves about two thoufand plants, and when feveral
myriads ef roots are thus prepared, the whole company
return home.

In about forty days, or towards the end of May, the
arties seturn-to the mountain, arriving there at day break.
he implements which they employ are a fharp knife for

cutting the root, a broad and flat iron {coop for feraping
off the dried juice, a {mall pan faitened to the thigh for
receiving the contents of the feoop, and a double bafket
fufpended at each end of a pole which is flung acrofs the
fhoulders in order to carry the whole crop when they return
home. They now uncover the root, remove the earth to a
little depth from the top, and with the knife they cut off a
fmall tranfverfe flice. The root, in which the juice that
has been colle¢ting for forty days, has been made to ftag-
nate by the previous operation of {tripping off the boughs,
now bleeds copioufly; and it is immediately again covered
with the umbrella of leaves as before, taking care that thefe
do not actually touch the furface of the root and rub off
the juice, On the enfuing day it is fufficiently concreted to
be fcraped off, after which another very thin flice is cut off
from the furface of the root, which bleeds afrefh, and is
allowed time to concrete as before. This procefs is per-
formed on half the roots on alternate days, that the em-
ployment of the gatherers may be more uniformly divided.
After this collection has been twice made from each root,
a third flice is cut off, the root is covered with its umbrella,
and the whole company leave the mountain bringing home
their firft harveft, which to each party of five or fix men
is about fifty pounds weight of afla-feetida. This firft gum
is reckoned of rather inferior itrength to the fubfequent
crop, and is called Sjiir.

In about ten days the company again retura to the moun-
tain, making their third excurfion, and they find on the top
of each cut root a quantity of very fine and pure afla-foetida,
which having had time to concrete very flowly, is efteemed
the beft and moft powerful, and is called Pi/pzas, and fells
at a much higher price than the Sjiir.. This latter, how-
ever, appears chiefly to owe its inferiority to a quantity of
earth with which the gatherers adulterate it while yet in a
very foft and femifluid ftate, whereas the Pi/pzas being con-
creted into a hard gum is not liable to this abufe. After
this latter is cclleded, two more fucceffive incifions are
made, the juice is {craped off.as before, the root 1s again cut
and covered over, and the compary retura home.

The fourth and lait excurfion is made after an interval
only of three days, for the root, which is exhaufted by fo
many repeated bleedings, is now on the point_of perifhing.
The Pifpaas, or firft {eraping, is again colleGed, and the
yoot will bear about two or three more incifions, after which
it is quite exhaufted, and is left to die by the heat of the
fun, which happens in a fingle day.

Each root of the four-year-old plants will bear ten or
eleven fucceffive cuttings, but the large roots of twenty years
ftanding or tpwards, fuch as are fometimeés found in the lefs
acceffible parts of the mountains, will yield the gum much
oftener, though not with fuch eafe, fo that the harveft from
thefe is not finifhed till abont the end of December.

t is not quite afcertained whether the ancients were ac-
quainted with this gam refitn,
it to be the LiArQiov, or ‘Owes oidPix, of Diofcorvides and
Hippocrates, and the Laferpitium of Pliny, but of this there
is confiderable doubt. 1t may be mentioned that the root of
a plant abounding in a milky juice exattly fimilar to the

alia-feetida was fent by profeilor Pallas te Dr. Guthrie, aad

Some authors have fuppofed *

ASS

tranfmitted by the latter to Dr. Hope, who fueceeded in
cultiyating it in the botanical garden of Edinburgh: fome
years ago. The botanical charaéter of this plant, however,
was fo different from that given by Kempfer (whofe
accuracy is much to be denculbat on), as to make it pro-
bable that there may be more than one fpecies of plants
which yield this fetid gum.

The ufes and virtues of affa-foetida are very confiderable.
In many parts of Arabia and Perfia it forms an important
article of the Materia Medica, and is employed largely as a
condiment for food. In its native country, the common
people refort to it as a fovereign remedy for dropfy, flatulent
and colicky pains in the bowels, and even as an external
application to wounds. In the above diforders, its itrongly
ftimulant and antifpafmodic power renders it peculiarly
valuable, but the feetor which tranfpires from the bedies and
evacuation of thofe that ufe it is fo exceffive, as to be almoit
intolerable even to the organs of the natives. The Banian
Indians (who, not ufing animal food, have always recourfe
to the ftrongeft and molt acrid condiments, employ afla-feetida
liberally in their cooking, and even rub their mouth with it
before meals to ftimulate their appetite. Ancther ule
common to this, as to all other ftimulating and heating fub-
ftances in the Eait, is to excite the venereal appetite.

With us, affa-feetida is confidered as a moit powerful ner=
vine, antifpafmodic, carminative, and anthelmintic, though
the potency of its odour, in which probably confiits a large
proportion of its medical virtue, prevents its ufe ina variety
of cafes in which it might prove highly beneficial. It is of
the greateft fervice in hypochondriac afleGtions, in which the
ftate of the bowels is always torpid, and digeftion lable to be
deranged. For the true tympanites, a clyiter of two drams
of afla-foetida diffolved in water, thrown up once or twice a
day, is an excellent remedy. Dr. Millar hasintrodaced the
ufe of this gum with great effet againft the fpafmodic
afthma, and the fpafmodic ftate of hooping cough. The
dofe of the folution, even to children, fhould be large; and
it is worthy of remark, that the difguft excited by fo
ftrongly foetid a remedy is much fooner furmounted than
might at firft be imagined, nor, when it is in the ftomach,
dogs it ever excite ficknefs. The flatulent colic attending
hytteric affections is much relieved by this gum, exhibited
either by the mouth or in glyfters. On account of its
heating quality, it fhould be avoided when general fever is
prefent. The vermifuge property of this gum appears to be
very confiderable. Kcempfer relates, that the leaves and
ftalk of the frefh plant in Perfia, are laid im the channels
through which the water runs for irrigating gardens, and that
fruit-trees and plants are thus preferved from all kinds of
vermin. Probably its penetrating odour mach incommedes
thefe animals; and it has long been known both in the
Eaft and in Europe as a very powerful anthelmintics
efpecially when combined with the ftronger purgatives, or
given in the form of glyfter, and followed by them.

Hufeland has employed this gum internally as a very good.
remedy in venereal exoftofis, and caries of the bone, after the.
conititution has received as much mercury as it will bear.

Affa-feetida enters into fome of the compound. platters
for external application, and in this combination is reckoned?
to be ftimulant and refolvent.

The pharmaceutical’ preparations. of affa-fotidain a€tuali
ufe, are the following:

Lac Afe-fetide (P. Lond.); a milky felution of two
drams. of the gum in half’a pint of water,-formed by the
afliitanee of trituration. ;

Tin&ura Afe-fetide (P. Lond:); made by adding two.
ounces of afla-fotida toa pint of reCtified fpirit of ce

S

ASS

The fame in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, but a quarter
of a pint more of the fpirit is ufed.

Reétitied fpirit is employed, for the dilute or proof {pimt,
though it diflolves more of the gum, and makes a turbid folu-
tion; whereas the tincture with the former fpirit ts quite clear.
It may be given in dofes of from ten to fixty drops. ‘The
tin®ura Fuliginis of the former Pharmacopeia, now dif-
ufed, was made with wood foot, afla-foetida, and proof {pirit ;
but the foot is properly omitted, as it does not appear to
add to the virtue of the medicine, and needlefsly increafes.
its naufeous odour-

Spiriius Ammonia fetidus (P. Lond. and Ed.), prepared by
diftilling the f{pirit of ammonia with affa-footida, whereby it
is pangly impregnated with the peculiar odour.

Pilule Galbani compofite (P. Lond.), compofed of feveral
heating and graveolent gums, viz. galbanum, opopopanax,
myrrh, fagapenum, and affa-foetida., The proportion of the
latter is one-ninth of the whole.

Pilule Afe-fetide compofite, formerly Pilule gsummofe (P.
Ed.), compofed of affa-fectida, myrrh, and galbanum, of each
one ounce, and one drachm of oil of amber.

Emplafirum Afe-fetide, formerly Emplafirum-antihyfleri-
cum (P, Ed.), compofed of litharge platter and affa-tetida
of each two parts, and of yellow wax, and ftrained galbanum,
of each one part.

he {mell of affa-foetida, and along with it its peculiar
virtues, are liable to be loft and injured by long and carele{s
keeping, but a confiderable latitude may be allowed in the
dofing, without much danger of rifk or injury to the patient.
Kempferi Amenit. Exotice.—Murray Appar. Med.—
Bergii Mat. Med.—Ph. Tranfact. vol. 75, &c.

ASSAT, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the province
of Oomi or Omi.

Assat, in /iahan, is an adverb of augmentation gene-
rally in the fuperlative degree, which is added to another
mufical term to imcreafe its force: as Preflo affai, dilegro
effai, very quick ;_ Largo affai, very flow.

ASSAILANT, one that affaults or fets upon another.
See AssauLT,

ASSAM, in Geography. See Asam.

ASSAN, a town of Afia, in the province of Diarbekir,
forty miles from Diarbek.

ASSANCALE, a ftrongly fortified town of Armenia,
on the river Aras, furrounded with walls, and guarded by
towers and a garrifoned citadel, in the road to Erzeron,
and a fhort day’s journey from it. It has hot-baths that
are much frequented.

ASSANUS, in Ancient Geography, now Iffer, a river of
Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis, which by its junion with
uther rivers formed the ancient Sica, or prefent Tuna.

ASSAPOORY, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by
the people of the Eaft Indies to a peculiar fpecies of flate,
which they ufed in medicine, reducing it to powder, and
Htrewing this on burning ‘coals, that the fick perfon may re-
weive the fumes of it, It is principally ufed for children,
when they are difordered by taking cold. The {mell of it
while burning is very offentive.

ASSAR, in Geography, a river of Abyfinia, which is

the fouthera boundary of Aroosst,as Keltiis the northern.-

‘This is the largeft river which Mr. Bruce faw, except the
Nile 5 it was about 170 yards broad, and two feet deep,
Tunning over a bed of large itones, though generally through
a flat country ; its courfe is rapid, and after much raia it is
fearcely paflable, owing to the height of its fource in the
mountains of the Agows. Its courfe where Mr. B. forded it
was from fouth to north; but it foon turned to the north-
ealt, and, after flowing five or fix miles, joined the Nile.

ASS

Below the ford is a cataraét aBove twenty feet high, and
eighty broad. The whole river falls in an undivided theet
of water with incredible violence and noife ; but below this
cataraét it becomes much narrower, till it lofes itfelf in the
Nile. Bruce’s Trav. vol. ii. p. 562. ;

ASSARA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, iu
Mauritania Czfarienfis. Ptolemy.—AHo, a place of Alia,
in the department of Mefopotamia.—Alfo, a river of Afia,
which difcharged itfelf into the Mediterranean, in the gui
weft of the great promontory. Ptolemy.

ASSARABACC See ASARABACCA.

ASSARACAE, ia Aacient Geography, a people of Africa;
in the interior Libya, placed by Ptolemy ealt of mount
Aranga.

ASSARIUM denotes a {mall copper cein, being a part
or diminutive of the as.

The word is ufed by Suidas indifferently with oGoao;, and
yoptoee, to denote a finall piece of money 3 in which he is
followed by Cujacius, who defines azcxpior, by minimus aris
NUMMUSs

The aflarium, or imperial as, was worth one half-penny
Englith.. This divilion of the gs began to be called aflartum
as foon as its fize was reduced to half an ounce, and it was
then always {truck on copper. Its fize regularly correfponded
to that of the dupondius, and declined ill at the clofe of the
reign of Gallienus, it became what is called fmall brafs,
and weighed only about the eighth part of an ounce. In
the time of Dioclefian, it was about the twentieth part of
an ounce; and in that of Juftinian, it. was the fame with
Aewia, Jepta, or the {malleft coin, excepting the vouysx, noumia,
The Greek affarion kept pace with the Roman. Pinker-
ton’s Eff. on Medals, vol..1..p. 121.

We find mention of the affarion in the gofpel of St. Mat-
thew, chap. x. ver. 29,

ASSARLI, in Geography,.a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Romania, 44miles E.S.E. from Filippopoli

ASSARON, an ancient Jewifh meature of capacity,
equal to the tenth part of the ephah.. Exod. xvi. 16.

The aflaron is the fame with: what is more frequently
called omer cr gomer.

Jofephus calls it <zcxpov; in the Hebrew it is alfo written
affarith.. Calmet and Arbuthnot.

ASSART, Assarrum, (derived either: from affartir,
Fr. to make plain, or, as Spelman fuppofes, from exerti;
pulled up by the roots, for it is fometimes written effart), in
Law, an offence committed. in the forett, by pulling up by
the roots, woods which ferve as thickets and covert for the
deer, and making them plain as arable land.. This is the
greateft trefpafs that caa be commited in the foreit, being
more than a wafte. For whereas walte of the foreit is but
the felling and cutting of thecoverts, which may grow asain
aflart is a total extirpation... What we cail affartam, is elfe-
where termed di/bofcatio.

Assarv was allo ufed for a parcel of Jand affarted.
Essart.

Assart-rents were thofe formerly paid to the crown for
foreft-lands affarted.. Stat. 22. Car. IL c.6. See Renr.

ASSASI, in [chthyolcgy, a fpecies of Barisres that in.
habits the Red See. The body is muricated with brown
warts ; and a triple row of black ones on the tail. Forti.
Arab. Length about fix inches, brown, belly white, vent
black, furrounded by afulvous ring, The flefh of this kind .
is eatable but infipid.

ASSASSINS, in Ancient Geography and: Hiffory, the
name of a people of Pheenicta, who inhabited the mountains
of Libanus, to the north-ealt of the-city of Tyre, and who
pretended to derive their origin from the family of the

Zs Astacua,

See,

AS58

Arfacide, the founders of the Parthian empire. To a cor
ruption of Arfacide into Affaffins fome have -aferibed the
étymology of the appellation by which they were diftinguifh-
éd: whilit others {uppofe it to have been formed from
Haffifins, in. reference to the poniard, which was their -euf-
tomary weapon. It is faid that they were a fe& of Maho-
yhetans, who arofe in the year 891, when Carmat, or Karmat,
a pretended prophet in Arabia, drew after him many follows
ers.. He fafted, and laboured with his hands, and prayed
fifty times aday. He promifed to re-eftablith the family of
Ali, and to dethrone the caliphs. He releafed lis difciples
from the moft troublefome obfervances of their religion,
permitting them to drink wine and to eat any kind of food.
By this indulgence, joined to the hopes of plunder, he col-
lected a great army; and ravaged the dominions of the ca-
‘liph. This Carmat had a feries of fucceffors, of whom the
moft famous was Abu-Thaher or AsypHAaHER. Thefe
Carmatians, or Karmaruians, being enfeebled, kept their
religion concealed, mixed themfelves with the Mahometans,
and were difperfed over various parts of the eait. About the
year 1090, they were fettled in Perfia ; where Hacen, or
‘Al-Hafan their chief, receiving a threatening meflage from,
the fultan, commanded one of his fubjects, in the prefence
of the meffenger, to fling himfelf from the top of a tower,
and another to kill himfelf, which they inftantly performed.
Upon which Hacen faid to the meffenger, “ Tell your
rhafter that I have 70,000 men ready to do as much.”’ Tn
Perfia and Syria,’ they were denominated //maelians ; and
among the hills to the fouth of the Cafpian, thefe odious
fectaries maintained their power, for nearly two centuries.
Their prince, or Imam, eftablifhed his lieutenants to lead and
govern the colony of mount Libanus, fo famous and fo for-
midable in the hiltory of the crufades. They had acquired
er founded ten eattles in the hills above Tortofa, and poffeff-
ed feveral cities about Tyre. As thefe enthutiaits had pol-
feffed themfelves of the beft part of Al Jebal, in the Perfian
Trak, under the conduét of Al Hafan Ebn Matbah, or Al
Hafan Sabah, as he is fometimes called, the commencement
of the dynafty of the Ifmaelian princes is generally placed
at this period, or the year of the Hegira 483, A. D. rogo.
The ftyle or title adopted by thefe princes was “ Sheikh Al
Jebal,”’ that is, the prince of Al Jebal ; or “the chief of the
mountainous country ;”? the province of Al Jebal being
fuch a country, and from this circumftance deriving its
modern name, “ Kuheftan or Chufiftan:’’ the words “ Sheikh
Al Jebal,’’ may likewife be properly rendered ¢ the fenior, or
old man of the mountain,’’ and hence the chief or prince of
the Affaflins has obtained the appellation of ‘¢ the old man
of the mountain,’’ amongft the writers of the hiftory of the
Holy Wars. Al Hafan Ebn Mafbah and his defcendants
reicned in Al Jebal 171 years, till the whole race of them
was deftroyed by the Tartar Hulaku, or Holagou Khan,
the grandfon df Zingis, or Jenghis Khan, who abolifhed the
éaliphat by the reduction of Bagdad, in the year of the He-
gira 656, A. D. 1258. Gibbon fays that the Iimaelians of
Syria were extirpated by the Mamelukes about the year 1280.
Not a veftige is left of thefe enemies of mankind, whofe
daggérs have been felt both in the eaft and the weil, except
the term afafin, which, in the moft odious fenfe, has been
adopted in the languages of Europe. With the fanaticifm
of the Koran, the Ifmaelians had blended the Indian tranf-
migration, and the vifions of their own prophets ; and it
was their firft duty to devote their fouls and bodies in blind
obedience to the vicar of God. Such was the afcendant
which their prince had acquired over his deluded and fana-
tical fubjeéts, that they paid the moft implicit deference to
his commands; efleemed aflaflination meritorious, when

A3S$

fan&tified by his mandate 3 courted danger, and even certain
death, in the execution of his orders; and fancied, that
when they facrificed their lives for his fake, the higheft joys
of paradife were the infallible reward of their devoted obe-
dience. It was the cuftom of this prince, when he imagined
himfelf injured, to difpatch fecretly fome of his fubjeéts
againft the aggreffor, to charge them with the execution of
his revenge, to inftruét them in every art of difguifing their
purpofe; and no precaution was Teeent to guard an
man, however powerful, againit the attempts of thefe fubtle
and determined ruffians. The greateft monarchs ftood in
awe of this prince of the affaflins ; and in 1192, Conrade,
marquis of Montferrat, a zealous crufader, fell a facrifice to
his refentment. The prince determined to avenge the death
of fome of his people who had been,murdered by the inha-
bitants of T'yre, then under the government of this noble-
man, employed two of his fubjects for the execution of his
purpofe. Thofe men infinuated themfelves in *difguife
arnong Conrade’s guards, and openly, in the ftreets: of
Sidon, wounded him mortally ; and when they were feized
and put to the mott cruel tortures, they triumphed amid{t
their agonies, and rejoiced that they had been deftined by
heaven to fuffer in a caufe fo jult and meritorious: The
prince of the Affaffins himfelf avowed the aGtion in a fermal
narrative which he fent to Europe. In 1173, a prince of
the Affaffins in Phoenicia, fent a deputy te the king of
Jerufalem, declaring himfelf and his people inclined to re-
ceive the Chriftian religion ; but the knights templars affaf-
finated the deputy on his return home, and the king was
unable to chaftife or reftrainthem. In 1213, Louis of Ba-
varia was murdered by the affaflins. The fayourers of thefe
aflaffins were condemned by. the council of Lyons, under
Innocent IV. in 1231. Hume’s Hift. vol. ii. p. 18. Gib-
bon’s Hitt. vol xi. p. 417. Jortin’s Rem. on Eccl. Hift.
vol. v. p. 237. Mod. Un. Hitt. vol. i. p. 60.-

AssAssiIns, a denomination which diftinguifhed a fac-
tion that fprung from the followers of Judas of Gallilee,
in the Jewith war that preceded and fucceeded the deftruc-
tion of Jerufalem. The head of this faction was Eleazar,
the grandfon of Judas the Gaulonite. For their fate at the
fiere of Maflada, which terminated the Jewifh war, fee
Massapa. Of thofe who had previoufly efcaped, fome
fled to Alexandria, where they were at firft kindly received
by their brethren ; but as they excited fedition and tumult,
they were delivered up to the Romans, and 600 of them
put to death. Ann orderwas alfo iffued for fhutting up the
Jewifh temple at Alexandria, and the worfhip of it was dif
continued. SeeGautonitres and ZeaLors.

Assassin, in Law, a perfon who kills another with the
advantage either of an inequality in the weapons, or by
means of the fituation of the place, or by attacking him at
unawares. For the etymology of the term, fee the preced=
ing article.

There was a certain law of nations, an opinion received
in all the republics of Greece and Italy, whereby he that
aflaffinated an ufurper of the fupreme power, was declared’
a virtuous man. At Rome, efpecially after the expulfion
of the kings, the law was formal and folemn, and inftances
of it admitted. The commonwealth armed the hand of any
citizen, and created him magifttate for that moment. Con-
fid. fur les Cauf. de la Grand. des Rom. chap. xi. p. 121.

Assassins’ Bay, in Geography, lies on the fouth-eatt
coat of New Zealand, in the fouth Pacific Ocean.

ASSATION, formed of the Latin afare, to roaff, the
preparing or drefling of foods, or medicaments, in their own
juices, by an external heat, without addition of any foreign
moifture. Affation, in refpedt of culinary matters, is more

frequently

ASS

frequently called roafting; and in pharmacy, uftion, or
torrefaction.

ASSAULT, inthe Art of War, fignifies a general attack
made by a befieging army, to become matters of an intrenched
camp, pott, or fortrefs. In the latter cafe it is particularly
underftood to take place without the advantage of any works
to fereen the aflailants from the fire of the garrifon.

Anciently, when tactics were yet in their infancy, and
the art of befieging places bore comparatively no proportion
to that of defence, we rarely meet with initances of walled
townsentered by affault. A clofe blockade was generally
the meafure reforted to, and the garrifon were flowly
diftreffed, and the patience of the befiegers exhaufted, by
circumvallations fupported for years. The fieges of
Azotus by the Egyptians, of Nineveh by the Medes and
Babylonians, and of Babylon by Darius Hyttafpes, where
treachery alone prevented a refiftance equally tedious with
that of the two former places, are evidences of the almoft
infuperable difficulties attending the redution of ftrong holds
in earlier days.

The Greeks, previoully to the era of Alexander, had very
imperfect notions of affaulting towns. The Carthaginians
firft demonftrated the poffibility of fhortening fieges by the
fummary expedient of reiterated and furious attacks. ‘Thus
they became matters, in the fifth century B.C., of Himera
and Selinosin Sicily; and, nearly two hundred years after,
of Saguntum in Spain. The cruelties they executed againft
the unfortunate inhabitants were afterwards amply retaliated
upon themfelves by the Romans.

That warlike nation was employed for ages in almoft
continual wars before they practifed this method of attack.
Surprife, not an open and vigorous affault, made them
matters of Veii. In the firft Punic war, Lilybeum for
years baffled their utmoft efforts, though they had then united
to their own fy{tem of tactics, whatever was moit new and
valuable in that of the Greeks. The ftorming of New
Carthage by Scipio is one of the firft and moft memorable
examples of a fuccefsful aflault in the Roman annals. To
what perfection they afterwards carried this branch of mili-
tary fcienee, the capture of Athens by Sylla, of Avaricum
by Czefar, and of Cremona and Rome itfelf by the armies
a Vefpafian, are melancholy witnefles.

In the dark period of the decline of the empire, the
barbarians who fucceflively invaded it only carried on their
operations againtt fortified places by continued aflaults, which
were commonly fuccefsful, nor were the fuperior tactics of
the Romans then capable of refifting their fury.

Alike impetuous and irrefiftible, the Mogul deftroyers,
who, under ay Whan and his fucceflors, defolated the
faireft regions of Afia, mocked the ordinary rules of war.
A place which had once refufed capitulation, never enjoyed
a repetition of the offer. Affault fucceeded to affault with
aftonifhing rapidity, and no refpite was allowed to the devoted
garrifon, till weakened beyond the power of further re-
fiftance, they were involved, with the innocent inhabitants,
and the place itfelf, in one common deftruétion.

With the Europeans of the middle ages, the fcience of
attack loft much oY its former fuperiority; and the caftle of
a petty baron frequently baflled the endeavours of the mott
powerful monarch.

The invention of gunpowder offered new advantages to
the art of befieging: but general affaults have become in-
finitely more dangetous againft ramparts mounted with
artillery. Even after the requifice breach is made, it is
abfolutely necefflary to deftroy the works whofe fire, on
either fide, flank and prote& the point of attack. Before
therefore a ftorm is attempted, the befieging general fhould

5

ASS

afcertain that histroops are expofed to no other fire than the
garrifon are able to maintain from the front of the breach
itfelf.

Owing to the fancied advantages a regular garrifon were
{uppofed to poffefs behind good fortifications, the rules of
war formerly required a governor to fuftain three affaults
before he furrendered. _ But fuch rigid notions have been by
degrees difrerarded, Few commanders chufe, by maintain-
ing a fortrefs to the laft extremity, to expofe their troops to
an ulelefs flaughter, or the inhabitants to the murder and
pillage inevitably the attendants of a ftorm. At Glogawy
carried by the Prufians in 1741, and Bergen op Zoom, by
the French in 1747, fuccefs was more the effect of a coup
de main than a regular affault.

The Turks, however, materially differ from us on this
head. It is with them a maxim of religion, never to fur-
render to Chriftians a place where they have once’ poffeffed
a mofque. They, therefore, hold out to the laft. Severe
punifhment has, indeed, attended this obitinacy. Bender,
Ockzakow, and Iimael, are memorable for the undiftin-
guifhed flaughters exercifed by Ruffian ferocity, and have
crowned with bloody Iaurels the names of Panin, of Po-
temkin, and of Suwarrow.

The capture of Warfaw, in 1794, isa frefh inftance of
the fummary methods obferved by the latter general in
attacking’ towns, and of the lamentable confequences
of ineffetual refiftance to a barbarous and unforgiving
enemy. ¢

During the late war, an inceffant cannonade and bom-
bardment have been chiefly fubftituted by befiegers to tlre
fyftem of affault. Pavia indeed, with fome f{maller places
in Italy, fuffered, in 1796, all the horrors of a ftorm, from
the French army, under general Buonaparté. The year
1799 alfo furnifhes four remarkable inftances: 1. The
attack of Naples (January 22), by general Championet, to
which the rafhnefs of the Lazzaroni madly expofed them-
felves; but memorable for the daring and defperate, though
unfuccefsful refiftance, maintained by them againft regular
troops. 2. The ftorming of Jaffa by Buonaparté (Feb.),
the garrifon of which place, 3,500 ftrong, was nearly ex-
tirpated, prefents a ftriking and frightful pi€ture of Turkifh
obitinacy. 3. That of Acre (May 8,) where the French,
after having penetrated within the town, were eventually
repulfed with great lofs, is the more worthy of notice, from
its having effectually checked the adventurous progrefs of
Buonaparté on the fide of Syria. 4. The aflault of
Zurich (Sept. 24) by the republican army of Helvetia,
and which may with more propriety be denominated a
battle, difplays fo much ingenuity in the complicated move-
ments directed by general Maffena, all of which were in-
feparably conneCted with the main point of attack, fuch

recifion, firmnefs, and bravery in the execution, and fuch

importance in the confequences, as to demand a feparate
relation elfewhere. It will here be fufficient to obferve, that
the Ruffian camp before Zurich was forced, the town
itfelf carried fword in hand, and that this event gave fo
decided a fuperiority to Maflena, as to be immediately
followed by a precipitate retreat of the allied forces from
Swifferland,

Affailants, as fuch, acquire a very confiderable fuperiority
over thofe they attack. ‘This fuperiority, fays an excellent
writer on tactics, may be derived from two caufes; the firit
a phyfical one, viz. that air of boldnefs, peculiar to aflail-
ants, cannot but aftonifh and intimidate an enemy who fees
that no difficulty can ftop them; the fecond is, that the
affailants can command as much time as they pleafe, to take
their meafures for overcoming all obitacles that can be thrown

m

ASS

in their way. Mante’s Tranflation of Maizeroy’s Ta&tics,
vol.i. p. 186, &c.

Assautt, Affultus, ot Infultus, in Law, an offer or
attempt to hurt the perfon of another.

Or, it is a violent injury offered to a_man’s perfon, of a
larger extent than battery, becaufe it may be committed by
only offering to give a blow, without touching him, as if
one lifts up his cane, or his fift, in a threatening manner, at
another; or {trikes at him, but miffes him; this is an affault
defcribed by Finch (1.202.) to be “an unlawful fetting
upon one’s perfon.”” But no words whatfoever, be they ever
fo provoking, can amount to an aflault, notwithftanding
many eminent opinions to the contrary. 1 Hawk. P. C. 62.
§1. Affault does not always imply a blow; for, in trefpafs
for affault and battery, a man may be found guilty of the
aflault, and excufed of the battery. 1 Hawk. P. C. 263.
But every battery includes an affault.

For an affault, the cffender is fubje@ both to an ation
at the fuit of the party, in which he fhall render damages;
and alfo to an indi€tment at the fuit of the king, in which
he fhall be fined according to the heinoufnefs of the offence.
x Hawk. 263.

The affaulting of a perfon with offenfive weapons, witha
‘defign to rob (though no robbery enfues), is punifhed with
tran{portation for feven years. 7 Geo. Tf. c.21. Aflault-
ing in the {treet or highway, with intent te fpoil people’s
cloaths, and fo fpoiling them, is felony and tranfportation,
by 6 Geo. I. c. 23. fec. 11. And the afiault of a privy
counfellor in the execution of his office, is felony without
benefit of clergy, by g Ann.c.16. Affaulting or threat-
ening a counfellor at law, or attorney employed in a caufe
-agaiit a man, or a juror giving verdict againft him, or an
adverfary for fuing him, &c. 1s puntfhable on an indi&tment,
by fine and imprifonment, for the contempt. 1 Hawk. §8.
There are other affaults to which peculiar punifhments are
annexed: thus, ftat. 5 Hen. IV. c. 6, and 11 Hen Vi. c. 11.
render aflaults on members of parliament more than ufually
penal, upon non-furrender on proclamation. Stat.g Edw.
fT. ft. 1. c. 3. gives a double criminal procefs againit thofe
who affault clergymen, indi€tment for the temporal offence,
and procefs in the ecclefiaftical court for the {piritual one.
By itat..5 Eliz.c.4., fervants affaulting their matter, mif-
trefs, or overfeer, may be imprifoned twelve months, on
conviction before two juitices. By ftat. 9 Ann. c. 14. § 8.
to aflault, beat, or challenge another, on account of money
won by gaming, incurs forfeiture of goods, and two years
imprifonment. By ftat.9 Geo. I. c. 22. to affault another
by wilfully fhooting at hin, is felony without clergy. By
flat. 12. Geo. I. c. 34. affaulting a matter woolcomber or
weaver, &c. for not complying with the demands of work-
men, is felony and tranfportation for feven years. In many
cafes a man may juitify an affault: the defendart may juftify
« molliter manus ipofuit,’? in defence of his perfon or
goods; or of his. vite, father, mother, or mafter, or for the
maintenance. of juifice. Bract.9. E.4. 35 H. VI. c.5r.
There are alfo other cafes in which affault may be juftifed:
as, of an officer refifted in arrefting a man by warrant, of a
parent reafonably chaftifing his child, or a matter his fervant,
or afchoolmatter his fcholar, or a gaoler his prifoner, or even
a hufband his wife for reafonable and proper caufe, &c.
Hawk. P. C. 258.

ASSAY, Essay, or Say, in Metallurgy, the proof or
trial of the goodnefs, purity, value, &c. of metals, and
metalline fubitances.

In ancient ftatutes, this is called fouch; and thofe who
had the care of it, keepers of the touch. Under Henry VI.
divers cities were appointed to have fouch for wrought filver

ASS

plate, 2 Hen. VI.c.14. By this one might imagine they
had no better method of affaying than the fimple one, by
the touch-ttone; but the cafe is far otherwife.
of king Henry IT. the bifhop of Salifbury, then treafurer,
confidering that though the money paid into the king’s
exchequer for his crown-rents, did anfwer numero &F pondere,
it might neverthelefs be mixed with copper or brafs; where-
fore a conftitution was made, called the éria/l by combuftion
which differs little or nothing from the prefent method of
affaying filver. See a deicription of it inthe Black Book
in the Exchequer, written by Gervafe of Tilbury, c. xxis
The trial is alfo there called e/faium, and the officer who made
it is named fufor. . Vid. Lownd. Eff. Amend. Silv. Coins
p.5. & 155.

‘The method ftill in ufe of afaying gold and filver, was
firit eltablifhed by an a& of the Englifh parliament, in 1354.
Anderfon’s Com. vol. i. p. 187.

Assay, or Effay, Effayer Fre Probiren Germ. The
term affay in its moft extended fignification, means a fpecies
of analyfis applied to metallic ores or alloys, the obje& of
which is to afcertain the quantity and proportion of only
one of the ingredients of the mafs. Hence it differs from
analyfis in general, as this takes notice of all the ingre-
dients: thus, in the affay of copper ores, the fole objeé is
to know the proportion of pure metallic copper which a
given weight of the ore ¢an be made to yield; difregard-
ing all the other component parts, fuch as the fulphur,
iron, filex, &c. or rather confounding them together under
the general term impurities. The fame mode of inquiry
takes place in the affay of a mixture of gold, or gold and
filver, with copper, lead, tin, or any other of the inferior
metals, the whole attention being direéted to the propor-
tion of fine, or of gold and filver contained in the alloy.
For the various methods of conducting the affays, the
reader is referred to the feveral metals; in all which articles
the fecond feétion is devoted to the aflay and analyfis of the
metal treated of. Gold and filver, from their fuperior
commercial value, from their being the univerfal mediums
of exchange throughout the civilized world, and from their
being the materials of the moft coftly and fplendid utenfils,
ornaments, and articles of furniture, have demanded and
obtained a greater accuracy in their aflay than any of the
other metallic bodies. "The method of conduéting it has
been the fubject of various legiflative regulations, has from
time immemorial been entrufted to a diftinét craft or pro-
feffion, and has more than any other procefs engaged the
attention of fome of the moit able anit accurate chemiits of
the prefent as well as of former ages. For thefe reafons,
under the articles Goup and Sitver, we fhall enter at
length into the confideration of this important fubje@. It
was at firft our intention to have introduced in this place all
tke matter relative to the art of the aflayer, but by fuch
an arrangement, much unneceflary repetition would have
been required of information that properly belongs to the
articles Affay-Bavance, Cupet, Cuprirtation, Coin,
Affayer’s Furnace, &c. ;

Assay-Masrer, an officer, under certain corporations,
entrufted with the care of making true touch, or afar» of
the gold and filver brought to him; and giving a juit report
of the goodnefs or badnefs thereof.

Such is the affay-mafter of the mint in the Tower, called
alfo affayer of the king.

The affay-mafter of the goldfmiths’ company is a fort of
affiftant-warden, called alfo a /ouch-warden, appointed to
furvey, affay, and mark all the filver-work, &c. committed
to him.—There are alfo affay-matters, appointed by ftatute,
at York, Exeter, Briftol, Chefter, Norwich, iia

; an

In the time’

ASS

and Birmingham, for ¢faying wrought plate. The affay-
mafter is to retain eight grains of every pound troy of filver
brought to him; four whereof are to be put in the pix,
or box of deal, to be re-afayed the next year; and the other
four to be allowed him for his wafte and fpillings. 12 and

12 W.1Il.c. 4. ¥ Ann. c.g.

Note. The number of penny-weights fet down in the
affay-matter’s report, is to be accounted as per pound, or fo
much in every pound of twelve ounces troy. For every
twenty penny-weirht, or ounce troy, the filver is found by the
aflay to be worfe than flandard, or tterling, fix-pence is to be
deduted; becaufe every ovece will coft fo much to reduce
it to ftandard goodness, or to change it for fterling.

In gold, for every carat itis fet down to be worfe than
ftandard, you muft account that in the ounce troy it is worfe
by fo many times 3s. 8¢. And for every grain it is fet
down worfe, you muft account it worfe by fo many times
rid. inthe ounce troy. And for every half grain 5 d.4; for
fo much it will coft to make it of ftandard goodnefs, &c.
Touchftone of Gold and Silver Ware, &c. p. a1, &c.

Assay-Balance, a balance wfed in the operation of affay-
ing. See Bavancr.

“Assay of Weights and Meafures, fignifies the trial or
examination of common weights and meafures, by the
Crerx of the market.

ASSCHE, in Geography, a townof France, in the depart-
ment of Dyle, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri€t of
Bruffels. ‘The place contains 3768 and the canton 18,607
inhabitants; the territory includes 140 kiliometres and- 19
communes.

ASSE re Brrancer, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton in the
diitii& of Evron, one league from Evron.

“Asse Ja Boifve, a town of France, in the department of
the Sarte, and chief place. of a canton in the diftri& of
Frenay le Vifcomte, eight miles S.S.W. of Alencon.

ASSECOMA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Spain,
between Pria and Brevis. Itin. Anton.

ASSECTATOR, in Entomology, a fpecies of IcuNEv-
mon that inhabits Europe. Itis black; abdomen falcated,
with three rufous {pots on each fide; pofterior fhanks
clavate andblack. Fabricius.

ASSED-ABAD, in Geography, a fmall town of Perfia,
towards Amadan. ’

ASSELEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wett-

halia, nine miles S.E. of Paderborn.

ASSELO, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiftan,
on the north coaft of the Perfian gulf, 47 leagues fouth of
Schiras.

ASSELYN, Joun, in Biography, a painter, was born in
Holland about the year 1610, and after receiving his edu-
cation under Ifaiah Vanden-Velde, a battle-painter, at the
Hague, travelled into France and Italy. He ttudied at
Rome, and particularly imitated the manner of Bambochio.
His hands and fingers were crooked, and from this cir-
cumftance he was denominated by the Vlemifh ftudents
«¢ Krabbate.””? Afterimproving his time during his refidence
at Rome, he paffed through Lyons on his return, and there
married the daughter of a merchant at Antwerp, whom he
brought with him to Amfterdam in 1645. His country-
men received him with applaufe, and from*him the Dutch
painters firft acquired the idea of imitating the natural manner
of colouring landfcape, for which Claude Lorrain has been

fo much admired; and abandoning the fombre ftyle, with °

the prevalent blue and green tints of Paul Bril and Braugel.
Affelyn was in great reputation at Amifterdam, and his
paintings, contiiting of hiftory pieces, battles, and landfeapes

Vor. ik.

ASS

exhibiting antiquities, and alfo men and animals, were put.
chafed at a high price; they were diftinguifhed by their
corre¢tnefs and admirable brilliance of colouring; and a fet
of 24 of his landfcapes and ruins has been engraved by
Perelle. Affelyn died at Amfterdam in 1650. D?Argen-
ville, Vies des Peintres. Gen. Bio,

ASSEM, or Great Argpean, in Georraphy, a town of
Africa, on the Slave coaft, the capital of the kingdom of
Ardrah. It was formerly the refidence of the kings of
Ardrah, and five or fix leagues in circuit. The ftreets are
very wide, and each houfe furrounded by its own rampart, as
a fecurity againft fire. The walls are of mud, but high and
thick, and alfo compaét as if they were formed of ftone and
lime. he gates are defended by deep ditches in the infide,
which are crofled by draw-bridges, and near ¢ach gate isa
guard-room for the convenience of the officers and foldiers.
‘The river Euphrates compaffes one half of the city. “The
buildings are of clay, covered with ftraw, and the ftrects
are kept in good order. The pecple are numerous, and the
women are richly drefled. In the conqueft of the kingdom
of Ardrah by the king of Dahomay, in 7724, this city
fuffered very much. It is fituated 16 leagues from the fea,
and to the north-eaft of Little Ardrah.

ASSEMBLAGE, the joining, or uniting, of feveral
things together; or, the things themfelves fo joined or
umted. "he affemblage of two bones for motion, is called
AxrTicuLATIoN. Carpenters and joiners have various kinds
and forms of aflemblage; as, with mortifes and tenons, with
dove-tails, &c. See Dove-rair, Mortise, &a ‘The
Europeans admire the Carpentry cf fome Indians, where
the affemblage is made without either nails or pins. Herrera:

AssEMBLAGE I®alfo ufed in amore general fenfe, for a
colleétion of feveral things, fo difpofed together, as that the
whole has an agreeable effe¢t. It is with difcourfe as with
bodies, which owe their chief excellency to the jut fen.
d/age and proportion of their members.

ASSEMBLY, formed of adfimulare; compounded of ad,
to, and fimul, together ; a meeting of feveral perfons in the
fame place, and with the fame common delign. Affem-
blies of the clergy are called convocations, fynods, and
councils of the clergy; though that annua! one of the kirk
of Scotland retains the name general aflembly, &c. The
affemblies of judges, &c. are called courts, &c.—The affem-
blies ef the Roman people were called comitia.—The affembly
of a preacher, &c. is his audience. The academies have
their aflemblies, or days of affembly.

Under the Gothic governments, the fupreme legiflative
power was lodged in an affembly of the ftates of tlie king
dom, held annually for the like purpofes as our parliament.
Sce ParLiaMENT.

the

ASS

the firlt eminence in the kingdom for ‘rank and talents,
Tn this aflembly, which meets once a year, the king prefides
by his commiiioner, who is always a nobleman; but he has
no voice in their deliberations. Appeals are brought from
all the other ecclefiattical courts in Scotland to the general
aflembly; and in queftions purely religious, no appeal lies
from its determinations.. The firft general aflembly of the
church of Scctland was held in the year 1560; but it bore;
fays Dr. Robertfon (Hitt. Scot. vel. i. p.251.), all the
marks of an infant and unformed fociety. The members
were few, and of no contiderable rank; and, of courfe, a
convention fo feeble and irregular could poffefs no great
authority; and confcious of their own weaknefs, the mem-
bers put an end to their debates, without venturing upon
any decifion of much importance. By degrees, however, it
acquired dignity, authority, and permanence.
Assemp_y, General, of the Jewiih Rabbis. See AGEpA.
Assembxy of Divines, is the name given to an aflociation
of minifters and others, fummoned by an ordinance of par-
liament, in the year 1643, to meet at Weltminiter, “ for
fettling the government and liturgy of the church of Eng-
land, and for vindicating and clearing the faid church from
falfe afperfions and interpretations.”’ This affembly con-
fifted of 121 divines, and 30 laymen, “celebrated in their
party,” fays Mr. Hume, “ for piety and learning.’”? The
feyeral parties in this affembly were compofed of Prefby-
terians, Erailians, and Independents. By their advice,
alterations were made in the thirty-nine articles, the firit
fifteen of which employed their committee for ten weeks;
and thefe alterations chiefly refpected the dotrinal articles,
and were defigned to render their fenfe more exprefs and
determinate in favour of Calvinifm. It was of {till greater
importance, that they utterly abolifhed the hturgy, and, in
its flead, eftablifhed a new directory for worfhip, by which,
fuitably to the fpirit of the puritans, the utmoft liberty,
both in praying and preaching, was indulged to the public
teachers. They alfo agreed in introducing and enforcing
the folemn league and covenant, by which epifcopacy was
abjured; and a national engagement, attended with every
circumftance that could render a promife facred and obli-
gatory, was entered into with the Scots, never to fuffer its
re-adiniffion. All thefe meafures, fays Mr. Hume, fhewed
little {pint of accommodation in the parliament; and the
king’s commiffioners were not furprifed to find the eftablith-
ment of prefbyters, and the directory pofitively demanded,
together with the fubfcription of the covenant, both by the
king and kingdom. This affembly fubfifled till Feb. 22,
164%, about three weeks after the king’s death, having fat
five years, fix months, and twenty-two days, in which they
had 1163 feffions. They were afterwards changed into a
committee for the examination ef fuch minifters as pre-
fented themfelves for ordination or induétion into livings,
and met once a week, till March 25, 1652; when the long
arliament being turned out of the houfe by Oliver Crom-
well, they broke up without any formal diffolution. The
works of the affembly, befides fome letters to foreign
churches, and occafional admonitions, were, 1. “ Their
humble advice to the parliament, for ordination of minifters,
and fettling the prefbyterian government.”? 2. Cayek di-
rectory for public worfhip.” 3. “A confeffion of faith,’”
4. “A larger and fhorter catechifm.’? 5. “ A review of
.fome of the thirty-nine articles.” ‘ When potterity,”’
fays Mr. Neal, “hall impartially review this affembly of
divines, and confider the times in which they lived, they
will have a juit veneration for their memory ; for though
their fentiments in divinity were in many inftances too narrow
and contracted, yet, with all their faults, amongft which

ASS

their perfecuting’ zeal for religion was not the leaft, they
were certainly men of real piety and virtue, who meant well,

and had the intereit of religion at heart; and moft cf them’
poffefled as much learning as any of their cotemporariess

the names of Lightfoot, Selden, Gataker, Greenhill, Ar-
rowfmith, T'wifle, bifhop Reynolds, Wallis, &c. will al-

ways meet with efteem from the learned world; and had

they not grafped at coercive power or jurifdiction over the

confeieaces of men, their charaéters would haye been un-.
blemifhed.”” | Lord Clarendon, (vol. 1.: p. 530.) ,allows,

“that about twenty of them were reverend, and worthy

perions, and epifcopal in their judgments; but as to the re-

mainder, they were but pretenders to diyimity; fome were

infamous in their lives and converfations; and moitt of them

of very mean parts and learning, if not of feandalous igno-

rance, and of no other reputation than of malice to the

church of England.” Mr. Eachard confeffes, that his

lordilip has, perhaps with too much feverity, faid, that

fome ot thefe divines were infamous in their lives and

characters; but Mr. Baxter, who knew moft of them, fays,

‘they were men of eminent learning, godlinefs, mimifterial
abilities, and fidelity; and being not worthy to be one of
them myfelf,” fays he, “I may more fully fpeak the
truth, which I know, even in the face of malice and enyy,.
that as far as I am able to judge by the information of
hiftory, and by any other evidences, the Chriftian world,
fince the days of the apoflles, had never a fynod of more
excellent divines than this fynod, and the fynod of Dort.’?
“The divine right,” fays Mr. Neal, “of the prefbyterian
government, firlt threw them into heats, and then divided
them; engaging them firft with the parliament, and then
with the Independents and Eraftians. ‘Their oppofing a
toleration, raifed them a great many enemies, and caufed a
feceffion in their own body; for after they had carried the
quettion of “ divine right,”’ the Independents and Eraftians
deferted them, after which they found it very difficult to
muiter as many as would make a ‘houfe. Had the parlia-
ment diffolved them at this juncture, they had feparated
with honour; but they dwindled by degrees, and the
bufinefs of the church was tranflated to the provincial af-
femblies.. Hume’s Hit. vol. vii. p.32. Neal’s Hift. Pur.

vol. ii. p. 35, &c: p. 335. 4to.

AssemBuiks of the campus Martii, or Maiti, of the field
of Mars, or May; fee Fizup of Mars, &c.—Rebellious
affembly; fee RepeLyious.—Unlawful aflembly; fee Un-
LAWFUL.

AssEMBLy is particularly ufed in the beau-monde, for a
ftated and general meeting of the polite perfons of both fexes,
for the fake of converfation, dancing, and play.

AssemBuy is alfo ufed in the Military Art, for the
fecond beat of the drum, being that before the march. On
hearing this, the foldiers {trike their tents, roll them up, and
then itand to their arms.—The third beating is called the
march, as the firlt is called the general.

ASSEMON, Azmon, or JesHimon, in Ancient Geo--
graphy, a city in the wildernefs of Meon, fouth of the tribe
of Judah, 1 Sam. xxiii. 25. Jofh. xy. 4. Alfo, an encamp-
ment of Hrael in the defert. Azmon was the neareft city to
Egypt, fouth. Numb. xxxiii. 29. xxxiv. 4, 5.

ASSENA, in Geography. See Esne’. ‘

ASSENEDE, a town of Flanders, one mile fouth-weft
of Sas de Ghent. By the new arrangement, it is referred
to the department of Efcaut, and is the chief place of a
canton in the diltrit of L’Eclufe. The place contains
3120, and the canton 10,435 inhabitants; the territory in-
cludes 120 kiliometres and 7 communes.

ASSENEPOWALS, a lake of America, weftward of

6 Chriftianayx

| aan

“the Little Belt, chiefly inhabited by fifhermen.

‘theery i is formed; and heace he

ASS

Chriftianaux lake, through which its waters run into Albany
river, in New South Wales.

ASSENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine, and county of Solms Rodelheim, at the

conflux of the Wetter and Nidda, ¢ even miles north-caft of
Frankfort on the Mayne. Nikat, 50° 11. ©. long. 8° 50’.

ASSENS, a fea-port own of Denmark, fituate on the
weit coaft of the iflar id of Moc with a good harbour on
The paf-
fare from hence, acrofs the Little Belt, to Artoa found, in
the duchy of Slefwick, is nine miles. N. lat. 55’ 21. E.
long. 9°
£ SSENSU, Sine, Capituli, in Lac.

Assensu Regio. See Recio.

Assensu Patris, Dower ex. See Dower.

ASSENT, Assensus, an agreement or acquiefcence of
the mind to fomething propofed or affirmed.—Thus, to af-
fent to any propolition, is to allow it to be true, or to per-
ceive its truth.

Affent is diftinguifhed, like faith, into implicit, or blind ;
and explicit, or feeing, &c. Others diftinguifh it into adwal
and habitual.

Assent, adual, is a determination of the mind, arifing
from the perception of the truth of any propofition.

AssEnT, habitual, confifts in certain habits of believing
or acquiefcing, induced in the mind by repeated atts.

To this belongs faith, which is an affent arifing from the au-
thority of the perfon who {peaks. Such alfo is opinion, which
‘is defined aa affent the mind, cum formidine oppefiti, &c.

Father Malebranche lays it cies wh as an axiom, or princi-

le of method, never to allow any thing for truth, from
which we can forbear our aifent without fome fecret reproach
of our own reafon.

Mr. Hume, in his Treatife of Human Nature (vol. i.
p: 172; &c.), has given us a new theory of aflent or belief
in general a theory which fuits very well with his hypotheiis
of ideas, and feems to be a natural confequence of it, and
which at the fame time reconciles all the belief that we
fiad in humaa nature to perfeG fcepticilm. According to
this writer, “aa opinion or belief may be moft, accurately
defined, a lively idea related to or affociated with a prefent
impreflioa.” Upon this notion of belief a great part of his
dedutes-.what he calis his
hypothefis, ‘that belief is more properly aa ack of the fen-
fitive than of the cogitative eae os ournatures.”? Dr. Reid
has juftly obferved, in his examination of this theory (En.
Bigene Wnteliccaial Powers of Man, p. 353.), that the be-
lief of a propoiition is aa operat a’of the mind, of which
every mah 1s confcions, and what it is he uaderftands p
fecily, though, on Maan of its fimplicity, he cannot wiv:
a logical defiaition of it. If he comparesit with the tre: agth
or Vivacity of his ideas, or with aay modification of ideas,
they are fo far from appeing to be one and the fame,
that they have not the leatt fimilitude. That a ftrong be-
lief and a weak belief differ only in degree, we may ealily
comprehend ; but that ‘belief yand no belief fhould differ
only in de pare, no man can admit who underftands what he

fpeaks; for this in reality is to fay, that fomething and
nothiag durer only in degree, or that nothing 1 is a degree of
fomething. Every propofition that may be the objet ot
belief, has a contrary j propofition that may be the object of
a contrary belicf.

See Sine, &e.

The ideas of both, according to Mr.

Hume, are the fame, and differ only in degrees of viva-
city: that is, contraries differ only in degree ; ; and fo plea-
fure may be a degree of pain, and hatred a degree of love.
Such are the abfurdities that follow from this doétrine; but
it is needlefs to trace them, as none of them can be more

chargeable with the

‘a relation, and Hearne fays, nephew’,

ASS

abfurd than the doétrine itfelf. Mr. Hume, in the third
volume of his “ Treatife of Human Nature,”’ fenfible that
his theory of belief is» very objectionable, feems in fome
meafure to retraét it ; but he ftill appears to be of opinion,
that belief is only’a todikcasan of the idea, though viva-
city is not a proper term by which to exprefs that modif-
cation. He therefore adops fome analogical phrafes to ex-
plain that modification 5 ; fuch as « apprehending the idea
more ftrongly, or taking fatter hold of it.” But this is
merely a change of terms which haye no precife difference ;
and whatever modification of the idea he makes belief to
be, whether in vivacity orina ftronger apprehenfion of it,
the hypothefis, which makes perception, memory, and im: ~
gination to be different degrees of that modification, s
¢ {ame abfurdities already mentioned.
Dr. Hartley’s theory on this fubject, though not very intel-
ligibly exprefied, is not ver y Cine it from that of Mr. Hume:
and it is liable to fimilar ebje tions. ‘ Affent and diffent,’”
fays this writer (Obfervations on Man, p. 191. ed. gto.
1791.)», * whatever their prec ife and particular nature may
be, muft come under the no‘ion of ideas, being only thofe
very complex internal feelings, which adhere by aflociation
to fuch clufters of words as are called propolitions 1 in ge-
neral,-or affirmations and, negations in particular.” Ac-
cordingly, he diflingnifhes afient, and of courfe its. oppo-
fite, diffent, into two kinds, rational and pradical. Ratio-
nal affent to any propaiition may be defined a readinefs to
allirm it to be true, proce di. ag from a celofe affociation of
the ideas fuggefted by the propofition with the idea, or in-
teraal feeling, belonging to the word truth; or of the
terms of the. propofition with the word truth. . Raticnal
diffent is the oppofite to this. This ere he adds, might
be called verbal; but as every perfon fuppofes himfelf) al-
ways to have fufficient reafoa for fuch readinefs to affirm
or ‘deny, he prefers the term rational. Praétical affent 1s
a readinefs to aét in fach maaner as the frequent vivid recur-
rency of the rational affeat di oe us to act; aad praGical
diffent the contrary. Praéical affent is therefore the natural
aad neceilary confequence of rational, when fu ifficiently 1 in-
prefled. For his mode of inveftigating the caufes of both
kinds of affent, and of accounting for them on the priaci-
ples of affeciation, we mult refer to his work udi /upra.

For a farther account of this fubjeét, with regard to the
reafons or principles upon which aifeat.is founded, and
the various meafures and degrees of it, fee DemonsTRa-
Tiron, Eyipence, Fattu, JupGmMent, Minow LEpcE,
Prosasitity, and Trstimony. See alfo Axioms
Maxims, and Paincipyes. ‘

Assent Royal. See Roya.

ASSER, or Asserius Menevensis, in Biography, an
Englith divine of the aimth century, was a native of St.
Dads in Wales, where he aflumed the monattic habit
among, the BenediGtiacs. According to Dr. Cave, he was
to Afferius, archbi-
thop of St. David’s. Having made a contider able progrefs
in learning under John Scctus Exigena, he was invited to
court by king Alfred, and amongit other preferments, ob-
tained the bifhopric of Sherbura. Dr. Cave informs us,
that Alfred, by his advice, founded the univerfity of Ox-
ford; but the time, of its eitablifhment has heen a fubject
of difpute. Affer wrote “The Life of Alfred,” firft pub-
lifhed by archbifhop Parker in the old Saxon charater-in
his edition of WWalinpbern's Hittory, printed at London, in

folio, in 1574; and republifhed in a colle€tien of Englith

hiftorians by Cambden, at Frankfort, in folio, i ja Hea
and again by: Mr. Wife, at Oxford, in 8v6., in 1722. Ni.
cholfon, in ‘his “ Tutorical Li ibrary,” obierves, that Al-

Q2 fred’s

ASS

‘fred’s Life, by Afferius, reaches no farther than the 45th
year of his age, coinciding by his computation with the
year of our Lord 893; and therefore the continuation to the
king’s death muft have been fupplied by later authors. This

work has been afcribed by Hearne to the archbifhop Af-
ferius. Another work, under the title of «¢ Afferius’s An-
nals,” has been afcribed to him, and was publifhed by Dr.

“Gale in his “ Decem Seriptores, &c.’? at Oxford, in 1691,
folio; but it has beer doubted whether the name of Affer
has not been prefixed to an anonymous colle&tion of unquef-
tionable authenticity, though the real author was not cer-
tainly krown. Thefe ‘* Annals,”’ it has been alleged, ex-
tend to the year g14, whereas Affer died in goo, and there
is no trace of any appendix to the work. Dr. Gale af-
cribes it to Affer, and his notion is favoured by its infifting
chiefly upon the fortunes of king Alfred. Afferius has the
reputation of a faithful hiftcrian. Some other works have
been afcribed to him; and fome have faid that he was the
tranflator of ‘¢ Boethius de Confolatione,”? and not king
Alfred, commonly reputed as fuch. Aifer died, according
to Godwin and Hearne, in 883; but according to Du-Pin,
Cave, Olearius, and Oudin, in gog. Cave’s H. L. vol. ii.
p- 66. Gen. Dig.

ASSERA, in Geography, atown of European Turkey,
in Macedonia, upontheriver Vera, near Salonichi.

ASSERAC, among the Turks. See Assis.

ASSERADOES, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the
welt coalt of North America, at the mouth of the bay Re-
alejo, in the province of Nicaragua.

ASSERIDA, in Botany, aname given by the people of
Guinea to a kind of fhrub, the leaves of which being
chewed are a cure for the colic, to which that people are
very fubject. Phil. Tranf. N° 232.

ASSERIGO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples and province of Abruzzo Ultra, feven
miles north-eaft of Aquila.

ASSERTION, in the Language of the Schools, a pro-
polition which a perfon advances, and which he avows to be
true, and is ready to: maintain in public.

ASSES, Orper or, dfinorum Ordo, in LEcclefiaftical
Hiffory, a denomination given to the Mathurins or 'Trinita-
rians, becaufe they were anciently obliged, in travelling, toride
on affes, not horfes. ‘This obligation was fet afide by anew
rule given the order by pope Clement, in 1267., Du-Cance.

Asses, in Geography, a people of Africa, in Guinea,
on the Gold Coait, in the interior part of the country, to
the weft of Rio de Volta.

ASSESSMENTS, in Law, denote taxes levied on the
inhabitants of a parifh or diftri€t for fome fpecial purpofe,
or on thofe of the country for the fupport of government.
The term affe/s is derived by Johnfon from the Italian a/e/-
tare, to make an equilibrium or balance, and fignifying to
charge with a certain’fum. In the beginning of the civil
wars between Charles I. and his parliament, the latter hav-
ing no other fufficient revenue to fupport themfelves and
their meafures, introduced ‘the praCtice of laying weekly
and monthly affeffments of a fpecific fum upon the feveral
founties of the kingdom, to be levied by a pound rate on
lands and perfonal eflates; which were og¢cafionally conti-
nued during the whole ufurpation, fometimes at the rate of
320,000/. amonth, fometimes at inferior rates. After the
seftoration, the ancient method of granting fubfidies, inflead
of fuch monthly affeflments, was twice, and twice only, re-
newed ; viz. in-1663, when four fubfidies were granted by
the temporalty, and four by the clergy ; and in 1670, when
800,000/. were raifed by way of fubfidy, which was the
lait time of raifing fupplies in that way. or, the ‘monthly

2

ASS
affeffinents being now eftablifhed by cuftom, being raifed by

comiffioners named by parliament,.and producing a more
certain revenue; from that time forwards we hear no more
of fubfidies, but occafional affeflments were granted as tlie
national emergencies required. Thefe periodical affeffments,
the fubfidies which preceded them, and the more- ancient
f{eutage, hydage, and talliage, were to all intents and pur-
pofes a land-tax ; and the alleflments were fometimes ex-
prefsly fo called. See Lanp-rax and Sussipy. 4

AssEssMENT, ina Military Senfe, fignifies a certain rate
which is paid by the county-treafurer to the receiver-general
of the land-tax, to indemnify any place for not haying
raifed the militia; which fum is to be paid by the receivers
general into the exchequer. The fum to be aflefled is four
pounds for each man, where no annual certificate of the ftate
of the militia has been tranfmitted to the clerk of the peace:
if not paid before June yearly, it may be levied on the pa-
rifh officers. Such affeflment, where there is no comity
rate, is to be raifed in the fame manner with the poor’s rate.

ASSESSOR, formed of ad, to, and fedeo, [/it, an infe-
rior or fubordinate officer of juftice, chiefly appointed to
affift the ordinary judge with his opinion and advice. Ia
this fenfe, the matters in chancery are affeffors of the lord
chaneellor. There are two kinds of affeffors in the Imperial
chamber, ordinary and extraordinary.—The ordinary are
now in number forty-one, whereof five are elected by the
emperor, viz. three counts or barons, and two jurifconfultiy
or civil lawyers. The electors appoint ten, the fix circles
eighteen, &c. They aét in quality of counfellors of the
chamber, and haye falaries accordingly.

Assessor is alfo ufed for a perfon who affefles or lays
affeflments of taxes and other public duties. :

In this fenie, affeffors, among us, are inhabitants of a
town or village elected by the community to affefs or fettle
the taxes and other impolitions of the year, to fix the pro-
portion which each perfon is to bear, according to his
eitate, and to fee the colleCtion made. Thefe are alfa called
in our law affijores. By the flat. 16 & 17 Car. II. two in-
habitants in every parifh were made afleffors for the royal aid.

ASSESUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Mi-
lefians, in which was a temple of Minerva Affefienfis,
which was burned by the flames which were driven thither
by the wind. Herodot. 1. i. c. 19.

ASSETS (Fr. afex, i.e. fatis, enough), in Law, fignify
goods enough to difcharge that burden which is caft upon
the executor or heir, in fatisfying the debts and legacies of
the teftator or anceitor. Bro. tit. 4fts. Affets are real or
perfonal ; where a man hath lands in fee-fimple, and dies
feited thereof, the lands which come to his heir are affets
real; and where he dies poflefled of any perfonal eftate, the
goods which come to the executor are aflets per/onal. Affets
are alio divided into affets per de/eent, and aflets inter maines =
aflets by de/cent is where a perfon is bound in an obligation,
and dies feifed of Jands which defcend to the heir, the land
fhall be affets, and the heir fhall be charged as far as the
land to him defeended will extend: affets inter maines is
when a man indebted makes executors, and leaves them fuf-
ficient to pay his debts and legacies; or where fome com-
modity or profit arifeth to them in right of the teftator,
which are called afféts in their hasds. Terms de Ley, 56, 57+

As to affets by defcent, it is to be obferved, that by the
common law, if the heir had fold or aliened the lands which
were affets before the obligation of his anceftor was put in
fuit, he was to be difcharged, and the debt was loft ; but by
ftat. 3 W. & M.c. 14. made perpetual by 6 Will. III. c. 140.
the heir is made liable to the value of the land by him fold,
in aétion of debt brought again{t him by the obligee, ae

ASS

thall recover to the value of the faid land, aa if the debt was
the proper debt of the heir; but’ the land which is fold or
aliened dond fide before the action brought, fhall not be liable
to execution upon a judgement recoyered again{t the heir in
any fuch aétion. And by Itat. 29 Car. II. c. 3. § 10. lands
of ceflity que truf? fhall be affets by defcent ; and by the fame
ftat. § 12. eftates pur autre vie fhall be affets in the hands of
the heir, if they come to him by reafon of a {pecial occupan-
cy; and where there is no {pecial occupant, they fhall go to
the executors and adminiitrators of the party that had them

by virtue of the grant, and fhall be aflets in their hands, °

When a man binds himfelf and his heirs in a bond, and dies
leaving iflue two fons, if the eldeft fon enters on the lands by
defceut as heir to the father, and die without iffue; and then
the youngeft fon enters, he fhall be charged with affets as
heir to the father. Dyer, 368. Lands which come to the
heir by purchafe fhall not be affets. 1 Danv. Abr. 577. A
reyerfion in an eftate for life or years fhall be affets, and a
reverfion expeCtant upon the determination of an eftate for
life is affets, and ought to be pleaded {pecially by the heir.
An advowfon is afiets, but not a prefentation to a church
a€tually void, which may not be fold., Co. Lit. 374. Lands
by defcent in ancient demefne will be affets in debt; but a
copyhold: eftate defcending to an heir is not affets ; ‘nor is
any right to an eftate affets, without poffeffion. Dany.
577- An annuity is no affets, for it is only a cho/? in adtion.
Equity of redemption of an eftate mortgaged, and a term
for years to attend the inheritance, “are affets.

Leafes are affets to pay debts, notwithfianding the aflent
of the executor to the devife of them. 1 Lill. Abr. go.
Affets in the hands of one executor, are aflets in the hands
of others ; and if an executor hath goods of the teftator ia
any part of the world, he fhall be charged in refpect of them.
6 Rep. 47. In actions againft executors, the jury muft
find the value of the aflets; for the plaintiff fhall recover
only according to the value of the affets found. 1 Rol.
Rep. 58. A fpecial judgment againft affets only fhall

‘have relation to, and bind the lands from the time of filing
the original writ or bill. Carth. Rep. 245.

ASSEVERATION, anearneftafiirmation, or avouchiag.

ASSHETON, Wicriam, in Biography, an Englith epif-
copalian divine, was bora at Middleton in Lancafhire, tn
1641, and educated at Brazen-nofe college in the univerfity
of Oxford. Diftincuifhed by his application and proficiency
in various parts of learning, he became a fellow of that col-
lege in 1663, and in 1673 was honoured with the degree of
doétor in divinity. Befides cther preferments to which he
was advanced, he was prefented to the reGtory of Becken-
ham in Kent, ia 1676. He was confcientioufly and zeal-
oully attached to the church in whieh he officiated, and
faithful and exemplary in the difcharge of the duties of his
profeffion. Whilit he was an upright and able advocate for
the eftablifhed religion, he was no lefs affiduous in inculcat-
ing, from the prefs as well as from the pulpit, the indifpen-
fable obligations of morality and practical religion. In the
prefent age, however, his “ T'reatife againft Toleration,”
and his “ Poffibility of Apparitions,” written in defence of
them, will not be regarded as evidences of the liberality of
his fpirit, and the foundneis of his judgment. The former,
under the title of “¢ Toleration difapproved and condemned,
&c.”’ was publifhed at- Oxford, in 1670, 4to.; and his
beok intitled, “‘ Cafes of Scandal and Perfecution, &c. to
the fame purpofe, was publifhed at London, in 1674; and
his “ Pofftbility of Apparitions”? was occafioned -by the
flory of Mrs. Veale, who dicd at Dover, and was faid to
have appeared to. her friend Mrs. Bargrave at Canterbury,
and publifned in 1706. This ftory has been fince prefixed

ASS

to Drelineourt on Death.” In 1685, Dr. Afsheton,
who was a ftrenuous advocate for monarchy, wrote * The
Royal Apology,’’ in defence of the doétrine of abfolute
fubmiffion to kings; and after the revolution, he wrote a
piece in defence of king: William and queen Mary, intitled,
s A feafonable Vindication of their prefent Maiefties,’? ia
which he declared to the public the reafons which induced
him to {wear allegiance to them. He alfo wrote feveral
traéts again{t popery, and in vindication of the Trinity; and
various pieces of a pradlical nature. Dr. Afsheton claims
peculiar commemoration and refpeét as the firft projeétor of
the fcheme for providing a maintenance for clergymens’
widows and others, by a jointure payable out of the mercers’
company. ‘To this {cheme he devoted much attention, and
after contending with many difficulties and difcouragements,
he had the pleafure of fucceeding. An “ Account of the
Rife, Progrefs, and Advantages of -the propofal, &c.’?
was printed in 1713. The plan, however, was not founded
on a fufficient acquaintance with the doétrine of annuities ;
and the fociety of courfe failed in making good its pro-
pofals. Afsheton having employed his time and talents in
promoting the interefts of truth, according to his views of
it, and the caufe of virtue and humanity, died at Becken-
ham, in 1731, in the 7oth year of his age. Gen. Di.
Biog. Brit.

ASSIDEANS, or rather Hasipreans, in Antiquity, a
feét among the Jews; thus called from the Hebrew
Do’ von: bhafidim, merciful, righteous. 1 Mac. i. 42.
vii. 16. Ecclefiafticus, xliv. ro.

Dr. Prideaux fays (Conn. p.ii. book ii. vol. ni. p. 257.),
that after the fettling of the Jewifh church in Judza, on the
return from the Babylonifh captivity, there were two forts
of men among the members of it: the one contented
themfelves with the written law of Mofes, and were called
Zadikim, or the righteous ; and the others fuperadded to the
law the conftitutions and traditions of the Elders, and other
religious obfervances, which they voluntarily regarded by
way of fupererogation, and being confidered as poffeffing a
degree of holinefs fuperior to that of the others, they were
denominated Chafideans, or the pious. From the former were

erived the fects of the Samaritans, Saddu-ces, and Karaites;
and from the latter, the Pharifees, and Effenes. Thefe Aff-
deans, who wete men ef great valour as well as eminently
zealous for the law, joined Mattathias and his company in
the faftneffes of the mountains, as foon as Antiochus was
returned to Antioch, and determined to fight with him for
the law of their god and the liberties of their country.

ASSIDENT Sicn, Signum Affidens, in Medicine, a
fymptom which ufually attends a difeafe, but not always.

Thus a dry rough tongue, thirft, and watching, are afident
Jfigns in an ardent fever. In this fenfe, affidents differ from

pethognomonics, which are infeparable from the difeafe.™-,

ASSIDUUS, or Avsipuus, among the Romans,. de.
noted a zich or wealthy perfon. i

The word in this fenfe is derived from as, affis, q. d. a mo=
nied man.

Hence we meet with affiduous fureties, affidni fdejuffores,
anfwering to what the French now call city fureties or fecu-
rities, cautions Dourgeoi/e.

Whea Servius Tullius divided the Roman people into five
claffes, according as they were affeffed or taxed to the pubs
lic, the richer fort, who contributed affes, were denominat«
ed affidui ; and as thefe were the chief people of bufinefs,
who attended all the public concerns: thofe who are dili-
gent in attendances came to be denominated affidui.

Assipur was alfo ufed for volunteers, or thofe who

ferved in the army at their own expence.
ASSIENTO,

ASS

ASSIENTO, or ASSIENTA, in matters of Comimérce,a -

‘ cortraét or convention between the ki <Ing ef Spain and
cther powers for furnifhing the Spasifh dominibns i in Ame-
»Yica with negro flaves.

The term is originally Spanifk, and fis gnihes A bargain : :
accordingly the firil nites was a Heaty or contra
with the French Guinea company, w hereby they were put
in poffeflion of this privilege, in confide: vation of a certain
duty which they were to pay to the king of Spain’s farms,

: for Sen negro ‘thus furaifhed.

‘The Spaniards, having alm oft deftroyed the natural in-
ha hens of Spar nifh Amer ea, have been many years, and
i u are obliged .to perform the work of their mines, and

her laborious bunnets, by negrocs, of whom they ceuld
ews ever obtain the number they have wanted: and it is
certain, if they were fully fupplied, they would get yearly
above twice the filver perhaps they now do, or have done
for many years patt. It muft be co onfefied, they have ufed
variety of meafures to obtain them. The Genoefe under-
took to tupply them at a concerted price between them;
fur which end they formed a _ company called the affiento,
who had their factors at Jamaica, Curatoa, and Brafl; but
_by their ill management made nothing of this contrac ; > por
did their fucceffors the I Portuguete. After them it fell in-
x the hands of the l'rench, who miade fo much of it, that
1ey were enabled, by a computation made from the regil-
ters of Spain, to import into the French dominions no Tefs
than 204,000,000 of ae of eight. Yet they at length
oterslutted the market, and became fufferers towards he
conclufion.
"By the treaty of Utrecht, Philp V. being declared king
of Spain by the allies, it was one of the articles of the peace
oa een England and France, that the affiento contra fhould
be transferred to the Englifh. Aecohagly a new inftru-
ment was figned in May 1713, to lait thirty years; and the
_furnifhing of negrces to Spanish America was committed
to the South-fea Company, juit then ereGted; though the
firft convention for this purpofe was made in or about the
year 1689.
_ In virtue whereof they were yearly to furnifh 4800 ne-
groes; for which they were to pay at the fame rate as the
ay with this condition, that during the firft twenty-
five years, only half the duty fhall be paid for fuch as they
fhall import bey ond the ftated number.

The laft article gives them a farther privilege not en-
joyed by the French; which is, that the Engli fh affientifis

fhall be allowed, every year, to fend to the Spamifh America
a fhip of five hundred tons, loaden with the fame commodi-
“tics as the Spaniards ufually carry Saga with a licence
“to fell the fame concurrertly.with them, at the fairs of Porto
Be Ilo, Carthagena, and VeraCruz. This additional article
“was fuy ppefed as advantageous to the company, as the whcle
contract befides; being granted contrary to the ufual Spanith
policy, which ice ever folicitoufly preferved the commerce
of their America to themfelves.

Some new articles were afterwards added to the ancient
affiento ; as, that the Englith fhould fend their regifterthip
‘yearly, even though the Spanith flota and galleons did not
go; and that, for the firlt ten’years, the faid fhip might be
_of 650 tons.

Finally, as the South-fea company had on the whole been
“Tofers by their trade, and at the time of the treaty of Aix-
“Ja-Chapelle, in 1748, they had only four years more of their
“ailiento term remaining (the war between Spain and England

having commenced in 1739, and interrupted the continuance
of it), which Spain was determined not to renew, at leaft
_ not on any promifing terms ; for thefe and other iene: it

70
oe

AS S

was concluded by the Britifh court to inftruét her minifter

_at Madrid, to obtata the bef equivalent that could be pro-

cured for the remaining fhort time of the company’s adiento
contract.

_ By the treaty of Madrid, concluded on the sth of O&c-
ber 1750, it was agreed that his Britannic majefty fhould
yield to his Cat holic majefty his right to the enjoyment of
the afliento of negz AOEsS and of the annual hip, aoe the
four years flipulated oy the treaty of Aix -ta-Chap elle ; and
10 confideration of acompenfation of 190,600/, feelings to be
paid by his Catholic majefty to the South-fea company with-
in three months, his Britannic majefty agreed to furrender to
him ail that might be due to that company for balance of
accounts, or in any maumer drifing from the faid afliento :
thus all claims, in confequerce of this contra@, were Srally

abolifhed, and a period was put to all the foreigen commerce ~

of the Soueheies company.

In confequence of the affiento conveyed to Great Britain
by Philip V., Britith factories w ere eftablithed at Carthagena,
Panama, Vera Cruz, Buenos Ayres, aud other Spanifh fet-
tlements. The veil with which Spain had before this time
covered the ftate and tranfa€tions of her colonies, was re-
moved. The Aen of a rival nation, refiding in the towns
of moft extenfive trade, and of chief refort, had the beft op-
portunities of becoming acquainted with the interior condi-
tion ef the American provinces, of obferving their ftated
and occafional wants, and of knowing what commodities
might be imported into them with the greateft advantage.
In “confequence of information fo authentic and expeditious,
the merchants of Jamaica, and other Englifh colonies who
traded to the Spaniih main, were enabled to affort and pro-
poruon their cargoes fo exaétly to the demands of the mer-
chants, that the contraband commerce was carried 6n with
a iacility, and to an extent, unkiiown in any former period.
Belides, the agents of the Britith South-fea company, under
cover of the PEK rwhgeh ney were re authored to make

ee ears on, the Spa aifh continent, w shout lpnitation
or reftraint.. Inftead ct a fhip of 5co tons as ftipulated/ia
the treaty, they ufually smler ed one which exceeded goo
tons ia burden.- She was accompanied by two or three
{maller veflels, which mooring in fome neighbouring creek,
fupplied her clan deitinely with frefh bales of (B00ds, to re-
place fuch as were fold. The infpettors of the fair, and
officers of the revenue, gained by exorbitant prefents, con-

nived at the fraud. The company itfelf, however, fuftained
a confiderable lofs by the afiento trade ; whilit many of its
fervants acquired immenfe fortunes. ‘Thus, partly by the
operations of the coraue any, and partly by the aétivity of
piivate interlopers, almoit the whole me of Spanifh Ame-
rca was ingrotled by foreig: ners
of the galleons, f formerly the pride of Spain, and the envy of
cther nations, funk to nethiag ; and the fquadron itfelt re-
duced from 150c0 to 2cco tons ferved hardly any purpofe,

about the year 1737, but to fetch home the royal revenue
a fing from the fifth, or filver. In order to prevest thefe ea+
~crcachments, Spain ftationed d fhips ot force, under the ‘appel-
- lation of ** Guarda Coftas,’

? on the coaits of thofe provinces
which were moft frequented by interlopers. The captains
of thele guarda coftas, by feveral unjuttifiable a@s of violence,
preeipieated Great Britain into a war with Spain; i confe-
quence.of which the latter obtained a final releafe from the
afliento, as we have above related, and was left at liberty to
regula te the commerce ‘of her colonies, without being re-
ftrained by any engagement wis a foreign power. Ander-
{on’s Commerce, vol. iis p. 378. Robertfon’s Hift. Amer.
vol. ii. p. 378, &c.

AUSSIENTO,

The immenfe commerce .

7

ASS

Assignto, in Geography, a country of Africa, on the
Gold Coaft, bordered on the north by the unknown regions,
on the ealt by Achem, and on the fouth by Akanni or
Little Achan, Affiento is imperfeftly known, as its inha-
bitants maintajn little or no correfpondence with the mari-
time negroes. It is faid, however, to be rich in gold,
which the Achanefe fometimes bring to the coaft. Its
fituation, near the fource of Rio Sacro de Cotta, is very ad-
yantageous tor trade, if the natives were more difpofed for
commerce, and better acquainted with their own intereft.

ASSIGN, To, in Common Law, hath various fignifica-
tions; one general, viz. to fet over a right to another, or ap-
point adeputy, &c.; another f{pecial, viz. to fet forth or point
out, as tovaflign error, affign falfe judgment, wate, &e. In
aligning of error, it mult be when the error is committed; in
falfe judgment, wherein the judgment is unjuit; in watte,
wherein efpecially the wafte is committed. Juftices are alfo
faid to be affigned to take affifed, Stat. 11 Hen. VI. cv2.

_ ASSIGNABLE Magnitude, in Geometry, is uled for any
finite magnitude that can be expreffed or denoted, and
Affignable Ratio, for any exprefible ratio.

_ ASSIGNEE, or Assicn, in Law, a perfon to whom a'

thing is appointed, or afligned by the act of the party, or the
operation of law, to be occupied, paid, or done.

_ An affignee differs froma deputy in this, that the affignee
pofleffes or enjoys a thing in his own right; anda deputy
acts in right of another.

Affignee may be fo either by deed or by law.

Assicner dy Deed is when a leffee of a term, &c. fells
and affigns the fame to another: the other is his affignee
by deed. :

AssiGneeE by Law, is he whom the law fo makes, with-
out any appointment of the perfon. Thus, an executor is
aflienee by law to the teftator, who dies poffefled of a leafe
made to him and his affigns.

Aiss1GNEEs under a commiffion of bankruptcy, are per-
fons to whom the bankrupt’s eftate is affigned, for the be-
nefit or the creditors: they are chofen at one of the three
meetings appointed by the commiffioners, and publifhed in
the Gazette, by the major part in value of the creditors
who fhall then have proved their debts; but they may be
originally appointed by the commiffioners, and- afterwards
approved or rejected by the creditors; and no creditor fhall
be admitted to vote in the choice of affignees, whofe debt
does not amount to ten pounds. By virtue of the ftatutes
1 Jac. I. c. 15. 21 Jac. I. c. 19. all the perfonal eftate and
effects of the bankrupt are confidered as velted by the a&
of bankruptcy in the future affignees of his commiffioners,
whether they be goods in aétual poffeffion, or debts, con-
tracts, and other chofes in ation; and when the affignees
are chofen or approved by the creditors, the commiffioners
are to affign every thing over to them; and the property of
every part of the eftate is thereby as fully vefted in them,
as it was in the bankrupt himfelf, and they have the fame
remedies to recover it. _12 Mod. 324.

The affignees may purfue any legal method of recovering
the property velted in them, by their own authority: but
cannot commence a fuit in equity, nor compound any debts
owing to the bankrupt, nor refer any matters to arbitration,
without the confent of the creditors, or a major part of
them in value, obtained at a Gazette meeting.

. The affignees mutt, after four, and within twelve months
after the commiflion iffued, give one and twenty days notice
to the creditors of a meeting for a‘Divipenp; and within
eighteen months, a fecond and final dividend fhall be made,
ualefs ail the effe€&ts were exhaufted by the firft.

ASSIGNING. Sce Assien.

A’8.S

ASSIGNMENT, the a& of affigning or transferring
the intereft or property a man has in any thing; or of ap-
pointing or ping over @ right to another, Affignments
may be made of’ lands in’ fee, for life or years; of an an-
nuity, rent-charge, judginent, ftatute, &c.; as to lands, they
are ufually of leafes and eftates for years: and an affignment
differs from a leafe only in this; that by a leafe one grants en
intereft lefs than his own, referving to himfelf a reverfion :
whereas in affiznments he parts with the whole property, and
the aflignee ftands to all intents and purpofes in the place of
the aflignor. ;

No eitate of freehold or term of years fhall be affiened,
but by deed’ in writing figned by the parties, except b
operation of law. Stat. 29 Car. II. cap. 3. If leffee for
years aflign all his term in his leafe to ancther, he cannot
referve the rent in the aflignment; for he hath no intereft in
the thing by reafon of which the rent referved fhould be
paid; and where there. is no reverfion, there can be no
diftrefs: but debt may lie on it as on a contra. 1 Lill.
Abr. 99. If the executor of a leffee affigns the term, debt
will not lie againft him for rent incurred after the affign-’
ment; becaufe there is neither privity of contraé nor eftate
between the leffor and executor; but if the leflee himfelf
affign his leafe, the privity of contra€t remains between
him and the leffor, although the privity of eftate is gone
by the affignment, and he fhall be chargeable during his
lite; but aiter his death, the privity of contraé is likewife
determined. 3 Rep. 14. 24. Although a leffee make an
affignment even of his term, yet debt is againft him by
the leifor or his heir (not having accepted rent from the
affignee); but where a leffee afligns his term, and the leffor
his reverfion, the privity is determined, and debt doth net
lie for the reverfioner againft the firft leffee. Moor 472.
If an aflignment is made by an affignee, the firft affignee '
is not fuable for the rent; for if he’ be accepted by the
leffor, the admiffion of one affignee is the admiffion of
twenty. Comp. Attorn. 491. Where a tenant for years
affigns his eftate, no contideration 1s neceflary; for the
tenant being fubjeét to payment of rent, &c. is fufficient
to veit an eftate m the aflienees; in other cafes, fome con-
fideration mutt be paid. 1 Mod. 263: The words required
in afignments are, grant, affign, and fet over, which may
amount to a grant, feoffment, leafe, releafe, confirmation,
‘&e. x Inft. gor. In thefe deeds the affignee is to cove-
nant to fave harmlefs from former grants, &c. that he is
owner of the land, and has power to affign; that the affignee
fhall quietly ejoy, and to make further affurance; and
the ailignee covenants to pay the rent, and perform the
covenants, &c.

The itat. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 34. gives the affignee of a
reverfion (after notice of fuch aflignment), the fame reme-
dies againit the particular tenant, by entry or attion, for
waite or other forfeitures, non-payment of rent, and non-
performance of conditions, covenants, and agreements, as
the affignee himfelf might have had; and makes him equally
liable on the other hand, for aéts agreed to be performed
by the aflignee, except in the cafe ar warrauty. A bond,
being a chofe in aétion, cannot be affigned over fo as to
enable the affignee to fue in his own name; and therefore,
the form of afligning a chofe in action is in the nature of a
declaration of truft, and an agreement to permit the affignee
to make ufe of the name of the aflignce, in order to recover
the pofleffion. Accordingly, when in common acceptation
a debt or bond is faid to be affiened over, it mut itill be
fued in the name of the original creditor; the perfon, to
whom it is transferred, being rather an attorney than an
affignee. But the king is an exception to this general rule;

. for

ASS

for he might always cither grant or receive a cho/e in action
by affignment; and cur courts of equity, confidering that
in a commercial country almoft all perfonal property mutt
neceflarily lie in contract, will proteét the aflignment ofa
chofe in a&tion, as much as the law will that of a ahofe in
polleffion, 3 P. Wms. 199. In equity, therefore, a bond
is aflignable for a valuable confideration paid, and the
aflignee alone becomes entitled to the money, fo that if
the obligor, after notice of the aflignment, pays the money
to the obligee, he will be compelled to pay, it over again.
2 Vern. 295.

Several things are afficnable by acts of parliament, which
eem not to be affignable in their own nature; as promifiory
notes and bills of exchange, by ftat. 3 & 4 Ann. c. 9. ; bail-
bonds by the fherifi, by 4 & 5 Ann.,c. 16.; a judge’s cer-
tificate fer taking and profecuting a felon to convidtion, by
1o.& 11 W. 3..c.23-3 and oa bankrupt’s effects, by the
feveral ftatutes of bankruptcy.

The afignment of dower is the fettiag out of a woian’s
marriage-portion by the king. By the old law, grounded
on the feudal exaG@tions, a woman could not be endowed
without a fine paid to the lord; neither could fhe marry
again without his licenfe; but fhe could contra herfeli,
and fo convey part of the feud to the lord’s enemy. Mir.
c. 1. §3- This licenfe the lords took care to be well paid
for; and as it feems, would fometimes force the dowager
toa fecond marriage, in order to gain the fine. But, to
remedy thefe oppreflions, it was provided, firft by the char-
ter of Henry I. and afterwards by Magua Charta (cap. 7-),
that the widow fhould pay nothing for her marriage, nor
be diftrained to marry again, if fhe chofe to live without a
hufband; but fhould not, however, marry againit the con-
fent of the lord: and farther, that nothing fhould be taken
for affisnment of the widow’s dower, but that fhe fhouid
remain in her hu(band’s capital marfion-houfe for forty days
after his death, during which time, called the widow’s
“ guarantine,’’ her dower fhould be affigned. The par-
ticular lands to be held in dower, muft be affigned by the
heir of the hufband, or his guardian; Co. Litt. 34, 35. not
only for the fake of notoriety, but alfo toentitle the lord
of the fee to demand his fervices of the heir, in refpect of
the lands fo holden. For the heir by this entry becomes
tenant thereof to the lord, and the widow is immediate
tenant to the heir, by a Raid of fubinfeudation or uader-
tenancy, completed by this inveftiture or afignment; which
tenure may flill be created, notwithitanding the ftatute of
quia empiores, becaufe the heir parts not with the fee fimple,
but only with an eftate for life. If the heir or his guar-
dian do not affign her dower within the time of guarantine,
or do aflign it unfairly, fhe has her remedy at law, and the
fheriff is appointed to affign it. Co. Litt. 34, 35. Or, if
the heir, being under age, or his guardian affign more than
fhe ought to haye, it may be afterwards remedied by wit
of ApMEASUREMENT of dower. Bl. Com. vol. ii. 135, &c.
The affignment of the lands is for the life of the woman;
and if lands are afligned to a woman for years, In recompence
of dower, this is no bar of dower. 2 Danv. Abr. 168.
When other land is affigned, that js no part of the lands
in which the woman claims dower, that aflignment will not
be good. cr binding; and there muit be certainty in that
which is 2ffigned; otherwife, though it be by agreement,
it may be void. 4 Rep. 2. 1 Inft. 34, Ifa wite accept
and enter upon lefs land than the third of the whole, on
the fheviff’s aflignment, the is barred to déemard mere.
Moor. 679.. But if a wife is entitled to dower of the lands
of her firft hufband, and her fecond hufband accepts of this
dower lefs than her third part, fhe may, after his death,

ASS

tefufe the fame, and have her full third part. Fitz. Dower,
121. By provifion of law, the wife may take a third part
of the hufgand’s lands, and hoid them dilcharged. -2 Dany.
672. The fheriff may alfo affign a rent out of the land in

lieu of dower; and her acceptance of it will bar dower out -

of the fame land, but not of other Jands. 2 And. 31.
Dyer, 31. 1 Neifon Abr. 680. None can affign dower but
thofe who havea freehold, or againft whom a writ of dower
lies; and therefore a tenant by ftatute-merchant, ftatute-
ftaple, or elegit, or lefiee for years, cannot affign dower; for
none of thefe have an eftate large enough to anfwer the
plaintiff’s demand. Park. 403, 404. Co. Litt. 35. Bro.
63.94. 1 Rol. Abr. 681. 6 Co. 57, IE the heir within
age aflign tothe wife more land in dower than fhe ought to
have, he himfelf fhall have a writ of admeafurement of
dower at full age by the common law. I’. N. B. 148. 332.
Co. Litt. 39a. 2 Init. 367. 7 H.IL c. 4. 13 Edwe 2.
c.7 & 8, If the heir within age, before the guardian enters,
afligns too much in dower, the guardian fhall have a writ of
admeafurement, by ftat. W. Il.c. 7. . 2 Inft. 317. Ifa
wife after affignment of dower improves the lands, fo that
they then become of greater value than the other two parts,
no writ of admeafurement lies, kc. F.N.Bi 149. 2 Ink.
368. 5 W. 12.

ASSIGNMENT, Novel. See Nover.

ASSIMILATION, compounded of ad, to, and _frmilis,
like, the act of affimilating; an att whereby a thing is ren=
dered fimilar, and like to another.

AssIMiLATION, AssimiLatio, in Phyfes, is properly a
motion whereby bodies convert other duly difpofed bodies
into a nature like, or homogeneous to theirown. Inftances
of this affimilation we fee in flame, which converts the oily
or other particles of fuel into its own fiery and luminous
ie The like 2lfo appears in air, fmoke, and fpirits of
all kinds.

The like we fee in vegetables, where the watery juices
imbibed from the earth, being farther prepared and digefted
in the veflels of the plant, become of a vegetable nature, and
augment the wood, leaves, fruit, &c.

So alfo, in animal bodies, we fee the food affimilated or
changed into animal fubitance, by digeftion, chylification,
and the other operations neceflary to nutrition. :

AssIMILATION, in Rhetoric. See Simive.

ASSIMILATOR, in Entomology, afpecies of Icunev-
mon, found in North America. The general colour is
fearlet; anterior part of the thorax acts, wings brown;
bafe and band yellowifh, with afanguineous dot. Swederus
Nov. AG. Stockh. &c.

ASSIMILIS, a fpecies of Brentus, a native of New .
Zealand, and firtt deferibed by Fabricius in his Species Infece .

uy name It is of a.
cylindrical form, with the apex of the beak glabrous and ,

forum, under the name of Curculio affimilis.

black; and the wing-cafes fomewhat fafciated with ferru-
ginous. Fab. Gmel. &e.—OL/. The fnout is fhorter than
the body; antennz black, brown at the tip; thorax black,
and caniculated; wing-cafes pointed, and marked with four
or five dots. ;

Assimizis, a fpecies of Grytius (Acheta fe&tion).

The wings are tailed, and longer than the wing-cafes; ab-
domen with two ttyles, which are cleft at the end.

As SIMILIS,@ {pecies of Spuex, that inhabits Tranquebar.
It is black; antennz, tail, and legs rufous; wings blue,
white at the bafe and tip. Fabr. Mant. Inf.

Assimizis, a {pecies of Onrscus, found in the Eu- ’

ropean feas.

: It is oval; the tail obtufe and unarmed; bedy
cinereous.

Fabricius. This is afellus marinus vulgari bre-
vior

ASS

vior et latior of Ray; andit is conjectured is the fame kind
as Pallas calls onifeus globator.

Assimizis, a fpecies of Oniscvs, called by Pallas
onifcus globator ; and by Ray afellus marinus vulgari brevier
et latior. It inhabits the European feas; is oval, cinereous,
with an obtufe, unarmed tail.

ASSINI, in Geography. See Isstnt.

ASSINIBOIN, or Rep river, fometimes called A/ini-
boils, and Affinipoils, a river in the north-weit part of North
America, which difembogues on the fouth-wett fide of the
Jake Winipic, in N. lat. 50°20’. W. long. 96° 30’. It
alternately receives the two denominations of A ffimboin and
Red river, from its dividing at the diflance of about thirty
miles from the lake into two large branches. The ealtern
branch, called the Red river, runs ina fouthern direction to
near the head waters of the Miffifipi. On this river are
two trading eftablifhments. The country, on either fide, is
but partially fupplied with wood, and confilts of plains co-
vered with herds of the buffalo and the elk, efpecially on the
weftern fide. On the eaftern fide are lakes and rivers, and
the whole country is well wooded, level, and abounding
with beavers, bears, moofe-deer, fallow-deer, &c. &c. The
inhabitants, who are of the Algonquin tribe, are not very
numerous, and are confidered as the natives of lake Superior.
This country is alfo inhabited by the Nadowafis, who are
the natural enemies of the former; and the head of the
water being in the war-line, they are in a {tate of continual
hoftility. Although the Algonquins are equally brave,
they are generally outnumbered by the others ; and, there-
fore, if they veature out of the woods, which form their
only protection, they will probably be foon extirpated.
‘There is not, it is faid, a finer country in the world, forthe
refidence of uncivilifed man, than that which occupies the
fpace between this river and lake Superior. It abounds in
every thing neceflary to the wants and comfort of fuch
people. Pith, venifon, fowl, and wild rice, are very plen-
tiful; and their fubfiftence demands that exercife which 1s
effential to health and vigour. This country was formerly
very populous; but the aggregate of its inhabitants does
not now exceed 300 warriors; and the widows appear to
be more numerous than the men. The racoon is a native
of this country, but is feldom found to the northward
of it.

"The other branch of the river is called after the tribe of
the Nadowafis, who are denominated AMiniboins, and who
are the principal inhabitants of itsenvirons. It runs from
off the N.N.W., and in N. lat. 51° 25’, and W. long. 103°
20', rifes in the fame mountains with the river Daupuin.
fhe country between this and the Red river is almoft a
continual plain to the Miffifoury. The foil is fand and
gravel, with a flight mixture of earth, and produces a fhort

afs. ‘Trees are very rare, and infufficient, except in par-
ticular fpots, for building houfes, and fupplying fire-wood
for the trading eftablifhments, of which there are four prin-
cipal ones. Both thefe rivers are navigable for canoes to
their fources, without a fall; though in fome parts there
are rapids, caufed by occafional beds of limeftone and
gravel; but the bottom in general is fandy.

~The Affniboins, and fome of the Fall, or big-bellied
Indians, are the principal inkabitasts of this country, and
border on the river, occupyiag the central part of it; that
next lake Winipic, and about its fource, being the ftation of
the Algonquins and Knifteneaux, who have made choice of
it in preference to theirown country. They do not exceed
500 families. They are not beaver-hunters, which accounts
for their allowing the divifion juft mentioned, as the lower
and upper parts of this river have thofe animals, which are
Vor, Iff.

f ASS

not found in the intermediate diftri&. They confine them-
felves to hunting the buffalo, and trapping wolves,’ which
cover the country. What they do not want of the former,
for raiment or food, they fometimes make into pemmicans
or pounced meat, while they melt:the fat, and prepare the
fins in their hair, for winter ufe. The wolves they never
eat ; but produce a tallow from their fat, and prepare their
{kins ; all which they exchange for arms or ammunition,
gum, tobacco, knives, and yarious baubles, with thofe who
go to traffic in their country. Thofe Nadowatis, or Affini=
boins, called alfo Sone Jndians, who inhabit the plains on
and about the fource and banks of the Safkatchiwine and
Affiniboin rivers, are fuppofed to have migrated from the
fouthward, being detached tribes from the Nadowafis, who
inhabit the weftern fide of the Miffiffipi, and lower part of
the Miffifoury, and their progrefs is north-welt. Mackenzie’s
Voyages from Montreal, &c. Introd. p, 62, &c. p. 407.

ASSINOIS, a nation of Indians, inhabiting the foreits
of Canada.

ASSIRATUM, in Antiquity, a bloody draught, where-
with treaties were ratified. It was made of wine and blood,
called by the ancient Romans, a/ir.

ASSIS, in Phy/fiology, either denotes oplum, or a pow-
der made of hemp-feed, which being formed into boles
about the bignefs of chefnuts, is fwallowed by the Egyp-
tians, who are hereby intoxicated, and become ecitatic, and
full of the moft agreeable vifions.

This is alfo called by the Turks affrac.

ASSISA, or Assis1a. See the articles Assise, and
TALuLiaGE. ;

Assisa, cadere, to fall from the affife, in Law, is to be
nonfuited. ~Fleta, l. iv. c. 15. Bratton, |. i. c. 7.

Assis cadit in juratam, is where the thing in coutroverty
is fo doubtful, that it muft neceflarily be tried by a yury.
Fleta; liv. c. 15.

Asstsa capi in modum affife, is when the defendant pleads
direGtly to the affife, without taking any exception to the
count, declaration, or Writ.

Assis‘a continudnda, isa Wxir direéted to the juttices, to
take an aflife for the continuance of the caufe, where cer-
tain records alleged cannot in time be procured by the
party. Reg. Orig. 217.

Asstsa nocumenti, is an afife of NuSANCE.
article.

Asstsa panis & cerevifie, denotes the power or privilege
of affigning and adjuiting the weight and meafure of bread
and beer.

Assis judicium, in Law, fignifies a judgment of the
court given either againft the plaintiff or defendant, for
default.

Assis proroganda, is a Writ direCted to the juttices of
affife, for the ftay of proceedings, on account of the king’s
bufinefs wherein the party isemployed. Reg. Orig. 208.

ASSISE, or Assiz&, afi/a, in Law, a fitting of judges
or juftices, for the hearing or determining of caufes. The
word is French, a/fife or afis, feated ; formed of the Latin
alideo, to fit together, whichis compounded of ad, to, and

Jedeo, I fit.

Such is the etymology of the word afffe, given by fir
Edward Coke ; fo that it fignifies, originally, the jury who
try the caufe, and fit together for that purpofe. By a
figure, it is now made to fignify the court or jurifdition,
which fummons this jury together by a commiffion of affife,
or “ad affifas capiendas;’? whence the judicial affemblies
held by the king’s commiffion in every county, as well to
take thefe writs of affife, as to try caufes at ‘* Nifi Prius,”
are termed in common fpeech, the a//i/es.

R

See the

ASSISEy

AUS S18 E.

- Assise, Clerk of. .See Curr.

Asssius®, or Assists, was.anciently ufed for certain ex?
traordinary fittings of fuperior judges, in the inferior courts
depending on their jurifdiction, to inquire whether the
fubaleern judges and officers did their duty; to receive
the complaints preferred againft them; and take cogniz-
ance of appeals from them. Thefe are alfo called mer-
curtal affifes.

Assise was alfo a court or affembly, compofed of feveral
great perfons of the realm; held occafionally in the king’s
palace, for the finak decifion of all affairs of importance.

This is more ufually called, among our writers, placita
malla publica, or curiae generales. Yet there is fome differ-
ence between afffes and placita.—The vifcounts or fherifis,
who originally were only lieutenants of the comites; or
counts, and rendered juftice in theiz place, held two kinds of
courts, the one ordinary, held every day, and called p/acitum;
the other extraordinary, called af//:, or placitum generale ; at
which the count himfelf affifted, for the difpatch of the
more weighty affairs. Hence the term aflife came to be
extended to all grand days of judgment, at which the trials
and pleadings were to be folemn and extraordinary.

The modern conftitution of affifes is different from that
above-mentioned.—Our affife may be defined a court, place,
or time, where and when writs and procefles, either civil or
criminal, or both, are confidered, difpatched, decided, &c.
by judges and jury. !

In this fenfe we have two kinds of affifes; general and
Special.

Assists, or Assizes, general, are thofe held by the
jedges twice a year, im their feveral circuits.

The nature. of the affifes is explained by lord Bacon,
who obferves that all the counties of the kingdom are di-
vided into fix circuits; to each ef which two learned men,
affigned by the king’s commiflion, ate fent twice a year,
except» London and Middlefex, where courts of nifi prius
are holden in and after every term, before the chief or other
judge of the feveral fuperior courts; and except the four
northern counties, where the aflifes are nolden only once a
year. Thefe are called Jusrices, or judges of affife, and
have feveral commiffions by which they fit ; viz.

i. A commiffion of oyer and terminer, directed to them,
and many others of the beft account in their refpettive cir-
cuits. In this commiflion, the judges of affife, or ferjeants
at law, are only of the quorum ; fo that without them there
ean be no proceeding. ‘This commiffion which is the larget
they have, gives them power to tranfact matters relating to
treafons, murders, felonies, and other mifdemeanors. See
Oven and Ferminer.

2. The fecond is of gao/-delivery, which is only to the judges
themfelves, and the clerk of the affife affociate.—By this
commilfion, they have concern with every prifoner in gaol,
for every offence whatfoever. See Gaot-Delivery.

3. The third is of affi/e, direfted to themfelves and the clerk
of the affife, to take writs of poffeffion, called alfo affifes, in
the feveral counties; thats, to take the verdict ofa peculiar
{pecies of jury, called an a/ife, and fummoned for the
trial of landed difputes. Thefe writs were formerly fre-
quent ; but now men’s pofleffions are fooner recovered by
ejeciments, &c.

4. The fourth is to’ take the nifi prius, direGted to the juf-
tices, and the clerks of affifes; whence they are alfo called

juftices of nift prius. See Nrsi privs.

5. The fifth is a commiffion of, peace in every county of their
circuit ; and all the juttices of the peace, having no lawful
impediment,.are bound to be prefent at the aflifes, to attend
the judges. $

The fheriff of every fhire is alfo to attend in perfon, ot
by a fufficient deputy allowed by the judges, who may fine
him if he fail, 7

Thefe commiffions are conftantly accompanied by writs.
of affcciation, im purfuance of the ftatutes 27 Edw. I. c. 4.
12 Edw. EI. c.3.; by which’ certain perfons (ufually the
clerk of the affite and his fubordinate officers) are direéted
to affociate themfelves with the juftices and ferjeants, and
they are required to admit the faid perfons into theirfociety,
in order to take the aflifes, &c. that a fufficient fupply of
commifiioners may never bé wanting. But to prevent the
delay of juftice by the abfence of any of them, there is alfo
iffued of courfe a writ of “ ff non omnes,’ direting, that if
all cannot be prefent, any two of them (a juftice or ferjeant
being one) may proceed’to execute the commiffion.

here 1s a commifiton of the peace, oyer and terminer,
and gaol-delivery of Newgate, held eight times im every
year, for the city of London and county of Middlefex, at
juttice-hall in the Old Bailey, where the lord-mayor is chief
judge. In Wales there are but two circuits, North and
South Wales; for each of which the king appoints two
perfons learned in the law to be judges. Stat. 18 Hliz.
Gro.

This excellent conftitution of judges, circuits, and affiles,
was berun inthe time of Henry II. though fomewhat dif-
ferent from what it is now.

The grand affife, or trial by jury, inftituted by Henry II.
as an alternative inftead of judic al combats, is particularly
defcribed by Glanvil, who was probably the advifer of the
meafure.

For this purpofe a writ, De magna affife eligenda, was
directed to the fheriff, to,return four knights, who were to
ele&t twelve others to be joined with them; all thefe
together formed the grand aflife, ordained to try the matter
of right.

The judges of affife came into ufe in the room of the an-
cient jultices in eyre, juflitiarii initinere ; who were regularly
eftablifhed, if not firft appointed, by the parliement of Nozth-
ampton, A.D. 1176, 22 Hen. tI. with a delegated power
from the king’s great court; and they afterwards made their
circuit round the kingdom once in feven years, for the pur-
pofe of trying caufes. They were afterwards direéted by
Magna Charta, c. 12. to be fent into every county once a
year. Blackftone’s Com. vol. ii. See Justices of Affe.

Assise Special, isa particular commiflion granted to cere
tain perfons, to take cognizance of fome one or two
caufes, as a diffeifin, or the like. This was very fre-
quently praétifed among our anceftors. Braion, lib.
Teepe A

Assist is alfo ufed fora writ directed to the fheriff, for
the recovery of poffeflion of things immoveable, whereof a
man’s felf, or aaceitors have been aiffeifed. ; 4

Lyttleton, and others, fuppofe thefe’ writs of affife, im
which'the fheriff is ordered to fummon a jury oraifile, ta,
lave given the denomination to the affifes, or courts fo call-,
ed; and they aflign feveral reafons of the name of the
writ: as, mire

1. Becaufe fuch writs fettle the poffeffion and right, in
him that obtains by them. 2. Becaufe originally they were
executed at a certain time and place appointed ; for by the
Norman law, the time and place muit be known forty days
before the judges fit; and by our Jaw there muft be one
days preparation, except they be tried in the ftandi courts
at Weftminfter. But it is more natural to fuppofe the writs.
denominated from the courts; and that they were called.
affifes, becaufe anciently tried at {pecial courts of affifes, fet
and appointed for that purpofe. Though of latter pie

theie

ASSIS E.

thefe are difpatched at the. general affifes,
commilfiion of oyer and terminer, &c.

This writ of alliie is faid to have been invented by Glan-
vil, chief juftice to-Henry J]; and if fo, it feems to owe
its introduction to the parliament’ held at Northampton, in
the twenty-fecond year of that prince’s reign’; when juitices
in oyer were appointed td go round the kingdom, in order
to-talke’thefe ailifes; and the affifes themfelves (particularly
thofe of mort Panceflor and novel difeifin) were clearly
pointed out and decribed) As a writ of entry is a real
a€tion, which di/proves the title of the tenant, by thewing
the unlawful commencement ‘of his poffefiion, fo an affife is
areal ation, which proves the title of the demandant merely
by fhewing his or is anceftor’s poffeffion; and thefe.two
remedies are in all other refpects fo totally alike, that a judg-
ment on recoyery in one isa bar againil the other; fo that
when a man’s poffeffion is once eftablithed by either of thefe
poffeffory aGtions, it can never be difturbed by the fame
antagonift, in any other of them.

This remedy by writ of aflife was called by flat. Weftm.
2. 13 Edw. I. c. 24. fofinum remedium, in comparifon with
that by a writ of entry ; as it did not admit of many dila-
tory pleas and proceedings, to which other real aétions are
fubjeét ; and it is only applicable to two {pecies of injury
by outter, viz. abatement and a recent or novel diffeifin.

Assise of Mort d’ Anceftor, or death of one’s ancettor, is
a writ that lies when father or mother, brother or fifter,
uncle or aunt, nephew or niece, dies feifed of lands, tene-
ments, rents, &c. held iu fee fimple; and after their death,
a ftranger abates. It is good as well againit the abator, as
any other in poffeffion; but it lies not againft brothers or
filters, &c. where there is privity of blood between the
perfen profecuting and them. Co. Litt. 242. It mutt alfo
be brought within the time limited by the itatute of limita-
tions, in hity years; or the mght may be loit by negli-

rence.

This writ dire&ts the fheriff to fummon a jury or affife,
who fhall view ‘the land in queftion, and recognize whether
fuch anceftor were feifed thereof on the day of his death,
and whether the demandant be the next heir; foon after
which, the judges come down by the king’s commiflion to
take the recognition of aflife ; when, if thefe points are
found in the affirmative, the law immediately transfers the
pofleffion from the tenant to the demandant. F.N. B. 195.
Finch. L. 290. If the abatement happened on the death
of one’s grandfather or grandmother, thea an aflife of mort
d@anceitor no longer lies, but a writ of “ayle,”’ or ‘de avo;”

_if on the death of the great grandfather or great grandmo-
ther, then a writ of ‘ dcfayle,” or “ de proavo ;”? but if it
mounts one degree higher, to the ‘ frifayle”’ or grandfather’s
grandfather ; or »#f the abatement happened upon the death
of any collateral relation, other than thofe before mentioned,
the writ is calleda writ of “ cofinage,’’ or * deconfanguineo.””
Pinch. L. 266, 267. And the fame points fhall be inquired
of im all thefe aGions “ aace/frel,’? as an an affife of mort
danceftor, as they are of the fame nature (ftat. Weltm. 2.
r3 Edw. I. c 20.) ; though they differ in this point of form,
that thefe anceftrel writs (like ail other writs of “ precipe’’)
exprefsly affert a title in the demandant (viz. the feifn of
the anceftor at his death, and his own right of inheritance) ;
the aflife aflerts nothing dire&tly, but only prays an inquiry
whether thefe points be fo. 2 Inf. 399. There is aifo
another anceftrel writ, denominated a “« auper obit,” to eita-
blith an equal divifion of the land in queftion, where, on the
Geath of an anceitor, who has feveral heirs, one enters, and
holds the others out of pofleflion. F.N.B. 197. Finch.
L. 293. But a man is not allowed to have any of thefe

along with the

*

actions aaceftrel Tor an abatement ‘confequent on the deaths
of any collateral relation, beyond the fourth deeree (Hale
on FI. N, B. 221.), though in the lineal afcent he may pro-
ceed sin injintium. It was always held to be law (Bracton,
J. 4. c. 13.9 3. F. N.B. 196.), that where lands were de-
vifable ina man’s will by the cuitom ofthe place, there an
aflife of mort d’anceftor did not lie. ‘For where lands were
fo devifab-e, the right of pofleffion could never be deter-
mined by a proce!s, which merely inquired concerning ‘the
feiiin ofthe anceftor, and the heirfhip of the demandant.
Hence it may be reafonable to conclude, that whea the
itatute of wills, 32 Hen. VIII. c. 1. made all focage landé
devifable, an aflife_of.mort d’anceftor no longer’could be
brought of lands held in focage (1 Leon. 267.); ‘and that
now, jince the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 24. which converts all
tenures, a few only excepted, into free and common focage,
no aflife of mort d’anceftor can be brought of any lands in
the kingdom; but that, in cafe of abatements, recourte
mult be properly had to the writs of entry. Bl. Com. vol.
ill. p. 187.

‘Thefe writs, however, are now almoft obfolete, being iv
a great meafure fuperfeded by the action of eje¢tment, which
aniwers almott all the purpofes of real actions, fome very
peculiar cafes excepted.

Assist of Novel Diffifin is an a€tion of the fame nature
with the ‘ affi/e of mort d’anceflor,”” as in this the demand-
ant’s poffeflion muft be fhewn. But in other points it is dif-
ferent, particularly as it recites a complaint by the demandant
of the diffeifin committed'in terms of dire€t averment ; where-
upon the fheriff is commanded to refeife the land, and all the
chattels thereon, and keep the fame in his cuftody till the
arrival of the juitices of affife (which, in fa&t, hath been
ufually omitted) ; and in the mean time to fummon a jury
to view the premifes, and make recognition of the affife
before the juitices, F. N. Bs 177. At which time the
tenant may plead either the general iflues, “ nud tort,” nul
diffeifin,”’ or any fpecial plea. And if, upon the general
iflue, the recognitors find an aétual fetiin in the demandant,
and his fubfequent diffeifin by the prefent tenant, he fhall
have judgment to recover his feifin, and damages for the
injury fuitained.

This ‘is called “ novel diftifin,”’ becaufe the juftices in
eyre went their circuits from feven years to feven years ; and
no affife was allowed before them, which commenced before
the laft circuit, called an ancient affife ; and that which was
upon a diffeifin fince the laft circuit, an affife of novel or re+
cent diffeifin. Co. Litt. 153. 6. F

This remedy lies where a tenant in fee-fimple, fee-tail,
or for term of life, is put out and diffeifed of his lands or
tenements, rents, common of pafture, common way, or of
an office of prefit, toll, &c. Glany. 1. 10. Reg. Ong. 197%
Affife lies for tithes, by flat. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 7. Cro
Eliz. 559. 3 but not for an annuity, penfion, &c.

Yor preventing frequent and vexatious diffeitins, it is ens
aéted by the itatute of Merton, 20 Hen. III. c. 3. that if
a perfon diffeifed recover feifin of the land again by aflife of
novel diffeifin, and be again diffeifed of the {ame tenements
by the fame diffeifor, he fhall have a writ of “ re-diffeifin ;””
and if he recover therein, the re-difleifor fhall be impriloned.
And by the ftatute of Marlberge, 52 Hen, Vill. c. 8. fhall
alfo pay a fine to the king; to which the ftatute Weitm. 2.
13 Edw. I. c. 26. hath fuperadded double damages to the
party aggrieved. In like menner, by the fame itatute of
Merton, when any lands or tenements are recovered by affife
of * mort d’anceflor,” or other jury, or any judgment of
the court, ifthe party be afterwards diffeifed by the fame
pesfon againft whom judgment was obtained, he hall have

2 a writ

ASS BE.

awrit of “pof-cifeifin” again him; which fubjeds the
poil-diffcifor to the fame penalties as a re-difleifor, The
reafon of which, giyen by fir Edward Coke, 2 Inft, 83, 84.
is, becaufe fuch proceeding is a contempt of the king’s
courts, and in defpite of the law. Bratton, |. 4. c. 49. Bl.
Comm. vol. i. p. 188.

The court of Common Pleas, or King’s Bench, may
hold plea of affifes of land in the county of M*ulefex, by
writ out of Chancery. 1 Litt. Abr. 105. And in cities and
cozporations an “ a/f/e of frefh force” lies for recovery of
pofeffion. of lands, within forty days after the diffeifin, as
the ordinary affife is in the county. . F. N. B. 7.

Assist of Darrein Prefeniment, or lait prefentation, lies
when a maa, or his anceltors, under whom he claims, have
prefented a clerk to.a benefice, who is inftituted ; and after-
wards upon the next avoidance, a ftranger prefents a clerk;
and thereby difturbs him that is the real patron. In this
cafe the patron fhall have this writ direéted to the fheriff to
fummon an affife.or jury, to inquire who was the lait patron
that prefented to the church now vacant, of which the
plaintiff complains that he is deforced by the defendant ; and,
according as the affife determines that queftion, a writ fhall
iffue to the bifhop, to inftitute the clerk of that patron in
whofe favour the determination is made, and alio to give
damages, in purfuance of ftatute Weftm. 2. '13 Edw. I.
c.5. The ftatute of 7 Ann. c. 18. having given a right to
any perfon to bring a writ of “ guare impedii,”’ and to re-
cover (if his title be good’, notwithftanding the laft prefen-
tation, by whomfcever made; affifes of darreia prefentment
now not being in enywife conclufive, have been totally dif-
ufed, as indeed they began to be before ; a “ quare impedit,”?
being a more general, and therefore amore ufual aGtion- For
the affife of darrein prefentment lies only where aman has an
adyowfon by defcent from his anceftors; but the writ of
« quare impedit’’ is equally remedial, whether a man claims
title by defeent or purchafe. 2 Init. 355. Bl. Com. vol.
il, p. 246.

Assist of Juris u!rum, fometimes ftiled the parfon’s writ
of right, being the higheft writ which he: can have, lies for
a.parfon or prebendary at common law, and for a vicar by
ftat. 14 Edw. III. c.17. and is in the nature of an aflife, to
imquire whether the tenements in queition are frankalmoign
belonging to the church of the demaadant. or elfe the lay-
fee of the tenant. By this the demandant may recover

lands and tenements, belonging to the church, which were-

aliened by the predeceffor ; or of which he was difleifed ; or
which were recovered againft him by verdict, confeffion, or
default, without praying in aid of the patron and ordinary ;
or on which any perfon has intruded fince the predecefior’s
death. F.N.B 48,49. But fince the reftraming ftatute
of 13 Eliz. c. 10. whereby the alienation of the predeceffor,
or a recovery fuffered by him of the lands of the church, is
declared to be abfolutely void, this remedy is of very little
ufe, unlefs where the parfon himfelf has been deforced for
more than twenty years ; for the fuccefior, at any competent
time after his acceffion to the benefice, may enter, or bring
an ejectmert. 5]. Com. vol. iii. p. 253.

Assisz is alfe ufed, according to Lyttleton, for a jury.
This that author fuppofes to be by a metonymia effedi, the
jury being fo called, becaufe fummoned by virtue of the writ
of affife.

Yet it muft be obferved that the Jury fummoned upon
a writ of right is likewife called the aflife; but this may
be faid to be xarxxpnzixws, or abufively fo termed. Affife,
in this fignification, is divided into magna & parva. ,

Asstse is farther ufed, according to Lyttleton, for an
erdinance or flatute, regulating the weight, fize, or di-

menfions of certain commodities. 'Thus the ancient flatute
of bread and ale, anno 51 Hen. III. is termed the affife
ch bread and ale, afffa panis & cerevifia. See Affife of

READ.

Assts¥ is farther ufed for the f{cantling or quantity itfelf
prefcribed by the flatute. When wheat is of fuch or fuch
price, bread fhall be of fuch affife. See Brean.

We have divers ftatutes for fixing the affife of fith, cloths,
wood, billets, faggots, and the like. Vide 34 & 35 Hen.
VIII. c. 3. 2 Ann. c. 5. ro Ann. c. 6. t9 Car. 11. c. 3.
4: Jac. I. 2.9.) a\Geo. I. ftat: 2c. 28°

Fixing any affile of cloth, cr prefcribing what length,
breadth, weight, &c. it fhali have, fir Jofiah Child thinks,
does more hurt than good. As the fafhions and humours
of maskind are variable, to fupply all markets at all times,
we mutt have all forts, cheap and light, as well as heavier
and better. Stretching with tenters is eflential to our dra-
pery, and the precife degree or quantity of it cannot with-
out injury be preicribed by any law; but muft be left to the
vender’s or exporter’s diicretion.

Assis& of the Foreff, isa ftatute or condition containing
orders to be obferved in the king’s foreft. It is called an
affife, becaufe it fets down and appoints a certain meafure,
rate, or order, in the things it concerns.

“\ssise, again, is ufed for the whole procefs in court,
founded on a writ of affife ; and fometimes for a part of it,
viz. the iflue, or verdiét of the jury. :

Thus we read, that * affifes of novel diffeifin hall not be
taken but in their fhires ; and after this manner,” &c. Mag-
Chart. cap. 12. Soin Merton, cap. 4. Hen. III. we meet
with, ‘ certified by affife, quitted by affife,”’ &c.

Assise of the King, a name given to the ftatute of view ~
of frank-pledge, 18 Edw. II.

Assist at large, is brought by an infant to inquire of a
diffeifin, and whether his anceftor were of full age, good
memory, &c. when he made the deed pleaded, whereby he
claims his right.

Assiss in Point of Affife, affifa in modum affife, is when
the tenant, as it were, fetting foot to foot with the demand-
ant, without any thing further, pleads dire¢tly the writ, no
wrong, no diffeifin.

Assise out of the Point of Affife, is when the tenant
pleadeth fomething by exception, as a foreign releafe, or
foreign matter triable in a foreign country ; which muft be
tried by a jury, before the principal caufe can proceed.

Assist of Right of Damages, is where the tenant con-
feffeth an outer, and referring it to a demurrer in law, whe-
ther it were rightly done or not, is adjudged to have done
wrong; whereupon the demandaat fhall have a writ of affife
to recoverdamages. Braéton, 1.4. F. N. B. ros. 4

Assist of Arms, a name given to an a& of 27 Hen. II.
which provided that every man’s armour fhould defcend to
his heir, for defence of the realm ; and which, together with
the ftatute of Winchefter, 13 Edw. I. c. 6. obhged every
man, according to “his eftate and degree, to provide a de-
terminate quantity of fuch arms as were then in ufe, in order
to keep the peace.

Assise, Black, in Hiffory, an, affife held at Oxford, in
July, A.D. 1577, fo called on account of a fudden “ damp””
which is faid to have arifen, and, after’ nearly {mothering the
whole court and audience, occafioned the death of the judge,
high fheriff, moft of the jury, and above 500 of the fpec-
tators. ‘This fatality was afttibed by the vulgar to magic $
but the difcernment of lord Bacon faw through the milt of
fuperftition. The fymptoms of this diforder, which feems
to have been the firft appearance of the gaol-feverin England,
marked the moft extreme putridity.

y AssisE,

AS &

Asstsr, Certificate of, in Law, a writ granted by frat.
Weitn. 2. c. 25, to a party aggrieved, by a verdict or judg-
ment given again{t him in an affife, whea he had fomething
to plead, as a record or releafe, which could not have been
pleaded by his bailiff, or when the affife was taken againtt
Kiimfelf by default, to have the deed tried, and the record
brought in before the jultices, aad the former jury fum-
mioned to appear before them at a certain day and place, for
a further examinatign and trial of the matter. This, in
reality, was neitheraore nor lefs than a fecond trial of the
fame caufe by the fame jury. Bracton, |, 4. tr. 5. c. 6. § 22
F.N.B. 181. 2 Init. 415.

Assist, Continuance of. See ConTINUANCE.

Assise, Jujflices of. See Justices.

Assist, Limitation of. See Limitation.

Assise, Rents of. See Rent.

ASSISER, or Assizer, of weights and mea/ures, is an
officer who has the care and overfight of thofe matters.

ASSISI, in Geography, a town of Italy, belonging to
the ftates of the church and duchy of Spoleto ; it is the fee
of a bifhop, and famous for being the native place of St.
Francis, and for the beautiful church belonging to the order
inftituted by that faint, in which fome fay he is buried; as
well as for the great number of pilgrims reforting to it. It
is fifteen miles weft of Nocera.

ASSISH, in £cclefaflical Writers, denote perfons bene-
ficed in a cathedral church, not ina rank below that of ca-
pons. ‘he affifii perhaps anfwered to our minor canons.
They were thus called, either becaufe they were allowed an
aflifia or penfion ; or from a/ffiduus, diligent.

ASSISOR, the fame with affeffor.
fors are the fame with our jurors.

ASSISTANCE. See Arp.

ASSISTANT is ufed for a perfon or officer appointed
to attend another principal officer, for the more eafy and re-
rular difcharge of his funétions.—Such a bifhop or prieft had
con or cight affiftants.

Assistant, in Roman Catholic countries, is particu-
Jarly applied to a kind of counfellors, or comptrollers,
added to the generals or fuperiors of monafteries, &c. to
take care of the affairs of the community.

The general of the Jefuits has five affittants, of confum-
mate experience, chofen by him out of all the provinces of
the order, and denominated from the kingdoms or countries
to which they belong, 7.c. Italy, Spain, Germany, France,
and Portugal. Ina like fenfe, moft of our trading compa-
nies have their courts of affiitants.

Assrstants are alfo thofe condemned to affilt in the ex-
ecution of a criminal.

ASSISUS, 1a Ancient Law Writers, denotes a thing de-
mifed or farmed out for fuch an affife or certain rent, in
money or provilions. Ilence terra affija was commonly op-
poled to terra dominica ; this laft being held in demefne, or oc-
cupied by the lord, whereas the former was let out to tenants.
Hence alfo redtus affijus denotes the fet or ftanding rent.

In Scotland, affi-

ASSITHMEW, or Assyrument, in the Law of

Scotland, is a compentation for a man flain.
Affithment is the fame with what, in the Laglifh Law,
is called AJan-zore.
ASSIUS Lapis, in Phyfiology. See Laris Afius.
ASSIUT, in Geography. SeeSiour. ~— .
ASSO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hilpania Tar-
ragonenfis, in the country of the Baflitani. Ptolemy. .
ASSOCIATE, compounded of ad, and Jocius, compa-
nion, an adjunct, partner, or member. -
ASSOCIATION, Associario, the aé& of affociating,
or forming a fociety or company.

ASS

Affociation is properly a contrac or treaty of partner.
fhip, whereby two or more perfons unite together, either
for their mutual’ affittance, or for the joint carrying” on
of an affair; or even for a more commodious manner of life.

Ina military fenfe, it denotes any number of men embo-
died in arms for mutual defence in their diftri€t, and for
preferying the public tranquillity againft foreign and do-
meftic enemies.

The clofett of all affociations is that made by the band of
matrimony. See Socrrry.

Association of Jdeas, is where two or more ideas con-
flantly and immediately follow or fucceed one another in
the mind, fo that one fhall almoft infallibly produce the
other; whether there be any natural relation between
them or not. Or, it is that principle or faculty by which
two or more fenfations, ideas, or motions, are fo united
together, that any one impreffed alone fhall excite all the
relt.

Where there is a real affinity or conneétion in ideas, it is
the excellency of the mind to be able to colleé, compare,
and range them in order, in its inquiries: but where there
is none, nor any caufe to be affigned for their accompanying
each other, but what is owing to mere accident or habit,
this unnatural aflociation becomes a great imperfeGtion, and
is, generally fpeaking, a main caufe of error or wrong de-
ductions in reafonmg. Thus, the idea of goblins and
{prights has really no more affinity with darknefs than with
light; and yet let a foolifh maid inculcate thefe ideas often
on the mind of achild, and raife them there together, it is
poffible he thall never be able to feparate them again fo long
as he lives, but darknefs fhall ever bring with it thofe fright-
ful ideas.—Let cuftom, from the very childhood, have
joined the idea of figure and fhape to the idea of God,
and what abfurdities will that mind be liable to about the
Deity!

Such wrong combinations of ideas, Mr. Locke fhews,
are a great caufe of the irreconcileable oppofition between
the different fects of philoféphy and religion; for we can-
not imagine, that all who hold tenets different from, and
fometimes even contradi€tory to one another, fhould wil-
fully and knowingly impofe upon themfelves, and refufe
truth offered by plam reafon: but fome loofe and indepen-
dent ideas are by education, cuftom, and the conftant din
of their party, fo coupled in their minds, that they always
appear there together: thefe they can no more feparate in
their thoughts, than if they were but one idea, and they
operate as if they were fo. This gives fenfe to jargon, de-
monilration to abfurdities, confiftency tononfenfe, and is
the foundation of the greatelt, and almott of all, the errors
in the world.

Mr. Hume obferves (Eiflays, vol. i. p. 73.), that there is
a principle of conneétion between the different thoughts
or ideas of the mind; and that, in their appearances to the
memory or imagination, they introduce each other with a
certain degree of method and regularity. Of this con-
nection he alleges evidence from our more ferious thinking
or difcourfe, from our wildeft and moft wandering reveries,
and even our dreams, and from our loofeft and fineft con-
verfation. Among different languages alfo, words: expref-
five of ideas the moit compounded, nearly correfpond to
each other; and hence it is inferred, that the fimple ideas
comprehended in the compound ones are bound together by
fome univerfal principle, which has an equal influence on
all mankind. ‘I‘his writer afcribes the aflociation or con-
nection of ideas to three principles; ois. ‘ refemblance,’’
“ contiguity”? in time or place, and “caufe?? or“ effeét.”
Thete, he faye (p. 54.), are the only Londs that unite our

thoughts

ASS

thoughts together, and beget that regular train of refle€tion
or difcourfe, which, in agreater or lefs degree, takes place
among all mankind. Although it fhould be allowed, that
thefe are real principles of ailociation or connection in our
ideas, it may be urged that ideas fucceed one another with-
out refemblance or contiguity as to time and place, and
without the mutual correlpondence or relation of caufe
and effect; and that there are other aflociations befides
thofe of ideasy which are aflociated with paflions and emo-
tions, and paflions and emotions are aflociated together.
A. particular idea is aflociated together with a proper
name, and often with the general name of the {pecies; ge-
neral conceptions, or mixed modes, as they are denomi-
nated by Mr. Locke, are affociated with figns both audible
and yilible, and figns are affociated with one another. Wir-
tue, as it confifis ina@ion and intention, does not refembie
the found virtue, is not contiguous to it in time or place,
and is neither its canfe nor its efieét ; nor can it be imagined
that the arbitrary figns of various objects fhould have any
natural relation to one another. But if there were no other
principles of affociation befides thefe of Mr. Hume, the
author himfelf has not fhewn how they account for the
Phenomena.

Dr.. Hartley, whatever may be thought of his general
fyftem, has attempted to form a mechanical theory of the
human mind and its various operations by means of
“ affociation.”? |The principle or law of affociation feems
to have been firft noticed by Mr. Locke ; but he applies it
to the folution- of very few phenomena. Mr. Gay, ina
«« Differtation upon Virtue,”’ prefixed to “ Law’s Tranfla-
tion of King’s Origin of Evil”? deduces the moral feelings
from aflociation; and Dr. Hartley traces all, or at leatt
mott of the other phenomena of mind to the fame caufe.
This law of affociation extends to Sensations, to Ipras,
and to Muscutar motions; which fee refpectively.

Accordingly he diftinguifhes it into fynchronous and fuc-
ceflive ; and afcribes our fimple and complex ideas to the
influence of this principle or habit. Particular fenfations
refult from previous vibrations conveyed through the nerves
to the medullary fubftance of the brain; and thele are fo
intimately aflociated together, that any one of them, when
imprefled alone, fhall be able to excite in the mind the ideas
of allthe veft. Thus we derive the ideas of natural bodies
from the affociation of the feveral fenfible qualities with the
names that exprefs them, and with each other. The fight
of part of a large building fuggefts the idea of the reft in-
ftantaneoufly, by a fynchronous aflociation of the parts;
and the found of the words, which begin a familiar fen-
tence, brings to remembrance the remaining parts in order
by fucceffive affociation. Dr. Hartley maintains that fim-
ple ideas run into complex ideas by aflociation ; and appre-
hends that by purfuing and perfecting this doctrine, we may
fome time or cther be enabled to analyfe thofe complex
ideas that are commonly called the ideas of reflection, or
intelletual ideas, into their feveral component parts, 7. e
into the fimple ideas of fenfation of which they confitt; and
‘that this do€trine may be of confiderable ufe in the art of
logic, and ‘in explaining the various phenomena of the hu-
man mind. For a further explication of Dr. Hartley’s
doétrine of affeciation, the philofophical principles upon
which it depends, and the mode of its application, the
reader mutt be referred to his “Obfervations on Man,” vel. i.
or part i. paflim; and alfo to Prieftley’s « Abridgment of
Hartley,’ 8vo.; Stewart’s “‘ Elements of the Philofophy
of the Human Mind,”’ ato. 1792. ch. v.; Darwin’s Zoo-
nomia,’’ vol. 1. § 5—10.

A Jate writer obferves, that the dodtrine of aflociation is to

ASS

be very carefully diftingaifhed from the theory of vibrations,
beiag eitablifhed upon mdependent evidence and undeniable
facts. ~ This therefore, he adds, muft fend, thongh the
other flould be regarded only as a piaufible hypethelis,”
deititute ot fatisfactory proof. It was to prevent the coh
fution of the nature and evidence of affociation and vic
bration, fays this writer, that Dr. Pricitley publified his”
edition of Hartley’s work, from which the theory - of yi-!
brations is entirely excluded. Belfham’s Elements of the’
Philofophy of the Mind, and of Meri Philofophy, 8vo.
1801. p. 54. See alfo Airarr, Ipra,.Memory, Sensa-
TION, VIBRATIONS, and ViBRATIUNCLES.

AssociaTIon, in Law, is a writ or patent fent by
the king, either of his own motion; or at the fuit of a
party plaintiff, to the juftices of affife, to have other
fons affociated tothem, in order to take the affife,

Upon this patent of affociatien, the king fends his writ
to the juttices of the affife, thereby commanding them to’
admit fuch as are fo fent. ate

The clerk of the affife is ufually affociate of courfe : ia’
other cafes fome learned ferjeants at law’ are appointed.’
See Assist.

Association 9f Parliament. In the reien of kine Wil-
liam III. the parliament entered into’a folemn affociation to
defend his majeity’s perfon and government againft all plots
and confpiracies: and all perfons bearing offices civil or mili-
tary were enjoined to fubfcribe the aflociation to ftand by:
king William, on pain of forfeitures and penalties, &c. by!
ftat. 7 and 8 W. II]. c. 27. j

Association, Feathers Tavern, confited of a number of
clergymen, and of gentlemen in the profefiions of civil law
and phylic, who, wifhing to be exempted from the obligation
of fub{cribing the thirty-nine articles of religion, applied-in
the year 1772, by petition to parliament for this purpofe.
Their fociety was fo called from the place where they met.’
The object at which they aimed was to be permitted to
hold their preferments, upon condition of merely fubferibing
to the holy feriptures, agreeably to the grand Proteftant:
principle ; which is, that every thing neceflary to falyation is
fully contained in thefe feriptares, and that they are the fole
rule of faith and manners. ‘The requeft, however, was not
thought to comport with the nature of a civil eftabh{hment
in religion; and principally on this ground, it was ftrenuoufly
oppofed by many diftinguifhed members of parliament, and
as itrenuoufly defended by fome of the firft perfons in the
houfe of commons. After a long and interefting debate,
the admiffion of the petition was rejeéted by a large ma-
jority. It was the general opinion, that.thofe who propofe
to reap the benefits of the Ettablithed Church, ought to
comply with the terms on which they are offered. ~

Association, Prots/lant, took its rife from an a@ pafled
in 1778, for relieving his majeity’s fubje&s, profeffing the
Romifh religion, from certain penalties and difabilities im-
pofed upon them in the eleventh and twelfth years of the
reign of king William III. The a€t wads paifed unani-
molly ; nor did it at firft appear to excite any great alarm
among perfons of any clafs. The papilts, as they now
thoucht the government inclined to be more indulgent to
them than it had formerly been, began to take fomewhat
greater liberties in the exercife of their religion than thofe
to which they had been accuftomed. | By degrees, a number
of perfons in London, andin fome other parts of the king-
-dom, began to-exprefs great apprchentrons of the increafe of
popery, and to exclaim againft the late ad, by which they
thought it was ccurtenanced and fupported. Meetings of
thefe zealous perfons were held from time to time ia
London; and they formed themfelves into a body under

the

per-

;

ASS

the title of the Proteftant Affociation,’® and at length
lord George Gordon became their prefident. The objeé&
of their affeciation was to procure a repeal of the late act in
fayour of the papitts.
meetings were, many of them, honeft and well-intentioned
people, who had a juft averlion to popery, but who did not
duly confider, that-an intolexant dpirit was at leaft as ce.-
furable ia a protedtant as ina papilt. In alittle while, how-
ever, their number, confilting of perfons in the lower ranks
of life, became very confiderable. .A petition to psrliamext
was framed, forarepeal Gf the late a&, and the utmott pains
were employed to procure fubfcriptions to it. The number
of fubfcribers is faid to have amounted to 120,000 perfons.
In order to give weight to their petition, it was determined

that it-fhould be attended by great numbers of the peti-

tioners in perfon; and a public advertifement was iffued for
that purpofe, figned by lord George Gordon. Accord-
ingly it is fuppofed that at leaft 50,000 perfons affembled on
the fecond of June in St. George’s Fields, and proceeded in
great order to the houfe of commons, where their petition
was prefented by their prefident. Several members of both
houfes of parliament were grofsly infulted and ill-treated by
the populace, and im the evening a mob aflembled which
demolifbed two Romith chapels... The metropolis, for feve-
ral fubfequeat days, became an unexampled feene of alarm,
terror, and devaltation; and for fome time the magiftrates
in general manifefted little aGtivity. At leneth, when the
rioters were making a formidable attack upon all property,
and ‘every man’s perfonal fecurity was endangered, the
military interpofed, and, after confiderable exertions, reftored
the capital of the kingdom to order and tranquillity, after
a devaitation that had continued for fix days, and not with-
out the lofs of many lives. The number of perfons kiile
and wounded by the military in the fuppreflion of thefe
riots, is {aid to have amounted to 458. It would
be unjutt, however, to impute to the proteitant affociation,
as the firlt agents in this bufinefs thought proper to ityle
themfelves, the whole of the mifchief that enfued, or to
fuppofe that they forefaw the calamities to which they
ve occafion. Yet it muit be allowed, that thefe unhappy
Paes owed their origin to their bigotry and delufion; and
that the members of that affociatioa manifeited a {pirit the
very reverfe of that wich dittincuifhes real aad enlightened
_ proteitants, and very difgraceful to the national chara&ter.
Tt has been faid, that no member of the proteftant affocia-
-tion was executed or tried for any fhare in the riots ;'and it
is moft probable, that thofe who engaged in this difaftrous
bufinefs from religious bigotry, would have the difcretion to
- retire before the lait exceffes, and before the intervention of
the military. Several of the rioters were afterwards appre-
hended, tried, and executed. Lord George-Gordon was
committed to'the Tower on the teath of June, arraicned on
the twenty-fifth of January, 1781; and on the fitth of
February, tried under a charge of conitractive treafon, and
acquitted.
- ASSOILE,:in ovr Ancient Law-Bools, fignifies to ab-
_ folve, deliver, or fet free from an excommunication. See
ABSOLUTION.

ASSOKO, in Geography, a towa of Africa, the capital
of Iffini, in an iflaad of the fame name, formed by the
river Iffini; which is the ordinary refidence of the king and
his attendants.

ASSOM. See Asstm.

ASSONANCE, in Rhetoric and Poctry, a-term ufed
where the words of a phrafe, or verfe, have the fame found
or termination, and yet make no proper rhyme.

Thefe-are ufuaily vicious in Englifh; the Romans-fome-

The perfons who attended thefe

ASS

times ufed them with elegance: “* Militem comparavit, ex-
ercitum ordinavit, aciem Yattravit.””

The Latins call it fimiliter definens ; and the Greeks époice
FNAEUTOe

ASSONANT Rhymes, is a term particularly applied to
a kind of verfes common among the Spaniards, where a re-
femblance of found ferves inftead of a natural rhyme.

Thasigera, cubieria, tierra, mefa, may anfwer each cther
in a kind of affonant rhyme, becaufe they have each ane in
the penultimate fyllable, and an a in the latt.

ASSONGSONG, in Geography. See Ifland of As-
SUMPTION.

ASSONIA, in Botany, a genus of plants, fo named in
honour of Ignatius de Aiffo, a Spanifh botanift. Lin. gen.
Schreb.n. ¥123. Cavanill. Diff. 3. p. 120. Dombeya, ib.

p- 121. Clafs, monadelphia dodecandria. Nat. Ord. colum-
nifere. Malvacee, Jui. Gen. Char. Ca/.-perianth double;

outer three-leaved, unilateral, deciduous; inner one-leafed,
five-parted; parts lanceolate, acute, reflex. Cor. petals five,
roundith, narrowed at the bafe, fpreading, withering, affixed
to the pitcher of the ftamens. Stam. filaments fifteen, {ili-
form, upright, fhorter than the corolla, conjomed at the bafe
in the form of a pitcher; anthers oblong, fubfagittate, ereG ;
five linear-lanceolate, fomewhat erect, coloured, petal-formed
flraps between the itamens, proceeding from the pitcher.
Piff. germ roundifh, five-furrowed; ftyle fimple, longer than
the ftamens, permanent; fligmas five, recurved. Per. cap-
fule fubglobofe, or turbinate, five-celled; cells feparable,
bivalve. Seeds, folitary or in pairs, fubovate. Obf. Affonia
cay. with the outer perianth one-leafed, three-toothed, and
with five ftyles, does not feem feparable from dombeya cay.
with the outer perianth three-leaved, and a fingle ftyle, any
more than the hibifeus tiliaceus from the other hibifei; or
the one ftyled fidas, from the reft; efpecially as dombeya
ovate cay. has the ftyle divided almof to the bafe. We
have therefore followed Schreber and Martyn in uniting
dombeya with affonia

Species, 1. A. populnea. Cavan. Diff. 120. t. 42. f. 1!
“Leaves cordate, ovate-acuminate; flowers coryinbed.”
AN {mall tree refembling hibifeus populneus. ‘The French
call it bois de fenteur bleu ou galeux, becaufe the wood is
fweet-cented, and blue in the centre, and when cld it be-
comes very hard. Leaves alternately fcattered, larze, entire,.
aad hang obliquely; outer calyx fo {mall as fearcely to be
obferved; petals {mall, oblong, obliquely fickle-fhaped, firit
white, afterwards ferruginous. A native of the ifle of
Bourbon, in hilly woods. 2. A. palmate, dombeya palmata,
Cavan.}.c. ‘Leaves cordate, palmate, fmoothifh, lobes
feven, acute, ferrate-creaate; flowers corymbed.”? Stem
arboreous; leaves alternate, on long footftalks; lobes cblong-

acuminate; ftipules lanceolate, tomentofe, deciduous; flowers

ia folitary peduncles, at the ends of the branches, tomentofe;
corolla an inch and a half wide, changing from white to a
fulphur colour, and laftly ferruginous. A native of the ifle
of Bourbon, where it is called by the natives mahot-tantan,
3. A. acutangula. Cavan.1.c.. “ Leaves cordate, roundish,
three-cufped, crenate; flowers racemed.”? Stem arborecus;
leaves alternate, of the length of the footftalks, feven-verved,
and commonly with an angular tooth between the bafe and
lateral divifions; racemes folitary, axillary; calyxes extremely-
tomentofe; corolla as that of the A. palmata (2), but veined
and coriaceous; fruit pear-fhaped. A native of the ifle of
Bourbon. 4. A angulata, dombeya angulata.. Cavan. l.c.
« Leaves cordate, roundith, angular at top, ferrate-toothed
tomentofe; umbels numerous; common peduncles fhorter
than the petiole.” Arboreous; branches tomentofe; leaves
with three angles at the tip, feven-nerved; ftipules eee

3 _ the

ASS

the ftem; umbels axillary, folitary; fruit globular, with two
feeds in each cell. A native of the ifle of Bourbon. 5. A.
tiliefolia, dombeya tilizfolia. Cay. l.c. ‘ Leaves cordate,
roundifh-acute, crenate; flowers raceme-corymbed, arbo-
reous.”? All the fhrub very tomentofe; leaves fhaped like
thofe of the common lime-tree, feven-nerved, tomentofe;
peduncles axillary, folitary, divided at the end ito oppofite
horizontal racemes. A native cf the ifle of Bourbon. 6. A.
tomentofz, dombeya tomentofa. Cavan.}. c. ** Leaves
cordate, roundifh, crenate, tomentofe, with almoft circular
veins; flowers umbelled.”? Stem arboreous, branched; the
whole tree very tomentofe; {tipules coriaceous, broad-ovate,
acuminate, ciliate, halftem clafping; common peduncle
very long, forked at the top, and terminated by two umbels;
petals roundifh, fickle-fhaped. A native of Madagafcar.
7. A. pun@ata, dombeya punctata. Cavan.l.c. “Leaves
ovate-lanceolate, long, quite entire, tomentofe underneath,
rugged with dots on the upper furface.”? Trunk about the
thicknefs of the human leg or thigh, covered with dark-
brown bark; branches alternate, tomentofe; leaves three
or four inches long (fometimes crenulate or finuate), rounded
at the bafe; flowers ona long axillary common peduncle,
umbelled, white, but becoming ferruginous by age; pedicels
twenty or thirty, one-flowered. A native of the ifle of
Bourbon. 8. A. decanihera, dombeya decanthera. _ Cavan.
I.c. ‘Leaves ovate-acuminate, repand-crenate, fmooth;
ftamens five, two-anthered; flowers {mall, umbelled.”? Stem
arborefcent, with a brown furrowed bark; leaves alternate,
{cattered, four times as long as the petioles; the outer calyx
confifts of three very {mall briftles; corolla fearcely three lines
in diameter; filaments ten, five barren, five fertile; germ
five-cornered, one feed in each cell of the fruit. A native
of Madagafcar, 9. A. umbellata, “dombeya umbellata.
Cavan. l.c. ‘ Leaves cordate, ovate-oblong, acuminate,
repand {mooth; flowers umbelied, globular.” A tree en-
tirely fmocth, with a brewn bark; leaves longer than the
petioles, either repand about the edge, or obfcletely ard
broadly crenate; common; peduncles pie, axillary, on the
tops of the branches reddifh, very fmooth, terminated by a
fingle globofe umbel. A native of the ifle of Bourbon, where
ropes are made of the bark. 10. A. ovata, dombeya ovata.
Cavan.l.c. ‘ Leaves ovate, toothed, five-nerved, tomen-
tofe; ityle very imall.’? Stem fhrubby, branched, covered
with a ferruginous nap; leaves alternate, white underneath,
rugged on the upper furface, double the length of the pe-
tioles; ftipules capillary, tomentose; peduncles forked at the
top, with a corymb at each divifion; corolla imall; petals
narrow, roundifh at the end, not fickle-fhaped; their claws
are permanent, and deeply ferruginous. Fruit globular,
five-cornered, within the fegments of the calyx. A native
of the ifle of Bourbon. . 11. A. ferruginea, dembeya ferru-
ginea. Cavan.l.c. ‘ Leaves ovate-oblong, feven-nerved,
terrugincus beneath; petioles, peduncles, aud calyxes to-
mentote.’? Stem arborefcent, from eight to ten feet high;
branches covered with a rufous nap; leaves on the extreme
twigs, {cattered alternately, acuminate, tooth-ferrulate, to-
mentofe on the under furface; peduncles double the length
of the petiole, forked at the top, with a many-flowered
corymb oneach divifion. .This, perhaps, may be a variety
of the A. ovata; the leaves, however, are much broader at
the bafe, acuminate, feven-nerved, and very much toothed;
whereas in that they are ftriétly ovate, five-nerved, and the
teeth are diftant. A native of the ifle of Mauritius, and firft
difcovered by Commerfon in 1769. :

Propagation and Culiure. See Hiniscus and Penra-
PETES, i

Assonia, or Domasya Phanicea.

2

See PENTAPETES.

ASS

ASSORUS, in Ancient Geosraphy, a town of Macedonia,
in Mygdonia. Ptolemy.—Alfo, a town of Sicily, feated on
a hill to the left of the river Chryfus. Diod. Sic.

ASSOS, or Assum, a fea-port town of Afia Minor, in
the Troas, fortified’ both by art’and nature, according to
Strabo. Aédts; xx. 13.

Assos, cr Asso, is now a fea-port of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natolia, on a gulf of the #gean fea, to which it gives
name, four leagues §.E. from Troas, and eleven leagues weft
of Adramiti. N. lat. 39° 33’. E. long. 26 1’. :

Assos, Asos, or Asum, a{mall town of Crete.—Afos,
a fall river of Greece, in the diftict of Phocis, which ran
from N. to S. at the foot of the mountain Edyleon, and
joined the Cephifus.

ASSOUAN, in Geography, near the ancient SyENE, 2
peor village on the eaft fide of the Nile, with a fmall fort
commanded by an aga of the janizaries, N. lat. 24°0' 45”.
E. long. 33° 30’. This place is called by the Arabs Afouan;
which figmifies enlightened, in allufion, as Bruce fuppoles, to
the circumftance of the well mentioned by Pliny (H. N.
l.ii.c. 73.), enlightened within by the fun’s being dire@ly
over it in June. LBruce’s Travels, vol. 1. p. 158. Sce
SYENE.

ASSRUMINA, in Botany, the name given by the peo-
ple of Guineato the fhrub whofe leaves they ufe as a cure
for the long worms which are found in their flefh in thofe
parts of the world; they only bruife the leaves, and apply
a large lump of the mafs to the part where the worm is, and
they are eafed at once, without the pain and hazard of draw-
lag it out. Phil. Tranf. N° 232.

LSSULATUS, in Natural Hiflory, a fpecies of Ecui-
nus. The fheliis fcutellate, the feutels united by tranfverfe
futures. Klein, p. 15. 26. €. Cidaris teffulata of Klein, ip:
16. 27. is fuppofed to be a variety of this kind.

ASSUMPSIT, in Law, denotes a voluntary promife by
which a man affumes and takes upon him to perform, or to
pay any thing to another. °

This term comprehends any verbal promife made upon
confideration, and is varioufly expreffed by the civilians, ac-
cording to the nature of the promife; fometimes by paétum;
fometimes by promifiio, pollicitatio, or conftitutum.

If the promife be to do any explicit aGt, it is an exprefs
contract, as much as any covenant; and the breach of it is
an equal injury. However, the remedy is not exaétly the
fame. Since, inftead of an action of covenant, there ouiy
lies an a€tion upon the cafe, for which it is called the
aflumpfit or undertaking of the defendant; the failuve of
performing which is the wrong or injury done to the plam-
tiff, the damages of which the jury are to eftimate and fet-
tle. Asif a builder promifes, undertakes, or aifumes to
Caius, that he will build and cover his houfe within a time
limited, and fails to do it; Caius has an aétionwn the ¢afe
againft the builder for this breach of his exprefs promife;
undertaking, or afumpfit; and fhall recover a pecuniary fatif-
faction for the injury fuftained by fuch delay. So alfo in
cafe of a debt by fimple contra, if the debtor promifes to
pay it and does not, this breach of promife entitles the cre-
ditor to his ation on the ¢afe, inftead.of being driven to an
ation of debt, 4 Rep. 92. Thus likewife a promiffory
note, of note of hand not under feal, to pay money at a
day certaia, is an expre/s affump/it; and the payee at common
law, or by cuftom and act of parliament the indorfee, may
recover the value of the note in damages, if it remains un-
paid. Aion on the'cafe on affumpfit lies, for not making
a good eftate of land fold, according to promife; not pay-
ing money upon a bargain and fale, according to agreement ;
not delivering goods promifed on demand; this is by expre/$

afumpjit.

ASS

affumpfit. When one becomes legally indebted to another
for gecds fold, the law implics a promife that he will pay
the debt; and if it be not paid, indebitatus affuimp/it ies: and
the fame lies for goods fold and delivered to a ttranger “ ad
_ requifitionem’” of the defendant; the price being agreed upon
and proved. 1 Dany. Abr. 26, 27. [f atenant, being in ar-
rear for rent, fettles an account of arrears with his landlord,
aad promiles to pay him the fum in arrear, an affumpiit lies
on this promife. 1 Rol. Abr. 9. If aman and woman, being
unmarried; mutually promife to marry each other, and after-
wards the man marries another woman, by wiiich he renders
himfelf incapabie of performing his contract, an affumplit
lies, in which the woman fhall recover damages. Carter, 233.
There are, however, five. cafes, fpecificd by the ftatute of
frauds and perjuries, 29 Car. II. c. 3. in which no verbal
promife will be fuflicient ground of aétion, without fome
note or memorandum in writing, figned by the party who
is to become chargeable, 1. Where an executor or adminif-
trator promifes to anfwer damages out of his own ettate.
2. Where a man undertakes to an!wer for the debt, default,
or mifcarriage of ancther. 3. Where any agreement is made,
upon confideration of marriage. 4. Where any contract or
fale is made of lands, tenements, or hereditaments, or any
intereft therein. 5. Where there is any agreement that is
not to be performed within a year from the time of its being
made. Inall thefe cafes a mere verbal aflumpfit is void.
The confideration is the ground of the common aétion on
the cafe ; and no fuch acticn lies againft a man for a promife,
where there is no confideration’ why he fhould make the
romife.

Befides expre/s contracts, there are others implied by law:

and thefe are fuch as reafon and juttice dictate, and which, .

therefore, the law prefumes that every man has contraéted to
perform: and, upon this prefumption, to become anfwerable
to fuch perfons as fuffer by his non-performance. Of this
nature are, /i/?, fuch as are neceffarily implied by the fun-
damental conititution of government, to which every man
is‘a contraGting party. Thus itis that every perfon is bound
aad hath virtually agreed to pay fuch particular fums of
money, as are charged on him by the featence, or affefled by
the interpretation of the law. By the fame principle of an
implied original contract to fubmit io the rules of the com-
munity of which we are members, a forfeiture impofed
by the bye laws and private ordinances of a corporation up-
on any that belong to the body, or an amercement fet in a
court-leet or court-baron upon any ef the fuitors to the
court, create a debt in the eye of the law; and fuch forfei-
ture or amercement, unpaid, works an injury to the party or
parties entitled to receive it, for which the remedy is by
action of debt. The fame reafon may with equal juitice be
applied to all penal flatutes, or fuch ats of parliament that
infliG a forfeiture for tranferefling the provifions enacted by
them. <A /econd clafs of implied contrats are fuch as arife
from natural reafon, and the juft conftru&tion of law; and
this clafs extends to all prefumptive undertakings or aflump-
fits, which, though never perhaps actually made, yet con-
ftantly arife from this geaeral implication and intendment of
the courts of judicature, that every man hath engaged to
perform what his duty or juftice requires. Thus, if I em-
ploy a perfon to tranfa&t any bufinefs for me, or to perform
any work, the law implies that I undertook or affumed to
pay him fo much as his labour deferved. If I rczle& to
make him amends, he has a remedy by an aétion on the cafe
upon this implied aflumpft. The valuation of his trouble
is fibmitted to the judgment of a jury, who will aifefs fuch
a fum in damages as they think ‘he really merited. This is
called oe on a * guantum meruit.” There is alfo an
Vor. ill.

ASS

implied affumpfit, ona * quantum valebat,”’ fimilar to the
mer; where one takes up goods or wares of < ma
without exprefsly agreeing for the price. Here the law
concludes, that both parties did intentionally agree, that ve
real value of the goods fhould be paid; and an aétion on tie
cafe may be brouglit accordingly, if the vendee s to
pay that value. Another {pecies of implied aff
when one has had and received money belongin
without any valuatic confideration given on ti

:

umpiits is

o another,

money

> an

act

part; for the law conftrues this to be
ceived for the ufe of the owner only ; and implies t
perfon fo receiving promifed and undertook to account ior
it to the true proprietor. And if he unjuftly detain it
on the cafe lies again{t him for the breach cf fuch im-
plied promife and-undertaking ; and he will be made to re-
pair the owner in damages, equivalent to what he has
tained in yiolation of fuch promife. This 1s applicab!
almeft every cafe where the defendant has received money,
which “ex zquo et bono” he ought to refund. 4 Burr. 1012.
Moreover, when a perfon has laid out and expended his ova
money for the ufe of another at his requeit, the law implies
a promife of repayment, and an aétion will lie on this ai-
fumpfit. Carth. 446. 2 Keb. 99. Alfo, upona itated ac-
count between two merchants, or other perfons, the law im-
plies that he againfl whom the balance appears has engaged
to pay it to the other, though there be no a¢tual promife.
From this implication, ations on the cafe are frequently
brought, declaring that the plaintiff and defendant had fet-
tled their accounts together, “ infimul computaffent,’ which
gives name to this fpecies of affumpiit, and that the defend-
ant envaged to pay the plaintiff the balance, but has fince
neglected to do it. The laf& clafs of contracts, implied
by reafon and conftruGion of law, arifes upon the fup-
pefition, that any one who undertakes any cffice, employ-
ment, truit, or duty, contracts with thofe who employ or
entruft him to perform it with integrity, diligence, and
fill; and, if by his wanting cither ot thefe qualities, any
injury accrues to individuals, they have their remedy in
damages by a fpecial ation on the cafe. If a fheriff does
not execute a writ fent to him, ox wilfully makes a falle
return, the party aggrieved fhall in both cafes have an
aGtion on the cafe for damages, to be affefled by a jury.
Mocr, 431. 2 Rep. gg. If a theriff or gaoler fuffers a
prifoner, taken upon meine procefs, or during the pendency
of a fuit, to efcape, he is liable to an action on the cafe ;
but if, after judgment, a debtor charged in execution for
a certain fum be permitted to efcape, a gaoler or fheriff is
compellable by action of debt for a fum liquidated and
afcertained, to fatisfy the creditor his whole demand, itat.
Weitm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. rr. and 1 Ric. IJ. c. 12. 2 Intt.
382. An advocate or attorney betraying the caufe of their
chent, or, being retained, negleCting to appear at the trial,
by which the caufe mifcarries, are liable to an action on the
cafe, for a reparation to their injured client. Finch L. 188.
There is alfo in law an implied contract with a common
innkeeper, to fecure the goods of his gueft; with a com-
mon carrier or barge-mafter, to be anfwerable for the goods
he carries; with a common farrier, that he fhoes a horfe
well, without laming him; with a common tailor, or other
workman, that he performs his bufinefs in a workman-like
manner; in which if they fail, an aétion on the cafe lies
for the recovery of damages for fuch breach of their gene-
ral undertaking. 11 Rep. 54. 1 Saund. 324. If an inn-
keeper, or other victualler, hangs out a fign, and opens
his houfe for travellers, it is an. implied engagement to
entertain all perfons who’ travel that way; and upon this
univerfal affumpfit an aétion on the cafe will lie againft ie
; 5 or

ASS

for damages, if he without good reafon refufes to admit a
traveller. 1 Ventr. 333. If one cheats with falfe cards or
dice, or by falfe weights and meafures, or by felling one
commodity for another, an a€tion on the cafe lies acainit
him for damages, upon,the contraét which the law always
implies, that every tranfaétion is fair and honeft. 10 Rep.
56. In contracts for -provifions, it is always implied,
that they are wholefome, and if they be not, the fame
remedy may be had. . If cloth is warranted to be of fuch a
length, when it is not, an a€tion on the cafe lies for damages.
Finch L. 189. Alo, if a horfe be warranted found, and
he wants the fight of an eye, it has been held that an aGtion
on the cafe lies to recover damages for this impcfition.
Salk. 611. Bl. Com. vol. iii. p. 158, &c. See Contract,
and Promise.

ASSUMPTION, in Antiquity, a featt celebrated in the
Romifh church, in honoyr of the miraculous afcent of the
Holy Virgin, as they Wferibe it, body and foul into
heaven,

Assumption, was alfo, among our anceftors, ufed for
the day of the death of any faint: “ quia ejus anima in
ceelum affumitur.”? See ANNIVERSARY.

Assumption, ia Geography, an epifcopal city of South
Amezica, in the province of Paraguay, fituate in the eaftern
divifion of the province, on a river of the fame name, a
little above the place where it is joined by the river Picol-
_maga. It was built by the Spaniards in 1538, and is dif-

tinguifhed by the falubrity of its fituation, by the fertility
of the territory in which it ftands, producing a great variety
of native and exotic fruits in the hicheit perieCtion, and alfo
by the number of its inhabitants, who are partly defcend-
ants of Spanifh families that fettled in the place, and
partly Meitizos and mulattoes. This city lies about fifty
leagues above the confluence of the Paraguay and Paruna,
where the former begins to be called the river de la Plata.
It is the refidence of a governor appointed by the king of
Spain, under the viceroy of Peru. Near the city is a lake,
remarkable for having in the middle of it a rock, which
rifes to a prodigious height like an obelifk. S. lat. 25° 30’.
W. long, 57° 40’.

Assumption, or Affonfong, one of the Mananne or
Ladrones iflands, fituate according to La Peroufe’s chart in
N. lat. 19° 45’. and W. long. 145° 35’. It is a volcanic
ifland, about three leagues in circumference ; and its higheft
point is about 200 toifes above the level of the fea. Its
form is that of a perfect cone, whofe furface, as far as forty
toifes above the level of the fea, is as black as coal.
Some cocoa-nut trees occupy nearly a fifteenth part of
the circumference of the ifland, for a depth of forty toifes,
which are in fome meafure fheltered from the eaft wind;
and this is the only part of the ifland where it is pof-
fible to anchor, in a depth of water of thirty fathoms
over a bottom of black fand, extending nearly a quarter of
a league. The lava, flowing from the ifland, has formed
precipices and hollows, bordered with a few ftinted cocoa-
nut trees, thinly feattered and mixed with limes and a {mall
number of plants; and it has covered the whole circum-
ference as far as a border of about forty toifes towards the
fea. The fummit appeared to be vitrified, refembling black
glafs, and its termination was concealed by clouds. Al-
though no fmoke was vifible, the fulphureous {mell, which
extended half a league out to fea, induced a fufpicion that
the fire of the volcano was not extinguifhed, and that its
laft eruption was not very ancient ; more efpecially as there
appeared no trace of decompofition in the lava, on the middle
ofthe mountain. The ifland exhibits no appearance of having

been ever inhabited, eyen by quadrupeds, much lefs by
I

ASS

human beings. Some very large crabs were found here 3
and thefe, it is apprehended, have driven away the fea-birds,
who lay on fhore, and whofe eggs they would devour,
Some very fine fhells were found in the hollows of the
rocks; and three or four new fpecies of the banana-tree
were collected. No fijh was perceived, befides a red ray,
fome {mall fharks, and a fea-ferpent, which might be three
feet long, and three inches thick. No water could be pro-
cured in this defolate ifland, except fome {mall quantity
lodged in the hollows of the rocks. The fea glides along
the fhore, and forms at every point a furf which renders de-
barkation extremely dangerous. Voyage of La Peroufe,
vol. i. p. 24. Eng. Tranfl. Lond. 1798.

Assumption, is aio an ifland lying on the fouth-weft
coait of California, forming with a proje@ing point of land
a bay, both on its north-eaft and fouth-eaft fides. N. lat,
28°. W’. long. 120°. :

* AssuMPTION, a riverof North America, in New York,
which falls in from the eaft into the lake Ontario, after g
N.W. and W. courfe of about 28 miles; 5 miles S.E,
from PI]. Gaverfe.

AssUMPTION, a name fometimes given to the ifland
ANTICOSTI.

Assumprion, in Logic, is the minor or fecond propofi-
tion in a categorical fyllogifm.

Assumprion, is alfo {ometimes ufed for a confequence
drawn from the propofitions whereof an argument is com-
pofed. ‘Thus we fay, the premifes are true, but the affump-
tion 1s Captious.

ASSUMPTIVE Arms, in Heraldry.- See Arms.

ASSURA, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal town of
Africa, in the proconfular province, placed by Antonine
(Itiner.), on the road from Carthage to Sufatule, 108
miles from the former, and 42 from the latter.

ASSURANCE, Porrcy or. See Poricy.

AssuRANCE, in Commerce. See INSURANCE.

We have alfo offices of affurance for life, where policies are
granted for fecuring a fum of money on the extin&tion of
any given life, in cenfideration of an adequate compenfation
either paid down in one fum, or by annual initalments
during the continuance of fuch life. "

Assurances on Lives. By affuring alife is meant, ob-
taining fecurity for a {um of money to be received fhould
the life drop, in confideration of fuch a payment made to the
affurer, as fhail be a fufficient compeniation for the lofs and
hazard to which he expofes himielf. In eftimating this
compenfation, the amount of it will depend entirely on the
rate of intereft at which money is improved, and the pro-
bability of the duration of the life to be affured. If the in-
tereft be high, and alfo the probability high of the duration
of the life, this compenfation or premium of affurance will
be proportionably low; on the contrary, if the rate of in-
tereft be low, and the probability of living be alfo low, the
premium will be proportionably high. In order to explain
this, let 100/. be fuppofed to be afiured on a life for a year
to come; that lis, let 100/. be fuppofed payable a year
hence, provided a life of a given age fails in that time..
Were the intereft of money at 5 per cent., and the life fure
of failing, the value of the affurance would be the fame with
the prefent value of 100 /. payable at the end of a year,
reckoning intereft at 5 per ceni., that is, it would be that
fum, which being now put out to intereft at 5 per cent.
would produce 1oo/. at the end of the year, or 95/. 45. 8d.
See Annuities, Tab. II.

On the contrary, if it be an even chance, or the odds
be equal, whether the life does or does not fail in the year,
the value of the afurance will be half the former value, a

47!

“

7

ASSURANCE

471. 125. 4d. Tf the odds again/ its failing be two to
one, that is, if it may be expected that fome one of three
lives, at the age of the given life, will failin the year, the
value of the affurance will be a third of the frit value,
reckoning the fame intereft, or 31/4. 145. 11d. If the
odds be nineteen to one, or if it may be expected that fome
one out of twenty lives, at the age of the given life, will
fail in a year, the value of the a/urance will be a ¢aventieth
part of the firft value, or 4/ 155. 3d. If the odds be
forty-nine to one, or only one out of fifty fuch lives as the
given life can be expeéted to fail in the year, the value of
the afirance will be a fiftieth part of the firft value; that
is, it will ber/. 185. 1d. Now the odds of three to one
are, according to the Morthampion Table of Obferyations
(fee Moxratiry), the odds that a life aged g2 will not
drop ina year. ‘Ihe odds of 19 to 1 are the odds, accord-
ing to the fame table, that a life aged 65 will not drop in
a year; and the odds of 49 to 1 are the odds-that a life
aged 39 will not drop in a year. It follows, therefore, that
the value of the effurance of 100/. for a year on a life aged
g2 is 31/. 145. 11 d.3 on a life aged 65, 4/. 155. 3d.
on a life aged 39, 1/7. 18 s. 1d. reckoning intereft at 5 per
cent. If intereit be reckoned at 3 per cent. thefe values will
be g2li7s. gd.; al. 175.3 ri 18s. rod.

The affurances moft commonly praétifed are thofe on
fingle lives, either for a given term, or during their whole
continuance. Whena hfe is affured for a given term or
number of years, the value may be paid either in one fingle
prefent payment, or in anaual payments, to be continued till
the failure of the life, fhould that happen within the term ;
or if not, till the determination of the term.

The method of finding thefe values cannot be eafily un-
derftood by thofe who are unacquainted with the doétrine
of life-annuities, as it has been taught by mathematicians ;
but the following obfervations may be of ufe to give fome
general idea of the fubject.—Let us fuppofe that a perlon
aged 39 years wants to affure 100/. on his life for 27 years,
or till he is 65 years of age, and that he chufes to advance
the proper compenfation for it in a fixed annual payment,
the firft to be made immediately, and the following pay-
‘ments to be continued till either the term ends, or his life
~ drops. The value of the efurance for the fr? year, is,
“by what has been already fhewn, 1/. 185. 1d. reckoning
in ereft at 5 per cent. The value of the affurance for the
Taft year of the term, fuppofing him to have lived to the
PS ebiliinig of it, or to have completed 65; is likewife, by
“what has been already fhewn, 4/. 155. 3¢.,° reckoning
~allalon at the fame intereft. If, therefore, the value of
“the affurance for the whole 27 years, is to.be one conftant
~ fum payable at the beginning of every year, that fum, it
es obvious, ought to be greater than the jir/?, and /e/s thaa
the /af?; or afum whichis fome mean between 1/. 185s 1d.

and 4/. 155. 3d. ‘he rule for finding this mean in all cafes

_ is the following :

_ * From the value of an annuity certa'n for the given
term, found by Tab. III. under the article AnNnuiTizEs,
fubtra& the value of the lift for the given term, found by
the method explained under the article Lire-Aznuities, and
referve the remainder. Multiply the value of 1/. due at
the end of the given term (found by Tab. I. under the
article Annuities), by the perpetuity (fee Remaxx II.),
and alfo by the probability (fee Moxtaciry), that the given
life fhall failin the giventerm. ‘This produét being added
to the re/erved remainder, let the total be multiplied by the
fum to be affured, and afterwards divided by the perpetuity
increafed by unity, then let this quotient be referved. ind
next the value of an annuity on the given life for one year

ON LIVES.

lefs than the given term, and’ the ré/trved quotient being di-
yided by this laft value, increafed. by unity, will five the
required value of the affurance in a fixed annual payment,
till either the life fails, or the term ends.”

Exampur.

Let the term be 27 years, the life aged 39, the fum roo/.
and the intereft 5 per cent.

SoLurion.

The value of the life of a perfon whofe age is 39, for 27
years, 1s (reckoning intereit at 5 per cent. and by the
Northampton Table of Lire-Annuities’) 11.191. This value
fubtracted from 14.643 (the value of an annuity certain for
27 years, fee Tab. IL]. Annuirtizs), leaves 3-452, the
remainder to be refzrued. The value of 1/. to be receiv
at the end of 27 years is .26785, by. Tab. II. unde
article Annuities. [he probability that the life of
fon aged 39 fhall fail in 27 years, 1s, by the Nori fon
Pable, (fee Morrariry) 27385 and the perpetuity ts 20.
Thefe numbers multiplied by one another, and 3.452 added
to the produét, make 6.568, which multiplied into 100 /.
the given fum, and divided by 21, the perpetuity increafed
by unity, gives 31.276 forthe gquatient to be rzfirved.

The value of an annuity on a life of 39 for 25 years, is
11,019. Dividing therefore 31.276 (the referved quotient)
by 12.019, or the value of the above annuity, with unity
added, we have 2.60/., or 2/. 125., which is the required
value, in fixed annual payments, of the aflurance of 100/.
on the given life for 27 years, reckoning intereft at 5 per
Cent.

The value of the fame affurance in one prefent payment is
the quotient referued above, or 31/. 55. 6d. ; in other words,
it 1s the value of an annuity of 2/. 12s. for 26 years ona
life of 39; the firft payment of which is to be made im-
mediately, and the remaining ones at the beginning of each
year; or, it is the fum ariiing in the foregoing operation
before the divifion by the value of the life for the term of
26 years.

If the affrance is to be made for the whole poffible
duration of the life, the method of finding the value will
be more fimple, and the rule for this purpofeis as follows :
«« From the perpetuity fubtract the value of the given life,
and multiply the remainder by the given fum, and this laft
produ& divided by the perpetuity, increafed by unity, wiil
give the value in a fingle prefent p2yment. Ard this pay-
ment, divided by the value of the life, will give the value of
the affurance in annual payments during the continuance of
the life.”?

e

EXAMPLE.

Let the age of the life be, as in the laft example, 39;
the {um to be affured for its whole duration 100/. ; and-
the rate of intereti 5 per cent. The value of the life, ac-
cording to the Northampton Table (fee Lire-Aanuitics),
is 11.979. The value of the life fubtracted from 20 (the
perpetuity ) is 8.021, which multiplied by 100, the given
fum, and divided by 21, the perpetuity increafed by unity,
gives 38.1957. or 33/. 45. for the yalue in a fingle payment
of the affurance cf :00/. for the whole duration of a life
aged 39, reckoning intereit at 5 per cent. And this pay-
ment divided by 11.979 is 3.188/. or 3/. 35. od. the value
of the fame affurance in annual payments during the continu-
ance of the life.

Remarx I.

Ifthe value of the afurance is defired in annual payments,
thé hrf of which, mitead of being made at the exd of the
year as the preceding rule fuppoies, is to be made immedi-
ately, the value im a fingle payment {found as directed above)
mutt be divided by the value of the life increa/ed Ly unity ;

Diz that

ASSURANCE ON LIVES.

that is, in the prefent inftance, by 12.979, which will make
the required vaiue of the affurance 2.9414, int ead of 3.188/.
or 2/. 185. 1¢d. inftead of 3/. 35. gd.

The reafon of adding unity to the values of lives taken
from the tables is, that in all the tables the values-of annui-
ties on lives are given on the fuppolition that the firft pay-
ment isnot to be made till the end of a year. If, therefore,
the firit yearly payment is to be made immediately, the

value muit exceed that in the tables by one year’s pur-

Remarx IT.
means the value of the fee-fimple of an
s 1c0/. by its intereft for
f intereft be 5/. per
aes: yx the perpetuity ; if
the rate of intereft be 4, 33. 3 per cent. 1001. divided by
4, 3-5 OF 3, will give 25, 28.571, OF 33-333 for the per-

Remare III.

Ifinftcad of a grofs fum, an effate or a perpetual annuity is.

to be affured during the whole duration of a life, the value
in a/fingle payment will be << the value of the life fubtraéted
from the perpetuity, and the remainder multiplied by the
annuity, or by the rent of the eftate.”,—And the value in
annual payments beginning immediately will be “ the fingle
payment divided by the value of the life increafed by unity.”
—Univerfally, it ought to be remembered that the efur-
ance of an cffate or annuity after any given life or lives, is
worth as much more than the affurance of a correfponding
fum, as 100/. increafed by its intereft for a year is greater
than 100/.—Thus the prefent values, in fingle and annual
payments of the affurance of an eftate of 5/. per ann. for
ever, and of roo/. in money on the whole duration, or on
any part of an affigned lite, are to one another (intereft be-
ing at 5 per cent.) as 105/. to 100/. The reafon of the
difference is, that the algebraical calculations, by which
thefe values are determined, fuppofe that the gro/s fum and
the fir yearly payment of the annuity are to be received at
the fame time after the extinGtion of the lives. It is eafy
to fee, that this is a circumftance which muft make the lat-
ter of more value.

This fpecimen is fufficient to explain the general nature
and principles of affurances on fingle lives, and to teach
in all cafes the method of finding the values of _fuch af-
furances. To thofe who wifh to be further informed on
this fubje@, it may not be improper to add the following
mathematical demonitrations of the rules which have been
given above. Let.a be the number of perfons living at the
age of any given life A ; let a’, a", a”, &c. be the number
of perfons who have died in the rit, 2d, 3d, &c. year after
the age of A; let + be 1/. increafed by its intereft fora
year, and S the fum to be affured. The probability that A

A 2 ie
dies in the 1ft year is —, the value therefore of the af
a

; . S.a’
furance inthat year is ——.
ar

The probability that A dies

a’

in the 2d, after having furvived the 1ft year, is —, and
: a

“

confequently the value of the affurance in the 2d yearis

2

In like mamner, the value of the affurance in the 3d, 4th, 5th,
----- n‘" year, fuppofing m todencte the number of perfons
S.a” S.2z" S.a"

a laa ere
are) ars ar’

who have died in the ath or laft year, is

S. :
~--and — refpetively. The whole value, therefore, of

a’ a’ a” m
the affurance for z years is S X — +—~+—>+---—-
ar ar ar ar
‘ a al ue 3 t ie
But the feries —-+ ——+ —, &c. is =_—— — =
ar} Sart gaaie r ar
I OG eal vis ae
r aa Ep ye
a—a'+a" I a—a'+a"ta™
ar ci ar*

ans

fons who have died in the n — 1°" year). The feries

a—a' +‘a"

> &e.-- +

1

is known to exprefs the

2 ni

pS
ar ar
value of an annuity on the life of A for a years, and the fe.

by 4a I I 1
Tes tp ed eh ee tO exprefs the value of an
fi re a

=
Call the firft of thefe feries

annuity certain for » years.
A, and the fecond N, then will the whole of the above

Y = —_—
feries w 2 wl A Np ee eee I
r r joes ar* r
xN—A +x aa Now fiance is equal to the
r ar nat
ms a J I I p
= r mall se pee ee
perpetuity (or p), = will be a and 7

hence the whole value of the affurance of S for n years will

be

S. —— m

x N—A-+ ba agreeable to the rule given
7 er
above.

If the affurance be for the whole continuance of life, the

So sicil : :
fraction ab vanifhes, N becomes equal to the perpetuity,
ar

and A to the value of an annuity for the whole life of A, _

fo that in this cafe the expreffion becomes fimply = Fes

1
x p— A, which is the rule given in words for finding the
value of an affurance on the whole poffible duration of the

‘life of A.

If the affurance be that of an cffare or a perpetual annuity,
the value of each payment cf fuch annuity depending on the
failure of the life of A in one, two, three, &c. years to n

a—a

2 I
years will be — —

I
Bi aa
r ar rr

Goa a! al I a—m

m ar

: and the valueof the
ar’ r

fee-fimple after years, depending on the contingency of
mp

A having died in the mean time, will be ae the whole

re

value, therefore, of the affurance will be N— A +
multiplied into the annuity ; or fimply s— A multiplied
irito fuch annuity, if the aflurance is to be continued curing
the whole duration of A’s life. For the more ample dii-
cuffion of this fubje&t, the reader is referred to Mr. Simp-
fon’s * Sele& Exercifes,’? Dr. Price’s “ Treatifeon Rever-
fionary Payments,” and Mr. Morgan’s “ Dodtrine of An-
nuities and Affurances ftated and explained.””
Affurances may be made on any number of joint lives, or ba
the /ongef? of any lives. Rules for finding the values of fuch
aifurances

— —— —

ASSURANCE ON LIVES.

affurances are given in the books jut referred to.—There
are further ¢/urances on furvivorfhips ; by which is meant
an obligation for the value received, to pay a given fum or
annuity, provided a given life fhall furvive any other given
life or lives. ‘The method of finding thefe values is given
under the article SuRvivorsHiP.

All thefe different kinds of affurances are of the greateft
ufe; and the offices for making them are a particular
advantage to the public. The principal of thefe offices
in England are, the Amicable Society, incorporated for a
perpetual aflurance; the Society for Equitable Affurances
on Lives and Survivorfhips; the Royal Exchange Affur-
ance ; the Weitminiter and the Pelican Life-Oilices. The
Amicable Society requires an annual payment of 5/. from
every member, payable quarterly during life. The whole
anaual income hence ariling is equally divided among the
reprefentatives of fuch members as die every year ; and this
renders the dividends among the claimants in different years
more or lefs according to the number of members who have
happened to die in thofe years. But this fociety engages
that the dividends fhall not be /e/s than 150/. to each claim-
ant, though they may be more.—None are admitted whofe
ages are greater than 45, or /e/s than 12; nor is there any
difference of contribution allowed on account of difference
ofage. This fociety has fubfifted ever fince 1706, and its
credit and ufefulnefs are well eftablifhed.—Its plan, how-
ever, is liable to feveral objeGtions.—Firlt, it is evident that
regulating the dividends among the repre/entatives by the
number of members who die every year, 1s not equitable ;
becaufe it makes the benefit which is to accrue from the af-
furance, to depend, not on the value of the contribution,
but on a contizency ; that is, on the number of members who
have happened to die in the year. Secondly, its requiring
the fame payments from all perfons under 45, is alfo not
equitable, for the payment of a perfon admitted at 12 ought
not to be more than /a/f the payment of a perfon admitted
at 45. Thirdly, by limiting the fums affured on one and
the fame life to 450/. it is but ill adapted to make a com-
petent provifion for the families of its members ; nor can it
be of any fervice to perfons whofe age exceeds 45 years ;
a period of life, which it has been found from experience
that many, if not moft perfons, have exceeded before they
have begun to provide for their families by afluring their
lives. It is likewife by no means fitted to the circumftances
of perfons who want to make aflurances on their lives for
only one year, or for a fhort term of years. Thus, the true
value of the affurance of 150/. for five years on the life of a
perfon whofe age is 39, may be found by the firft rule to
be nearly three guineas per ann. fuppofing intereft at 3 per
cent. and the probabilities of the duration of human life as
they are given in the Northampton ‘lable of Obfervations,
But fuch an affurance could not be made in this fociety
without an annual payment of 5/.

Neither is the plan of this focicty at all adapted to the
circumftances of perfons who want to make affurances on
particular furvivorfhips. For example, a perlon poffeffed
of an eftate or falary, which muft be loft with his life, has
a perfon dependent upon him, for whom he defires to fecure
a fum of money payable at his death. But he defires this
only as a fecurity againft the danger of his dying ff. In
thefe circumftances he enters into this fociety ; and by an
annual payment of 5/. entitles his omince at his death to rso/.
In a few years, perhaps, his nomizee happens to die, and the
object of his cfurance having thusceafed, he determines to give
up the advantage arifing trom his former payments and to
withdraw from the fociety. The right method.in this cafe
would have been to have taken from fuch a perfon the true
value of the fum affured “ on the fuppofition of non-pay-

ment, provided he fhould furvive.?? Had this been done,
he would have paid for the aurance (fuppoting intereft at
3 per c-ni. his age 30, the age of his nominee alfo 30, and the
values of lives as given by Dr. Price fromm the Northampton
Table) 3/. Gs. 8d. in annual payments, to begin immediate-
ly, and to be continued during the joint duration of his own
life and the life of his nominee.

None of thefe objections, however,’ are applicable to the
other offices juft mentioned. In all of them affurances may
be made for any term and at any age between eight-and
fixty-feven years, either at fingle or annual premiums, pro-
portioned to the age of the perfon affured, and to the rifk
or hazard attending the affurance. The bufinefs tranfa@ted
in thefe offices is very extenfive, and fo far as relates to the
premiums they require, is founded on ftri& calculation.
Thefe premiums, which are now indifcriminately adopted by
all of them, were originally computed in the year 1731 forthe
ufe of the Equitable Society,—an inftitution fo entirely
guided by computation in ail its practice, that in afcertain-
ing its profts at fixed periods, and diftributing them among
its members, it has never failed to proceed on the fame fure
principles, and by this means to vender itfelf one of the
greateil public benelits to this country. Ia confequence of
its immenfe capital, and the very wide extent of its bufinefs,
it certainly far exceeds any other office of the fame kind;
and theretore by giving an account of its rife and progrefs, a
proper idea will be obtained of the nature of life-aflurances, as
well as of the important benefits which are derived from them.

This fociety was eftablifhed in the year 1762, in conte-
quence ot propofals which had been made, and lectures re-
commending fuch a defion, which had been read by Mr.
Thoinas Simpfon; and the premiums then adonted for its
practice were computed by Mr. James Dodfon, the author
ot the Mathematical Repofitory. Tt affures any funs or
reverlionary annuitics on any life or lives, for any, number
of years, as well as for the whole continuance of the lives,
and in any manner that may be beft adapted to the views of
the perfons aflured; that is, either by making the affured
fums payable certainly at the failure of any given lives, or
on condition of furvivorfbip ; and alfo, either by taking the
price of the affurance in one / efent payment, or in annual pay-
ments daring any fingle or joint lives, or any terms lefs than
the whole poffible duration of the lives. Any perfons, for
inftance, who depend on incomes which muft be loft when
they die, or who are only tenants for life in eftates, may, by
affuring an equivalent on their owa lives, guard their families
or reprefentatives again{t the lofs which would accrue by
their death. Hence, ‘clergymen, counfellors, perfoas holding
any places of profit, traders, and others who have families
whole fubfiltence depeads on the continuance of their lives,
may be enabled to make provifion for their families after
their deceafe. Ail perfons likewife who enjoy annuities for
the lives of others, may here fecure themfelves againit the
lofs they would fultain, fhould they furvive the perfons on
whofe lives the annuities depend, by making @ffcances which
would entitle them to any fums payable on coaditica their.
furvivorfhip fhould take place. Any perfon entitled to an
eftate, annuity, legacy or office after another perfon pro-
vided he furvives, may here fecure aa equivalent for his
family at his deceafe, provided he does z:t furvive: Hauf-
bands may in this fociety feeure annuities for their wives,

rov.ded they fhould leave them widows. Parents, by affur-
ing the lives of their children, when infants, till they attain
a given age, may fecure for them, fhould they live to that
age, fuch fums as may be neceflary to put them out to ap-
prenticefhips, or to make capitals or fortunes for them, with
which to fet out in bufinefs, or to marry, Any perfons,
apprehenfive of being lefe without fupport ia old age, when

incapable -

+4)

ASSURANCE ON LIVES.

incapable of labour, may purchafe an annuity to commence
at any future year of his hfe and to continue during the re-
mainder of his life, and he may do this at a fmall expence

if he is young, and willing to wait for the commencement of

his annuity, till he is fifty-five or fixty yearsof age. Tn fhort
there are no kinds of affurance on lives or farvivorfhips which
this fociety does not make. In doing this, while it proceeds
oa mathematical principles in computing its premiums, it
takes advantage of making thefe computations at fo low an
intereft as 3 per cent. ih order to gain fuch a profit as hall
enable it to bear the expences of management, and render
it a permanent benefit to the public. In the infancy of the
inftitution alfo, it adopted tables of the values and proba-
bilities of lives in London, where, as in ail great towns, the
rate of human mortality is much greater than it is among
mankind in general, But after aa experience of twenty
t found that tables giving higher probabilities of life

y fore it made choice of thofe

Fi t tables which were publifhed by Dr. Price
from obfervations at Northampton ; and it appears, from com-
ing the decrements of life in the fociety with thofe in the

lous
°
~Ini a NS ON

to 4,

-or that inall ages between ro and 80, fated deaths have hap-
pened in the fociety than fhould have happened according to
e tables from which its premiums have been computed in the
proportion of fzvo to three. In confequence of this and of
other {till lefs equivocal proofs of its profperity, the fociety
has been enabied fizce its firft eftablifhment not only to re-
duce its premiums above one half, but to make fuch additions
to the claims in the years 1782, 1786, 1791, 1793, 1795,
aud 1800, as amount at prefent to the fums fpecified below:

A vo
For every 100/. Ms an addition over and
affared ia i Py ingee } Sey ie
1763, ditto - - 249 10
1764, ditto - - 241
1765, ditto - - 232 IC
1766, ditto - - 224
1767, ditto - - 215 10
1768, litto = = 207
1769, ditto - - - 198 10
1770, ditte - - 190
177k, ditto - - 181 10
1772) ditto : = 173)
1773, ditto - - 164 10
1774, ditto - - 156
17755 ~ ditto = = 147 10
1776, ditto - - 139
1777, -ditto = - 130 10
1778, ditto - - 122
1779, ditto - - 113 10
ma 780, ditto - = 105
1781, 4 ditto - - 96 10
1782, ~ ditto - - 88
1783, «ditto - . 81
1784, -ditto = - 74
¥785, ditto - - 67
1786, ditto - - 60
1787, ditto ~_ - - 54
1788, — ditto - - 48
1789, ditto wieah tes 42

For every 100/.
affured in

f an addition over ard 7

19998 above the fum affured of f 36

1791, ditto = 30
1792, ditto = - 24.
1793, ditto = - 19
1794, ditto = - 16
1795, ~~ ditto - - 13
1796, ditto - - 10
1797, ditto - - 8
1798, ditto - ape ae he
1799, + ditto - - 4
1800, ditto = a 2

Thefe are advantages peculiar to this fociety, and there-
fore it is no wonder that its bufinefs fhould fo far furpafs
that of every other inftitution of the fame kind. But in
the midit of its profperity the fociety has hitherto proceed-
ed with the utmoft prudence and caution. Aware of the
danger of being led aitray by the dazzling appearance of a
large capital, neceffarily increafed by an influx of new mem-
bers, it has provided by a {pecial law, that, as on former

occafions, fo in future, no diftribution of its ftock fhall

ever be made without a previous inveitigation of its fiaarces ;
that this inveftigation fhall take place once in ten years; that
the diftribution fhall never exceed swo-thirds of the furplus
ftock of the fociety ; and that no fuch diftribution fhall be
adopted at all without the concurrence of four-fifths of its
members, attending at three fuceflive general courts. As
far as human prudence and forefight can provide againit
danger, thefe precautions are likely to fecure the fociety, and
to increafe its ufefulnefs. But there is one danger againft
which no laws can guard it: we mean the danger of em-
ploying ignorant perfons to conduct the management of
its affairs. It muft be manifeft from the preceding account
of this fociety, that none but {kilful mathematicians are qua-
lified for this bufinefs; and it is to be hoped that on any
future vacancies, no other regard will be had in filling them
up, than to the ability and integrity of the candidates. The
melancholy# experience of other focieties for the benefit of
age, for the benefit of widows, &c.» which were eftablifhed
about thirty years ago, and which have long fince‘ended in
difappointment and ruin, fhould ferve to guard this fociety
againit the attempts of ignorance, as much as the prefert
profperous ftate of its affairs fhould incite it to perfevere in
that wife and temperate courfe which has difplayed.fo much
prudence and {kill in the management. of its affairs, and
raifed it fo high in the opinion of the public, |

The following are the rates of affurance on fingle lives in
this fociety, and alfo very nearly in the Royal Exchange, and
other offices, where thofe premiums have been adopted with
little or no variation.

Seven years) Whole life
Age.) One year. |at an annual! at an annual

premium. | premium.
Es. ia SNe APRESS 7
To.) Oss 1911 Sr. | ta 5) Cores
15 |VOhat7i cE EL) 2-0 | Sees
20) ES 78 35iet 69° 952) (eee
25 i aFO SZ CE X2 F| oes 4
Z0yliears.2 3 | 1 14. 1x )| 2
35|£ 16 4) 1 18 30|2 19 8
420}.25: 0 82 -4 1-| 40 e
4502. 6. 8502 Jo To.173) aon
SO} 215 § 54/3. -.00, “8 )) ao oe
55/3) 5.043 12 Sole ow
GO 1] SiS Toil 4s een Reg a
65 N45 2 | 5 a kO TOM yO, ae
2 GaSe, th 10.0 5. JE eee eee

ASSURANCE ON LIVES,

Assurancr, Royal Exchange, is a corpora‘ion or com-
pany eftablifhed by an a& 6 Geo. I. ¢..18.5 and, by their
charter; executed June 22, 1720, empowered to affure fhips
and goods at fea, or going to fea, and to lend money on
bottomry ; and to raife for this purpofe a capital of
1,500,000/.; on condition that, upon three years’ notice
being given by parliament, at any time within thirty-one
years from the date of the charter, and repayment of the
fum of 300,000/, which the com any had agreed to pay to
government, the corporation fhoutd ceafe. Inthe following
year they obtained another charter, dated the 29th April
1721, by which they were authorifed to affure lives, and
alfo to aflure houfes and goods from fire, and were empow-
ered to raife a farther capital of 500,000/. making, with the

oe ~ 5? .
former fum, two millions. It was alfo enacted, that, in

confequence of the company having paid into the exchequer .

111,250/. and having covenanted to pay the farther fum of
38,750/. within three months, they fhould be releafed from
payment of the remainder of the 300,000/. The whole

capital of 2,000,000/. was fubferihed, but it was thought
neceflary to call for the payment of only 500,000/.; which,
after paying the 150,000/. to government, had been found
fufficient for carrying on the extenfive concerns of the com-
pany. A new branch was added to their bufinefs, by an
act, obtained in 1793, ennabling them to grant and purchafe
annuities on lives, either immediate or in reverfion; and, in
1801, the company obtained an act for affuring veffels and
their cargoes on canals and inland navigations, in which aé
the London A ffurance company are likewife included.

The dividend to the proprietors, which has gradually in-
creafed from 3 to 71 per cent. becomes due at Chriftmas and
Mitifummer, and is ufually paid about the 15th January and
July. [At Midfummer 1802; an occafional dividend was
made in ftock, being ro/, five per cents. 1797, for every
1oo/. of the company’s ftock.] The transfer-days are
Tuefdays and Thurfdays, between the hours of eleyen and
one. The dividends are paid on Mondays, Wednefdays,
Fridays, and Saturdays, from ten to two.

Tue TABLE or RATES or tue ROYAL EXCHANGE ASSURANCE ANNUITY COMPANY.
September 15th, 1802.

SS SSS ed Be dd

SINGLE LIVES. ; JOINT LIVES ann rue SURVIVOR.
=> 90 Ie ao |
Years er cent, Years er cent. {fl Years er cent. Years yer cent,
fee Purchafe Nor ann.| “8es Purchafe. a ann. Ags. Purchale. ee a Ages Purchafe, is ann.
Bape: | thes ess oie:
31 17-85 | 5 12] 43 || 14.92 | 6 14 Ill 4s and4s | 16.95 5 18 |) 4oand 45 | 17.85 | 5 12
ry 18.18 | 5 ro] 44 14.70 6 16 |) 46 46 | 16.66 6 0 GO: tigate lt Tyeagt
5 18.18 | 5 1o| 4g 14.49 | 6 18 |fl 44 AW le TOO s 6) 2 GS St le lz24 | 56
6 HO hey | S| Ao 14.28 7 0 |i 4t 48 | 16.12 (hy Yi 60 | 16.95 | 5 18
7 reikye4) Ich aks ewes 14.08 7 218 a9 49 | 15.87 6 6 65 | 16.66 | 6 o
8 | 1852 | 5 8) 48 |] r3.88 1 7 4 [fl 50 50 | 15-62 | 6 8|| 70 | 16.39 | 6 2
9 EOS Z ig) 8) |G 13.70 7° O\fl 51 51 | 15.38 6 10 75 | 16.12 (Sh.
10 18-52 | 5 8] so 13.51 7 8S Ih 52 Gen a Tegan 6 12 80 | 15.87 6 6
It 8S SL Ge al ae 13-33 7 i0 Hl 53 53 | 14.92 | 6 14 /| 45 and50 | 16.39 |. 6 2
12 18:52, | 5 8] 72 13.15 7 12 |i 54 54 | 14.70 | 6 16 |I 55) |p LO 2 Oa:
13 RO52. 105) Bit ng 12.98 7 14 Ih 55 55 | 14-49 | 6 18 GO) ns 87) G6
tH | 18.18 | 5 ro} 54 12.82 7 16 | 56 56 | 14.28) 7 © OS) rs G2|) On 9S
15 18.18 | 5 10] «6 12.65 7 18 Hi 54 57 | 14.08 nh) 72 | ‘15.38 6 10
° 16 | 18.18 | 5 to} 56 12.50 8 off] 58 58 | 13.88 ait PisWAl Tees | Cou hie
7 18.18 | 5 ro] 5% 12.19 8 4 Ih 59 BOM eas ei© 7 16 S0 | 14.92 6 14
eee croft MORE OM Matt ir.go | 8 8 |] 60 60 | 13.51 7 8 |) Soand55 | 15.15 | 6 12
19 17.85 | 5 12] So Tr.63 8 12 jf) 6r 61 | 13.33 FTO 60} ‘14.92 || 6 14
ZOmaen7 Os. icin 2a\ be 11.36 | 8 16 |f 62 Gon W305 |! sino 65 | r4.70. + 6 16
21 17-85) (15 121 Or Liginyat 9 Off] 63 63 | 12.98 Faith 70 | 14.49 | 6 18
22 17-54 | 5 14] 62 10.87 9 4 | 64 64 | 12.82 7 16 75 | 14.28 TO
23 17-54 | 5 14 | 63 10.63 9 8 |i 65 65 | 12.65 7 18 |i 80 | 14.08 Fee
24 17:54 | 5 14] 64 10.41 9g 12 Ill 66 66 | 12.50 S of] 55 and 60 | 14.08 Pee
25 17.24 | 5 16] 65 10.20 9 16 |i] 67 Oy) | 12.84) 8) Lo 65 | 13.88 wl Zk
26 L724) ) 15. 6" \2 66 10.00 | Io o |i 68 68 |, 12.19] 8 4 TEEN WRT DA op
27 17-24. | 5 16) 67 6-80 | 10 4 69 69 | 11.90 8 8 iS Mwieioles Fits
28 | 16.95 | 5 18] 68 9-61 | 10 8 | 70 7o | 11.63 | 8 12 86 | 13.33 | 7 10
29 16.95 | 5 18] 69 9-34 | 10 14 IH a6 72 | 11.36 | 8 16 || Goand 65 | 13.15 ee
30 16.95 | 5 18] 7o 9:09 | 1f 0 |i 42 FD \ pure caiesg 9 0 7O | 12.98 7 14
Bx 16.66 | 6 of 41 8.84 | tr 6 |} 73 73 |. 10.87 9° 4 75 | 12.82 7 10
32 16.66 | 6 of 472 8.62 | rz 12 ffl 74 74 | 10.63 9 8} - 80] 12.50] 8 0
33 16.66 | 6 o} 73 8.40 | 11 18 iff 76 a6} 1O.4t 9 12 || 65and70} 12.19 | 8 4
34 16.39 |'6 2) 74 8.19 | 12 4 | 76 46) | 10.20 | g 16 FS kta. QOnll) WS) 18
SRN |) oo XOREXS lh Coe a es 8.00 | 12 10 |f} 77 77 |. 9:90 | 10° 2 80} 11.63 |’ 8 x2
36 16.12 | 6 4:| 7 7-81 | 12 16 || 78 78 9-61 | 10 8 |] 7oand 75 | xra1 Bj)
37 16.12'| 6) 4 | 44 FASS Wie ea lire) 79 9.34 | 10 14 80 | 10.52 | 9 10
38 15.87 | 6 6] 78 7-40 | 13 8 Hil 80 80 9.09 | 11 0 || 75and 80] 10.00 | 10 ©
39 15.87 | 6 6} 79 7-29 | 13 14 |i] 85 85 8.33 | 12 © || 80 and 85 8.77 | 11 8
40 15.62 | 6 8] 80 7-14 | 14-0
Al 15.38 | 6 10 | upwards 7.14
42 15.15 | 6 12

N. B. The foregoing Annuities are receivable in

a

Quarterly Payments

; and they vary at different times according to

the current rate of Intereft. .

ASS

The perfom making the affuranc clare the place
aid date of birth of the perf ig to be affured ;
i sv he bas had the imall-pox ; whether fubjeé to the
ad whether in the army or navy. :
ailured to appear at the office, er to one of the
Ss agents, or pay
r cent. on aflurances for one year. ;
:, per cent. for more than one year; a the firft

sot exceeding fevea years, payment
s. per cent. if for more than feven years, _ euly.
Bquarter iper € i al, wiil be taken oa the

i)

mW

ved for payment of the annual pre-
BT oan See d } oP ih
they re{peGively become due, but if the fame
re than the faid Hfteen days, and not ex-
three calendar months, a fine of ten fhillings per
uft be paid, and a warrantee given of the health of
the life afiured.

fhall depart beyond the limits of Europe, fhiall die won the

content |
or the hand of juftice; or {
farance is made, in good he

ns of Affurance mad: by Perfons on the Lives of
I,

of the company ; oF

hall die by fuicide, duelling,
fhall not be, at the time the af-

Cond

OFNZTS

trance to be void if the perfon whofe life is affured
fhall depart beyond the limits of Europe, fhall die upon the
feas (except in his majefty’s packets pafling between Great
Britain and Ireland); or fhall enter into or engage in any
military or naval fervice whatever, without the-previous con-
fent of the company ; or fhall not be, at the time the affur-
ance is made, in good health.—Any perfon making an af-
furance on the life of another, muit be interefted therein,
agreeable to act 14 Geo. ITI. c. 48, which prohibits wager-

ing, or {peculative infurances.

N. B. Affurances on the lives of perfons engaged in the
army or navy, or going beyond the limits of Europe, may
be made by fpecial agreement. See Lire-Annuirit£s, and
Lire-AssuRANCE.

Assurance, London. The charters of this company
were granted at the fame time with thofe of the Royal-
Exchange Affurance, for the fame purpofes, and upon fimi-
lar conditions ; one of which is, that no perfon poffeffing
ftock in either company can purchafe ftock in the cther,
under penalty of forfeiting the fhare fo purchafed. he
principal difference in the bvfinefs of the two offices is, that
the London affurance confine themfelves to fea and fire af-
furances, very feldom affuring lives, and not being empow-
ered to grant annuities. Their ftock is 1,000,000/. divided
into fhares of 25/. each, on which 12/. 10s. has been paid
in, making the whole fum paid in 500,000/. The dividend
has been raifed to 18s. per fhare per annum, and becomes
due at Lady-day and Michaelmas. The. transfer-days are
Tuefdays and Thurfdays, from eleyen to three o’clock. The
dividends are paid on Mondays, Wednefdays, and Fridays,
from eleven to three. ©

AssurAncE, Collateral, in Law. See CorratTERA.

Assurances, Common, of the kingdom, exprefs the
legal evidences of the conveyance or tranflation of property ;
by which every man’s eftate is affured to him, and all con-
troverfies, doubts, and difficulties, are either prevented or
removed. Thefe common affurances are of four kinds: 1.

tions of Affurance made by Perfons en their own Lives. -

ASS

By matter in pais, or deed 3 which is an aflurance tranfaGed
between two or more private perlons 7 pais, in the country;
that is, according to the old commen jaw, upon the very
{pot tobe transferred. See Dezp. 2. By matter ofrecord,
or an aflurance traniaéted only in the king’s public courts
of record. See Recorn. 3. By fpecial cuftom, obtaining
ia fome particular places, and relating only to fome particular
fpecies of property. See Custom, Thefe three affurances
are fuch as take effect during the life of the party conveying
oraffuring. 4. The fourth takes no effect till aiter his death;
and that is by devife, contained in his lafé will and tefta-
See Devisr, and Witz. Bl. Com, vols it. p. 254.

ASSURGENT Leaves, in Boteny, denote fuch as are
firlt bent down, and then rife erecz towards the apex. This
term {carcely differs from adicendens or incurvus, and feems
peculiarly proper for deferibing the change which takes
place in the pofitioa of the leaves of mimofe;, and other
{leeping plants. :

AssurGENT, in Heraldi-y, a term ufed for a man or beatt
rifing out of the fea.

ASSUROR, a merchant or other perfon, who affures
or makes out a policy of affurance for a fhip, houfe, life,
or the like. Affurers are not anfwerable for what damages
arife through the negligence, or other fault of the mater er
feamen ; or even thofe which arife from any vice or defect
in the thing affured. See InsuRANCE.

ASSURRITANI, or Assurant, in Ecclefiaflical
Hijtory, a branch of Donatiits in the middle of the fourth
century. The Affurritani maintained the fon to be infe-
rior to the father; they re-baptized their converis from the
catholics, and aflerted that the church is not compofed ot
good and bad, but of the good alone.

ASSURUS, or Assuras, now Kifer, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of Africa, fituate in the inland country of
the ancient Bizacium, to the weft of Adrumetum, and
fouth-eaft of Sicca Veneria. ’

ASSY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Oife, and chief place of a canton in the diftriét
of Crefpy, eight miles fouth of Crefpy.

ASSYANI, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town of
the Tauric Cherionefus. ”

ASSYRIA, a kingdom of Afia, of the extent, origin,
and duration of which very different accounts have been
given by ancient writers. Ctefias and Diodorus Siculus
affirm, that the Affyrian monarchy, under Ninus and Semi-
ramis, comprehended the greater part of the known world:
but, if this had been the cafe, it is not likely that Homer
and Herodotus would have omitted a faét fo remarkable.
The facred records intimate, that none of the ancient itates
or kingdoms were of confiderable extent ; for neither Che-
derlaomer, nor any of the neighbouring princes, were tri-
butary or fubje& to Afyria; and we find nothing, fays
Playfair, of the greatnefs or power of this kingdom in the
hiftory of the Judges, and fucceeding kings of Ifrael,
though the latter kingdom was opprefled and enflaved b
many different powers in that peried. It is therefore highly
probable, that Affyria was originally of {mall extent. A‘c-
cording to Ptolemy, this country was bounded on the north
hy part of Armenia and mount Niphates ; on the weft by
the Tigris; on the fouth by Sufiana; and on the eait by
part of Media, and the mountains Choatra and Zagros.
The country within thefe limits is called, by fome of the
ancients, ApiaBene, and by others Aruria or Atyria.
It is divided, by Ptolemy, into the following provinces or
diftriGs ; viz. CALACHENE or Calicine, ARRAPACHITIS,
ADIABENE, ARBELITES, APOLLONIATIS, SITTACENE,
and CHALONITIS.
reckon the Ticris, the Lycus, the Carrus, and the

“ Gorcus.

yent
Ment.

Among the rivers of Affyria we may

————

-

ABS ¥RAIA.

Gorcus. Of the origin, revolutions, and termination of

Affyria, properly fo called, and dittinguifhed from the grand
monarchy which afterwards bore this appellation, the fol-
lowing account is given by Mr. Playfair, as the mott pro-
bable. The founder of it was Afhur, the feéond fon of Shem,
who departed from Shinar, upon the ufurpation of Nim-
rod, at the head of a large body of adventurers, and laid the
foundations of Nineveh, where he refided, and ereéted a new
kingdom, called Affyria after his name. Sce Asnur.
Gen. x. 11. Thefe events happened not long after Nim-
rod had eftablifhed the Chaldean monarchy, ard fixed his
refidence at Babylon; but it does not appear that Nimrod
reigned in Affyria. “The kingdoms of Affyria and Babylon
‘were originally diitinct and’ ieparate (Micah, v. 6.) ; and
an this flate they remained until Ninus conquered Babylon,
and made it tributary to the Affyrian empire. Ninus, the
fueceffor of Afhur, (Gen. x. 11. Diod. Sicul. 1. 1.), feized
ow Chaldzea after the death of ‘Nimrod, and united the
‘kingdoms of Affyriavand Babylon, This great prince is
-faid to have fubdued Afia, Perfia, Media, Egypt, &c. If
she did fo, the effects of his conquefts were of no long dura-
tion ; for, in the days of Abraham, we do not find that any
‘of the neighbouring kingdoms were fubject to Affyria.
‘Ninus was fucceeded by Semiramis, a princefs bold, enter-
sprifing, and fortunate; of whofe adventures and exploits
many fabulous relations have been recorded. Playfair is
‘of opinion, that there were two princeffes of this name who
flourifhed at different periods: one, the confort of Ninus,
and another, who lived five generations before Nitocris,
-queen of Nebuchadnezzar. Eufeb. Chron. p. 58. Herod.
1. 1. c. 184. See Semiramis. Of the fucceffors of Ninus
and Semiramis nothing certain is recorded. The laft of
the ancient A ffyrian kings was Sardanapalus, who was be-
Aieged in his capital by Arbaces, governor of Media, in
‘concmrence with the Babylonians. ‘Thefe united forces
defeated the Affyrian army, demolifhed the capital, and
became matters of the empire, B. C. 821. See Arbacrs,
and SarpANAPALUs. Such is the fubftance of the account
given by Ctefias, and after him by feveral ancient Greek
and Latin* writers; and particularly by Diodorus Siculus.
*“Thefe writers have referred the commencement of the
‘Adiyrian empire to about fixty or feventy years after Noah’s
“flood ; but concerning its beginning, as well as its duration,
‘ancient writers have given very different accounts. Afri-
‘eanus and Eufebius fuppofe that Ninus, the fecond Affyrian
‘king, began to reign 309 years after the flood, and 43 years
"before the birth of Abraham. Berofus, the Chaldean
shiftorian, dates the foundation of the empire from the build-
‘ing of the tower of Babel, about 131 yéars after the flood.

_ Caffiodorus admits an interval of more than four centuries

‘between thefe two remarkable events. Uvher extends this
amterval to 1085 years; and Jackfon reduces it to 531. As
to the period of the duration of this émpire, Ctefias, Dio-
‘dorus, and others, make it 1360 years; Juftin, 1300;
*Cattor, 1280; Syncellus, 1460; “Scaliger, 1306; Eufebius,
«1240; Velleius Paterculus, 1070; js ae 520; and
“Appian makes the whole duration of the ‘A flyrian, Median,
and Perfian empires, not to exceed goo years. In Blair’s
“Tables the commencement of the A ffyrian empire is afligned
“to the year before Chriit, 2059, and’ its termination to the
~year before Chrift 820; fo that its whole duration compre-
‘hends 1239 years. “Goguet refers the conqueft of Babylon
by .Ninus, king of Affynia, and the confeqnent union of the
Babylonian throne with that of Nineveh, to the 590th year
after the flood, or the’1758th year B.C. In fettling this
.date, he places the foundation of the kingdom of Babylon
y Nimrod, about the year 150 after the Hood. This king-

* Vor. Til.

dom, as moft chronologers allow, had, fubfifted 440. years,
‘under two diftinét dynafties or families, at the time of
Babylon’s being taken by the Affyrians. © The firfl af thefe
dynatties, whole kings were Chaldzans, poftefled the throne
225 years; and the fecond, originally from Arabia, reigned
215 years; and the total is 440 years. If to thefe years
we add’ 150 years from the flood to the foundation of
Babylon by Nimrod, the capture of Babylon will fall in
the 5goth year after the flood, and’ confequently in the
1758th year B.C. After the capture of Babylon, the two
monarchies formed one ftate, under the name of the A flyrian
empire. From this time the kingdom of Babylon was no
more than a province of the Affyrian empire, to the time
in which the revolt of the Medes gave the Babylonians an
opportunity of fhaking off the Affyman yoke, about 770
B.C. As moit of thefe computations are primarily bor-
“rowed from Ctefias, it may not be improper to inguire how
far his teftimony is credible. Ariftotle, who was almoft
his contemporary, declares him to be, unworthy of credit ;
and his hiftory of India’evinces him to be a fabulous writer.
Although he gives us the names of the Affyrian kings from
‘Belus and his fon Ninus to Sardanapalus, the Jait king of
‘that monarchy, yet his lift is a mere, medley of Greek,
Perfian, Egyptian, and other names; and except in two or
three inftances, they have no affinity with the names of the
‘Affyrians mentioned in {eripture. The true empire of the
Affyrians, defcribed in feripture, whofe kings ina

Tiglath-pilefer, &c. he does not mention, though muc
nearer to his own times ; and this circumftance fhews_that

he was ignorant of the antiquities of the Affyrians.. =

After the death of Sardanapalus, fays Mx. Playfair, the
Affyrian empire was divided into three kingdoms ; viz. the
Median, Affyrian, and Babylonian. Arbaces retained the
“fupreme authority, and nominated governors in Affyria and
Babylon, who were honoured with the title of kings, while
they remained fubject and tributary to the Perfian-monaychs.
Belefis, he fays, a Chaldean prieft, who aflifted Arbaces
in the conqueit of Sardanapalus, received the government
of Babylon as the reward of his fervices; and. Phul was
entruited with that of Affyria. ‘The Affyrian governor
gradually enlarged the boundaries of his kingdom, and. was
fucceeded by Tiglath-pilefer, Salmanafar, and Sennacherib,
who’ afferted and ‘maintained their independence... _Aiter
the death of Affar-haddon, the brother and fucceffor of
Sennacherib, the kingdom.of Affyria.was f{plit, and annexed
to the kingdoms of Media and Babylon... Several, tributary
princes afterwards reigned in Nineyeh; but we hear na more
of the kings of Affyria, but of thofe of Babylon. Cyaxares,
king of Media, affitted Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in
the fiege of Nineveh, which they teokand deftroyed B.C. 606.
The hiftory of Affyria, deduced from feripture, and at<
knowledged as the only authentic one by fir Ifaac Newton
and many others, afcribes the foundation of the monaxchy
“to Pul or Phul, about the fecond year of. Menahem, king ot
‘Tirael, twenty-four years before the gra of Nabounailar, 15.79
years after the flood, and according to Blair 769, or accord-
“ing to Newton 790, years before Chrift. Menahem having
taken forcible pofleflion of the. throne, of Ifrael_ by the
murder of Shallum (2 Kings, xy..10.), was attacked by Pul,
but prevented the hoftilities meditated againit him, by pre-
fenting the invader with a thoufand talents of filver. Pul, thus
gratified, tock the kingdom of [frael under his protection,
‘returned to his own country, after haying received volugtary
homage from feyeral nations in, his march, as he had.done
from Hrael, and became the. founder. of a great empire.
"As it was in the days of Pul that.the Affyriags; begay to
~affi&t the inhabitants of PaleRine (2 Kings, xi. 9. and
iD 1 Chron

ASS Y¥ RIA. ;

: Chron, v. 26.), this was the time, according to fir Ifaac
Newton, when the Affyrian empire arofe. Thus he inter-
rets the words “iince the time of the kings of Affyna’’
(Nehem. ix. 32.)3 #. ¢. dince the time of the kingdom of Af-
fyria, or fince the rife of that empire. But though this was
the period in which the Affytians affiéted Lrael, it is not fo
evident that the time of the kings of Affyria mutt neceflarily
be underttood of the rife of the Aflyrian empire. However
Newton thus reafons ; and obferves, ** that Pul and his fuc-
ceflors afflicted Lrael, and conquered the nations round about
them ; and upon the ruin of many {mall and ancient king-
doms ereéted their empire, conquering the Medes, as wellas
other nations.”? It is further argued that God, by the pro-
phet Amos, in the reign of Jeroboam, about ten or twenty
“years before the reign of Pul (fee ch. vi. 13, 14.), threatened
to raife up a nation againft Hrael ; and that as Pul reigned
prefently after the prophecy of Amos, and was the firft upon
record who began to fulfil it, he may be juitly reckoned the
firtl conqueror and founder of this empire. See 1 Chron.
vy. 26. Pul was fucceeded on the throne of Affyria by his
elder fon Tiglath-pilefer, and at the fame time he left Baby-
lon to his younger fon Nabonaflar, B. (Ce 747: OF the con-
queits of this fecond king of Afiyria againit the kings of
Tfrael and Syria, when he took Damaicus and captivated
the Syrians, we have an account in 2 Kings, xv. 29. 37-
xvi. 5. 9. 1 Chron. v. 26. Amos,1. 5. Jofeph. Ant. 159. Gana-,
by which the prophecy of Amos was fulfilled, and from
which it appears that the empire of the Affyrians was now
become great and powerful. The next king of Affyria
was Shalmanefer or Salmanaffar, who fucceeded Tiglath-pi-
lefer, B. C. 729, and invaded Phoenicia, took the city of
Samaria, and B. C. 721 carried the ten tribes into captivity,
placing them in Chalach and Chabor, by the river Gazon,
and in the cities of the Medes. Jof. Ant. 1. 9. c. 14. 2 Kings,
xvij. 6 Shalmanefer was fucceeded by Sennacherib, B. C.
719; and in the year B. C. 714 he was put to flight, with
great flaughter, by the Ethiopians and Egyptians. In the
year B. C. 711, the Medes revolted from the Affyrians; Sen-
nacherib was flain; and he was fucceeded by his fon Efar-
Fladdon, Afferhadon, Afordan, Aflaradin, or Sarchedon, by
which names he is called by different writers. He began
his reign at Nineveh, in the year of Nabonaflar 42 ; and
iu the year 68 extended it over Babylon. He then carried
¢he remainder of the Samaritans into captivity, and peopled
Samaria with captives brought from feveral parts of his
kingdom, and in the year of Nabonaffar 77 or 78, he feems
to have put an end to the reign of the Ethiopians over
Egypt. “In the reign of Sennacherib and Affer-Hadon,”’
fays fir I. Newton, “‘ the A ffyrian empire feems arrived at its
greatnefs ; being united under one monarch, and containing
Affyria, Media, Apolloniatis, Sufiana, Chaldexa, Mefopo-
tamia, Cilicia, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, Ethiopia, and part
of Arabia; and reaching eaftward into Elymais, and Pare-
tacene, a province of the Medes, and if Chalach and Chabor
be Colchis and Iberia, as fome think, and as may feem proba-
ple from the circumcifion ufed by thofe nations till the days
of Herodotus (1. fi. C. 104.), we are alfo to add thefe two
provinces, with the two Armenias, Pontus, and Cappadocia,
as far as to the river Halys. For Herodotus (I. 1. c. 72.
1. vii. c. 63.) tells us, that the people of Cappadocia, as far
ae to that river, were called Syrians by the Greeks, both
before and after the days of Cyrus; and that the Affyrians
sere alfo called Syrians by the Greeks.” Affer-Hadon was
fuceeeded in the year B. C. 668, by Saofduchimps. At this
tivac Manaffeh was allowed to return home and fortify Jeru-
falem: and the Egyptians alfo, after the Affyrians had ha-
yaffed Egypt and Ethiopia three years (Ifai. xx. 3, 4-), were

fet at liberty. Saofduchinus, after a reign of twenty years,
was fucceeded at Babylon, and probably at Nineveh allo, by
Chyniladon, in the year B. C. 647. This Chyniladonis fap
poted by Newton to be the Nabuchadonofor mentioned in the
book of Judith (i. 1—15.), who made war upon Arphaxad
king of the Medes, and though deferted by his auxiliaries
ef Cilicia, Damafcus, Syria, Pheenicia, Moab, Ammon, and
Egypt, routed the army of the Medes, and flew Arphaxad.
This Arphaxad is fuppofed to be either Dejoces, or
his fon Phraortes, mentioned by Herodotus (1.1. c. 102.)
Soon after the death of Phraortes in the year B.C, 635, the
Scythians invaded the Medes and Perfians; and in 6255
Nabopalaffar, the commander of the forces of Chyniladon
in Chaldiea, revolted from him, and became king of Babylon.
Chyniladon was either then, or foon after, fucceeded at
Nineveh by the lait king of Affyria, called Sarac by Poly~
hiftor, The authors of the Univerfal Hutory {uppote Saof-
duchinus to have been the Nabuchadonofor of Scripture, and
Chyniladon or Chynaladan to have been the Sarac of Poly~
hiftor, At length Nebuchadnezzar, the fon of Nabopelai-
far, married Aimyite, the daughter of Aityages king of the
Medes, and fifter of Cyaxeres ; and by this marriage the two
families having contracted affinity, they confpired againtt
the Affyrians. Nabopalaflar being old, and Aityages dead,
their fons Nebuchadnezzar and Cyaxares led the armies of
the two nations againft Nineveh; flew Sarac, deftroyed
the city, and fhared the kingdom of the Affyrians, This
victory the Jews refer to the Chaldzans; the Greeks, to
the Medes; Tobit (xiv. 15.), Polyhiftor (apud Eufeb. in
Chron.), Jofephus (1. x. c. 2. J 2. p. 435.\, and Ctefias (apud
Diod. Sic. 1. ii. c. 24. p. 78.), to both. With this victory
commenced the great fuccefles of Nebuchadnezzar and
Cyaxares, and it laid the foundation of the two collateral
empires of the Babylonians and Medes, which were branches
of the A flyrian empire ; and hence the time of the fall of the
Affyrian empire is determined, the conquerors being then in
their youth. In the reign of Jofah, when Zephanjah pro-
phefied, Nineveh and the kingdom of Affyria were ftanding,
and their fall was predicted by that prophet, Zeph. i. 3. and
ii. 13. And in the end of his reign, Pharaoh-Necho king of
Egypt, the fucceffor of Pfammitichus, went up againft the
king of Aflyria to the river Euphrates, to fight againit Car-
chemifh or Circutium, and in his way thither flew Jofiah
(2 Kings, xxiii. 29. 2 Chron. xxxv. 20.) ; and therefore the
laft king of Affyria was not yet flain. But in the third and
fourth year of Jehoiakim, the fucceflor of Jofiah, the two cone
querors having taken Nineveh and finithed their war in Afly-
ria, profecuted their conqueits weftward ; and leading their
forces againft the king of Egypt, as an invader of their right
of conqueit, they beat him at Carchemifh, and took from him
whatever he had recently taken from the Affyrians (2 Kings,
xxiv. 7. Jer. xlvi. 2. Eupolemus apud Euteb. Praep. 1. ix.
c. 35.) ; and therefore we cannot err, fays fr Ifaac Newton,
above a year or two, if we refer the deftruction of Nineveh,
and fall of the A flyrian empire, to the third yearof Jehoiakim,
or the 140th, or, according to Blair, the 141t year of Na-
bonaflar, that is the year 607 B.C. Newtan fuggefts, that
the name of the laft king Sarac might have been contracted
from Sarchedon ; as this name was from Afferhadon, Afier~
hadon-Pul, or Sardanapalus: but how, fays his learned
commentator, bifhop Horfley, is this contiftent with what he
has fo fully proved in the preceding difeuffion of this fubjec,
that A fferhadon had two fucceffors at Nineveh, Saofduchinus
and Chyniladon; or, with his affertion, that Sarac, the laft

Affyrian king, was the fucceffor of Chyniladon ?
Blair, in his Chronological 'Tables, flates the commengg-
ment of the reign of Phul, in the year 777 B.C.5 the
fucceffion

ASS

fueceffion of Tiglath-pilefer, in the fir year of Nabonaffar,
or 747 B.C.; that of Salmanaffar, in 727 B.C.; that
of Senacherib in 712, B.C.; that of Effarhadon or Affa-
radinus, in 709 B.C. ; and the union of Affyria and Baby-
fon under Affaradinus in 680 B.C.; and the fepara-
tion of Affyria and Babylon in 667 B.C. he makes Saof-
duchinus king of Babylon, who then commenced his reign,
and was fucceeded in 637 B.C. by Chyniladanus; and the
King of Affyria, who commenced his reign in 667, he calls
Ninus II. and his fucceffor, in 641, Nabuchodonofor; and
the laft king of Affyria, Sarac or Sardanapalus, whofe reign
éommenced in the year 621 B.C.; and the union of Aflyria
and Media he refers to the fixteenth year of this king, and
the twentieth of Cyaxares king of Media, on the 606th
year B.C. ; in which year Nineveh was taken and deftroyed
by the united armies of Cyaxares and Nabopolaffar.

Of the government, laws, religion, learning, cuftoms, &c.
of the ancient Affyrians, nothing abfolutely certain is record-
ed. Their kingdom was at firft {mall, and fubfifted for feveral
ages under hereditary chiefs ; and their government was very
fimple. Afterwards, when they rofe to the fublimity of em-
pire, their government feems to have been truly defpotic, and
the empire to have been hereditary. Their laws were pro-
bably few, and depended upon the arbitrary will of the prince.
‘To Ninus we may afcribe the divilion of the-A flyrian empire
into provinces and governments, for we find (Diod. Sic.
3. ii.) that this inftitution was fully eftablifhed in the reigns
of Semiramis and her fucceffors. In this empire the people
were diftributed into a certain number of tribes (Herodot.
1. i. Strabo, 1. xvi.) ; and their occupations or profeflions
were hereditary.
cils, and feveral tribunals for the regulation of public affairs.
Of councils there were three, which were created by the body
of the people, and who governed the ftate in conjunétion
with the fovereign. The firft confifted of officers who had
retired from military employments ; the fecond of the no-
bility ; and the third of the old'men. ‘The fovereigns alfo
had three tribunals, whofe province it was to watch over the
conduét of the people. The firft was employed in difpofing
of the young women in marriage, and in punifhing adultery :
the fecond took cognizance of theft ; and the third of all
aéts of violence. Strabo, l. xvi. As to their religion, they
were idolaters, and had their idols and temples. In cuftoms,
arts, and learning, they differed but little, if at all, from
the Babylonians. The A flyrians are faid to have one practice,
with refpe& to marriage, that is worthy of attention. All
the young girls, who were marriageable, were aflembled in
one place, and a public crier put them up to fale one after
another. The money which was received for thofe that
avere handfome and fetched ahigh price, was beftowed as a

ortion with thofe whofe perfons were more plain and
Homi. When the moft beautiful were difpofed of, the
more ordinary were offered with a certain fum, and allotted
to thofe who were willing to take them with the {mallet
portion. In this manner all the young women were pro-
vided with hufbands. This ingenious and politic method
of facilitating and promoting marriages, was alfo practifed
by feveral other nations. If at any time it happened that
the parties could not agree, the man was obliged to refund
the money which he had received. It was likewife very
exprefsly forbidden to ufe women ill, or to carry them into
any foreign country. Herodotus informs us, that this wife
jnftitution was abolifhed towards the end of the Affyrian
monarchy. Herodot. 1. i. Elian. War. Hift. 1 iv. c. 1.
Strabo, 1. xvi. The Affyrians have been competitors with
the Egyptians for the honour of having invented alphabetic
writing. It appears from the few remains now extant of

The Affyrians had feveral diflinct coun-.

AST

the writing of thefe ancient nations, that their letters had 4
great affinity with each other. They much refembled oue
another in thape; and they ranged them in the fame manner,
from right to left. Playfair’s Chronology, p.67—70. New-
ton’s Chron. ch. iii. apud Oper. by Horfley, t. v. p. 193 —
211. Anc. Un. Hift. vol. iii. p. 325 — 367. Goguct’s Ong.
of Laws, &c. vol. i. p. 41-

ASSYRIAN Setters, Litere Affyriz, a denomination
given by feveral Rabbins and Talmuditts to the characters
of the prefent Hebrew alphabet, as fuppofing them to have
been borrowed from the Affyrians during the Jewith capti-
vity in Babylon. Montfaucon.

ASTA, now Affi, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Liguria, or Piedmont, which was a Roman colony, upon
a river of the fame name, not far from the Tanarus. ‘he
fortifications of this place afforded a tempora:y fhelter to
the emperor Honorius, when he was purfued by the Goths,
A.D. 403. ; and he was relieved from the danger of a fue-
cefsful fiege, and the indignity of a capitulation to the Bar+
barians, by the feafonable arrival of Stilicho, who cut
his way through the Gothic camp under the walls of Afta,
and thus revived the hopes and vindicated the honour of
Rome. See Ast1.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Betica,
fouth of Nebriffa, upon the left arm of the Betis, which
difcharged itfelf into the bay of Gades.

Asta, in Geography, a town of the united Netherlandsy
inthe duchy of Guelderland, four miles fouth-eaft of Culem-
burg.— Allo, a river of Spain, which empties itfelf into
the hay of Bifcay, at Villa Viciofa.

ASTABAT, a town of Armenia, thirty-three leagues
fouth-ealt of Erivan.

ASTABENT, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia,
in Hyrcania. Ptolemy.

ASTABORAS, a riverof Abyflinia, forming, as Pliny
has faid, the left channel of Atbara ; or as the Greeks have
called it, the ifland or peninfula of Meroe ; as Aftapus forms
the right channel. Atttaboras, is the name given by the
natives to the Tacazze, or the Siris of the ancients. It
joins the Nile in N. lat. 17° 47’. See ArBpara, Merog,
and Tacazze. 5

ASTACAMPRON, a promontory of Afia, in the In
dian fea, to the left of the gulf of Baryza. Arvian.

ASTACANA, a town of Afia, in Bactriana, called
Ajlacia by Ammianus Marcellinus. | Ptolemy.

ASTACANTI, a name given by fome to the Assacant.

ASTACAPRA, a town of India, on this fide of the
Ganges, fituated between the mouths of the Indus. Ptolemy.

ASTACENA, a country of Afia, in Pontus, which
took its name from the river Aftaces which traverfed it.

ASTACENUM sruarium, Marefma, a gulf of
Spain in Betica. Ptolemy.

ASTACENUS Sinus, a gulf of the Propontis, om
which was fituated the town of Nicomedia.

ASTACHAR, in Geography, formerly Afacara, atowm
of Perfia, near Bendimir and the ruins of Perfepolis. It is
now a village, having however a caravanfera, mofques, and
the ruins of a palace.

ASTACILICIS, a town of Africa, in Mauritania.
Ptolemy.

ASTACILIS, Tessairan, a place of the interior
country of Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis, which was a
Roman ftation, fituate in the mountains fouth of Portus
Magnus. Ptolemy.

ASTACUS, in Latomology, a {pecies of Cancer, with
a fmooth thorax; probofcis toothed along the fides ; and
a fingle tooth on each fide at the bafe. Thisis the common
craw-fifh, that inhabits rivers, and lodges itfelf in holes

ai which

AST

which it forms in the banks.
tries of Europe: }
* AstAcus is alfo the name of a genus in the Fabrician
fyftem, formed of thofe fpecies of the Linnean, Cancri,
that have four pedunculate antenne, the two fore-ones of
which are long and fetaceous, and the potterior ones cleft.
Among thefe the lobfter and craw-fifh are included.

' Astacus, in’ Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Bithynia, fitate upon the Aftacene gulf, according to
Strabo. THe city was built by the Megarians and Athe-
nians; and deftroyed by Lyfimachus, and its inhabitants
tranfported to Nicomedia, by whom it was founded or re-
eftablifhed. Some have faid that Nicomedia was built on the
ruins of Altacus.—Alfo, a town of Greece, in Acar-
hania.

AST, ‘a*people of Europe, in Thrace. Steph. Byz.

ASTAFORT, ‘in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a
canton in the diftriG@ of Agen. The place contains 4139,
and the canton 12,151 inhabitants: the termtory compre-
hhends 1321 kiliometres and 11 communes.

ASTAGENI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Arabia
Felix. Ptolemy.

ASTA.GON, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Mo-
noemugi, on the confines of Zanguebar.

ASTAMAR, Acramar, or ABAUNAS, a large lake,
with a fortified town of the fame name, in Armenia. N.
Tat. 36° 30. E. long. 44° 14’.

ASTAN, ariver of Arabia, in Lahfa, which is probably
the ftream in Neged mentioned by D’Anville, and is re-
prefented by Niebuhr as only a wall or brook which runs
after rains. :

ASTANDA, called alfo Astarin, in Antiquity, a
royal courier, or meffenger, the fame with ANGARUS. .

King Darius of Perfia is faid by Plutarch, in his book on
the fortune of Alexander, to have formerly been an aftanda.

AAsrannA, in Ancient Gcography, a town of Afia, in
Aria. , Ptolemy. g

ASTAPA, Estrra LA Vieja, a town of Spain, in
Betica, fouth-weft of Singili. It is diftinguifhed by the
records of its vigorous defence againft Marius and the. Ro-
mans, in the year of Rome 546. When they were no
longer able to refilt the befiegers, they kindled a fire, into
which they threw all their effects, and rufhed with their wo-
men and children into the midft of their enemies, by whom
they were vanquifhed and flain; but no trophy of victory
remained for their conquerors. |

ASTAP I], a people of Africa, placed by Steph. Byz.
in Libya.

ASTAPUS, a river of Abyffinia, which with the Af
taboras formed the peninfula of Meroe. This river, known
now by the name of the “ White River,” is reprefented
by Diodorus Siculus as proceeding from large lakes to the
fouthward, and having thrown itfelf into the Nile, makes
‘with it the right hand channel inclofing Meroe in Atbara.
See Astasoras and Meroe. F ‘

ASTARA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Ghilan,
on the Cafpian Sea.

ASTARABAT, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan, 100:
miles north of Zareng, and 220 W.N.W. of Candahar.

ASTARAG, a {mall territory of France, fituate in the:

Very frequent in many coun-

Yate province of Gafcony, about eight leagues. {quare, of

which the capital is Mirande.

ASTAROTH, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pa-
Jeftine in Batanza, or Bafhan. This was a ftrong city be-
longing to the half tribe of Manaffeh, on the other fide
of Jordan. It was granted to the Levites of the family of
Gerfhon, according to Jofhua..

. Adraa and Abila.

£ST

*
ASTAROTH-CARNAIM, another town of Paleftine, fouthe «

weit of the former, and diftant from it nine miles, between

from Aftarte, called Aftaroth, the deity of the Pheeniciansy
and Carnaim, fignifying horns ora crefcent, with which fhe
was reprefented. 5

Astarotu, in Mythology, an idol of the Philiftines,

which. the Jews deftroyed at the command of Samuel. It
was alfo the name of a deity of the Sidonians, which was wor~
fhipped by Solomon in his idolatrous days. See AsTaRTE.

opia. Steph. Byz. :

ASTARTE, a deity of the Aflyrians, under which
appellation they worfhipped the moon; and from them
that fpecies of idolatry extended to the Phoenicians, Car
thaginians, and other ancient nations. Adonis, who was
an Affyrian by defcent, is faid to have married A ftarte ; and
after their death they were elevated to the rank of gods:
and as it was the opinion of ancient times, that the fouls of
diftinguifhed perfonages after their death inhabited the ftars,
it has been imagined that thofe of Adonis and Aftarte
made choice of the fun and moon for their refpective refi-
dence ; and hence their worfhip and that of thefe luminaries
was the fame. _Aftarte was called in Hebrew Aftaroth or
Afhtaroth ; which appellation fome have erroneoufly af--
cribed to her having been reprefented inthe form of a fheep.-
Others have conjectured, from the etymology of the word
Afbtaroth, which tignifies ‘ flocks of theep.cr goats,” that
in ancient times, when men were chiefly addicted to paf-
tcral life, and peculiarly delighted in this occupation, the
moft approved fimiles of excellence and beauty were deduced
from hence ; and this has been fuppofed to have been the
reafon of the name Afhtaroth or Aftarte. Aftarte was
ufually reprefented, like [fisy with cow’s horns on her head,
and for the fame reafon, namely, for exhibiting the moon’s
increafe and decreafe ; as fhe was confecrated into that pla-
net, and adored under the denomination of the ‘¢ queen of
heaven.” Her principal worihip was eftablifhed at Hiera-
polis in Syria, where fhe had a magnificent. temple, and.
more than 300 priefts employed at her altars.

Cicero, andalfo Suidas, fuppofe that the Aitarte of the-

Pheenicians was one of the four Venufes, -whom the Roman ~

orator enumerates. Beger and Bochart add, that fhe wass
Venus armed, or the goddefs of war; and Paufanias, on
whofe authority they rely, fays, that the Cythereans, whe,
adored her under this form and appellation, had received.
this worfhip from the Pheenicians. Altarte,. according to
Lucian, was the moon ;.and Juna among the Carthaginians,
according to St. Auguitin, who, as. Bochart imagines, had:
derived their opinion from Horace, 1. i. od. 1. and Virgil
fEn. 1. i. 15. This goddefs was reprefented by her votaries.
in different nations, under a variety of forms and attributes.
The Sidonians reprefented her under. the figure of a hen
who covered her chickens with her- wings.. The Aftarte,

‘mentioned by Cicero, was exhibited in Phenicia with a:

quiver and arrows. In her temple 6n mount Libanus,,
where fhe was mourning her loft Adonis, her head was.
veiled, and refted on her left hand, and floods of tears,
ftreamed down her cheeks. Among the Afiyrians, fhe was.
fometimes termed a goddefs, and erence a god, on ac-
count of the ambiguity of gender inthe Oriental languages,
and becaufe the Hebrews knew no diftinGion of fex in the
gods.. The mythological writers, in general, have thought
that Aftarte is, under different names, the Vetus or My-.
litta of the Aflyrians, the Mithra of the Perfians, the Ifs:
of the Egyptians, the Ioand Venus Urania of the Greeks,,
the great goddefs of the Syrians, the Derceto of Afcalon,,
and probably Diana, &c.. When the black conical ftone,,

which, f

It ig fuppofed to have derived its name *

ASTARTA, in Ancignt Geography; an land of Ethi. -

&85T

which was thought to have fallen from heaven at Emefa,
and under the form of the fun, was worthipped in that place,
and under the appellation of Elagabalus, was brought to
Rome by the emperor, who affumed this name, and-fixed in
a magnificent temple raifed on the Palatine mount ; this im-
perial fanatic made choice of Aftarte, under which name
the moon was adored by the Africans, for his confort. Ac-
cordingly her image, with the rich offerings of her temple as
a marriage portion, was tranfported with folemn pomp from
Carthage to Rome; and the day of thefe myttic nuptials was
a general feitival in the capital, and throughout the empire.
Antiquaries have fuppofed that fhe is exhibited as a half-
naked female, &c. on the medals of Berytus and Ceefarea ; in
a chariot, &c. on a medal of Blagabalus at Sidon ;, and on
the medals of Carthage, in the form of a female feated on a
lion, with a thunderbolt in her hand. Proftitution wa’
prattifed by the female worfhippers of Aftarte at Byblus,
in Pheenicia, in Babylon, and in Carthage.

ASTASANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Aria. Ptolemy. ;

ASTATI, in Leclefiaftical Hiftory, the followers of one
Sergius, in the ninth century, who renewed the errors of
the ManicuEes.

The word is derived from ‘the primitive « and Irn, /Po,

to ftand, and fignifies any thing) unitable and inconftant.
They prevailed much under the emperor Nicephorus’; but
his fucceffor, Michael Curopalates, ‘curbed them with very
fevere laws. :

ASTCHIKOUNIPI, in Geography, a large lake in
New Britain, abounding with whales, and fuppoled.to com-
municate with the Northern fea.

ASTEISM, in Rhetoric, a genteel way of irony, or hand-
fome way of deriding another. Such iis that of Virgil ;

° * Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina Mevi.””

ASTEIXIS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Africa,
part of mount Atlas, to the fouth of Mauritania Cefarientis.

ASTELEBE, a town of Afia Minor, in Lydia. Steph.
Byz.

JASTELEPHUS, ariver of Colchis, which ran into the
Euxine fea. Arrian.

ASTELL, Mary, in Biography, the daughter of a
merchant at Newcaftle-upon-Tyne, was born in the year
1688, and inftruéted by her uncle, who was ‘a clergyman,
in logic, mathematics, and philofophy, as well as in the
Latin and French languages. At twenty years of age fhe
removed to London, and devoted the principal part of her
time to ftudy. In order to excite emulation, and a defire of
improvement among her fex, fhe publifhed * A Serious
Propofal to the Ladies, wherein a method is offered for the
improvement of their minds,’’ printed in 12mo. at Lon-
don in 1697. Her propofal, which was the eftablifhment
ofa feminary for female education, excited fo much atten-
tion, that a Jady, fuppofed to be the queen, formed a defign
of giving 10,000 /. towards erecting a kind of college for
the education of the female fex, and as an afylum to fuch
ladies as might with to retire from the world; but bifhop
Burnet difcouraged the liberal intention, by alleging, that
fuch an inftitution would too much refemble a nunnery,
Mrs. Aitell’s “ Reflections on Marriage,” written in con-

fequence of a matrimonial difappointment, were publithed
in 170o0and 1705. Mrs. Aftell was orthodox in her reli-
gious creed, and in her politics an advocate for the doctrine
of nomrefiftance. Befides fome controverfial pieces, fuch
as ‘ Moderation truly ftated,”” «¢ A Fair Way with the Dif
fenters,” »“ An Impartial Inquiry into the Caufes. of the
Rebellion,” and ‘“« A Vindication of the Royal Martyr,”

all printed in 4to. in 17045 fhe alfo diftinguifhéd herfelf
! L

-Fabricius.

- AL Sea

by a more elaborate: performance, publifhed in 1405, and
intitled, « ‘Phe Chriftian Religion as profeffed bya Daughter
of the Church of England,” in which fhe had the refoli-
tion to attack Locke and 'Villotfon, The clofe of her life
was embittered by the anguifh of a cancer in her breatt,
and fhe bore amputation with fortitude. She died in the
year 1731. Her’ manners were auftere, and her principles
rigid 5 and though: the attraéted notice at the time in which
fhe lived, neither her natural talents, nor literary attain+
ments, would command attention among the females of ‘the
prefent day. Grudging the waite of time occationed by
trifling vifitors, and ‘yet fctupulous’ of dictating falfehoods
to her fervants, according to the refinement of modern: pract
tice, {heared to accoft fuch intruders’on their approach!
and jeftingly fay to them, “ Mrs. Aitell is not. at home.”
Ballard’?s Mem. of Britifh Ladies. Bioe. Biit..

ASTENAS, in Ancient Geography; a town of Spain, in
Betica. “Strabo.

ASTENOUS, ‘in Entomology, a fpecies of Paritio
(Eq. chi.) that inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. ‘The
wings are black, both above and beneath ; a-radiated white
fpot on the anterior pair; difk of the pofterior ones-yellow.
This is papilio pompeus of Cramer; and papilid
minor of the fame author, is: feppoted to be a variety ((@)
of this {pecies.: i

ASTER, in Botany, Starwort (‘Ash'z, a ftar, the flower
being radiated). Linn. Gen. 954. Schreb. 1291. Juff. 181.
Gertn. t. 170. Clafs, /yngenefia polygamia /uperflua..’ Nat.
‘Order, compofitr radiati. Corymbifere. Jufl. Gen. Char.
Cal. common imbricate; the mner feales’ prominent a little
at the end; lower ones fpreading. Cor. compaund radiate 3,
corollules hermaphrodite, numerous in’ the difk ; females
ligulate, more than ten in the ray; proper of the herma-
phrodite, funnel-fhaped, with a five-cleft {preading border 3,
of the female ligulate, lanceolate, three-toothed, at length
rolling back. Stam. hermaphrodite ;’ filaments five ; capil-
lary very fhort ; anthers: ‘cylindric, tubulous. © Pi? germ
oblong. Style filiform, the length of the flamens. ‘Sizema
bifid, {preading. Females, germ and {tile the fame ;‘ttig-
mas two, oblong revolute. Per. none. Calyx fearcely
changed. Seeds folitary, oblong, ovate ;- down capillary ;
rec. naked, flattifh. x

Eff. Gen.: Char. Recept. naked’; down fimplé.. “Cor.
raysmorethanten. Cal. imbricate, lower feales {preading.

* Shrubby.

Species 1. A. taxifolius,,yew-leaved ftar-wort. * Under-
fhrubby ; leaves decurrent, fubulate, channelled, ciliate ;
flowers terminal.’” Stem fcarce a foot high ; leayes alter-
nate, crowded, linear, revolute; flowers feflile, or fubpe-
dunculated, folitary. 2. A. reflexus, reflected ftar-wort.
«¢ Shrubby ; leaves ovate, fubimbricate,, recurved, ferrate-
ciliate; flowers terminal.’’ Stem proliferous; leaves crowded,
feffile, little, fmooth, lower ones ferrate, upper ciliate ;
flowers folitary, feflile, ray blood-red. 3. A. crinitus. * Sub-
fhrubby ;_ leaves ovate-oblong,, acute, tomentofe under-
neath ; calyxes terminated in a hair.’? Branches with few
divifions ; leaves feffile, exquifitely pointed, rough about
the edges; peduncles terminal, leafy, one-flowered ; ray of
the flower blue. 4. A. frutico/us, fhrubby ftar-wort. ‘¢ Shrub-
by ; leaves linear, dotted; peduncles one-flowered, naked.’”’
Stems three feet high; branches woody, furnifhed with
clufters of narrow leaves like thofe of the larch tree ;
flowers folitary, upon long- flendér peduncles; they are oF
a pale blue colour, and appear in March. Leaves narrow,
acute, approximating. Cultivated in 1759 by Mr, Miller.
This and the preceding fpecies grow wild at the Cape of
Good Hope.. ws ;

f ae Hera

ASTER,

*8 Herbaceous, entire-leaved, peduncles naked.

5- A. tenellus, briftly-leaved ftar-wort, Curt. Bot. Mag.
33. ‘ Leaves filiform, prickle-ciliate ; calyxes hemifphe-
rical, with equal leaflets.”? Stem annual, feven inches high ;
leaves fcattered, linear, muricated underneath; flowers pe-

duncled, folitary, terminal; difk of the corolla yellow, ray
blue, often rolled back. A native of the Cape. Intro-
duced here by Maflon in 1774. 6. A. alpinus, great blue
mountain itar-wort, Curt. Mag. 199.‘ Leaves fubfpatu-
late, rough with hairs, entire; items fimple, one-flowered.””
With us it rifes to near a foot in height ; at the top of each
ftalk is one large blue flower; flem-leaves two, feldom
three, ‘they are ovate, ciliate, petiolate next the root, on
the ftem flender, lanceolate. It flowers in June. A native
of the Alps and Pyrenées.. Cultivated by Miller in 1759.
3. A. fibiricus, Siberian ftar-wort, Gmel. Sib. 2. 186.
«© Leaves lanceolate, almoft {tem-clafping, ferrate, hairy-
f{cabrous ; calyxes lax ; leaflets lanceolate acurninate.’? Stems
two feet high ; peduncles-one-flowered ; ray of the corolla
blue. A native of Siberia. Flowers in Auguit. Cultivated by
Miller in 1768. 8. A. Tripolium, fea ftar-wort, Hudf. With.
Lightf. Smith 888. Eng. Bot. 87. “ Leaveslinear-lanceolate,
entire, flefhy, {mooth, three-nerved, calycine leaflets fubmem-
branaceous, obtufe.’”? Height of the {tem very variable ; flow-
ers numerous, handfome, yellow in the difk, blue at the ray.
“There is a/variety deftitute of rays. A native of muddy fea
fhores and mouths of rivers, in every part of our coait. 9.
A. Amellus, Italian far-wort, Jacq. Autt. 5. 425. ‘ Leaves
oblong-lanceolate, entire, feabrous; branches corymbed ;
~ealyxes imbricate, fub{quarrofe ; leaflets obtufe, the inner
membranaceous, coloured at the end.’? Stems numerous,
branching at the top into eight or ten peduncles, each ter-
minated by a fingle large flower haying blue rays, with a
yellow diik. A native of the fouth of Europe. Cultivated
by Gerard in 1596. 10. A. divaricatus, divaricate flar-
wort. ‘ Branches divaricate; leaves ovate, ferrate; floral
leaves quite entire, rather obtufe, ftem-clafping.’”” Stems
rough, about two feet high, dividing towards the top into
many forked branches; flowers grow almott into an umbel.
A native of Virginia.
*** Herbaceous, entire-leaved, peduncles fcaly.
11. A. Ayfopifolius, hyflop-leaved ftar-wort. ** Leaves
Jinear-lanceolate, drawn toa point at the bafe, entire, fiiff;
branchlets corymbed, faftigiate ; leaflets. frequently linear,
imbricate ; calyxes imbricate.”? Stem a foot high ; eight
purple florets in the ray; difk elevated, greenifh ; ftamens
teltaceous; piltil yellow. A native of North America.
Cultivated in 1760 by Miller. 12. A. dumofus, buthy-
flar-wort. “ Leaves linear, entire, fmooth, thofe on the
branchlets very fhort ; branches panicled; calyxes cylindni-
cal, clofely imbricated.’? 5tem two feet high, much
branched ; branchlets filiform; ftem-leaves narrow-lanceolate,
on the branches linear; flowers {mall, very white, difk yel-
low. Cultivated in Chelfea garden in 1725. 13. A. eri-
coides, heath-leaved ftar-wort. ‘* Leaves linear, entire, very
{mooth, thofe of the branchlets fubulate, approximating,
thofe of the ftem elongated ; calyxes fubfquarrofe ; leaflets
acute, ftem fmooth.”? Stalks flender, three feet high ;
branches numerous, forming a thick bufh, and terminated
by fingle flowers. Cultivated by Miller in 1758. 14. A.
tenutfolius, fine-leaved ftar-wort. ‘“ Leave f{ublinear, quite
entire; peduncles leafy.’ Stems five feet high, flender,
angular, {meoth, with few branches; leaves alternate,
roughith ; Howers terminal, folitary, fmall, white ; pedun-
cles with. Tmall fubulate leaflets feattered over them. 15.
A. linnrifolins, favory-leaved ftar-wort. “ Leaves linear,
entire, mucronate, f{eabrous, ftiff, upper ones lax, remote;

calyxes imbricate 5 branches faftigiate.” Stems purplith s
leaves very rough, fharp, keeled, fcattered; peduncles
alternate ; flowers few, terminal, folitary. Cultivated here
in 1712. 16. A. linifolius, flaxdeaved ilar-wort. “ Leaves
linear, entire, roughith ; branches corymbed, fafligiate, with
{mall leaflets ; calyxes imbricate ; rays about equal to the
difk.”? Leaves lanceolate, gradually narrowing to the end;
peoencle with many {mall fubulate feales; ftems ftrong,
rom two to three feet high, with many branches, terminated
by one blue flower. Cultivated in 1739 by Miller. Thefe
{pecies are natives of North America. 17. A, acris. « Leaves
lanceolate-linear, itiff, entire, flat; flowers corymbed faiti-
giate; peduncles leafy.” Much branched; leaves very
narrow ; flowers of a pale bluith colour, in large cluiters at
the top of the plant. A native of the fouth of Europe.
18. A. concolor. ‘ Leaves ovate, fellile, quite entire ; item
fimple ; raceme terminal.”’ Four feet high; flowers of a pale
blue colour; the whole plant tomentofe; raceme fimple,
with very fhort peduncles, A native of Virginia, 19. A.
rigidus, {tiff-leaved ftar-wort. Leaves linear, alteraate ;
flowers terminal, folitary.’? Leaves fmall, {tiff, many ; ftem
woody, almoit fimple, terminated by one fpecious fower}
flofcules of the ray purple, long. A native of Virginia,
20. A. aove aaglie, New England ftar-wort. “ Leaves lan-
ceolate, entire, cordate, ftem-clafping, hairy ; calyxes longer
than the difk, loofe ; leaflets linear-lanceolate, nearly equal;
ftem hifpid.’’ Stems many, five feet high, brown, terminated
by large purple violet flowers, growing in a loofe panicle,
and appear in Auguft; peduncles very fhort. A native of
New England and Virginia. Cultivated in 1731 by Miller.
There is a variety with numerous panicled branches. 21.
A. undulaius, waved ftar-wort. ‘ Leaves ferrate, hairy
waved, lower cordate ; petioles winged, dilated at the bafe;
branchlets virgate ; calyxes imbricate ; {tem hifpid.”? Stems
two or three feet high; leaves broad, heart-fhaped at bot-
tom ; flowers on loofe fpikes, of a pale blue colour, inclin«
ing to white; leaves on the peduncles minute, ovate. A
native of North America. Cultivated in 1699, by J. Bo-
bart. 22. A. grandiflorus, Catefby’s ftar-wort, Mill. fig.
t. 282. Leaves ftem-clafping, linear, entire, hifpid, ciliate ;
thofe of the branches and calyx reflex.’? Stems many, three
or four feet high, ftiff, reddith, hairy ; leaves of the branches
{mall, lanceolate, rough, about the fize of thofe on common
hyflop ; branches each terminated by one large blue flower.
Mr. Catefby, in 1720, brought this plant from Virginia.
**** Herbaceous, leaves ferrate, peduncles fnooth.

23. A. cordifolius, heart-leaved ftar-wort. ‘ Leaves heart-
fhaped, acute, finely ferrate, underneath hairy ; petioles al-
mott fimple; branches panicled; ftem rough with hairs.’
Stem {moothifh, much branched at top ; root-leaves cor-
date, fharply ferrate ; lower ftem leaves ovate, ferrate, with
edged pétioles; upper fpatulate-lanceolate, ftem clafping ;
ray whitifh, with twelve flofcules. A native of North
America. Cultivated in 1759 by Miller. 24. A. puniceus, red-
ftalked ttar-wort. ‘ Leaves ftem-clafping, lanceolate-ferrate,
fubfeabrous; branches panicled; calyxes furpafling the
difk ; leaflets linear-lanceolate, nearly equal, ftem hifpid.?*
Stems purple; more than two feet high ; flowers forming
corymb, blue, on fingle peduncles. A native of North
America. Cultivated here in 1739. There are two varieties of
this fpecies. 25. A. annuus, annual ftar-wort, Flor. Dan. 486.
« Leaves fomewhat hairy, lower ones fubovate, ferrate ;
the upper lanceolate ; calyxes hemifpheric ; leaflets fubequal,
ftrigofe.’? Stems about two feet high, terminated by a
corymb of white flowers in Augult; annual. A native of
North America. Cultivated here in 1640. _ 26. A« vernus,
vernal far-wort. * Root-leaves Janceolate, quite entire,

8 ebtufe ;

ASTER.

obtufe; flem almoft naked; filiform, a little branching 5

eduncles naked.’? Stem green, hairy, erect; leaves
Pike thole of daify; flofcules, flender, white. A, native of
Virginia.

keKK Herbaceous, leaves ferrate, peduncles /caly.

27. A. indicus, Indian llarwort. * Leaves ovate-oblong,
ferrate ; floral leaves oval-lanccolate, quite entire ; branchlets
one-flowered.” Stem herbaceous, round, ftriated, branched,
two feet high; lower leaves oblong, remotely and acutely
fervate ; upper lanceolate, entire, gradually diminifhing
towards the top ; flowers folitary. A native of Japan and
China. 28. A. J/evis,. fmooth alter, ‘* Leaves ftem-
clalping, entire, fhining ; root-leaves tubferrate ; branches
fimple, bearing about one flower; calyxes imbricate,
peduncles leafy, fubdivided; leaflets fomewhat wedge-fhaped ;
acute, thickened at the end; ftem {mooth.”” Ray blue. A
pative of North America. Cultivated in 1758 by Miller.
29. A. mutabilis, variable ftarwort. “ Leaves almott ftem-
elafping, lanceolate, ferrate, glofly, drawn to a point below ;
branchlets virgate ; calyxes rather leafy, lax 5 {tem f{mooth.””
Leayes of the peduncles and calyx {quarrofe and recurved ;
ray a deep purple; difk firft yellow, afterwards purple.
Cultivated by Miller in 1731. 30. A. Zradefcanti, 'Vradef-
cant’s ftarwort. ‘ Leaves lanceolate, ferrate, feflile, {mooth ;
middle branches virgate; calyxes clofely imbricate ; ftem
round, fmooth.” Radical leaves four inches long,
like thofe of willow; {tems round, f{mooth, woody,
brownifh; ray varies from white to purple, confifting of
twenty florets. A native of Virginia. Cultivated in 1731
hy Miller. There are two varieties, viz. the dwarf and tall
ftarwort. 31. A. Novi Belgii, New Holland ftarwort.
«« Leaves almoft ftem-clafping, lanceolate, fmooth,
but feabrous about the edge, the lower ferrate; branches
fubdivided ; calyxes lofely imbricate, leaflets linear-lanceo-
late: ftem round, fmooth.’? Stem four feet high, having
broad leaves at the bottom, diminifhing gradually to the
top; difk of the corolla yellow ; ray pale blue, revolute.
Et is very hke A. mutabilis. Its flowers appear in the latter
end of Auguit. A native of N. America. Cultivated in
1759 by Miller. 32. A. tardiflorus, Jate-flowering {tar-
wort. ‘ Leaves feilile, lanceolate, drawn to a point at the
bafe, ferrate, fmooth ; calyxes lax, leaflets lanceolate-linear,
fabequal, fmooth.”’ Stems two feet high, {carcely branching,
fmooth; leaves large, fmooth, rather itiff, ferrate at the
middle, and having a pubefcent ftreak ; flowers like thofe
ef the foregoing. It differs from the 31{t in having the
branches more diyaricate, and a knot or joint at the bafe.
A native of N. America, introduced here in 1775 by Mr.
Cree. 33. A. mifer, {mall white-flowered ftarwort. “ Leaves
feffile, lanceolate, fubferrate, fmooth; calyxes imbricate,
Teaflets acute ; diflc equal to the rays.’’? Stem a foot anda
half high, thick, green, lefs panicled than the rett ; ftem-
leaves a little ferrate, nodding, thofe of the branches lanceo-
late ; ray white, very {mall, poor, difk fmall, convex, pale,
swith dark yellow ityles. A native of N. America. Intro-
duced here in 1776 by Monf. Thouin. 34. A. macrophyl-
Jus, broad-leayed blue flarwort. « Leaves ferrate, oblong ;
the upper ovate, feffile, thofe on the item cordate, petioled ;
upper petioles winged.”? Peduncles crowded at the top, of-
ten trifid. A native of N. America. Cultivated in 1739
by Miller. 35. A. Chinenfis, China after or ftarwort.
«« Leaves ovate, angular, toothed, petioled ; calyxes expand-
ing, leafy, terminal.” Height from eighteen inches to two
feet, putting out long bending branches from top to bottom;
Jeaves next the ground, and at the origin of the branches
refemble thofe bs commom goofefoat (chenopodium), thofe
6a the branches are much {maller, and the upper ones narrow

48. A. procumbens, procumbent ttarwort. Mill. fig. t. 57:

and very entire, The flowers are largeft and handfomeft of
any of this genus, Difk yellow, flotcul@s of the ray broad
and long. Dillenius and Miller affirm, that this fpecies
came originally to Europe from China; Linnzus doubts of
this. Betides the common varieties, white, blue, purple, and
red, both {ingle and double, there is now another in the
gardens with variegated blue and white flowers. 36. A.
tataricus, Vartarian flarwort. ‘ Root leaves lanceolate-
ovate, ferrate, feabrous; item few-flowered.’? Radical
leaves large, running into petioles; ftem rough, fcarcely
twice as long as the radical leaves ; flowers large, five or.
eight in number; the peduncle has two alternate flender
entire bractes ; ray of the corolla blue. A native of Siberia.
37. A. hifpidus, fhaggy ftarwort* ‘ Loweft leaves ob-
long, crenate, fcabrous, item leaves lanceolate, entire, ciliate,
{tem feabrous.”” Stem erect, hifpid, branching, a foot high ;
lower leaves obtufe, remotely notched; flowers terminal,
folitary : ray white; down ferrugtnous. 38. A. /cabers.
rugged {larwort. ‘¢ Leaves oblong, ferrate, {cabrous, pe-
duncles panicled.’? Stem herbaceous, a foot high,, at top
branched in panicles; leaves alternate, petiolate, pointed,
above green, rough, with white cilias, underneath pale, vein-
ed, f{mooth ; flowers in terminal panicled branchiets. Both
the above are natives of Japan..
Species recited by Mr. Miller, Se.

39. A- glaber, peach-leayed ftarwort.. *‘ Leaves oblong-
lanceolate, acute, ferrate, {tem branching, flowers terminal,
calyxes linear, ereét.’”? Five feet high, bearing large, pale
blue flowers. A native of N. America. 40. A. /erotinus,
late-flowering blue ftarwort, or Michaelmas daify. ‘ Leaves
oblong, acute, broader at the bafe, half ftem clafping, ftenr
branching, flowers terminal, and for the mott part folitary.’?
Stems numerous, three feet high ; branches lateral, bearing
large pale blue flowers. Brought from Virginia by Tradef-
cant. 41. A. praecox, early itarwort. ‘ Leaves oblong,
acute, feabrous, fharply toothed, half {tem clafping, ftem
hairy, flowers corymbed, calyxes hairy, erect.” Stems a
foot anda half high; flowers large, blue, expanding in July.
A native of the Alps and Pyrenées. 42. A. alii/imus, lofty
ftarwort. See puniceus (2) n. 24. 43. A. ramo/iffimus,
branching ftarwort. ‘ Leaves linear-lanceolate, {tiff ; item
very branching, fpreading; flowers placed regularly one
above another ; peduncles leafy.” Stems flender, purplith,
about three feet high ; branches numerous, fpreading ; flow=
ers fmall, pale purple, appearing in November... A native of
N. America. 44. A. umbellains, umbelled ftarwort.
“ Leaves lanceolate, drawn to a point at the bafe, entire,
f{cabrous about the edge, branches corymbed, faitigiate.’?
Stems feveral feet high, channelled ; ray of the flower white.
A native of N. America, flowering in July and Augutt.
Cultivated by Miller in 1759. 45. A. nervo/is, three-nery-
ed iftarwort. ‘ Leaves linear-lanceolate, acute, nerved ;
{tem fimple, flowers terminal in a kind of umbel.”? ‘This
much refembles the umbellatus, but the leaves are narrower,
whiter on the under fide, and have three longitudinal veins.
The flowers are alfo Jarger and whiter. Sent from Pennfyl~
vania to P. Collifon, efq. who gave it to Miller. 46
A. paniculatus, panicled ttarwort. ‘¢ Lower leaves ovate,
half-{tem clafping at the bafe ; upper leaves lanceolate, fmall;
ftem panicled, branches one-flowered, peduncles teafy.??
About four feet high ; branches ereét, forming a loofe fpike
of large blue flowers. A native of N. America. 47. A.
latifolius. ‘* Leaves linear-lanceolate, {mooth, three-nerved,
flowers corymbed, terminal.’?? Stems a foot. and’a half high,
terminated by peduncles on, every fide, each fuftain-
ing one pale blue flower, A native of Canada.

a Be

A% TE ®.

*f.-2, © Leaves ovate, ‘toothtd ; ftem procumbent peduncles
naked, axillary, on-flowered.” Stems round, inclining to
the ground, about four ‘or five inches Jong, dedtitute of
leaves, each fupporting one flower of the fhape and fize of
the common daily, of a whitifh purplifh colour, ' Difcovered
by Dr. Houlton, about Vera Cruz in America, Perhaps
fome of thefe may not’be diitin@ from the foregoing ones,
as there are certainly many {pecies recited by authors which
have not yet taken their proper place in the fyftem, and re-
guire a-very fagacious botanift'to arrange them, In Gor+
don’s Catalogue we find the following names not noticed by
Linnwus: 1. A. alienatus, vireatus, falicifolius, purpureus;
aculeatus,’ repens, corymbdfus. -4o. A. holofericus, Forit:
«« Herbaceous, leaves oblong-lanceolate, ferrate, underncath
filver-fillkey ; {eapes one-flowered,' leafy.” A native of
New Zealand) “50. A. coriaceus, Fort. ““ Herbaceous,
leaves ovate, quite entire, furrowed above, woolly under-
neath, feapes one-flowered, leafy, woolly.” A native of
New Zealand.
Species of After; from Aiton’s Hort. Kew.

51. Aw cymbalarie, eymbalaria-leaved ftarwort. “* Shrub-
by, leaves ovate, finuate; rough, with hairs, calyxes imbricate;
hany.’’- Found at the Cape, by Maffon. Intreduced here
in 1786. it flowers moft of the fummer. | 52. A. neniora+
lis, wood ftarwort: “* Leaves linear-lanceolate, drawn to a
point at the bafe, fomewhat f{cabrous; ‘branches filiform,
one-flowered ; calyxes lax imbricate; leaflets acute.”? Afoot
high, ray of the corolla blue, difk white. It flowers in Au-

ruft, <A native of Nova Scotia. Introduced in 1778, by
W. Malcoln. 53. A. paludofis, marth ftarwort. «© Leaves
Thneay; ftem clafping, entire, fmooth, feabrous at the edge ;
peduncles almoft naked, calyxes fquarrofe.”’ Leaves three or
_ four inches long, remote, ray blue, large; difk yellow. A
native of the fwamps of Carolina. Introduced by Mr, Fair-
bairne, in 1784. ‘It puts‘out flowers in September and Oc:
tober. 54. A. patens, fpreading, hairy-ftalked, ftarwort.
& Leaves oblong, entire, ‘acute, cordate, almott {tem-clafping,
{eabrous, branches {preading, elongated, few-flowered, ca-
lyxes mbricate, fubquarrofe, tem rough with hairs:”? Three
feet high; ‘branches remote, pubefcent ; leaves bent ob-
liquely at the bafe; ray pale blue, difk-tawny. A native
of Virginia, floweriig“in: September. Introduced about
1773, by Ge Autrere, efq. 55. A. folio/us, leafy ftarwort.
*¢ Leaves lanceolateinear, entire, fmooth; thofe on the
branchlets fpreading very much’; calyxes imbricate, leaflets
acute, ttem pubefcent.”” A native of-N. America. Culti-
vated by Dr. Sherard in 1732. It flowers in Oftober. 56.
A. multifiorus, {mall-leaved ttarwort. <“* Leaves linear, en-
tire, {moothifh 5 branclics one-ranked ; calyxes imbricate,
fquarrofe, feales fomewhat leafy, acute; ftem pubefeent.”
Stems unequal to fuppoert thé abundance of its flowers;
leaves rough, the-veins form rhomboids; fcales of the ca-
lyx minute, reflex ; flowering branches and peduncles cover-
ed with leafy feales ; ray whité, fmall. A native of North
‘America. Cultivated by Dr. Sherardin 1732. Fs OG@ober.
“There is an early and a late flowering variety of this {pecies.
67. A. falicifolius, willow-leaved ftarwort. “ Leaves linear-
lanceolate, quite entire, fmooth ; calyx imbricate, lax ; item
gloffy. Stem five or fix feet high, leaflets of the calyx acute,
expanding at the endz ray of a bluifh flefh-colour. A
native of N. America: Cultivated in 1760,by Miller. 58. A.
eftivus, Laabrador ttarwort. “© Leaves lanceolate, almott ftem-
‘clafping, quite entire, fmooth, fcabrous about the edge ; ca-
lyxes Jax, leaflets equal.”” Stem two feet high, hifpid > ray
“blue. A native of N. America. Introduced herein 1776,
by Meff. Gordon’ and Co. F. in July and Augult: 59. A.
‘gunceus, flender-ftalked’ flarwort. » “ Léaves lanceolate.

linear, ‘feffle, Iméoth,” the Towelt fubferrate, “thofe of
the branchlets Janceolate; branches virgate; calyxes
imbricate ; - ftem) fmoothith.2 Four feet high, leaflets
of the calyx acute, fpreading at the end; ray. flightly
‘fleth-coloured : diffs elevated, pale yellow. A native of N.
America, Cultivated in 2758, by Miller. I’. in OGober.
60. A. pendulus, pendulous ftarwort. * Leaves elliptic-lan-
ceolate, ferrate, f{mooth, thofe of the branchlets rather re-
mote; branches very much divaticated, pendulous; item
pubefcent.”” Ray of the flower white ; difk yellow, changing
to ferruginous. A native of North America. Cultivated
in 1758 by Miller. F. OGober.. 61. A. diffufus, diffufe
flarwort. “© Leaves elfiptic-lanceolate, ferrate, fmooth,’
proportioned ; branches fpreading 5 calyxes imbricate; item
pubefcent.”” Ray white, A native of North America. ~In-
troduced by Mefirs. Kennedy ‘and Lee in 1777. TF. Sep-
tember. ‘There is a red and white-flowered variety. 62.
A. divergens, {preading downy-ttalked ftarwort. Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate, ferrate, fmooth ; thofe on the ftem linear-
lanceolate, elongated; branches fpreading ; calyxes imbri-
éate ; ftem pubefcent.””? Above five feet high, weak ; calyx
eylindtic, with numerous acute leaflets ; ray white; fhorter
than the calyx, difk reddifh. -A native of North America.
Cultivated in 1758 by Miller. F. OGtober. 63. A. corym-=
bofus, corymbed ftarwort. “¢ Leaves cordate, {mooth, acu-
minate, all finely ferrate ; petioles fimple; branches fafs
tigiate ; ftem fmooth.”? A native of North America, Cul-
tivated in 1765, by P. Collinfon, efq. F. September. 64. A.
Jfpedabilis, fhowy ftarwort. Leaves lanceolate, fome-
what feabrous ; the lower ferrate; branches corymbed ;
ealycine leaflets lax, nearly wedge-fhaped, fharpifh, {quar-
rofe.”? "T'wo feet high; ray blue. A native of North Ame
rica. Introduced in 1777, by Dr. Pitcairn, F. Auguit and
September. 65. A. radula, rough ftarwort. *¢ Leaves lan
ceolate, ferrate, accuminate, wrinkled, very feabrous; calyxes
imbricate; leaflets lanceolate, obtufe.’? A native of Nova
Scotia. Introduced in 1785 by Dr. Pitcairn. F. Septembere
Propagation and Culture. The fpecies from the Cape
N° 1—5, and N° 51, together with N° 27,°37, and 38,
not producing feeds in England, are propagated by cuttings
any time during the fummer. Thefe fhould be planted in
fall pots filled with light earth, and’ plunged into an old
hot-bed ; where, if they are fhaded from the fun, and gently
watered, they will put out roots in fix weeks, when they
may be placed in the open air ; and in‘about a month after-
wards they fhould be feparated, each in a fmall pot, and
filled with light fandy earth. In OGober they mutt be
removed into the green-houfe, and placed where they may
enjoy as much free air as poffible ; but be fecured from frofts
cr damps ; fo that they are much eafier preferved in a glafi=
cafe, where they will have more light and air than in a
green-houfe ; but they muft not be placed in a ftove, for
artificial heat will foon deftroy the plants. The North
American fpecies, which make at leait three-fifths of the
genus, together with the Alpine and Italian afters, are
eafily propagated by parting the roots in autumn ; they are
moft of them hardy, and will thrive in almoft any foil and
fitnation ; for thefe reafons, and becaufe they adorn the
latter feafon with the abundance and variety of their {pe-
cious flowers, they are valuable plants, efpecially ee

‘fhrubs, and in large ornamental plantations, properly mixe:
with golden rods, and other perennial, autumnal, hardy
‘plants. “The forts moft cultivated, are the grandiflorus,
‘linifolius, linarifolius, tenuifolius, ericoides, dumofus, fero-
tinus, alpinus, nove anglie, and puniceus or altiflimus.
Some of the fpecies (N° 6. 41, 42,) prefer a fhady fitu-
‘ation and moift foil. ‘They are apt to fpread very much.
the

AST

the roots, foasto be troublefome, and the feeds of fome are
blown about and come up like weeds. The Italian ftar-wort
(9) has not been fo much cultivated in England fince the
great variety of American fpecies has been introduced,
though it is by no means inferior to the beft of them. ‘ It is
propagated by parting the roots foon’after the plant 1s out
of esieccs The roots {hauld not be removed oftener than
every third year. Cate(by’s ftar-wort (22) not multiplying
fait by its roots, may be propagated in plenty by cuttings
from the young ihoots in May, which, if planted in light
earth and fhaded from the fun, will flower the fame year,
When the annual ttar-wort (25) is once intredyced, the
feeds will featter, and the plants come up without care.
The China after (35) being an annual plant, is propagated
by feeds, which mutt be fowa in the {pring oa a warm bor-
der, or rather upor a gentle hot-bed, juit to bring up the
ylants; for they fhould be inured to the open air as foon as
poflible ; when the plants are three inches high, they fhould
be taken up and planted in a bed of rich earth, at fix inches
diftance every way, obferving to fhade them from the fun till
they have taken new root; and if the feafon is dry, they
mutt be often refrefhed with water. In this bed they may
remain a month or five weeks, by which time they will be
ftrong enough to tranfplant into the borders of the flower
garden, where they are defigned toremain} or into pots to
adorn court-yards, &c. The plants fhould be taken up

carefully with large bails of earth at their roots; after they

are planted, and the earth clofed about their roots, there
fhould be fome water given them to fettle the earth. If the
ground be rich, thefe plants will dower in Auguit, and for:
the greateft ornament in the flower gardenin autumn. They
ripen in the begianing of O€tober, and fhould be gathered
when they, are perfecily dry. Procumbenrt. fiar-wort (48)
being a native of a warm climate, will not live in the open
air in England. ‘The feeds mutt be fown ina hot-bed; and
the plants will require a ftove to preferve them during the
winter. See Martyn’s Miller’s Dic. :

ASTER. ee Arcrotis, Arnica, BUPHTHALMUM,
Carprsium, CHRYSANTHEMUM, CHRYSOCOMA, CINE-
RARIA, ConyzA, Ernicreron, Gorteria, INuLA, SENE-
cro, SovripaGo, TussiLaGco.

Aster, in Mineralogy, a denomination given to a fpecies
of Samian earth.

Aster, in Natural Hiftory, a {peciesof Hypra in Gme-
Tin’s Syft. Nat. This is the adinia affer of Ellis, and inha-
bits the American feas. ‘he item is thitk, flefhy, fubcylin-
drical, fmooth, truncated, and radiated, with tentacula.

Aster is alfo a denomination, in the Ancient Pharmacy,
given to a kind of medicine, invented by Andromachus,
againft defluxions, and divers cther pains.

-ASTERIA is the name of a gem, ufually called the

eat’s eye, or oculus cati. it has only two colours, a pale
brownard a white, the brown feeming the ground, and the
white playing about it, as the fire colour in the opal. It is
confiderably hard, acd w)lltake a fine polith, but is ufually
worn with its native fhape and fmoothnefs.
. It is found in the Eatt and Weit Indies, and in Europe.
The ifland of Borneo affords fome very fine ones, but they
are ufually fmall; they are very common in the fands of
rivers of New Spain: and in Bohemia they are not unfre-
quently found immerfedin the fame mafies of jafper with
the Opa. :

AsrertA isalfo the name of a figured flone.

one.
© Asteria, in Ancient Geography, a {mall ifland between
thofe of Ithaca and Cephalenia.: Strabo.» This is called
Afleris by Homer in the Odyffey.

Vou. II.

See Srar-

-Gen.)

AST
ASTERTAS,.in Botany. See Genrvaws. ¢

AsTERIAS, in Lntomolocy, a fpecies of Pariuio (£9:
Tro.), the wings of which are black, with two bands of
yellow {pots ; anal angle fulvous, with a black dot. Fabri-
clus mantiffa. Inhabits America.

Astrertas, in Na/ural Hiftory,a genus of Vermes in the
mollufca tribe, the body of which 1s depreiled, grooved
beneath; covered with a coriaceous cruit, and muricated
with tentacula; mouth central, of five valves. Thefe are
the itelle marine, itar-fifh, or feattars of moft authors; are
all inhabitants of the fea; reproduce parts which have been
loft by violence ; and moye either by iwimming or crawling.
In fhape they vary exceedingly, and heace Gmelin has
arranged them under different families, as /unate, fellate, and
radiate. ‘The {pecies he enumerates are’ thefe: nobilis,
pulvillus, militaris, luna, pappofa, {pongiofa, rubens, fepofita,
endeca, minuta, glacialis, reticulata, phrygiana, nodola, vio-
lacea, fanguinolenta, perforata, aranciaca, equettris, levi-
gata, membranacea, granularis, rofea, pertufa, ophiura, acu-
leata, ciliaris, filiformis, tenella, pectinata, multiradiata, caput
medufe, euryale, oligates, nigra, tricolor, and_ fragilis ;
which fee refpe€tively.—A. aculzata; five rayed: diflc orbi-
cular; covered with clabrous prickles. A. aranciaca; dif
broad; rays fomewhat deprefled, and. prickly along the
margins, Inhabits the North and Mediterranean fea. Mull.
CGmel. &c.

Asrertas, in Ornithology, a term fynonymous with aftur,
&c.; a name Ly which feme old writers have called the com-
mon gof-hawk, falco palumbarius. Linn. The name aftu-
ris has been applied by Ray to the fame bird.

ASTERTE, in Entomology, atpeciesofP a pin10.( Nymph.

Wings dentated, varied with pale yellow, a large
bipupillated {pot on the pofterier pair, above; beneath aes
with three ocellar fpots. Fab. &c. Linnzus deferibes this
infe& as papilio alis dentatis lutea yariis, fingulis utrinque
ocellis fefquialteris; anteriore pupilla gemina. Syft. Nat.
It is figured by Cramer and Kleeman.

ASTERION, in dfronomy, oneoftthe Canes VENATICI.

AsTERION, in Ancient Geography, ariver of Peloponnefus.
Paufanias.—Alfo, a town of Greece, in Pzonia. Livy,
1. 24. c. 24.— Alfo, a town of Theffaly, feated ona moun-
tain, called alfo Perefie. Steph. Byz. ,

ASTERISCOIDES, in Botany. See Osmires.

ASTERISCUS. See Anruemis, BurpHtHaLMuUM,
aud SinpHium.

ASTERI-SIMILIS. See Er'ceron.

ASTERISK, a charaGter in form of a fmall ftar, fet
over any word or fentence, to make it the mare confpicuous,
or to refer to the margin, or elfewhere, for a quotation,
explanation, or the hke.

The word is a diminutive of «sip. a ftar. :

ASTERISM, from zs7, far, in Affronomy, the fame
with ConsTELLATION. 5

ASTERTUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland on the
coatt of lonia, at a diftance from the mouth of the Meander;
fouth-eait of the promontory of Trogilium, north of that of
Pofideum, and W.N.W. trom the town of Miletus. - It
was famous for the victory obtained near it by the Greeks,
gained on the fame day when they triumphed over.the fame
enemies at Platza. , ,

Asterius Urbanus, in Biography, a writer againf{t, the
Montaniits, was either a -bifhop or prefbyter, and lived
about the beginning of the third century. Copious extraés
of atreatife, which was the fubftance of his difputation held
at Aneyra in Galatia, are preferved by Lufebius. Hitt.
Keel. lv. c. 16,:17.- See Cave Hift. Lit. t.i. p. 85. Lard-
ner’s Works, vol. ii. p. 387,

$

ATiRIVS,

AST

Asrerius, a writer of the Arian feé, in the reioh of
Conftantius, or about the beginning of the fourth century,
was a fophift of Cappadocia, and renouncing Gentilifm,
he embraced Chriftianity. About the year 304, during the
perfecution of Maximian, his virtuous refolution failed him,
and he offered facrifices to the Pagan divinities, which pre-
vented his attaining the honour of being a bifhop, to which
he afpired. But though he was recovered by Lucian, he
was attached to Arianifm; and whenever he is mentioned
by Athanafius, he is calleda cunning fophift, and a patron
of herefy. Philoftorgius, however, reprefents him as a
moderate Arian, having taught, that the Son was in fub-
ftance like the Father, and a complete likenefs of the
Father. According to Jerom, he wrote commentaries upon
the epftle to the Romans, upoa the Gofpels, and upon
the Pfalms, and many other things, ¢ which were much
read,’’ he fays, ‘¢ by the men of his party.’? Some pafiages
et his writings are cited by Athanalius and Eufebius, in
which, fays Lardner, ‘‘ there appear an air of piety, and
zeal for the Chriftian religion.” Cave H. L. t. i. p. 201.
Lardner’s Works, vol. iv. p. 123.

A-STERN, denotes any diitance behind a fhip; as op-
pofed to A-Hrap.

ASTEROCEPHALUS, in Botany.

ASTEROIDES, laflard flar-wort.
BurxHTHatmum, and Conyza.

ASTEROIDS, formed of sxe, far, and sidoe, form, and
denoting that they refemble fixed ftars, in A/onomy, a name
given by Dr. Herfchell to the new planets, or two celettial
bodies, Ceres and Pallas, lately difcovered ; and which he
defines as ‘* celeftial bodies, which move in orbits either of
little or of confiderable eccentricity round the fun, the
plane of which may be inclined to the ecliptic in any angle
whatfoever. This motion may be direét or retrograde ; and
they may or may not have confiderable atmofpheres, very
{mall comas, difks, or nuclei. According to the definitions
which he premifes, planets are celeftial bodies of a con-
fiderable fize and {mall eccentricity of orbit, moving in planes
that do not deviate many degrees from that of the earth, in
a dive&t courfe, and in orbits at confiderable diftances from
each other, with atmofpheres of confiderable extent, but
bearing hardly any fenfible proportion to their diameters,
and having fatellites or rings: and comets are very {mall
celeftial bodies, moving in directions wholly undetermined
and in very eccentric or apparently parabolic orbits, fitu-
ated in every variety of pofition, and having very extenfive
atmofpheres. Dr. Herfchell having compared the newly
difcovered ftars by the criteria introduced in the above de-
finitions, maintains, that they differ in fo many refpeéts
from both planets and comets, as to warrant his not refer-
ring them to either of thefe two claffes. Our aftronomical
readers will probably think the difference not fufficient
to render this kind of diftribution neceflary; they will
regret, that the author has contributed to introduce, with-
out abfolute neceffity, a new term in the feience of aftro-
nomy; and they will perhaps be of opinion, that the new
name of * Afteroid,” is not the moit appropriate and ex-
preflive that could have been devifed. An afteroid is a
body refembling fixed ftars; but the two new planets have
no one circumftance in common with thofe diftant bodies.
If anew name mutt be found, let them be called by fome
appellation, which fall, in fome degree, be deferiptive of,
or at leaft confiftent with, their properties. <¢ The inven-
tion of a name,”’ fays an anonymous writer, “is but a poor
atchievement in him who has difcovered whole worlds.”’
Phil. Tranf. for 1802, Part If. p. 213, &e.

ASPEROPE, in Myihology, one of the daughters of

See ScaBrosa.
See Inura,

BS

Atlas, the fir of the principal ftars that compoie the
Pleiades. Ovid. Fatt. iv. 170.

ASTEROPHYTON, in Natural Hifory, the name
given to a kind of flar-fith, which is compofed of a great
number of cylindric rays, each branching out into feveral
others, fo as to reprefent the branched ftalks of a very in-
tricate fhrub.

ASTEROPLATYCARPOS, in Botany. SeeOruon-
NAs

ASTEROPODIUM, in Natural Hiffory, the name
given by authors to a kind of extraneous foflil, of an im-
bricated texture, compofed efa number of {mall convex, or
concave plates, and ferving, when entire, as a bafe or root to
the aferia, or ttar-ttone.

It is very plain, that this is the remains of fome animal
body, probably of the ftar-fith kind, tu which the ¢/eria
have alfo once belonged; but our imperfect knowledge ia
the animal hiftory, has not yet afcertained us of the parti-
cular creature; the moit probable conjecture is, that it is the
Magellanic ftar-fih, the rays of which nicely and exactly
reprefent fome of the moft perfec afteropodia.

ASTEROPTERUS, in Botany. See Inura, and
LrEysera. :

ASTERUSIA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain to-
wards the fea, in the fouthern part cf the ifle of Crete—
Alfo, a town fituate upon mount Caucafus, founded by a
Cretan colony, according to Steph, Byz.

ASTESAN, or County of Ajii, in Geography, a country
of Piedmont, in Italy, bounded on the weft by the princi-
pality of Chieri and Carmagnola, onthe north by the Vercel-
lois and the Alexandrin, and on the fouth by the marquifate
of Gorzegno; about 25 miles long and ten broad.

ASTH EA, or Astuara, in Ancient Geography, an
ifland of Afia, on the coait of Gedrofia. Ptolemy.

ASTHAGURA, a town of India, on this fide of the
Ganges. Ptolemy.

ASTHENIA, in Medicine, a term employed to denote

bodily debility. It is derived fron ~ privative, and gz,
robur. In the fyftem of Sauvages, and fome other nofole-
gical writers it forms a diflinct genus, being claffed with
yncope, and other fimilar difeafes ; but it is commonly ufed
by phyficians in a more extended fenfe, fo as to embrace all
that vaft variety of chronic complaints, in which there is a
general languor of the body, from the vital funétions and
mufcular actions not being performed with that degree of
energy which is neceflary tohealth. The general therapeu-
tical treatment proper in cafes of debility, confifts in the
employment of tonic medicines, fuch as the Peruvian bark,
bitters, chalybeates, the cold bath, or temperate bath, fea-
bathing, country air, a mild nourifhing dict, riding on horfe,
back, &c. It fhould be remarked, however, that this ge-
neral tonic plan is not applicable, in its full extent, to all
afthenic difeafes, fome of them being complicated with vif-
ceral and other lecal ohfiructions and inflammations, which
require peculiarities of treatment, as will be duly noticed in
the courfe of our obfervations under thofe feveral heads,

ASTHMA, a fhortnefs of breath; from 7x, OF cinysy [pirrey
anhelo, I breathe, I pant.

The difeafe which bears this name may be defined to be a
fhort and laborious refpiration, accompanied with a wheezing
noife, generally coming on by fits, and going off by a cough,
and {pitting up of phlegm. It is not uihered in by fever.

In Sauvages’s fyftem it is claffed under anhelationes; in
Cullen’s, under f{pafmi. The former enumerates no lefs
than eighteen fpecies thereof; the latter only three, viz. A.
fpontaneum, A, exanthematicum, and A. plethoricum. Another
writer has fubdivided this diforder into four {pecies. ane

e

cei

ASTHMA.

of thefe diftinétions are unfounded, and moft of them are of
little or no utility in practice. Dy far the greater number
of thofe cafes ef dificult refpiration, which Sauvages bas
referred to aithma, belong to dyf{pnaa ; afymptom common
to various and oppofite difeafes, and diltinguithed from
afthma by its manner of coming on, by its duration, and by
the fet of morbid phenomena with which it is affociated.
Thus the fhortnefs of breath which occurs in pleurify, pe-
ripneumony, coafumption, catarrh, dropfy ot the chelt,
&e. is only a concomitant of thofe cifeaivs, but not the
difeafe itfelf; and is therefore not aithma, but dyfpnoea,
The fame may be faid of thofe cafes which Floyer has enu-
merated as intances of continued affhma.

There is itri@ly but one idiopathic fpecies of aithma;
the periodic, or convulfive althma | the althma fpoataneum of
Cullen; the dry‘or flatulont althma of others); the Su-
moural afthma, as it is termed, being for the moft part a
variety thereof.

The periodic or conyulfive afthma has been fo well deferibed
by the celebrated Vloyer, who himfelr laboured under this
difeafe for the {pace of thirty years, that we fiall chiefly take
from him the hiftory of its phenomena. 7

For fome hours preceding a fit of afthma, the patient
experiences a feafe of ftraizhtnefs, a fulneis about the pit
of the itomach, and is much troubled with flatulency. At
the fame time there is a heavinefs of the head, drowfinefs,
propenfity to yawning, and a difcharge of pale urine. It
thele fymptoms come on towards the afteraoon, they are
followed at night by atightnefs and weight acrofs the chett,
by oppreffion of the breath, and fome wheezing. ‘There is
generally, too, a convulfive cough, with little or no expecto-
ration. In the courfe of the might, the fymptoms become
more urgent, the infpirations are made with the utmoft la-
bour, the cheft and fhoulders being lifted up with great vio-
lence, and in a convulfive manner. In this diitrefling ftate
the patient is neceflitated to get out of bed, and to remain
in an ereét pofture. Although the expirations are not fo
difficult as the infpirations, yet they are performed very
flowly, and with a wheezing noife. In this flage of the fit,
a perfon can neither fpeak nor courh. His fact appears

ale or livid, his hands and feet are cold ; and his pulfe is
aerally weak and irregular. He has a great detire for
Feth air, and is much oppreffed by aclofe heated room, by
duit, fmoke, or bad {mells ; and even by the weight of his
clothes upon his cheft. After fome continuance of the at-
tack, head-ach is fuperadded to the other fymptoms ; and,
the pulfe becoming fomewhat accelerated, there is a flight
degree of feverifhnefs, the neceifary confequence of fatigue
and irritation. As the fit declines, there is a breaking of
wind both upwards and downwards, and frequently a motion
to ftool. The urine, which before the fit was pale, is now
high-coloured, and depofits a fediment. If the attack lait
but two or three hours after rifing out of bed, the ftraight-
nefs of breathing abates, and fome phlegm is {pit up.

When a fhort fit happens, it is accompanied only with
wind and {pitting ; with a>quicknefs of the pulfe, a difpo-
fition to fweat, and a difcharge of higher-coloured water in
the morning. -It is not preceded, as in the former cafe, by
oppreffion at the pit of the ftomach, nor by pale urine, nor
by much drowfinefs over-night.. This is what Floyer calls
a /pittingfit. It is only amilder form of the other attack.

The duration of an aithmatic paroxy{m varies in different
individuals, and in the fame individual at different times.
Sometimes it continues only a few hours, at other times it
laits three or four days. - In thefe cafes, very little phlegm,
and that of a dark colour, is fpit up for the firft two days;
on- the third or fourth it is coughed up more freely, of a

lefs vifcid confiftence and of a bettercolour. At the end of
four or five days, the cough and {pitting generally ceafe,
and the patient remains free from oppreflion of the breath,
until the next return ofa fit. The intervals between the
attacks are extremely various, fometimes fhort, fometimes
Jong. ‘The fhort intervals do not execed the {pace of three,
fix, or feven days; the longer intermiffionsextend to twelve,
fourteen, or fifteen days. ‘The longer the parcxy{m, in ¢e-
neral, the longer the interval; and vice verfa. The late Dr.
Heberden has remarked, that fome aithmaties exjerience only
four attacks in a year; others only, two, viz. ut {pring and
autumn; andfome not more than one attack annually, and
that every Others only once in two years; but thefe
laft, and efpecially another inflance mentioned by him, mult
be regarded as rare and anomalous cafes. The periods of
recurrence are much influenced by changes of the atmofphere.
Raiuy weather, foggy weather, an approaching fall of fnow,
a change from freft to thaw, or a change of wind into the
eait, will often bring on a fit; which, however, may happen
from other canfes, in every kind of weather.’ As the fits
ulualiy recur, in. confirmed atthmatic fubjeGts, once a fort-
night, they muft often take place on or near the changes cf
the moon. Hence the afthmatic periods have been fuppofed
to be regulated by the phales of that celeftial body. The
recuirence of the paroxy{ms, however, is known to happen
at other times; fo that itis evident there is no necefiar
connection between them and the lunar changes. Altera-
tious of the weather, happening et thofe periods, are (as
Floyer has remarked) the probable caufe.

Athma may occur at any age; but, except where there 1s
a mal-confirmatioa ‘of the chet, it feldom attacks in early
life. It ufually afflicts perions of mature or advanced age.
People who follow certain occupations are more lable to it
than others; fuch are millers, maliters, ftone-cutters, wool-
combers, flax-dreffers, &c. Many of thefe inftances, how-
ever, of fhort breathing belong rather to dyfpnoea, than to
aithma. Although the attacks are fo fevere and diftreffing
for the time, yet in the intervals the patient commonly 2njoys
a tolerable fhare of health, and 1s able to engage in tne pur-
fuits of buiinefs or pleafure, according to his {tation in life;
nor do they feem, in numerous tnitances, to have much effect
in thortening the natural period of human exiftence, many
afthmatics having been known to live to the age of feventy and
upwards. The difeafe, however, terminates at length in
peripneumony, confumption, dropfy, lethargy, or apoplexy.

CEdematous fivellings of the legs, ulcers in thofe parts,
the bleeding piles, a fit of the gout, or an eruption on the
fkin, have fuddenly produced, in very defperate cafes, a fa-
vourable termination of an attack, and have fufpended the
recurrence of the paroxy{ms for a great length of time.

Befides the changes of the atmofphere, and certain irrita-
tions (fuch as duft, fmoke, &c.) before mentioned, there are
other caufes which are capable of exciting a fit of afthma;
fuch are errors in diet, violent exercife, long falting, profufe
evacuations, intenfe ftudy, retropulfion of cutaneous erup-
tions, and of gout, paflions of the mind, &c. With regard
to the proximate caufe, Cullen fuppofed it to confift in a fpaf
modie. con{triction of the mufcular’ fibres of the bronchia,
preventing the free ingrefs and egrefs of the air, and confe-
quently the due expaniion of the lungs. This opinion, how-
ever, is not altogether reconcileable with the known ftructure
of the bronchia, and has accordingly been controverted by
alate writer (Dr. Bree); who has affigned in its ftead, irrita-
tion, either from an offending material in the lungs them-
felves, or from acrimony and difeafe in the ftomach, in-
teftines, and other vifcera of the abdomen. There is little
doubt, however, that the mucus which he fappofes ta he»

Uiz the

writer,

a

ASTHMA.

the caufe, is rather the effet of the morbid a¢tion of the
lungs. Others have attempted to refer all the phenomena
of an afthmatic attack to a fpafmodic affection of the
diaphragm (Burfer. Inftitut. Medicine Practice, vol. iy.
pars i. in nota ad fect. ccii.), which, according to Floyer’s
defcription of his own feelings, feems to be rendered fhff,
and tied or drawn up by the mediaftinum. The refiftacce
thus oppofed to the natural dilatation of the cheft, would,
it is faid, neceflarily occafion a vehement and convuliive
“action of the intercoftal and other mufcles concerned in
re{piration. All this, however, is mere conjeture ; and it is
to be regretted, that diffeCtions have beea of very little ufe
towards elucidating this pathological difcuflion,

Whatever be the proximate caufe of aithma, ali its fymp-
toms are ftlamped with the character of fpafm and imitation;
a circumitance which at once points out the plan of treat-
ment that fhould be adopted; in regard to which, we are
to confider, 1. The remedies which fhould be reiorted to
during the fits; and, 2. Thofe which fhould be employed
during the intervals, to prevent their recurrence.

When a fit comes on, the patieat, if recumbent, fhould be
raifed up, and kept in a fitting poiture. Atl external pref-
fure from clothes or bandages fhould be removed from the
breaft, and frefh air fhould be admitted into the room;
which fhould be kept cool, and free from fmoke, duit, and
every fort of difagreeable fmell. Should there be much
tendency to ficknefs, an ipecacuanha emetic will be preper,
after the operation of which an antifpafmodic draught fhould
be given, compofed of ether, caftor, and opium, mixed with
a fufficient quantity of peppermint water, or cinnamon water.
In fome cafes, a few drops of {pirit of ammonia may be
added to this draught, which fhould be repeated every hour,
or every fecond hour, according to the urgency of the fymp-
tons. The ftrong {melling antifpafmodics, fuch as amber,
mufk, and afa-feetida, fhould be avoided. From the white
oxydof zinc (calcined zinc), or fulphat of zinc ( vitriolated
zinc), lefs benefit has been derived, than the reports of fome
authors had given reafon to expect. The digitalis has been
employed with advantage, according to fome late accounts,
in the paroxy{m of convulfive afthma; but it promifes to be
more generally ufeful in that {pecies which is termed the
humoural afthma, under which we fhall therefore mention its
dofes and mode of exhibition. With a view of promoting a
diaphorefis, the aqua ammonie acetate may be given in con-
junction with the antifpafmodics aboye mentioned; but all
heating fudorifics will beimproper. In fome initances, the
svine of tartarized antimony may be added with good effeét
to the antifpaimodic medicines. loyer has recommended
the internal ufe of vinegar; but though it may have afforded
relief in fome cafes, we are perfuaded it will difagree with
the majority of fuch patients; and will, indeed, be extremely
hurtful to hyfterical and gouty aithmatics. For thefe, the
abforbent earths, fuch as magnefia and chalk (with which
laft a few grains of rhubarb fhould be joined), will anfwer
much better. While thefe medicines are given, a blifter
fhould be applied between the fhoulders, but not upon the
fternum, where its weight would incommode the patient.
Bleeding is rarely admithible. ‘The diet during the fit fhould
confit of cold toaft and water, milk and water in a tepid
itate, a cup of firong coffee, &c. Solid animal food aad
puddings fhould be witheld; nor fhould a glafs of wine be
allowed, except to very infirm aad aged:afthmaties, or in cafe
of alarming deliquium. Even then, a dofe cf fal volatile
drops in water will generally be preferable.

As the fit declines, and a tendency to {pitting fhews
itfelf, that effe& fhould be promoted by the exhibition of
expectorating medicines; fuch as ipecacuanha, oxymel of

{quill, and ammoniacum., Of the firft of thefe, not move
than two or three grains fhould be given for a dofe, fo as
to excite, in this ftage of the diforder, merely naufea, bat
not vomiting. ‘The two others fhould be joined together
inthe form of a draught or mixture, with or without the
addition of wzther. Coltivenefs fhould be prevented by a
laxative-clyiter, or by other means; but it fhould be remem
bered, that much evacuation by the bowels is always hurt-
ful in thefe cafes. ¢

Confidering the ftrong defire exprefied by perfons labour-
ing under an attack of aithma forfrefh air, and that the ap-
pearances of the fputum are fuch as feem to indicate an

excefs of the carbonaceous principle in the blood, it was |

natural to fwppofe much relief might be obtained by the in-
halation of oxygen gas. Accordingly this gas mixed with
common air in various proportions, has been adminiitered
by different praétitioners to fuch patients; but not with the
expected fuccefs. Other factitious airs have alfo been tried;
fuch as hydrogen and hydrocarbonate. But if in any eafe
of altima, thefe gafeous fubitances have produced a bene-
ficial effect, it has been too trantitory and incontfiderable to
entitle them to be ranked among the remedies that may be
relied upon forthe cure of this difeafe. The vapour of ra-
dical vinegar, or acetie acid (fee Duncan’s Annals of
Medicine, vol. iii.), will be found an equally uncertain auxi-
lary; and ether-vapour is much better adapted to that con-
dition of the lungs which occurs in confumptions.

When the fit has gone through its courfe, fuch remedies
fhould be preferibed as are calculated to prevent its return.
Thefe fhould be takenfrom the clafs of ton:cs and ftemachies,
fuch as the Peruvian bark, bitters, chalybeates, &c.
thefe fhould be joined the temperate bath, or cold bath (in
fummer and autumn), change of air, and regular exercife
of walking, or riding on horfeback. The benefit derived
from following the plow, as aflerted by Baglivy, is to be
attributed partly to the country air, but more to the exer-
cife of walking. A dry and pure air, but not that of an
elevated fituation, is in general beft fuited to althmaties;
there are, however, frequent exceptions to this obfervation,
fome patients haviig fewer and lefs viclent attacks in the
contaminated atmofphere of the metropolis and other large
towns than in the country. The bowels fhould be kept
regular, by rhubarb and aloetic aperients. Small dofes of
calomel may be given with great advantage, in many cafes;
and efpecially where the afthmatic .affection is connected
with a difeafe ofthe fkin. Wheaever tie patient’s feelings
warn him of an approaching attack, he fhould take an eme-
tic, and after its operation an opiate: and at all times he
fhould encourage a tendency to fpitting, by ammoniacum
and {quill. Iffues have been recommended by fome praéti-
tioners for leffening the frequency and violence of the
paroxyfms. It is faid that king Wilham continued perfeGtl
free from his afthmatic complaint, during the whole of the
time that the wound he received on his fhoulder, in the bat-
tle of the Boye, kept open and difesarged matter. 5

The diet, during the intervals of the fits, fhould be care=
fully attendedto. All flatulent vegetables, all forts of paf-
try and puddings, all fat and flimy food, and broths, fhould
be avoided. A moderate quantity of butcher’s meat, and
poultry, roafted or boiled, will be proper every day, with a
{mall proportion of the more digeltible and nutritious vege-
tables. Strong ale fhould be wholly forbidden. In fome
few inftances, no harm feems to have arifea from the ufe of
frefh {mall beer or porter; but in general toait and water
will be the moft fuitable beverage. Wine thould be allowed
very fparinsly. . In regulating its quaatity, the age, confti-
tution, and habits of the patient fhould be duly attended to.

i

With ©

> a eae

_— ae

AS T

Tt does not appear that the finoking of tobacco, which fome
phyficians have recommended, is really beneficial in thefe
complaints. : .

As this difeafe occurs fo frequently, and is of fo obftinate
anature, thofe who have the misfortune to be afflicted with
it neceflarily become their own phyficians, ence we have
been induced to extend our obfervations, on this fubjeé, to
a greater length than we fhall hereafter do (with very few
exceptions,) on fiagle difeafes. But we have yet to adda
word or two on the Aumoural effhma. Under this term fome
phyficians have comprehended the anafarea of the lungs ;
but we underftand by it that f{pecies or variety of fhortnefs
of breath and wheezing, which is accompanied with a con-
ftant cough, and expectoration of mucus, and which is dif-
tinguifhed from phthifis and catarrh by being unattended
with fever. It is diftinguifhed from a dropfy of the chef,
by the abfenfe of a numbnefs of the arms; and (after the
céeffation of a temporary aggravation of the fhort-breathing
from accidental caufes,) by the patient being able to bear
the horizontal pofture. It is the pituitous althma of fome
writers. Cullen has referred it to dy{pncea; but it rather
belongs to this head, as it generally begins under the form
of convullive afthma; and, like it, is able to accidental ag-
gravations from changes cf the weather, and the other ex-
citing caufes before mentioned. In tegard to its therapeu-
tical treatment, emetics and expectorants (joined with zther
aud ether aatifpafmodics}; and blifters and iffues, are as
ferviceable here as in the convulfive afthma ; but the employ-
ment of diuretics is more particularly indicated; fuch as
{guill, acetated kali, and the digitalis. ‘Ten or fifteen drops
of the tincture of this herb, or one grain, or a grain anda
half of the powdered leaves, joined with a fourth part of
opium, fhould be given at a dofe, and be repeated twice in
twelve or fourteen hours, until the fhortnefs cf the breath
is relieved by a fiow of urine, or until fuch an efieét is pro-
duced on the pulie, the head, or the bowels, as fhail make it
neceflary to fufpend the ufe of the medicine. Decottions of
feneka or dulcamara (fee Practical Synopfis of the Materia
Medica, vol. i. p. 152. 233.) may be preferibed in place
of the digitalis, where this laft fhall-be found to difagree.
The patient fhould wear flanzel next his fkin, except during
the fummer, and fhould at all times be particularly attentive
to keep his feet warm and dry. ;

Among fyftematic writers, Willis, Hoffman, and Cullen,
Should be confulted on this difeafe ; and among the authors
of diftin treatifes, Floyer on Aithma, 1698, Ryan on ditto,
1793, and Bree on Difordered Refpiration, 1800.

ASTI, in Geography, alarge city of Piedmont, the ca-
pital of the county of Afti, fituate in a delightful and fer-
tile valley, on the banks of the Tanaro. Few cities in
Lombardy exceed it in its palaces and public buildings;
and the furrounding country is embellifhed by the feats of
the nobility and gentry. By the extent ofits walls, which
inclofe the fuburbs, it may be fuppofed to have been for-
merly well fortified; but thofe works are now decaying.
The cathedral is an elegant ftructure with a lofty rocf, a
‘fine cupola, and good painting in frefeo: upon this is am
~infeription which expreffes that it was anciently a temple of

Juno, and converted into a chriftian church by a St. Surus,
one of Jefus’s feventy difciples. It has more than thirty
other churches, parochial and conventual. Several remains
of antiquity are feen in this place; and it is faid to have
been a favourite town with Auguftus Cefar and the em-
perors. Itisthe fee of a bifhop, fuflragan of the arch-
bifhop of Milan; 24 miles eaft from Turin, and 20 wef
from Al;ffandria. N. lat. 44° 50’. EH. long. 8° 2’. See
AsTA.

Ast

Asti, in Ancient Geography, a people of Europe, ia
Thrace, who poffefled the town of Calyba.

ASTICA, or Asticr, acountry of Thrace, extending
along the Euxine fea, and commencing at a fmall diftance
north-weft.of Conftantineple. we

ASTIGI, or Asticis, Lcija, a townof Spain, in Betica,
upon the Singilis, nearly fouth of Corduba, ‘This towa waa
a Roman colony, and denominated “ Augufta Firma.”’

ASTIGI Juxiensts, a town of Spain, fituate between
the river Batis and the fea. Pliny.

ASTIPULATOR, in the Roman order, the perfon by
whofe confent and leave a nun takes the religious habit. Du
Cange.

ASTONISHMENT, denotes ahigh degree of wonder
or furprife: Johnfon defines it a confufion of mind from fear
or wonder. Dr. Cogan, in his * Philofophical Treatife of
the Paffions,” concifely defines high aftonifhment as the
incubus of the mind, which feels nothing at the inftant fo
much as its inability to aé.

ASTORCHA, in Botany, a name by which fome au-
thors call the yellow fechas, and others the purple, com-
monly called the Arabian.

ASTORES Istanp, in Geography, lies north-eait from
the north point of the ifland of Madagafear, in the Indian
Ocean. S. lat. 10° 22. E. long. 53° zo’.

ASTORGA, Baron d’, in Biogruphy, a native of Sicily,
contemporary with Marcello.

Under the title of baron he is
mentioned by Walther in 1732, who fays, that in 1726 he
compofed a paftoral, called ‘* Daphne,” at Breflaw, which
was performed with great applaufe. His “* Stabat Mater,’”
the beft of his produétions, was frequently performed at
the Academy cf Ancient Mufic eftablifhed at the Crown
and Anchor, but his cantatas, which are numerous, though
fome of them are excellent, are not equal to thofe of Mar-
cello. His “* Stabat Mater’ isa very admirable comyefi-
tion; and fome of his movements furpafs in pathos and
expreffion even thofe of Pergolefi.

AsTorGA, in Grography, a city of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Leon, fituate ia a plain reir the river Tueria. Tt is
a ftrong place aad the fee ofa biil.o, fuffragan or Compof-
tella. It was formerly the capital of the Afturias, but is
now only the chief place of a marquifate erected here ia
1465. It is called “ the city of priefts,”” from the number
of ecclefiaftics belonging to the cathedral; twenty-eight
miles nearly weft of Leon. N. lat. 42° 33’. W. long. 6° 16.’

ASTRABAD, atown of Perfia, and capital of a diftri&
of the fame name, is fituated at the fouth-eaftern extremity
of the Cafpian fea, near aconfiderable bay, with a chain of
mountains behind. The Ruffians land at this bay, and then
proceed to the capital. The province of Aftrabad lies in
the north-weit part of Perfia, having Chorafan on the eaft;
part of Tartary on the north, aad Comis and t branch of
mount Taurus to the fouth. The country in general is
mountainous, and the foil, except near the banks of the ri-
vers which run through it, fandy and barren. ‘The produc-
tions of this province are filk, rice, and cotton, like thofe
of Mazanderan, and its exports and imports nearly fimilar.
The commerce of A ftrabad is chiefly with Candahar. This
city lies very convenient for a harbour to the eaftern-diftritts
of Chorafan, Bucharia, Samareand, and even India. Ni
at. 36° 50. E. loag. 54°. .

ASTRACAWN Mouse, in Zoolocy, the Englifh name of
the Mus Pheus of Gmelin, and Zarizyn rat of Pennant. See
Preus Mes.

ASTRAKHAN; or Astracuan, in Geography, a
city cf the Ri ffian empire, formerly the capital of the king-
dom of that name, having a large and cammodious harbour,

- with

AS SER Ao. Bh ASN.

with a dock-yard and fpacious quays, fituate on an ifland in
i quay

the Volga, not far from its outlet into the Cafpian, in 46° ~

22’ lat. and 65° 43 long. It contains four monaiteries,
twenty-five Ruffian churches, and two Armenian, one Ro-
man Catholic monaitery with a church, one Lutheran church,
feveral medfheds, fchools, and feminaries, and two printing
houfes. The principal fuburbs are the Tartarian, the Kaza-
nian, and the Siberian. At Adtrakhan are 40 houfes of
brick, and 3773 of timber, befides the fuburbs.. The num-
ber of inhabitants amounts to 18,023, without including the
foreigners and periodical refidents; taken all together, they
may be computed at 70,000, as on account of the fifhery
alone upwards of 20,000 perions are annually drawn hither.
Of this mafs the Ruffians are the moit numerous, the re-
mainder being made up of Germans, Enghih, French,
Italians, Swedes, Armenians, Georgians, Tartars, Perfians,
Greeks, Kabardinians, Kalmuks, Indiansfrom Hindottan, &c.

Commerce. 1. By fea to Perfia, Khiva, Bukharia, India,
&e. exporting thither linen, wax, foap, wrought gold, filver,
and copper, tin, iron in bars and manufactured, fteel, quick-
filver, alum, ‘vitriol, fal ammoniac, fugar, tea, yufts, &c.
in- return for which they import, efpecially from the Per-
fian harbour Mangifhlak, raw filk (annually about 3000
poods), various forts of filk, half tilk, and cotton itufis,
Circafiian felt, raw cotton, fumptuous girdles, otterikins, fea-

rafs, woven kaftans, franlincenfe, mountain honey, lamb-
fins, cloths, tobacco, rice, Perfian peafe, various forts of
fruits, &c. Inthe year 1775, thefe exports amounted in
value to 561,327 rubles, the imports to 237,224 rubles, and
the duties to 24,308 rubles. 2. Freightsto Kifliar, Gurief,
&c.- of crown iftores, wine, provifions, and commodities for
fale. 3. Land trade to the towns lying on the upper parts
ofthe Volga. 4. A very large barter of commodities within
the city in the numerous markets : this is carried on by the
foreigners, generally by the Armenians and Indians.

Manufadories. In number thefe are 175, moitly belong-
ing to Armenians, and are employed in weaving filk, half
lk and cotton veils and girdles, broad-ttriped and plain filks,
plain cottons, itriped linens, in preparing morocco, leather,
thagreen, &c.

Other trades. 1. The fifhery is of very great importance,
and belongs to the citizens, who have eftablifhed a factory,
the profits whereof, from 1762 to 1785, amounted to up-
wards ofa million of rubles. 2. The capture of the porpus
on the Cafpian is likewifé carried on by the citizens of
Aftrakhan, and is extremely lucrative. 3. The culture of
orchards and vineyards gives employment to great multitudes
of people. The number of vineyards within the circuit of
the city is 135, whereof 21 belong to the crown, and the
remainder to private owners. 4. The culture of the filk-
worm is carried on partly by the citizens, and partly by the
crown. The latter has a large filk manufactory.

ASTRAKHAN, Territory or Difri of, comprehends two
extenfive iteppes or moors, abounding in faline marfhes, and
in fome parts barren heaths. 1. The Aftrakhan fteppe be-
tween the Volga and the Don; and 2. The Kalmuk or
Ural fteppe between the Volga andthe Ural. The greater
part, therefore, of this diftrict would be entirely fierile,
were it not for the falutary overflowings of the Volga,
which, at leaft on the fhores of that river, as alfo of the Don
and the Ural, create as fine meadows and paiture grounds as
can any where be feen. As corn, in this diftrit, and even
in the parts adjacent to Aftrakhan, where much induftry is
beilowed on the culture of the foil, does not fueceed well,
the deficiency is fupplied from Kazan. On the other hand,
the fineft forts of fruit flourifh here, partly growing wild

and partly cultivated in orchards, fuch as melons, arbufes or

8

water melons, apples, pears, peaches, apricots, quinces,
plums, cherries, &c. ‘The mulberry tree grows in great
abundance. ‘The vine has been domeiticated fince the year
1613, when the ‘firit vineyards were laid out at Aitrakhan,
and planted with Perfian itocks. They produce the purple
as well as the white grape, both of excellent flavour; and
the cluiters of the latter grow to an uncommon fize. The
vintage laits from the end of Augzit to the end of Sep-
tember, old fiyle, when the greater part of the cluiters are
preffed, but likewife a great quantity are packed up freth
and tranfported to all parts of theempire. Cotton is culti-
vated to a confiderable degree, and {ucceeds extremely well.

Even the faline heaths or iteppes are not entirely barren; on.

them grow wild in great quantities, various kinds of flowers

and herbs, as afparagus, poppies, dandelion, fennel, &c.
J 3 ¥ P ? ? 2

Along the Velga many {weet woods, the roots whereof
yield the feccus glycyrrize, with which the Aftrakhan
druggilts {upply the whole empire; faline herbs, viz. fali-
cornia, cheropodium,' falfola, itatice, nitraria, &c. which
are employed in foap beiliag.

The breeding of cattle is principally carried on by the
Kalmucks and Tartars, who, with their prodigious droves,
frequent the paitures along the fhores ef rivers, and noma-
dife in the iteppes.
wild goats (cervi capre, antilope faiga), hares, rabbits, the
bifam, eagles, buitards, partridges, groufe, &c. The fifh-
ery is in no part of the empire io produ€tive and profitable
as in the Caipian and the rivers that flow into it, the Volga
and the Ural. Little account is made of fmaller kinds
of fifh, fuch as pike, barhel, fudak, which are caught far-
ther up in the Volga and the Ural, and tranfported through
the whole empire. In the Cafpian only the feveral fpecies
of fturgeen are taken, viz. the beluga, the fturgeon, the
fterlet, and the fevriuga; after them, however, fhads and
mullet; the former are not unfrequently of an enormous
fize. In the year 1769, a beluga was caught in the Ural
weighing 2520 pounds, arid from which 720 pounds of caviar
was obtained. Ofall the fith of the Volga, the beluga, the
fturgeon, and the white falmon are the moit precious. The

~ fifhery in the Ural is the principal occupation of the Uralian

Kozaks; and no where throughout all Rufiia is this bufinefs
fo well regulated by immemorial ufages ashere. The chief
kinds of fiih taken in this river are the beluga,, flurgeon,
fevriuga, fterlet,.fhad, barbel, white falmon, &c. All thefe
fith {wim in fhoals, and the fevriuga, in fuch incredible mul-
titudes, that, particularly near Gurief, the warms of them
are clearly feen below the furface of the water. The ith
are here, as on the Volga, moftly falted down, the roee
made into caviar, and the founds into ifiaglafs ; but the
fifh caught in the winter are tranfported frozen. Beavers
are found in the Sunfha, tortoifes in the Terek, the Den,
the Volga, &c. The Terek andthe Kuban likewife yield
belugas, iturgeon, and fterlets. The Cafpian abounds
more in porpufes than any of the other lakes or inland feas.
Among the infects of thefe parts feveral are venomous,
and tarantulas are frequently feen. The hot baths on
the banks of the Terek were explored by order of Peter
the Great in the year 1717. The principal of them is
the St. Peter’s bath, confifting of three {prings at acon-

_fiderable diftance afunder. Their proper heat is 71° of

Reaumur, be the temperature of the atmofphere what it
may. The heat of the other fources rifes from 41 to 60
degrees of the fame thermometer. According to Gul-
denftedt, they contain fulphur and alkaline falt, no iron, but
a confiderable portion of calcareous earth. Befides thefe
are feveral other fprings. M. Guldenitdedt, in 1771 and
1773, cured ferty patients by means of thefe a

nee

Here are likewife found whole herds of »

.

ASS. TR PACKSH: AN.

{ince that time the wfle of them has become very common
in the furrounding territory.

The chief employments of the inhabitants are the labours
of the fihery, the curing of the fifh, the preparing of ca-
viar and ifioglafs, which is extremely well made, particularly
at Gurief, and the making of wine. The white wine pro-
duced here is almoit as white as water, the red only reddifh.
Both are exceeding light, but well flavoured {weet table
wines. They commonly lofe their agreeable tafte after two
years, turning four, and then they are converted into brandy
or vinegar. Great quantities of the grapes are dried and
fent through the country, as raifias, or boiled into a fyrup.
The filkworm employs a great number of hands about the
"Berek, between Kiar acd Mofdok, near Aftrakhan, &c.
likewife in the filk and cotton manufactories in Attrakhan.
In this city alfo yellow, black, and particularly red Roffia
leather is fabricated of the greateft beauty and beft quality.
The fhagreen, which is manufactured here mollly by 'Tartars
and Armenians, is a valuable {pecies of leather, not prepared
in any other country. The ‘l’artarian foap, which is made
at and about Aftrakhan, of pot-afhes andthe blubber of the
fea-dog, isin great repute, and ufedinthecloth-manufactories.
The chief {alt-petre works, about fixty verlts above Aitrak-
han, are fituate on an arm of the Volga, and carried on by
the artillery company. They produce fuch abundance of
falt-petre, that, after deducting the {tated quantities for the

owder-mills, many thoufand poods are annually exported
rom St. Peterfburg, on the crown’s account.

This is the only goverament of the empire that has coatts
onthe Cafpian. The grand mart of the Cafpian commeree
is Aftrakhan. The other Ruffian ports on this fea are
Kifliar and Gurief. The principal part of this commerce
is inthe hands of the Armenians; next to thefe are the
Rufians, then follow the Indians, the Perfians, the Truch-
menian and Chivintzian Tartars, and laftly the Nogay 'Tar-
tars, belonging to Aftrakhan. The commodities in which
this trade confifts, have been already mentioned. It was
likewife obferved, that it is divided mto the fea andJand
commerce; the exports by the former amount at prefent
to about 1,200,000, and the imports toa million rubles:
the latter is carried on by way of Kifliar and Mofdok, and
amounts to about 300,000 rubles, the imports being about
three-fourths of that fum.—The inland trade of this govern-
ment with the other provinces of the Ruffian empire is very
confiderable. Its products having been particularifed above,
it needs here only to be obferved, that in exchange it
receives, chiefly by the Volga, various kinds of European
commodities, the greater part whereof are again exported to
Perfia, &c.

Aftrakhan is a viceroyalty, and confifts; 1. of the former
government of that name, which was a Tartarian kingdom
till it was conquered by the Rufiians in the year 15543 2.
of the Caucafian territory; and 3. of the north-eaftern
diyifion of the Kuban, which for the moft part fell to
Ruffia by the peace of 1774, and the border treaty in 1783:
It was erected into a viceroyalty in 1785, and has its own
governor-general.

The ecclefiattical concerns of the Ruffians are under the
jurifdiGion of the Archbifhop of Aftrakhan and Stavropol.
The other religious parties have prefidents appointed over
them, or manage their owa {piritual affairs independently
among themfelves.

The public expenditure of this government, including
the pay of the military, is ftated at 147,373 rubles.— More-
over, this and the government of Saratof, have afligned them
in common 7000 rubles to provide for emergencies with the
neighbouring tribes.

Along the Ural, from Uralflk to Gurief, is aline of forts,
for fecuring the borders againft the Kirghifes, which are
garrifoned by Uralian Kozaks, who, in compenfation tor
their fervice, have a grant of the free fifhery of the Ural.
The corps of them, always in readinefs to march, confitts
of 12,000 men.

Along the Kuban and the Terek lines are likewife drawn,
and on the Volga, from Aftrakhan upwards, are feveral fore-
potts or redoubts.

This confiderable diftrit of Tartary formerly bore t
name of Kapfhak, in honour of the fon of a commander,
whom his mother brought into the world in the hollow of a
tree; it was afterwards denominated Nagaiya. The city
was anciently called Tmutorakan; but in procefs of time
got the appellation of Adfhi-Darchan, which the Ruffians
corruptedly pronounced Aflrakhan. Old Aftrakhan was
fituate eight verfts higher up than where the prefent city
ftands, and its firit {cite itill difcovers ruins of ancient edi-
fices. At that time it bore the name of Tmutorakan; and
Lomonofof pofitively afferts, that tzar Yaroflat Vladimiro-
vitch waged war, in conjunction with his brother Mitiflaf,
againft the fovereign of 'mutorakan, and terminated hofti-
lities by entering into an alliance with him; a circumftance
which would prove, en one hand, that the pretenfions of
Ruffia upon Adtrakhan are of a much earlier date than the
reign of Ivan Vaffilievitch, and, on the other hand, authen-
ticates the denomination of T’mutorakan, attributed to it.
As tothe particular time, however, when this city. was
transferred to another fpet, as well as that when it changed
its name,little or no knowledge is at prefent to be obtained.

The term Adfhi-Darchan implies, “* A pilgrim of Mecca
has granted liberty.” Whence it is pretended, that a noble
Tartar, on his return from a pilgrimage te Mecca, precifely
at the time when the labourers were at work in laying the
foundations of the city in its new place, granted liberty
to one_of his flayes, whether as a fort of favourable omen
to the fuccefs of the undertaking, or te teftify, according
to the principles of the Mahommedan religion, his gratitude
to heaven for the fortunate iffue of his journey: however
this may be, it is afferted that the natives feized on the
event for giving the city the appellation of Adfhi-Darchan,
as expreflive of their wifhes for the perpetual prefervation of
their Iberty. The Ruffians, however, derive its name
from Afhtar and khan, maintaining that it ought to be
pronounced Afhtarkhan, as if there had formerly been in
that country a king or khan Afhtar or Aftra, of whom,
by the way, not the flighteft veftige is to be traced in any
hiftory.

A ftrakhan then had been in the poffeffion of the Ruffians
long before the time when it fubmitted afrefh to the valour
of tzar Ivan Vaflilievitch. Formal proofs of this fact are
found in the archives of the city; where it is related that
its firit Ruffian fovereign was Mftiflaf Vladimirovitch, and
that this prince caufed a church to be built of ftone at
Tmutorakan. It was not tillthe year 1237, when Bathyus,
whom the Tartars call Bathal, having ravaged all Ruffia
and invefted both fhores of the Volga with his Tartars, that
the Ruflians loft the kingdom of Aitrakhan, and were
obliged to pafs their lives, for a great number of years,
in perpetual wars; which latted till the Greater Tartary
received a decifive blow, which was followed by the wars
of Kazan, when Ivan Vaflilievitch began to raife his head,
at length reconquered the kingdom of Attrakhan, and annex-
ed it to the Ruffian empire.

ASTRABA, from wvp, far, in Aflronomy, a name which
fome give to the fign Virgo, by others called Erigone, and
fometimes Ifis.

}

ne

ASTREAy

AST

Astaza,in Mythology, was the daughter of Aftreus
and Themis, and regarded as the goddeis of juitice. Sh
was reprefented as a virgia with an auftere but dignified
countenance; heldiyg a balance in one hand, anda {word in
the other. :

The poets feign t hat Juftice quitted heaven to refide on
earth, in the golden @ge; but, growing weary of the iniqui-
ties of mankind, fhe left the earth, and :eturaed to heaven,
where fhe commenced ‘a conftellation cf. itars, and from
her orb itill looks Gown on the ways of men.» Ovid. Met.
lib. i. ver. 14.9.

- ASTREUS, in Ancient Geography, ariver of Greece, in
Macedonia.

Astrevus, in Mythology, one of the giants or Titans,
who made war with Jupiter. He was enamoured of Au-
fora, and fhe became the mother of the winds and ftars.

ASTRAGAL, AsrraGatus, in Anatomy, the upper
Bone of the tarfus, which, by its conjunction with the bones
of the leg, forms the ankle-joint. See SKELETON, defcrip-
tion of the bones of the lower extremity.

Some alfo apply the name aftragalus to the vertebra of
the neck.—Homer, in his Odyffey, ufes the term in this
fenfe.

> AsrraGar, in Archi

iecSure, from aspayzdcc, the heel-
bone, alfo the vertebre ofthe neck. It is a {mall moulding,
haying a femicircular profile, ufed in various parts of build-
ings. But it is more particularly applied to exprefs the
moylding which feparates the fhaft from the capital of a
column, and probably reprefented the rings or hoops that
were put round wooden columns, to prevent them from
fplitting. See Arcuirecture, Plate I.

In Egyptian architeG@ure we fometimes meet with aftra-
gals at the top of the fhafts, and fometimes with feveral be-
tween the top and bottom, though frequently there is no
moulding between the fhaft and capital.

In the earlieft examples of Grecian architeéture, fuch as
the Doric temples at Corinth, Athens, Sicily, and Poeftum,
there are no aitragals or projecting moulding's feparating the
fhaft from the capital: but inftead of thefe there are grooves,
generally three in number, cut into the folid. The origi-
nal intention of this does not appear to be fufficiently obvi-
ous; nor whether it was done for ornament, or to conceal
the joint that would otherwife be feen at that place, between
the capital and fhaft. In the ancient examples of the
Tonic order the aftragal is never omitted under the capital.
In the oldeft fpecimen of the Corinthian order, that of the
monument of Lyficrates at Athens, there is no aitragal,
but there is a funk fpace between the fhaft and capital, in
which probably was inferted a circular moulding, or ring of
metal, or other material.

In Roman archite@ture we always find aftragals at the top
of the fhaft, whether the order employed be of the Doric,
Tonic, or Corinthian kind; though fometimes they were
made in the form of fquare fillets or hoops, inftead of that
of circular rings.

The aftragal was frequently by the ancients, cut into the
form of beads of various fhapes; and many of the moderns,
who have been more licentious in their ornaments, have
covered it with leaves and flowers. The proportions of the
aftrazal depend entirely upon its application; fo thar no
rules canbe given for it. ;

Astracat,in Gunnery, isakind of ring or moulding on
a piece of ordnance, at about half a foot diftance from the
‘muzzle or mouth; ferving as-an ornament to the piece, as
the former does to a column.

AstracGat Tyles. See Tyre. : .

ASTRAGALOIDES, in Botany. See AsTRAGALUS,
and Puaca.

AS T
AS RTAGALOMANCY, derived from Spey Ahoy and

parax, divination, a {pecies of divination performed by
throwing {mall pieces, with marks correfponding to the
ietters of the alphabet; the accidental difpofition of which
formed the anfwer required. This kind of divination was
pactifed in a temple of Hercules, at Achaia. - Hift. de
PY Acad. Inferip. tom. 1. p. to2.

ASTRAGALOTE, in Natural Hifors, a fpecies of
foffile alum, thus called from its refemblinc a talus, or ankle-
bones whence it is a’fo denominated fa/are.

ASTRAGALUS, in Botany, milk-vetch. Lin. gen.
892. Schreb. 1208. Jufl. 358. Gaertn. t: 154. Traga-
eantha, Tournef. Clafs, diadelphia decandria. Nat. Ord.
papilionacea, or leguminofz. Gen. Char, Cal. perianth one-
leafed, tubular, five-toothed, acute ; lower toothlets gra-
dually lefs. Cor. papilionaceous; banner longer than the
other petais, reflex on the fides, emarginate, obtule, ftraight ;
wings oblong, fhorter than the banner; keel length of the
wings, emarginate. Stam. filaments diadelphous, fimple,
nine-cleft, almoit ftraight; anthers roundifh. Pif. germ
nearly columnar; ftyle fubulate-afcending: fligma cbtufe.
Per. legume two-celled; cells bent to one fide.
kidney-ihaped,

Efi. Gen. Char. legume two-celled, gibbous.

, Stems leafy, ere@ ; not proftrate.

Species, 1. A. alopecuroides, fox-tail milk-vetch. Mill.
fig. 58. * Caulefcent; {pikes, cylindric, fubfeffile; calyxes
and legumes woolly.” Stem upright, hairy, about two feet
high; leaves pinnate; leaflets ovate, eighteen or twenty
pairs: flowers yellow, in clofe, obtufe, axillary f{pikes;
legumes fhut up in woolly calyxes, and have two cells con-
taining three or four fquare feeds in each. -It flowers in
June and July. A native of the Alps and Siberia. Cul-
tivated by Miller in 1739. 2. A. chriffianus. ‘ Caulefcent,
erect; flowers glomerate, fubfeffile, from all the leafy
axillas.” Stalks nearly three feet high, broad at bottom,
and gradually diminifhing upwards; leaves very long, which

Seedsy

alfo diminifh upward, and forma fort of pyramid; thefeare .

winged, confilting of pairs, of large oval lobes terminated by
an odd one; flowers in clufters from the alae of the leaves;
they are of a bright yellow, and fucceeded by cylindrical
pods; feeds yellow, {quare. It flowersin July. Difcovered
in the Levant by Tournefort. 3. A. capitatus. * Caulefcent;
heads globular; peduncles very long; leaflets emarginate.”
Stalks erect: long peduncles from the axils, fupporting a
head ot purple flowers, which appear in July. Difcovered
in the Levant by Tournefort. 4. A. pilofus, pale-flowered
milk vetch. ‘‘ Caulefcent, ere@, hairy, flowers in ipikes;
legumes fubulate, hairy.”” Stem more than a foot high.
round, hard, branching; leailets ten or twelve pairs,
elliptic, lanceolate, hirfute; flowers on axillary peduneles,
about fifteen, yellow; lezume nearly cylindric, whitifhy
filky. A native of the Valais, Siberia, &c. It flowers
from June till Auguit. Cuttivated by Miller in-17225
5. A. fulcaius, furrowed milk-vetch. ‘ Caulefcent, erect,
fmooth, ftriated, ftiff; leaflets linear, lanceclate, acute;
legumes three-fided.”’ Stems three fect high, round, fmooth,
leaflets about nine pairs, with an odd one, fmooth, cblong,
entire, on very fhort petioles ; peduncles racemed, axillary,
fupporting many ereét pale violet flowers; legumes {mooth,
acuminate, triangular: feeds brown, round, kidzey-fhaped.
A native of Siberia. Introduced by Dr. Pitcairn in 1735;

6. A. galegiformis, goat’s-rue-leaved milk-vetch. “ Caulet-

cent, ftiff, {mooth, Howers in racemes, pendulous; legumes
three-fided, mucronate at both ends.’’? Stems more than five
feet high; leaflets twelve or fourteen pairs, oval, with
an odd one; peduncles axillary, on which are {mall yellow
flowers; lezumes {mooth, fhort, pedicelled within the calyx,

With

ASTRAGALVUS,

with two feeds on each fide. Cultivated by Miller in 1739.
TF. June. 7. A. chinenfis. ‘ Caulefcent, ftiff, fmooth ;
flowers in racemes, pendulous ; lezumes ovate, inflated, mu-
cronate at both ends.”? This much refembles the laft; the
legumes however are different, aad the flowers of this are
variegated. The feeds were fent from China to Sweden in
the year1760. 8. A. Onobrychis, purple-{piked milk vetch.
« Caulefeent, procumbent, diffufed ; {pikes peduncled, ban-
ner twice as long as the wings ; leaflets linear.”” Stems pro-
eumbent at the bafe, ftreaked, branching; leaves lanceo-
late, {preading, with twelve pair of lobes ; peduncles fur-
rowed, itiff, longer than the leaves; bractes lanceolate ;
corollas ved. The whole plant is fprinkled with white and
black villofe hairs. Haller defcribes this plant very dif
ferently. A native of Auitria. Cultivated here in 1640.
It flowersin June and July. 9. A. uligino/us, violet-colour-
ed milk vetch, Gmel. Sib. 4. 40. t.17. “¢ Cauleicent, al-
moft upright ; flowers in fpikes; lewuwmes almof{t upright,
naked, tumid, round-flatted, point reflex.’? This refembles
A. cicer, N 13, except in the lezumes; the top of the
keel is violet-coloured. It was found by Gmelin in the
moift meadows of Siberia, and introduced here by Thouin
in 1775. 10. A. carlinianus, Carolina milk vetch, Dill.
Elth. 45. t. 39. f. 45. ‘ Caulefcent, upright, even; pedun-
cles m {pikes ; legumes ovate-cylindric, acuminated by the
ftyle.” Stems three feet high; leaves compofed of eigh-
teen or twenty pairs of oval {mooth leaflets ; flowers of a
greenith yellow on axillary peduncles. A native of Carolina.
At flowers in July and Auguit. 11 A. a/per, rough milk
vetch, Jacq. Ic. rar. t. 33. “ Caulefcent, ftifl, even, roughith;
flowers in {pikes on elongated peduncles ; legumes oblong.”’
Stems annual, two feet high, round, ftreaked, leafy,
branched ; leaves compofed of about ten pairs of lanceolate-
linear acute leaflets; {pikes long, with pale flowers ; legume
thickening above, acuminate, upright, roughith. It flowers
in June. Cultivated at Vienna from feeds fent from
Aftracan.
** Stems leafy, diffufe.

12. A. canadenfis, woolly milk vetch, Dill. Elt. 46.
t- 39. f.45. “ Caulelcent, difiufe ; lezumes fubcylindric,
mucronate ; leaflets almoft naked.’”? Stems round, about
two feet high; leaflets ten pairs, fmooth on both fides,
rather glaucous underneath ; peduncles axillary, ftreaked ;
flowers yellow ; legume, oblong, concave, flatted. A native
of Virginia and Canada. It flowers in July. Cultivated
by Dr. Sherard in 1732. 13. A.- Cicer, bladdered milk
vetch, Jacq. Aust. 3. 251. “ Caulefcent, proitrate; legumes
fubglobular, inflated, mucronate, hairy.’? Stem tighteen
inches, very branching; leaflets twelve or fifteen pairs,
oval, obtufe, hirfute; peduncles axillary, fupporting erect
{pikes of twenty or thirty pale yellow flowers ; legumes com-
pletely two-celled, with many feeds. Miller, who cultivated
this plant in 1739, gives a defcription of this fpecies,
which is fomewhat different from the above. 14. A. micro-
pAyllus, {mall, round-podded milk vetch. “ Caulefcent, ere@,
expanding ; leaflets oval ; calyxes rather tumid; legumes
roundifh.”. Stem a foot high, flexuofe, with f{preading
fhort branches; leaflets thirteen or fifteen pairs, blunt,
fometimes emarginate; peduncles folitary, with horizontal
yellow flowers, twice the length of the calyx ; legumes
mflated, villofe. A native of Siberia and Germany, flower-
ing in June. Introduced by Dr. Jacquin. 15. A. glycy-
phillus, {weet milk vetch or wild liquorice, Hudf. With.
Smith. Flor. Brit. Eng. Bot. 203. * Caulefcent, proftrate;
legumes fubtriquetrous, bowed ; leaves ovate, longer than
the peduncles.” Stems proftrate, round, flexuofe, furrowed,
a le eae leaflets from four to fix pairs, ovate or ellip-

ou. II,

tic; ftipules large, ovate, fomewhat toothed; peduncles
fhorter than the leaves, fpiked with ten or twenty greenith
yellow flowers; calyx bell-fhaped, oblique, having the
fuperior fegments very fhort; legumes incurved, triquetro-
cylindric, fmooth, many-feeded. A native of Britain and
other parts of Europe. 16. A. , dwarf-yellow-
flowered milk vetch. ‘ Caulefcent, mbent; legumes
fubulate, recurved, {mooth; leaflets obccrdate, villofe under
neath.”? Root annual, branches ftriated and trailing on the
ground; leafletsabout eight pairs ; peduucles axillary, ter-\
minated with pale yellow flowers in June. A native of
Meffina and Montpellier. Cultivated here in 1640. 17. As,
contortriplicatus, wave podded milk vetch. ‘* Cauletcent, pro-
cumbent 3 legumes writhed, channelled, villofe.”” An annual,
varying greatly in fize in different foils. It is a native of
Siberia, and was introduced here in 1783, by ‘Thouin.
18. A. boeticus, triangular-podded milk vetch. “ Cautefcent,
procumbent, {pikes peduncled; legumes prifmatic, fraimht,
three-lided, hooked at the top.”” Aunual; branches trailing,
near two feet long; leaflets about ten pairs, blunt; pedun-
cles axillary, fupporting four or five yellow flowers. It
flowers in July. A native of Spain and Portugal. Culti-
vated by Millerin 1759. 19. A. Laxmanni, Jacq. Hort. 3.
22.t. 37. Caulefcent, procumbent; {pikes elongated; le-
gumes oblong, three-corncred, marked with a furrow, mu-
cronate, villole.”’ Stems branching, fubangular, proftrate, a
foot long, produced as are the branches into long rifing pe-
duncles, {treaked and ending in a clofe {pike; leaflets about
twelve pairs, oblong, fellile, entire; bra&tes fetaceous ;
flowers pale blue. It is a native of Siberia, and flowers in
June and July. 20. A. Stella. “¢ Caulefcent, diffufe; heads pe-
duncled, lateral; legumes ftraight, fubulate, mucronate.”
Stems {preading, a foot long, ftriated, hifpid with white
crowded hairs; branches numerous; leaflets on each fide
of the midrib nine, ovate, obtuie ; ftipules ovate, acute: pe-
duncles about the length of the leaves, fupporting about
fifteen bluith flowers; legumes hairy, grooved on each
fide, with a reflex point. “A native of Montpellier. 21. A.
Sefamens, ftarvy milk vetch. “* Cauletcent, diffufe; heads fub=
feffile, lateral; legumes fubulate, refleéted at the point.’’
Annual; ftems weak; leaflets ten pairs, hairy; flowers
{mall, axillary, of a copper colour. A native of the fouth
of France. Cultivated by Parkinfon, in 1616. 22. A.
auftriacus, Auttrian milk yetch, Jacq. Auft. 2. 56. t. 195«
“ Catilefcent, proftrate; fmooth, ftriated, weak; leaflets fub-
linear, emarginate; legumes round.” Frora feven inches toa
foot high; flipules femiovate, entire; leaflets fublinear,
emarginate, about eight pairs; peduncles racemed, with
bluifh flowers. It flowers in May and June. 23. A. deon-
tinus, Jac. Ic.rar. 37. “ Caulefcent, proitrate ; legumes ovate;
villofe ; flowers {piked, erect.’”? Stipules fhort, ovate-lanceo-
late, half ftem-clafping ; leaflets ten pairs, oblong-oval, en-
tire, pubefcent ; branches with a fpike of whitifh or pale
blue flowers; legumes at the top. 24. A. pentaglotlis.
“ Caulefcent, procumbent ; legumes headed, folded back,
comprefled, converging, crefted, with a reflected point.”
A. procumbens, Mill. Dig. n. 18. A. echinatus, Murr.
Prod. 222. A. criftatus, Gouan Illutt. 50. Leaflets fif=
teen, oblong, emarginate, pubefcent underneath ; petioles
hairy 5 ftipules ovate, lanceolate; peduncles axillary, de-
cumbent, hairy, terminating in a head of five purplifh
flowers; legumes bent in, warted, hooked at the tep. Lins
neus, Miller, and Muriay, have deferihed this {pecies dif-
ferently. A native of Spain. 25. A. ¢pig/ettis, heart-pedded
milk vetch. “ Caulefceat, procumbent; legumes headed, fef-
file, nodding, cordate, mucronate, folded back, naked,’’
Annual; it fends out from the rovt three hairy trailing

x branches g

hame sus

J

pre

ASTRAGALUS, “

branches; leafletsblunt, about twelve pairs; pedunclesaxillary,
naked, terminated by around head of large deep purple-
celoured flowers; legumes rough, and when opened fhaped
like a heart, ending in a fharp point, and containing three
or four feeds. The {tem according to.Chevalier Murray
coes not divide, and has hairs clofely prefled to it; leaflets
fix pairs, and not more; corollas purple; Linnzus fays
white. A native of Provence, Spain, &c. in mountainous
woods, flowering in July. Cultivated in 1768, by Miiler.
26. A. hypoglotits, purple mountain milk vetch. With. 643.
Smith Bnt..779. Eng. Bot. 274. A. arenarius, Hudf. A.
epiglottis, Dickf. H. Sicc. fafc. 1. “ Caulefcent, proftrate,
flowers 11 heads, legumes ovate, channelled on the back,
hairy, hooked at the end.’ Stems fiexuofe, proftrate, three or
four inches high; leaflets of the pinnas numerous, {mall,
pvate, hairy underneath ; peduncles fcarcely longer than the
leaves, headed; braétes very much fhorter than the calyxes;
flowers variegated with white purple ; calyx tubercular,
rough, hairy, black with a little white intermixed ; lecumes
ovate, turgid, hairy. It flowers in June and July. Fousd
in feveral parts of Engiand, in fandy and chalky paftures.
The flowers are fometimes white. 27. A. fyriacus, Syrian
milkvetch. ‘‘Caulefcent, procumbent; heads peduncled, flow-
ers reflected, legumes tomentofe, ovate-oblong. A native of
Siberia. 28. A. arenarius. “Subcaulefcent, procumbent, flow-
ers fubracemed, ere€t, leaves tomentofe.”? Stem inclining; fix
inches high, branched, covered with a nap; leaflets of the
pinnas linear-lanceolate, entire, complicate; itipules bifid,
{cariofe, tomentofe ; peduncles fupporting about four blue
flowers, legumes fickle-fhaped, tomentofe, acuminate, chan-
nelled. A native of Scania, in loofe fand. 29. A. Glaux,
{mall milk vetch. “‘ Caulefcent, diffufe ; heads peduncled, im-
bricate, ovate, flowers erect, lerumes ovate, callous, inflated.”
Stems feven inches long, villofe towards the top ; leaflets
twenty or twenty-three, imall, ovate-oblong, fcattered under-
neath with white hairs. A native of Spain. Cultivated at
the Oxford garden in 1658. 30. A. finicus. Phil. Tranf. a.
1764. ‘Caulefcent, proitrate, umbels peduncled, legumes
prifmatic, fubulate at top.”? Root annual, ftems fpreading on
the ground; leaflets fuborbiculate ; fiowers purplifh, wings
white, keel purple. A native of China. 31. A. alpinus,
Alpine milk vetch, Flor. Dan. t. 51. “ Caulefcent, procum-
bent ; flowers pendulous, racemed, legumes acute at both
ends, hairy.”’ Stemsabovea foothigh; leaflets hirfutith, ovate,
often ten pairs; ftipules two, ovate, lanceolate, very fhort,
white; flowers in umbels of twelve or fifteen fpecious white
flowers; calyx rough, with black hairs; lesume rough,
black, inflated, crooked. A native of the mountains of
Swifferland and Lapland. Introduced here about the year
1771. 32. A. Ammodytes. Pallas It. 2. t. 10. ‘ Caulefcent,
underfhrubby, flowers twins, legumes ovate, twin woolly.’?
Annual. Stems branching, woolly ; leaflets from five to
eleven, rather oblong, hoary. It grows on the fandy hills of
Southern Siberia. 33. A. trimestris, Egyptian milk yetch.
«¢Subcaulefcent, scapes mostly two-flowered, legumeshooked,
fubulate, two-keeled.”? Annual.’ Stem fix or feven inches
high, hirfute, reddith. Sometimes'a {cape appears before
the items; leaflets about eleven pairs, oblong, emarginate’;
hirfute, entire; ftipules fetaceous, hairy ; peduncles racem-
ed with three or four {preading, pale-yellow flowers. A
native of Egypt, flowering in July. Introduced here before
777° ;
*** Scape naked, without a leafy flem.

33. A. verticillaris. “ Leaflets aggregate, femiverticilled.””
Leayes pinnate, four or five at each infertion, fo as to appear
whorled items. .A native of Siberia. 35. A. montanus.
Jacq. Auk. 2. 164. “ Nearly itemlefs, feapes longer than.the

leaf, flowers loofely {piked, ere&, legumes ovate, with an ine
flefted point.” The whole plant flightly villafe; ftiprles ob-
long, imbricate, covering the item; leaflets lanceolate, point-
ed, rounded at the baie, the lower ones fhorter and bent
down; flowers blue, from eight to ten, according to Haller,
bet Linnezus fays they are red and ereG. A native of the
warmer parts of Europe. 36 A. vefcarius. “ Scapeslonger
than the leaves, flowers loofely {piked, calyxes and legumes
inflated, hirfate.’? Caulefcent, half a foot high ; leaflets fix
pairs, oval, heary, entire; peduncles frm, furrowed, higher
than the whole plant befides, with a head of frem five to
eight flowers, having the banner purple, wings yellow, keel
white. A native of Dauphiné and: Siberia. 37. A phy-
Jodes. “ Scapes equal to the leaves, legumes fubglobular, in-
flated, naked.” Flowers ina fpike, yellow, incceeded by
{wollen pods, containing feveral greenith feeds ; bra€tes vil-
lofe., A native of Sibezia, fowerimgin June. 38. A. capri-
nus. *¢ Scape erect, Izaflets ciliate, legumes ovate, tumid,
villofe.’? Leaflets from fifteen to twenty pairs, hairy on the
edge; peduncles a foot long, {piked, with many pale-yellow.
flowers; legumes thick, three-fided, mucronate. A native
of Barbary and Ruffia. 39. A. uralenfis, filky milk vetch-

iudf. Lightf. With. Smith. Brit. Eng. Bot. 466. « Stem-
le's, feape erect, longer than the leaves, legumes oblong,
inflated, villofe, erect.” Radical leaves with many pairs of
leaflets, firm, naked; ftipules {cariofe ; {capes erect, Headed;
and finally fpiked; braétes the length-of the calyx, linear-
lanceolate; calyx tubular, rough, with black and white
hairs ; corolla a violet colour; legumes ere, cylindric, ob+
long, turgid, befet with black hairs prefled down. ~It grows
on the mountains of Scotland. 40 A. monfpeffulanus,
Montpellier milk vetch. ‘‘ Scapes declining, the length of the
leaves, legumes fubulate, round, rather bowed, <2
Scapes procumbent, twice as long as the leaves, leaflets ovate, -
acute, pubeicent, from ten to twenty pairs; feape simple,
bearing a raceme of nearly thirty purple flowers; legumes
long, flender. A native of the fouth of France. _Introdu-
cedin 1776, by Pitcairn. 41. A. incanus. “ Scapes declining,
leaflets tomentofe, legumes fubulate, rather bowed, hoary,
incurved at top.”? Scapes rough, fupporting often twenty
flowers ; legumes a little bent, turgid. It differs from the
4oth in having the leaves rounder and hoary, the legumes
almoit ftraight and more turgid. A native of the fouth of
France. 42 A.campe/iris, field milk vetch. “ Calyxesand
legumes villofe, leaflets lanceolate, acute, fcape decumbent.”
Stem none, but procumbent runners half an inch long ; leaf-
lets about fifteen pairs, hairy, fhiping; {cape radical, bear-
ing ten or twelve flowers in a loofe raceme ; brattes lanceo-
late, shorter than the calyx ; corollas a pale-yellow. WA na-
tive of Swifferland and Germany. Introduced in 1778.
43 A. depreffus, dwart white-flowered milk vetch. “ Scapes
fhorter than the leaf, legumes nodding, leaflets fubemargin-
ate, naked.’? Branches very fhort, prefied clofe to the ground;
feapes with nearly feven flowers, fmall and white; le-
gumes cylindric, acuminate, the length of the fcape, fmooth;
leaflets numerous, oval, with hoary hairs undermeath. _ Cul-
tivated in 1772, in the Oxford botanic garden. 44. A. un-
catus ., “ Scapelefs, legumes fubulate, hooked, ionger than the
leaf, leaflets obcordate.”? Annual. Stems trailing; leaflets
broader at their end, than at their bafe, and indented fo as
to be nearly heart-fhaped ; flowers white, in axillary loofe
{pikes ; legumes fickle-fhaped. Difcovered about Aleppo,
by Dr. Ruffel. 45. A. efcapus, hairy podded milk vetch,
Woodv.Med. Bot.fupp.*Scapelefs, legumes woolly, leayesvil-
lofe.’? Leafletstwenty-one to thirty-three, ovate, feflile, hairy;
flowers numerous, radical, fubfetiile, yellow; calyx ovate,
fwelling, white withdown, legumes oval, befet ee

» po

ASTRAGALUS.

pointed at both ends. A native of Hungary. Since the
year 1786, this plant has been much celebrated as a remedy
in fyphilitic complaints. Its fuccefs in curing old venereal
affections was experienced by Quarin, in the general hofpital
at Vienna, and the efficacy of this plant was afterwards ac-
Knowledged over all Germany, Its root is employed in decoc-
tion, in the proportion of half an ounce, to a pint of water,
and taken warm night and morning,

HH Stems cvoody.

46. A.tragoides, Gmel. Sib. 4. 52.n.67. “Nearly ftemlefs;
flowers radical, numerous, fubfefiile.’? It has no ftem or
feape, but has branches from the root, fpreading on the
ground, with {mall villofe-pinnate leayes ; calyxes hirfute,
with black teeth; corollas yellow; lezumesroundifh, fmooth.
‘A native of Swifferland, Siberia, and Armenia. 47. A.
Tragacantha, goat’s thorn. Woody. Med. Bot. 2. t.. 98.
« Trunk arborefcent; petioles becoming.{pinefcent.”? Stems
a foot long, leafy, brapching ; leaflets about ten pairs, {mall,
ovate ; bractes ovate, lanceolate ; flowers ere&t, four or five
in a clufter, having a purple keel, and a yellowifh white
banner and wings.. A native of the fea-fhore near Mar-
feilles, of Swiflerland, mount /®tna, Clympus, &c. Cul-
tivated here in 1640. Miller makes four forts of tragacan-
tha. Trom this {pecies is gathered the gum tragacanth ufed
for various purpofes, as well as an article in the materia me-
dica. It forces its way through the crevices of the bark to
which it adheres and concretes. ‘This gum differs from all
others, in giving a thick confiftence toa much greater quan-
tity of water, which it flowly imbibes, and but imperfectly
diffolves. It is uled as a demulcent, and peculiarly well
adapted for the formation of troches.

Other /pecies.
~ 48. A. fatidus, Villar’s Dauph. 3. t. 43. f. 1.’ Stemlefs;
leaves proftrate, vifcid, tharply linear; {eape ere€t, with few
flowers.”” Leaflets greenifh, yellow, fubhirfute, vifcid, about
twenty pairs, much lefs than thofe of the campeftris, which
it much refembles ; but in this the legumes are more inflated,
and put forth a greater number of heads of yellow flowers.
A native of Dauphine, alfo of mount Cenis, and other high
Alps. 49.A. Halleri. “Scapes leaflets; leaves ovate-lanceo-
late, {mooth ; legumes inflated, hirfute, ere&t.’? This alfo
approaches to the campreitris, but differs in the braftes, in
the fmoothnefs of the leaves, in having a longer flower,
white, and not a violet-coloured keel. A native of the
mountains of the Valais and Piedmont. 50. A. vulnerari-
aides, Allion. Ped. t. 19. f. 2.‘ Stemlefs, hirfute ; feapes
Tonger than the leaves ; legumes inflated, ovate, in heads.’?
This has the habit of anthyllis vulneraria. The corolla is
but little extended beyond the calyx ; the keel and wings of
a dufky-colour; the banner of a pale yellow, emarginate ;
legumes thort, rather hifpid, crooked at the ttyle. A na-
tive of mount Cents. 51. A. fenuifolius, upright milk vetch.
«Caulefeent, erect ; {pikespeduncled ; banner twice as long
as the wings; leaflets linear.”’ Leafletsfrom eleventothirteen;
faditicles lone. ttraight, obtufely triangular. It refembles

, A. onobrychis fo as to be thought a variety, but. differs in

having rather tomentofe leaflets, larger flowers, and folitary
dtipules. A native of Siberia. Introduced here by Pallas,
In 1780. 52. A. virefcens, green-flowered milk vetch.
« Cauleicent, erect; lezumes bent back ; ‘peduncles many-
flowered, longerthan the leaf; leaflets lanceolate,acute.’? A.
native of Siberia, and introduced by P. S. Pallas, in 1780.
£3. A. Garbaneillo, Cavan. Hifp. n. 93. t. 84.. “ Stem
fhrubby, upright ; pinnules ovate-oblong, fomewhat tomen-
tofe ; peduncles naked, clongated.”? Stem a foot and a half
high, covered with a very fhort white nap; leaflets iumerous,
gvate-oblong, oné-nerved, fubtomentofe; ftipules flem-clafp-

ing, cowled, bifid at the tip ; peduncles naked, clongated ;
axillary, ending in {pikes of pale yiolet-coloured flowers. A
native of Peru. It flowered in the royal garden, Madrid.
54. A. hifpidus, Billardiere, Ic. Syr,.1.18. ‘Caulefcent, pro-
cumbent ; leaffets and legumes ovate, hifpid ; corollas fhort-
er than the calyx.” Stem herbaceous, procumbent, hairy,
fix inches high ; leaflets ovate-oblong, hifpid, with opprefled
rigid hairs, tubercled at the bafe; flowers in {pikes, yellow,
with lanceolate hifpid bractes ; legume ovate-oblong, com-
prefled, a little hifpid; feeds kiduey-thaped. 55. A. emar-
ginatus, Billard. 1. ¢. Almoft itemlefs ; feapes very long ;
heads globofe ; legumeswoolly.”” Leafletsforty-thiecor fifty-
one, ovate-oblong, emarginate, tomentofe ; itipules ovate,
lanceolate, fhrivelling ; flowers in a globofe head, purplith,
with lanceolate hairy brates ; legume fubovate, acute, de-
prefled at top, wrapped in fubrufous wool. 56. A. danatus,
Billard. I.c. «© Stemlefs, with a naked feape, the length
of the leaves 5; legumes in clofe {pikes, woolly, half-cordate,
three-fided, fubulate ; leaves villoie.””? Leaves radical; leaflets
generally from eleven to twenty-three, ovate, tomentofe,
feffile ; flowers yellow, on a clofe {pike, with filiform hairy
bractes. ‘T’hisand the two preceding f{pecies are natives of
mount Libanus. 57. A. /eucophaus, Lin. Tranf. 1. 252.
* Caulefcent, procumbent ; lecumes fubcylindric, ftraicht,
{mooth 3 leaflets obcordate, villofe underneath.”? Allied to
A. hamofus; but differs in having rounder leaves, more
flowers on the {pike, and efpecially in having {traight pods,
which are very fhort. Native country unknown. Cultiva-
ted in the Chelfea garden. 58. A. deflexus, L’ Herit. Stirp.
noy. 6. 167. “‘Subcaulefcent, proftrate; {capes twice as long
as the leaf ; lezumes gaping ; leaves pectinate, right angled.’”
A. hians. Jacq. Ic. t. 153. Branches fhort, round ; twigs
villofe ; leaves fix inches long; leaflets fifteen to twenty
pairs, gradually {maller at the top, lanceolate, entire, acute,
concave, villofe, hirfute beneath ; {capes radical, folitary,
naked, terminated in fpikes crowded with purple flowers;
bra&te linear, acute, under each flower ; legumes oblong,
turgid, having a groove on each fide, villofe, one-celled,
one-yalyed. A native of the loftieft mountains of Siberia.
59- A. unifulius, L? Herit. Stirp. nov. 6. 168. « Suffruticofe,
procumbent ; ilipules folitary, ttem-clafping, oppofite to the
leaves, bifid.?? :
Dombey. 60. A. varius, L’Herit. 1. c. 6. 169. “ Caulef-
cent, {uffraticofe, upright ; flowers in loofe {pikes ; legume
linear; ftipules fuliginofe downwards.’ A hoary little fhrub,
about a cubit in height; leaflets fix or feven pairs, linear or
narrow-lanceolate, fharp at both ends; ftipules half ftem-
clafping, two-parted, acute, fpreading, and rolled back ;
{pikes axillary, folitary, on peduncles longer than the leaves;
flowers fubfeflile, purple, with linear acute villofe brates ;
legume linear, round, villofe. A native of Siberia. 61.
A. arifiatus, L’ Herit. loc. 6.170. “Suffruticofe, pre“ rate ;
leaves hairy ; petioles fpinefcent ; calyxesawned.”’ It differs
from the tragacanth in having green leaves, and being {mall-
ex; the petioles {earcely fpinefcent, and not very firm ; the
flowers purple; the calycine tecth having long awns. A
native of Swifferland and Provence. 62. A. pugniformis,
L’Herit. 1. c.6. 170. Trag. orientalis, &e. Tournef. Cor.
30. Pocock. It. 3. 188. t. 88.“ Shrubby, procumbent ;
heads {tem-clafping, tomentofe ; petioles and leaves pungent
and {mooth.”? This is remarkable for the heads or balls of
flowers, which are purple. A native of the Levant. 63.
Avechinoides, L?Eerit. l.'c. F. cretica, &c. ‘Tourn. Cor.
29g. Theleavesare minute; the flowers fmall, white, with
a purple line onthe banner ; peduncles axillary, fhort, two-

flowered. A native of Crete or Candia. :
' Propagation and Culture. All the {pecies may be raifed
\ 2 from

A native of Peru, where it was found by

Oy
Si

AS

from feeds. Thefe fhould be fown in Aprilon anopen bos-
der of light earth; the annual forts where they are to re-
main ; the perennials to be tranfplanted to the places for
which they are deftined. They are in general hardy, and
require no other care than to draw the pleats where they
come up too thick, leaving them a foot aid a half or two
feet afunder, and te keep them clear from weeds. Obferve
only that fome (as n. 26. 35, 37.) require a fhady fituation
and itrong foil ; others {as n. 6, 39.) aa open fituation and
dry foil; n. 2. & 33. muit be planted in a warm border;
3+ 7- TO. 12. 30. mult be raifed on a moderate hot-bed, in
the {pring : and when the plants are fit to’ be removed, they
fhould be each put into a {mall pot, filled with light earth,
and plunged again into the hot-bed, fhading them from the
fun, until they have taken root, after which they fhould
have free air admitted to them daily, in proportion to the
warmth ot the feafon, and fhould be frequently, but gently,
watered. In May, they fhould be removed to a fheltered
fituation, and remain till O€&tober, when they ought to be
placed under a common frame. In the fpring they may
be turned out of the pots, aad planted in a warm border,
where they will flower, and fometimes produce feeds. If
the winter prove fevere, a little old tan fhould be laid over
the roots. The tragacanth plants, when they are large
enough, fhould be planted into pots, and placed in the fhade
till they haye taken root ; after which they are to be re-
moved into an open fituation, where they may remain to the
end of Oétober, and then placed under a common frame,
well fecured from the froft. Some of thefe plants may be
fet on a warm dry border. Thefe plants may alfo be in-
creafed by flips, which, for want of feeds, is the method
commonly ufed here. The belt time for doing this is in
April, juft as the plants begin to fhoot, at which time the
tender branches fhould be flipped off, and the lower part be
divefted of decayed leaves ; then they fhould be planted in
a temperate hot-bed, which muft be covered with mats to
fkreen them from the heat of the fun by day, and the cold
by night. Thefe flips fhould be frequently gently watered,
until they have taken root ; after which they may be ex-
pofed to the open air ; and, in very dry weather, refrefhed
with water. On this bed they may remain until the follow-
ing {pring, covering them with mats in very fevere weather.
In April they may be tranfplanted either into pots, filled
with light fandy earth ; or into warm borders, where, if the
foil be dry, gravelly, or poor, they will endure almoft the
fevereft cold of our climate : but if they are planted in a rich
foil, they often decay in winter. See Martyn’s Miller’s Dict.

AsTRAGALUS. See ANTHYLLIS, BIisERRULA, Cro-
TALARIA, GirycinE, HepysArumM, INDIGOFERA, Oro-
Bus, Puaca.

ASTRAL, from affrum, of the Greek asne, ffar, fonie-
thing belonging to the ftars, or depending on the ftars.

AstTRAL, or fiderial year. See Year.

ASTRANTIA, in -Botany, (from acie, aftrum, and
ejioc, Obvium, Lin.), maiter-wort. Lin. gen. 327. Schreb.
459. Gertn. 20. Clafs, pentandria digynia. Nat. Order of
umbellate. Gen. Char. Cal. umbel univerfal, with very few
rays {often three): partial, with very numerous ones ; in-
volucre univerfal, with leaflets doubled to the ray ; partial,
with leaflets about twenty, lanceolate, fpreading, equal,
coloured, longer than the umbellule ; perianth proper, tive-
toothed, acute, ere&t, permanent. Cor. univerfal, uniform ;
flofcules of the ray abortive ; proper, with petals five, erect,
inflex, bifid. Stam. filaments five, fimple, the length of
the corollule ; anthers imple. Pi/?. germ oblong, inferior ;
ftyles two, erect, filiform; ftigmas fimple, fpreading. Per.
fruit ovate, obtufe, crowned, ftriated, bipartile. Seeds two,

Ass

ovate-oblong, covered with the cruft of the pericarp,
wrinkled.

Eff. Gen. Char. Partial involucres lanceolate, {preading,
equal, longer, coloured ; flowers very many, abortive.

Species, 1. A. major, great maiter-wort, (8) A. nigra
minor. ‘ Leaves five-lobed ; lobes trifid.”” Stem eighteen
inches high, little branched ; leaves fhining, petioled, deeply
five-cleft, lobes trifid, and fharply ferrate ; leaves of the i=
volucre veined; all the flowers are peduncled, aad the
peduncles are fherter than the involucre; the umbels are
large, and the calyxes awned ; the involucre is either purple
or white ; hence Miller, following Tournefort, has made of
this two fpecies. A native ofthe fouth of Europe, fower-
inp in Auguit. Cultivated here by Gerard. 2. A. carnio-
lica. Jacq. Auit. 5. 31. ‘* Leaves five or feven-lobed,
fimple or bifid.’? The whole plant is f{mooth. Stem round,
erect, flender, from fix to twelve inches high, with only
one leaf on it ; it is divided at top into ftriated branches, in
the form of an umbel ; number of the umbels very variable ;
bractes imall, ovate, concave, blunt, pale ; leaflets of the
univerial involucre feffile, acute, entire, or divided into two
or three lobes ; leaflets of the partial from fix to twelve,
oblong; lanceolate, entire ; male and female florets irregu-
larly mixed ; the former on longer peduncles ; petals white,
appearing heart-fhaped, by being bent in at thetip. A
native of Carniola, flowering in July and Auguft. 2. A.
mizor, little or Alpine mafter-wert. ‘“ Leaves digitate,
ferrate.”” It feldom attains a foot inheight. Petioles four
inches long; leaves divided into eight fegments, deeply
ferrate ; univerfal involucre compofed of feveral very narrow
leaflets ; peduncles of the partial umbels very large, flender
towards the top, often dividing into three, each having a
{mall umbel, with {mall white involucres. A native of the
Alpine vallies of Swiflerland. Cultivated by Miller. 4. A.

ciliaris. ‘¢ Leaves lanceolate, ferrate-ciliate.” A foot high,

rufhy, ereét, ftreaked, divided at top into a few flowering .

branches ; radicled leaves petioled ; item-leaves four to fix,
fefiile ; half {tem clafping ; umbel elongated, three-rayed 5
umbellules many-rayed, very fhort ; involucre two or three-
leaved refembling the leaves; involucels ten, leaves broad-
lanceolate, acute, coloured. A native of the cape of Good
Hope. 5. A. Epipadis. Jacq. Auft. 5. 32. App. t. 11.
«¢ Leaves five-parted, obtufe ferrate.’? Root black on the
outfide, producing one leaf and one feape ; leaf fhorter than
the fcape, three-parted, on a triangular petiole; feape
fmooth, angular, naked, one-flowered ; inyolucre five-leaved ;
flowers in ahead, yellow. A native of Idria, Gorizia, and
Hungary. ;

Propagation and Culture. Thefe plants, except the fourth,
are very hardy, and may be propagated either by fowing
their feeds, or by parting their roots. If from feeds they-
fhould be fown in autumn, on a fhady border, and at
Michaelmas they thould be tranfplanted where they are to
remain, obferving to give them a moiit and fhady fitu-
ation. very third or fourth year they ought to be taken
up at the end of O&ober, and their roots parted and planted
again. ‘The fourth requires the protection of a dry ftove in
winter.

ASTRARII, in Middle dze Writers, the fame with,
manfionarii, thof2 who live in the houfe or family, at the.
time, for inftance, when a perfon dies. Du-Cange.

Thefe are alfo denominated afro addiGi, q. d. tied to the.
hearth.

ASTRARIUS Heres, is ufedin our Old Writers, where.
the anceftor, by conveyance, hath fet his heir apparent, and
his family, in a houfe in his life-time.

Spelman carries the import of the word farther, as if it.

denoted”

——

as

ASST
denoted an heir to whom the inheritance was given by his
predeceflor in his own life, by a writing in form.

The word is formed from g/!yc, an ancient French term
for the hearth of a chimney.

ASTRASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

ASTRATA, an ifand of the Arabian gulf, on the
coait of Ethiopia. Ptolemy.

ASTREA, in Entomology, afpeciesof Puarana(Nodua),
of a brown colour both above and beneath ; difk tranfparent :
and thorax fhowy-white, dotted with black. This infect
inhabits New Holland. Fabricius, &c.

ASTRICTION, from affringo, [ bind, in Medicine, a
term which, when it refers to the inteftinal canal, denotes
coftivenefs ; when it refers to the {lin, denotes a want of
perfpiration. It is feldom ufed by modern phyficians.

ASTRICTOR Toga. See Toca.

ASTRILD, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Loxta that in-
habits the Canary iflands and various other parts of America
and Africa. It is larger than the common wren, of a
brown colour, undulated with blackith ; bill, orbits of the
eye, and breaft fcarlet. Gmel. &c. This is fringilla undu-
lata, Pall. Senegallus flriatus, Brill. Le Senegali rayé, Buff.
Wax-lill of Edwards, and wax-lill grofbeak of Latham.

Individuals of this fpecies vary much in colour, and there
are in particular two varieties that deferye attention ; namely,
“the red-rumped grofbeak, and white-rumped grofbeak, (/)
Senegallus peCtore exalbido, uropygti fafcia rubra ; and (y)
Senevallus corpore fubtus ex rofeo albo of Gmelin. Both
of thefe are about the fize of the former; the red-rumped
kind has the breaft and belly of a dirty white, and, betides
‘the upper tail coverts being crimfon, has a bar of the fame
colour acrofsthe vent. In fome {pecimens, the under parts
incline to yellow ; the fides of the rump, and wing coverts
fpotted with white ; and the bill bordered with black ; one
of this kind was brought by Sonnerat from the ifle of
France. Buffon cails the red-rumped variety le feveran, and
moineau du Senegal. The white-rumped kind aifo inhabits
Senegal ; the throat and fides of the neck are bluith white ;
the rett of the underparts and rump white, tinged with rofe
colour ; top of the head, neck, and back blue, paleft on the
head; andlegsred. The colour of the legs diftinétly marks
this variety from the former, for in the firit-mentioned kind
they are brown, and mm the fecond dark grey.

ASTRINGENS, crocus martis. See Crocus.

ASTRINGENTS, in the AWeateria Medica. This term
is applied to a clafs of fubftances which, according to Dr.
Cullea’s accurate definition, when applied to the human
body, “ produce a contraction and condenfation in the foft
folids, and thereby increafe their denfity and force of cohe-
fion. If applied to longitudinal fibres, the contraction is
made in the length of thefe ; but if applied to circular fibres,
they diminifh the diameters of the veilels or cavitieswhich the
veflels furround.’”’

Aftringency in any fubftance is moft accurately detected
by the talte, by corrugating the tongue, and giving a fenfa-
tion of harfhnefs and roughnefs to the palate. ’

A(tringents appear to act nearly in a fimilar manner on
the fimple or dead animal fibre as on the living folid, in either
cafe thickening and hardening ; when applied to the liv-
ing folid, they produce increafe of tone and itrength, re-
ftrain inordinate a€tions, and check exceffive difcharges
from any of the veffels or cavities; and to the dead fibre
occafion that denfity, toughnefs, impervioulnefs to water in
a greater or lefs degree, and infufceptibility to the common
caufes of putrefaétion, in which confills the procefs of
TANNING, OF preparation of leather,

AS T

No fingle chemical teft (except the dire&t experiment on
animal fibre) willalways detect the property of aftringency,
as this is found to refide in many different claffes of fub-
ftances. Acids, efpecially the {tronger mieral, are power-
fuily altringent; as alfo are feveral metallic falts, fuch as
the folutions of iron, zinc, copper, and lead in various acids;
likewife a few earthy falts, {uch as alum and felenite, or
fulphate of lime; alfo alcohol, or any kind of ardent fpirit,
the operation of which in hardening animal fibre is very
remarkable. But the moft numerous clafs of altringents
are thofe taken from the vegetable kingdom, efpecially trom
the barks of feveral trees, and fome of the natural gum
refins. Modern chemiltry has afcertained fome highly im-
portant facts concerning the nature of the vegetable aftrin-
gents, which fhould be noticed here in order to correct fome
erroneous opinions that are very prevalent in all medical
writers. ‘I'he property of flriking an inky blacknefs with
folutions of iron, has been conitantly given as one of the
fureft tefts of aftringency in vegetables. Of this, the fami-
har inftance of making common writing ink with an infu-
fion of the oak gall-nut, is known to every one; but it
fhould be remembered, that this property 1s owing to a
peculiar acid, the Gairic, and not to the true aftringent
principle, in modern chemical language called ‘Tannin, to
which the acid of galls here happens to be united. Of
this we fhall treat fully, under thefe important articles ;
but the pharmaceutical chemift fhould now be aware, that
the teft of blacknefs with iron is by no means a fure indica-
tion of aftringency, but only a probable prefumption of its
prefence. Thus one of the flrongeft of the known aftrin-

ents, the terra japonica, or catechu, will not give the
{malleft degree of blacknefs to folutions of iron, as it con-
tains only tannin, the true aftringent principle; and not the
Gallic acid. The proper teft for this fub{tance, befides the
efiect on the tongue, is a folution of any kind of animal
gelly ; of which more hereafter.

When the true aftringent principle is naturally mixed with
any acid, the tafte of acerdne/s is given, in which the corruga-
tion of the papillz of thetongue ismoft peculiarlyremarkable.
The juices of feveral unripe fruits, the gall-nut, and many
of thofe aftringents that contain much gallic acid, and
give a ftrong black with iron, are examples of this.

Tannin is itfelf fomewhat bitter, and appears to be alfo
united, in many cafes, with fome principle which gives it more
than its ufual bitternefs. ‘This is probably the cafe with
moft of the aftringent bitters employed in medicine, and it is
in this combination, that aftringents prove fo eminently
tonic. In fome inftances the tannin is united with a fweet
fubftance, as. in the examples of the catechu, and the lignum
campechenfe.

Aftringents when employed externally to top hemor-
rhage, are then termed StyPrics.

Aitringents are very largely ufed in medicine, and with
the higheft advantage. ‘'he cafes where they are moft un-
equivocally beneficial, and in which the operation may be
a{cribed purely to the aftringent property, are diarrhceas, or
ferous evacuations from the inteftinal canal. They have
alfo long been thought of ufe in reftraining difcharges of
different kinds, even when not directly applied to the part,
fo that. aftringent medicines are frequently given by the
ftomach, in order to check profufe fluor albus, gleet, and
fometimes hemoptyfis. Their operation in fuch cafes, how-
ever, 1s much more queftionable, and the benefit here pro-
duced, perhaps, may with more propriety be afcribed1o a
tonic or ftimulant property.

ASTROBII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia,
near the Indus. Arrian,
ASTROBOLISM,

AST

ASTROBOLISM, derived from «sx, far, and £xrr.,
Y frike, the fame with /phacelus ; though properly applied
to plants which are deitroyed in the dog-days, as if blaited
by that ftar.

ASTRODICTICUM, an aitronomical inftrument in-
vented by M. Weighelius, by means of which many perfons
fhall be able at the fame time to behold the fame itar.

ASTROGNOSIA, from zsxp, far, and yiarxn, [ know;
the art of knowing the fixed ftars, their names, ranks, fitu-
ations in the cenftellations, and the like.

ASTROITES, in Natura! Hiflory, a {pecies of MavreE-
pora, found in the feas of South America. The ftars are
numerous, immerfed, and have the dif concavo-cylindrical.
This is madrepora (radians) aggregata folida, flellis confertis
convexiufeulis, centri poro radiante, {tris fcabriufculis* of
Pallas ; and aftrea aperturis cavernarum minimis mafia in-
gquali of Brown’s Nat. Hift. Jam. It is found in large
mafies ; and is of a whitifh colour.. The interitices are

orous.

ASTROLABE, derived from esp, far, and AgpBevv,
f take, alluding to its ufe in obferving the ftars ; and by
the Arabs called 4/fhar-lab, formed by corruption from the
common Greek name ; was originally ufed for a fyftem or
affemblage of the feveral circles of the fphere, in their pro-
per order and fituation with refpect to each other : and the
ancient aftrolabes appear to have been much the fame with
our armillary fpheres.

The firft and moft celebrated of this kind was that of
Hipparchus, which he made at Alexandria, the capital of
Egypt, and lodged in a fecure place, where it ferved for
divers aftronomical- operations. Ptolemy made the fame
ufe of it; but as the inft-ument had feveral inconveniences,
he contrived to change its figure, though perfe@ly natural,
and agreeable to the doétrine of the {phere ; and to reduce
the whole aftrolabe upon a plain furface, to which he gave
the denomination of the planifphere.—Hence

AstTRovase is ufed among the moderns fora planifphere ;
ora ftereographic projection of the circles of the {phere upon
the plane of fome great circle thereof. f

The ufual planes of projection are that of the equinoctial,
the eye being fuppofed in the pole of the world ; that of
the meridian, the eye being fuppofed in the poirt of inter-
feGtion of the equinoétial and horizon ; and that of the
horizon.

Stoffer, Gemma Frifius, and Clavius, have treated at
large of the aftrolabe.—For a farther account of the nature
and kinds thereof, fee PLANISPHERE.

Astrovase, or Sea Affrolabe, more particularly denotes
an inflrument chiefly ufed for taking the altitude of the pole,
the fun, or ftars, at fea.

The common altrolabe, reprefented Plate Navication,

ig. 1, confiits of a large brafs ring about fifteen inches in di-
“ameter, whofe limb, or a convenient part thereof, is divided
into degrees and minutes; fitted with a moveable index or
label, which turnsuponthe centre, and carriestwo fights.—At
the zenith is a ring, A, to hang it by, in time of obferva-
tion.

To ufe the aftrolabe, turn it fo to the fun as that the
rays may pafs freely through both the fights F and G, in
which cafe the edge of the label cuts the altitude in the di-
wided limb.

The aftrolabe, though now difnfed, is efteemed by many
equal to any of the other inftruments ufed for taking the alti-
tude at fea; efpecially between the tropics, when the fun
comes near the zenith.—There are a great many other ufes of
the aftrolabe ; on which Clavius, Henrion, &c. haye written
entire volumes. :

ACSeT

ASTROLOGICAL Fore. See Fare.

ASTROLOGUE, in Jchthyology, the French name of
the fpecies of Uranxoscorus called japonicus by Gmelin,
from its inhabiting the feas about Japan.

ASTROLOGY, the art of foretelling future events,
fon the afpects, politions, and influences of the heavenly
bodies. "

The word is compounded of zsnp, far, and roles, difcourfe;
whence, in the literal fenfe of the term, aftrology fhould fig-
nify no more than the doGtrine or fcience of tie fare : which,
indeed, was its original acceptation, and formed the ancient
aitrology ; though, in courfe of time, an alteration has
arifen ; that which the ancients called aftrology, being
afterwards termed AsTRONOMY. Os foe

Aftrology may be divided into two branches, natural and
judiciary. Ae

To the former belongs the prediGting of natural effets ;
as, the changes of weather, winds, ftorms, hurricanes, thun-
der, floods, earthquakes, &c. ‘This art properly belongs
to Puysiotocy, or natural philofophy ; andis only to .
deduced @ pofferiori, from phenomena and obfervations. Its
foundation and merits the reader may gather from what we
have faid’ under Air, ATMOSPHERE, and WEATHER. For
this aftrology, Mr. Boyle makes an apology, in his Hiftory
of the Air. 3

Astroxoey, Judiciary ox Judicial, which is what wecom-
monly call fimple aitrology, is that which pretends to fore-
tell moral events; i.e. fuch as have a dependence oa the free
will and agency of man ; as if they were directed by the fiars.
This art, which owed its origin to the practice of. knavery
on credulity, and which the celebrated Mr. Briggs denom:-
nated a mere fyftem of groundlefs conceits (Ward’s Lives,

. 126.), is now univertally exploded’ by the intelligent
ofmankind. There wasa time, however, when this fcience,
frivolous and ridiculous as it may be juftly denominated,
furnifhed very powerful incentives to the ftudy of aftronomy.
Without fome knowledge of the motions and afpects of the
ftars, the aitrologers would have been unable to draw their
horofcopes, and of courfe to read the fates of meni ‘the
face of the heavens. Accordingly, Kepler obferyes Pret
ad Rudolph. Tab. p. 4.., “that aitrologyis the foolifh daugh
ter of a wife mother, and that, for 100 years pait, this wile
mother could not have lived without the help of her feolifh
daughter.”? ‘I repent bitterly,”’ fays Kepler, having fo
much decried aftrology ;”” and he conceived that the fiudy
of aftronomy had been greatly neglected, ever finee men
ceafed to apply themfelves to aftrology. Of the origin of
this abfurd and unfounded fcience, whatever might, be the
relative eftimation in which it was held, it is not difficult to
give a plaufible accctint. When herces, and perfons who
by extraordinary fervices had rendered their names venerable
andimmortal, receiveddivine honours, fome particularcelefti:
bodies, of which the fun, moon, and other planets foeme
to be the .moit fuitable, were affigned to thefe divinities ;
and after this appropriation, folly, which never flo re
it begins, proceeded {till farther, and afcribed to aren ite
attributes and powers for which the deities, after. whom
they were named, had been celebrated in the fictic s of the
mythologifts. This, in procefs of time, laid the foundation
of aftrology ; and hence the planet Mars, for inftanees like
the deity of that name, was faid to caufe and. to be fond of
war, and Venus to prefide over love and its pleafures.

The profefiors of this kind of aftrology meiutaia, “That
the heavens are one great volume or ioe wherein God has
written the hiftory of the world ; apd in which every man
may reat his own fortune, and the tranfaétions of his times
—The art, they fay, ‘had its rife from the fame hands as

aitronomy

AST

aftronomy itfelf; while the ancient Affyrians, whofe ferene
unclouded fky favoured their celeftial obfervations, were
intent on tracing the paths and periods of the heavenly
bodies, they difcovered a conitant fettled relation of analogy
betiveen them and things below ; and hence were led to
conclude thefe to be the Parca, the Dettinies, fo much
talked of, which prefide at our births, and difpofe of our
future fate.

‘ The laws therefore of this relation’ being afcertained, by
a feries of obfervations, and the fhare each planet has. there-
in; by knowing the precife time of any perfon’s nativity,
they were enabled, from their Knowledge in altronomy, to
erect a fcheme or horofcope of the fituation of the planets,
at that point of time ; and hence by conlidering their degrees
of power and influence, and how each was either {trengthened
or tempered by fome other, to compute what muil be the

~ refult thereof.’’

Judicial aftrology is commonly faid to have been invent-
ed in Chalda, and thence tranimitted to the Egyptians,
Greeks, and Romans; though fome will have it of Egyp-
tian origin, and afcribe the invention to Cham, But it is to
the Arabs that we owe it. Of the firit invention of a fan-
ciful {eience which very generally prevailed, it is not very
eafy to afcertain the original inventors. _The principles on
which it was founded, were very extenfive in their diflemina-
tion. . The Chaldansand the Egyptians, and indeed almoft
all the nations of antiquity, were infatuated with the chimeras
of aftrology. That of the Chaldzans originated in the notion,
that the ftars have an influence, either beneficial or malig-
nant, upon the affairs of men, which may be difcovered,
and made the ground of certain prediction, in particular
cafes: and the whole art confifted in applying aitronomical
obfervations to this fanciful purpofe, and by fuch means im-
pofing upon the credulity of the vulgar. The Egyptian
prieits would not neglect the cultivation of an_art, which
together with that of magic, would give them fuch an irre-
Gitible fway over an ignorant and iuperftitious populace.
Diodorus Siculus (1. i. p. 51.) relates, that the Chaldxans
learned thefe atts from the Egyptians; and he would not
haye made this affertion, if there had not been at leait a ge-
neral tradition that they were practifed from the earlieit times
in Egypt. Among the Arabians, and in the eaftern courts,
the truths of {cience could be recommended only by ig-
norance and folly, and the aftronomer would have been
difrezarded, had he not debafed his honeity by the vain
predictions of aftrology. The truth of this art was allowed
by Albumazar (fee Atsumazar), and the beit of the
Arabian aftronomers, who draw their moit certain predictions,
not from Venus and Mercury, but from Jupiter and the
fun. Abulpharag. Dynatt. p, 161—163. r {

At Rome, the people were fo infatuated with this art,
that the aitrologers, or, as they were then called, the ma-
thematicians, maintained their ground in fpite of all the
edits of the emperors to expel them from the city. Tube-
rius(A. D. 4.) founded his hopes of the empire to which he
aipired, on the prediétions of ‘Chrafyllus, who had been with
him during his abode at Rhodes. However he would not
repofe any confidence in his art till he had put him to a
trial in which feveral had mifearried and fallen victims. Ac-
cordingly, one of his freedmen conduted the aftrologer
through fteep and difficult paths to a centry-box fixed on
the top of a honfe, ere&ted on a fteep rock clofe to the fea.
If Tiberius fufpeéted fraud or falfity in the prediétions of
thofe who practifed the art, they were thrown into the fea
that beat againit the rock on which this houfe of trial ftood.
Thrafyllus was condugted to this place, and had the good
fortune to pleafe Tiberius, by promifing him the empire,

A. SF

and by the ingenious turn he gaye to every thing he faid. 'T'i-
berius afked him, whether he could draw his own horofcope,
and whether by comparing the time of his birth with the
preient ftate of the heavens, he could tell what he was to
dread or hope for at that inftant. The aftrologer, without
doubt apprized of the fate of his predecefforr, looked at the
{tars and fhuddered ; the move he confidered them the more
he trembled ; and at length exclaimed that he was threatened
with great and imminent danger. ‘Tiberius, convinced of:
his fkill by this expgriment, embraced him and admitted him
into the number of his confidential friends. His anfwers,
when he was confulted, ‘Tiberius regarded as oracular ; and
he determined to learn the {cience himfelf. At Rhodes he
had leifure to receive Jefions from Thrafyllus, and profited
by them to fuch a degree, that he had the honour in a cre-
dulous age of haying delivered predictions that were verified
by the event. Auguftus, however (A. D. 11.), revived
the ancient law agaiit altrologers; and to exprets his con-
tempt for their pretended flall, and to fhow how much he
difregarded any of their predi¢tions, he publifhed and
potted up at Rome the theme of his own nativity, or a
itate of the pofition of the ftars at the inftant of his birth.
In the year 16, the old ordinances againft aftrologers were
again revived; two of them were capitaily punifhed, and
the reft banifhed from Italy. But Tiberius, who believed
in aftrology, and frequently recurred to. it, prevented the
rigorous execution of the decree; and thofe who promifed
to renounce their art were permitted to ftay at Rome. The
old laws againit aftrologers were again enforced in the year
52, and the fenate paffed a very fevere decree againit them ;
but thefe meafures were ineffeCtual to their fuppreffion. In
the year 69, Vitellius, though he inclined to credit their
predictions, iffued an edict againft them, commanding them
to leave Italy within a limited time ; but fo great was their
confidence at this time in their own fecurity, that they
potted up a placart againtt his order, and commanded the
emperor to leave the world before the day appointed for
their banifhment. The emperor Domitian, though he
firmly believed in their delutive arts, pafled an ediG@ by
which they were all banifhed from Rome. His credulity
praved an occafion of diltrefline terror to him towards the
clofe of his reign, for an aitrologer, called A{fclitario, is
faid to have prediéted the day and manner of his death.
‘The emperor Adrian was yery much addiéted to both aftro-
logy and divination ; and thus, occafionally protected and en-
couraged, and fometimes proferibed and banifhed them.. The
altrologers maintained their influence at Rome to the
time of St. Auguitin, for the fubject of one of his homi-
lies (in Pf. Ixi. p. 32. ed. Froben. 1556) is the reconcilia-
tion of one of thefe pretended mathematicians with the
church, See GENETHLIACI.

The curious may find farther information concerning this
vifionary and pernicious art, as it was practifed among the
ancients, inSext. Emp. adv. Mathem. I. v. p. 339. Diod.
Sic. 1. .-p. 83. Manilius, 1. ii. v. 456. Jamblich. de Myth.
(8. c. 4. Fab. Bibl. Gree. v. ii. p. 494. Voffius de The-
olog. Gent. 1, 11, c. 47. We fhall only add in this place the
fenfible refleGtion of Horace, lib. 1. od. xi. 1.

* Tu ne queefieris ({cire nefas) quem mihi, quem tibi
Finem Dii dederint, Leuconde, neu Babylonios
Tentaris numeros: ut melius, quidquid erit, pati.’?

«© Afk not—’tis impious to inguire—what date

« The limit of your life is fixed by fate ;
Nor vainly Babylonian numbers try,
But wifely wait your lot, to live or die.??
' The Bramins, who introduced and practifed this art
among the Indians have hereby made themfelyes the arbi-
3 ; ters

eS E

ters of good and evil hours, which gives then great au-
thority: they are confulted as oracles; and they have
taken care never to fell their anfwers but at good rates.

‘The fame fuperftition has prevailed in more modern ages
and nations. ‘The French hiftorians remark, that in the
time of queen Catherine de Medicis, aftrology was in fo
much vogue, that the moft inconfiderable thing was not to
be done without confulting the flars. And ia the reigns of
king Henry IIT. and IV.: of France, the predi&tions of
altrologers were the common theme of the court conver-
falion. =

This predominant humour in that court was well rallied
by Barclay, in his Argenis, lib. ii. on oceafion of an aitro-
loger, who had undertaken to initruét King Henry in the
event of a war then threatened by the faction of the Guiies.

Judiciary aftrology {ull retains its credit in the eait, and
pretenders are always found ready to take advantage of the
popular credulity. Some of the grandees retain an aftro-
loger among their dependents, and their learned men. do
not appear to difpute the truth of their {eience, though the
chief dupes of the impotture are fuund among the populace.
Vhe aitrclogers pretend to foretel future events from in-
{pection of the horofcope, and to predi@ wars, peftilence,
aad other public calamities; but they are, in general, very
fuperficially acquainted with the principles of the feience
which they profefs.

ASTROLUS, in Natzrai Hiffory, aname given by au-
thors to a white and {plendid ftone, {mall in fize, and of a
roundifh figure, refembling the eyes of fifhes.

ASTROMETEOROLOGIA, the art of foretelling
the weather and its changes, from the afpects and configu-
rations of the moon and planets.

This makes a {pecies of aftrology, diftinguifhed by fome
under the denomination of meteorological altrology.

ASTRON, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor,
in the Troade. Piiny.

ASTRONIUM, in Botany, (exo tov aoipov), Jacq. Amer.
261. Linn. airt. Schreb. 1g15. Jufl. 427. Clafs, dioécia
pentandria. Generic Char. Male. Ca/. perianth five-leaved,
coloured, fmall ; leaflets ovate, concave, obtufe, {preading.
Cor. petals tive, ovate, very obtufe, flat, fpreading very
much ; neétary five, roundifh, very fmall glands in the
dik of the flower. Stam. filaments five, fubulate, fpread-
ing, the length of the corolla; anthers oblong, incumbent.
Female. Cad. perianth five-leaved, coloured ; leaflets ob-
long, concave, obtufe, converging. Cor. petals five, fub-
ovate, obtufe, concave, ereét, lefs than the calyx, perma-
nent. Pi/t. germ ovate, obtufe; ityles three, fhort, reflex ;
ftigmas fubcapitate. Per. none. Calyx. increafed, co-
loured ; its leaflets at firft expanded into a pendulous ftar,
at length dropping the feed. Seed, one, oval, the length of
the calyx, lactefcent.

Eff. Gen. Char. Male. Cal. five-leaved. Cor. five-pe-
talled. Female;,Ca/. five-leaved. Cor. five-petalled. Styles,
three. Seed, one.

Species, A. A tree from twelve to thirty
feet in height, abounding with a terebinthinate juice. The
leaves are unequally pinnate, with three pair of leaflets,
which are oblong, ovate, acuminate, fmooth, veined, three

. inches in length; panicles lax, half a foot long in the fe-
males; flowers fmall, red. A native of the woods about
Carthagena in New Spain, flowering in May and June.

ASTRONOMICAL, fomething that relates to aftro-
nomy-

Asrronomicat Calendar, CharaGers, Column, Horizon,
Hours, Month, Quadrant, Ring-Dial, Sedor, Tables, Tele-
feobe Time, Year. See the several fubftantives,

craveolens.

rs)

AS Ff

Asrronomicar Obfervations. See OsstrvaTions, On-
SERVATORY, and CATALOGUE.

Asrronomicar Place of a ftar or planet, is its longitude
or place in the ecliptic, reckoned from the beginning of
Aries, in confequentia, or according to the natural order of
the fipns.

- ASTRONOMICALS, a name ufed by fome writers
for fexagefimal fraétions, on account of their ufe in aftronos
mical calculations.

ASTRONOMICUS Raprus. See Ranprus.

ASTRONOMY, formed of orn fear, and VOpLOSy law
or rule, is a mixed mathematical fcience, which treats of
the heavenly bedies, their motions, periods, eclipfes, mag-
nitudes, &c. and of the caufes on which they depend, — ~

The early hiftory of this fcience, like that of many
other ancient difcoveries, is too much disfigured by fabulous
and allegorical reprefentations, to admit of any regulax or
fatisfaGtory elucidation. Itis probable, however, that fome
knowledge of this kind muft have been nearly coeval with
the human race ; for befides motiyes of mere curiofity, which
are fufficient to have excited men in all ages to examine the
magnificent and varying canopy of the heavens, it is evident
that fome parts of the fcience are fo conneéted with the
common concerns of life, as to render the cultivation of
them indifpenfably neceffary.

Many traces of it have accordingly been found amon
various nations, which fhow that feveral of the moft re-
markable celeftial phenomena, at leaft, muft have been ob-
ferved, and a knowledge of them diffeminated at a very re-
mote period. But in what age or country the fcience firlt
originated, or by whem it was gradually methodized and
improved, is extremely uncertain; nothing more being
known on this fubje€t than what can be obtained from the
fcanty and incidental information of ancient writers, whofe.
accounts are often too extravagant and improbable to de-
ferve much attention.

Among other relations of this kind, may be reckoned
what is mentioned by Jofephus in his Antiquities, who, in
fpeaking of the progrefs that had been made in aftronomy

by Seth and his pofterity, before the deluge, afferts that.

they engraved the principles of the fcience on two pillars,
one of itone and the other of brick, called the pillars of
Seth ; and that the former of thefe was entire in his time.
He alfo afcribes to the Antediluvians a knowledge of the
aftronomical cycle of 600 years, which Montucla (in his
Hittoire des Mathematiques) thinks, with much greater
reafon, was an invention of the Chaldzans; and that what-
ever information was poflefled by the Jewifh annalift with
refpect to this remarkable period, was probably obtained
either from that people, or from fome ancient writings which
no longer fubiitt. .
But not to infift upon this and other uncertain teftimonies
of the ancients, it will be fufficient to obferve that, not-
withitanding the contrariety of opinions which have pre-
vailed on this fubjeét, the greater part of authors are agreed
in fixing the origin of aftronomy either in Chaldza or in
Egypt; both of which nations pretended to a very high
antiquity, and equally claimed the honour of producing
the firft cultivators of this fcience. The Chaldzans, in
particular, boafted of their temple, or prodigioufly high
tower, of Belus, which is thought by fome to have been an
aftronomical obfervatory, and of their celebrated philofo-
pher and aftronomer Zoroafler, whom they placed 500 years
before the deftruction of Troy: while the Egyptians, with
fimilar oftentation, vaunted of their colleges of prieits,
which were the depofitaries of every f{pecies of knawted eg
and of the monument of Ofymandyas, in which it is ld
ere

ASTRONOMY.

there was a golden circle of 365 cubits in circumference,
and one cubit thick, divided into 365 equal parts, according
to the days of the year, and containing the heliacal rifings
and fetting’s of the itars for each day, &c, See HEttacat.

it is evident, indeed, without placing much reliance upon
thefe accounts, that both Chaldea and Egypt were coun-
tries extremely proper for aftronomical obfervations, being
almoft conftantly favoured with a pure atmofphere anda fe-
rene fly ; and whatever may be thought of the tower of
Belus, or the circle of Ofymandyas, we cannot but form
a very advantageous opivioa of the knowledge of the Egyp-
tians in practical aitronomy, from the polition which they
have given to their pyramids, whofe faces are directed with
great precifion towards the four cardinal points of the com-
pals.
could have been the effect of chance, we mutt conclude
that they were acquainted with a correét method of draw-
ing a meridian line; which is a matter of more difficulty
than is ufually thought; it being well known that Tycho
Brahe, the moft able aftronomer of his time, committed an
error of feveral minutes in tracing that of his obfervatory
of Uraniburg. See Mexipian.

The Chaldeans alfo muft have made very confiderable
advances in this fcience, if we can rely upon the teftimony
of Simplicius, who informs us that, at the taking of Baby-
lon by Alexander the Great, they cited a regular feries of
aftronomical obfervations for 1903 years back ; and that
thefe, through the means of Callifthenes, were afterwards
communicated to the Greeks by Ariftotle. But it is much

to be wifhed that the truth of thefe ancient obfervations
was better eftablifhed, particularly as their hiltorian Berofus,
who appears to have lived but a little before the time of
Alexander, makes no mention of any aftronomical monu-
ment of this people, which was more than about 480 years
anterior to that period. And, indeed, the molt ancient
Chaldean obfervations, of which any mention is made by
aftronomical writers, are thofe of three eclipfes of the moon,
employed by Ptolemy in his Almageit, which were made in
the years 27 and 28 of the wra of Nabonaffar, or 721
and 720 years before Chrift.

But though Ptolemy, and perhaps Hipparchus, from
whom he had probably taken them, made no ufe of any
obfervations more ancient than thofe here mentioned, we
cannot from thence conclude that the Chaldwans firft began
to follow the celeftial motions at this period. For fuch as
were made in much earlier times might be fufpected on fe-
veral accounts; and it is befides highly probable that moft
of thofe which preceded the era of Nabonaffar were not
accompanied with dates fufficiently accurate to be employed
Wy thefe aftronomers. The Babylonian calendar, betore
this era, was in great confufion, not having been properly
regulated; and it is obvious that ancient obfervations,
either of this or any fimilar kind, can be but of little ufe,
except we are able to afcertain the precife time at which
they were made.

Befides thefe eclipfes mentioned by Ptolemy, nothing
more now remains of the Chaldwan aitronomy, except what
1s attributed to them by fome ancient authors, with refpect
to certain periods of years, which they feem to have formed
for the more ready computation of the places of the hea-
venly bodies. And though the accounts which have been

iven us of one of the moft remarkable of thefe cycles, by

Suidas and Pliny, are not wholly free from objections, there

can be little doubt of its having been firft invented by that

people. This is the celebrated period called the Chaldean Sa-

ros, which confifts of 223 lunar months, ora little more than

re hgh ; Be which fo far agrees with the combined mo-
ox. III.

For as it is fearcely poffible that a fituation fo exact.

tions of the fun and moon, as always to bring them again
into nearly the fame pofition at the end of each cycle that
they had at its commencement.

Both the Chaldzans and Egyptians, indeed, are gene
rally fuppofed to have poffeiled a very confiderable know-
ledge of feveral other branches of this {cience betides thofe
here mentioned ; but for want of proper authorities, this
can only be judged of by fome jult notions which they
appear to have had of the fyttem of the world, and by
the agreement which has been found among feveral ancient
meafures of the circumference of the earth. The Egyp-
tians, in particular, appear to have known, long before the
Chriftian ara, that the year conililted of 365, days, and that
the planets Mercury and Venus moved round the fun. We
are alfo well affured of the great antiquity of the icience
among this people, from the recent difcoveries which have
been made in that country during the late war; and parti-
cularly from the figure of a zodiac brought from thence by
the French, which Lalande confiders as extremely ancient.

But among the various nations which claim the honour of
having firft cultivated this fcience, none pretend to poffefs
obfervations of greater antiquity than the Chinefe. The
moit remarkable of thefe is a conjunction of five of the
planets, which, according to their annals, is faid to have
taken place in the reign of theiremperor Tchuen-him, about
2500 years before Chrift. They alfo mention an eclipfe of
the fun, which happened in the conttellation Scorpio, about
the year 2150 of the fame era ;. and which is faid to have
proved fatal to two Chinefe aitronomers of the namesof Ho
and Hi, who were condemned to death by the emperor
Tchong-kang, on account of their omitting, through
negligence and intoxication, to announce the precife time
at which it arrived. And from thefe data, apparently well
atteited, feveral eminent altronomers have endeavoured to
difcover whether thefe events could have poflibly happened
about the time here mentioned ; but the fubject is attended
with too many difiiculties to afford any fatisfactory refult.

All that we know of the Chinefe aftronomy is from the
accounts which have been given of it by the Jefuit miffiona-
ries, who are much divided in their opinions with refpeé& to its
very great antiquity ; fome fuppofing it to have fourifhed
at a more earlier period than others. 1. Du Halde, how-
ever, aflerts, that it was cultivated by their great lawgiver
Confucius; and that Tcheou-cong, the moft fkilful aftro-
nomer that China ever produced, lived more than 1000
years before Chrift, and paffed whole nights in obferving
the celeftial bodies, and arranging them into conftellations.
But whatever might have been the knowledge of this peo-
ple in, former times, the ftate of aftronomy is very low in
that country at prefent, although it is cultivated at Peking
by public authority, in the fame manner as in moft of the
capital cities of Europe.

The inhabitants of Japan, Siam, and the Mogul’s empire,
alfo appear to have been acquainted with aftronomy from
time immemorial ; and the famous obfervatory at.Benares
(fee OpservaTory) isa monument both of the great in-
genuity of the Indians, and of their {kill in that feience.
A knowledge of this fubje€&t is alfo fuppofed to have pre-
vailed among the Americans ; though, in their divifions of
time, they made ufe of the folar and not of the lunar
motions. The Mexicans, in particular, are faid to have
difcovered a fingular predileétion for the number 13, which
they ufed as a kind of cycle in moft of their computations,
And the abbé Clavigero afferts it as a remarkable fact,
that having difcovered the excefs of a few hours in the folar
above the oe year, they made ufe of intercalary days to

bring them to an equality, as was done by Julius Caiar is
p's the

ASTRONOMY.

the Roman calendar; but with this difference, that, inflead
of one day every four years, they interpofed 13 days every
52 years, which produces the fame effect. :

But the moft interefting account of the rife and progrefs
of this {cience hitherto given, is that which is detailed by
M. Bailly, in his learned and elaborate hiftory of Ancient
and Modera Aftronomy ; in which he endeavours to trace
its origin amoug the Chaldzans, Egyptians, Perfiaiis, In-
dians, and .Chinefe, to a very early period. And in_con-
fequence of the refearches he has made on this fubje@, he
is led to maintain, that the knowledge .common to the
whole of thofe nations, has been derived from the fame
original fource : namely, a molt ancient and highly-culti-
vated people of Afia, of whofe memory every trace is now
exting& ; but who have been the parent-initrucors of all
around them. +
PM Bailly does not pretend to fix, with certainty, the
precife fituation of this ancient people; but he offers feveral
reafons for conje€turing that it muft have been fomewhere
about the 49th or soth degree of north latitude, in the
fouthern regions of Siberia. Among various other coinci-
dences, he obferves, that many of the European and A fiatic
nations attribute their origin to that quarter, where the ci-
vil and religious rites, common to each, were probably firft
formed ; and what he confiders as a {trong aftranomical fup-

ort of his hypothefis is, that the obfervations of the ars,
collected by Ptolemy, muit have been made in a climate
where the longeft day was 16 hours, which correfponds to
the latitude here mentioned. But as that region exhibits no
traces of its ever having been inhabited by a polifhed people,
his theory, though highly ingenious, has not fufficient
force to draw our affent to his conclufions.

In inveftigating the antiquity and progrefs of aflronomy
among the Indians, M. Bailly examines and compares four
different fets of aftronomical tables of the Indian philofo-
phers, viz. that of the Siamefe, explained by M. Caffini,
in 1689; that brought from India by M. le Gentil of the
Academy of Sciences ; and two other manufcript tables
found among the papers of the late M. de Lifle ; which, he
obferves, accord together, and all refer to the meri tian of
Benares. From thefe tables it appears, that the Indian af-
tronomy has two principal epochs, the firft being founded
on a conjunétion of the fun, moon, and planets, which is
faid to have taken place 3102 years before Chrift; and the
other 1491 years before the fame era. Thefe periods are
fo conneéted by the mean motions of the fun, moon, and
planets, that one of them muft neceffarily be fictitious; and
though the celebrated author above mentioned, has endea-
youred to fhow that the firft of them muft have been found-
ed on obfervations, there is great reafon for believing that
it was rather imagined for the purpofe of giving a common
origin to the figns of the zodiac, and the motions of the
celeftial bodies.

Tt is true, indeed, if, parting from the epoch 1491, we
afcend, by means of the Indian tables to the year 3102,
before the Chriftian era, we fhall find a general conjunétion
of the fun, moon, and planets, as thefe tables fuppofe ; but
this conjunétion, which is too different from the refult given
by the beft modern tables to have ever taken place, {hows
that the epoch to which they refer, is not founded upon
obfervations ; and, in faét, fome elements of the Indian
aftronomy, feem to indicate that they were determined even
long before this firft epoch. The equation of the fun’s
centre, in particular, which they fix at 2° 10’ 32”, could not,
according to the calculations of M. de La Place, have been
of this magnitude but near the year 4300 before Chrift ;

and befides this, the equations of the centre of Jupiter-and’

Mars are fo different from what they ought to have been at
this epoch, that nothing can be concluded from them in fa-
vour of their high antiquity. ,

To conclude, the whole of thefe tables, and, above all,
the conjunction which they fuppofe at the fame epoch, prove,
on the contrary, that they muft have been conitructed,, or
at leaft rectified, in much more modern times. The ancient
reputation, however, of the Indians, both in this and other
fciences, leaves but little doubt, that aftrenomy was culti-
vated among them at a very remote period ; and of this, the
remarkable accuracy with which they have affigned the
mean motions of the fun and moon, are fuificient proofs, as
fuch exactitude could only have been obtained from a lon
feries of obfervations. This opinion has alfo keen ably fup-
ported by Mr. Playfair, in a differtation on the aitronom
of the Bramins, publifhed in the fecond volume of the Trani-
aGtions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, where he has,
likewitle, adduced many inttances of their critical knowledge
in the other mathematical feiences, employed in their pre-
cepts and calculations. ;

The Greeks did not- begin to cultivate aftronomy till a
long time after the Egyptians, of whom they were the
difciples; and it is extremely difficult, amidit the fables
which fo much abound in the earlier periods of their hiftory,
to obtain any very correct information with refpect to their
knowledge in this fcience. All that we ean learn is, that
they had made obfervations on the celeftial bodies, and
divided the heavens into conitecllations, 13 or 14 centuries
before the Chriftian era; this being the period, according
to the opinion of the moit eminent chronologer, to which
we muit refer the {phere of Eudoxus. ee”

The number of their philofophical inftitutions, however,
afford no obferver of any note, till much later times; moit
of their ancient fe€ts having treated aftronomy as a fcience
purely fpeculative, without properly attending either to
facts, or their caufes. But notwithftanding the reveries in
which they often indulged, their knowledge began to be
greatly improved by Thales the Milefian, and other Greeks
who travelled into Egypt, and brought from thence the
chief principles of the {cience. This philofopher, who died
at the age of 96 in the year 548 before Chriflt, was thefounder
of the Jonian feét, and appears to have been the firit who
taught his countrymen the globular figure of the earth, the
obliquity of the ecliptic, and the caufes of folar and luzar
eclipfes; which latter phenomena he is alfo faid to haye
been able to predict.

‘Thales had for his fucceffors Anaximander, Anaximenes,,
and Anaxagoras, to the firft of whom is attributed the in-
vention of the gnomon, and geographical chart; but for
which he was probably indebted to the Egyptians. He is
alfo faid to have maintained that the fun was a mafs of fire
as large as the earth, which, though far below the truth,
with refpe€ to fize, was an opinion, for thefe early times,,
that does its author much credit ; though to him, as,
in the cafe of Galileo, the truths he had difcoyered were
the caufe of his perfecution. Both himfelf aad his children.
were profcribed by the Athenians, for his attempting to
fubjeé&t the works of the gods to immutable laws; and his,
life would have paid the facrifice of his temerity, but for
the care of Pericles, his friend and difeiple, who, got. his.
fentence of death changed into exile. rp ee

Next after the Ionian fchool was that of Pythagoras,,
who was born at Samos, about the year 586 before the,
Chriftian zera, and who, in the celebrity he acquired, far
exceeded his predeceffors. Like Thales he vifited Egypt, ,
and afterwards the Brachmans of India, from whom he is,
fuppofed to have obtained’ many of the aftronomical truths

6 which

|
.

—

ee

> re

oe ae Pad

ASTRONOMY,

which he brought with him into Italy, to which country he
was obliged to retire on account of the defpotifm which then
prevailed at Athens. Here he firft taught the true fyftem of
the world, which, many centuries after, was revived by Co-
pernicus; but hid his doétrine from the vulgar, in imitation
of the Egyptian priefts who had been his inftraétors. It
was even thought, in this fchool, that the planets were in-
habited bodies, like the earth; and that the ftars, which
are diffeminated through infinite {pace, are funs, and the
centres of other planetary fyftems. They alfo confidered
the comets as permaaent bodies, moving round the fun ; and
not as perifhing meteors, formed in the atmo{phere, as they
were thought to be in after times.

‘From this time to the foundation of the fchool of Alex-
andria, the hiftory of aftronomy among the Greeks offers
uothing remarkable, except fome attempts of Eudoxus to
explaia the celeftial phenomena; and the celebrated cycle
of 19 years, which had been imagined by Meton, in order
to conciliate the folar and lunar motions. This is the molt
accurate period, for a fhort interval of time, that could
have been devifed for embracing an exact number of revo-
lutions of thefe two luminaries; and is fo fimple and ufe-
ful, that, when Meton propofed it to the Greeks, affembled
at the Olympic games, as the bafis of their calendar, it was
received with great approbation, and unanimoufly adopted
by all their colonies.

‘In the fchool of Alexandria, we fee, for the firft time, ~

a combined fyitem of obfervations, made with inftruments
proper for meafuring angles, and calculated trigonometri-
cally. Atronomy, accordingly, took a new form, which
fucceeding ages have only brought to greater perfection.
The pofition of the ftars began at this time to be deter-
mined; they traced the courfe of the planets with greater
- care ; and the inequalities of the folar and lunar motions
became better known. It was, in fhort, in this celebrated
{chool, that a new fyftem of aftronomy arofe, which em-
braced the whole of the celeftial motions; and though in-
ferior to that of Pythagoras, and even falfe in theory, it
afforded the means, by the numerous obfervations which it
furnifhed, of dete€ting its own fallacy, and of enabling
aftronomers in later times to’ difcover the true fyftem of
nature,

Ariltyllus and Timocharis were the firit obfervers ia this
rifing iaftitution. They flourifhed about the year 29q before
Chrift ; and by their affiduous labours, were the means of
greatly improying this {cience It was from their obferva-
tions of the principal zodiacal flars, that Hipparchus was
led to difcoyer the preceffion of the equiioxes; aud Ptolemy
alfo founded upon them his theory of the motions of the
planets.

Next after thefe, was Ariftarchus ef Sames, who made
the moft delicate elements of the fcie: c> the objects of his
refearch. Among other things of this kind, he attempted
to determine the magaitude and diftance of the fun; and
though, as may be fuppefed, the refults he obtained were
confiderably wide of the truth, the methods he employed
to refolye thefe difficult problems, do great honour to his

zenius He alfo endeavoured to revive the opiiion of the
po f{chool, with-refpe& to the motion of the
earth; but as his writings upon this fubje& have not been
preferved, we are ignorant to what point he had advanced,
by this means, in his explication of the celeftial phe-
nomena. -

_ The celebrity of his fucceffor Eratofthenes, azies chiefly
from his attempt to meafure the earth, and his obfe-vations
on the obliquity of the ecliptic. Having remarked at Sy-
ene, a well which was enlightened to, its bottom by the

we

fun, on the day of the fummer folftice, he obferved the
meridian height of the fun on the fame day at Alexandria ;
and found that the celeftial arc, contained between the two
places, was the soth part of the whole circumference ;
and as their diflance was eftimated at 500 ftadia, he fixed
the Iength of a great, circle of the earth at 250,000; but
as the length of the ftadium employed by this altronon.e- is
not known, we caanvt appreciate the exaétnefs of his
meafurement.

_ Among others who cultivated and improved this {cience,
we may alfo mention the celebrated Archimedes, who con-
ftru€ted'a kind of planetarium or orrery, for reprefenting
the principal phenomena of the heavenly bodies. But of
all the aftronomers of antiquity, Hipparchus of Bithynia is
the one, who, by the number and precifion cf his obferva-
tions, as well as by the important refults which he derived
from them, is the moft entitled to our efteem. He fle «rifhed
at Alexandria about the year 162 before the Chriflian wra ;
and began his aftronomical labours by attempting to deter-
mine, with more exactnefs than had hitherto been done,
the length of the tropical year, which he fixed at 365
days, 5 hours, and 55 minutes, being near 44 minutes too
great. Like moft of his predeceflors, he founded his
fyftem upon an uniform circular motion of the fun; but
inftead of placing the earth in the centre of the folar orbit,
he removed it to the diftance of 1,th part of the radius,
and fixed the apogee to the fixth degree of Gemini. By
means of thefe data, he formed the firft folar tables of
which any mention is made in the hiftory of aftronomy ; aad
though defeétive and even erroneous in princ ple, they are a
durable monument of his genius, which three centuries
afterwards were refpeGted by Ptolemy, without his pre-
fuming to alter them. ;

The great aftronomes next confidered the motions of the
moon, and endeavoured to meafure the exact time of her
revolution, by a comparifon of ancient eclipfes. He alfo
determined the eccentricity and inclination of her orbit, as
well as the motioi of her nodes and apogee ; and calculated
all the eclipfes that were to happen for 600 years to come.
We are, befides, indebted to him for the important dif-
covery of the preceffion of the equinoxes (fee Przeces-
sion), which was the fruit of the long and difficult enter-
prife he undertook of making a catalogue of the fixed ftars,
with their latitudes, longitudes, and apparent magnituce’.
Geography is alfo indebted to Hipparchus for the method
of fixing the fituation of places upon the earth, by means
of their latitude and longitude ; in obtaining the latter of
which, he appears to have been the firit who employed
eclipfes of the moon; and as thefe refearches required
numerous calculations, they gave birth, under his hands,
to fpherical trigonometry. Many of his principal works
perifhed with the library of Alexandria; but his catalogue
of the ftars, and feveral of his obfervations, have been pre-
ferved by Ptolemy in his Alinagett.

Between the time of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, the chief
obfervers of any note are Agrippa, Menclaus, and Theon;
the two latter of which are better known as geometricians
than aftronomers. We remark, however, in this interval,
the reformation of the calendar by Julius Cefar, and a
more €xa¢t knowledge of the flux aad reflux of the ocean
(fee TipeEs). Pofidonius, a celebrated ftoic philofopker,
who lived about eighty years before Chrift, appears to have
been the firft who obferyed the relation of thefe phenomena
with the motions of the moon; and of which Pliny, the
naturalit, has piven a defcriptiun, remarkable for its ac-
curacy. E

Ptolemy, the worthy fucceflor of Hipparchus, was bora
: eri igs oe ride

ASTRONOMY.

at Pelufium in Egypt, in the beginning of the fecond cen-
tury of Chriftianity, and was the firft who undertook to
reform the whole of this feience, by eftablifhing it upon a
new foundation. In this enterprife, the fyftem he formed
is now well known to be erroneous; but the edifice he
erected lafted near 1400 years; and even at this time,
though it is entirely deftroyed, his Almageft, confidered
as the depofitory of ancient obfervations, is one of the moit
precious monuments of antiquity. See Aumacgst.

One of the moit important difcoveries of this aftronomer
is that of the eveétion of the moon (fee Evecrion}, which
he has affigned with fo much exa¢tnefs, that M. La Place,
in oppofition to the opinion of other writers, thinks it
fufficient to entitle him to the charaéter of an accurate
obferver ; and that the charge which has been made againtt
him, of approprfating the difcoveries of his predeceifors,
is not well founded.

It may alfo be remarked, that Ptolemy has rendered great
fervices to geography, by colleting all the determinations
of the latitudes and longitudes of places then known ; and
by his laying the foundation of the method of projections,
for the conftru€tion of geographical charts, which was but
little known before his time. In fhort, the various works
which he executed, upon a variety of fubjeéts, are ftrong
proofs of a great and enlightened mind, and will always
infure him a diftinguifhed rank in the hiftory of the {ciences.

With the labours of this great aftronomer ended the
glory of tlie Alexandrian fchool, which had nov fubfifted
for more than five centuries, with as much credit to itfelf
as advantage to the {ciences ; but the fucceflors of Hippar-
chus and Ptolemy, contented themfelyes with commenting
on their works, without adding any thing remarkable to their
difcoveries. The knowledge of nature, which had hitherto
been cultivated with fo much fuccefs, gave way to the
defolating irruption of the Saracens, who were led by a fero-
cious zeal to deftroy the celebrated library of Alexandria,
which contained fo many treafures of learning and genius.
By a fingular turn, however, of human affairs, this people
became afterwards the protectors and cultivators of litera-
ture and fcience, and were then fenfible, that this frantic
meafure had deprived them of the moft precious fruits of
their victories.

The caliph Almanfor firft introduced a tafte for the
{ciences into his empire; and his grandfon, Almamon, who
afcended the throne in'$13, was a great encourager and im-
prover of aftronomy. Having conftruéted proper initru-
ments, he made many accurate obfervations ; and, among
others, determined the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23°
35’: Under his aufpices alfo, a degree of the meridian was
meafured, a fecond time, in the plains of Singar, on the
borders of the Red Sea. About the fame time, or at a fome-
what later period, ee raganus likewife wrote a treatife on
aftronomy ; and hence the {cience began to be greatly cultiva-
ted by the Arabians; particularly by Albategnius, who gave
anew and improved theory of the fun, from which he derived
refults thatare much valued for their accuracy ; and above all,
as they directly confirmthe diminution ofthe eccentricity ofthe
folar orbit, as fince demonftrated by the theory of gravity,
and by the fecular equation of the moon. His work, in-
titled “« The Science of the Stars,’’ is {till extant, and was
long efteemed by the Arabians. But after his time, though
the Saracens had many eminent aftronomers, feveral cen-
turies elapfed without producing any very valuable obferva-
tions, excepting thofe of fome eclipfes, obferved by Ibn
Junis, aftronomer to the caliph of Egypt, which ferve to
fhow the acceleration of the mean motion of the moon.

The Perfians, who for a long time were of the fame reli-

gion, and fubjected to the fame foverciens with the Arabs;
began about the middle of the eleventh century, to throw
off the yoke of the caliphs ; and at this period, their calendar
received, by the care of their aftronomer Omar Cheyam, a
new form, founded upon an ingenious intercalation, which
confiited in making eight biflextile years at the ead of every
thirty-three common years. See Bissextitre. About the
fame time, alfo, Holagu Hecoukan, one of their fovereigrs,
affembled the moit confideral:le altronomers at Marapha,
where he conftructed a magnificent obfervatory, the care
of which was confided to Naffir-Eddin. But of all the
princes of this nation, the one who diftinguifhed himfelf the
mott,. by his zeal for aftronomy, was Ulugh Beigh, a grand-
fon of the celebrated Tamerlane, who was a great proficient
in this fcience. He formed, from his own obfervations,
at Samarcand, the capital of his empire, a new catalogue
of the ftars, and the beit tables of the fun and planets that
had been given before thofe of Tycho Brahe. He alfo
determined, in 1437, with a quadrant 180 feet high, the
obliquity of the ecliptic, which he found equal to 23° 31’
57":
During this period, the greateft part of Europe was
immerfed in ignorance and barbarity ; which would have
probably continued much longer, but for the fettlement of
the Moors in Spain, who firft introduced a taite for literature
and the {ciences into this part of the world. The Arabs
by this means beeame our inftru€tors, as the Egyptians had
been formerly of the Greeks; and, by a fingular fatality.
the learning which they tranfmitted to us, has difappeared
among this people, as aitronomy became neglected in the
temples of Egypt and Chaldza, in proportion to the progress
which it made in the fchool of Alexandria.

One of the firft encouragers of learning in Europe,was
Frederick II., who, about 1230, fet about reftoring fone
decayed univerfities, and founding a new one at Vienna.
He alfo caufed the works of Ariftotle and Ptolemy’s Al-
mageft, to be tranflated into Latin; from which latter cir-
cumftance we may date the revival of aftronomy in Europe.
Two years after this, John of Halifax, commonly known
by the name of Sacro Bofco, compiled from Ptolemy, Al-
bategnius, Alfraganus, and other Arabic aftronomers, his
work “ De Sphera,’? which continued in great eftimation
for more than 300 years afterwards, and was honoured
With commentaries by Clavius and other learned men. Al~
phonfus, king of Caftile, may alfo be reckoned as one of
the moft zealous encouragers and protectors of this feience;
though, being but ill fecended by the aftronomers of that
time, the tables which he publifhed were not found to an-
{wer the great expence which attended them. ;

About the fame period alfo Roger Bacon, an Englifh
monk, befides many learned works of various kinds, wrote
feveral treatifes on altronomy ; after which but little pro-

refs was made in this fcience till the time of Purbach,
Reriomnantarus and Walther, who all flourifhed about
the end of the fifteenth century, and by their labours pre-
pared the way for the great difcoveries which followed.
Regiomontanus, in particular, who was born at Koning-
fberg, a town of Franconia, in 1436, and whofe proper
name was John Muller, rendered confiderable fervices to
aftronomy, not-only by his obfervations and writings, but
by his trigonometrical tables of fines and tangents, which
he computed to a radius of 1,000,000 for every minute of
the quadrant, and by this means greatly facilitated aftrono-
mical computations, which had ‘now become both nume-
rous and intricate. John Werner, who fucceeded Walther
as aftronomer at Nuremberg, is alfo deferving of notice,
as being the firft who propoled the method of finding the
longitude

A SHOWS MY. ¢

longitude at fea by obferving the moon's diftance from the
fun and certain fixed flars, which is now fo fuccefsfully
practifed in the Britifh navy.

Next after thefe was Nicholaus Copernicus, the cele-
brated reftorer of the old Pythagorean fyttem of the world,
which had been now fet afide ever fince the time of Pto-
Iemy. He was born at Thorn, in Polifh Pruffia, in 1473,
and having goue through a regular courfe of ftudies at Cra-
cow, and afterwards at Rome, he was made by the intereft
of his uncle, who was bifhop of Wormia, a canon of Fraw-
enberg ; in which peaceful retreat, after 36 years of ob-

‘fervations and meditations, he eftablifhed his theory of the
motion of the earth, with fuch new and demonttrative ar-
guments in its favour, that’it has gradually prevailed from
that time, and is now univerially received by the learned
throughout Europe. .

This great man, however, had not the fatisfaction of wit-
nefling oe fuccefs of his undertaking, being threatened by
the perfecution of religious bigots on the one fide, and with
an obftinate and violent oppofition from thofe who called
themfelves philofophers on the other: it was not without the
greateft folicitations that he could be prevailed upon to give
up his papers to his friends, with permiffion to make them
public ; but from continued importunities of this kind, he at
length complied, and his book, “‘ De Revolutionibus Orbium
Celeitium,”’ after being fupprefled for many years, was at
Jength publifhed, and a copy of it brought to him a few
hours before his death. His difciple Rheticus, who has
rendered great fervices to the mathematical fciences by hts
exteufive tables of fines, tangents, and fecants, to every ten
feconds, was the firft who adopted his ideas ; but they made
but little progrefs till towards the beginning of the 17th
century.

In this interval, however, the fcience was not wholly neg-
le&ted. Nonius in particular wrote feveral valuable treatifes
on Aftronomy and Navigation, and invented fome ufeful in-
ftruments, more accurate than thofe before known; one of
thefe being the aftronomical quadrant, on which he divided
the degrees into minutes, by a number of concentric circles.
Apian alfo, in 1540, wrote a book called the “ Cziarian
Aftronomy,” in which he fhows how to obferve the places
of the flars and planets by the aitrolabe ; to refolve aftrono-
mical problems by means of certain inftruments, and to pre-
di& and calculate eclipfes ; and at the end of his work are
added obfervations of five comets, one of which has been
fuppofed to be the fame with that deferibed by Hevelius ;
and whofe return was accordingly looked for in the year
1789, but it did not appear. Gemma Friftus, who lived
about this time, is likewife deferving of notice, as being the
firft who recommended time-kcepers for finding the longitude
atfea. See CHRONOMETER.

The hiftory of the fcience, about this epoch, alfo offers
us a great number of excellent praCtical aftronomers ; one
of the moft illuftrious of whom was William IV. landgrave
of Hefie-Caffel, who built an obfervatory in that city, and
furnifhed it with a number of the beft inftruments that
could be obtained at that time, with which he made his own
obfervations. He alfo attached to himfelf the celebrated
aftronomers Rothman, and Juftus Byrgius, and with their
help formed a catalogue of 400 ftars with their latitudes and
jongitudes, adapted to the beginning of the year 1593. It
was aifo from his preffing folicitations, that Tycho Brahe,
ene of the greateft obfervers that ever exifted, procured the
ee that he enjoyed under Frederic II. king of Den-
mark,

This excellent Danifh aftronomer, who was born at
Kuuditorp in the county of Schenen, in 1546, began to mani-.

feft his tafte for this {cience at the carly age of 14. An
eclipfe of the fun which happened in 1560, firft attracted his
attention ; and the juitnefs of the calculation which announ-
ced this phenomenon, infpired him with a ftrong defire of
underftanding the principles upon which it was founded.
But meeting with fome oppofition from his tutor, and a part
of his family, to thefe puriuits, which probably ferved only
to increafe his attachment to them, he made a journey inta
Germany, where he formed conneétions, and entered into a
correfpondence with fome of the moft eminent aftronomers
of that country; particularly with the landgrave of Hefle, who
received him im the moft flattering manner, aud recommend-.
ed him to the notice of his fovereign. Becoming by this
means better known, on his return to Denmark, Frederic
II. gave him the little iland of Huen, at the entrance of
the Baltic, where he built an obfervatory, under the name of
Uraniburg, and in which, during a coure of twenty years,
he made a prodigious number of obfervations.

His tranquillity, however, in this happy retreat, was, at
length, interrupted ; for foon after the death of Tredevicl

~>
which happened in 1596, he was deprived, through the at-
perfions of fome envious and malevolent perious, of his
penfion and eftablifhment, and was not even: allowed to
follow his purfuits at Copenhagen; a minilter of that
time, of the name of Walchendorp, having forbidden him
to continue his obfervations. - Happily, however, he
found a powerful protector in the emperor Rodolphus I1.,
who ordered him to be properly provided for at his own ex-
pence, and gave him a commodious houfe at Prague. After
refiding in this city till the year 1601, he was taken off by a
fudden death, in the midit of his labours, and at an age
while he was yet capable of rendering great fervices to aftro-
nomy.

This great man, as is well known, was the inyentor of a
kind of Semi-Ptolemaic fyitem of aftronomy, that was after-
wards called by his name, and which he vainly endeavoured
to eftablifh inftead of the Copernican or true fyftem. But
though he was not happy in this refpect, he has been of
great ufe to aftronomy by his numerous obfervations and
difcoveries. Among other things he was well acquainted
with the nature of Mee gis (fee Rerraction); and hence
he was able to determine the places of a great number of
the fixed ftars, with an accuracy unknown to former times.
He alfo proved, againft the opinion which then prevailed,
that the comets are higher than the moon (fee Comer) ;
and from his obfervations on this and the reft of the pla-

nets, the theories of their motions were afterwards corrected:

and improved, fo that for thefe fervices he will always
be celebrated and efteemed by aftronomers.

Tycho Brahe, in the latter part of his life, had for his
difciple and affiftant the celebrated Kepler, who was born
in 1571, at Wiel, inthe duchy of Wirtemberg, and was one
of thofe rare characters that appear in the world only at
particular times, to prepare the way for new and important
difcoyeries. Like his mafter Tycho, he appears to have at-
tache? himfelf to the fcience at a very early age ; and if it
be the privilege of genius. to change received ideas, and to

announce truths which had never before heen difcovered,.

he may juftly be confidered as one of the greateft men that
had yet appeared. Hipparchus, Ptolemy,. ‘Tycho Brahe,
and even Copernicus himfelf, were indebted for a great part
of their knowledge to the Egyptians, Chaldzans, and In-
dians, who were their matters in this fcience ; but Kepler, by
his own talents and induftry, has made difcoveries of which
no traces are to be found in the annals of antiquity.

The philofopher, the moft ufeful to the {ciences, is one
who to a profound imagination unites a fcrupulous Jadement,

an

ASTRO

and though ardently defirous to elevate himfelf to the caufe
of the phenomena, is equally apprehenfive that he may be
miftaken in that which he afligns to them. Kepler owed to
nature the firft of thefe advantages, and the fecond to Tycho
Brahe, who perceived his genius, and advifed him to abandon
his attachment to the myferious analogies of figures and
numbers to which he-was then addifted, and to‘attend more
clofely to fa@s and their confequences. This appears to.
have had its proper effe@, aad Tycho dying a few years af-
terwards, Kepler was put in pofleffion of his colleGtion of
Obfervations, which he employed to the moft ufeful purpofes,
founded upon them three of the moft important dif-
; that have ever been made ia natural philofophy.

{t was an oppofition of Mars, which determined him to
occupy himfelf, in preference, upon the motion of this pla-
net; and being thep ftrongly attached to the Ptolemaic fyf-
tem as modified by Tycho Brahe, ‘as well as to the opinion
which had hitherto beea generally received, that all the ce-
Jeftial: motions muft be perfe€tly circular and uniform, he
endeavoured, for a long time, to reprefent thofe of Mars
according to this hypothefis. At length, however, after
many trials of this kind which he has given in detail, in his
éreatife called “« Stella Martis,” he difcovered that the orbit
of Marsis an ellipfis of which the fun is placed in one of the
foci, and that the planet moves in it in fuch a manner, that
the radius veGtor, ora line drawn from the centre of the fun
to that of the planet, defcribes areas proportional. to the
fimes. This law he alfo foon afterwards extended to all
the planets; and in 1626, he publithed, according to this
theory, his Rudolphine tables, which will be for ever memo-
rable in aftronomy, as being the firft that were founded on
the true laws of the planetary motions.

Tt is here worthy of remark, that without the fpeculations
of the Greek mathematicians, upon the curves formed by the
feGtions of a cone, it is highly probable that we fhould yet
have remained ignorant of fome of the moft curious and !m-
portant laws of nature. The ellipfe being one of thefe
curves, its lengthened figure fuggefted to the mind of Kep-
ler the idea that the planet Mars, whofe orbit he had found
to be more oval than circular, might poffibly move in its
and foon after, by means of the numerous properties which
the ancient geometers had difcovered of the conic fections,
he affured himfelf of the truth of this hypothefis. ‘The
hiftory of the fciences affords many examples of this kind
of application of pure geometry, and of the advantages
attending it; for every thing, in the immenfe chain cf
truths, is conneéted ; and frequently a fingle obfervation of
apparently trifling confequence, has led to a more intimate
knowledge of nature, of which the phenomena ave the
mathematical refults of a {mall number of invariable laws.

The perception of this truth was, probably what firft
gave rife to the myfterious analogies of the Pythagoreans ;
and Kepler, who had indulged himfelf in refearches of this
kind, was indebted to it for one of his moft brilliant difco-
veries. Being perfuaded that the mean diftances of the
planets from the fun ought to be conformable to thefe ana-
logies, he compared them, for a long time, both with the
properties of the five regular bodies, and with the notes of
mufic. At length, after feventeen years of meditation and
calculation, having had the idea of comparing them with
the powers of the numbers by which they are expreffed, he
found that the fquares of the times of the revolutions of the
planets are to each other as the cubes of their mean diftances
com the fun ; and that the fame law applies equally to their
fatellites. ; :

A ftronomy is Tikewife indebted to Kepler for feveral other
ifeoveries ; which, though not equal to the former, are

WiQ!M’ ¥. ¢

{till of confiderable importance. He believed that it was
the attration of the moon which canfed the fiux and reflux”
of the ocean; and he had fo far an infight isto the general
law of gravitation, as to fufpeét, that the irrecularities ofthe;
lunar motions were occafioned by the combined aétions of.
the earth and the fun. In his work on Optics, he has, alfo ex-;
plained the mechanifm of viiion, which was before unknown ;_
and in another performance, cailed “ Steroemetria Doliorum,”*.
he has ‘prefented feveral views on the nature of, infinites,.
Which had confiderable influence en the revolution that gene,
metry underwent about the end of the laft century. part

Tt is.affiGting to relate, that this great mai, who may he
confidered as the founder of modern aftronomy, | ad h’s Lift
days embittered by the horrors of poverty and diftrefs. ee,
{mall penfion, which was {carcely fufficient for his fubfiftencey.
was frequently withheld or unpaid; and the trouble and
vexation which this occafioned him, obfcured his genius,
and fhortened his exiftence. He died on the 15th of Novem-.
ber 1631, in the fity-ninth year of his. age, leaving nothing
for his wife and family, but the glory of his nane, and the
fame he had fo juftly acquired ; but as thefe were infufficient
to relieve his own wants, they could afford but little com-
fort to a helplefs wife, and her wretched offspring, whofe
indigence is faid to have been fuch that they had not eyen
the common neceffaries of life. ; aS

In the time of Kepler, there were not wanting feveral
other confiderable proficients in aftronomy. Edward
Wright, an Englifhman, made feveral good meridian obfer-
vations of the fun, with a quadrant of fix feet radius, in
the years 1594, 1595, and 1596, from which he improved
the theory of the fun’s motion, and computed his declina-
tion more accurately than had been done before. He alfa
publifhed, in 1599, an excellent work, entitled, “ Certain
Errors in Navigation difcovered and deteCted ;” containing
a new method of projeGting maps and charts, which has
commonly, though erroneoufly, been afcribed ta Mercator.
The fcience is alfo greatly indebted to baron Napier of
Scotland, not only for his ever memorable invention of loga-
rithms, which has fo wonderfully facilitated the bufinefs of
calculation, but for fome excellent theorems and improve-
ments in {pherics. About this time, likewife, Bayer, a
German, publifhed his ‘‘ Uranometria,”” or complete Celeftial
Atlas, containing the figures of all the conftellations vifible
in Europe; into which he introduced the highly ufeful in-
vention of marking the ftars by their names, or the letters
of the Greek alphabet, which renders them fo eafy to be
referred to with diftinéinefs and precifion. '

At the fame time alfo, that Kepler, in Germany, was
tracing the orbits of the planets, and fettling the laws of
their motions, Galileo (who was born at Pifa, in Italy, in
1564) was meditating upon the doétrine of motion in ge-
neral, and inveftigating its principles ; and from the admi-
rable difcoveries which he made in this branch of the phyfico-
mechanical {ciences, Newton and Huygens were afterwards
enabled to derive the mott brilliant and complete theories of
all the planetary motions. About this period alfo, a fortu;
nate accident produced the moft marvellous inftrumeat that
human induftry and fagacity could have ever hoped to dif-
cover; and which, by giving a far greater extenfion and
precifion to aftronomical obferyations, fhewed many irregu-
larities and new phenomena, which had hitherto .remained
unknown.

This invention was that of the telefcope, which wns

no fooner known to Galileo, than he fet himfelf to im-
prove it ; and the difcoveries he was by this means enabled
to make, were as new as they were furprifing.. The face of
the moon appeared full of cavities and afperities, refembling

vallies

———

ASTRONOMY.

‘yallies and mountains. The fun, which had generally been
‘ coniidered as a globe of pure fire, was obferved to be fullied
by a number of dark {pots, which appeared on various parts
‘of his furface. A great number of new ftars were difco-
vered in every part of the heavens ; the planet Jupiter was
found to be attended with four moons, which moved round
him in the fame manner that our moon’ moves round the
earth; the phafes of Venus appeared like thofe of the
-moon, as had before been concluded by Copernicus from his
theory ; and, in hort, molt of the obfervations he made fur-
nifhed new proofs of the truth of the Copernican fyitem,

In publifhing the difcoveries which he had made with this
new inftrameut, Galileo fhowed in the moit incontettible
manner, the annual and diurnal motion of the earth; which
‘dogtrine, however, was thought fo alarming, that it was
immediately declared heretical by a congregation of cardi-
nals, who were affembled upon the occalion ; and its vene-
rable author, one of the moit virtuous and enlightened men
‘of his age, was obliged to abjure, upon his knees, and in
‘the moit folemn manner, a truth, which nature and his own
underftanding had fhown him to be incontrovertible. After
this, he was condemned to perpetual imprifonment; from
which, however, at the end of a year he was enlarged, by
the folicitations of the grand duke; but, that he might
not withdraw himfelf from the power of the inquifition, he
was forbidden to quit the territory of Florence, where he died
in 1642; carrying with hin the regrets of Europe, enlight-
ened by hislabours, and their indignation againit the odious
tribunal which had treated him fo unworthily. For the oath
of abjuration, and further particulars of this tranfaction,
fee Bonnycaitle’s Aftronomy, p. ror. 3d ed. and the article
Gariveo in this work.

The celebrated Harriot alfo, who has hitherto been
known only as an algebraift, made, much about the fame
time, fimilar difcoveries with thofe of Galileo, as appears
by his papers not yet printed, which are in the poffeflion of
the earl of Egremont. Mr. Horrox, likewile, a young
aftvonomer of great merit, about this time, deferves to be
mentioned, on account of his obfervation of the tranfit of
Venus over the fun’s difk. (fee Transit), on the 24th of
November 1639 3 which event he announced to his friend
Mr. Crabtree; and thefe two together had the fineular fatis-
fa€tion of witnefling, for the firft time, a phenomenon which
had never before been feen by human eyes. Horrox had
even formed a new theory of the moon, which is taken
notice of by Newton; but his early death, which happened
im the beginning of the year 1640, put a {top to his ufeful
labours.

The difcoveries of Huygens fucceeded thofe of Kepler
and Galileo ; and few men have, perhaps, merited more of
the fciences, by the importance and fublimity of his re-
fearches. Among other things, his happy application of the
pendulum to clocks, is one of the moit advantageous pre-
fents that was ever made to aftronomy. He was alfo the
firft who found that the fingular appearances of Saturn, are
produced by aring, by which the planet is furrounded; and
his affiduity in obferving it, led him to the difcovery of one
of its fatellites. Geometry, mechanics, and optics, are alfo
indebted to him for a great number of difcoveries , and if this
rare genius had had the idea of combining his theorems on
centrifugal forces, with his inquiries into the developement
of curves, and the laws of Kepler, he would have ravifhed
from Newton his theory of curvilinear motions, and that of
gravitation; but thefe are the things in which difcoveries
generally confift.
~ Next to Huygens, may be mentioned Hevelius, a burgo-
matter of _Dantzic, who rendered himfelf highly ufeful to

~aftronomy by his numerous and immenfe labours ; few ob-

fervers having ever exifted who were more indefatigable. It
is to be lamented, however, that he refufed to make ufe of
inftruments with telefcopic fights, an invention introduced
about that time by the celebrated Dr. Hook, and which
gave a precifion to obfervations unknown to former attrono-
mers. He even contefted their utility, and a warm difpute
having arifen between him and Dr. Hook upon this fubject,
Dr. Halley, then a young man rifing faft into fame and emi-
nence, was fent to examine his initruments, which were
found to be excellent of their kind. The two aftronomers
made feveral obfervations together, much to their fatisfac-
tion ; and among them was one of an occultation of Jupiter
by the moon, by which they determined the diameter of the
latter to be 30! 33’.

About this epoch, aftronomy began to be more generally
cultivated and improved, in confequence of the eftablifhment
of feveral learned focieties, which, by exciting a fpirit of
emulation and enterprife among their members, greatly con-
tributed to the advancement of every branch of the mathe-
matical and phyfical {ciences. The chief of thefe were the
Royal Society of London, and that of the Academy of
Sciences of Paris; both of which have rendered great fer-
vices to aftronomy, as well by the eminent men they have
produced, as by the zeal and ardour with which the {cience
has conftantly been promoted by them. One of the firft
effets produced by thefe eftablithments, was the great im-
provement of telefcopes and other inftruments, which had
hitherto been too much neglected for want of proper enceu-
ragement. Huygens conitructed a telefeope of 123 feet;
with which he long obferved the moon and planets, and was
the firft that difcovered Saturn’s ring. The celebrated Caf-
fini alfo employed inftruments of this kind, of 200 and 3co
feet focus, with which he faw the five fatellites of Saturn,
with his zones or belts, as well as the fhadows of Jupiter’s
fatellites paffing over his body.

The length of refracting telefcopes, however, was fill a
great inconvenience ; to remedy which, as well as the great
aberration of their rays, Merfennus is faid to have firit
ftarted the idea of making telefcopes with reflectors, inftead
of lenfes, in a letter to Defcartes; and in 1663, James Gre-
gory of Aberdeen, fhowed how fuch an inftrument might
be conitruéted. Newton, alfo, after fpending fome time
on the conftraGtion of both thefe forts of telefcopes, dif-
covered the great inconvenience which arifes to refractors,
from the different refrangibility of the rays of light, and
therefore purfuing the other kind, he prefented in the year
1672, to the Royal Society, two reflectors, with {pherical
fpecula, as he could not then contrive the means of giviag
them a parabolic figure. It is proper to obferve, however,
that the defects of refra€ting telefcopes, arifing from the
different refrangibility of the rays of light, have fiace been
completely obviated by the ingenious Mr. Dolload. See
AcHRomaTic TELESCOPE.

Towards the latter part of the feveateenth century, and
the beginning of the eighteenth, practical aftronomy feems
rather to have languifhed; but at the fame time, the theoreti-
cal part'was carried to the higheft degree of perfection, by the
immortal Newton in his ‘¢ Principia,” and by the aftronomy
of David Gregory. (See Newronran Puirosopuy.)
About this time alfo, clock and watch-work was greatly im-
proved by Mr. Graham, who likewife conftruéted the old
eight feet mural arch at the Royal Obfervatory at Green-
wich,-and the zenith-fector of twenty-four feet radius, with
which Dr. Bradley difcovered the aberration of the fixed
ftars. (See Anerration.) The reflecting telefcope of
Grégory and Newton, was alfo greatly improved by Mr.

Hadley .

ASTRONOMY.

Hadley ; but who is ftill better knowa for his admirable in-
vention of the reflecting quadrant or fector, now called by
his name, and which is univerfally ufed at fea, and in all nice
oblervations. Mr. Bird alfo, about the middle of the eigh-
teenth century, rendered great fervices to aitronomy, by his
method of conitructing and dividing large aftronomical in-
ftruments ; which has finee been carried to the greateit de-
gree of perfection by that admirable artiit Mr. John Ramf-
den, whofe recent death will be long regretted by aftrono-
mers and men of fcience in general. _ Reflecting telefeopes
were likewife not lefs improved by Mr. Short, whoalfo firft
executed the divided obje&t-glafs micrometer, which had
_been propofed and defcribed by M. Louyille and others.

Thus the aitronomical improvements in the lait century,
have been chiefly owing to the greater perfection of inftru-
ments, and to the eftablifhment of regular obfervatories in
various parts of Europe. Roemer, a celebrated Danith al
tronomer, firilt made ufe of a meridian telefcope ; and by
-obferving the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites, was led to his
difcovery'of the motion of light, which he communicated
to the Academy of Sciences at Paris,in1675. Mr. Flamfteed
was allo appointed the firft aitronomer royal at Greenwich,
about the fame time, where he obferved all the celeftial phe-
nomena for more than forty-four years ; and as the fruits of
his labours, publithed a catalogue of 3090 itars, with their
places, to the year 1688, as alfo new folar tables, and a
theory of the moon according to Horrox. Caflini, alfo,
‘the firft French aftronomer royal, greatly diftinguifhed him-
felf by his numerous obfervations on the fun, moon, and
planets, and by the improvements he made in the elements
of their motions.

In 1719, Mr. Flamfteed was fucceeded by Dr. Halley,
the friend of Newton, and a man of the firit eminence in all
the departmeuts of literature and {cience; who had been fent
at the early age of twenty-one, tothe ifland of St. Helena, to
obferve the fouthern ftars, a catalogue of which he publifhed
in 16793 anda few years‘afterwards he gave to the public,
his * Synopfis Aftronomie Cometicz,’’ in which he ven-
tured to predict the return of a comet in 1758, or 1759.
He was the firft whodifcoveredthe acceleration of the moon’s
mean motion; and is-the author of a yery ingenious method
for finding her parallax, by three obferved places of a folar
eclipfe; he alfo fhowed the ufe that might be made of the
approaching tranfit of Venus, in 1761, in determining the
diftance of the fun from the earth ; and recommended the
method of determining the longitude by the moon’s diftance
from the fun and certain fixed flars, which has fince been
earried into execution at the initance of the prefent attro-
nomer royal. Dr. Halley alfo compofed tables of the fun,
moon, and planets, with which he compared the obferva-
tions he made of the moon at Greenwich, amounting to
near 1500, and noticed the differences. About this time,
an attempt was made in France to meafure a degree of the
earth, which was the occafion of a warm difpute concerning
its figure. M. Caffini concluded, from the meafurement of
Picart, that it was an oblong {pheroid; but Newton, from
a confideration of the laws of gravity, and the diurnal mo-
tion of the earth, had determined its figure to be that of an
oblate {pheroid, flattened at the poles, and protuberant at the
equator. To determine this point, Louis XV. ordered two
degrees of the meridian to be meafured, one under or near
the equator; and the other as near as poffible to the pole,
the refult of which arduous andertaking was a confirmation
of Newton’sinvettigation. Meff. Maupertuis, Clairaut, &c.
were employed on the northern expedition ; and Condamine,
Bouguer, Don Ulloa of Spain, &c. on the fouthern; who
all fulfilled their commiflions with great credit to themfelves,

and advantage to the f{ciences, makiag many obferyations
belides thofe immediately connected with this{ubje&. Among
others, it was found, by thofe who went to the fouth, that
the attraction of the great mountains of Peru had a fenfible
effect onthe plumb-lines of their large inftruments, which
afforded an experimental preof of the Newtonian doétrine
of gravitation, that has fince been completely verified by
the obiervations of Dr. Mafkelyne, made on the mountain
Schehallien in Scotland. See Artraction of Mcuntains.

On the death of Dr. Halley, in 1742, he was fucceeded
by Dr. Bradley, who has rendered himielf highly celebrated
by two of the fineft difcoveries that have ever been made
in aftronomy, the aberration of light and the nutation of
the earth’s axis. Among other things, he alfo formed new
and accurate tables of the motions oi Jupiter’s fatellites, as
wellas the moit corre& table of refraGtions yet extant. Alfo,
with a large tranfit inftrument, and a new mural quadrant
of eight feet radius, conftruGed by Bird, in 1750, he made
aif immenfe number of obfervations, for fettling the places
of all the flars in the Britifh catalogue, together with near
150 places of the moon, the greater part of which he com-
pared with Mayer’s tables.

Dr. Bradley was fucceeded in 1762, in his office of aftro-
nomer royal, by Mr. Blifs, but who, being in a dechning
ftate of health, died in 1765, and was fucceeded by Nevil
Mafkelyne, D.D. the prefent aftronomer reyal, who has
rendered confiderable fervices tq this {cience, by his publica-
tion of the “ Nautical Almanac,’’ the “‘ Requifite Tables,”
&c. and more particularly by the great afliduity and zeal he
has difplayed in bringing the lunar method of determinin
the longitude at fea into general practice. :

In the mean time, many other eminent mathematicians,
both of sour own, and other countries, were affiduoufly em-
ployed-in endeavouring to promote the fcience of aftronomy,
The theory of the, moon was particularly confidered by
Meff. Clairaut, d’Alembert, Euler, Simpfon, Walmfley,
and Mayer; the latter of whom computed a fet of lunar
tables, for which, on account of their fuperior accuracy, he
was rewarded with a premium of 3000/. by the Board of
Longitude, who brought them into ufe in the computation
of the nautical ephemeris which was publifhed by their or-
der. Some very accurate tables of the fatellites of Jupiter,
were alfo compofed from obfervations by Mr. Wargentin,
an excellent Swedith aftronomer, and which have fince been

corrected by the author, fo as to render them fuperior to”

any yet pubiifhed.

Among the French aftronomers who have alfo contri-
buted to the advancement of this fcience, we are particu-
larly indebted to M. de la Caille for an excellent fet of
folar tables, in which ke has made allowances for the at-
tractions of Jupiter, Venus, and the moon, as well as for
the obfervations which he made at the Cape of Good Hope;
in concert with the moft celebrated aitronomers in Europe,
in order to determine the parallax of the fun, moon, and
the planet Mars ; asd for adjufting the places of the ftars
in the fouthern hemifphere, which he has done with great
accuracy. In Italy alfo the fcience was cultivated with
great fuccefs by S. Bianchini, Bofcovich, Frifi, Manfredi,
Zanotti, and others; and in Germany, by Euler, Mayer,
Lambert, &c.

Such was the ftate of aftronomy when Dr. Herfchel, by.
augmenting the powers of telefcopes beyond the moft fan-
guine expectations, opened a fcene altogether unlooked for.
By this indefatigable obferver we are made acquainted with
a new primary planet belonging to our fyftem, called the
Georgium Sidus, attended by fix fatellites, which he difeo-
vered on the 13th of March 1781, and which being at banon

the

PO etd We -,

o “th we ©

on aes

AST

the diftance of Saturn from the fan, has doubled the bounds
formerly, affigned to the folar fyitem, ,We are alfo in-
debted to him for a variety of obfervations on feyeral other
interefting altronomical fubjects; fuch as the difeovery of
two additional fatellites to Saturn, of which the number is
now feyen; a new method of meafuring the lunar moun-
tains; the rotation of the planets on their axes; on the pa-
rallax of the fixed ttars ; catalogues of double, triple ftars,
&c.; of nebule ; and’of the proper motion of the fun and
folar fyftem ; the accounts of which, together with many
other valuable papers, he has communicated from time to
time in different parts.of the Philofophical 'Tranfactions.
Within this laft year alfo another new planet has been difco-
vered by M, Piazzi of Palermo, between Mars and Jupiter,
to which he has giyen the name of Ceres Ferdinandia ; and
even the difcovery of athird has been anaounced in fome of
the foreign journals ; but for any regular account of this we
muit wait for furtherinformation. See Grorcium Sipus,
Ceres ferdinandia, and Patras.

It is with great pleafure we obferve that at no former
period has this {cience been cultivated with more ardour
than it is at prefent, both in this and every other country
in Europe. In France, the phyfico-mathematical part of
the {cience has been greatly improved and extended by the
celebrated M. la Place, who, in his’ elaborate work, the
«¢ Méchanique Cclelte,’’ has inveftigated all the phenomena,
which the attraction or univerfal gravitation of matter can
produce on the forms and motions of the celeftial bodies,
by their mutual actions on each other. M. Lalande, the
patriarch of aftronomers, is al{o flill indefatigable in his pur-
fuits, and by the zeal he conftantly manife(ts for the interetts
of this icience, has greatly promoted the ftudy of it in almott
every quarterof the globe; but particularly inGermany, where
M. ven. Zach is equally affiduous in forwarding its improve-
ment. Inall its collateral branches alfo we obierve a degree
of activity that has never been exceeded. New admeature-
ments of the earth have been undertaken toth in this coun-
try and in France, which, from the great improvements of
iwitruments, and the {kill and induftry of the obfervers,
promife a greater accuracy in the refults than could have
been obtained by thofe who were formerly engaged in this
undertaking. From the zeal-and abilities of major Mudge,
in particular, who is now employed by our government to
make a trigonometrical furvey of the country, we may ex-
pect the moft accurate details on this fubject that have ever
yet been prefented to the public.

We fhall conclude by obferving that there flill remains a
number of difcoveries to be made in this {cience. We have
not yet determined the times of rotation and the proper
figures ot fome of the planets and their fatellites; nor do
we know with fufficient precifion the mafles of thofe bodies.
The theory of their motions alfo confifts in a feries of ap-
proximations, of which the convergence depends both upon
the perfection of inftruments, and the progrefs of analytis,
‘and which for that reafon ought to acquire continually new
degrees of exaétnefs. Obfervationson the return of comets
already obferved, as well as on thofe which may hereafter
appear, fhould likewife be made with great care, and par-
ticularly on fuch as may entirely change their orbits, as it
has been conjeCtured was the cafe, by the aGtion of Jupiter
on the one which appeared in 1770; as alfo fuch accidents
which the proximity, and even the fhock of thefe bodies,
may occafion to the planets and their fatellites; fuch are
the principal objects which fhould engage the attention of
future aftronomers. 3

For more particular accounts of the writings and authors

on this fcience, the reader may confult Weidler’s “ Hiftory
Voi. ITI.

AST

of Aftronomy,”. whichis brought down: torthe year {7375
as allo Bailly’s Hiltory of Ancient and Moderna A thro.
nomy,’? Montucla’s ‘* Hittoire des Mathematiques,’’ aud
the firlt volume of Lalande’s Aftronomy. The more nie-
dern and popular works on tlie fubject are numerous and
well known; as thofe of Emerfon, Fergufon, Long, Bon-
nycaftle, &c.; in the latter of which, in particular, the
elementary parts, and general outline of the {cicnee, are
deferibed with great perfpicuity and elegance.

Astronomy is fometimes divided with refpect to its
different ftates, into new and o/dd.

Astronomy, Ancient, is fuch as the art ftood under
Ptolemy and his followers, with all the apparatus of folid'
orbs, epicycles, excentrics, deterents, trepidations, &c.

Astronomy, Ve, isfuch as the art has been fince’Co-
pernicus, by whom thofe fi€titious machines were’ thrown
out, and the conflitution of the heavens reduced to more
fimple, natural, and certain principles.

In Ricciolus’s Almageftum Novum, publifhed in 1651,
we have the feveral hypothefes of all the aftronomers, an-
cient as well as modern.—And in Dr, Gregory’s Mlementa
Attronomie Phyfice & Geometrice, in 1702, the whole
modern aftronomy, as founded on the difcoveries of Coper-
nicus, Kepler, and lir Ifaac Newton.—The fubitance of
the old aitronomy is given by Tacquet ; aud of the new
aftronomy by Whitton, in his Prelectiones Adtronomic, i
1707. Mercator’s Inftitutiones Aitronomice, publifhed iw
1676, contains the whole doétrine, both according to the
ancients and moderns; and Dr. Keill’s Introduétio ad ve-
ram Aftronomiam, 1n 1718, comprehends the modern ; to
which might be added Vince’s Aftronomy, in 2 vols. 4to.
1800; and his Practical Aitronomy, 4to.

ASTROPECTEN, in Natural Hiflory, a name given
by fome authors to a fpecies of ftar-tifh, compofed of a
body, or central nucleus, furrowed in the manner of the
fhells of the common {callop, and parting into five princt-
pal rays, from each of which there iffue feveral tranfverfe

rocefles, covered with a hairy down. ;

ASTROPODIA. See Asreria, and Srar-fone.

ASTROSCOPE, in Afronomy, a kind of aftronomical
inftrument, compofed of two cones, on whofe furface the
conftellations, with the ftars, are delineated, by means
of which the ftars may eafily be known.

The aftrofcope is the invention of Wil. Schukhard, for-
merly proieffor of mathematics at Tubingen, who pub-
lifhed a treatife exprefsly on it, in 1698.

ASTROSCOPIA, from asnz far, and cxorsw, I confi-
der, the art of obferving and examining the ftars by means
of telefcopes, in order to difcover their natures and pro-
perties.

Huygens improyed this art confiderably in his © Aftro-
{copia Compendiaria Tubi Optici molimine liberata,”” where
he fhows how to manage the largeft glailes without help
of atube. See TELEscopPE. :

ASTROTHEMATA, in Afrology, the places or pofiti-
ons of the ftars ina theme of the heavens. Vital. Lex. Math.

ASTROTHESIA, from aFNes and 19 npeby L place, 1s
ufed by fome for a conftellation or image in’ the heavens,
compofed of feveral ftars. “ps

ASTRUA, Giovanna, in Biography. See Giovanna.

ASTRUC, Joun, M.D. a learned phytician, and au-
thor of numerous medical and _philofophical works, was
borne at Sauve, a confiderable town in Lower Langue-
doc, on the 19th of March 1684. He was eaily initiated
into the knowledge of the claflics by his father, and
was fent to complete his education to the univerfity at
Montpelier, where in 1700 ue commenced matter of a

: 2 , an

AST

and in 1702, bachelor of medicine. In the fame year he
publithed his differtation “‘ De motus fermentativi caufa,”?
which was foon followed by feveral controverfial pieces on
the manner in which the food is digefted in the ftomach,
which he contended was effected by a peculiar leaven, ex-
citing fermentations ; contrary to the opinion of Pitcairne
and other mechanical phylicians, who attempted to prove
that our food was triturated or ground to a pulp in the fto-
mach by the adtion of the abdominal and other mufcles, to
which they gave a power equal to feveral thoufand pounds
weight. In 1710, he was made profeffer of anatomy and
medicine at Touloufe. In 1716, he returned to Montpelier,
where he was called to the profeflor’s chair vacant by the
death of Chatelain. In 1720, he publifhed his treatife “* De
Hydrophobia,” and in 1721, “ Sur Origine des Maladies
Epidemiques, principalement de la Pefte,” in which he
Rrongly fupports the opinion that the plague is a contagious
difeafe, in oppofition to Chicanen and other writers, who
then, as now, attempted to eftablifh a contrary doctrine.
He fuppofed there was fome analogy between the poifon of
the plague and the venereal difeafe. He took an early and
a@ive part in the difpute between the faculty of medicine
and the furgeons at Paris ; and as he was well verfed in the
-hiftory of medicine, he fhowed that in early times the chi-
rurgeons were examined by phylicians previous to their
“being allowed to praGife. In 1729, he was invited to Po-
land, and made Phyfician to the king, Auguitus the fecond;
but finding this place lefs favourable to his ftudies, he re-
turned to France, and fixed himfelf at Paris; and in 1730,
was appointed confulting phyfician to the king, and foon
after, on the death of Geofroy, profeffor of medicine in the
Royal College at Paris, where the reputation he had pre-
vioufly acquired procured him a numerous and refpe¢table
auditory ; pupils flocking to him from all parts of Europe.
In 1737, he publifed ‘* Memoires pour l’ Hiftcire naturelle
de Languedoc,” in which a particular account is given of
the mineral waters of Balaruc. In 1745, he publifhed
«¢ Tractatus Pathologicus;” and 1748, “* TraCtatus Therau-
peuticus,” both in 8vo. ; which were in their time well re-
ceived, but are fuperfeded now by the adoption of new
theories, in their turn to give way to fubfequent fpecula-
tions. In 1736, he publifhed his principal work “ De Mor-
bis Venereis,”? which foon, and defervedly, raifed his fame
to the higheft pitch of eminence. The work was eagerly
received, and tranflated into all the modern languages ; the
learned in every country being defirous of naturalifing a
production, containing the completeft hiftory, defcription,
and mode of treating the difeafe that had appeared. In
the firft part, the author labours to fhow, that the difeafe
was new, and of a nature diftiné from all others; that it
was firft imported into Europe by the Spaniards who at-
tended Columbus in the difcovery of America. This part
has lately been controverted, and paflages from various
early writers have been produced, that are fuppofed to point
out the difeafe; a fingle fymptom or two refembling fome
of thofe attending tite lues venerea being obfcurely noticed
in them. He confiders mercury as the fole fpecific m the
cure of the lues venerea, and of the different ways of ad-
miniftering it, prefers that by inunétion. The author foon
after publifhed ‘* Doutes fur Inoculation de la petite ve-
role propofé a la Faculté de Paris,” but without his name ;
and in 1759, ‘ Traité des Tumours et des Ulceres, avec deux
Lettres, x. fur la compofition des quelques remedes ; et
2. fur la nature et le fucces des nouveaux remedes qu’on
propofe pour la guerifon des maladies venerieufes.” In
this work, which has confiderable merit, the author treats

largely of bydatids pafled off by ftool and by vomiting, or

AS 'T

found in the livers of perfons who have died tabid. He is
one of the firft writers who denies his affent to the opinion
that marks, diftortions, and mutilations of the bodies of
infants, are occafioned by the imaginations of the mothers.
In 1761, he publithed “ Traité des Maladies des Femmes,”?
6 vols. r2mo.; this has been tranflated into Englifh, as
well ashis “¢ Art d’Accoucher, reduit a fes principes;”? the
loft work he lived to finithh. The author had tried the ef-
fe@ of cicuta, he tells us, in cancer, but without advantage;
and thinks {ts reputation for refolving fchirrhi had arifen
fromindarated glands of the breaft which weretaken forthem,
but were not ichirrous, having difappeared under its ufe.
This opinion has been confirmed by later experience. On
the whole, we find in this writer great marks of genius, as
well as of labour and refearch, and he will be defervedly
handed down to polterity as one who has contributed confi.
derably to the improvement of the art of medicine. As
early as the year 1743, he was admitted member of the fa-
culty of medicine at Paris: he was a con‘tant attendant at
their meetings, anda zealous protetor of their privileges.
With an active mind, he had the good fortune to enjoy a
ftrong and vigorous conititution, which enabled him to con-
tinue his profeffional exertions until within a very fmall
time of his death, which happened on the 5th of May
1766, at the age of 82 years. In the fecond volume of
the author’s treatife «* De Morbis Venereis,” he has givena
catalogue of all the writers who had treated-on the fubj
before him, with brief fketches of their lives, amd analyfes
of their works. ‘This part appears to have been executed
with fidelity, and has afforded us ufeful and valuable mate-
rials in. our labours, as has hkewife a pofthumous work of
the author, his “ Memoires pour fervir a l’Hiftoire de la
Faculté du Medicine de Montpelier,”’ publithed by Lorry in
1767, in Ato., and enriched with a beautiful coloured por-
trait of the author, and an account of his life. Halli. Bib.
Med. & Chirur. Lorry Eloge Hift. de M. Affruc. One
very fingular work little noticed, and perhaps little deferving
notice, as founded folely on fpeculation and conjeure,
was his “ ConjeCtures fur les memoires originaux dont il pa-
roit que Moife fe fervi pour compofer le livre de Genefe,’?
Bruxelles, 1759. It does not appear that the works of
this celebrated writer were ever coileGted and publifhed
together ; but they are certainly deferving that attention.

ASTRUM, or Astron, in 4/ronomy, a conttellation
or affemblage of ftars. In which fenfe it is diftinguifhed
from afer, which denotes a tingle flar. ‘

Some apply the term, in a more particular fenfe, to the
Great Dog ; or rather to the great bright ftar in his mouth.
Vital.

Astrum, in Ancient Geography, the name of a large town
of the Peloponnefus, in the Argolide.

ASTRUNO, in Geography, a mountain of Italy, famous
for its baths. F

ASTRUP, a town of Germany, in the circle of Welt-
phalia, and bifhoprie of Ofnaburgh, four miles north of
Ofnaburgh.

ASTURA, in Ancient Geography, ariver of Italy, and
2lfo an island, according to Pliny.—Ciczro had a villa of
this name near the fea, within view of Circeum and Antium,
whither he retired, with his brother and nephew, when he |
firft received at his Tusculan villa the news of the profcrip-
tion in which they were included, and whence they pro-
pofed to tranfport themfelves direGtly out of the reach of
their enemies. Here Cicero found a veffel ready for him,
in which he immediately embarked ; but the winds being
adverfe, he was’ obliged to land at Circeum, near which he
fpent a night, in great anxiety and irrefolution. The

gueftion,

AST

queftion upon which he deliberated was, what courfe he
fhould take ; and whether he fhould fly to Brutus or to
Caflius, or to S. Pompeius ; but, after all his deliberations,
none of them pleafed him fo much as the expedient of
dying ; fo that, as Plutarch fays, he had fome thoughts of
returning to the city, and killing himfelf in Cefar’s houfe ;
in order to leave the guilt and curfe of his blood upon
Czfar’s perfidy and ingratitude ; but the importunity of his
fervants induced him to fail forwards to Cajeta, where he
landed to repofe himfelf in his Formian villa, about a mile
from the coatt; “ weary of life and the fea, and declaring
that he would die in that country which he had often
faved.”” Hither he was purfued by the foldiers that were
fent in queft of him ; and though he fled into the woods, he
was overtaken and put to death. Middleton’s Cicero, vol. ii.
‘ Seite Geography, a good harbour on the fouth-weft
coalt of Italy, about twelve or fourteen leagues fouth-eaft
from the mouth of the Tiber; at the bottom of a bay eaft
from port Neptune, and nearly eaft from mount Cercelli.

ASTURAGAMICOSK, a lake of Tower Canada,
eighty-one leagues north-eaft of Quebec. N. lat. 50° 25’.
W. long. 67° 25’.

ASTURIA, in Ancient Geography, a kingdom of Spain,
fubdued by the Roman emperor Auguttus, after the people
had longyetifted, inconnectionwith the Cantabrians, repeated
attempts to reduce them under the Roman yoke. But at
length the diftrefs of famine was fo great, that they deter-
mined to furrender; upon which the Cantabrians, who,
defperate as their fituation was, were refolved to renew their
eilorts, fell upon them, and compelled 10,000 of them to
feek an afylum in the Roman intrenchments. Tiberius,
however, refufed to admit them into the camp; fo that
defpairing of relief, fome fell upon their own {words, others
threw themfelves into the flames which they had kindled
for this purpofe, and others difpatched themfelves by poifon.
The furviving Afturians collected all their ftrength againft
the next campaign; but the utmoit efforts of their valour
and defpair proved fruitlefs. Weakened by repeated de-
feats, they were under the neceflity of fubmitting to the
Roman power, till the fubverfion of that empire by the
Goths. In the beginning of the eighth century Don
Palayo reftored the Spanifh monarchy in the Atturias.
Atturia, the capital of the Atturians, was, in ancient times,
the famous “ Colonia Auguita,”? mentioned by Pliny.
This place divided the Aftures into Augu/lani and Tran/-
montani. ‘The feventh Roman legion, intitled “ Augulta
Gemina,’’ was fettled between the Afturian fea and the
capital of this diftri@, called “-Afturia Augutta,” now
Astorca. The country derives its name from the river
Aftura, and is now denominated ‘ Afturias.”? It was
formerly celebrated by the poets for the gold it produced.

ASTURIAS, in Geography, the ancient A/uria, a pro-
vince of Spain, about forty-eight leagues long, and eighteen
broad ; bounded on the eaft by Bifcay, onthe fouth by Old
Caftile and Leon, onthe weft by Galicia, and on the north
by the bay of Bifcay. It is ufually divided into two parts
or diftri&s called Afturia of Oviedo, and Afturia of San-
tillane ; and hence it derives its plural name Afturias. The
country is generally mountainous and rugged; and towards
the fouth are the mountains which branch from the Pyrenées,
and feparate it from Old Caftile and Leon; thefe are co-
vered with extenfive forefts. The foil, however, produces
a fufficiency of corn, great quantities of fruit, and excellent
wine. Its horfes are in great eiteem, and maintain their
reputation from the time of the Romans, who preferred
them to all the other horfes in Spain. The inhabitants,

.

AST

who value themfelves even at this day on the purity of their
blood, and their defcent from the ancient Goths, are poor,
but honeft, generous, brave, and laborious. The principal
towns are Oviedo, Santillane, and San Andero. The eldeft
fon of the king of Spain takes the title of the prince of
Aflturias, and bears the arms of the country.
ASTURICANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Afiatic Sarmatia. Ptolemy. ;
ASTURASPES, a name formerly given to a river of
Abyflinia, now called Mares. It is one of the rivers repres
fented by the ancients as forming the ifland of Meroe.
ASTY, a village of Egypt, mentioned by Diodorus
aa in the vicinity of Canopus, according to Steph.
YZ.
ASTYAGES, in Biography, king of the Medes, was
the fon of Cyaxares, according to Herodotus (1.1. c. 74.)
and Paufanias (1. v. c. 10. p. 398.); and began his reign,
according to Blair’s tables, in the year 585 B.C. Sir Ifaac
Newton Saree apud Oper. t. v. p. 222.) fays that, Hero-
dotus, followed by Paufanias, has inverted the order of the
kings Aityages and Cyaxares; making Cyaxares to be the
fon and fucceffor of Phraortes, and the father and prede-
ceffor of Aftyages, the father of Mandane, and grand-
father of Cyrus. Confidering, he adds, that Cyaxares
reigned long, and that no author mentions more kings of
Media than one, called Aftyages ; and that /Efchylus, who
lived ia thofe days, knew but of two great monarchs of
Media and Perfia, the father and the fon, older than Cyrus,
he concludes, that Aftyages, the father of Mandane, and
grandfather of Cyrus, was the father and predeceffor of
Cyaxares ; and that the fon and fucceflor of Cyaxares, was
called Darius. Accordingly, he fays, that Attyages began
his reign at the death of Phraortes, who was flain by the
Affyrians in the year of Nabonafler 111., or 637 B.C.,
and reigned 26 years. According to Herodotus, A ftyages
married his daughter to a Perfian nobleman named Cam-
byfes. During her pregnancy he had a dream, fignifying
that the child that was to be born fhould rule over all A fia.
This prediGtion alarmed him ; and he determined to deftroy
the child. Harpagus, who was employed for this purpofe,
difobeyed the royal command, and intrufted the nurture
and education of the infant Cyrus with one of the king’s
herdimen. When Cyrus was ten years old, Aftyages dif-
covered the fraud, and caufed the only fon of Harpagus to
be killed, and his flefh to be ferved up to himin a banquet.
Harpagus for fome time diffembled his indignation at this
act of barbarity, bnt waiting a favourable opportunity of
revenge, he called Cyrus, arrived at manhood, from Perfia,
whither he had been fent to his real parents, and affifted
him to revolt againft his grandfather. Aittyages was de-
feated 5 and cauled the Magi, who had led him to imagine
that the danger apprehended from his fon’s revolt was at an
end, to be all impaled. Ina fecond engagement he was
defeated and made prifoner; upon which he was depofed
by Cyrus, after having reigned 35 years, and the Medes
were fubjected to the Perfians. Aftyazes was confined to
his palace, but futfered to clofe his life by a natural death.
Xenophon, in his ‘ Cyropedia,’? a work which the beft
critics have confidered more as a fiction than a true hiftory,
reprefents Cyrus as having been openly educated at the court
of his grandfather Aftyages, who retained the crown till
his death, and was fucceeded by bis fon Cyaxares II. Af-
tyages has been reckoned ly fome the “ Ahafuerus’”? of
{cripture. Anc. Un. Hift. vol. iv. p. 23. See Menra, and
Persia. ‘
ASTYANAX, in Ancient Hiffory, the only fon of
Fieétor and Andromache. Calchas, the foothfayer, pre-
Li2 dicted,

A'5 ¥

died, that if he lived to manhood, he would be more valiant
than his father, and avenge his death. It was therefore
determined to difpatch him in his minority. Andromache
took pains for concealing him; but, it is faid, that Ulyffes
difcovered him, and. precipitated him from the top of the
‘Trojan walls. “The death of A fbyanax is the principal fub-
je&t of Euripides’s tragedy of the Trojans.

ASTYNOMY, in Antiquity, were magiftrates at Athens
who had the infpeétion of the ftreets, and alfo of players
on inftruments and buffoons: They were ten in number,
and correfponded tothe plebeian ediles of Rome. See
Acoranomus. —

ASTYPALA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
AAfia, in the Cretan fea, where, according to Cicero (De
Nat. Deor. 1. iii. c: 18.), divine honours were rendered to
Achilles. Steph. Byz. fays, that this ifland, one of the
Cyclades, «was called Pyrrha when the Carians poffeffed it,
and afterwards Pylexa. Its name Aftypalea, in its proper
fignification, means the ‘ancient city,’’ and is faid to be
derived from that of the daughter of Phoenix and Piramede,
fitter of Europa, and beloved by Neptune, by whom he
had Anceus, who reigned over the people named Lelegi.
Paufan. |. vii. c. 4. It was alfo called “ Theontrapeza,”’
-i, e. the table of the gods, becaufe its foil is fertile, and al-
moft enamelled with flowers. It now bears the name of
Srampatra.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of Cos. Strabo.
—Alfo, a promontory of Afia Minor, in Caria,’ in the
territory of Mindus. Strabo.—Alfo, a town of the ifland
of Samos.

ASTYRA, or Astyre’, a town of /£olis; but it no
longer fubfifted in the time of Pliny.—Alfo, a village of Afia
Minor, in the Troade, near mount Ida, in the vicinity of
which was a grove confecrated to Diana Attyrené.—Alfo,
atown of Pheenicia, in the neighbourhood of the ifle of
Rhodes, Steph. Byz.

- ASTYRON, a town of Illyria, built by the Argo-
nants.

ASUADA, a town of Paleftine. Not. Imp.

ASUCA Bay, in Geography, lies on the fouth part of
the gulf of Sofala, on the S. E. coait of Africa, m the
Indian ocean.

ASUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland of
Crete (Pliny), the Afos of Steph. Byz. whence Jupiter
devived the appellation of Afius.

Asum, Offion, in Cousapey, atown of Africa, on the
fea-coalt of the kingdom of Adel.

ASUMATZ, a town of Wallachia, cight miles eaft of
Buchorett.

‘“ASWAD,
Saade.

ASYLA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in the
country of the Turdetani. Ptolemy.

ASYLUM, a fan@uary or. place of refuge, where a
eriminal who fhelters himfelf is deemed inviolable, and not
to be touched by any officer of juttice. 4

The word is compounded of the privative particle ¢, and
evrax, J huri ; becaufe no perfon could be taken out of an
afylum without facrilege.

The firft afylum was eftablifhed at Athens, by the
defcendants of Hercules, to fhelter themfelves from the
fury. of his enemies ; to ferve as a refuge for children who
fled from the ill treatment of their parents, and, as fome
lave faid, to be a fanCtuary for fuppliants m general. This is
-faid by_Statius, Theb. xii.. and Servius, in Afneid viii. to
have been the firft afylum; others fuppofe that it was firit
built at Thebes by Cadmus, for the reception of all cri-
minals.. Panfan. 1. vii, Ain. 1. ii..v.. 112. Eurip.<Hecuba,

a-town of Arabia, 28 miles fouth of

-

A'S.Y

v. 146. In imitation of the afylum of Cadmus, Romulus efta-
blifhed one between the two groves on the Capitoline mount,
which was free of accefs to all criminals. The oracle of
Delphos, according to Plutarch, fan@tioned this political
eftablifhment of Romulus with its approbation. When
Romulus enlarged his new city, which by this policy was
ftocked with inhabitants, the afylum was inclofed within
the walls, and thofe who had fled to it, being brought un-
der fome regulations, became citizens of Rome. Plut, in
Rom. 1. v. c. 19. Dion. Hal. 1. ii. .

‘The temples, altars, itatues, and tombs of heroes,’ were,
anciently, the ordinary retreat of thofe who found them-
felves aggrieved by the rigour of the laws, or opprefled by
the violence of tyrants: but temples were held the moit
facred and inviolable refuge. It was fuppofed, that the
gods took upon them to pumifh the criminal who thus
threw himfelf upon them; and that it would be a’ great
impiety in man to take vengeance out of the hands of the
immortals. ; :

The Ifraelites had their cities. of refuge, which were of
God’sown appointment ; where the guilty, who had not com-
mitted any deliberate crime, found fafety and protection: As
to the heathens, they allowed refuge and impunity even to the
vileft and moit flagrant offenders, fome out of fuperftition,
and others for the fake of peopling their cities ; and it was
by this means, and with fuch inhabitants, that Thebes,
Athens, and Rome, were firft ftocked. Weeven read of
afylums at Lyons and Vienne, among the ancient Gauls ;
and there-are fome cities in Germany which ftiil preferve
the ancient right of afylum. bey

Hence, on the medals of feveral ancient cities, particulariy
in Syria, we meet with the infcription ASYAOI, to whichis
added, IEPAI. This quality of afylum’was given them,
according to M. Spanheim, in regard to their temples, and
of the gods revered by them.

The fame qualities have alfo been given to deities: thus
Diana of Ephefus is called zovaG-.. Add, that the camp,
formed by Romulus and Remus, was called afylum, and
afterwards became a city, in which was.a temple ere@ted to
the god Afylzus, @zos Acvacsor. It appears from Plautus
(Moitell. v. 1.), that flaves had particular afylums: fuch-was
the temple at Athens ; or the tomb of Thefeus; becaufe
he never refufed to avenge the oppreffed, and to fuccour
the wretched. The temple of Diana at Ephefus was an
afylum for debtors. In procefs of time, afylums were fo
multiplied, that it became neceflary to regulate and reform:
them, in the reign of Tiberius, as we are informed by.
Tacitus (Annal. 1. iii. c. 60.); and Suetonius (Tiberi. c.,37:)
fays, they were utterly abolifhed. tien

The emperors Honorius and Theodofius granting. the
like immutities to churches, the bifhops and monks laid hold
of a certain tra or territory, without which they fixed the
bounds of the fecular jurifdiGtion: and fo well did they
manage their privileges, that convents, in a little time, be-
came next akin to fortrefles, where the mojt' notorious’
villains were in fafety, and braved the power of the magi-
ftrate. ede

hefe privileges, at length, were extended not only to,
the churches and church-yards, but alfo to the bithops?
houfes, whence the criminal could not be removed without
a legal affurance of life, and an entire remiflion of the crime,.
The reafon of the extenfion was, that they might not be
obliged to live altogether in the churches, &c. where feveral.
of the occafions of life could not be decently performed.

But, at length, thefe afyla, or fanétuaries, were alfo
{tripped of moit of their immunities, becaufe they ferved to,
make guilt and libertinifn more bold and daring. In Eng:

2

AS Y

land, particularly, they were entirely abolifhed.. See Sanc-
TUARY.

ASYMMETRY, derived from the primitive «, ow, with,
and jenzey, measure, q. d. without mea/ure, a want of pro-
portion, or correfpondence between ‘the parts of a thing.
See Symmetry. }

In Mathematics, the word is more particularly ufed for
what we more ufually call incommenturability ; which is
when between two quantities there is no common meafure :
as between the fide and diagonal of a {quare. Tn numbers,
furd’roots, as ,/ 2, &c. are incommenturable to rational
numbers.

ASYMPTOTE, in Geometry, a line which continually
approaches nearer and nearer to another; yet will never
meet with it, though indeffuitely produced.

The word is compounded of the privative #, cu, with,
and «wicw, from wiv, F fall; q. d. incoincident, or which
never meet. Some latin authors call thefe lines intade.

Bertinus enumerates divers forts of afymptotes ; fome

ftraight, others curve ; fome concave, others convex, &c.
and farther, propofes an inftrument for defcribing them.
Though, in ftritnefs, the term afymptotes feems appro-
priated to right lines. Afymptotes, then, are properly
right lines, which approach nearer and nearer to fome curve
of which they are faid to be the afymptotes ; but which,
though they and their curve were indefinitely continued,
would never meet: confequently afymptotes may be con-
ceived as tangents to their curves at an infinite diftance.
Two curves are alfo faidto be afymptotical, when they thus
¢ontinually approach, without a poflibility of meeting.

Of lines of the fecond kind, or curves of the firft kind,
that is, the conic fections, only the hyperbola has afymptotes,
which are two in number, the properties of which have been
long ago demonttrated by Apollonius Pergeus.

~All curves of the fecond kind have at leait one afymptote ;
but they may have three ; and all curves of the fourth kind
may have four afymptotes.

The conchoid, cifloid, and logarithmic curve, though
not reputed geometrical curves, have each alfo one afymp-
tote.

The nature of afymptotes will be eafily conceived from
the inftance of the afymptote of a conchoid. Suppofe
MMAM, &c. (Plate ANAvysis, fig. 2.) to be a part ofa
conchoid, C its pole, and the right line B D, fo drawn that
the parts, OA, EA, OM, &c. of right lines drawn from
the pole C, are equal to each other ; then will the line, BD,
be an afymptote of the curve; becaufe the perpendicular,
MI, &c. is fhorter than MO, and MR than MQ, &c. fo
that the two lines continually approach ; yet the points, M,

*&c. and R, &c. can never coincide, fince there ftillis a por-
tion of a line to keep them afunder; which portion of a
line is infinitely divifible, and confequently muft be dimi-
nifhed infinitely before it becomes nothing.

_ Asymetores of the HyperBord are thus defcribed.
Suppofe a right line DE (Plate I. Contcs, fg. 2.) drawn
through the vertex, A, of the hyperbola, paralle: to the or-
dinate M-m, and equal to the conjugate axis, viz. the part
DA, or AE, equal to the femi-axis: then, two right lines
drawn from the centre C of the hyperbola through the points
D and E, viz. the right lines, CF and CG, are afymptotes of
the curve. The parts of any right line, lying between the
curve of the common hyperbola and its afymptotes, are
equal to one another on both fides, that is rm—= MR.

‘Thus alfo, in hyperbolas of the fecond kind, ifa right line
be drawn, interfecting the curve and its three afymptotes in
three points, the fum of the two parts of that right line ex-
tended in the fame direCtion from any two of the afymptotes

As &

to two points of thé eutve, is equal to the'third part which
extends in the contrary direction from the third afymptote to
the third point of the curve.

If the hyperbola GMR (fig. 3.) be of any kind whofe
nature with regard to the curve, and its afymptote,
is exprefled by this general equation, x™ y= @"*"; and
the right line PM be drawn any where parallel to the afymp-
tote CS, and the parallelogram, PCOM, be completed :
this parallelogram is to the hyperbolic {pace PMG B, con-
tained under the determinate line PM, the curve of the
hyperbola, GM, indefinitely continued towards G, and the
part, PB, of the afymptote indefinitely continued the fame
way, asm—nis tons and fo if m be greater than x, the
faid {pace is finite and quadrable ; but when m=n, as it

will bein the common hyperbola, the ratio of the foregoing ©

parallelogram to that {pace is as 0 to 2: that is infinitely
greater than the parallelogram, and fo cannot be obtained ;
and when m is lefs than x, m—v will be negative, and the
parallelogram will be to the {pace as a negative number to
a politive one, and the faid {pace is called by Dr. Wallis
more than infinite. See Hyrerpova.

Asymprore of a Logarithmic Curve. If MS ( P/. Ana-
lyfis, fig.3-) be the logarithmic curve, PR an afymptote,.

_ PT the fubtangent, and MP an ordinate ; then will the inter-

mediate fpace RPMS = PM+ PT’; and the folid, gene-
the rotation of this curve about the afymptote, V P, rated by
half of a cylinder whofe altitude is equal to the length of
the fubtangeut, and the femidiameter of the bafe equal to:
the ordinateQ V. See Locarirumie.

AsymprTores, are by fome diftinguifhed inta various:
orders.. An afymptote is faid to be of the firft order, when
it coincides with the bafe of the curvilinear figure: of the
fecond order, when it isa right line parallel to the bafe : of
the third order,’ when it isa right line obligue to the bafe :
of the fourth order, when it isa common parabola, that has
its axis perpendicular to the bafe; and, in general, of the
order x+-2, when it is a parabola, the ordinate of which is
always asa power of the bafe, whofe exponent is 7. _ The

afymptote is: oblique to the’ bafe, when the ratio’of the:

firft fluxion of the ordinate to the fluxion of the bafe, ap-
proaches to-an aflignable ratio, as its limit ; but it is pa-
rallel to the bafe, or coincides with it, when. this limit is
not aflignable. ’

The determination of the afymptotes of curves, isa curious
part of the higher geometry. M. de Fontenelle has given
feveral theorems relating to this fubjeé, in his “ Geometrie
deVinfini.’’ Seealfo Stirling’s « Lineztertii Ordininis,”’ Prop.
vi. where the fubje&t of afymptotesis elaborately difeufled; and
Cramer, ‘‘Introduétion al’ Analyfe des Lignes.courbes,”? art
1475 &c. in whichis given an excellent theory of geometrical
curves and their branches. This fubjeé is alfo treated: accu-
rately by Mr. Maclaurin, in his Fluxions, book i. chap. 10.
where he has been careful to avoid the modern paradoxes
concerning infinites and infinitefimals. The areas bounded
by curves, and their alymptotes, tho’ indefinitely extended)
fometimes have limits to which they may approach, fo as
to differ lefs from thofe limits than by any given quantity.
This happens in hyperbolas of all kinds, except the firlt, or
Apollonian. The fame is alfo true of the area, comprifed
between the logarithmic curve and itsafymptote. See Lo-
GaARiTHMic curve. ‘Thofe who do not feruple to fuppofe
the curve and its afymptote to be infinitely produced, fay,
that the infinitely extended area becomes equal to its limit.

The afymptotical area in the common or Apolionian hy-
perbola, and in many other curves, has no limit ; and it is
ufual to fay, thefe areas are infinitely great; by which,.
however, no more is meant, than that the curve, and its

: afymptote,

aA TA

afymptote, may be extended, till the {pace comprehended
between them exceeds any given magnitude. Some authors,
and Dr. Wallis among the reft, have talked of fome of thefe
areas, as if they were more than infinite. This happened from
an analogy they imagined between pofitive, nothing, and
negative, and what is finite, infinite, and more than in-
finite. See Hyrrrpona.

Solids generated by hyperbolic areas, revolving about
their afymptotes, have fometimes alfo their limits ; and fome-
times they may be produced, till they exceed any given
folid. See art. 307. 309. of the above mentioned author.
When a curve, and its afymptote, are fuppofed to be pro-
duced infinitely, and the area comprifed between them, to
revolve about the afymptote, the furface generated will be
finite or infinite, according as the area of the generating
figure is finite or infinite.

For the afymptotes of curves, defcribed by the interfec-
tions of right lines revolving about given poles, fee Mr. Mac-
laurin’s Fluxions, art. 313. feq.

Asymprote, Parabolic. See Parasoric A/ymptote.

ASYMPTOTIC Spaces. See Hyrersora.

ASYNDETON, derived from the privative «, and cw3:w,
I bind together, a figure in Grammar, implying an omiflion
of words, or a defect of thofe particles that conneét the
members of a fentence with one another. The want of fuch
particles reprefents either the celerity of an action, or the
hafte and eagernefs of the fpeaker. As, in the inftance,
* veni, vidi, vici,”? ‘I came, I faw, I conquered ;”? in
which Cefar expreffes his conqueft of Pharnaces (Suet. in
vit. c. 37-) 3 where the copulative ef, and, is omitted: or
in that of Cicero concerning Catiline, ‘¢ abiit, exceffit, evafit,
erupit ;” ‘he is gone, departed, efcaped, broke out :”’ or
in that verfe of Virgil,

«¢ Ferte cito flammas, date vela, impellite remos.’?

This concife mode of {peaking adds a confiderable em-
phafis to an expreffion ; and, by bringing the feveral parts
of a fubject nearer together, affe&ts the mind with greater
force. Thus Cicero (pro Muren. c. 29.) fets Cato’s cha-
yacter in a very {trong and beautiful light by the ufe of this
figure. ‘ Nature itfelf has made you a great and excellent
man for integrity, gravity, temperance, magnanimity, jui-
tice, in a word, for all virtues.’’

Afyndeton ftands oppofed to pa/y/yndeton, where the co-
pulatives are multiplied.

ASYNT Pornrt, or Row Stoir, in Geography, a cape on
the weft coaft of Scotland, in the county of Sutherland.
N. lat. 58° 13’. long. 1° 58’ W. Edinburgh.

ASYPHUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountainof Africa,
in the Marmarica. Ptolemy.

ATA, or Atatscual, in Geography, a rivulet of Perfia,
in the province of Schirwan, ferving as a boundary to fome
of the diftris into which it was divided.

ATABULI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
placed by Pliny in the fmall ifland of Meroe.

ATABULUS, in Phyfislogy, a kind of wind in Apulia,
of a dry pinching quality, and very noxious in its effects.

The ancient naturalifts fpeak of the atabulus in terms of
horror, on account of the ravage it made among the fruits
of the earth, which it fcorched or withered up.

ATABYRON, in Geography, the name of a mountain in
the ifland of Rhodes, whence the ifland itfelf was denomina-
ted diabyria. The name is fuppofed to have been derived
from Pheenicia, where Atabyr denoted a place of good paf-
ture, and it was applied tothe Tazor of {cripture, belong-
ing tothe tribe of Zabulon. On this mountain was fituated
atemple of Jupiter, hence called Atabyrius, much celebrated
by heathen hiftorians and poets. Here, fabulous report

DA
fays brazen oxen announced by their bellowings any ap:
proaching calamity. The fable is explained by fuppofing
that the priefts of this temple pretended to be endowed with
the fpirit of prophecy.—Alfo, a mountain of Sicily, fo
called on account of a temple of Jupiter Atabyrius, and of
Minerva, that was erected on its fummit.—Alfo, a town of

Pheenicia, according to Steph. Byz. : or of Coclefyria, ac-

cording to Polybius.

ATACAMA, in Geography. See ATTACAMA.

ATACINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Europe,
in Gaul, who inhabited the banks of the Atax (Aude),
whence their name, near the Volee Tectoiages, and north
ofthe Sardoni. Their capital was Narbo.

ATJEA, a town of Laconia. Steph. Byz.

ATAHUALPA, in Biography, the fon of Huana
Capac, © the daughter of the fovereign of Quito; was ap-
pointed by his father, when he died in 1529, his fucceffor in

the kingdom of Quito ; the reft of his dominions being be-.

queathed by him to Huafcar, his eldeit fon by a mother of
the royal race. The deftination of Huana Capac concern-
ing the fucceffion, excited general difguit at Cufco; and
Huafcar, encouraged by his fubje&ts, required his brother
to renounce the government of Quito,,and to acknowlege
him as his lawful fuperior. Atahualpa, having fecured in
his intereft a large body of troops which had accompanied
his father to Quito, and which formed the flower of the
Peruvian warriors, firft eluded his brother’s demand, and
then marched again{ft him in hoftile array. This conteit
between the brothers invoived Peru in a civil war, which
terminated in the defeat and captivity of Huafcar, and in
the extermination of the royal race by the murder of all the
children of the fun, as the defcendants of Manco Capac
were denominated, whom Atahualpa could feize either by
force or ftratagem. At this time Pizarro, the Spanifh ad-
venturer, arrived in Peru ; and being folicited by meffengers
deputed by Huafcar, to affift him in fubduing his brother,
who was reprefented as a rebel and an ufurper, he directed
his courfe towards Caxamalca, a {mall town at the diftance
of twelve days march from St. Michael, where Atahualpa
was encamped, with a confiderable body of troops. The
reigning inca difpatched a meflenger to Pizarro, as he was
advancing, with a valuable prefent, offering his alliance, and
afluring him a friendly reception at Caxamalca. Pizarro,
on his part, returned profeffions of regard, and a declaration
that he was now advancing, as the ambaflador of a very
powerful monarch, with an intention to offer Atahualpa aid
againit thofe enemies who difputed his title to the throne.
This pacific and friendly declaration removed the inca’s
fears ; and Pizarro was allowed to march, without inter-
ruption, to Caxamalca; in his approaches to which he re-
ceived renewed profeifions of friendfhip from Atahualpa, and
additional prefents. The perfidious Spaniard determined to
avail himfelf of the unfufpecting fimplicity with which Ata-
hualpa relied on his profeffions, and to feize his perfon during
the interview to which he had invited him. Accordingly
he made p:«parations for this purpofe ; and as the inca drew
near the Spanifh quarters, with a numerous and fplendid
train, the friar Valverde advanced to meet him, witha cru-
cifix in one hand, and a breviary in the other; and im a long
difcourfe explained to him the doctrines of religion, and the
authority of the pope, clofing his harangue with a requifi-
tion, that the inca would embrace the Chriftian faith, ac-
knowledge the fupreme jurifdiction of the pope, and fubmit
to the king of Caitile as his lawful fovereign.
fition was enforced by promifes of protection, if he com-
plied, and by threats of vengeance if he refufed to obey the
fummons, The inca hefitated and demurred; he pleaded

his

This requi-

AST A

his right to empire by hereditary fucceflion; he expreffed
his furprife that a foreign prieft fhould difpofe of territories
which did not belong to him, and without the confent of
the rightful poffeffor ; and he profeffed that he had no in-
clination to renounce the religious inftitutions eftablifhed by
his anceflors, and that he could not abandon the fervice of
the fun, the immortal divinity whom he and his people re-
vered, in order to worfhip the god of the Spaniards, who
was fubject to death. As to other matters, which he had
never heard before, and the meaning of which he did not
now underitand, he defired to know where the prieft had
learned fuch extraordinary things: “in this book,’ replied
Valverde, reaching out to him his breviary. The inca
eagerly opened it, and turning over the leaves, lifted it to
his ear: ‘this,’ fays he, “is filent ; it tells me nothing :”
and he threw it with difdain to the ground. The enraged
monk exclaimed to his countrymen: ‘to arms, Chriftians,
toarms ; the word of God is infulted ; avenge this profana-
tion on thofe impious dogs.”? The farce being now com-
pleted, the Spaniards rufhed upon the innocent Peruvians,
maflacred many of them without mercy, and feized the per-
fon of the inca himfelf, who was detained in captivity. ‘The
dejected prince, anxious to regain his liberty, propofed a
ranfom, and fuch was the amount of it, that the Spaniards
themielves were aftonifhed, even after all they knew con-
cerning the opulence of his kingdom. The apartment in
which he was confined was twenty-two feet long, and fix-
teen broad ; and the captive monarch propofed to all it with
veflels of gold as high as he could reach. Pizarro clofed
with the alluring propofal, and a line was drawn upon the
walls of the chamber to mark the ftipulated height to which
the treafure was to rife. When this immenfe mafs was
nearly collected by the faithful attachment and active zeal
of his fubjeGs, the inca was allowed to facrifice to his own
fafety the life of his captive brother Huafear ; but though
the Spaniards divided among them the rich fpoil of Peru,
the inca was continued in confinement. He now became an
object of contention between the foldiers of Pizarro, and
thofe that were newly arrived under Almagro ; and the lat-
ter demanded his lite, that there might be no pretext of
inequality in fharing the future plunder of Peru, under the
notion of its being the inca’s ranfom. Pizarro at length
confented to facrifice the inca; and after a mock trial,
Atahualpa was found guilty, and condemned to be burnt
alive. Friar Valverde proftituted the authority of his facred
funétion to confirm this fentence, and by his fignature war-
ranted it tobe juft. Aftonifhed at his fate, Atahualpa en-
deavoured to avert it by tears, by promifes, and by entreaties
that he might be fent to Spain, where a monarch would be
the arbiter of his life. Pizarro was unrelenting; and the
inca was led to execution. Walverde attended him, and at-
tempted to convert him to embrace the Chriltian faith, by a
promife of procuring a mitigation of his punifhment. The
dread of a cruel death, at length, extorted from the tremb-
ling victim a defire of receiving baptifm. The ceremony
was performed; and Atahualpa, inftead of being burnt,
was ftrangled at the flake. ‘Chis event happened A.D.
1533 and thus terminated the life and reign of the laft inca
of Peru. Robertfon’s Hift. Amer. vol. iii. p. 29—57-

ATAJA, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome writers to
a fpecies of Scrmna, obferved by Forfkal. It is an inha-
bitant of the Red Sea.

ATAITR, in Afironomy. See Arcarr.

ATAKKENI, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Natolia, forty-four miles north-weft of
Eregri.- au

ATALA, a {mall town of Sicily, in the valley of De-

AT A

mona, agreeably fituate on the ftrait of Meflina, between
Meffina and ‘Taormina.

ATALANTA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Pariuio
that inhabits Europe, and of which a variety is found in
America, The wings are -black, indented, and {potted
with white; a red band acrofs the anterior pair ; border of
the pofterior pair of the fame colour. This is Pavitso
Atalanta of moft authors: Englith Aurelians call it the
red admirable Lutterfly, and the French Atalante.

ATALANTA, in Ancient Geography, Tutendi, a {mall
ifland in a canal formed by the fea between the ifland of
Euboea to the eaft, and the coalt of Locris to the weft.
The ancients, as Pliny, Eufebius, and Diodorus Siculus,
have fuggefted that this tract of land was detached from the
adjoining country.—Al{«, another ifland in the Saronic gulf,

ATALAYA, or Aravava, in Geography, a {mall town
of Portugal, in the province of Eftremadura, confifting of
one parifh with about 200 inhabitants. It is defended by a
fortrefs on an eminence of difficult accefs ; two leagues fouth
of ‘Tomar.

ATALENUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Armenia Major.

ATAMARAM, in Botany. See Annona.

ATAMASCO Lity. See Amaryinis.

AT-ANCHOR, in Sea Language, exprefles the fituation
of a {hip riding by her anchor.

ATANTA, in Botany, a name given by the people of
Guinea to a kind of fumach, called by Petiver Ruus Guin-
eenfe trifaliatum ferratum feabium, from its being trifoliate,
and having rough and ferrated leaves. This fomewhat re-
fembles the hoary trifoliate African fumach of Pluckenet ;
but it differs in this, that its leaves are edged with prickles,
whereas thofe of Pluckenet’s kind are only deeply finvated.
The people of Guinea are very fond of this for its medicinal
virtues ; they give it as a reftorative, boiled in water. Phil.
Tranf. No. 232.

ATAPHYNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ara-
bia. Steph. Byz.

ATARAXY, a term much ufed by the Sceptics and
Stoics, to denote that calmnefs and tranquillity of mind, and
that firmnefs of judgment, which fets us free from any agita-
tions or emotions ariling from felf-opinion, and the know-
ledge we imagine ourfelves poffeffed of.

The word is compounded of aru, but, and rxkicy orders
In this ataraxy, they fuppofed the fovereign good, or higheft
blifs in this life to confift.

ATARNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Myfa
upon the Hellefpont, over againit the ifle of Lefbos. In
the time of Pliny it was no more than a village; he calls it
Aterna; andin D’Anville’s chart it is Atarneus.

ATAVILLOS, in Geography, a people of South Ame-
rica, in Peru, at the fource of the river Xauca, at fome
diftance from the Pacific ocean and from Lima.

ATAXIA, azo%ix in Medicine, a term which fignifies
irregularity or difturbance of aGtion, from.« privative and
7a£i:, ordo. his term is applied to fevers, when they are
irregular in their type ; to the pulfe, when it is fluttering and
unequal; and to the operations of the fenforium commune,
when they are hurried and confufed. An ataétic condition
of the pulfe and fpirits, in acute difeafes, is generally a fign
of malignancy.

ATAXORA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Nae
varre, four leagues from Olita.

ATBARA, a province of Abyffinia, the capital of
which is Teawa, thirty-three miles north from Rafhid, in
N. lat. 14° 2’ 4”. ‘The ancient river Aftaboras is now
called Atbara, and the province is, according to Bees

e

ATE

the ancient peninfula Meroe. he Daveinia Arabs, who
conitantly live in tents, bear a mortal enmity’ to all who
whabit villages, and, as occafion offered, have laid wafte the
greateit part of Atbara, The ftrenotli of Teawa, fays
Bruce, was about twenty-five horfe, of which about ten
were armed with coats of mail; and they had about a dozen
firelocks. The reft of the siliabitante might amount to
1200 men, naked, miferable, and defpicable: Arabs, like the
reit of thofe that live in villages, who are much inferior to
the Arabs that dwell in teats. In this defert and poor
country, itis not to be expected that trade of any kind fhould
flourith ; but there is a miferable manufacture of coarfe
woollen ‘alothise of the fize of large towels, fufficient to go
round the middle, which pafs cu arrent, like fpecie, all over
Atbara; they are called “« Dimods,” and are ufed inftead
of filver money. The mahalac, a very bad copper coin,
pafles for fmaller matters; fo that the currency of Teawa
itands thus :

20 mahalac, 1 crufh,
12 crush, I metical,
4 metical, 1 vakia.

The vakia of gold is worth about forty-five fhillings ; but
the only commerce of Teawa is carried on by exchange,
as falt for grain, camels for falt ; the value of goods vary+
ing according to the fearcity or plenty of one fort of com-
modities with refpect to the other. Bruce’s Trav. vol. 4.

- 406.

ATCHAIRSKOI, a fortrefs of Siberia, on the Irtifh,
twenty-eight miles fouth-eait of Omfk.

ATCHAK, one of the Fox iflands, about Soo verits
diftant from the Aleutian ifles; lying in 56° N. lat. and
extending from-W. 5S. W. towards E. N. E. . It refembles
Copper ifland, and hasa convenient harbour or the north.

ATCHE, in Commerce, a {mall filyer coin, current in the
fates of the Grand Seignor, equal to about a third part of
the Englith penny. The atche is the fmalle com ufed in
Turkey 3; Ww here there is no copper money Bemis except in
the e province of Babylon. Some call the atche the little
afper: it is ftamped like the para, with Arabic characters.
‘Three or four atches are commonly given in exchange for
the para.

ATCHIEVEMENT, in Heraldry, fignifies the arms,
creits, and fupporters, which a perfon has a lawful right to
bear, with all the exterior crnaments, as helmet, mantle,
motto, &c. &c. See FunERAL Atchicvements.

ATCHEIN, in Geography. See ACHEEN.

ATCHI Kovntrri, a lake of America, in Labrador,
which: conveys its water foutherly, through a connected chain
of {mall lakes, into the river St. Lawrence.

ATCHINSK, one of the fix diftn@s of the province
of Tomfk, in Ruffia, fituate on the river Tchulym, falling
into the Ob. The Townis 424 miles E.S.E. of Tobolik.
N. lat. 5. 56,° 20'..B. long. 124°. 361.

ATE, derived from a7aw, to hurt, in Mythology, the
daughter of Jupiter, andthe goddefs of mifchief.. She was
caft down from heaven by Jupiter, who, deceived by Juno
in caufing Euriftheus to be born before Hercules, was in.
cenfed, and manifeited his refentment againit ./fe, as the
caufe of the offence, by precipitating her from heaven, and
fweating that fhe fhould never return thither. Homer, II.
xix. 125. Mythologitts explain the fable thus: Ate is
the daughter of Jupiter, -becaufe evil happens by the per-
miffion of providence ; and her banifhment from heaven
to earth fignifies the dreadful effects of divine juftice among
nen.

ATECA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Arragon,
upon the river Xalon, two leagues above Calatiaud: fup-

ALTTE

pofed by Clufius to be the Ancient “ Attacum” of the Celti«
berians, placed by others at Daroca.

ATEGAR, a weapon among the Saxons, which feems
to have been a hand-dart. The word comes from the Saxon
aeton, to fling, or throw, and gar, a weapon.

ATEGUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Suits
fituate near the river named * Flumen Salfum,”? or “ Sal-
fufa.”” Pompey having paffed this river, encamped between
Ucubis and Ategua, to oblige Czfar to raife the fiege of
the latter place ; but it was taken in his prefence. It oce
curs in the route from Anticaria'to Hifpalis.

ATELA:, sa town of Alia Minor, in the ee
Ptolemy. ry

ATELETIA, in Antiquity, denotes an exemption from

.tribute, taxes, or other burdens.

TeAKi% Aesrepynyelwr, is particularly ufed, in fome Ancient
Laws, for an exemption from ofiices, prantad to the Egyp-.
tian clergy by Conttantius.

ATELLA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Italy, inthe
Campania, fouthawets of Capua. It was firft declared mu-
nicipal, and afterwards bécame a colony. The ruins of this
ancient city of the Ofcans may be now feen two miles to the
fouth of Averfa, ata place called “«S. Afpino di Atella”” _

Ate ta, in Geography, a town of Italy, i in the kingdom
of Naples, at the foot of the Apennines, in the Bafilicata,
two leagues from Melphi.

ATELLANA, in i Ag a kind of comic and fatirie
pieces prefented on the Roman theatre; fomewhat lefs
ludicrous than the farces on the Englifh ftage, and yet lefs
grave and ferious than the Greek and Latin comedies and
tragedies. ‘The atellane, or fabulz atellane of the Romans,
anfwered. to. the fatyre among the Greeks. They were
thus called from A/el/a, a city of Tuicany, where they were
firft reprefented ; and fr om. W hence, on account-of their _
mirth and humour, they were introduced into Rome. But
they became at length fo licentious and impudent, that the
fenate was obliged to fupprefs them.

ATELLARA, or Avenvarti, in Geography, a river of
Sicily, which runs into the fea between Sy rracufe and cape
Paflaro.

ATELLUM, in Ancient Geography, atown of Italy, in
eu Grecia, es of Venofias,

A-TEMPO GIUSTO, in JZufic, implies a fteady, jut
time ; not very quick, but ieee and exaét. “-tempo, after
recitative, a paufe, or ralentando, implies a return to the
firft time.

ATENA, in Geograph », afmall town of Italy, i in the
kingdom of Naples, fituate on the river Negro, in the Prin-
cipato Citra, ten miles weft of Marfico Novo.

ATER, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Africa, in
the Syrtis Minor, which, according to Pliny, extended -
itfelf to a confiderable diltance from the eaft to the weit,
and was called by the Romans, ‘* Mons Ater,’’ becaufe it
was feorched by the heat of the fun. The mountainous
tract, known to the ancients by the name of Mons Ater,
is now denominated the * Black Harutch.”’

ATER, in Conchology, a {pecies of Mytitus, deferibed
in Molin. Hitt. Chili. p. 177. and faid to be frequent.on
the fhores of that country. It is fulcated or grooved, with
the poiterior part fealy. Gmel. This thell is rough like
fome {pecies of pinne ; dull blue; fith black, and not eat-
able.

Arter, a fpecies of Srromsus found in the boggy parts
of the ifland of Amboyna. This fhell is fmooth, and has
the lip feparated before and behind. The length is about
two inches ; colour black, brown, or bay, and white within 5
very finely itriated tranfverfely ; aperture ovate; {pire fub-

/ ulate,

ATE

ulate, and confiling of twelve contiguous flattifh whorls.
Gmelin, Lifter, &c.--Miill. in his Hift. Verm. Fluy. et Terr.
defcribes it as Nerita teita fubulata levi, apertura antice
potticeque finuata. ;

Aver, in Entomology, afpecies of Dermesres found in
the neighbourhood of Upfal, and deferibed by Dr. Thun-
berg, in Nov. AG. Upf. 4. p.q. 0.4. It is glofly black,
with the wing-cafes thinly punétured. This is a fmall
infect. ‘

Aver, a fpeciesof Hypropuitus, a native of Europe.
This is black and glabrous; antenne and fhanks reddifh.
Gmel.

Arter, a fpecies of Byrruvs that inhabits Germany,
and in fhape and fize refembles byrrhus pilula. It is black
and without {pots. Fabr. This 1s ci/fela nigra nitens glabra
of Geoffroy.

Arer, a fpecies of Tenesrio found inEurope. This
is ofa black colour, with ferruginous antenng. Linn.

Arsgr, a fpecies of Caranus that inhabits Denmark.
Black ; wing-cafes ftriated ; claws fomewhat ferruginous.
Mill. Zool. Dan. ;

Aver, afpecies of Cerambyx (Callidium Fabr.) found
in the environs of Venice. It is black, with truncated
wing-cafes, and moderate antennz. Scopoli, Gmel. &c.

Aer, a fpecies of Grytius (Acheta Fab.) that in-
habits Surinam. The colour is dark brown, and the tail of
the female is unarmed. Degeer Inf. 3.—Gmel.

Aer; a fpecies of Cimex (Coleoptratus Sec.). This
infeét is gloffy-black, with the apex of the wing-cafes very
pale. Fabr. Mant. Inhabits Germany, and is about half
the fize of cimex zofterae.

Arer, is alfo a fpecies of Cimex in the Linnean Fn.
Sv. 944. The body is entire, andin Gmelin’s arrangement
it belongs to the feétion ob/onzus. Geoffroy defcribes
it as being black and oblong, and the antenne terminating
each ina briftle or hair. Inhabits the north of Europe and
Calabria.

Aer, afpecies of Cynips, defcribed by Schrank among
the infects of Germany, and which form and mhabit very
large exerefcences on the ftems of plants. It is black, with
elevated dots; tarfiof the legs paler.

Arerr,‘afpecies of Bomsyzius deferibed by Scopoli,
Scheffer, &c. ~ It inhabits Germany. ‘Phe colour is black ;
bafe of the wings half-black ; abdomen {potted with white,
Fabr Spec. In{.—Front of the head’and thorax downy, and
a white dot before each eye.

Arter, afpecies of Asirus found in Europe.
black and hairy, with a white beard. Fn. Sv.
calls it erax proftratus.

Arer, aminute fpecies of Irs found in England by Mr.
Kirby, and defcribed by Mr. Marfham, Ent. Brit. It is
fubeylindrical and black; thorax dotted with impreffed
points, and carinated along the middle; wing-cafes with
crenate ftrie ; foles‘of the feet pitchy black.—General colour
black.

Arter, in Natural Hiflory, a fpecies of Ancuis or
fnake. It inhabits Ceylon; black, fafciated with white,
and the feales tipt-with black. Laur. Amp. This is am-
phifbezna ceilonica foemina of Seba; aid anguis ater, black-
banded flow-worm of Dr. Shaw.

AreR, a fpecies of Limax, ({lug or fnail), the body
of which is black and rugged. Mull. Gmel. Of this
kind. there are feveral varieties; the firft (2) is black, and
pale beneath ; it is figured by Lifter, exerc. anat. tab. iii.
f..r—5., and is probably cochlea nuda of Gefn. The
feeond variety (8) is black, with a pale greenifh dorfal
ridge. ‘Ihe third: (+) is deferibed’ by Swammerdam ; it is

Vou TH. -

It is

Scopoli-

AT E

black above, white beneath, and the mouth yellowifh. The
fourth (4) is limax fubrufus of Lifter; the colour of which
is chef{nut-brown above, white beneath, and mouth yel-
lowifh. The fifth kind is of an obfcure brown, with a
yellowifh mouth and {treak on each fide.

Thefe are found in woods, meadows, and gardens. ‘he
length is from an inch and four lines to five inches. 'The
feelers are black inall; the fhield rough, with many punc-
tures; back and belly deeply furrowed or wrinkled.

ATER, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Fatco that inhabits
Europe. The cere and legs are yellow, body above
brownifh black ; and the head, whitifh ; tail forked. Gmel.
This is a kind of kite, and is fomewhat {maller than the
common fpecies, milvus. Briff. calls it milvus niger; Buff.
milan noir ; and Cramer, braunermaldygeyer. It is alfo the
black eled of Sibbald, and black kite of Latham.

Arter, a fpecies of Psirtracus, of a black colour,
gloffed with green, with bill and eyes red, and yellow legs.
This is the black maccaw of Englifh writers; ara noir of
Buff. ; and ararauna ou machao of de Laét, &c. It lives
about the fummits of the dry mountains and rocky places
in the interior parts of Guiana, and in that refpect differs
from the other kinds of maccaws found in that country.
Buffon {peaks of it as a fpecies well known to the inha-
bitants of Guiana, but had never feen it ; and obferves, that.
though the plumage is black, it is fo blended with
green, that in the funfhine it has a moft fplendid appear-
ance.

Arter, the Gtnelinian fpecific name of the crefted black,
cuckow of Latham; a kind of Cucuxus, with a wedge-
formed tail; body fhining, black; feathers of the head
elongated into a creft; and the firft five quill-feathers white.
at the bafe. This bird is a native of Africa, being found
at the cape of Good Hope, and it is conjectured may be
only a variety of cuculus ferratus.

The length of this kind is twelve inches ; the bill an inch
and a quarter in length, and rather incurvated. Buffon
fays in his fpecimen, the tail feathers are not regularly
cuneated. The fame author fuppofes his Jacobin huppé de
Coromandel, or Coromandel crefted cuckow, to vary only
through the difference of climate.

AreR, a fpecies of Parus, that inhabits the woods of
Europe and North America, -and is known in England by
the name of the colemoufe. The head is black ; back
cinereous ; back of the head and breaft white. Gmel. &c.
The bill and chin of this bird are black ; vent, reddith ; quill
and tail feathers. brownifh-afh ; legs and claws lead-coloured.

Aver, a fpecies of Parus, called in England the
Colemoufe. It is fmaller than the blue titmouie, and is
pretty common in woods, orchards, and gardens; feeds
on infeéts, and lays a number of eggs. This bird is
found throughout Europe, and inhabits likewife Siberia,
and fome parts of North America. Linnzus (Fn. Suec.)
deferibes it fpecifically as having the head black; back
cinereous ; hind-part of the head and breait white. Scop.
Cram. Gmel. &c. This is parusatricapillus, la mefange a
téte noire of Briffon. av. et la petite charbonnierre of Buf-
fon; Frifch calls it kohlmeife.—General defcription.
Length four inches; weight two drachms; bill black ;
throat, as well as the head, of the fame colour; from the
bill, on each fide, a broad band of white pafling juft under
the eye to the fides of the neck ; between.the breaft and
vent, rufous white; wing-coverts grey, tipped with white, ,
forming two bands of that colour; quill and tail feathers ,
brownifh-afh, bordered -with grey ; tail rather forked; legs
and claws lead colour.

ATERGATIS or Ararcaris, called alfo Derceto, in

Aa Mytholosyy

ATE

Mythology, a goddefs of the Syrians, fuppofed to -be the
mother of Semiramis. She was reprefented with the face
and breafts of a woman, but the reit of her body refembled
a fihh. Voffius fays the term fignifies without ji/h, and con-
jectures that the votaries of this deity abftained from fith.
“According to Antipater, the floic philofopher of Tarfus,
in his treatife on fuperflition, Atergatis is compounded of
dz:2, without, and Gatis, the name of a Syrian queen, who
being very fond of fith, forbad the ufe of it to her fubjects ;
and the Syrians, it is faid, did not eat fifh. Fabulous re-
port fays, that Atergatis was taken with her fon Ichthys,
by Mopfus king of Lydia, who drowned them both in a
take near Afcalon, where they were devoured by fifhes;
and hence, it is added, proceeded the horror of the Syrians
againft this fort of aliment. Atergatis, ftyled Dercetus,
fays Bryant (Anal. An. Myth. vol. il. p. 298.), isa com-
pound of Atar or Athar, the fame as On and Ofiris, an
Egyptian deity, and of gatus or catus, rendered xo; by the
Tonians, a fifh. Dagon, Sidon, and Dercetus, were all
names of the fame hieroglyphic, and related to the perfon
called Oanes by Berofus and others, and alfo to the machine
wherein he was preferved. He lived both before and after
the flood; he was reprefented at Babylon with two heads
and in other places he was differently exhibited. The
meaning of which, according to this writer, was this, that
though Oanes was really a man, yet he was typically
efteemed an animal of the fea; and on that account they
reprefented him with the fkin and feales of a cetus or fifh.
All thefe chara€ters were originally taken from hierogly-
phicsin Babylonia; they relate to the fame hiftory, and to
one particular perfon who had efcaped the waters when the
earth was overflowed ; and through whom arts and {ciences
were fuppofed to have been renewed in the world. Semi-
ramis, whom the generality of hiftorians have reprefented
asa great princefs who reigned in Babylon, is defcribed by
ether writers as a deity. Thus Athenagoras (Legatio,
p. 307.) fays, that “the Syrians worfhip Semiramis ;’
and he adds, “ that fhe was efteemed the daughter of Der-
eetus, and the fame as the Suria Dea.’? Diodorus alfo,
(1. ii. p. 92.) makes her the daughter of Dercetus by Surus ;
but Surus, fays Bryant, was the fun, and the Dea Sura
was Deafolaris. Hence many have confidered Rhea, Iiis,
Aftarte, Atergatis, and Semiramis, asone deity. Lucian,
(De Suria Dea, vol. ii. p. 885.) tells us, that they were fo
efteemed by the Syrians of Hieropolis. According to
Bryant, they were all different fymbols relating to the fame
obje&. See Semiramis. It has been alfo fuppofed, that
the Atergatis, or Derceto, of the proper Paleftine in gene-
ral, or of Afcalon in particular, was the Babylonian or
Affyrian Venus. To this purpofe Strabo (1. xvi. p. 748.)
fays, that Atergatis was worfhipped at Hieropolis, and he
makes her the fame with the Syrian goddefs. Others are of
the fame opinion (Plin. H. N. 1. v. c. 23.) ; and among them
Macrobins in (Saturn. i. c. 23.), who ftyles her the mother
of the gods, Aftarte, and the Hierapolitan or Affyrian
goddefs. Upon the whole, we may obferve, that Aterga-
tis was Venus, Juno, Minerva, Aftarte the Syrian goddefs,
and confequently the celeftial Venus of the Aflyrians. So
that we fee her the fame goddefs tranfported from the banks
of the Euphrates, into which fhe is faid firft to have plunged
herfelf, in order to efcape the inexorable Typhon (Man,
Aftron. iv.); and but jutt varied fo far as to leave room for
each particular country to claim her origin. ‘The Syrians,
who feem to have received her firft, and who were neareft
to the place of her native abode, preferved her, it is likely,
in the moft genuine form; the Pheenicians, who were next,

altered her no farther than to make her a Phoenician; and

2

ATE

the Philiftines,-or Afcalonites, who were a little farther off,
that they too might make her their own, converted her into
amontter, woman upwards and fifh downwards ; they allow-
ing her to have been in fubordination to fome other goddefs,
who had fuch power over her as to chaftife her by a meta-
morphofis from her juit fhape. It appears, then, that
the worfhip paid to this goddefs was originally derived
from Affyria and Babylonia, and was ettablifhed in other
countries by the prevailing power of thefe two empires, We
may alfo conclude, that the celeftial Venus of the Affyrians,
Aitarte of the Phcenicians, and the Derceto or Atar-
gatis of the later Phililtines, were all derived from Semiramis,
the firft real or reputed foundrefs of Babylon ; who feems ta
have been tranflated into the queen of heaven, the moon,
as Belus or Pul, the firft Affyriaa monarch, was changed
into the fun; that all the Jupiters and Junos, and the rett
who are fuppofed to have been once mortal, or conyerfant
on earth, are derived from this fource; and that, on this
Affyrian or Babylonian foundation, the whole fuperitruc-
ture of the Greek polytheifm. and idolatry was ereéted.
For the Greeks had their religion from the Pheenicians
partly, and partly from the Egyptians, who derived theirs
originally from the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, as
may be gathered from the religious itate of the countries
on either fide of the Euphrates in the days of Abraham.
The Egyptians, indeed, feem in procefs of time to have
ereCted a fyitem of their own, though not very widely dif-

ferent from the Babylonians ; and the Phcenicians, who had -

equally communication with the two nations, feem to have
mixed both fyftems. See Iporarry, and PotyTHersm.

ATERION, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily.
Steph. Byz.

ATERIUS,a town of Italy, in Samnium, belonging to
the Marrucini, fituate on the fea coaft at the mouth of a
river of the fame name, now called Pe/cara.

ATERRIMA, in Conchology, a {pecies of Nerira,
figured by Chemnitz. The fhellis thick, opake, globofe,
very black, with coloured lines; within white; exterior
lip glabrous, inner one tnberculated. Gmel. &e. This
kind is very mmutely ftriated, and its habitat unknown,

ATERRIMA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Brarta, of a
black colour, and deftitute of fpots; the tarfi of the legs
are white, knees brown, fhanks fpinous. Herbft: This
inhabits India.

ATeERRIMA, a new Britifh fpecis of CurysomeEra, de-
fcribed by M. Marfham, Ent. Brit. It is black and fhin-
ing ; thorax highly gloffy ; wing-cafes ftriated ; legs rather
ferruginous.

ATERRIMUS, a fpecies of Curcuxio, very common
in Europe. © This is black, with the wing-cafes fhining.
Linn. Fn. Sy. Fabr. &c. Gmelin has alfo another {pe-
cies of Curculio under the fame name ; thisis of an oblong
form, and black colour, with rufous antennz. Jt in-
habits Europe, and it is prefumed may be only a variety of
Curculio chloropus.

ArTerrimus, afpecies of Carasus, entirely of fhining
black, with a roundifh thorax ; wing-cafes faintly ftriated,
with four excavated dots near the future. Herbft. About
half an inch in length,

AtTeErrimus, afpecies of Evater, found in the north
of Europe. The thorax is gloffy black ; wing-cafes black
and ftriated. Fabr. This is elater ater, thorace opaco punc-
tato elytris ftriatis of Linn, Faun, Suec.; and elater totus
niger nitidus of Geoffroy, ;

Arerrimus, a fpecies of Cimsx, (Rotundatus Sec.)
that inhabitants Spain. This infeét is deep black, with half
the wing-cafes tranfparent. Forit. Nov. Inf.

ATERRIMS,U

ES

yO ———

94"

m PH

Arerrarimus, a fpecies of Scaranaus (Cetonia).
Tt is of a dull black, with obfeure rufous {pots on the
wing-cafes. Fabricius. It inhabits the cape of Good
Hope.

Arerrimus, in Ornithology, the fpecific name of the
great black Cockatoo of New Holland, a bird of a black

lour, with a large and paler creft, and red naked cheeks.
Gmel. This kind of Pfittacus is called by Buffon kaka-
toes noir; and is the great black Cockatoo of Edwards,
Glean. t. 316.

ATESTE, Esre, in Ancient Geography, a Roman colony
fettled to the fouth-weft of Patavium in the Venetian ter-
ritory.

ATFIEH, or Erritn, in Geography, a burgh of
Egypt, on the eaft coaft of the Nile, 35 miles fouth of
Cairo. It is fituated at the foot of a mountain, upon a
narrow canal, formed by a pretty large ifland. Some geo-
graphers have fuppofed that this town or village occupies
the fite of the ancient city of Venus, or Aphroditopolis. N.
lat. 29° 28’. Es long. 31° 8’.

ATFLOW, Enpwarp, in Biography, ttudied at New
College Oxford, where he took his degree of Doétor in
Medicine in 1566, and was in much repute as a phyfician,
particularly among thofe of the Romifh perfuafion. He
was imprifoned feveral months, Ant. Wood fays, for corre-
fponding with Mary queen of Scotland. The time of his
death is not known.

ATH, Arua, or Arue, among our Anglo-Saxon An-
¢effors, fignities an oath, efpecially that taken by way of
purgation. In this fenfe we meet with breaking of ath,
privilege of ath, atha, and ordela.

Ara, in Geography, a town in the department of Jemmap-
pe, or chief place of a canton in the diftrict of ‘Tournay ;
the place contains 7634, and the canton 14,828 imhab-
tants; the territory includes 115 kiliometres, and 11 com-
munes. See AETH.

ATHABASCA, River, Lake, and Country, lie in
the north-weit part of North-America, in about N. lat. 58°
go’. and W. Jong. 111° 40’... The Ex river is commonly
ealled by the white people the Athabatfca river, in N. lat.
56° 42’. In the territory that lies between the Peace river
and the lake of the hills, as far as the Elk river, which is
formed by the quantity of earth and mud that is carried
down by the ftream of thefe two great rivers, there are fe-
veral lakes ; the lake Clear Water, which is the deepett,
lake Vaffieu, and the Athabafca lake, which is the largeft
of the three, and whofe denomination in the Knittineaux
language implies a flat, low, fwampy country, fubjeé to in-
undations. The two laft lakes are now fo fhallow, that,
from the caufe juft mentioned, there is every reafon to ex-
pect, that in a few years they will have exchanged their
character, and become extenfive forefts. This country is fo
level, that at fome feafons it is entirely overflowed; and
this circumftance accounts for the periodical influx and re-
flux of the waters between the Lake of the Hills and the
Peace river. Till the year 1782, the people of Athabafca
fent or carried their furs regularly to Fort Churchill, Hud-
fon’s Bay ; and fome of them have fince that time repaired
thither. The prefent trading eftablifhment is fituated on
an high bank on the north fide of the river La Pluie, in N.
kat. 48° 37', where the people from Montreal meet thofe from
the Athabafca country, and exchange lading with them.
The traffic to fort Churchill is now in a great meafure dif-
continued, as the Chepewyans were obliged to expend in
the courfe of their journey that ammunition which was its
moft alluring objeét.. See Cuerewyan. Mackenzie’s
Yoyages, Introd. p. 56—o1.

Os yg al

Aruanasca is by fome called Agatuarrscow, and
ArHargscow, and ATHAPUSCOW.

ATHABOLLI, or Acaropout, a town of European
Turkey, in the province of Romania, 68 miles north-ealt of
Adrianople.

ATHAMADULET, or Aruemapvauter, the prime
or chief minitter in the Perfian empire.

The atnamadulet is much the fame with the grand vilier
in Turkey, except that he has not the command of the ar-
my, which the vifier has. x

The athamadulet is great chancellor of the kingdom,
prefident of the NE A fuperintendent of the finances ;
and has the charge of all foreign affairs. He is in effect
viceroy or adminiftrator of the kingdom : he iffues the king’s
mandates, or orders, in this ftyle; ‘« Bende derga ali il alia
etmadaulet,” that is, “ 1, who am the fupport of the pow-
er, the creature of this port, the highett of all ports, &c.”’

ATHAMANTA, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Greece, at the fource of the river Achelous, in /Etolia, ac-
cording to Phny ; but in Illyria, according to Steph. Byz.
Some have made it a part of Theflaly, and others of Epirus.
According to Ptolemy, it was divided from Epirus by the
bay of Ambracia ; and according to Strabo, from A&tolia, by
the river Achelous, M. D’Anville places Athamania be-
tween the chain of the Pindus to the eaft, and a parallel chain
to the weft. Iu the midft of this valley ran the river Avas.
To the fouth of this country were the Moloffi and Aperan-
tes, to the eaft the Perrheebi, and its capital was Argythwa.
At their commencement the Athamanians were a very in-
confiderable people ; but they appeared with diftin@tion in
the wars of the Romans and ®tolians againit Macedonia,
towards the year 197, B.C. Livy relates that the AEtolians
chofe Aminander, king of the Athamanians, for their me-
diator in their contefts with Philip, and that the Romans
folicited his fuccour againft this fame Philip. Their-domi-
nion extended over the whole chain of the mountains of
Epirus; and they feem to have fubfifted at leaft a century
before the war of Troy. :

ATHAMANTA, in Botany (named from Athamas in
Theflaly). Lin. Gen. 338. Schreb. 471. Jufl. 223. Oreofe-
linum, Tournef. Clafs, pentandria digynia. Nat. Order of
umbellate. Generic Char. Ca/. umbel univerfal, manifold,
{preading ; partial has fewer rays ; involucre univerfal, many-
leaved, linear, a little fhorter than the rays; partial, linear,
equal with the rays; perianth proper, obfeure. Cor. uni-
verfal, uniform; flofcules all fertile ; proper with five petals,
inflex-emarginate, a little unequal. Svam. filaments five,
capillary, the length of the corolla ; anthers roundih. Pift.
germ inferior; {lyles two, diltant; ftigmas obtufe. Per.
none; fruit ovate-oblong, ftriated, bipartile. Seeds, two,
ovate, convex on one fide, ftriated ; on the other flat.

Eff. Gen. Char, Fruit ovate-oblong, ftriated. Pet. inflex,
emarginate.

Species, 1. A. Libanotis, mountain {pignel, orftone-parfley.
With. Smith. Brit. Relh. Cantab. f. 113. Eng. Bot. 138.
A. Oreofel. Hudf. “ Leaves bipinnate, flat; umbelhemifpher-
ical; feeds hirfute.”’ Root perennial, {pindle-fhaped, woody;
item about two feet hich, erect, rather branched, {mooth,
angular and furrowed, leafy ; leaves bipinnate, alternate ;
leaflets feffile, oppofite, pinnatifid, flat, acute, veined,
pale on the under fide, a little hirfute; petioles dilated
at the bafe with a membranons margin; umbels erect,
hemifpherical, clofe, and fometimes proliferous ; involucres
and involucels patent-deflex, befet with hairy leaves; flow-
ers white, {mall, uniform, and regular; fruit pubefcent ;
ftyles-perfiftent, purple, divaricate, It grows on Gogma-
gog hills, Cambridgethire, and flowets iv Auguft. It is

Aa 2 common

A Pi

common in many parts of Sweden, Denmark, &c.
cervaria, broad-leaved fpignel, or black hart-root. Jacq.
Auit.1.t. 69. '“ Leaves pinnate, decuflated, gafh-angled;
feeds naked,’ Root perennial; {tem five feet high, firm
branching ; leaves glaucous, fmooth, with black veins un-
derneath, and fix pairs of pinnas.. Moft of the leaves are
feffile, eliptical, acuminate, toothed; corolla white, with a
purple outfide. A native of the mountains of Trance,
Swifferland, Germany, &c. 3. A. fibirica, Siberian fpig-
nel. Gmel. Sib. 1. 186. n. 3. t. 40. f. 1,2. ‘¢ Leaves pin-
nate, gafh-angled.’? The defcriptions of this plant by Lin-
nzus, Gouan, and Scopoli, are fo widely different, that we
cannot fuppofe they mean the fame plant. 4. A.
condenfata, clofe.headed fpignel. ‘¢ Leaves fubbipin-
nate; leaflets imbricate downwards ; umbel lens-form.’’
Root perennial ; ftem fimple, a foot high, angular, furrowed ;
leaflets alternately pinnatifid ; umbel very clofe, convex on
both fides, placed on branches arifing at the axils. A
native of Siberia. Introduced in 1773, by the earl of Bute.
5. A. Oreofelinum, Divaricated f{pignel; ‘leaflets divancate.””
Root perennial ; leaves very large, frm, {mooth, triply pin-
nate, divided at right and even obtufe ang’es; divifions
broadifh, not tocthed, but two or three-lobed.; ftem two
feet high; petals white, with a blufh of rofe colour.
A native of Germany, Sweden, France, &c. 6. A.
Jficula, flix-weed-leaved fpignel. «< Lower leaves fhining,
primordial umbels fubfeffile ; feeds hairy.’ Root perennial ;
items nearly three feet high. The umbels at their firft
appearance are very compact, but afterwards fpead open
and divide into feveral {mall umbels. The flowers are white,
and fucceeded by oblong woolly fruit. A native of Sicily.
Cultivated in England in 1713. 7. A. cretenfis, Cretan
fpignel or candy carrot, Jacq. Auft. 1. 62. ‘ Leaflets
linear, flat, hirfute ; petals two-parted; feeds oblong, hir-
fute.”? The whole plant in its wild ftate is villofe ; when cul-
tivated it becomes fucculent, brittle, and very fhining; ftem
“ftreaked ; leaves tripinnate ; pinnules deeply two or three-
parted. The univerfal involucre confilts of five, the partial
of from four to feven leaflets; petals white. A native of
the fouth of Europe, fowering in June. The feeds have
been medicinally employed for the fame purpofes as thofe
of wild carrot (fee Daucus). 8. A. annua, annual {pignel.
«¢ Leaves many-parted, divifions linear,'roundifh, acuminate.””
It is a native of Candia or Crete, and was introduced in
1770, by Monf. Richard. 9. A. chinenfis. * Seeds mem-
branaceous, ftriated; leaves fuperdecompound, polifhed,
multifid.”? Stem angular, {mooth; leaves like thofe of che-
rophyllum, and fmooth; umbel not much expanded. A
native of China. 10. A. rupeffris, Villars Dauph. 2. 648.
«¢ Leaflets briftle-fhaped, recurved, fmooth ; all the flowers
fertile.” Stem eighteen inches high; branching, finely
flreaked ; leaves bipinnate; univerfal involucre two, partial
many-leaved: petals white; feeds downy. A native of
Carniola and Dauphiné. Villars fuppofes this to be a va-
riety of the feventh fpecies.

Propagation and Culture. All thefe plants are propagated
by feeds, which fhould be fown in a bed of light dry ground
in autumn, and in the following autumn planted at a foot
diftance in a bed of light fandy earth, where the roots will
continue feveral years, except the eighth fpecies, which
is an annual. The ninth has not yet been cultivated in Eng-
land, and will probably require fhelter.

ATHAMANTA Meum. See Airuusa Meum.

ATHAMAS, in Entomology, the name given to a fpe-
cies of Papitio in Drury’s Inf. that inhabits India and
South America. It is Parizio Pyrrhus of Linneus and
Fabricius. See Pyaruvs.

2.rAk

nT

AruamaAs, in Ancient Geography, amountain of Greece,
in Theffaly. Pliny.—Alfo a plain of Beotia,. between
Acrephnia and the lake Cephifius. Paufan. 1. ix. Beotic.
C. 24. ;

A THANE, a town of Arabia Felix. Pliny.

ATHANAGIA, a town ef Hifpania citerior, and the
capital of the Hergeti, according to Livy, who relates. the
manner in which this town was fubdued by Scipio.

ATHANASIA, among the Ancient Phy/icians, an epi-
thet given to a kind of antidotes fuppofed to have the

ower of prolonging life, even to immortality.

In the Auguitan difpenfatory we full find a medicine
under the appellation of athanafia magna, commended
againit dyfenteries and hemorrhages.

AruHANASIA, in Botany. Lin. g.943. Schreb. 12995
Juff. 185. Gertn, t. 165. Clals, /yagenejia polygamia equaliss
Nat. Order, compofite dijeoidee. ‘Gen. Char, Ca/. common,
imbricate, ovate; f{cales lanceclate, preffed clofe. Cor.
compound, uniform, longer than the calyx; corollules
hermaphrodite, equal, numerous; proper funnel-form; bor-
der five-cleit, acute, ere€tith. Stam. filaments five, capil-
lary, short ; anthers cylindric, tubular. Piff. germ cbs
longifh ; ftyle fihform, a little longer than the ftamens;
itigma bifid, obtufe. Per. none; calyx unchanged. Seeds,
folitary, oblong ; down chaffy, of very fhort briltles. Recs
chaffy ; chaffs lanceolate, longer than the feed. >

Eff. Gen. Char. (Ca/. imbricate ; down chaffy, very
fhort; recept. chafly.

Species, 1. A. /guarrofa, crofs-leaved athanafia, relhania
f{quarrofa, L’Herit. Angl. n. 1. t. 29. ‘ Peduncles one-
flowered, lateral ; leaves ovate, recuryed.”’? An underfhrub.
Leayes alternate, feflile, pointed, fmooth ; peduncles axil-
lary, longer than the leaves ; chaffs lmear, the length of the
florets. Introduced in 1774, by Maffon. 2. A. /effliflora,
feflile-flowered athanafia, Rel. lateriflora, L’ Herit. 60. “Pe-
duncles one-flowered, fhorter than the leaf; leaves linear,
hairy.”’ A very {mall plant, found at the Cape by Thunberg.
3. A. pumila, dwarf athanafia ; Relh. pedunculata, L’He-
rit. lc. ‘ Peduncles one-flowered, longer than the leaf ;
leaves linear, hairy.’? This is alfo a fmall cape plant, difco,
vered by Thunberg. 4. A. crenata, notch-leaved athanafia 5
“¢ flowers folitary, terminal ; leaves linear.”? Stem fhrubby 5
leaves alternate, obfcurely three-cornered ; one terminal
flower. 5. A. uniflora, one-flowered athanafia; Relh. cu-
neata, L’Herit.1.c. « Flowers folitary, terminal, feffile ;
leaves obovate, imbricate, fmooth.’? A native of the Cape,
difcovered by Thunberg. 6. A. capitata, hairy athanajia 5
“flowers terminal, fubfelfile; leaves lanceolate, hiriute.?? This
has the appearance of buphthalmum capenfe, but the leaves
are alternate ; the flowers are difcoid and flofculofe. A na-
tive of the Cape, and introduced in 1774, by Maffon. 7. A.
maritima. (See Santouina Maritima.) 8. A.geniftifolia,
broom-leaved athanafia; Rel. geniit. L’Herit. 60. “* Co-
rymbs fimple.; leaves lanceolate, undivided, naked, crowd-
ed.” Stem underfhrubby ; leaves feffile, marked with very
fhort lines, {mooth, fomewhat keeled, bluntifh; corymbs
f{mall, with three or four fubfeflile flowers. 9. A. pube/cens,
villofe-leaved athanafia ; “‘ corymbs fimple ; leaves lanceolate,
undivided, villofe.”’ This rifes fix or feven feet hizh. Flow-
ers yellow. 10. A. annua, annual athanafia ; “‘ corymbs fim
ple, contracted ; leaves pmmnatifid, toothed.”” Rootannual;
item about nine inches high, branched at the top ; leaves
{mooth, cut into fegments like thofe of buck’s horn plan-
tain; flowers of a bright yellow, large. Cultivated by
Miller in 1768. (8.) Achillea nodes ae Sp. Pl. 11. A.
trifurcaia, trifid-leaved athanafia ; “‘corymbs fimple ; leaves
three-lobed, cuneiform.”? Shrubby.; five or fix feet higa;

leaves

a

ee Oe

. ‘
vp a a

;

aA T
leaves flat, glaucous, cut.at the extremity into ‘three feg'-
ments; flowers of a bright yellow colour, Cultivated here
in 174. 12. A. erithmifolia, fampliive-leaved athanatia ;
fantolina, Mill. fig. t.227. f. 2. ‘¢ Corymbs fimple; leaves
femitrifid, linear,’ divided, more than: half their length into
three or five narrow feements ; fowers yellow. Cultivated
in 1726 by Miller. 13. A. /inifolia, flax-leaved athanatia ;
*¢ corymb fimple; leaves linear’? Stem round, {mooth, like
that of flax; leaves alternate, perfectly fimple, linear, or
fubulate, flowers in a terminal corymb ovate and fmooth,
Found at the Cape by Maffon, and introduced in 1774.
14. A. dentata, tooth-leaved athanafia. (@) A. levigata,
Lia. Spec. 1181. “Corymbs compound; leaves recurved,
theloWerlinear, toothed, theupperovate-ferrate.”? Shrubby,
three feethizh, withpale yellow flowers. Introducedin17$0,
by the countefsof Strathmore. 15. A. parvifora, {mall-flow-
ered athanafia; tanacetum crithmifol. Lin. Spec. 1182. Mill.
Di&. N’6. “Corymbs compound; leaves pinnate, linear.’
Stem thick, thrubby, feven oreightfeethigh. The leaves fit
clofetothe branches, whichareteriminated byroundifh bunches
of bright yellowflowers. Itwas introduced in 1774 by Mal-
fon. 16. A. pinnata. “ Corymbs denfe, compound; leaves
pianate, linear, tomentofs.” Stem proliferous, fhrubby,
tomentofe ; leaves crowded with five or feven pinnas; ca-
lyxes villofe. 17. A. p.dinaia. ‘ Corymb compound; leaves
pinaate, fmooth.’? Found at the Cape by Thunberg. 18.A.
dentaia. “ Corymb compound; leaves lanceolate toothed,
ferrate.”” Found at the Cape by Thunberg. This differs
from the 14th, though it has thefame name. 19. A. jili-
formis. “ Corymbcompound; leaveslinear, {mooth, fpread-
ing.”? This alfo was difcovered at the Cape by Thunberg.
20. A. cinerea, lavender-leaved athanafia. ‘¢ Corymb com-
pound; leaves linear, tomentofe, entire.” Introduced by
Mation in 1774. All the above fpecies are natives of the
cape of Good Hope, exeept the feventh, and they are all
perennial except the tenth.
Propagation and Culture. Thefe plants, with the excep-
tion of the annual fort only, may be propagated by cuttings
or flips during the fummer months, and planted in pots or
upon an old hot-bed clofely covered with glafles, fhading
them during the heat of the day, and occalionally refrefh-
ing them with water-; they will put out roots in five or fix
weeks, and in two months they may be taken up and planted
in pots filled with light earth, and placed ina fhady fituation
until they have taken new roct. After this they fhould be
removed to a fheltered fituation, mixing them with other
exotic plants, where they may remain to the middle or end
of October, when they are te be placed ina dry ftove or
glafs cafe, where-they are to be allowed as much free air
as poflible, but fecured from froft. The annual fpecies is
to be propagated by feeds fown on a moderate hot-bed tlie
latter end of March, and as foonas they are advanced
enough to remove, they fhould be tran{planted to another
gentle hot-bed, at the diftance of three inches from each
other, obferving to fhade them till they have taken new
root. About the end of May they wil be ftrong enough
to be tranfplanted into the open air, and fome may be
lanted in pots to place among other exotics. ‘The Britifh
ipecies fhonld be proteéted from the cold in fevere winters.
See Martyn’s Miller’s Dict.
ATHANASTAN Creep. See Creen.
ATHANASIUS, Sainr, in Biography, a celebrated
Chriftian bilhop, flourifhed in the fourth century, and was
a native of Ezypt, probably of Alexandria. Hiftory has
traaimitted to us no records of his parentage, nor of the
precife time and place of his birth. The attention of his
early years feems to have been principally devoted to theo-

ATH

logy ; and having engaged in the fervice of the church, he
was ordained a deacon by Alexander, bifhop of Alexandria,
whom he ferved as fecretary, aud accompanied to the coun-
cil of Nice, and whom he fucceeded in the year 326, in
confequence of his fpecial nomination, and by the general
fuffrage of the people. At this time he was probably
about 30 years of age, for he fpeaks of the perfecution of
Maximin as an event which he had been informed of by his
fathers, and he lived 46 years after his epifcopal ordination.
Having diltinguifhed himfelf at the Nicene council, though
then only a deacon, bya violent fpeech againit Arius, he
was no fooner advanced to the prelacy than he became a
more zealous and powerful advocate in the caufe of the
Catholics againft the Arians. Not content with reviling
them and their opinions in the moft opprobrious .terms
(See Arrans), he employed his talents and iniluence in
reltraining and fuppretiiag them. The Arians, on the
other hand, were equally afliduous and ative in counter-
acting the hoftile efforts of the othodox prelate, in re-
proaching his charatter, and in fubyerting his epifcopal
authority. As Athanaiius could be induced, neither by.
the requifition of the emperor Conftantine, nor by the
menaces of iiufebius bifhop of Nicomedia, to acquiefce in
the re-admililion of Arius to the communion of the catho-
lic church, from which he had been excluded, the friendsof
the latter ufed all the means they could devife for difgracing
and. removing their adverfary. Accordingly, in the year
331, they brought feveral accufations againit him before the
emperor. ‘I'he prelate, after much hefitation and reluc;
tance, was at lencth obliged to obey the emperor’s per-
emptory commands, and to appear before a council of 60
bifhops fummoned at Tyre, in 335. Some of the charges
that had been alleged againit him were fatisfactorily con-
futed ; but others were confirmed. During the progrefs of
the inquiry and trial, fome members of the fynod received
Arius into communion at Jerufalem ; and Athanafius him-
felf feized an opportunity that occurred of failing for Con-
{tantinople, to intreat an audience of the emperor. In con-
fequence of this audience, the members of the council
were {ummoned to appear before Conilantine, that thecaufe
might be fairlyexamined; but when they arrived, inftead of
renewing their former accufations, they produced a new
charge, alleging that Athanafius had attempted to detain
at Alexandria the fhips which fupplied Conftantinople with
corn, of which they were then in want. Upon. this the
emperor, from refentment, conviction, or policy, confented
to his degradation; and the council pronounced againfk
him a fentence of depofition and banifhment. The place
of his exile was Trevesin Gaul; and here he remained, ac-
cording to the moft probable account, about 18 months,
Upon the death of Conftantine, Athanafius was reftored
by an honourable ediét of Conftantius to his country and
to his epifcopal fee. This proceeding was reprefented by
the Arians as an offence againit fynodical authority ; and a
council of go bifhops was held at Antioch in 341, bywhom
the former depofition of Athanafius was confirmed, and
Gregory of Cappadocia, one of their own party, placed in
the fee of Alexandria. The young emperor confirmed the
nomination, and Athanafius was conitraied to fly for pro-
teGtion and fupport to Julius, bifhop of Rome. At the
end of three years he was fent to Milan by the emperor
Conftans, who was difpofed to favour the Catholic party.
A new council was appointed to be held at Sardica in Ile
lyricum in the year 347, to fettle the fubjects in difpute.
‘The ealtern and weitern bifhops difagreed and feparated ;
the latter, who were the partifans of Athanafius, remained
at. Sardica; aad the former affembled at Philippepolis. One

4 party

AT HL

party regarded him as a faint ; and the’ other reprefented
him as a wicked difturber of the peace of the church.
Conftans, however, was inteat upon reftormg him, and per-
cmptorily demanded it of his brother Conftantius, threaten-
ii.g him with war in cafe of non-compliance. Conftantius
fuvmitted, and folicited the return of the exiled prelate to
take poffeffion of the Alexandrian fee, which was now be-
come vacant by the death of Gregory. The bifhop’s zeal
for the catholic doctrine of the trmity was not in the leaft
abated by all the reverfes of his condition; for in his pro-
grefs through the various cities that lay in his way to Alex-
andria, he admonifhed the people to avoid'the Arians, and
to admit into their communion none but thofe who adopted
ia their creed the word “ confubitantial.”? In the year 350,
he arrived at Alexandria, and was welcomed by his old
friends and adherents with every expreflion of joy; and
from this time he enjoyed a fhort interval of repofe. ‘The
death of the emperor Conttans, and of pope Julius, to
whom he was chiefly indebted for his reitoration, threat-
ened him with new dascers. Conftantius was his deter-
mined enemy, and he fummoned a general council at Arles,
in the year 353; and in this council the Ariaa party pre-
vailed, and all the bifheps prefent, with one exception,
figned the condemnation of Athanafius. As Liberius, the
fucceffor of pope Julius, was dijfatisfied with the proceed-
ings of this council, another was held at Milan in the year
355. Here the emperor exercifed his utmoft influence, and
at length a majority of 300 bifhops concurred in the con-
demnation of Athanafius, amd thofe who refufed were ex-
iled by the authority of the emperor. The fentence of
thefe councils, however, was cautioufly executed by Con-
ftantius.. The prelate was perfuaded voluntarily to abdicate
his fee; but he remained inflexible, notwithitanding all the
meafures that were ufed for this purpofe. During this fuf-
pence aj body of foldiers appeared in the midft of Alex-
andria, and at midnight they invefted the church in which
the bifhop and his attendants were performing their devo-
tions preparatory for the communion. In this moment of
confution and terror, the prelate remained firm and intrepid,
calmly expecting death, and animating the piety of his
flock by ordering a pfalm of praife to be fung. At length
the congregation difperfed, and the bifhop was conveyed
through the tumultuous crowd to a place of fafety. The
fee of Alexandria was beftowed by the emperor upon
George of Cappadocia, a ftrenuous fupporter of the Arian
eaufe; and Athanafius was profcribed, with the promife
of a large reward to any one who fhould produce him dead
or alive. The perfeceted prelate difappeared, and re-
mpenetrable obfcurity. The place of

mained for fix years in
his retreat was the defert of hebais; and among monks
or hermits anxious to preferve him from the fearch of his
enemies, he found an unmoleited afylum. From this reclufe
abode he is faid to have fometimes extended his excurfions in
difguife to vilit his confidential friendsat Alexandria. Hence
he alfo addreffed his enemies with inveétives and his friends
with confolatory admonitions by his writings. The accef.

Ci=

fion of Julian, who fucceeded Conftantius in 361, and the
death of George, bifhop of Alexandria, who was in the
fame year killed in a tumult, opened the way for a third
return of Athanafius to the fee of Alexandria. With un-
abated zeal for the Catholic faith, and particularly for the
dottrine of the trinity, he fummoned a council at Alex-
andria, at which it was determined, that Arian bifhops, who
xecanted their errors, and figned the Nicene creed, might
he admitted to the communion of the church, and reftored
to their fees. However, Athanafius’s repofe and inflzence
were of {hort duration. The emperor Julian regarded him

AT

with peculiar averfion; andin order to avoid the threat-
ened tokens of his difpleafure, the prelate was obliged
acain to feek an afyium in the monaiteries of the defert.
Whilit with thisviewhe was failing up the Nile, his enemies
followed him; but as foon as the prelate was informed that
they had orders to apprehend him, and knowing that he
muit {oon be overtaken, he inftructed the mariners to turn
about the boat and meet his purfuers. Having no fufpi-
cion that Athanafius was on board, they profecuted their
voyage, and the prelate efcaped to Alexandria, and con-
cealed himfelf till the death of Julian in the year 363.
Upon the accefiion ef Jovian, Athanafius once more re-
fumed his epifcopal fun@tion, and under the patronage of
the emperor, the Nicene creed became the general formu-
lary of the churches. After the fhort reign of Jovian, Va-
lens fucceeded to the eaftern divifion of the empire; and as
he had.adopted Arian principles, he iffued edi¢ts for ba-
nifhiag the bifhops who had regained their fees under Je-
vian; and Athanafius was again in the number of thofe
who were proferibed. The efforts of his friends at Alex-
andria were exerted in his favour; but whilft they were
preparing to defend him bytforce, he thoughtit moft prudent
to retire; and on this occafion, which has been denomimated
his fifth exile, he concealed himfelf for four months in the
monument belonging to his family. ‘The emperor relin-
quified the conteft; and the venerable prelate clefed hig
days iu tranquillity in the 46th, or as jome fay in the 48th
year of his prelacy, and in the year of Chrift 373.

It is not cafy to form a juft eftimate of the talents, learn-
ing, and character of Athanafius, amidit the adulation of
his friends, and the reproaches of his enemies.
mortal name of Athanafius,’”? fays Mr. Gibbon, “ will ne-
ver be feparated from the Catholic doctrine of the trinity,
to whofe defence he confecrated every moment and every
faculty of his being.” —“ Amidit the ttormsot perfecution,
he was patient of labour, jealousof tame, careleisof fafety ;
and though his mind was tainted by the contagion of fana-
ticiim, Athanafius difplayed a fuperiority of chara¢ter and
abilitics which would have qualified him, far better than the
degenerate fons of Conflantine, for the government of a
great monarchy. His learning was much lefs profound and
extenfive than that of Eufebius of Czfarea, and his nide
eloquence could not be comparedwith the polifhed oratory
of Gregory or Bafil; but whenever the primate of Egypt
was called upon to juftify his fentiments or his conduét, his
unpremeditated ftyle, either of {peaking or of writing, was
clear, forcible, and perfuafive. He has always been received
in the orthodox {chool as one of the moft accurate matters
of the Chriitian theology ; and he was fuppofed to poflefs
two profane {ciences les adapted to the epifcopal chara@ter,
the knowledge of jurifprudence, and that of divination:
Some fortunate conje€tures of future events, which impar-
tial reafoners might afcribe to the experience and judgment
of Athanatius, were attributed by his friends to -heavenly
infpiration, and imputed by his enemies to infernal magic.
But as Athanafius was continually engaged with the preju-
dices and paffions of every order of men from the monk to
the emperor, the knowledge of human nature was his firit
and moft important fcience.””—“ Athanafius was capableof
diftinguifhing how far he might boldly command, andwhere
he muft dexteroufly infinuate, how long he might contend
with power, and when he muft withdraw from perfecution ;
and while he directed the thunders of the church againft
herefy and rebellion, he could affume, in the: bofom of his
own party, the flexible and indulgent temper of a prudent
leader. ‘Phe ele&tion of Athanafius has not efeaped the re-
proach of irregularity and precipitation ; but the propriety

ny)

«© The im-.

AT H

ef his behaviour conciliated the affections both of the clergy
and of the people. ‘he Alexandrians were impatient to
rife in arms for the defence of an cloquent and liberal paftor.
Tn his diftrefs he always derived fupport, or at leaft confo-
lation, from the faithful attachment of his parochial clergy ;
and the hundred bithops of Kyypt adhered with unfhaken
zeal to the caufe of Athanafius, In the modett equipage
which pride and policy would affeét, he frequently per-
formed the epifcopal vifitation of his provinces, from the
mouth of the Nile to the confines of Ethiopia; familiarly
converling with the meane{t of the populace, and humbly
faluting the {faints and hermits of the defert. Nor was it
only in eeclefiattical affemblies among men whofe education
and manners were fimilar to his own, that Athanafius dif-
played the afcendancy of his genius ; he appeared with
ealy and refpectful firmnefs in the courts of princes ; and
on the various turns of his profperous and adverfe fortune,
he never loft the confidence of his friends, or the efteem
of his enemies.”’

The works of Athanafius were numerous, and confifted
chiefly of apologies for himfelf, or inveétives againft his
enemies, or controverfial treatifes againft Arianifm. His ftyle
is clear, eafy, and not detlitute of dignity and ornament.
In his reafonings he is fufficiently copious; and in his at-
tacks upon the Arians more than fufliciently acrimonious.
The more valuable of his genuine writings are his firlt book
“Again the Gentiles ;”’ “ Apologies ;”” ‘ Letter to thofe
that lead a Monattic Life ;”? ‘* Letters to Serapion;” ‘Two
books on the Incarnation ;”’ ‘* Conference with the Arians ;”’
* The life of St. Antony ;”’ and ‘The abridgment of the
Holy Scriptures.”? The latter of thefe pieces contains an
enumeration of all the canonical books of the Old and New
“Teftament, with a fummary of their contents, and an ac-
count of their refpective authors ; and it treats particularly
of the fourgofpels. This *Abridgment or Synopfis of the
Holy Seriptures’? has been reckoned genuine by fome ;
but it is fuppofed by others to have been falfely afcribed to
him, andin the Benedictine edition of his works, it is rejec-
ted. His “Feftal or Pafchal Epiftle,”’ which is generally
allowed to be genuine, contains feveral valuable teftimonies
in favour of the facred books now received as canonical.
Dupin, and alfo Cave, have diftintly enumerated both the
genuine and {purious works of Athanalius. For an account
of the creed that has been called Athanafius’s, fee Creep.
The works of Athanafius were firlt printed only in a Latin
tranflation, and in an imperfeét ftate by Calfanus, at Vicenza,
in 1482 ; and enlarged editions appeared at Paris, in 1520;
at Rome, in 15233; at Cologne, in 15323 at Bafil, in 1558;
and at Paris, in 1608. The Greek text was firft publifhed in
2 vols. fol. by Commelinus, at Heidelberg, in 1601 ; and
at Paris, in 1627. The beft edition was printed in 3 vols.
fol. by a learned Benedictine, Bernard de Montfaucon, at
Paris, in 1698. ‘This was reprinted with improvements, and
an additional volume, at Padua, in 1774, 4 vols. fol. Soera-
tes, E. H. Sozomen, E. H. Cave Hitt. t. i. p. 138. &c.
Dupin. Fabr. Bib. Gree. |. v. c. 2. Gibbon’s Hilt. vol. iit.
p- 322—356. vol. iv. p. 131—228—267. Lardner’s Works,
vol..iv. p. 280, &c.

.ATHANATI, an order of foldiers among the ancient
Perfians.

The word is, Greek, and fignifies immortal; being com-
pounded of the privative «. and Savero:, death.

The athanati were a body of cavalry, confifting of ten
thoufand men, always complete, becaufe when any one of
them died another was immediately put into his place.—
Tt was for this reafon that they were called ¢ athanati”? by
the Greeks, by the Latins “ immortales.”?. !

DN ie ak
ATHANOR, fowetimes corruptly written Acanonr, isa

term derived from the Greek Abzwelocy undying, and was ap-
plied by the ancient chemifts to a fpecies of furnace provided
with a magazine of fuel, by which a long-continued heat
might be kept up without the neceffity of conftant attend-
ance. Some fay that the word athanor is borrowed from
the Arabs, who call an oven fanneron, from the Hebrew
“VSI, fannour, an oven or furnace : whence with the addi-
tional particle a/, 47) )9N; alianour, &c. ‘This apparatus
was particularly ufed in thofe tedious alchemical procefles
which were deemed neceffary, in order to convert the infe-
rior metals into gold: hence it is not unfrequently defcri-
bed by the name piger henricus. The patience of modern
chemitts being inferior to that of their predeceffors, or rather
being no longer upheld by the hope of riches, the moft
powerful, and at the fame time, the bafeft of all motives,
revolts from the idea of commencing experiments that de-
mand weeks, and even whole months for their completion,
Hence it is, that perpetual lamps and furnaces are now be-
come obfolete.

‘Lhe body of the athanor may be varied at pleafure, ac-
cording to the particular purpofe which it is intended to
ferve, butit is connected by the top, or one of the fides, with
a hollow perpendicular tower communicating freely by one
or more openings at its bafe, with the fire place. This
tower is furnifhed with a moveable cover, which fits accu-
rately, fo as to be nearly air tight, into the top.

When the athanor is to be ufed, the fire place muft be
filled with the proper quantity of lighted charcoal, and then
as much unlighted charcoal, in moderate fized pieces, as the
tower will hold, is to be poured in by the top, which is af-
terwards to be carefully clofed by its cover. In proportion
as the fuel in the grate is confumed, the deficiency is fup-
plied by that of the tower, which falls through the holes at
the bafe, which while in the tower, haying no communica-
tion with the external air, can only burn when it arrives at
the grate below. The combuttion is thus kept up till all
the charcoal in the tower or magazine is confumed.

Although this furnace might ftill be advantageoufly ap-
plied in certain cafes which require a long and moderate,
rather than a fhort and violent heat, yet it is not without
fome inconveniences: the charcoal often fticks falt in the
tower, and the fire goes out for want of a regular fupply,
or it falls irregularly, and by large quantities at a time, and
beats the lighted charcoal through the grate ito the afh-
pit. z

ATHAPUSCOW, in Geography, a large lake in the
north-weft parts of North America. Mr. Hearne, who tra-
verfed thefe parts in 1770, defcribes it as full of iflands co-
vered with tall trees, which appeared like mafts. Accord-
ing to the report of the natives, it was 120 leagues lone
from eaft to weft, and twenty wide. It is ftored with a
great number of fifh, as pike, trout, perch, barbel, and two
forts called by the natives tillameg’ and methy. The nor-
thern fhore confifts of confufed rocks and hills, but the
fouthern is level and beautiful: and there are many wild
cattle and moofe deer; the former, particularly the bulls,
being larger than the Englifh black cattle. The centre of
this lake is placed by Mr. Hearne in N. lat. 62° and W.
long. 125°. Itis probably the fame with the Slave Lake of
Mackenzie, in the fame latitude, but in longitude 115°.
The Athapufcow River, which Mr. Hearne found about two
milés in breadth, is the Slave River of Mackenzie. See
Stave Lake and River.

ATHAR, in Scripture Geography, a city of Paleftine, in
the tribe of Simeon. Jofh. xix. 7.

ATHAROTH, a town of Judea, in the tribe of Gad,

; giver

A; TF

given by Mofes to the Ifraelites, on account of its excellent
patturage. Numb. xxxii. 34.—Alfo, a town of Samaria,
in the tribe of Ephraim, four miles north of Sebafte or the
city of Samaria ; called by Jerome, Atharus ;—and another
on the frontiers of Ephraim, between Janohah and Jericho,
Jofh. xvi. 7. probably the fame with Ataroth-Addar, men-
tioned, Jofh. xvi. 5. xviil. 13.

ATHARRHABIS, a town of Egypt. Steph. Byz.

ATHBOY, in Geography,a market and poft-town in the
county of Meath, and province of Leiniter, in Ireland, which,
before the union, fent two members to the Irifh parliament.
At its weekly market, there has been a good deal of corn
fold of late years ; fome yarn and merchandife for the pea-
fantry. It has alfo four fairs, chiefly for cattle. It is
fituate twenty-eight Irifh miles N. W. of Dublin. Thom-
fon’s Statiftical Account of Meath. :

ATHEE, in Geography, a town of France in the de-

artment of the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Craon, three miles north of Craon.

ATHEIST, derived from the privative a, and @:zoc,
God, a perfon who does not believe the exiftence of a God,
nor a Providence ; and who has no religion, true or falfe.

In general a man is faid to be an atheift, who owns no
being, fuperior to nature ; that is, to men, and the other
fenfible beings in the world. 5 i

In this fenfe, Spinoza may be faid to be an athetft, and
it is an impropriety to rank him, as the learned commonly
do, among deifts ; fince he allows of no other God befide
nature, or the univerfe, of which mankind makes a part;
and there is no atheift but allows of the exiftence of the
world, and of his own exiftence in particular. See SPI-
NOZA. :

Plato diftinguifhes three kinds of atheifts. Some, who
deny, abfolutely, that theré are any gods ; others who allow
the exiftence of gods, but maintain that they do not con-
cern themfelves with human affairs, and fo deny a Provi-
dence ; and others, who believe there are gods, but think
they are eafily appeafed, and that they may remit the great-
eft crimes for the {malleit fupplication. c

The learned Cudworth (Intellectual Syftem, b. i. c 3.
vol. i. p. 104178.) reduces the ancient atheifm of the
Greek philofophers into four different forms, comprehend-
ing the two claffes of hylozoics or hylopathi, and atomici
or atomifs, under the denominations of Anaximandrian,
Democritical, Stratonical, and Stoical. The Anaximan-
drians attempted to folve the phenomena of ‘nature by
having recourfe to the unmeaning language of qualities and
forms. Thefe were contained aétually or potentially in
that infinite chaos of matter, deftitute of all underftanding
and life, which was the firft principle or only real numen of
Anaximander; and by their fortuitous fecretion and fegre-
gation, they produced, firft, the elements of earth, water,
air, and fire, and then the bodies of the fun, moon, and
ftars, and both the bodies and fouls of men and other ani-
mals; and, laftly, innumerable or infinite fuch worlds as
thefe, as fo many fecondary or native gods. (Plato De Leg.
1. x. p. 666.) See ANAXIMANDER, and ANAXIMANDRIANS.
"Some have called this fcheme of atheifm, which deduces all
things from matter by means of qualities and forms, Peri-
patetic or Ariftotelic, becaufe Ariftotle ufed this kind of
language in his phyfiology. But as Ariftotle cannot be
juftiy denominated an atheift, Cudworth diftingnithes this
form of atheifm by the appellation of Anaximandrian.
Democritus and Leucippus new-modelled atheifm from the
Anaximandrian and Hylopathian into the atomic form,
and derived the original and produétion of all things from
atoms, devoid of all forms and qualities, and poflefling only,

1

ATA

as firft principles, magnitude, figure, fite, and motion ; and
as they conceived that life and underftanding, and other
qualities, could be only accidental and fecondary refults
from certain fortuitous concretions and contextures of atoms,
they excluded a deity, and every thing like counfel and

defign from the formation of the univerfe. The Epicureans ~

borrowed many of their notions from Democnitus, and
framed a fy{tem very much refembling the atomical, ot
Democritical. See Democritus, andEricurus. The
Stratonical atheifm was of the hylozoic kind; and was fo
called from Strato Lampfacenus, who acknowledged no
other deity than a certain ftupid and plaftic life, belonging
to all the parts of matter, by means of which they arranged
and framed themfelves, without reflection. See Streato.
The Stoical, or Pfeudo-Stoical, or cofmoplaftic atheifm,
adopted by feveral of the Stoics, {uppofed a certain kind
of plaftic and {permatic, or methcdical and artificial nature,
without fenfe or confcious underftanding, to prefide over
the whole word, and to difpofe and preferve all things in
that regular order which they afflume and maiatain. Some
of the Stoics conceived that this plafic nature, or fper-
matic principle, was fubordinate to a fentient and intel-
leGtual nature, or corporeal foul and mind of the univerfe,
that prefided overit; and this feems te have been the
genuine doétrine of Heraclitus and Zeno ; whilft others re-
jected the latter principle, and maintained, that the plaftic
or {permatic nature, devoid of all animality or confcious in-
telligence, was the higheft principle in the univerfe. Ail
the ancient -atheifis agreed in this, viz. that there was
nothing but matter or body in the univerfe; whilft fome’
thought it animate, and were called hylozoics ; and others
thought it inanimate,and were denominated atomici. Hobbes
feems to have inclined to the opinion of the Stratonici;

for he fuppofes (Phyf. c. 25. § 5.) that all matter, as matter, ’

is endued not only with figure and a capacity of motion,
but alfo with an a€tual fenfe or perception, and wants only
the organs and memory of. animals to exprefs its fenfation.
Sir William Temple, according to the account given of him

by bifhop Burnet (Hit. Time. vol. i. p. 531, 8vo.) thought"
that the prefent fyftem of things is neceflary and eternal. ”

The Chinefe have been reprefented as a nation of atheifts.
Accordingly Burnet (ubi fupra) itates it as the opinion of
fir W. Temple, that Confucius ‘and. his followers are to be

reckoned among thofe who were atheifts themfelves, and left °

religion to the people. But Couplet maintains, that Con-

fucius and the earlicr teachers among the Chinefe, were

votaries to pure religion. Confucius, however, fays little
oi thofe duties that relate immediately to God and though

he fpeaks of the great fpirits in heaven and earth, what”

he fays coincides merely with the notion of a plaftic power,

fimilar to that maintained by fome of the Grecian philofo- ©

hers. .
Some diftinguith /pecu/ative atheifts, or thofe who are fo

from principle and theory—from radical ‘atheifts, whofe ©
wicked lives lead them to believe, or rather to with, that”

there were no God. oct
Dr. Clarke (Demonttration of the Being ofa God; p. 2.

8vo.) fays, that atheifm arifes either fromftupid ignorance,

or from corruption of principles and manners, or from the
reafonings of falfe philefophy ; and he adds, that the latter,
who are the only atheiftical perfons capable of being rea-
foned with at all, muit of neceffity own, that,° fuppeting. it
cannot be proved to be true, yet itis a thing very defira

and which any wife man-would wifh to be true, forthe great

le,

benefit and happinefs of man, that- there was a God, an ©

intelligent ands wife; a juftand good being, to |
world, Whatever hypothefis thefe men-can‘po

vern the

whatever

bly frame, ’

ns

Eee eee

; YF iH

whatever argument they can invent, by which they would
exclude God and Providence out of the world; that very
argument, or hypothefis, will of neceflity lead them to this
conceflion, Lf ‘they argue, that our notion of God arifes
not from nature and reafon, but from the art and contriy-
ance of politicians : that argument itfelf forces them to con-
fefs, that it is manifeftly for the intereft of human fociety,
that it should be believed there is a God. If they fuppofe
that the world was made by chance, and is every moment
{ubje& to be deftroyed by chance again; no mah can be fo
abfurd as to contend, that it is'as comfortable and defirable
to live in fuch an uncertain ftate of things, and {fo continually
liable to ruin, without any hope of renovation ; asin a world
that were under the prefervation and conduét of a powerful,
wife, and good God. ~If they argue againtt the being of
God, from the faults and defects which they imagine they
ean find in the frame and conilitution of the vifible and raa-
terial world ; this fuppofition obliges them to acknowledge,
that it would have been better the world had been made by
anintellivent and wife Being, who might have prevented ail
faults and imperfections, Ifthey argue againft Providence,
from the faultinefs and inequality which they think they

difcover in the management of the moral world; this is a’

plain confeffion, that it is a thing more fit and defirable in
-itfelf, that the world fhould be governed by a juft and good
Being, than by mere chance or unintelligent neceility.
Laitly, if they {uppofe the world to be eternally and necef-
farily felf-exiftent, and confequently that every thing in it is
eftablifhed by a blind and eternal fatality ; no rational man
can at the fame time deny, but that liberty and choice, or
a free power of acting, is a more eligible ftate, than to be
‘determined thus in all our actions, as a ttone is to move
downward, by an abfolute andinevitable fate. In a word,
which way foever they tura themfelves, and whatever
hhypothefis they make, concerning the original and frame of
things, nothing is fo certain and undeniable, as that man,
confidered without the proteétion and conduct of a fuperior
Being, is in a far worfe cafe; than upon fuppofition of the
‘being and government of God, and of men’s being under
-his peculiar conduét, protection, and favour. Neverthelefs,
abfurd and joylefs as is the fyftem of atheifm, Diagoras
and Theodorus among the ancients, and Vanini among the
moderns, have been reckoned martyrs for it. Mr. Bayle
chas pretended to prove, that it is better to be an atheitt
than anidolater ; or in other words, that it is lefs dangerous
to have noreligion at all than a bad one. ¢¢ I had rather,”
faid he, “it fhould be faid of me, that I had no exiftence,
‘than that I am a villain.”? This, as Montefquien (Sp. of
Laws, vol. ii. p. 145.) juitly obferves, is only a fophifm,
founded on this, that it is of no importance to the human
‘race to believe that a certain man exifts, whereas it is ex-
‘tremely ufeful for them to believe the oxiltence of a God.
From the idea of his non-exiftence, immediately follows that
‘of our independence ; but if we cannot conceive this idea,
‘that of difobedience. To fay that religion is not a re-
itraining motive, becaufe it does not always reftrain, is
equally abfurd as to fay that the civil laws are not a re-
‘training motive. It is a falfe way of reafoning: azaintt
‘religion, to colleét in a large work a long detail of the
‘evils it has produced, if we do not give at the fame time an
enumeration of the advantages which have flowed from it.
‘Was it of no advantage for fubjeG@s to have religion, it
‘would ftill be of fome if princes had it, andif they whitened
swith foam the only rein which can reftrain thofe who fear
not human laws. A prince who loves and fears religion is a
tion, who ftoops to the hand that {trokes, or the voice that
appeafes him. He who fears and hates religion is like the

« Vou, III.

‘bridge, {till called Athelney bridge.

AUT

favage beaft that growls and bites the chain which prevents
his flying on the paffenger. He who has no religion at all
is that terrible animal, who perceives his liberty only when he
tears in pieces, and when lie devours. ‘The queftion is not to
know, whether it would be better that a certain man or a cer-
tain people had no religion, than to abufewhatthey have; but
to know whichis theleatt evil, thatreligion be fometimes abuf-
ed, or that there be no fuch retkraint as rcligion on mankind.

Cicero reprefents it as a probable opinion, that they who
apply themfelves to the ftudy of philofophy believe there
are no gods.—This muft, doubtlefs, be meant of the aca-
demic philofophy, towhich Cicero himfelf was attached, and
which doubted of every thing : on the contrary, the New-
tonian philofophers are continually recurring to a Deity,
whom they always find at the end of their chain in natural
caufes. Some foreigners have even charged them with
making too much ufe of the notion of a God in philofophy,
contrary to the rule of Horace—

“ Nec Deus interfit, nifi dignus vindice nodus.””

Among us, the philofophers have been the principal ad-
vocates for the exiltence of a Deity. Witnefs the writ-
ings of fir Ifaac Newton, Boyle, Ray, Cheyne, Nieuwentyt,
&e. To which may be added divers others, who, though
of the clergy (as was alfo Ray), yet have diftinguifhed
themfelves by their philofophical pieces, in behalf of the
exiftence of a God; e.gr. Derham, Bentley, Whilfton,
Samuel and John Clarke, Fenelon, &c. So true is that
faying of lord Bacon, that though a fmattering of philo-
fophy may lead a man into atheifm, a deep draught will
certainly bring him back again to the belief of a Gad
and Providence. Sce Gop, Provipence, and RELIGION.

ATHELING, among our Saxon ancettors, was a title
of honour properly belonging to the eldeft fon of the reign-
Ing prince, or the prefumptive heir of the crown.

‘The word is formed from the Saxon etheling, of ethel,
noble. It is fometimes alfo written, adeling, edling, ethling,
and etheline.

King Edward the Confeffor, being without iffue, and in-
tending to make Edgar, to whom he was great uncle by the
mother’s fide, his heir, firft gave him the honourable appel-
lation of atheling.

Antiquaries obferve, that it was frequent among the Sax-
ons to annex the word ling, or ing, to a Chriftian name, to
denote the fon or younger ; as Mdmundiing, for the fon of
Edmund ;. £dgaring, ior the fon of Edgar; and, accord-
ingly, fome have thought atheling might primarily import
the fon of a nobleman, or prince: and fir Henry Spelman

-obferves, that all noblemen had anciently been called 4de-

lingi: however, from a pailage in the laws afcribed to Ed-
ward the Confeflor, it appears, that in his times, and for at
leaft a century afterwards, this word was appropriated to
the royal family by the Englifh. In reality, atheling, when
applied to the heir of the crown, feems rather to denote a
perfon endowed with nobler qualities than the fon of a no-
bleman ; and correfponds to the nobilis Cefar among the
Romans.

ATHELNEY, Jfle of, in Geography, a {pot of rifing
ground, on the north fide of Stanmore, in the county of
Somerfet, about one mile E.N.E. of Taunton bounded
on the north-weit by the river Tone ; over whichis a wooden
The name giver by
the Saxons to this ifland was /®felinza izxe, or the ifle of
nobles, whence was derived, by contraction, Athelney. It
was formerly furrounded by almoft impaflable marfhes and
moraffes, and will be for ever memorable for the retreat of
king Alfred from the fury of the Danes, when they had
overrun the eaitern part of his dominions. Having bravely

Bb encountered

.

ATT A

encountered his enemies for nine fucceffive years, according
to the ftatement of the regifter of Athelney, he was at
length reduced to the neceflity of feeking refuge from their
violence in this little ifland. After he had left this retire-
ment, and his enemies were totally defeated, he founded a
monaftery for Benediétine monks, on the {pot which had
given him thelter, and dedicated it to the honour of St.
Saviour and St. Peter the apoftle, and endowed the eftablith-
ment with the whole ifle of Athelney (amounting to about
two acres of firm land), exempt from taxes and all other
burdens. In procefs of time other privileges and benefac-
tions were conierred on the monks, and confirmed by differ-
ent kings and nobles.

ATHELSTAN, in Biggraphy, king of England, was
of illegitimate birth, and yet, being of mature age and ca-
pacity, fucceeded his father Edward the elder, in preference
to his lawful children, in the year 925. Soon after his ac-
ceffion, he marched to Northumberland in order to gueil fome
commotions among the Danes, and conferred the title o king
on Sithric, a Danifh nobleman: but, uponthedeathof Sithric,
when his two fons Anlaf and Godfrid, or Guthfert, aflumed
the regal authority without his confent, he expelled them
both; one takingrefuge in Iveland, and the other in Scotland.
The protection afforded to the latter by Conttantine, king of
Scotland, brought on awar, which terminated fo much to the
difadvantage of Conftantine, that hewas obliged, for the pre-
fervation of his crown, to do homage to Athelftan. Hotiili-
ties, however, were renewed : anda confederacy was formed
by Conftantine, Anlaf, and fome Welch princes, whofe
united forces were totally defeated by Athelftan, at Brunan-
burgh in Northumberland, A.D. 938. In confequence of
this victory, the king of England enjoyed his crown without
moleftation ; and having governed the kingdom with great
ability, he died at Glouceiter in 941, after a reign of fixteen
years, and was fucceeded by his brother Edmund. In this
reign commerce was greatly encouraged, and a law was
pafied, conferring the rank of thane.on every merchant who
had made three fea-voyages on his own account. Athelftan,
with a view of further facilitating and promoting commerce,
eftablifhed a mint, or mints, in every town in England that
had any confiderable foreign trade, fo that the merchants
might have an opportunity of converting the bullion which
they brought home for their goods into current coin, with-
out much expence or trouble. Thefe towns were London,
Canterbury, Winchefter, Rothefter, Exeter, Lewes, Haf-
tings, Chichefter, Southampton, Wareham, and Shaftef-
bury. By thefe and fimilar regulations the fhipping and
feamen of England were fo much increafed, that Athelitan
maintained the dominion of the fea, and obliged the Danifh
and Norwegian princes to court his friendfhip. _Hume’s
Hit. vol. i. p. 102, &c. Henry’s Hift. vol. ii. p- 94; &e.
vol. iv. p. 225, &c.

ATHEMON, in Entomology, a fpecies of Parizio.
(Plel. rur. Linn.; Hefferia Fabr.) The wings are entire
and brownith.

ATHENA, in the Ancient Phyfic, a platter or liniment,
commended againit wounds of the head and nerves, of
which we find defcriptions given by Oribafius, AZlius, and
fi gineta.

ATHENA, in Ancient Geography. See ATHENS.

ArHEN« is alfo a name given to various other places :
as, atown of Arabia. Pliny.—Alfo, a place at the eaftern
extremity of the Euxine fea, where was a temple of Minerva.
Avrian.—Alfo, a town of the Peloponnefus, in Laconia.
Steph. Byz. and Suidas.—Alfo, a place of Afia Minor, in
Caria, Steph. Byz.—Alfo, a town of Greece, in Beotia,
fituate on the nver Triton, overwhelmed, according to

L 3

ATH

Strabo, by an inundation.—Alfo a town of Acarnania 3;
another of Liguria: another of Italy : and another of Si-
cily. Steph. Byz.

ATHENA, in Antiquity, a feat of theancient Greeks,
held in honcur of Minerva, who was called A$mn. Thefe
were afterwards called PanaTHEN#A.

ATHENA, in Botany, .probably from Athenzus).
Schreb. 661. Iroucana. Aubl. Guian. 127. Clafs, ofan-
dria monogynia. Gen. Char. Ca/. perianth one-leafed, co-
loured, five-parted ; parts oblong, acute, ere, f{preading
at top. Cor. none. Sram. filaments eight, filiform, ereét ;
of which five are of the length of the calyx, the three al-
ternate ones a little fherter ; anthers fagittate ; eight plumofe
briftles, ihorter than the filaments, growing together with
the filaments to a gland furrounding the germ. Piff. germ
fuperior, ovate, furrounded at the bafe by an annular gland;
ftyle fetaceous, longer than the ftamens ; ftigma depreffed,
five-parted. Per. capfule globofe, one-celled, three-valved;
valves fomewhat flefhy ; feeds three to five, rounded, covered
with a pulpy-coloured membrane, affixed to the receptacle
in the bottom of the capfule. :

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. coloured, five-parted. Cor. none;
briltles eight, feathered, between the filaments ; ftigma five-
parted ; capfule globofe, one-celled, three-valved. Seeds,
three to five. ;

Species, A. guianen/is. lroucanaguianenfis. Aubl.].c.t.12.
This is a branching fhrub with a item four or five inches
in diameter, covered with a wrinkled grey bark ; leaves al-
ternate, ovate, {mooth, toothed, deciduous, four inches long;
petioles very fhort, having a {mall fharp ftipule on each fide
of the bafe ; flowers in bundles, from the axils, and upon
the tubercles of the ftem and branches, each on a peduncle;
calyx white ; there is no corolla ; feeds covered with a vifeid
membrane, of a fearlet colour ; the bark, leaves, and fruit
are fharply aromatic; the laft, by the Creoles, is called
Caffe diable. A native of Cayenne, and the neighbourin
continent of Guiana, growing in a fandy foil, about half a.
mile or more. from the fhore.

ATHENZEUM, in Antiquity, a public place wherein the
profeflors of the liberal arts held their affemblies, the rheto-
ricians declaimed, and the poets rehearied their verfes.

The word.is derived from Athens, a learned city, where
many of thefe affemblies were held; or from the name of
Minerva, Anz, goddefs of polite arts and feiences inti-
mating, that Atheneum was a place confecrated to Mi-
nerva, or rather fet apart forthe exercifes over which fhe
pretides.

The Athenza were built in form of amphitheatres ; and
were all encompaffed with feats, which Sidonius. calls cunei.

The three moit celebrated Athenza were thofe at Athens,
at Rome, and at Lyons ; the fecond of which, according to
Aurelius Victor, was built by the emperor Adrian, for the
accommodation of the profeflors of the liberal arts, and of
thofe who wanted to read their writings before a confiderable
number of people. It appears from the beginning of Juve-
nal’s Satires, that this manner of reading in public was very
common; and that Fronto lent the ule of his houfe and
gardens to the poets, who had occation to recite their yerfes.
before a numerous audience.
but as it belonged to the perfon, who wifhed to read his
compofitions, to furnith the room, and to pay the charge of
the feats, it is probable, that the emperor Adrian, for the
encouragement of works of tafte and fcience, conitructed
the Athenzum with a view of obviating this inconvenience.
Hence the name has been applied to all kinds of buildings
or colleges intended for teaching the {ciences and lan-

ao ATHENEUS,

This was done by others ;~

———eeEeEEOEeEeEeEeEEEeE

AT
ATHENZEUS in Biography, a greek grammarian, was

born at Naucratis in Leypt, and flourifhed in the third cen-
tury. Suidas has erroneoufly referred him to the time of
Antoninus Pius ; but it appears from his own work (Deip-
nofaphift. I. xii. p. 537. ed. Cafaub.), that he wrote after
the death of Commodus, and after the time of Oppian the
poet. (Ib. lL. ii. p. 13.) He was one of the moit learned
men of the age in which he lived: and, for the extent of
his reading, and tenacioufnefs of his memory, he has not
been improperly called the Varro, or Pliny, of the Greeks,
The only work of this author extant is a valuable com-
pilation from various writings, to which we have now no
accefs, entitled Assvcofisas, ‘ Deipnofophifte,”’ or « The
Table Converfation of the Sophitts.”? In this work the
author,has introduced a great number of learned perfons of
all profeffions, and reprefented them as converfing together
ona variety of fubjeéts at the table of Larenfius, a citizen
of Rome. It contains a large collection of facts and anec-
dotes, forming a rich treafure of antiquities, which ferve
more to amufe the reader than to fupply correct information.
The author has interfperfed with his feveral narrations many
Yatirical reflections and fcandalous ftories, which tend to
afperfe and @egrade the characters of the philofophers of
whofe names and writings he has given an account; and,
therefore, the work, copious as it is in ufeful inftruction,
mutt be perufed with caution. It confifts of fifteen books ;
but of the two firft, part of the third, and alfo of the laft,
we haye merely an abridgement. Few works have fuffered
more from the carelefinefs of tranferibers, and the negligence
of editors. In the 14th book, curious inquirers after the
mufic and dancing of the ancients, and after the biography
of the moft celebrated performers in both arts, will find
more information concerning them than in any of the treatiles
written exprefsly on thefe fubjects ; foran account of which
we mutt refer to the work itfelf. The firlt edition was pub-
lifhed by Aldus Manutius, in Greek, at Venice, in 1514,
fol. ; and at Bafil, in 1535, with a bad Latin tranflation by
Natalis Comes. Dalechamp devoted his leifure hours, for
thirty years, to the tranflation of Athenzus, which was pub-
lithed with annotations, by Cafaubon, in folio, at Leyden in
1583, 1597, 1612, and 1657. ‘This work was alfo tran{-
lated into French by Marolles in 1680, Cafaubon mentions
an abridgement of this work by an unknown author, and at
a period which he could not precifely afcertain, though he
fuppofes it to have been made before the time of Euttathius.
Pref. Cafaub. in Athen. Suidas. Gen. DiG. Fabr. Bibl.
Gree. |. iv. c. 20. § 5—8. tii. p. 631, &e.

ATHEN#Us, a popular orator and Peripatetic philofo-
pher, was born at Seleucia in Cilicia, had a fhare in the go-
vernment, and was for fome time a demagogue in his own
country. In the time of Auguftus he came to Rome, and
beeame an intimate friend of Murena, He was charged
with being concerned in his confpiracy ; but the emperor
not finding him guilty, fet him at liberty. Upon his return
to Rome after his flight on this occafion, he repeated to his
friends thefe words of Euripides :

66 ey ye “ps
«From death’s dread feats and gloomy gates I
come.”’

The manner of his death was tragical, as he was crufhed
by the fall of his houfe. Strabo, 1. xiv. t. il. p. 987.

ATHENZUus, a mathematician, flourifhed about 200 years
before Chrilt ; but his country is unknown. His Greek
treatife “‘ On Machines of war,’’ dedicated to Marcellus,
who took Syracuie in the 142d Olympiad. 212 B.C., is
contained in the ColleGion of Ancient Mathematicians,
pebhihed in folig at Paris, in 1693. Fabr. Bib. Gree. 1. iii.
C224. §. t. 1. it p. 587.

7 i, 4, , ’
pay xzuSumin xo oxo]e muacs Aina.”

ANT pil

Aruenxus, born at Attalia, in Cilicia, in the 9th year of
our era, as M. Goulin conjectures, was the principal of the
fed of pneumatics. Galen, who gives a particular account
of the doGrines of thefe philofophers, fays, they efteemed
the qualities of cold and heat, moilture and drynefs, as four
elements, entering into the compofition of all bodies. ‘l’o
thefe a fifth, was added, called fpirit, to which Athenwus
attributed the motion of the pulfe. Spirit was alfo fuppofed
to pervade and give lite and energy to body. Galen repre-
fents Athenzus asa voluminous writer ; no part, however, of
his works remains, except forme chapters preferved by Oriba-
fius, which throw little light onthe manner in which he ap-
plied his doctrine to praétice. Le Clere, Hitt. de Med.

ATHENAGARUM, in Ancient Geography, a diftrict of
India; fuppofed by Major Rennel, from its fituation, to be
Oupr.

ATHENAGORAS, in Biography, a Chriftian philofo-
pher, was a native of Athens, and flourifhed towards the clofe
of the fecondcentury. Hisyouthwas{pentamong the philo-
fophers of his time ; and removing from Athens to Alexan-
dria, he became a convert to Chriftianity. The manner of
his converfion, according to Philip Sidetes, a writer of the
fifth century held in no high eftimation, was as follows.
Propofing to write againit the Chriftians and defirous of
rendering his work the more complete, he read the ferip-
tures, and was thus converted. Philip adds, that he was
the firft prefident of the catechetical {chool of Alexandria,
and mafter of Clement who wrote the Stromata. Little
upon which we can rely is faid concerning Athenagoras by
the ancients, and his character and opinions are chiefly dedu-
ced from his own works. The principal of thefe was his
« Apology for Chriftians,’’ addrefled to Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus, and Lucius Aurelius Commodus, whofe names
are prefixed to it, fays Fabricius, in all the manufcripts ;
and probably written about the year 177 or 178. In this
work he repels the calumnies of the pagans againit the doc-
trines and manners of the Chriftians. He alfo explains the
notions of the Stoics and Peripatetics, concerning God and
divine things, and expofes with accurate and ftrong reafon-~
ings their refpeCtiye errors. He difcovers much partiality
for the fyitem of Plato, and fupports his arguments by the
authority of this philofopher, and hence he has been ranked
among the Platonifing fathers. In ‘what he advances con-
cerning God and the Logos, or divine reafon, he evidently
blends the doGtrines of Paganifm with the doétrines of
Chriftianity. According to Athenagoras, God is underived,
indivifible, and diftinct from matter ; there are middle na-
tures between God and Matter; from the beginning, God, ~
the eternal mind, being from eternity rational, had the Logos
within himfelf ; the fon of God is the reafon of the Father
in idea and energy ; for fince the father and fon are one, by
him and through him all things are made; the Logos was
produced, that the ideas of all things might fubfift, and
they are contained in his fpirit. On the imperfeé and un-
tractable nature of matter, on angels, demons, and other na-
tures compounded of matter and {pirit, and on other philo-
fophical topics, Athenagoras reafons with all the fubtlety
of the Grecian {chools, fo that in every page he is feen to
have been by profeffion a philofopher ; and indeed he is faid
to have retained the name and habit of a philofopher with a
view of gaining greater credit to the Chriftian doctrine
among the unconyerted heathens. In moral philofophy, he
adopted the common autterities, particularly with refpect to
marriage. He reprefents celibacy as meritorious, and fe-
cond marriages as legalifed adultery. In Athenagoras’s
«“ Difcourfe of the Refurreétion of the Dead,” probably
written after the “ Apology,” he argues rather from reafon
than {cripture, in order to prove the poffibility and aie

Bb2 ry

A-T-H

of a refurrection. His writings, upon the whole, manifeft
an happy union of Attic elegance with philofophical pene-
tration ; fo that he is reckoned a polite writer, and his
Greek is Attic, though his ftyle is rendered lefs agreeable
by frequent parenthefes. The two'treatifes of Athenagoras
have been ufually~printed together, in Greek and Latin.
They were publifhed in ato. at Paris, in 1541; by H. Ste-
phens, at Paris, in 8vo.in1557; by Rechenberg, at Leip-
fic, in 1684, in 2 vols. 8vo.; by Fell, bithop of Oxford,
with notes, at Oxford, in 1682, 12mo.; and with various
notes by Dechair, from the fame Sheldon prefs, in 1706,
8vo. The Romance under the name of Athenagoras, faid
to be a tranflation from a Greek MS. brought from the
eait, and publifhed in 1599, and in 1612, in French by M.
Fumeée, intitled « True and Perfe& Love, written in Greek
by Athenagoras an Athenian philofopher, containing the
chatte loves of Theogonus and Charides, of Pherecides and
Melangenia,” is a fiction ; and was probably written in imi-
tation of the Theagenes and Chariclea of Heliodorus, after
the overthrow of Greece by Alaric, or the deftruétion of
the Greek empire by the Turks. Cave, H. L. t. r. p. 79.
Lardner’s works, vol. ii. p. 180. &c. Fabr. Bibl. Grec.
lv. c. 1. t.v. p. 85—91. Ger. BiG. Brucker’s Hitt.
Philof. by Enfield, vol. 11. p. 295.

ATHENATORIUM, among Chemifls, a thick glafs
cover, placed on a cucurbit, having a flender umbo or pro-
minent part, which enters like a ftopple within the neck of
the cucurbit.

ATHENIANS, in Ancient Geography. See ATHENS,
and ATTICA. *

ATHENIENSIUM Portus, orthe port of the Athe-
nians, was a harbour of Greece, between the Port Bucepha-
lon and the promontory of Spireum, on the eaftern fide of
the Argolide, in the Saronic gulf.

ATHENION, in Biography, a Greek hiftorical painter,
who flourifhed in the year 300 before Chriit.

ATHENIPPUM, in Ancient Phyfic, a collyrium, com-
mended againit divers difeafes of the eyes; thus denominated
from its inventor Athenippus.

Its defcription is given by Scribonius Largus, and by
Gorrzus after him.

Galen mentions another athenippum, of a different com-
pofition, by which it appears, this was a denomination com-
mon to feveral collyriums.

ATHENIS, in Biography,a famous Grecianftatuary, who
flourifhedat Chio, about 538 yearsbeiore Chrift. See Bupave.

ATHENODORUS, a Stoic philofepher, was a native
ef Cana, near Tarfus, in Cilicia, and the preceptor and
friend of Auguftus. During his refidence at Rome, he was
much refpeéted by the emperor on account of his wifdom
and probity, admitted ito his confidence, and allowed to
give him free and faithful counfel. Auguftus, being ad-
di@ed to gallantry, indulged a criminal paflion for the wife
of a fenator, who was a friend of Athenodorus, aud who
communicated to him his diftrefs. The plilofopher availed
himfelf of this opportuniey of imprefling upon the mind of
the emperor a ienfe of the danger to which he expofed
himfelf by fuch pra€tices. Accordingly, he drefled himfelf
Sn woman’s clothes, and, providiug himfelf witha poignard,
put himfelf into the chair in which the lady was to have
been conveyed. When he appeared before Auguttus in this
difguife, he faid to him, “See, fir, to what danger you
expofe yourfelf! An erraged hufband may arm himfelf in
this manner, and revenge with your blood the injury you
offer him.’? The admonition is faid to have produced its
defigned effe@&; the emperor received it with deference ;
and he became more circumfpet for the future. Zofimus
(1. i. c. 6.) attributes the mild plan of government adopted

ATH

by Auguftus to the influence of the counfels of Athenodo-
rus. Before he left the court of Auguftus, he is faid by
Plutarch (Apopthegm. Oper.t. 2. p. 207.) to have warned:
the emperor againit excels of paffion, and as a prefervative,
to have advifed him -to rehearfe the twenty-four letters of
the alphabet, before he allowed himfelf to fay or do any
thing. Upon this, Auguitus took him by the hand, faying
to him, * I want your affiltance ftill longer,” and kept him
for another year. Such was his intereft with Auguftus,
that he obtained for his fellow. citizens, the inhabitants of
Tarfus, relief from fome of the taxes which oppreffed them 5.
and on this account he was honoured by them with an annual
feitival. At an advanced age the emperor permitted him to
return to his native country ; and finding it diftra&ted by
faétions, which had been excited by Boethus, whom An+
tony had invefled with power, he exerted himielf with prus
dence and‘firmnefs, in order to reftrain and fupprefs them?
By recruiting the exhaufted funds of Tarfus, correcting the:
abufes which threated its ruin, and introducing a new
code of municipal law, he contributed to the revival and
permanence of its profperity.. Having ferved his country
faithfully during a prolonged life, he clofed it with honours,
and with the regret of his fellow-citizens, at the advanced
age of eighty-two years. He wasa confiderable writer ; and
feveral of his works are cited by the ancients. Strabo fays,.
(1. i. p. 6.), that he wrote concerning the ocean and its
tides; and Stephanus (art. Ayxizin) mforms us, that he
wrote the hiftory of his own country ; but none of his.
works are now extant.. This Athenodorus is not the fame
who is mentioned by Suetonius (in Claud. c. 4.), a3 having
been entrufted by Auguitus with the charge of the educa=
tion of Claudius Nero, afterwards emperor. Fabricius,,
however, afferts that they were the fame perfon. Gen. Di@.
Strabo, |. 14. t. i pggr. Brucker’s Hit. Phil. by Enf..
vol. ii. p. 117. Fabr. Bib. Gree. Ll iii. c. 15. t. tip. 391.

Atuenoporus Cordylio, a Stoic philofopher of Tarfus,
was probably a native of Pergamus, lived about 50 years.
before Chrift, and was the intimate friend and companion of
Cato of Utica. He was keeper of the public library at
Pergamus ; and having refufed feveral folicitations to leave
this retreat, he was at lait prevailed upon by Cato, who.
vifited Afia for this purpofe, to join him in the war which
he had undertaken for the reftoration of Roman liberty.)
Cato is faid to have valued himfelf upon the fuccefs of his
application to Athenodorus, more than if he had fhared.
the conquefts of Lucullus or Pompey. Strabo fays, that
he lived and died with Cato. Fabricius fuggefts, that this
Athenodorus was the author of a work againft the Cate—
gories of Ariftotle, mentioned by Porphyry, Simplicius,
and Stobeus. Plat. in Vit. Caton. Oper. t. i. p. 665..
Diog. Laert. Strabo, 1. xiv. t. i. p.ggr. Fabr. Bib.
Grec. l. iii. c. 15. te 1. p. 371- ,

ATHENODORUS, a famous ancient feulptor, who was
born at Rhodes. According to Pliny, he was a fcholar of
Polycletus, who flourifhed about the eighty-feventh olym-
piad, or 432 years before Chrift. He was one of the three:
who joiatly executed the famous group of Laocoon: the
other two were Agefander and Polidore.

ATHENOPOLIS, in: ducient Geography, a town of,
Gallia Narbonnenfis, on the coaft of the Vaffillians, between
port Citharifta and Forum Julii, according to Pliny. Its
precife fituation isnot now known.

ATHENRY, in Geograghy, a borough town of the

county of Galway, in Ireland, which gives name to a barony.”
Within an extenfive circuit of dilapidated walls, and their
ruinous towers, the remains of caftles and abbeys, that are’
intermixed with the cottages of a now {mall village, prefent
a monument of its former confequence.. There are alfo

many

tgs

ATH

many ruins of caftles and chnrches in its neighbourhood.
At this townwas fought a battlebetween Tedlin O’Connor,
prince of Connaught, an affociate of Edward Bruce, and
an Englifh army under William de Burgo and Richard de
Bermingham, in which, after a defperate engagement, the
Trifh were defeated with the lofs ah their prince and eight
thoufand men, This event happened in the year 1316.
Dittance from Dublin nearly g2 miles. N. lat. 53° 14.
W. long. 8° 40’ 30”. Beaufort. Leland.

ATHENS, in Ancient Geography and Hiflory, a cele-
brated city, called by way of eminence oar, or asv, the
city, was the capital of Attica, and the feat of the Grecian
empire. It was founded by Cecrops, about 1556 years be-
fore Chrift, and from him called * Cecropia.”? It after-
wards, as fome fay, in the reign of Eri¢thonius, about
1487 years B.C., or according to others, in the reign of
Erichtheus, about 1397 years B.C. affumed the name of
Athens, from Minerva, denominated by the Greeks AGnyn,
and confidered as the prote¢trefs of the city. Cecrepia was
feated upon a hill or rock in the midit of a f{pacious and fer-
tile plain, partly with a view of fecuring it againtt piratical
invaders, and partly to prevent its beiig overwhelmed by
inundations, which were much dreaded in thofe ancient
times. In procefs of time, as the number of inhabitants
increafed, the whole plain was covered with buildings,
which were denominated from their fituation, “ the lower
city,” and Cecropiawas called “ Acropolis,”’ or ‘the upper
city.” See Acroporis. The old city, orcitadel, was fixty
ftadia, or about 2$ leagues in circuit ; it was fenced with
wooden pales, andas fome fay, fet about with olive-trees ;
and it was alfo fortified with a ftrong wall, partly built by
Cimon, the fon of Miltiades, out of the {poils of the Perfian
wars, and fituate on the fonth fide of the citadel; and
partly on the north fide, by Agrolas and Hyperbius, who,
according to Paufanias (in Attic. li. c. 28. p. 67.), mi-
grated from Sicily to Acarnania and denominated from
them; who were called Pelafgi, the Pelafgic wall. The
only entrance into the citadel was byone gate on the fouth-
weit, conftructed at a great expence by Pericles, and, deno-
minated Propyleum. See PropyLaum. ‘lhe infide of the
citadel was adorned with innumerable edifices, ftatues, and
monuments, all of which it would be too tedious to re-
count. The moft remarkable are the following.—At the
entrance was a temple dedicated to Victory, adorned with
paintings which were principally the work of Polygnotus,
and conftrutted of white marble. Within the citadel
Were an immenfe number of ftatues ereéted by religion or
gratitude, on which the chiffels of Myron, Phidias, Alc-
amenes, and other artiftsof renown, feem to have beftowed
animation. Of thefe ftatues fome were thofe of famous
Athenian generals, fuch as Pericles, Phormio, Iphicrates,
and Timotheus; and others, t' ofe of the gods. About
the middle cf the citadel were the magnificent temple of
Minerva, denominated Hecatompedon, and Parthenon (fee
PartHenon) ; and the temple ot Minerva Polias and Nep-
tune Erechtheus, one part of which was confecrated to the
former, and the other to the latter. On one fide was exhi-
bited the olive-tree which {prang out of the earth at the
command of the goddefs, and which fo greatly multi-

‘

plied. in Attica; and on the other, the well, whence they

pretend that Neptune caufed the water of the fea to guth
out. Thus thefe divinities are faid to have contended for
the honour of conferring their names on the rifing city ;
but the gods decided in favour of Minerva, and the Athe-
nians for ages preferred agriculture to commerce. Here,
however, they have erc€ted one common altar, which is
called the altar of oblivion. Before the ftatue of the god-
defs was fufpended a golden lamp, the work of Callima-
1

EN §.

chus, which was fupplied with oil once a year, the wick of
which was made of amianthus, and which ale night and
day. The columnsof the frontof the temple of Neptune are
{tanding, together with the architrave ; and alfo the fereen
and portico of Minerva Polias, with a portion of the cell re-
taining traces of the partition wall. The orderof this build-
ing is Lonic. The portico is now ufed asa powdermagazine,
and near it.is a battery commanding the town. ‘The Turks
ufe it to give notice of their ramazan and bairam, and on
other public occafions. Contiguous to this temple was the
Pandrofeum. (See Panprroseum}. Behind Minerva’s
temple was the publictreafury, called OpistHopomos; fur-
rounded by a double wall.

The lower city comprehended all the buildings that fur-
rounded the citadel, together with the harbours of Phale-
rum, Munychia, and the Pireus. The whole circuit of
the city in its moft flourifhing ftate was no lefs, according
to Ariftides, than a day’s journey; or, according to more
exaét computation, 178 ftadia, or about 22 Roman miles.
The port of Phalerum was connected with the city by a
wall 35 ftadia, or 14 league in length, built by Themi-
{tocles, of ftone, faftened by iron and lead, and forty cubits
high ; and that of Pireus was joined to it by a wall 4o
ftadia or 14 league long, and erected by Pericles. Thefe
were almoft clofed at their extremity by a third wall of 60
ftadia ; and they inclofed not only thefe two harbours, and
alfo that of Munychia, which lay between them, but alfo
a multitude of houfes, temples, and monuments of every
kind; fo that the entire circumference of the city has been
eftimated at nearly 200 ftadia, or above 74 leagues. In the
wall that encompaffed the city there were feveral gates, the
principal of which were thofe of Aigeus, of Diocharis, of
the Diomians, of Melite, of Acharna, of Hippades, of
Thriafia, or Dipylon, of Itonia, facred gate, and that of
the Pireus. The ftreets of Athens were in general irre-
gular, and the houfes {mall and incommodious. Befides the
rock of the mufeum, clofe to the citadel on the fouth-weft,
feparated by a valley from the hill’on which the Areopa-
gus ftood, other eminences contributed to render the city
extremely uneven. In thefe hillocks they had feveral
{prings of water, but not fufficient, without additional wells
and cilterns, for the fupply of the inhabitants. The city
was eucompafled by the river Iliffus and Cephifus, which
joined their ftreams in the marth of Phalerum, and near
the banks of which were feyeral public walks, and alfo
public and privatebuildings. The three harbours of Athens
were the Puazerum, Munycuia, and Pirz#us; for an
account of which fee the articles. The principal edifices
and places cf note in and about the city are the following :
—Without the gate of Pirzus is a cenotaph, erected bythe
Athenians in honour of Euripides, who died at Macedonia,
on which is infcribed “ the glory of Euripides has all
Greece for a monument ;’? and within the gate is a ftately
building, called Pompeion, in which are kept the facred
utenfils ufed at felivals, and from which commence the
proceflions of young perfons exhibited on occafions of this
kind. In an adjoining temple dedicated to Ceres are
admirable ftatues of that goddefs, Proferpine, and young
Tacchus, executed by Praxiteles. In the ftreet leading
from the Pireus to the citadel, are numerous porticoes,
fome of which ftood detached, and others contiguous to
buildings, to which they ferve as vettibules. To the left of
this {treet is the quarter of the Pnyx, which was very po-
pulous ; and contiguous to this was that of the Ceramicus,
or pottery grounds, fo called from the earthen ware for-
merly fabricated there. This extenfive fpace was divided
into two parts; one without the walls, where the academy
was fituated ; and another within, in which was the grand

{quare,,,

ATHEN S&S.

{quare or forum. In the royal portico, where the fecond
of the archons held his-tribunal, and where the areopagus
‘fometimes affembled, avere feveral ftatues, fuch as thofe of
Pindar, Conon, Timotheus, and Evagoras king of Cyprus.
Near the royal portico was that of Jupiter Liberator,
where Euphranor the painter had reprefented in a feries of
pictures the twelve gods, Thefeus, the people of Athens,
and an engagement of the cavalry, in which Gryllus, the
fon of Xenophon, attacked the Thebans commanded by
FEpaminondas. The Apollo of the adjoining temple was
the work of the fame matter. From the royal portico two
itreets branch out, and terminate in the forum: that on
the night was decorated by a number of Herme, or heads
of Mercury fupported by pedeitals, erected for recording
fome glorious atchievements, or for inculcating fome leffons
of wifdom. This ftreet is terminated by two porticoes that
front the forum ; the one, that of the Herme; the other,
and the moft handfome, is called the Pecile, at the gate
of which was the ftatue of Solon. The walls within the
Peecile were covered with bucklers taken from the Lacedz-
monians and other nations, and enriched with the works of
Polygnotus, Micon, Panoenus, and other celebrated pain-
ters. The forum, which was extremely fpacious, was de-
corated with buildings deftined to the worfhip of the gods,
or the fervice of the ftate, or as places of afylum to the
wretched; and ftatues of kings or individuals who had
merited well of the republic. An adjoining fquare con-
tained a temple in honour of the mother of the gods, with
a ftatue of her by Phidias; and the place in which the
fenate affembled. In the temple of Mars, at a {mall di-
dtance, was a ftatue of that god, executed by Alcamenes,
a pupil of Phidias.

In the middle of the city, between the forum and the
citadel, was the temple of Thefeus, built by Cimon fome
years after the battle of Salamis ; it was fmaller than that
of Minerva, but built after the fame model; like that, it
was of the Doric order, and an elegant ftruGture. It was
-enriched by the labours of fkilful painters; and the remains
of it are to be feenat this day. It was allowed the privi-
lege of being a fan€tuary for flaves, and for all perfons of
mean condition who fled from the perfecution of men in
power ; in honour of Thefeus who, whilit he lived, was the
protector of the diftreffed. Near to the templeof Thefeus,
Paufanias places the templeof the Diofcuri, orof Caftorand
Pollux ; and above this temple was the grove of Aglaurus,
lituate under the Acropolis. Nearto this grove, north of the
A\cropolis, was the Prytaneum, where citizens who had ren-
derediignal fervicesto theftate, were maintained at the public
expence. See Prytaneum. Beyond this building, on the
north-eaft fide of the citadel, was the {treet of the Tripods,
or the ftreet of triumphs, in which were temples and houfes
containing tripods of brafs, which were dedicated by thefe
who had been victorious ‘in the contefts that fubfifted
among the poets, muficians, and dancers. In one of thefe
edificeswas the famousfatyr, called bythe Greeks U:e:Gsr0-,
elteemed by Praxiteles himfelf one of the fineft of his pro-
ductions, and ranked by the public among the mafter-
pieces of art. The ftreet of the Tripods led to the theatre
of Bacchus, where the people fometimes affembled to delibe-
rate on affairs of ftate, or to be prefent at the reprefenta-
tion of tragedies or comedies ; and oppofite to this theatre
was the temple of Bacchus, one of the moft ancient temples
of Athens, it was fituated in the quarter of Limnz, or
Marfhes, and was opened only once a year. Between the
dtreet of the Tripods and the theatre of Bacchus was the
Odeum, built by Pericles for mufical competitions. (See
Opevum.) In the quarter of the marfhes, fouth of the
citadel, was the temple of the Olympian Jupiter, begun by

,

Pififtratus, continued by feveral fucceeding governors;
and finifhed in the time of Adrian. - The ruin of this tem-
ple confiits of very large and beautiful columns of the
Corinthian order, fluted, about fix feet in diameter and
fixty in height. The temple of the Pythian Apollo lay to
the north-weit of that of Jupiter Olympius, and nearer to
the citadel ; and near to the Propyleum, at the bottom of
the citadel, on the north fide, is the temple of Apollo and
Pan, in a grotto or cave, where Apollo is faid to have
deflowered Creufa, daughter of ois Erichtheus. Befides
thefe there were feveral other temples, fuch as the temple
of Diana, that of the Eight Winds, and the Pantheon
dedicated to all the gods. (See PanTHEON.)

Without thecity, between the wall and the river Ilyffus,
was the dromosorftadium(fee Srap1um, andCynosarGEs).
Beyondthe Ilyffus, andtotheeaft of the Stadium, was mount
Hymettus, and the diitri& called Agre, in which were the
temples of Ceres, and of Diana Agrotera, or the huntrefs-
Above this were the Gymnafia of the Lyceum (fee Ly-
ceum), and of the Cynofarges. To the north-weft, in the
Ceramicus that lay without the city, and diftant from it
about fix ftadia, was the Academy. (See Acapemy.) Be-
yond the Academy was a hill called Colonos, on which
Sophocles laid the foundation of his Gidipus Coloneus.
The river Cephifus enriched this diftri& with its waters,
though in fummer this ftream, and alfo the Ilyffus, were
occationally dry.

The topography of ancient Athens, given by Paufa-
nias, fo far correfponds to thofe remains, whofe names
and fituations have been defcribed by modern travellers,
as to afford a ftrong prefumption of its accuracy; and
it affords a kind BP ftandard by which the correéinefs
of other defcriptions may be eftimated. In order to form
a juft notion of his plan, it is neceffary to confider the
ftations from which his routes commenced ; and thefe will
appear to be in anatural order, and to have embraced in the
moft comprehenfive manner the whole of the city of
Athens. His two principal ftations were the Ceramicus and
the Prytaneum; and his routes from the former ftation
noticed thofe parts that lay to the north-weft, and thofe
from the latter fuch as were fituated to the north-eaft,
and fouth of the Acropolis. Having arrived at Athens
from the Pirzus, and paffing though the outer Ceramicus
and the city gate, he entered the inner Ceramicus, which
was his firft ftation. On the right hand, he fays, is feen

-the royal porch, and he there enumerates among other ob-
jects, the temple of the mother of the gods; the fenate-
houfe of five hundred; the Thelus; the temple of Mars ;
the Odeum ; the fountain called Enneakrounos ; the temple
of Ceres and Proferpine; and another. Paufanias having
finifhed the firft route, without defcribing any objeéts in
returning, commences his fecond, which appears to be very
fhort ; remarking only the temples of Vulcan, and of
Venus Urania, above the Ceramicus, and which may be
fuppofed to have been northward of the gate Dipylon.
He then proceeds to fay, that the traveller, dire@ing his
courfe to the Poecile or Poikile, will obferve the feveral
objects in the following order: befides others, the Market
place, the Gymnafium, the temple of Thefeus, the temple
of the Diofcuri, and the grove of Aglaurus: the temple of
Thefeus {till remains. According to the order of Paufanias,
we mutt look for the Poikile, the Market place or forum,
and the Gymnafium, between the gate Dipylon and the
temple. According to Paufanias, the temple of the Diof-
curi was near to that of Thefeus ; and above the temple of
the Diofcuri was the grove of Aglaurus; and as this
grove was under the Acropolis, it muft have been between
that place and the temple of Thefeus, or nearly between the

Acropolis

ATHENS.

“Acropolis and the hill of the Areopagus. Near to the
grove of Aglaurus was the Prytaneum, north of the Acro-
polis, and this was the fecond {tation of Paufanias. aL he
firtt route from this ftation is explained as defcending from
the Prytaneum to the lower parts of Athens; and it in-
cludes the temple of Serapis, of the goddefs Lucina, of the
Olympian Jupiter, and the Delphinian Apollo, the Gardens,
the Lyceum, the river Iyffus, the temple of Diana the
huntrefs, andthe Stadium. Without defcribing any objects
in his return from the Stadium to the Prytaneum, Paufa-
nias commences his fecond route from that {tation by the
way called Tripodes, in which, he fays, there are temples,
tripods, and other works deferving notice ; and, in the
following order he mentions the temple of Dionytius, the
temple of Bacchus, the imitation of the tent of Xerxes,
the theatre of Bacchus, the wall called Southern, the tomb
of Calus, the temples of Aifculapius, of Themis, of Earth,
and of Virid Ceres; and then enters the Propylea of the
Acropolis. Within the Acropolis, he defcribes, among
other objeéts, the Parthenon, the temples of Ereétheus,
Polias, and Pandrofus ; and his defcriptions agree fo exadtly
with the remains found there, that this part ot his topo-
rraphy affords an evidence of his precifion in other refpects.
tre then pafles from the Acropolis over the Areopagus,
thence to the tombs, and to the Academy ; and this route
is in the order of their fituation; for he had before paffed
under the north-eaft fide of the Areopagus, in his route
from the temple of Thefeus to the Prytaneum. The tombs,
which are in the neighbourhood of the Mufeum, according
to Dr. Chandler, were evidently in the fituation to which
Paufanias alludes ; and the academy is known to haye been
to the weft of the walls of thecity. It has been the uni-
form. opinion of antiguaries, that the old city of Athens
was built on the northern fide of the Acropolis; and the
infcription of Adrian’s arch is a confirmation that the addi-
tion to the city, built by that emperor, and called after him
Adrianople, was on the fouthern fide. Mr, Stewart, how-
ever, in his ‘ Antiquities of Athens,’’ (vol .ili,) conjectures,
that the ancient city was on the fouth fide of the Acro-
polis; but it has been alleged, that there are no remains
which countenance this fuppofition ; and befides, it fhould
be recollected, that the Pelafgi, who fortified the Acropolis,
Were permitted to dwell beneath the walls: they were after-
wards accufed by the Athenians of way-laying their daugh-
ters, as they went from the city to fetch water from the
Tlyffus: this could not peffibly have happened, without fup-
poling that the ancient city was on the north fide of the
Acropolis, and that the part inhabited by the Pelafgi was
on the fouth fide: for no other part would correfpond to
the account of the Pelafgi being in a fituation between
the city and the river. The Pelafgi were afterwards
driven out af Attica; the {pot on which they dwelt was
execrated ; and the Delphic oracle advifed, that it fhould be
kept rough and uncultivated. It is, however, well known,
that this fpot, in after-times, was inhabited ; but it 1s fome-
what fingular, that, except the theatre and fome few monu-
ments, immediately under the walls of the Acropolis, the
whole of the plain between the Acropolis and the Ilyfius,
contains no remains of ancient works, befides one folitary
column. This furnifhes a flrong argument againft the fup-

ofition of the ancient city being ereCted in this fituation ;
be undoubtedly the chief monuments of their grandeur
would be contained within the city. This circumftance
alfo accounts for Paufanias pafling by, without defcribing
any thing as fituated there: it was fterile in antiquities, and
therefore furnifhed no objeét deferving his notice. For
thefe obfervations, we are indebted to an anonymous writer.

See Monthly Review enlarged, vol. xvii. p. 56. For the
plans of Athens, annexed to the travels of Anacharfis, fee
the Maps of this work.

AtHENS, and the Athenians, Hiffory of. Tt has been al-
ready obferved, that the city of Athens was founded by Ce-
crops about 1556 years B.C. ‘This prince reigned fifty
years. Under the reigns of hisfucceffors, various circumftances
combined to determine the character and fituation of the
nation. ‘The fucceffion of princes appears, with few excep-
tions, the fucceflion of improvement., Under the reign of
Erichthonius, the colony of Cecrops accuftomed horfes, al-
ready docile to the bit, to draw wheel carriages ; and pro-
fited by the labour of bees, which ufeful race of infeéts
they carefully preferved on mount Hymettus. Under Pan-
dion, they made new progrefs in agriculture ; but a long
drought having deftroyed the hopes of the hufbandman, the
harveits of Egypt fupplied the wants of the colony, which
thence contracted a tafte for commerce. Frichtheus, his
fucceffor, rendered his reign illuftrious by ufeful inflitutions,
and the Athenians dedicated a temple to him after his death.
A contiderable portion of barbarifm {till remained ; the coun-
try, very imperfectly cultivated, maintained great numbers
ot favage animals, and {till more favage men. The Grecian
woods and mountains abounded in lions, boars, and other
fierce animals, that often roamed from their haunts, and
fpread terror and defolation among the adjoining vallies.
The vallies themfelves teemed with men of brutal ftrength
and courage, who availed themfelves of the weaknefs of
government, to perpetrate horrid deeds of. violence and
cruelty. About the year 1300 B.C. the firft worthies of
Greece, animated rather with the daring and ufeful, than
with the romantic: fpirit of chivalry (Plutarch’s Thefeus),
fet themfelves with one accord to remedy evils which
threatened the extitence of fociety.. Thefe travelled over
Greece, and freed it from the violence both of kings and
individuals: they appeared to the Greeks as beings’
of a fuperior order; and that infant people, no lefs. extra-
vagant in their gratitude than fears, rewarded the expleits :
with fo much glory, that the honour of proteGing them
became the firft ambition of noble mmds.. Qf thefe, one of
the moit eminent was ‘Thefeus, the fon.of. Egeus king of
Athens, who was ardently defirous of rivalling the exploits
of Hercules. The Pallantides, a powerful family of Athens,
having attempted to wreftthe {ceptre from the aged hands
of Egeus, young Thefeus, now approaching to man’s eftate,
overwhelmed the projects of the confpirators. (Plutarch’s
Thefeus.) Marathon, the fecond city in Attica, had its
environs infefted by a-ferocious bull; the heroic prince fub-
dued, this terrible animal (Plutarch’s Thefeus) ; and the
Athenians regarded his fuccefs with aftonifhment and admi-.-
ration.. But his countrymen had foon after a cal! for their
wonder and gratitude in a much more fignal ‘achievement,
and more momentous benefit. Minos, king of Crete, ac-
cufed them of having put to death his fon Androgeus, and
compelled them by force to deliver him, at ftated inter-
vals, a certain number of youths:and maidens. Thefe
were to be chofen by lot, and their deftiny was death or
flavery. (Plutarch’s Thefeus.) It was now the third time
that the pledges of their affections were to be torn from
their unhappy parents. All Athens was in tears, but
Thefeus revived her hopes. He undertook to free the city
from this odious tribute ; and, to accomplifh the noble pro-
ject, voluntarily enrolled himfelf in the number of the vic-
tims, and embarked for Crete. ‘The adventures. of
Thefeus in Crete, exhibited by the inventive and often
fanciful poetry of the Greeks, containa great portion of the
marvellous, through which a fkilful and difcerning reader

may

ATH

may difcover the probable. According to the tale which
the Athenians relate, it was the cruel practice of Minos to
fhut up his tributary viGtims, the moment he received them,
in a labyrinth, where they were foon after devoured by the
minotaur, a moniter half a man and halfa bull, the offspring
of the infamous amours of Pafiphae, queen of Crete: they
add, that Thefeus, having flain the minotaur, brought back
the young Athenians, and was accompanied -on his return
by Ariadne, daughter of Minos, who ailifted him in efcaping
from the labyrinth, and whom he abandoned on the fhores
of Naxos. The Cretans, on the contrary, allege, that
the Athenian hoflages were deftined to the viGtors in the
celebrated games in honour of Androgeus; that Thefeus,
having obtained permiffion to enter the lifts, overcame Tau-
rus, general of the troops of Minos; and that this prince had
the generofity to do juftice to his valour, and pardon the
Athenians.

Minos had eftablifhed an excellent fyftem of government,
which equally fecured the authority of the prince and the
liberty of the people, and conneéted religious with political
influence. (Ariitotle’s Politics.) The advantages of this
fyftem Thefeus difcerned, and having returned and afcended
the throne of Attica, vacant by the deceafe of his father,
he refolved to improve the government of his country.
The twelve towns, founded by Cecrops, were become fo
many republics, each of which had its particular magiftrates
and chiefs almoft independent, whofe interefts, clafhing con-
tinually, produced frequent wars; and though imminent
dangers fometimes obliged them to have recorrfe to the
protection of the fovereign, the fucceeding calm foon awa-
Kened their ancient jealoufies. The royal authority,
flutuating between defpotifm and degradation, alternately
infpired terror and contempt; and the people, by the vice
of a conftitution, the nature of which was not exaCtly un-
derftood either by prince or fubje¢ts, had no means what-
ever to defend themfelves againft the extremity of flavery,
or the excefs of licentionfnefs. Thefeus formed his plan ;
.and, fuperior even to minute obftacles, took upon himfelf
its execution in detail. He traverfed the different diftriGts
of Attica, and endeayoured every where to infinuate him-
{elf into the favonr of the people, who with ardour received
a projeét which feemed-to reftore to them their primitive
liberty ; but the wealthier clafs, fearing to lofe the authority
they had ufurped, and apprehenfive of feeing a kind of
equality eftablifhed between all ranks of citizens, murmured
at an Innovation which diminifhed the royal prerogative:
not daring, however, openly to oppofe the will of a prince,
who was endeavouring to obtain by perfuafion, what he
might exa¢t by force, they confented, but with a fecret
determination to proteft againft the meafure when circum-
ftances might be more favourable. It was now determined
that Athens fhould be the metropolis and centre of the ftate;
that the fenates of the cities fhould be abolifhed; that the
legiflative power fhould refide in the general affembly of the
nation, divided into three claffes, the nobles, the hufband-
men, and the artificers; that the firft magiftrates, chofen
out of the former, fhould have the fuperintendence of the
facred rites, and be the interpreters of the laws ; that the dif-
ferent orders of citizens fhould form a mutual balance, the
firft, having in its favour the {plendor of dignities ; the fe-
cond, the importance of fervices; and the third, the fupe-
riority of number. (Plutarch’s Thefeus.) It was deter-
mined in fine, that Thefeus, placed at the head of the re-
public, fhould be the defender of the laws it might enact,
and the general of the troops deftined to its defence. He
erected tribunals for the magiitrates ; enlarged the capital,
and embellifhed it as far as the imperfection of the arts

ENS.

at that time would permit. Strangers, invited to. become
citizens, flocked thither from all parts, and were incorpo-
rated with the ancient inhabitants. He added the territory

of Megara to the country ; he placed a column on the ifth- -

mus of Corinth, as a boundary between Attica and Pelo-
ponneius ; and revived, near this pillar, the lithmian eames,
in imitation of thefe lately initituted by Hercules at Olym-
pia. Every thing now feemed favourable to his views: he
governed a free people, retained in obedience, by his mode-
ration and his bounties; he di€tated laws of peace and hu-
manity to the neighbouring nations, and enjoyed a foretafte
of that profound veneration with which fucceeding ages gra-
dually honour the memory of great men. Thefeus alfo en-

aged in new undertakings of valour, fome of them very
unjuftifiable (fee Testus, Hercuves, and Pirirxous),
and all of them prejudicial to his country, by eceupying that
time which might have been employed in the farther improve-
ment of the ftate. But with thefe exceptions, Thefeus was
a very great and beneficial fovereign, and his reign was a very
important epoch in Athenian hiftory. For feveral ages,
however, Athens was only a fecondary power: in the time
of Homer, that ftate fent but fifty fhips, whereas feveral
other countries fent eighty, and Mycene a hundred. The

‘complement of men to each, being 120, the troops amounted

to about 6000.

Full fifty more from Athens ftem the main, :

Led by Meneftheus thro’ the liquid plain ; ;

No chief like thee, Meneftheus! Greece could yield,

To marfhal armies in the duity field. ;

Th’ extended wings of battle to difplay, r

Or clofe th’ embodied hoft in firm array.

Nettor alone, improw’d by length of days,

For martial conduct bore an equal praife. :

See Pope’s Homer’s Iliad, 1. ii.

At the time of the Trojan war, B.C. 1184, Athens, like
other ftates of Greece, was fubjeCted toa limited monarchy,
but not ftri¢tly hereditary. Meneitheus fucceeded The-
feus, in preference to the fon of that monarch. Meneftheus
was fucceeded by Demophoon, who diftinguifhed himfelf
at the fiege of Troy, and on his return was eminent for
political improvement. By him was eretted the famous
court of the Epuers, for trying wilful.murder by a tribunal
to which the Britifh jury bears a confiderable analogy. By
this court, the king himfelf afterwards fubmitted to be tried,
for having accidentally killed one of his fubje@s. He reigned
thirty-three years, and was fucceeded by his fon Oxyntes,
who reigned twelve years. Oxyntes was fucceeded by his
fon Aphydas, who was murdered by Thymetes, the bi
fon of Oxyntes. Thymetes demonitrated himfelf very un-
worthy to reign, and was at length dethroned to make room
for a man who had diftinguifhed himfelf in the following
manner. ‘There happened to arife a conteft between the
king of Beeotia and the Athenians, about a frontier town.
The hoftile prince challenged Thymetes to determine their
difpute by a fingle combat.
to decline, but Melanthus, an exile from Meffenia, who then
refided at Athens, accepted the challenge. When they en-
countered, Melanthus demanded of his adverfary, why, con-
trary to articles, he had brought a fecond into the field? He
turned about to fee who the alleged fecond was, whereupon
Melanthus run him through the body. Delighted with this
victory, the Athenians did not regard the means by which
it had been obtained, and appoiated the conqueror their
king. Melanthus was fucceeded by his fon Codrus: this
prince was attacked by the Heraclide: having heard that
the oracle promifed the vi¢tory to that army witch thould
lofe its general in battle, he voluntarily devoted himfelf

to

.

The Athenian fovereign chofe _

—

=a -

; ATIHEN S:

to death; a faerifice which fo animated his troops, that
they entirely defeated their enemies. Codrus was the latt
king of Athens, and on his death, the government became
republican, by the eftablifhment of Archons, B.C. 1070;
an office which was at firft hereditary, and little inferior, in
point of power, to royalty itfelf. Medon, thefon of Codrus,
firlt held’ the office of Arcuon. His brother Neleus and
Andreclus, probably diffatisfied with thefe tranfactions,
determined to leave their country. This defign was ap-
proved by thé Achwan and Meffenian refugees, and by
many Athenian citizens, who complained that Attica was

-too narrow and barren to maintain the increafing numbers

of its inhabitants. The reftlefs f{pirits in Phocis, Boeotia,
and other neighbouring provinces, eagerly joined the emi-
grants. They failed to Afia Minor, B.C. 1055, expelled
the ancient inhabitants, a mixed race of Lydians, Carians,
and Pelafgi, and feized the central and moft beautiful por-
tion of the Afiatic coaft. (Herodotus, Clio.) Theurcolonies
were gradually diffufed from the banks of the Hermus, to
the promontory of Pofeidon. "They afterwards took pof-
feffion of Chios and Samos: and all thefe countries were
united by the common name of Ionia, to denote that tlre
Jonians compofed the moft numerous divifion of the colony.
See Tonrans. *

The government of the Archons, after feveral changes,
at length became annual, and their number was nine. Pe-
Joponuefus being now involved in the long and bloody wars
between the Meffenians and the Spartans, the Spartans,
being in great danger, applied for afliitance to the Athenians,
who fent them aid on one occafion, and were inftrumental
to the reduction of the Meffenians, and the arerandifement
of the Spartans, deflined to become formidable rivals to
themfelves. During the firft ages of Archontic govern-
ment, Athens was little occupied by foreign wars, but very.
greatly by diffenfions and feditions. They had no written
Jaws, and were perpetually difacreeing on points of religion
and government. ‘The inhabitants of Attica were feparated
into three factions, each of which had at its head one of the
moitt ancient families of Athens. Divided as they all were b
intereit, diverfity of character, and fituation, it was sas
ble for them to agree in the choice of a form of government.
The pooreft and moft independent, confined to the adjacent
mountains, favoured a democracy; the wealthieft, dif-
perfed over the plain, withed for an oligarchy ; while the
inhabitants of the coatts, engaged in maritime and commer-
cial affairs, were for_a mixed government, which might
decure their pofleffions, without proving injurious to public
liberty. To this fource of divifions, each party united
the inveterate hatred of the poor againft the rich. Obfcure

_eitizens, overwhelmed with debts, had no refource but that

of felling their liberty, or that of their children, to merci-
lefs creditors ; and the greatett part of them had determined
to abandona country which held out only ineffectual labour
to fome of them; and eternal flavery, and the facrifice of
every fentiment of nature, to the remainder. From the
growth of knowledge, new fources of induftry, new necef-
fities and vices, were diffufed through focicty. Licentiouf-
nefs was:either pafled over with impunity, or reprehended
by arbitrary punifhments. ~The life and fortune of indivi-
duals were left at the difcretion of magiltrates, who, fub-
jected to no certain limitations, were but too much difpofed
to litten to their prepoffeffions or their interefts. In this
contfufion, which menaced the ftate with immediate de-
ftruction, Draco was chofen, B.C. 624, with full powers to
exercife the whole of legiflation, in its moft extenfive or
circumftantial views. The particulars of his private life
are little known to us; but he has left the reputation of a
» Vou. III.

man of worth, poffeifed of real knowledge, and fincerely
attached to his country. Other flrokes of charafter miglit
perhapsembellith his eulogium, but are not neceffary fo his
memory: Like all preceding and fubfequent legiflatars, he
formed a code of Jaws and morals; hie‘ took the citizen at
the moment of lis birth, preferibed the manner of his earliclt
education, followed him through the different flages of Jsis
life, and, connecting thefe partial views with the main ob-
ject, flattered himfelf he fhould be able to form free men,
and virtuous citizens; but he only produced malecontents,
and his regulations excited fo many murmurs, that he was
compelled to take refuge in the ifland A%gina, where he
foon after died.

His laws were ftrongly impreffed with the peculiarity of
his'charaéter ; they were as tevere as his manners had ever
been rigid. Death was the chaftifement he infli¢ted on
idlenefs, and the only punifhment he decreed for the
flighteft offences, .as well as for the mot atrocious crimes ;
he was accuftomed to fay, that he knew of none milder
for the former, and could devife no other for the latter,
It feems as if his powerful mind, virtuous even to excefs,
was incapable of any indulgence for crimes at which it re-
volted, or for thofe weaknefles over which it triumphed
without an effort. Ashe had not attempted any change in
the form of government, the inteftine divifions augmented
from day to day. One of the principal citizens, named
Cylon, formed the projeft of feizing on the fovereigm
authority ; he was befieyed in the citadel, where he had
Jong defended himfelf, and at length, wanting proviftons,
and defiitute of every hope of fuccouy, eluded, by flight,
the punifhment due to his crime. His followers took re-
fuge in the temple of Minerva; from which afylum they
were enticed by the promife of life, and inftantly maflacred.
Some of thefe unfortunate men were murdered even on the
altars of the awful Eumenides.. The indignation excited
by this action was univerfal; the people at once execrated
the perfidy, and fhuddered at the imptety of the victors ;
and the whole city expected that fome dreadful calamity
would be immediately inflited by celeftial veigeance.
Amidft this general confternation, news was brought that
the city of Nifea and the ifle of Salamis had fallen by the
arms of the Megarenfians. To this melancholy intelligence
fucceeded, foon after, an epidemical diftemper. The public
imagination, already agitated, was fuddenly feized with
panic terrors, and haunted by a thoufand terrifying chi-
meras. The augurs and oracles being confulted, declared
that the city, polluted by the profanation of the holy
places, muit be purified by the ceremonies of expiation.
The Athenians, theyefore, fent to Crete for Epimeuides,
B. C. 612, confidered as a man who had an intercourfe
with the gods (Paufanias, 1. i.), and who faw into futurity.
He really appears to have been a reformer endued with
talents and knowledge to engage confidence in his opinions,
and aufterity of manners to command refpe&. The frft
years of his youth he paffed in folitary places, and feemed
wholly abforbed in the ftudy of nature, forming his imagin-
ation to enthufiafm, by fafting, filence, and meditation,
without any other ambition than by making himfeif ac-
quainted with the will of the gods, to fecure his dominion
over the minds of men. His fuccefs furpaffed his hopes,
and he acquired fuch a reputation for wifdom and fanétity,
that in times of public calamity, nations intreated from him
the favour of purifying them by rites, which, as they alleged,
he could render more acceptable to the divinity. Athens
received him with tranfports of hope and fear. He direéted
that new temples and new altars fhould be built to immo-
late the victims he had chofen, and that thefe facrifices

7 Oe : fhould

ATHENS:

fhould be accompanied by certainhymns, Ass while fpeak-
ing he {cemed agitated with a divine infpiration, his impe-
tuous eloquence was irreliftible. He availed himfelf of the
afcendency he had acquired, to effeét feveral changes in the
religious ceremonies, and in the manners of the people; and
by various ufeful regulations, he endeavoured to bring the
Athenians to the two principles of focial union and juitice.
But the reform of Epimenides, though beneficiah as pe as it
extended, was very inadequate to the evils. The people
were {till fuffering under combined anarchy and oppreffion ;
the magiftrates plundered the treafury and the temples; and
often betrayed for bribes the intereits of their country:
the rich tyrannifed over the poor, the poor continually
alarmed the fafety.of the rich: the rapacity of creditors
knew no bounds: they compelled the infelvent debtors to
cultivate their lands like cattle, to perform the fervice of bealts
of burden (Gillies, v. ii. 107.), and to transfer. to them
their fons and daughters, whom they exported as flaves
to foreign countries. In fuch a diftreffed fituation, there
arofe for their relief the illuftrions Solon, B.C. 594. "This
celebrated fage firft diftinguifhed himfelf by miltary policy
and warlike efforts. The Athenians had been long engaged
in a war againit the Megarenfians, concerning the ifland of
Salamis ; fatigued and broken by tedious and arduous hofti-
lities, they abandoned the enterprife in defpair, and even
made a law enacting the punifhmenat of death againit any
one who fhould propofe the capture of that ifland. Solon,
aware of the importance of a poffeffion that commanded the
coafts of Attica, and deeming the national def{pondence in-
glorious as well as impolitic, ardently defired to roufe his
countrymen to more vigorous counfels; but the new penal
law reftrained his efforts. At length he devifed an expe-
dient for patriotically tranfgreffing the pufillanimous law,
and avoiding the punifhment. He accordingly counter-
feited infanity, and caufed his family to report that he was
a@ually mad (Plutarch’s Solon); the rumour being {pread
and generally believed, he compofeda poem, defcribing the
advantages of Salamis, and inciting the Athenians to renew
the war. His verfes, ftrong and impreflive, produced the
defired effe&. The people were roufed, an expedition was
undertaken, and Solonis, by Plutarch, faid to have devifed
the following ftratagem for cutting off the Megarenfians,
who then occupied Salamis. With his friend Piiittratus he
failed at the head of an armament to Colias; there finding a
number of women facrificing to Ceres, he fent a confidential
perfon to Salamis, inftruéted to profefs himfelf a deferter,
and to tell the Megarenfians, that if they defired to feize the
chief Athenian women, to make all failto Colias. The Mega-
renfians, taking the ftory for truth, prefently manned a thip ;
and Solon defcrying this fhip juft as it put off from the
land, commanded the women to be gone, and ordered
fome bear¢leis youths, dreffed in thefe women’s clothes, their
fhoes and mitres, and privately armed with daggers, to dance
and wanton near the fhore, tillthe enemies had landed, and
the fhip was in their power. Things being thus ordered,
the Mejarenfians were allured with the appearances and
coming near the fhore, {trove who fhould leap out firft, as it
were only to feize the women ; but were fo warmly received,
that not one of them efcaped. The Athenians failed for
the ifland, thus, deprived of its defenders, and annexed
Salamis to the territories of Athens. The fame which
Solon thus acquired, he foon increafed by his prudence and
conduét with regard to another fubje@ of foreign policy.

The Criffeans were a flourifhing ftate, not far from Del-
phi, and, commanding the approaches to that rendezvous
of Grecian fuperftition, derived confiderable emolument
from the expences of the devotees. But with thefe advan-

tages they were not fatisfied ; they began to exact vexatious
and exorbitant duties from the merchants who came to ex-
pofe their wares in the facred city ; which, on account of the
great concourfe of profligate pilgrims from every quarter,
foon became the feat, not ef devotion only,, but, of diflipa-
tion, vanity, and licentious pleafure. _ It was in vain for the
merchants to exclaim againit thefe unexampled impofitions ;
the taxes were continually increafed ; the evil admitted not
the expectation of either remedy or relief; and the ftrangers,
familiarifed to it by cultom, began to fubmit without mur-
mur; and perhaps endured the hardfhip with greater pa-
tience, when they perceived that they drew back the tax in
the increafed price of their commodities. Encouraged by
this acquiefcence in their tyranny, the Criffeans levied a
fevere impott on the pilgrims, whether Greeks or Barbarians,
who vifited the temple of Apollo ; a meafure direétly incon-
fiftent with a decree of the Amphictyons, which declared
that all men fhou!ld have free accefs to the oracle, as well as
extremely hurtful to the intereft of the Delphians, who foon
felt a gradual diminution of their profits from the holy
fhrine. The Cyiffeans, totally regardlefs of the fentiments
of religion, plundered the temple of Delphi, with many. cir-
cumitances of aggravating atrocity. Solon roufed his coun-
trymen to avenge the facnlege ; and to hisingenuity and flall
it was chiefly owing that the Crifleans were vanquifhed (Gil-
lies, vol. i. 221.) ; but Solon was deftined to render himfelf,
by legiflation, moft beneficial to his country. The general
opinion of his genius and virtues, joined to the experience
of his military talents, fuccefs in wars, and political addrefs,
had procured him diftinguifhed influence over the people.
His experienced ability, and above all, his appraved wifdom
and equity, pointed him out for the nobleit and moft fublime
employment of humanity, that of regulating the laws and
government ofa free people. Such, at leat, the Athenians
may be confidered, when their unanimous fuffrage rendered
Solon the abfolute umpire of their whole conftitution and
policy. When he undertook the reform of the_ftate,
tyranny and diforder prevailed; the wretched populace,
deriving courage from defpair, had determined no longer to
fubmit to fuch multiplied rigours; and, before the wifdom
of the lawgiver interpofed, they had taken the refolution
to ele& and follow fome warlike leader, to attack and butcher
their oppreffors, eftablifh an equal partition of lands, and in-
ftitute a new form of government. But the numerous cli-
ents and retainers, who, in a country little acquainted. with
arts and manufactures, depended on the wealthy proprietors
of the lands and mines of Attica, rendered this undertaking
alike dangerous to both parties ; fo that both became willing
rather to fubmit their differences to law, than to decide
them by the fword. The impartiality of Solon merited the
unlimited confidence of his country. He maintained the
ancient divifion of property, but abolifhed debts: he efta-
blifhed the rate of intereft at 12 per cent. at which it after-
wards remained ; but forbade that the infolvent debtor fhould:
become the flave of his creditor, or be compelled to fell his
children into fervitude. After thefe preliminary regulations,

which feemed immediately neceflary to the public peace, ~

Solon proceeded, with an impartial and iteady hand, to new
model the government; on this generous but equitable

principle, that a few ought uot, as hitherto, command, and _

the many obey ; but that the collective body of the people,

legally convened into a national affembly, were entitled to

decide, by a plurality of voices, the alternatives of peace and
war; contraét or diffolve alliances with foreign ftates ; enjoy
all the branches of legiflative or fovereign power ; and eleét,
approve, and judge the magiftrates or minifters entrufted,

for a limited time, with the executive authority. Strangers; °

x and.

Ye =

ATHENS. “

and all thofe who could not afcertain their Athenian defcent,
both in the male and female line, were totally excluded from
the aflembly and courts of juttice. The regulations of Solon
mavked the utmoft attention to preferve the pure blood of
Athens vamixed and uncorrupted ; nor could any foreigner,
whatever merit he might claim with the public, be admitted
to the rank of a citizen, unlefs he abandoned for ever his
native country, profefled the knowledge of fome highly
wieful or ingenious art, and, in both cates, had been chofen
by ballot, in a full afflembly of fix thoufand Athenians.
The numbers of this convention, and itill more their im-
petuofity and ignorance, mutt have proved inconfiftent with
good government, if Solon had not fecured the vetiel of the
republic from the waves of popular frenzy, by the two firm
anchors of the fenate and the areopagus; tribunals origi-
nally of great dignity, and of very extenfive power, into
which men of a certain def{cription only could be received as
members. Solon divided the Athenians into four clafles,
according to the produce of their eftates. The firit confifted
of thofe whofe lands annually yielded five hundred meafures
of liquid, as well as dry commodities, and the minimum of
whofe yearly income may be calculated at fixty pounds
fterling, which is equivalent, if we eftimate the relative value
of money by the price of labonr, and of the things moit
neceflary to lite, to about fix hundred pounds fterling
in the prefent age. The fecond clals confifted of
thofe whofe eftates produced three hundred ; the third two
hundred ; the fourth, and by far the moft numerous clafs of
Athenians, either poffefled no landed property, or at leatt
enjoyed not a revenue in land equal to twenty-four pounds
fterling, or, agreeably to the above proportion, two hundred
and forty pounds of our prefent currency. All ranks of
citizens were alike admitted to vote in the public affembly,
and to judge in the courts of juitice, whether civil or cri-
minal, which were properly fo many committees of the af-
fembly. But the three firtt claffes were exclufively entitled
to fit in the fenate, to decide in the areopagus; or to hold any
office of magiltracy. To thefe diguities they were elected
by the free fuffrages of the people, to whom they were ac-
countable for their adminiftration, and by whom they might
be punifhed for malverlation or negligence, although they de-
rived no emelument from the diligent difcharge of their duty.
The fenate of four hundred, which, eighty-fix years after
its inftitution, was augmented to five hundred by Chithenes,
enjoyed the important prerogativesof coavoking the popular
aifembly ; previoufly examining all matters before they came
to be decided by the people, which gave them a nezative
before debate in all public refolutions; and of malsiug laws,
which had force durmg a year, without requiring the ¢on-
feat of the populace. Befides this general duperintendence
and authority, the fenate was exclufively inveited with many
particular branches of the executive power. The prefident
of that council had the cuftody of the public archives and
treafury ; the fenate alone built fhips, equipped fleets and
armies, feized and confined {tate criminals, examined and
puntthed feveral offences, which were not exprefsly for-
bidden by any pofitive law. The weight of fuch a
council; which affembled every day, except fettivals, in-

_tafed a large mixture of ariitocracy into the Athenian

confutution; this, as we fhall immediately explain, was {till
farther increafed by the authority of the Arropacus.
The principal magiftrates in Athens were the nine ar-
chons. (See Arxcuon.) ‘Thefe nine archons, or prefidents
of the feveral courts of juttice, like all other Athenian ma-
glitrates, were, at the expiration of their annual office, ac-
countable to the people; and when their conduét, after a
fevere ferutiny, appeared to merit public approbation and

gratitude, they were received, and remained for life, mem-
bers of the areopagus, a fenate inveftéd with a geueral in-
{pection over the laws and religion, as well as over the
lives and manners of the citizens; and which, in dangerous
emergencies, was even entitled to affume diGatorial power.
See Lyfias, Locrates, Anacharfis, yol. i. and Gillies’s Greece,
vol. ii. Thus did the fenate of the areopagus, and that of
the four hundred, become two counterpoifes fufficiently
powerful to fecure the republic againit the ftorms from
which all flates are inceffantly in danger (fee Plutarch, in
Solon.); the former, by reprefling the enterprifes of the
rich by its general cenfure ; and the latter, by reftraining by
its decrees and its prefence the exceffes of the multitude.
New laws were enaéted in fupport of thefe regulations. The
conftitution might be attacked either by the general faGtions
which had fo long agitated the different orders of the ftate,
or by the ambition and intrigues of certain individuals. 'T'o
guard againtt thefe dangers, Solon denounced punifhments
againit thofe citizens who, in time of public commotion,
refufed openly to declare for one of the parties. (Plutarch,
in Solon.) His view, in this admirable inftitution, was to
roufe men of merit and integrity from a ftate of fatal in-
activity, to oppofe them to the faGtious, and fave the re-
public by the courage and afcendency of virtue. By a
fecond law, every citizen convicted of having attempted to
make himfelf maiter of the fovereign authority, was con-
demned to death. Laitly, in the cafe of an attempt to
erect another government on the ruins of the popular form,
this wife legiflator could imagine but one method to reani-
mate the nation ; and that was by obliging the magiftrates
to refign their employments; and hence this ftern and me-
macing decree :—it fhall be lawiul for every citizen, not only
to put to death a tyrant and his accomplices, but any ma-
gitrate who fhall continue to exercife his functions after the
deftruction of the democracy. Such is the great outline of
the conftitution eftablifhed by Solon, according to which
every Athenian citizen enjoyed the ineftimable privilege of
being judged by his peers, and tried by laws to which he
himfelf had confented. Although the legiflative and judi-
cial powers were thus lodged with the people, men of pro-
perty and ability were alone entruited with the adminittra-
tion of government ; and as power in fome meafure fol-
lowed property, the fame expedient which ferved to main-
tain a due diftinGtion of ranks in focietys tended alfo to
promote the induftry and frugality of the multitude, that
they might thereby become entitled to fhare thofe honours
and offices to which perfons of a certain eftate only could
afpire. (See Gilhes, vol. ii. p. 114.) Conformable to this
conftitution was the code of laws which was framed by
this iluftrions legiflator. A's a fyftem of jurifprudence, the
inititutions of Solon poflefs extraordinary excellence. They
have the merit of eaiily coalefcing with great variety and
diffimilarity of political fyftems, and are indeed well adapted
to any limited government. Transfufed into the Roman,
law, they have, in the forcible and eloquent language of
Dr. Gilles, ferved after an interval of above fixteen hun-
dred years, to abolifh the barbarous practices of the Gothic
nations, and to introduce juitice, fecurity, and refinement
among the modern inhabitants of Europe. The laws of
Solon confider the citizen in the various relations of do-~
mettic, civil, and political fociety, ‘They accurately mark
tHe duties belonging to thefe relations, and preferibe thé rules
for directing and enforcing the performance of them, and
for preventing their violation. “‘’o form the citizen early to
the habits moft beneficial to the community, the laws of
Solon deferibe the plan of his education. They recommend
the exercifes corporeal, intelletual, and moral, which tend

Cco2 moft

ATHENS.

moft powerfully ta invigorate the bodily conflitution; to
enlarge, refine, and direct the underftanding ; to form,
ftrengthen, and liberalize the heart. They itrongly repro-
bate idlenefs, and recommend induftry, pointing out the
objects, private and national, for which it would be moft
ufefully and honourably exerted. They forcibly inculcate
temperance, and cenfure the contrary as a principal fource
of mifcondudt. Although the Athenian law was transfufed
into, the Roman on many fubjects; in feveral there is a very
confiderable difference. In Athens, the inititutions regard-
ing womes, andthe relations in which they are concerned,
were much more liberal than thofe of Rome, although they
fall eveatly fhort of thofe in modern times, when men refpect
the natural equality of the fex. Solon confiders marriage
aS an engagement of mutual love and affection, the ends
of which are to give happinefs to the family, and ufeful
citizens to the ftate. He does not confider the wife, as the
Romans afterwards did, as only part of the family property,
which the hufband, the proprietor, was to ufe as he pleafed.
He regards her as the domeftic companion ‘of her huiband,
nearly equal to him in the care of the children: he rigor-
oully punifhes thofe who violate the obligations of the
married. ftate: he permits divorce, not according to the
captice of the hufband, but after a difcuffion before a ma-
gillvate: he permits women to feparate from their hufbands
on the fame ground as men from their wives. His law for
the proteftion of unmarried women was highly equitable.
Whoever feduced a woman of before unimpeached conduc,
was, if unmarried, obliged to atone to her by marriage for
the injury.
rence’s plays. The married deftroyer of virgin innocence
was punifhed with a falutary rigour. The reciprocal duties
of parent and child Solon did not leave to the mere opera-
tion of natural affection, but added pofitive laws. . Thete
enjoined parents to beftow fuch pains on the education of
their children as might enable them to perform their various
duties as men and citizens. ‘They oblige children to main-
tain their parents in declining years, two cafes excepted; e.g.
if the children had been born of a courtezan, or had been
educated to no profeffion. In the firlt cafe, they fuppofed
that children owe nothing to parents who had begotten
them to difgrace; in the fecond, who deftined them to
ufelefinefs and dependence. Domeftic tribunals were not
permitted by Selon’slaws. A citizen could only be judged
by his peers, and by them only deprived of property, li-
berty, or life. The magiftrates civil, military, and ecclefi-
allical, were by Solon’s laws entitled to refpect and obedi-
ence, whilft they a¢ted agreeably to the end of their office.
(See Anacharfis, Gillies, and Avittotle’s Politics.) Thefe
are a few of the outlines of the provifion made by Solen’s
laws for maintaining what judge Blacktftone ftyles the rights
bf perfor. The laws of Solon refpe&ting property were

ounded on principles of pure ethics, and regarded moral
conduct as well as the prefervation of property and politi-
cal expediency. They confidered private virtue as well as
private right and public tranquillity ; they not only pro-
vided that one man fhould not injure another, but endea-
voured to prevent fuch motives from exifting as tend to pro-
duce injury. Thus by the Athenian law, the next heir is
incapable of being guardian to a minor, becaufe it might
be apprehended that fuch a guardian might be more defir-
ous of appropriating the inheritance than of promoting
the ood of the ward. That regulation therefore confiders
moral motives, and withholds temptations. All the infti-
tutions of Solon refpecting fucceflions and teftaments united
the two confiderations of regard to property and to moral
principle. Solon allowed the citizen to difpofe of his pros

On this law hinge the plots of moft of Te-*

perty at pleafure; at the fame time by his regulations he
guards againit the arts of legacy hunters ; and thus, while
he refpests property, withholds motives to injuftice. In
that part of his code which treats of what the civilians
termed adivas, and judge Blackftone private wrongs, Solon’s
defcription of injuries, and meafures of redrefs, are nearly
the fame as in the Roman and Englifh law. They all pro-
ceed upon a plain and obvious principle in ethics, that
every injury done muft be redrefled. The injuries
which may be done to an individual, affe&t either his
liberty, property, character, or perfon, and are in general
nearly the fame in all countries. On this principle (fays
Gibbon, fpeaking of that branch of law), the civilians of
every country have ere€ted a fimilar jurifprudence, the fair
conclufion of univerfal reafon» and juitice. In that part
which the civilians ftyle penal law, and Blackitone public
qwrengs, Solon differs very confiderably from the Roman
law, and agrees with the Englifh. This difference is partly

in the defcription of crimes, and partly in the mode of |

cognizance. Public wrongs are either fuch a€tions or omif-
fions as tend to affeét the tranquillity and happinefs of a
ftate. he fame ations therefore muft be wrong in very
different degrees in different {tates and cireumitances. The
perfection of a penal code depends on the conneétion in the
defcription of laws, between crimes and public injuries ia
the firft place; and in the fecond, between crimes and pu-
nifhment. If every action which generally hurts the pub-
lic, is by the laws a crime, and if the punifhment be exaétly
in proportion to the crime, and be not inflicted without
certain proof of the commiffion, that mult be a good penal
code. A wife lawgiver apportions punifhment to crime, but
does not confider puns/bing juffice only, he alfo takes preventive
into his confideration. One of the many gréat excellencies
of our Englifh law is, that it has adopted efficacious means
for preventing crimes. ‘To this branch of legiflation Selen
alfo had paid confiderable attention. The prevention of
crimes depends chiefly on two things ; firft, vigilance in ob-
ferving the conduét of thofe who, either from their generat
character, or from particular circumitances, may be! fup=
pofed moft likely to commit them ; fecondly, on the pre-
vious care beftowed on the morals of the people. This laft
is undoubtedly the fureft way of preventing crimes from
being general. As a great fource of criminal conduét is
idlenefs, Solon enacted a law which obliged every citizen to
exercife fome trade or profeflion. ‘* None,’”’ fays the learned
and ingenious Drummond, ‘among the various inititutions
of Solon has been more defervedly celebrated than that
which obliged every citizen to exercife fome trade or pro-
feflion. In countries where the climate naturally difpofes
men to floth and inattivity, every law which incites the
mind to exertion, or which roufes the latent energy of its
faculties, muft neceffarily be attended with the moft falutary
effeéts.”? This law had a tendency not only to prevent the
negative evil of floth, but the pofitive evil of aétive crimi-
nality. By the inftitutions of Sclon, extravagance, intem-
perance, and debauchery underwent a fevere animadverfion.
Magiftrates were empowered to watch the buddings of nox-
ious practices which hee if not crufhed, ripen into crimes.
Solon’s defcription of the various kands and meafures of
crimes is very accurate, and the annexed punifhment is ge-
nerally proportionate. No action of pernicious tendency
is by the Athenian laws exempted from penal animadver-
fion, By the Roman law, fuicide (according tothe juit
and ftriking defcription of Blackitone, “ the pretended he-
roifm, but real cowardice of the Stoic philofophers, who de-
ftroyed themfelves to avoid thofe ills which they had not
the fortitude to endure’) was not only not punithed, but

was.

4

»

a

A

~

A a.

was encouraged. By Solon’s laws, the felf-murderer was
branded with public infamy, and expofed to what, accord-
ing to the religious notions of his countrymen, conitituted
ublic punithment. Solon defcribes the various f{pecies of
raud, theft, robbery, and homicide with the greateft ac-
curacy. Of thelaft in particular, the different {hades from
what our laws call chance medley, to parricide, are delineated
with amoft difcriminating precifion. It is not only the de-
{cription of crime,’ and the annexationcf punifhment, that
is of importance in penal cafes, but alfo the tribunal which
is to take cognizance of the cafe. By Solon’s laws, every
Athenian citizen had aright to be tried by his peers; the
Athenian law was in this fuperior to the Roman, which,
ia many cafes, admitted domeftic tribunals. ‘The father
took cognizance of the crimes of his own family. Thus
at Rome, the accufed frequently was not tried by a tribu-
nal of his peers, bound to a& according to.a fixed law,
but by an arbitrary judge, whofe own will was his only
rule. Solon, like every wife lawgiver, endeavoured to ex-
tend the influence of religion over the minds of his coun-
trymen. He enjoined a profound veneration for divinities,
and defcribed aétions as pleafing or difpleafing to them, ac-
cording to the intention of the agent combined with the
known tendency of the act : aware that the internal fenti-
ments of religion are ftrengthened and confirmed byexternal
rites, he ftri€tly enjoined the regular performance of rites
and ceremonies.
. Such was the code of Solon, fuch the civil and political
inftitutions which contributed fo powerfully to render this
fmall territory fo very great a ftate. The laws of Solon
awere to.continue in force only“for a century. © Conceiviuig
that conduct depends chiefly upon habits, he thought that
the practice of a hundred years would confirm the Atheni-
ans in the habitual obfervance of fuch beneficial rules. | But
the reftri€tions being contrary! to the licence of {trong paf-
fions, appeared to many encroachments upon natural liberty ;
and they wifhed for modifications which might admit fuller
{cope to their defires. When the firft novelty was worn off,
Solon was furrounded by a crowd of importunare citizens,
who overwelmed him with queftions, advices, commenda-
tions, or reproaches. Some prefled him for an explanation
of particular laws, capable, according to them, of different
interpretations; others propofed a variety of things to be
added, modified, or fuppreffed. Solon having exhauited
his patience, and tried every conciliatory method in vain,
was fenfible that time alone could perfe& and give ftrength
to his work ; he therefore departed, after requefting per-
miffion to abfent himfelf forten years (fee Plutarch, in Solon),
and binding the Athenians bya folemn oath, not to make
any alteration in his laws during his abfence. (See Hero-
dotus, Clio.) The adventures of Solon during his peregri-
nation, belonging to himfelf individually, and not to the
Athenians, will be feen under the articles Soron, Cros-
sus, &c. The object of his travels being, as Herodotus
informs us, to view mankind; after having, like Ulyffes,
traverfed many countries, and feen many men, he returned
to his native country to behold the operation and effects of
his inftitutions. He found that much time is requir2d?bes
_fore men, who had been either thé flaves of defpotifm or
the fharers in licentioufnefs, can be reconciled to juft “and
equitable laws. The Athenians were ready again to fink
into anarchy. (See Plutarch’s Life of Solon.) The three
parties, which had fo long rent the public, feemed to have

. iufpended their hatred, during the legiflation, only to vent it

with more violence in his abience ; in one point alone were
they united, in defirmga change in the conttitution, with-
out any other motive than a fecret reftleffnefs, or any objet

ENS.

but vague hopes. Solor, ‘received with the moft diftin-
guifhed honours, wifhed to avail himfelf of thefe favourable
difpofitions to calm diffentions too frequently reviving. At
firlt he thought himfelf powerfully feconded by Piliitratus,
‘who was at the head of the popular faction ; and who, ap-
parently eager to maintain equality among the citizens, de-
clared himfelf an’ irreconcilable enemy to every innovation
which might tend to its defirudtion;) but ke foon ditco-
vered that this profound politician coace > molt
ordinate ambition under the mafk of an ¢ i
Never did a man unite more, quahties to captivate the
minds of the people: he was of an illutricus birth, and
poffeffed of great wealth, acknowledged wealth (fee Hero-
dotus, in Terpfichore, his 5th hook), a commanding figur
a perfuafive eloquence, to which the mutfical tone oi
voice lent new charms, and a mind enriched with the talents
beltowed by nature, and the information procured by ftudy.
No man was a greater matter of his paffions, or knew be
how to turn to adysntage thofe virtues he really poffefied,
and thofe of which he had only the appearance. _ His fuc-
cefs has proved, that in projects of tedious executies,, no-
thing can beftow a more decided fuperiority than mildsef
and flexibility of character. With fuch emineat advantages, ,
Pififtratus, acceflible to the, lewer citizens, lavifhed ox

in-

i H.-

er

whilft he wasemployed in deviling means to guard againft
their confequences, Pififtratus appeared ia the forum
covered with wounds he had artfully procured, imploring
protection of the peoplewhonvhe had fo frequently protected.
(See Herodotus, Clio:) The affembly being mnnediately
convoked, he accufed the fenate and the chiefs of the cther
factions of attempting his lire; and difplaying his» fill
bleeding wounds: “¢ Behold!’’ he exclaimed. “ the reward
of my love for the democracy, and of the zeal with which:
Ihave defended your rights.” At thefe words only me-
nacing exclamations were heard on ai! fides; the principal
citizens kept filence in aftonifhment, ortook to fight. So-
lon, filled with indignation at their cowardice and the infa-
tuation of the people, in vain attempted to reanimate the
courage of the former, and to difpel the frenzy ef the
latter ; his voice, enfeebled by years, was éalily overpow-
ered by the clamours excited by pity, rage, and apprehen-
fion. The aflembly conciuded by voting Pififtratus a fitong
guard for the defence of his perfon (B.C..560);. From this
moment all his projects were accomplithed 3, he: prefently
employedhis force to take poflefiion of the citadel, and after
difarming the multitude, feized without oppofition on the
fupreme authority. But though. Pififtratus by this ufurpa-
tion deftroyed fora time the political liberty.of Athens, his
power eventually gave: fiability.to the laws which Solon
had introduced. ‘That: extraordinary tyrant, for fo the
Greeks ityled him; was nat more diftinguifhed by the lofti-
nefs of his-genius, than the humanity of his difpofition; and
had.notthe violence of contending factions, and the fury of
his enemies, inflamed his natural. love of power, the name
of Pififtratus would itand the foremoftin the lit of Grecian
patriots and heroes. His valour and conduct were fignalized
im the conqueft of Nifea, Salamis, Naxos, Delos, and Si-
geum ;- and if he difplayed boldnefs and addrefs in acquiring
fovereignty, he difplayed {till more moderation and virtue ia
adminiftermg it. He aflumed, indeed, the royal dignities
of prieft and general, and took care that the chief: offices .
of magiitracy thould be filled by his partifans; but he main-
tained the regular courfe of law and juitice, not only by
his authority, but by his example ;_ having appeared in
OB:

ATHENS.

fon to anfwer an accufation in the areopagus. He notonly
enforced the laws of Solon againft idlenefs, but endeavoured
to give them more efficacy, by introducing new arts and
manufactories into Attica. He was the firit who brought
into that countrythe complete collection of Homer’s poems,
which he commanded to be fung, at the Panathenzaa fefti-
val; nor can we fuppofe that he would have been zealous
to diffufe the liberal and manly fentiments of that divine
poet, if his government had not refembled the moderation
and equity ot the heroic ages, rather than the defpotifm or
tyrants. (See Gillies’s Greece, vol. ii. 117.) His fon Hip-
parchus imitated and furpaffed the mild virtues of his father ;
and amidft the turbulence of the latter democracy, it was
acknowledged with a figh by the Athenians, that their an-
ceitors were indeed happy under Solon and Pifittratus, but
that the reign of the tyrant Hipparchus brought back on
earth the golden days of Saturn. The father had required
a tenth part of the produce of Attica, to fupport his
guards, and the other appendages cf royalty: his more
generous fon remitted one half of this impofition. While
he alleviated the burdens, yet encouraged the induftry of
his fubjeéts, by building the temple of Olympian Jupiter, he
was folicitous to difpel their ignorance and barbarity, by
ereCting pillars in every part of the city, engraved with ele-
giac verles, containing leffons of wifdom, and precepts of
morality.
liberal rewards, and {till more his agreeable manners and
winning affability, attracted to that city the moft diitin-
guifked poets of the age. The nmrder of Hipparchus ex-
afperated the temper of his brother and fucceflor Hippias ;
but, notwithflanding the calamities which the latter infli@ed
and inffered, it muit be allowed that the government of Pi-
fittratus and his family, which, with various interruptions,
laited fixty-eight years, increafed the ftrength and promoted
the refinement of Athens. (See Gillies’s Greece, vol. ii.
118.)

Hipparchus, in particular, was fond of letters. Ana-
creon and Simonides, invited to his court, met with a moft
flattering reception: the firft being loaded with honours,
and the fecond with prefents. He deferves alfo to partici-
pate with his father in the glory of extending the fame of
Homer. He may be reproached, as well as his brother,
with too freely abandoning himfelf to pleafures, and with
infpiring the Athenians with a tafte for luxury. Fortunate,
neverthelefs, if in the midit of thefe exceffes he had not com-
mitted an aét of injuitice, of which he was the firft victim !
Two young Athenians, Harmodius and Ariftogiton, united
in bonds of the tendereft friendfhip, having received from this
prince an affront it was impoffible to forget, confpired his de-
ftruGtion, and that of his brother. Some of their friendsen-
tered into this confpiracy, and its execution was fixed for the
folemnity of the panathenea: they hoped that the crowd of
Athenians, who, during the ceremonies of this feitival, were
permitted to bear arms, would fecond their efforts, or at
leaft proteét them againft the fury of the guards who at-
tended on the fons of Pififtratus. With this view, after
covering their poignards with branches of myrtle, they re-
paired to the place where the princes were arranging a pro-
ceflion, which they were to precede to the temple of Minerva.
When they arrived, they faw one of the confpirators in
familiar converfation with Hippias, and concludedthemfelves
betrayed ; but refolving dearly to fell their lives, retired for
a moment, and finding Hipparchus, plunged a dagger in
his heart. Harmodius inftantly fell beneath the redoubled
blows of the prince’s guards. Aniftogiton, feized almoft
at the fame inftant, was put to the torture; but far from
naming his accomplices, he accufed the moft faithful parti-

He colle&ed the firit library in Athens ; and his

fans of Hippias, who ordered them to bedragged to inflant
punifhment. ‘ Haft thou ftill other wretches to difcover?”
exclaimed the tyrant, tranfported with fury. ‘¢ here are
none left but thee,’’ replies the Atheman; ‘¢I die, and
enjoy in death the fatisfaction of having deprived thee of thy
beitiriends.”” rom that moment Hippias abandoned him-
felf to the perpetration of every kind of injuftice (Thucydi-
des b. 6.c.59.); but the yoke he laidheavy onthe Athenians
was broken three years after. (B.C. 510.) Clithenes,
chief of the Alcmzonidz, a powerful houfe of Athens, at
all times inimical to the family of Pififtratus, colle&ted alt
the malecontents about his perfon ; and having obtained the
affiftance of the Lacedzmonians, by means of the Pythia
of Delphi, whom he had gained over to his intereft, marched
againit Hippias, and forced him to abdicate the tyranny.

o fooner had the Athenians recovered their liberty, than
they rendered the higheit honours to the memory of Har-
modius and Ariftogiton. Statues were ereéted to them in
the forum; it was enaéted that their names fhould be for
ever celebrated at the feitival of the panathenza, andfhould,
on no pretext whatever, be given to flaves. The poets
eternized their glory by poems and fongs, and veryextenfive
privileges were granted in perpetuity to their defcendants.

Clifthenes, who had fo greatly contributed to the expulfion

of the Piliftratide, had ftill to. itrnggle for many years
againft a powerful fa¢tion; but at length obtaining in the
ftate the authority to which he was entitled by his great
talents, he confirmed the conftitution eitablifhed by Solon,
which the Pififtratide had never attempted entirely to fub-
vert. (Anacharfis’s Travels, vol. i. p. 174.) The power of
Athens Was great in ancient times ; but it became incompa-
rably greater after the re-eitablifhment of freedom. So
advaatageous to the powersof the human mind is the enjoy-
ment of liberty, even in its leait perfect form, that in a few
years after the expulfion of Hippias, the Athenians acquired
an afcendant in Greece, which was fatal to their enemies,
painful to their rivals, and even dangerous to themfelves.
‘They chaftifed the infolence of the Headed of Eubeea and

a

fEgina, who contended with them in naval power; and —

humbled the pride of Thebes, which rivalled them in mili-
tary glory. Favoured, as they fordly believed, by the
protection of their tutelary Minerva; and animated, as they
ftrongly felt, by the poffeffion of an equal freedom; they
adorned their capital with the richeft ipoils of their van=
quifhed enemies. ‘heir influence foon extended over the
northern parts of Greece; and the fame of their power,
itill greater than their power itfelf, alarmed the fears and
jealoufy of the Peloponnefians. The Spartans, in parti-
cular, who had afhifted them in reftoring the democracy,
now perceived.the error of which they had been guilty, in
promoting the greatnefs of anambitiousrival. In order to
prevent the dangerous confequences of their folly, they
fummoned to a congrefs all their allies in Peleponnefus, that
their united wifdom might concert proper meafures for re=
fiftine, ere it was too late, the encroachments of the Athe-
nians, which threatened the liberties of all Greece. Their
allies readily obeyed the welcome fummons, and the deputies
of the feveral itates, having aflembled in the Spartan forum,
eagerly liftened to the fpeakerk appointed to explain the in-
tentions of that republic. The Lacedemonian orators ac-
knowledged the miftakenpolicy of theircountry, inexpelling
from Athens the family of Piliftratus, and delivering ‘the
government of that city into the hands of an un
populace, who had fince treated them with much indignity,
But why (they proceeded) fhould we relate private injuries?
Have they not infulted all their neighbours ? Does nottheir
pride daily increafe with their power? And is there not

reafon

ful

& TREN:

reafon to dread, that their growing ambition may endanger,
and at length deftroy, the public fafety? In order to prevent
this evil, we have recalled Hippias from banifhment. And
let us, therefore, by our united efforts, reinftate the fon of
Pififtratus in that power and authority of which we mott
injudicioufly deprived him. The {peech of the Lacedemo-
nians produced not the intended effeét. The Peloponnefians,
however jealous of the Athenian greatnefs, were {till more
jealous A the power of tyrants ; and many of them, who
had experienced the haughtinefs of Sparta, were not difla-
tisfied with beholding a rival to that republic in the northern
divifion of Greece. The other deputies exprefled their
diffent by filent difapprobation ; but Soficles, the Corinthian,
declared his fentiments at great length, in a {peech which
alike marks the manly character of the age, and the youth-
ful yigour of Grecian eloquence.‘ 'Then furely, Lacede-
monians, will the heavens fink below the earth, and the
earth rife fublime in the air; men will inhabit the depths of
the fea, and fifhes will take poffeffion of the land; when
you, formerly the bulwarks of liberty, fhall demolifh the
popular governments of Greece, and eftablifh tyrannies in
their room, than which nothing can be more unjuit or more
pernicious.”? After this pompous exordium, the Corinthian
proceeded to defcribe and exaggerate the calamities which
his own countrymen had fuffered from the ufurpation of
Cypfelus, and his fon Periander. Having related, at great
length, the proud, cruel, and defpotic actions of thofe
princes; ‘ Such,’? added he, ‘are the genuine fruits of
abfolute power; but I adjure you, by the Grecian gods!
attempt not to re-eftablifh it in Athens. The Corinthians
were feized with aftonifhment when they heard that you
had fent for Hippias; I myfelf was amazed at beholding
him in this afflembly ; yet we never fufpected that you pro-
pofed to reftere him, in triumph, to his much injured city.
Tf you ftill perfift in this fatal refolution, know that the
Corinthians difavow all part in a defign equally unjuft and
impious.” ‘The other deputies liftened with pleafure to the
boldnefs of Soficles, who expreffed the fentiments which
they themfelves felt, but which their refpeét for the Lace-
dzmonians obliged them to conceal. Hippias alone oppofed
the general voice of the aflembly, attelting the fame gods
which his opponent had invoked, and prophefying, that at
fome future time the Corinthians would repent of their prefent
condudt, and regret their cruel injuitice to the fon of Pifi-
Stratus, when their own citizens, as well as the reft of Greece,
fhould fatally experience the dangerous ambition of Athens.
This remonitrance, which was fo fully juttified in the
fequel, produced no immediate effeé& in the aflembly ; the
Lacedemonians finally yielded to the general requeit of
their confederates, and abftained from their intended innova-
tion in the government of a Grecian city.

_ The dethroned prince, finding his caufe abandoned by
the Greeks, fought the protection of Artaphernes, the Per-
fian governor of Sardis : having acquired the confidence of
this magiftrate, he reprefented to him the infolence, ingrati-
tude, and perfidy of his countrymen, and the fevereit re-

roaches with which he loaded their charafter gained ready
belief with the Perfian. The Athenians, who were informed
of theie intrigues, fent ambafladors to Sardis, in order to
counteract Flippias; but the refolution of Artaphernes
was already taken: and he told the ambafladors, that if
they confulted their fafety, and would avoid the refentment
of Perfia, they would reinftate Hippias on the throne of
his father. This anfwer had been reported to the Athe-
nians, and the affembly had finally fettled to oppofe the
powers of the greateft empire upon.earth, rather than admit
within their walls the declared, enemy of their liberties,

(See Herodotus, book y.) Precifetyat this Junéture (B.C,
sor.) Aviftagoras arrived at Athens, explained the revolt
of the Atiatic Greeks from the government of Artaphernes,
and folicited the afliltance of the Athenians, in defending
their own colonies againft the oppreffive violence of the
common foe. Many argumeits were not neceflary to make
the people of Athens adopt a meafure which gratified their
own pailions. ‘Ihe eloquent Milefian, however, deferibed
the wealth and extent of Pertia, the grandeur and popu-
loufnefs of its cities, and above all, the flothful effeminacy
and pufillanimous weaknefs of their inhabitants, who, unable
to fupport the ponderous fhield, or to poife the manly
lance, invited as an cafy prey, the viGtorious arms of a
more warlike invader. ‘The {peech of Axittagoras was well
fitted to excite the ambition and avarice of Athens. The
aflembly immediately decreed that affiltance fhould be fent
to Ionia, ‘Twenty ships were fitted out with all convenient
{peed, which reinforced by five more belonging to Eretria,
a town of Eubcea, rendezvoufed in the harbour of Miletus.
Ariftagoras fpent not long time in his embafly to the other
ftates of Greece, and foon met the Athenian allies at the
place appointed. It was here determined, that while the
commander in chief regulated the civil affairs of the Tonians,
his brother Charopinus fhould condué& a military expedition
againft the wealthy capital of Lydia. The Athenians,
defirous of teftifying their refentment againit the common
enemy, and {till more defirous of plunder, eagerly engaged
in this undertaking. The united fleets left the harbour
of Miletus, and failed to Ephefus, where the troops were
difembarked ; and, in three days, accomplifhing a journey
of feventy miles, appeared before the walls of Sardis. The
Perfian governor little expefted fuch a vifit; his foldiers
were not prepared to take the field; and the extenfive
walls of the city could not be defended on all fides acaintt
the befiegers ; and the Greeks, without oppofition, entered
Sardis, in order to plunder the accumulated wealth of that
ancient capital, But an accident prevented them from reap-
ing the fruits of their fuccefs. The refentment of a rapa-
cious foldier, difappointed of his prey, fet fire to the houfe
of a Lydian, fituate on the fkirts of the town which con-
{ited for the moft part of very combultible materials, the
houfes being all roofed, and many of them walled with
cane ; a mode of building doubly dangerous in that adutt
climate. The flames readily communicated from one houfe
to another; and, ina fhort time, the whole circumference
of the place was furrounded with a wall of fire. Sardis
was built in the Grecian, not in the Eattern fathion, having
on the banks of the Pactolus, which interfe@ed the town,
a {pacious {quare, which commonly ferved for the market-
place. hither the Perfians, driven from their extremities,
betook themfelves to refuge again{t the fury of the flames.

Darius was extremely enraged againft the Greeks, and
efpecially the Athenians, tor having abetted revolt among
his fubjects. The proud monarch of the Eaft, when in-
formed that the citizens of Athens had co-operated with
the Ionians, in the taking-and burning of Sardis, difcovered
evident marks of the moft furious Be 3 fhooting an
arrow into the air, he prayed that heaven might affift him
in punifhing the audacious infolence of that republic ; and
every time he fat downto table, an attendant reminded him
of the Athenians, left the delight of Eaftern luxury fhould
feduce him from his fell puipdel of revenge. The execution
of his defign was entrufted to Mardonius, a Perfian noble-
man of the firft rank, whofe perfonal as well as hereditary

-advantages had entitled him to the marriage of Artazoftra,

daughter of Darius; and whofe youth and inexperience
were compenfated, in the opinion of his mafter, by his.
fuperior

.and the p

ATHENS. %

fuperior genius for war, and innate love of glory. In the
fecond fpring after the cruel punifhment of the Tonians,
Merdonius approached the European coaft with an arma-
ment fuflicient to infpire terror into Greece. The rich
ifland of Thafus, whofe golden mines yielded a revenue of
near three hundred talents, fubmitted to his fleet; while
his land forces added the barbarous province of Macedon
to the Perfian empire. But having fteered fouthward from
Thafus, the whole armament was overtaken and almoit
defiroyed by a violent ttonn, while endeavouring to double
-the promontory of mount Athos, which is connected with
the Macedonian fhore by a narrow neck of land, but forms
a long and lofty ridge in the fea. Three hundred veflels
were dafhed againit the rocks; twenty thoufand men perifhed
in the waves. This difafter totally defeated the defion of
tne expedition ; and Mardonius having recovered the fhat-
tered remains of his fleet and army, returned to the comt
ef Perfia, where by flattering the pride, he averted the
yefentment of Darius ; while he reprefented, that the Per-
fi2n forces, invincible by the power of man, had yielded to
the fury of the elements.’ The addrefs of Mardonius refcued
liim from punifhment; but his misfortunes removed him
rom the command of Lower Afia. ‘Two generals were
appoited in his room, cf whom Datis, a Mede, was the
more diltinguifhed by his age and experience, while Arta-
phkemes, a Perfian, was the more confpicnous for his rank
aad nobility, being defcended of the royal blood. ‘That
his lieutenants might appear with a. degree of fplendor
{ty of Perfia, Darius affembied an army

confilting of thé flower of the provincial
troops of his empire. The preparation of an adequate
number of tranfports and fhips of war ‘occafioned but a
t delay. The maritime provinces of the empire, Egypt,
nicia, and the coafis of the Euxine and A®gean ieas,

commanded to fit out, with all poffible expedition,
whole naval flrength ; the old veffels were repaired,
lew ones were built; and in the courfe of the fame

in which the preparations commenced, a fleet ofefix
hundred fail was ready to put to fea. This immenfe arma-
ment the Perfian generals were ordered to employ in ex-
tending their conqueits on the fide of Europe, in fubduing
the republics of Greece, and more particularly i chaftifing

the infolenes of the Evetrians and Athenians, the only

nati

which had confpired with the revolt of the Jonians,
ailifted that rebellious people in the deftruction of
rdis. With refpect to the other nations which might be
reduced by liis arms, the orders of Darius were general,
ticular treatment of the vanquifhed was left to
the difcretion of his lieutenants ; but concerning the Athe-
nians and Eretrians, he gave the moft politive commands
that their territories fhould be laid waite, their honfes and
temples burnt or demolifhed, and their perfons carried in
captivity to the eaftern extremities of his empire. Secure of
fiecting this purpofe, his generals were furnifhed with a
great number of chains for confining the Grecian prifoners;
a haughty prefumption (to ufe the language of antiquity),
in the fuperiority of man over the power of fortune, which
en this, as on other occafions, was punifhed by the juft
vengeance of heaven. (B.C. 490.) ‘The Perfian fleet en-
joyed a profperous voyage to the ifle of Samos, from
whence they were ready to proceed to the Athenian coait.
‘The late difafter which befel the armament commanded by
Mardonius, deterred them from purfuing a direct courfe
along the fhores of Thrace and Macedonia; they deter-
mined to fteer in a direct line through the Cyclades, a cluf-
ter of feventeen fmall iflands lying oppofite to the territories
of Argos and Attica. The approach of fuch an innu-

‘

merable hoft, whofe tranfports darkened the broad furface
of the Aigean, ftruck terror into the unwarlike inhabitants
of thofe delightful ‘iflands. The Naxians took refuge ia
their inacceflible mountains. The natives of Delos, the
favourite refidence of Latona and her divine children,
abandoned the lawful majefty of their temple, which was
overfhadowed by the rough and lofty mount Cynthus.
Paros, famous for its marble; Andros, celebrated for its
vines ; Ceos, the birth place of the plaintive Simonides;
Syros, the native country of the ingenious and’ philofephie
Pherecydes ; Ios, the tomb of Homer; the induftrious
Amorgos; as well as all the other iflands which furrounded
the once facred fhores of Delos, either fpontaneoufly offered
the ufual acknowledzment of earth amd water as a tefti-
mony of their friendthip, or fubmitted, after a feeble re-
fittance, to the Perfian arms. The invaders next proceeded
weitward to the ifle of Euboea, where, after almoit a con-
tinued engagement of fix days, their ftrength and numbers,
aflilted by the perfidy of two traitors, finally prevailed
over the valour and obftinacy of the Eretrians. \Hitherto
every thing was profperous; but a more dificult tafk re-
mained, m the execution of which the Perfians (happily
for Europe) experienced a fatal reverfe of fortune. After
the reduGion of Eubea, the Athenian coafts feparated
from that ifland only by the narrow itrait of Euripus, feem-
ed to invite the generals of Darius to an eafy conqueft..
They readily accepted the invitation, as the punifhment
of Athens was the main obje& which their mafier had in
view when he fitted out his feemingly invincible armada.
The meafures which they adopted for accomplifhing this
defion appear abundantly judicious; the greater part of
the army was left to guard the iflands which they had
fubdued; the ufelefs multitude of attendants were tranf-
ported to the ceaft of Afia: with a hundred thoufand
chofen infantry, and a due proportion of horfe, the Per-
fian generals fet fail from Euboa, and fafely arrived on
the Marathonian fhore, a diftri@t of Attica, about thirty
miles from the capital, confiting chiefly of level ground,
and therefore admitting the operations of cavalry, which __
formed the main ftrength of the barbarian army, and with
which the Greeks were very poorly provided. Here the
Perfians pitched their camp, by the advice of Hippias the
banifhed king of Athens, whofe perfe€. knowledge of the
country, and intimate acquaintance with the affairs of -
Greece, rendered his opinion on all occations refpeétable.
To combat this mighty force, the Athenians could not
bring the twelfth part of the number, but their handful’
breathed the fpirit of freedom, which was paramount toa
countlefs multitude, the tools of defpotifm. It was firft de-
liberated whether they ought to await the Perfians i the
city, or meet their foes in the field. There are emergencies
in which the moft adventurous boldnefs is the foundeft wif-
dom; happily for the Athenians they had citizens able both
to difcover and apply this maxim. Three men then -fiou-
rifhed in Athens, qualified and deftined to give new energy
to the ftate. Thefe were Miltiades, ‘Ariftides, and Themi-
ftocles. Their charaéters will beft difplay themfelves in the
narrative of their actions. Miltiades had long carried oa
war in Thrace, where he acquired a fplendid reputation;
Ariftides and Themiltocles, younger than himfelf, had from
their infancy manifefted a rivalry, whieh would have been _
the ruin of the ftate, had they not facrificed it on all emer-
gencies to the public welfare. The example and haran 3
of thefe three illuftrious citizens kindled the flames of the _
nobleft heroifm in the minds of the Athenians. Levies ~
were immediately made. Each of the ten tribes furnifhed
a thoufand foot foldiers, with a commander at their 9%.
~ 5 6

Sa

A T.H-EN:S.

No.Jgonerwere.the troops affembled, than, they marched
out of the-city into the plain of Marathon, where the inha-
bitants,of Plataa fent them, a reinforcement of a thoufand.
infantry, Scayeely were the two armies in fight of each
other, before Miltiades propofed to attack the enemy 3, Ari-
flides, and.feveral ofthe commanders, warmly fupported this
meature; butthe reil, terrified at the exceffive difproportion
of the armies, Were defirotis of waiting for fuccour from
Lagedwmonia. . Opinions being divided, they had recourfe
o.that. of. the.fholemarch, or ahs of the militia, who was
coufulted on fuch occafions to put an end to the equality of
fuflrages. -Miltiades addreffed himfelf to him with the ar-
dour, of a man deeplysimprefled withthe importance of pre-
ent cirenmftances:: .«¢ Athens (faid he) is on the point of
¢xpericucing the-greatelt of viciffitudes; ready to become
-the.firt power of Greece, or the theatre-of the tyranny and
fury of Hippias: from you, alone, Callimachus, fhe now
awaits her deitiny. If we fuffer the ardour of the troops
o-cool, they will fhamefully bow beneath the Perfian yoke ;
bat it we lead then on to battle, the gods and victory will
favour us., A word from your mouth mult now precipitate
your country into flavery, or preferve her liberty.’? (Sce
Herodotus, I. vi. c. 109.) Callimachus gave his fuffrage;
and the battle was refolved:
ilides, and the other generals after his~example, yielded
to Miltiades the honour of the command which belonged
to them in rotation; but, to fecure them from every
hazard, he preferred waiting for the day, which of right
‘placed him at the head of the army. When that day arriv-
ed, Miltiades drew up his troops at the foat of a mountain,
on aipot of ground fcattered over with trees, to impede the
Perfian cavalry.’ The Platwans were placed on the left
wing; Callimachus commanded the right; Amftides and
Themiltocles were in the centre of the battle, and Miltiades
‘everywhere, (See Heredetus, lic) At the firft fignal,
the Greeks advanced over this {pace rupning. The Per-
fians aftonifhed at a mode of attack fo new to both nations,
for a moment remained motionlels ; but to the impetuous
fury of the enemy, they foon oppofed amore fedate and not
lefs formidable fury. After an obitinate conflict of fome
hours, victory began to declare herfelf in the two wings of
the Grecian army... ‘The right difperfed the enemy in the
plain, while the left drove them back on a morals that had
the appearance of a meadow, in which they ituck fait and
were loft. Gath thefe bodies of troops now flew to the fuc-
cour of Ariltides and ‘Themiltocles, ready to give way to
the flower of the Perfian troops, placed by Datis in the cen-
tre of his battle. I'rom this moment the rout became ge-
eral. ‘The Perfians, repulfed on all fides, found their only
afylum in the fleet, which had approached the fhore. The
‘conquerors purfued them with fire and fword, and took,
burnt, or funk, the greater part of their vefiels; the reft ef-
«aped by dint of rowing. The banithed tyrant of Athens

ell in the engagement ; two Athenian generals, and about -

two hundred citizens, were found among the fait’: the Per-
fians left fix thoufand of their beft troops in the fcene. of
aétion. The joy excited among the Athenians by a victo-
ay, which not only delivered them from the dread of. their
enemies, but raifed them to diftinguifhed pre-eminence
among their rivals and allies, is evident from a remarkable in-

~ scident which happened immediately afier the battle. As
~ -foon as fortune had vifibly declared in their favour, a foldier

-was difpatched from the army to convey the welcome news
to the capital. He ran with incredible velocity, and ap-

' seat, covered with duft and blood, in the prefence of the

enators: exceis of fatigue confpired with the tranfports
of enthufiafm to exhauit the vigour of his frame: he had
Savion. LIT. § i ne BS

To enfure fuccefs, Ari-_

to fucceed to his power.

only time to exclaim in two words, “ Rejoice with the vie-
tors!”? andimmediately expired. ‘The Athenians negleéted
nothing to eternize thofe who fell in the battle. Honour-’
able funerals were beftowed on them ; their names were en-
sraven on half columns ereéted on the plain of Marathon,
tt the intervals between them were ereéted trophies bearing
the arms of the Perfians. An artift of eminence painted all
the circumflances of the battle in one of the moft frequented’
porticoes of the city: Miltiades was there reprefentéd at
the head of the generals, and in the aét of exhorting thé
troops to fight for their, country. The higheit praifes were
beftowed upon Miltiades, and he was appointed commander
of an expedition againft the Perfian garrifons. ‘The firlt
operations of the Athenian armainent were crowned with
fuccefs. Several iflands were fubdued, and confiderableé
fums of money collected. But the fleet arriving before Pa-
ros, every thing pro¢ed adverfe to the Athenians. ‘The Pa-
rians madea very vigorous defence ; their {trength, however,
began to decline, and they mult have been overpowered, but
for a fortunate accident. Anextenfive grove, happening to
be fet on fire in a neighbouring ifland, was believed by the
befiegers to indicate the approach of a Perfian fleet. ‘The
fame opiiion gained ground among the Parians, who deter-
mined by their utmoft efforts to preferve the place’ until
they fhould be relieved by the affiftance of their proteCtors.
Miltiades had received a dangerous wound during the fiege’s
and the weaknefs of his body impairing the faculties of hfs
mind, he gave orders to draw off his yitorious troops, and
returned with the whole fleet to Athens. ‘The Athenian
citizens, and ‘particularly the more eminent and illuftrious,
had univerfally rivals and enemies. The competitions for
civil offices, or military command, occafioned eternal animo-
fities among thofe jealous republicans. Xantippus, a perfon
of great diltinétion, and father of the celebrated Pericles,
who, in the fucceeding age, obtained the firft rank in the
Athenian government, eagerly feized an opportunity of de-
prefiing the character of a man which had fo long furpafled
that, of every competitor. He was accufed of fufferine
himfelf to be corrupted by Perfian money, and’ notwitlt-
{landing the folicitations of the moft virtuous citizens, was
condemned to be thrown into the dungeon in which male-
faétors are Jeft to perifh. The magiltracy oppofing” the
execution of this infamous decree, his punifhment was com-
muted into a fine of filty talents; and as he was unable to
pay this fum, Athens faw the vanquifher of Darius expire
in chains of the wounds he had received in the fervice of the
fate. seats
But the glory of Miltiades furvived him ; and the Athe-
nians, however unjuft to his perfon, were not unmindful of
his.fame. At the diftance of half a century, when the

~ battle of Marathon was painted by order of the ftate, they

direéted the figure of Miltiades to be placed in the fore
round, animating the troops to vi€tory; a reward which,
Dr. Gillies obferyes, “ during the virtuous fimplicity of
the ancient commonwealth, conferred more real honour

than all that magnificent profufion of crowns and ftatues,

which, in the later times of the republic, were rather ex-
torted by general fear, than beftowed by public admira-
tion.”? “Fhe jealoufies (continues the fame author), refeat-
ments, dangers, and calamities, which often attend power
and pre-eminence, have never yet proved fufficient to deter
an ambitious mind from the purfuit of greatnefs.” The

rivals of Miltiades were animated by the glory of his eleya-
‘tion, not depreffed by the example or his fall.

His accufer,
Xantippus, though he had acted the principal part in re-
moving this favourite of the people, was not deemed worthy

ne ied Two

Fad Nike ce

Tiwo candidates appeared for the public confidence and
efteem, who alternately outitripped each other in the race
of ambition, and whole characters deferve attention even in
Athenian hiltory, as they had a powerful influence on the
fortune of Athens. (See Dr. Gillies’s Hiftory of Greece,
vol.i. p. 407.) “Ihe character of Aviltides has been already
feen in biographical detail (fee article Axistipes) : here it
is to be viewed merely in its combination with events aad
with characters which affect the hiftory of Athens.

The chara&ter of Themiftocles was of a more doubtful
kind. ‘The trophy, which Miltiades had raifed at Mara-
thon, difturbed his reft: he was inflamed with a defire to
emulate the glory of this exploit; and while he enabled
Athens to maintain a fuperiority in Greece, he was am-
bitious to acquire for himfelf a fuperiority in Athens. His
talents were well adapted to accompliil both thefe pur-
pofes; eloquent, active, enterprifing, he had itrengthened
his natural endowments by all the force of education and
habit. Laws, government, revenue, and arms, every branch
of political and military knowledge, were the great objects
of his ftudy. In the courts of juftice he fuccefsfully dif-
played his abilities in defence of his private friends, or in
accufing the enemies of the ftate. He was forward to give
his opinion upon every matter of public deliberation ; and
his advice, founded in wifdom, and fupported by eloquence,
commonly prevailed in the affembly. Yet with all thefe
great qualities, his mind was lefs {mitten with the native
charms of virtue, than captivated with her{plendidornaments.
Glory was the idol which he adored ; he could injure, with-
out remorfe, the general caufe of the confederacy, in order
to promote the grandeur of Athens; and hittory itill leaves it
as doubtful, as did his own conduét, whether, had an oppor-
tunity offered, he would not have facrificed the happinefs of
his country to his private intereft and ambition. The difcern-
ment of Ariltides perceived the danger of allowing aman of
fuch equivocal merit to be entrufted with the fole goyern-
ment of the republic ; and on this account, rather than from
any motives of perfonal animofity, he oppofed every mea-
fure that might contribute to his elevation. In this patriotic
view, he frequently folicited the fame honours which were
ambitioufly courted by Themiftocles, efpecially when no
other candidate appeared capable of balancing the credit of
the latter. A rivalfhip thus began, and long continued be-
tween them; and the whole people of Athens could only
decide the much contefted pre-eminence. The intereft of
Themiftocles fo far prevailed over the authority of his op-
ponent, that he procured his own nomination to the com-
mand of the fleet ; with which he effected the conqueft of
the {mall iflands in the AEgean, and thus completed the de-
fign of Miltiades. While he acquired fame and fortune
abroad, Avriftides increafed his popularity at home. ‘The
oppofition to his power, arifing from the {plendid eloquence
and popular manners of his rival, was now fortunately re-
moved, and he became the chief leader of the people. His
opinion gave law to the courts of juftice ; or rather fuch was
the effeét of his equity and difcernment, he alone became
fovereign umpire in Athens. In all important. differ-
ences he was chofen arbitrator, and the ordinary judges
were deprived of the dignity and advantages formerly re-
fulting from their office. This confequence of his authority,
offending the pride of the Athenian magiftrates, was fufh-
cient to excite their refentment ; which, of itfelf, might have
effeGied the ruin of any individual. But their views on this
occafion were powerfully promoted by the triumphant re-
turn of Themiftocles from his naval expedition. The
admiral had acquired confiderable riches; but wealth he
defpifed, except as an inftrument of ambition. The fpoils

N S$.

of the conquered iflanders were profufely lavifhed in fhows,.
feftivals, dances, and theatrical entertainments, exhibited for
the public amufement. His generous manners and flowing
affability were contrafted with the {tern dignity of his rival ;
and the refult of the comparifon added great force to his in-
finuation, that fince his own neceary abfence in the fervice
of the republic, Ariftides had acquired a degree of influence
inconfiftent with the conltitution; and, by arrogating to
himfelf an univerfal and unexampled jurifdiction in the ftate,
had eftablithed a filent tyranny, without pomp or guards,
over the minds of his fellow-citizens. Arriftides, trufting to
the innocence and iutegrity of his own heart, difdained to
employ any unworthy means, either for paining the favour,
or for averting the refentment, of the multitude. ‘The con-
tell, therefore, ended in his banifhment for ten years, by a
law intitled the Oftracifm (from the name of the materials
ou which votes were marked), by which the majority of the
Athenian affembly might expel any citizen, however inofs
fenfive or meritorious had been his palit conduét, who, b
his prefent power and greatnefs, feemed capable of difturb-
ing the equality of republican government. This fingular
iiftitution, which had been eftablifhed foon after the Athe-
mans had delivered themfelves from the tyranny of Hippias,
the fon of Piliitratus, was evidently intended to prevent any
perfon in future from attaining the fame unlawful authority.
At Athens, even virtue was profcribed, when it feemed to
endanger the public freedom ; and only four years after the
battle of Marathon, in which he had difplayed equal valour
and wifdom, Arittides, the jufteit and moft refpeétable of
the Greeks, became the victim of popular jealouty ; an ex~
ample of cruel rigour, which will for ever brand the {pirit
of democratical policy. The banifhment of Ariftides ex-
pofed the Athenians {till more than formerly to the danger
which they hoped to ayoid by this feyere meafure. The
removal of fuch a formidable opponent enabled 'Themiftecles
to govern without control; army, navy, and revenue, all
were fubmitted to his infpe@tion. It happened, indeed,
moft fortunately for the fame of this great man, as well as
for the liberty of Athens, that his aétive ambition was called
to the glorious tafk of fubduing the enemies of his country.
The {maller iflands in the A®gean were already reduced to
obedience ; but the poffeffion of them was uncertain while
the fleet.of AZeina covered the fea, and bid defiance to the
Athenians. This {mall ifland, or rather this rock, inha-
bited time immemorial by merchants and pirates, and fituate
in the Saronic gulph, which divides the territories from the
northern fhores of Peloponnefus, was a formidable enemy to
the republic; the jealoufy of commerce and naval power
embittered their mutual rivalry ; and as the inhabitants of
fEgina, who were governed by a few leading men, had
entered into an alliance with the Perfians, there was every
circumftance united which could provoke to the utmoft the
hatred and refentment of the Athenians. A motive lefs
powerful than the excefs of republican antipathy could not
probably have prevailed on them to embrace the meafure
which they now adopted by the advice of Themiftocles.
There was a confiderable revenue arifing from the filver
mines of mount Laurium, which had been hitherto employed
in relieving the private wants of the citizens, or diffipated
in their public amufements. This annual income 'Themi-
ftocles perfuaded them to deftine to the ufeful purpofe of
building fhips of war, by which they might feize or deftroy
the fleet of /Egina. The propofal was approved, an hun-
dred gallies were equipped, the naval ftrength of AE gina was
broken, and fuccefs animated the Athenians to afpire at
obtaining the unrivalled empire of the fea. Corcyra formed
the only remaining obitacle to their ambition. This ifland,
which,

‘

ANT AE NAS.

which, under the name of Pheeacia, is celebrated by Homer
for its amazing riches and fertility, had been ftill farther im-
proved by a colony of Corinthians. It extends an hundred
miles along the weitern fhores of Epirus, and the natural
abundance of its productions, the convenience of its har-
bours, and the adventurous fpirit of its new inhabitants,
ave them an undifputed advantage over their neighbours
in navigationand commerce. They became fucceflively the
rivals, the enemies, and the fuperiors of Corinth, their
mother country ; and their fuccefsful cruifes infected the
coaftsand difturbed the communication of the iflands and
continent of Greece. It belonged to Athens, who had fo
lately punifhed the perfidy of mee to chaftife the info-
lence of the Corcyreans. The naval depredations of thefe
iflanders made them be regarded as common enemies ; and
Themiftocles, when, by feizing part of their fleet, he broke
the finews of their power, not only gratified the ambition
of his republic, but performed a fignal fervice to the whole
of the Grecian confederacy. Victorious by fea and land,
againft Greeks and Barbarians, Athens might now feem
eutitled to enjoy the fruits of a glorious fecurity. It was
generally believed in Greece, that the late difafter of the
Pertians would deter them from invading a fecond time the
coafts of Europe. But Themiftocles, who, in the words of
Thucydides (lib. i.), was no lefs fagacious in feeing the
future, than in managing the prefent, regarded the battle of
Marathon not as the end of the war, but as the prelude to
new and more glorious combats. He continually exhorted
his fellow-citizens to keep themfelves in readinefs for action ;
above all, to increafe, with unremitting affiduity, the ftrength
of their fleet ; and, in confequence of this judicious advice,
the Athenians were enabled to oppofe the immenfe arma-
ments of Xerxes (of which the moft formidable tidings
foon arrived from every quarter), with two hundred gallies
of a fuperior fize and conftruction to any hitherto known in
Greece. (See Gillies’s Greece, vol. 1. p.'414.)
Meanwhile the reduction of revolted provinces had given
employment and luitre to the Perfian arms. Nine years after
the battle of Marathon, and in the fourth year of his reign
(B.C. 481.), Xerxes found himfelf uncontrolled matter of the
Eaft, and in poffeffion of fuch a flect and army as flattered
him with the hopes of univerfal empire. The three latt years
of Darius were {pent in preparing for the Grecian expedition,
Xerxes, who fucceeded to his fceptre and to his revenge,
dedicated four years more to the fame hoitile purpofe.
Amid his various wars and pleafures, he took care that
the artifans of Egypt aud Pheenicia, as well as all the mari-
time provinces of Lower Afia, fhould labour with uaremit-
ting diligence, in fitting out an armament adequate to the
extent of his ambition. Twelve hundred fhips of war, and
three thoufand fhips of burthen, were at length ready to re-
ceive his commands. The former were of a larger fize and
firmer conftruétion than any hitherto feen in the ancient
world: they carried on board, at a medium, 200 feamen and
thirty Perfians who fervedas marines. he hips of burthen
contained, in general, eighty men, fewer being found inca-
pable of rowing them. The whole amounted to 4200 fhips
and about 500,000 men, who were ordered to rendezvous
in the moft fecure roads and harbours of Ionia. We are not
exactly informed cf the number of the land forces, which
were affembled at Sufa. It is certain however, that they
were extremely numerous, and it is probable that they
would continually increafe on the march from Sufa to Sardis,
by the confluence of many tributary nations, to the Impe-
rial ftandard of Xerxes. The Perfian army confilted of
1,700,000 infantry, and 82,000 cavalry, befides 20,000
Arabians, riders of camels, and Libyan charioteers; when to

thefe were added failors and marines, the number amounted
to 2,317,610: this was the number of fighting men whom
Xerxesbrought from A fia, exclufively of attendantsand flaves.
Befides, there were immenfe numbers of womenand eunuchs,
who, according to eaftern luxury and debauchery, followed
the camp, in all the oftertatious pageantry aud boble mag-
nificence of defpotic pomp: fo that to ufe the words of
the animated Barthelemi, 5,000,000 had been torn frora
their native homes, and were preparing to deftroy whole
nations, to gratify the ambition of an individual named
Mardonius. In Europe he was joined by 300,000 of
Thracians, Macedonians, and northern Greeks, who meanly
deferted their brave countrymen of Sparta and Athens ; fo
that the whole exceeded 2,600,000 men. (This account
is tranflated from Jterodotus, |. vi. The number of
this army, as recorded by the firft Greek hiftorian, has never
been equalled by any of ancient or modern times, from
Herodotus to his literary defcendant Gillies. But little
availed the bodies of Afiatic flaves, againft the fouls of
European freemen. Having wintered at Sardis, he fent
ambailadors to demand e-rth and water, as a mark of fub-
miffion, from all the Grecian flates except Athens and
Sparta, whom he prefumptuoufly referved for the fevereft
punifhment. (B.C. 480) The flow march of his immenfe
army, and, {till more, its tedious tranfportation acrofs the
feas which feparate Europe from Afia, 1 fuited the: rapid
violence of his reyenge. Merxes therefore ordered a bridge
of boats to be raifed on the Hellefpont, which, im the nar-
roweft part, is only feven ftadia, or feven eighths ofa mile in
breadth. Here the bridge was formed with great labour ;
but whether owing to the awkwardnefs of its conitru€tion,
or to the violence of a fucceeding tempett, it was no fooner
built than deitroyed. The great king ordered the directors
of the work to be beheaded; and, proud of his tyraunic
power over feeble men, difplayed an impotent rage againit
the elements. In all the madnefs of defpotifm, he com-
manded the Hellefpont to be punifhed with 300 itripes,
and a pair of fetters to be dropped into the fea; adding
thefe frantic acd ridiculous expreffions:—* It is thus,
thou falt and bitter water, that thy mafter punifhes thy un-
provoked injury ; and he is determiued to pafs thy treache-
rous ftreams, notwithftanding all the infolence of thy malice.”
After this abfurd ceremony, a new bridge was made of a
double range of veffels, fixed by ftrong anchors on both
fides, and joined together by eables of hemp and reed,
fattened to immenfe beams driven into the oppofite fhores.
The decks of the veffels, which exceeded 600 in number,
were ftrewed with trunks of trees and earth, and their
furface was {till farther fmoothed, by a covering of planks.
The fides were then railed with wicker work, to prevent
the fear and impatience of the horfes; and upon this fin-
gular edifice the main ftrength of the army peffed in feven
days and nights, from the Afiatic city of Abydos, to that
of Seftos in Europe. The army began its march divided
into three bodies, one of which followed the fea fhore, and
the two others proceeded at {tated diftances, through the
interior part of the country. (See Herodotus, 1. vii.)
Lhe meafures that had been adopted, procured them certain
means of fubfiftence. Three thoufand veflels laden with
proyifions kept along the coaft, regulating their motions
by thofe of the army. The Egyptians and Phenicians had
previonfly ftored many of the maritime towns of Thrace and
Macedonia, and the Perfians at every ftation were fed and
provided with every thing by the inhabitants-of the adjacent
countries, who, long apprifed of their arrival, were prepared
for their reception. But before this general tranfportation,
a confiderable part of the forces had been elready fent to

Ddz the

ATHENS.

thé coaft of Macedonia, in order to dig acrofs the ifthmus
which joins to that coait the high promontory of Athos.
The difafter which befel the fleet commanded by Mardonius,
in ‘doubling the cape of this celebrated peninfula, was fill
prefent to the mind of Kerxes. The neck of land, only a
mile and a half ia breadth, was adorned by the Grecian city
of Sana; and the promontory being rich and fertile, was
well inhabited both*by Grecks and Barbarians. The cut-
ting of this narrow ifthmus, by a canal ‘of fufficient width
to allow two gallies to fail abreaft, was a matter not beyond
the power of'a potentate who commanded the labour of fo
many minyriads ; but it is obferved by Herodotus, to have
beent.a work of more oftentation than ‘utility, as the
veflels, according to the cuitom of the ‘age, might have
been conveyed over land with greater expedition, and with
Jefs trouble and expence. ‘The Perfian forces were now
fafely conduéted into’ Europe ; and the chief obftacle to
the eafy nayjgation of their fleet along the coaits of Thrace,
Macedon; and 'Theffaly, to the centre of the Grecian f{tates,
was removed by the dividing of mount Athos. Through
the fertile plains of Leffer Afia, the whole atmy had kept
in a body; but the difficulty of fupplies obliged them to
feparate into three divifions in their march through the lefs
cultivated countries of Europe. Before’ this feparatioa
took place, the whole fleet and army were reviewed by
Xerxes, near Dorifcus, a city of Thrace, at the mouth of
the river Hebrus. ‘This celebrated mufter we {hall narrate
in the words of Dr. Gillies. ‘“ Such an immente collection
of men afflembled in-arms, and attended withtevery circum-
ftance of martial magnificence, gave an opportunity for
feeing, or at leaft for fuppofing, many affecting fcenes.
“Lhe ambition of the great king had torn him from his pa-
lace of Sufa, but it could not tear him: from the objects of
his affeGtion, and the minifters of his pleafure. He was
followed by his women, and by his flatterers, and all the effe-
minate pride of a court was blended with the pomp of war.
While the great body of the army lay every night in the
open air, Xerxes and his attendants were provided with
magnificent tents. The fplendor of his chariots, the
mettle of his horfes, which far excelled the fwifteft racers of
Theffaly, the unexampled number of his troops, and above
all, the bravery of the immortal band: (a body of 10,000
Perfian cavalry, fo named becaufe their number was con-
ftantly maintained from the flower of the whole army),
feemed fufficierit, to the admiring crowd, to raife the glory
of their fovereign above the condition of humanity ;
efpecially fince, among fo many thoufands of men as paffed
‘in review. none could be compared to Xerxes in itrength,
in beauty, orinftature. But amidit this fplendor of “exter-
‘nal greatnefs, Xerxes felt himfelf unhappy. Having afcend-
ed an eminence to view his camp and fleet, his pride was hum-
pled with the refie€tian, that no one of all the innumerable
hoft could furvive, an hundred years. The haughty
‘monarch of Afia was meltéd-into tears. The converfation of
his kinfman and counfellor, Artabanus, was ill calculated to
confole his melancholy. That refpectable old man, whofe
wifdom had often moderated the youthful ardour of Xerxes,
and who had been as affiduous to prevent, as Mardonitis had
been to promote, the Grecian war, took notice that the mi-
fery of human life was an object far more lamentable than
its fhortnefs. In the narrow fpace allotted, has not every
one of thefe in our prefence, and indeed the whole human
race, often wifhied rather to die than to live? The tumult
of paffions'difturbs the beft of our days ; difeafes antl weak-
nefs,accompany old age ; and death, fo vainly dreaded, is the
fure and hofpitable refuge of wretched mortals.” (See Gil-
lies, vol. i. ps 424) | Xerxes often converfed with Dema-

ratus, ‘an exiled king of Sparta, who'kad taken'refage witli
the Perfian monarch, and théir dialogues, detdiled“by Hers-~
dotus; admirably. illuftrate the oppoiite circtumftarices and
characters of the’ Perfians and Greeks.” The following is
nearly the fubitance. ‘* Do ‘you “imagine,” faid the ‘des
fpot, “that the Greeks willdareto refit my forées??? Dema=
ratus, having obtained permiflion’ to fpeak the trath, replied;
« The Greeks are to be feared, becaufe they are poor-and
virtuous. Without pronouncing the eulogium of the other
ftates, I fhall only {peak to you of the ‘Lacedemontans
They will feorn- the idea of flavery. Should/all “Greecd
fubmit to your arms, ‘they will be but the more’ ardent ti
defence of their liberty. . Inquire not\the number of their
troops; were they buta fingle thoufand, nay, were ‘they
ftill fewer, they would prefert themfelves to the combat?
The Perfian king, at hearing:this, laughed aloud ;and’after
comparing his forces with thofe of the Lacedemonians:
« Do you not fee,’ faid he, ** that the greateft part of my
foldiers would take to flight, were they net retained by
menaces and blows? As a fimilar dread cannot operate on
thofe Spartans, who are repreiented to us ‘as fo free and'in=
dependent, it is.eviderit that they will never unneceffanly
brave certain death: and what is there to conitrain*them
to it ?? « The law,” replied Demaratus; “ that law which
has more power over them, than you have over your fubjeéts;
that law which faith to them, behold your enemies’; “the
queftion is not to number them ; you muit conquer or die-’””
Xerxes was rather amufed than iaitru@ted by this difeourfe:
His hopes of fuccefs feemed built on teo folid principles to
be fhaken by the opinion of a prejudiced Greek. Every
day meffengers arrived with the fabaitien of néw nations.
He proceeded on his march, till he arrived at the pafs of
Thermopyle. Thisis-a defile fituated at the foot of mougt
Oeta, between Theflaly aud Phocis; a pafs no more than
ninety feet broad, and the only one by which the hoit of
Xerxes could penetrate into Achaia. hither the Greciaa

‘army, not exceeding 11,000, directed its courfe: of thefe

4,000 only were more immediately deftined to defend the
paffage. But finding himfelf miftaken, and being informed
by Demaratus, that a handful of men might at this place
ftop for a confiderable time all his forces, he endeavoured
to corrupt Leonidas by magnificent prefents, and the mott
temptin~ promifes, even that of making’ hin fupreme
lord of Greece. But Leonidas having rejected ail his
temptations with difdain, Xerxes thereupon com-
manded him by a meffenger to fend him his arms. ‘ Let
your king comeand takethem,” anfwered Leonidas: Then
the Medes advanced againft the Greeks: bit being unable
to fuftain their attack, were obliged to retreat. "The troop
of Perfians, diftinguifhed by the name of immortal, next
charged the Greeks, and fought with great valour, fo that
the pafs was choaked up with dead) While the ‘beit
troops of Xerxes were thus facrificed to the Spartan valour,
an inhabitant of the country having difcovered to the Perfians
a feeret’ path condu&ting to an eminehce that commanded
the pafs, a large detachment was immediately fent to take
poffeflion of- it. Leonidas’ receiving <intelligence that the
tops of the rocks forming the pafs wefe occupied by 20,000!
Perfian troops, whofe darts maf foon overwhelm him and
his fall party, intreated the’ greater part of his men'to re- ”
tire, and referve themfelves for a more advantageous oppor-
tunity of ferving their country ; while he himfelf with about’
300 Spartans and a few Thefpians would maintain the pafs
till the laft. The reft having‘accordingly departed, ‘Come
my friends,’? faid Leonidas, “let us dine cheerfully, in the’

hope of fupping together in the otlier world.” His brave

companions, encouraged by the example of their chief,
thought

ATHENS.

thought of nothing now but to fell their lives as dearly as
potlible ; believing it incumbent on them, as the
people of Greece, to devote themfelves to certain death,
thereby to convince the Barbarians how much it mutt colt
them to reduce a free people to flavery. In the dead of
night, this heroic troop advancing directly forwards to the
tent-of the kitig, penctrated to the middle of the Perfian
camp, cut off all that came in their way, ‘and {pread the
mott dreadfiil confternation among the enemy. But day-
fiht at lait difcovering them diftinétly to the Perfians, they
were immediately {urroundéd, and being rather overwhelmed
than conquered, breathed their latt above heaps of flaughtered
enemies ; leavmg to after ages an example of intrepidity
before unknown, and hardly to be paralleled in hniitory.
The Perfians are faid to have loft upwards of 20,000 men
Gn titis engagement, and, among the reft, the two brothers of
‘Kerxes, © the memory of thefe brave defenders of
Greece, a fuperb monument was afterwards erected, bear-
ing two inferiptions; the one in honour of -all thofe who
had ferved on that‘occafion ; importing, that’ an army of four
thoufand Peloponnefian Greeks had there topped the pro-
‘eyefs of the whole Perfian force; the other in honour of
Meonidsi dnd his 300 Spartans, exprefled, in’a few fimple
words, to this effect; “* Go, paflenger, tell:at Sparta, that
we died here in obedience to her laws.’? This’ famous ac-
tion at Thermopylz, in the opinion of Diodorus Siculus,
contributed very highly to the fubfequent advantages ob-
tained by the Greeks; for the Perfians, aftonifhed at fo
ftviking an inftance of defperate valour, thence concluded,
that it was hardly poffible to fubdue/a nation of fuch un-
daunted refolution; and the Greeks likewife perceived,
from the fame example, that valour and difcipline are capable
‘of vanquifhing the greateft multitude ; and that therefore it
wwas pollible to overcome the Perfians. : j
But the principal defence of Greece refted with the
“Athenians. The very day that Leonidas fell at Thermopy-
Tee, the Athenian fleet, commanded by Themittocles, having
difeovered, while cruizing off Artemifia, a promontory of
Eubeea, a detachment of the enemy’s fleet amounting to
two hundred veffels, attacked them in the night, and funk
more than thirty of them, asd the reit were that fame
‘night wrecked on the coaft of Eubcea by a ftorm that fuc-
eeeded the engacement. The Athenians receiving next
day a reinforcement of fity-three fhips more, attacked thofe
“ef the Cilicians, and funk many of them. ‘A general en-
*gagement enfued the fame day, in which both parties fought
‘with great’ bravery ; and though neither could boaft of
the victory, yet the Jofs was moit confiderable on the fide
“of the Perfians. From the eveat of thefe feveral ‘actions,
the Athenians learned, that victery is not always’ deter-
mined by the greater number of fhips. Hearing, in the
wiean time, 6f what had pafied at Thermopyle, the Greeks
thought it advifeable to retire nearer home,’ arid therefore
“fet fail for Salamis, a {mall ifland not far from Attica.
“Kerxes having nov advanced into Phocis, after marking
this march ail along with the effects of his refentment, the
*Peloponnefians refolved to fortify themfelves within the
ifthmus. The Athenians, therefore, seeing themfelves oh
the eve of ‘being crufhed under the whole weight of the

- Perfian power, fent in this extremity, to confult the oracle ;

who told them, “ that the only means of preferving their
‘city were wooden walls.” Thefe wooden walls, pointed out
‘by the oracle, were interpreted by Themiitocles to be
‘their fhips; aad he told his countrymen, that the fole
‘means of prefervation left was, to abandon the city, and
to betake themfelves to their flect. This advice was not

at all relithed by the’people, who: fhuddered at the thoughts

the leading -

of deferting their gods, and the tombs of their aneeftors.
Vhemittocles, however, fucceeded at laft in perfuading
them, that the exiftence of Athens depended neither on its
houfes nor its temples, but on the lives of its citizens;
and that the gods themfelves had, by the mouth of’ the
oracle, plainly declared it to’ be their pleafure, that the
Athenians ought to leave their city for awhile. The peo-
ple at laft, convinced by his eloquence, confented to ‘go on
board of their fhips: It is dificult to fay, whether we are
more affected on tlris occalion by tlie melancholy ‘fitua-
tion of the Athenians, thus compelled’ by a “barbarous
prince to defert their native country ; or by the heroic refo-
lution of thefe Athenians, to go in this manner into-a fort
of ‘voluntary banifhment, rather than fubmit’to their op-
preflors. “Whe Atheniansiconveyed their women, children,
and the greater part of their old men, to Trazene;-a frivall
town on the fea coaft of Peloponnefus, where they were
-réceived with allthe marks of hnmanity which their fituation
fequired. But many of their: oldeft men-were left in- the
citadel, being unable, by reaion of their great age and in-
firmities, ‘to undergo the fatigue of trapfportation.’ Kerxes
in the mean time approaching- towards’ Athens, fent a de-
tachment! of his army to plunder the ‘temple of Delphos;
which contained ‘immenfe riches. “But Herodotus and
Diodorus Siculug tell ws, that moft of the foldiers fent on
this errand perifhed ih-a violent tempeft. The Perfian army
arriving at Athens, found hothii¢ but filence and folitude
within the walls. “They attacked’ the citadel, which, after
a brave tetiftance-by its feeble garrifon, was taken by ftorm,
and ali wighin‘it were put’to the fword: Xerxes ordered
the reit of the city to be fet on fire. In the mean time
differences were likely to arife in the Grecian fleet commanded.
by Eurybiades ; one half of them being of opinion that
they ought to adyance towards the ifthmns of Corinth, to
be at-hand to fupport their army ; and the other, that they
ought’ by no means to quit’ the advantageous poft at Sala-
mis. ‘The latter’ opinion was fupported ‘by Theiniitocles,
who, on-this occalion, gave another proof: of his extra~
ordinary moderation and coolnefs of temper. For while he
was maintaining his opinion with -fome warmth againit
Eurybiades, who “was a man of choleric difpofition, the
latter flew ina paffion, and lifted up his cane to itrike him:
"Themiltocles called out to him, “ ftrike, but hear me.”?
His eloquence and firmnefs at laft prevailed, and the Greeks
daw that, being extremely inferior to the enemy in the num-
ber as well as in the fize of their fhips; it was of the higheft
importance to avail themfelves of their prefent’ fituation,
and to give battle in fuch a narrow. ftrait as that-of Sa-
Jamis, where the enemy ‘could not bring all their fleet
into Action. They refolved, therefore, to prepare to fight
the Perfians'in this ftrait. ° The Perfians determined to give
‘battle, contrary to the opinion’ of queen Artemifia,” who
reprefented to them, that the lofs of a fea fight mui
inevitably be attendéd with the deftru€tion of their army-on
land. © But “her advice, though the moft’ prudent, was ©
rejected, Xerxes having ‘himfelf declared his fentiments for
their coming to ation, ‘T’hemiftocles, in the méan time,
to pllt it entirely out of the power of his countrymen to
retire from Salamis, contrived to have falfe intelligence
conveyed to Xerxes of - their intending to decline the en-
gagement, and to make their efeape, and therefor¢ adviling
him to order his fleet inftantly to advance and block them
‘up. This ftratagem he communicated to Ariftides,’ who
undertook to exhort the reft-of the commanding officers
with whom he was in great “credit, not to ‘be difmayed at
feeing themfelves hemmed in, but’ to behave with their
ufual intrepidity. I'he ftratagem had the defited ead
an

AT SEN iS.

and the Greeks feeing no other poffibility of efcaping, ex-
cept by fighting their way through the midft of the enemy,

repared tor the engagement. Xerxes, who was on fhore,
Bone defirous of feeing the battle, ordered a fuperb throne
to be erected for him onan eminence. The fleet of the
Greeks confiited of three hundred and eighty fail. The-
miftocles, who that day commanded it, waited for the rifing
of a wind, which regularly began to blow at a certain hour,
in a direction exactly in the face of the enemy. The Per-
fians began the attack with great bravery ; but the {mall
fleet of the Greeks, acting by the {kill of its commanders
under every advantage, foon threw the enemy’s firft line
into confufion, aud funk the Perfian admiral. Thofe that
followed him, intimidated by his fate, partly betook them-
felves to fight, and partly were funk. On the wings, how-
ever, the aétion continued very warm and objftinate; but
the wind being againft the Periians, the unwieldy fize of
their {hips rendered them very difficult to be managed, and
their great number rather embarrafiing than availing them in
fich a narrow ftraxt, they could not long fuftain the im-
petuofity of the Athenians, but fe!l into a general diforder.
The Ionians, miodful of thetr Grecian extraétion, were the
firft that fled ; and they were quickly followed by the reft of
the Pertian fleet, which foon appeared fcattered up and
down in flight and confufion. Queen Artemifia fignalifed
herfelf by a courage far above her fex. In the height of
the battle, perceiving herfelf to be on the point of falling
mto the hands of the Greeks, fhe immediately hung out
Grecian colours, and attacking one of the Perfian gallies,
funk it. ‘The Greek that purfued her, deceived by this
firatagem, believed her to he one af his own party, and
quitted the purfuit. The viCtory coft the Greeks forty
fhips; but of the Perfians two hundred were either taken or
funk. This engagement, one of the moft memorable re-
corded in ancient hiftory, entailed immortal fame on the
Grecian wifdom and courage. The renowned Cimon,
though yet but a young man, diftinguifhed himfelf highly
on that occafion, and gave evident marks of his future
a aa But as the principal! glory belonged to Themi-

tocles, the eyes of all the Greeks were fixed on him, and
the bigheft honours weve conferred on the deliverer of
Greece. At this time every fentiment of jealoufy was over-
looked, and none exceeded the Lacedemonians in their
encomiums on Themiftocles, whom they crowned with
laurel, the reward of wifdom and valour. When he ap-
peared at the Olympic games, the whole aflembly rofe up
to give him place; every eye was fixed on him alone ; and
that day was the moft glorious of his life.

The Perfiaus and Greeks were in expetation of a new
battle ; but Mardonius was by no means fatisfied with the
orders given by Xerxes; he read in the foul of that prince
nothing but the meaneft fentiments combined with projects
of revenge, to which he poffibly might fall a vidim. « My
lord,’’ {aid he, approaching him, “ deign to recal your
courage; your expectations were not founded on your
feet, but on that formidable army with which you have
entrufted me. The Greeks are no more able to refilt you
now than heretofore; nothing can fhelter them from the
punifhment due to their ancient offences, and the fruitlefs
advantage they have lately gained. If we determine ona
retreat, we fhali for ever be the cbje@ts of their derifion ;
and the opprebrium that has fallen on the Phoenicians, the
Egyptians, and other nations who fought on board your
veieis, will recoil on your faithful Perfians. Suffer me to
propofe another method to fave their glory and your own;
J would advife you to lead back the greater part of your
troops to Perfa, and leave me three hundred thoufand mea,

1

with whom I (hall be able to reduce all Greece.’? (See He-
rodotus, |, viii.) Xerxes, who in his own mind was
rejoiced at the propofal, affembled his council, admitted to
it Artemifia, and requefted her opinion on the projeét of
Mardonius. The queen difcovering the real fentiments of
Xerxes, gave an advice which fhe knew would be pleafing,
“ Leave,” fhe faid, * to Mardonius, the care of completing
your work. If he fucceeds, yours will be all the glory ;
if he perifhes, or is defeated, your empire will not, on
that account, be fhaken, nor Perfia confider the lofs of a
battle as any great misfortune, when you fhall have fecured
your perfon.”” When the Greeks had leifure to examine
the extent and completenefs of their fuccefs, they deter.
mined, in the firft emotions of triumph and refentment, to
purfue the fhattered remains of the enemy. That no Bar-
barian might efcape, they propofed immediately to fail
wettward, to deflroy the Perfian bridge over the Hellefs
pont, and thus to intercept their return. This defign was
recommended, and chiefly fupported by the Athenians,
who, having experienced the greateft fhare of the danger,
felt moft fenfibly the joys of deliverance. But upon more
mature deliberation, it occurred that the Perfans were fill
fufliciently numerous to afford juft grounds of terror. ‘To
their cowardice and inexperience, not to their want of
{trength, the Greeks owed all their advantages over them ;
but fhould the impoffibility of retreat be added to their
other calamities, they might derive courase from defpair,
and, by efforts hitherto unexerted, repair the confequences
of their paft errors and misfortunes. Thefe confiderations,
firit fugeefted, it is faid, by Euribiades the Spartan, were
adopted by 'Themiftocles, who convinced his countrymen
that the jealoufy of the Grecian gods, unwilling that one
man fhould be lord of Europe ard Afia, rather than their
own prowefs, had given them the victory over Xerxes; a
prince of fuch folly and madnefs, that he had treated with
equal irreverence things human and divine, deltroyed the
facred temples, overthrown the venerable altars and images,
and impioufly infulted the gods of the Hellefpont with
{iripes and fetters. That it was the duty of the Athenians,
after having glorioufly repelled the common enemy, to pro-
vide for the fubfiftence of their wives and families, to fow
their lands, rebuild their houfes, and thus to repair, by the
moft induftrious a€tivity, the dreadful ravages committed on
their territories. (See Gillies, vol. i. p. 482.) Themittocles
had no fooner perfuaded the Athenians to embrace his opi-
nion, than he fecretly difpatched his confidant Sicinus to ac-
quaint the great king with the danger which he had fo nearly
efcaped, and to advife him to purfue his journey with all
pofiible expedition. Xerxes readily believed a piece of in-
formation, which agreed with the fuggeftions of his own
timidity. The rapidity of his march, confpired with other
circumitances above mentioned, in proving fatal to the lives
of his followers; and the crafty Athenian, who knowing
the inftable affeStions ef the multitude, wifhed to deferve
the gratitude of a king, gained the double advantage of °
difpelling fooner than could otherwife have happened,. that
deftru€tive cloud of Barbarians which hovered over his
country, and of convincing their leader that he was in pot
indebted for his fafety to that very man whofe counfels,
rather than the arms of Greece, had occafioned his affliGtion
and difgrace.

Mardonius (B.C. 479), after wintering in Theffaly, took
the field, and began his operations by making very advan-
tageous offers to the Athenians, to detach them from their
confederacy with the other fates ; promifing not only to
rebuild their city, andto pive them a vaft fum of money, but
to fet them head pf all Greece. Ariftides, then

archon,

at the

At HE Ns

archon, anfwered the meflengers of Mardoniug, that all the
gold in the world was infufficient to corrupt the Athenians,
or to induce them to defert the defence of the common
liberty of their country ; that while the fun continued to
light the world, the Athenians would remain the mortal
enemies of the Perfians, and would revenge, to the utmott
of their power, the mifchief they had brought upon their
country, and the burning of their houfes and temples. As
foon as Mardonius received the anfwer of the Athenians,
and thence faw that no motive could induce them to break
their engagements, he ordered his army to march towards
Attica. The Athenians, on the approach of the Perfian
army, left their city a fecond time, and retired to Salamis.
Mardonius thereupon fent new deputies to them, with
terms {till more advantageous than the former: but the
Athenians were fo far from accepting them, that they
ftoned to death one Lycidas, only for faying that they
ought to give an audience to the deputies. The Perfian
general, provoked at the contempt with which the Athe-
nians treated all-his propofals, entered Athens, and burnt
every thing that had tormerly efcaped the fury of Xerxes.
In this fituation, the Athenians complained to the Lacede-
monians of their not having fent them the ftipulated fue-
cours; the latter were then folely intent on maiataining
their ground within the Peloponnefe, and defending the
entry of the ifthmus; but in compliance with the requifition
of the Athenians, who made a great outcry againit the
flownefs of their proceedings, they fent to their ailiftance
five thoufand Spartans, each of whom was -attended by
feven helots. Thefe forces, joined with thofe of the Athe-
nians and Peloponnefians, formed altogether an army of about
70,000 men; which, after afiembling at Eleufis, followed
Mardonius into Beotia, and encamped at the fvot of mount
Citheron. Paufanias, fon of Cleombrotus, and viceroy of
Sparta, commanded the Lacedzmonian troops, and Ariftides
thofe of the Athenians ; the Perfian army then amounted to
300,000 men. Paufanias, in the mean time, advanced
towards Platea, with his forces drawn up m battle array ;
the Athenians being on the right wing, and oppofed to the
Perfian troops, and the Lacedemonians on the left, oppofed
to the Greek troops in the fervice of the Perfians. The
Megareans, who were encamped on the plain, having been
attacked by the Perfian cavalry, were, after a very brave
and long refiftance, on the point of giving way, when three
hundred Athenians ran to their relief. The battle then be-
came more obftinate than before; but Magiitius, who com-
manded the Perfian cavalry, being flain, his men betook
themfelves to flight. The death of this officer, who was
reckoned the ableft in the Perfian army, fpread univer-
fal confternation through all their troops. Ten days inter-
vened between this action and the general engagement. Ar-
tabazus was of opinion, that the Perfians ought to avoid a
general battle; but Mardonius, a man of a violent fiery
difpofition, thought otherwife. Paufanias and Ariftides,
informed of the defign of the Perfians to attack them,
drew up their army in order of battle near to the city of
Platea, which Mardonius perceiving, changed the intended
order of his attack. But the Greeks, finding themfelves
ftraitened for water in their prefent fituation, refolved to
decamp. Mardonius believing this movement to bea flight,
immediately advanced with his men, uttering loud fhouts,
and charged the rear of the Greek army, compofed of the
Lacedemonians, who, forming themfelves into a- column,
oppofed the enemy with their ufual valour, and falling on
the Perfians with the greateft fury, made a dreadful flaugh-
ter. Mardonius fell in the beginning of the ation. The
main body of the Greek army advancing in the mean time

to the charge, in feparate detachments, completed the over-
throw of the Perfians. In another quarter of the field, the
40,000 Greeks in the Perfian fervice, who were engaged
with the troops commanded by Ariftides, hearing of the
flight of the Barbarians, followed their example, and re-
treated likewife, but rallied im their camp, and there en-
trenched themfelyes. Phe Lacedemonians, however, fup-
ported by the Athenians, attacked and forced their en
trenchments ; after which, nothing was to be feen but a ge-
neral maffacre, for the Perfians being too numerous to be
mace prifoners, received no quarter, and were all put to
the fword. Artabazus, after diftinguifhing himfelf both as
a fkilful and as a brave foldier, colleGted the feattered re-
mains of the Perfian army, amounting now to no more than
44,000 men, and returned with all poffible expedition to-
wards Perfia. The lofs of the Greeks in this engagement
was about 10,000 men. ‘The Greeks, as a monument of
this memorable viétory, erected a ftatue to Jupiter in the
temple of Olympia, infcribed with the names of all the
ftates of Greece who had fought at Platea. It came next
under confideration, whether the prize of valour ought to
be adjudged to the Athenians or to the Lacedamonians.
But to avoid all controverfy on this head, whereby the ge-
neral joy arifing from the victory might be difturbed, the
queftion was, by the influence of Ariitides, referred to the
determination of the other Greeks, who, to prevent any
jealoufy between thofe rival ftates, adjudged it to belong to
the Plateans. Then, after fending a tripod of folid gold
to the temple at Delphos, and fetting apart a tenth of the
fpoil, as an offering to the gods, to be applied to religious
purpofes, they divided with great juftice the reft of the
{poil, which was fo immenfe, that Juftin is of opinion it
was the firlt great caufe of the corruption of the Grecian.
manners. By the perfuafion of Ariftides, the Greeks
pafied a folemn decree, obliging all the ftates to fend depu-
ties to Platza, to offer facrifices to Jupiter the deliverer, in-
ftituting public games at that place every fifth year; and
ordering a fleet of a hundred fhips, and an army of 10,000
foot, and as many horfe, to be kept always on foot, for
making continual war on the Barbarians. The Platzans
were appoiated to celebrate the anniverfary of all thofe who
had fallen in this battle, which they regularly performed
with much pomp and ceremony. ‘The Perfian fleet, having,
in the mean time, failed towards Samos, that of the Greeks,
under the command ef Leotychides the Lacedemonian, and
Xantippus the Athenian, advanced as far as Delos, upon
the earneft intreaty of the inhabitants of Chios, who begged
to be delivered from their fubjeétion to the Barbarians ; and
likewife in confequence of fecret intelligence received by
them of the intention of the Jonians to revolt. The Per-
fians, hearing of the approach of the Greeks, retired to My-
cale in Afia Minor, where they drew their veffels on fhore,
and furrounded them with a deep ditch. The Greeks, how-
ever, purfued them thither, and with the affittance of the
fonians, attacked them. The battle was at firlt bravely,
fought on both fides ; but the Milefians and Samians, fol-
lowed by the reft of the Afiatic Greeks, having deferted
from the Perfians, the latter were vanquifhed, and 40,000
of them cut in pieces. The Athenians took pofleffion of
the enemy’s camp, burnt the Perfian fleet, and returned to
Samos with a yait deal of plunder. This engagement hap-
pened on the fame day with that of Platea. "Thus did that
memorable day for ever free the Greeks from any future
Perfian invafions, and deliver them from thofe innumerable
armies of Barbarians, which like clouds of locufts had con-
fumed their country for two whole years. Thefe grievous
defeats were never forgotten by the Perfian monarchs; and

they

HELEN S

they entirely eured Xerxes of all defire of undertaking any
other enterprifes of the fame kind. He thought no more
of executing vengeance on the Greeks; and to efface all
remembrance of his paft difefters, he gave himfelf wholly
up to every fort of voluptuoufnefS and debauchery. His
court became one general fcene of the moft fhameful ex-
celles, murder and inceft fucceeding each other in a perpe-
tual round. This weak licentious prince was at length put
to death by his own fubjeéts. The fevere effects of tyranny,
formerly experienced by the Athenians, had excited in them
fuch a itrong defire of liberty, that to preferve it, they
boldly hazarded the greateft dangers. Their bravery, how-
eyer, was admirably fupported and conducted by the wif-
dom and fkill of their generals, who were particularly at-
teative to choofe fuch a fituatioa for giving battle, that the

enemy could net much avail themfelves of their valt fuperi-

in point of number.

Thus by their vigorous efforts, and the wildom of their
leaders, delivered from the Perfian invafion, the Athenians
brought back their wives and children to Athens, of which
they rebuilt the walls, and confiderably increafed the ex-
tent. The Lacedzmonians taking umbrage at this, from
an apprehenfion left Athens fhould become too powerful,
reprefented to the Athenians, that it was the general in-
tereft of Greece to have no fortified place without the Pe-

- loponnefe, becaufe in cafe of a frefh invafion, it misht ferve
for a retreat and warlike magazine to the enemy, ‘T’hemi-
ftocles having procured himfelf to be named ambaflador to
Lacedemon, there to jultify the condu&t of his country-
men, maintained in open fenate that it was as much for
the common advantage of the allies, as for that of the Athe-
nians, that the latter had fortified their city with good
walls; that befides, it was but equitable that they, as well
as the eeft, fhould take proper meafures for their own
fafety ; and in fine, that they were able to defend them-
felves either againit foreign or domeftic enemies. In the next
place, Themittocles, folely intent on increafing the power
of the republic, fortified Pireus (B.C. 477) the famous
harbour of Athens, in the fame manner as he had done the
city, and perfuaded the Athenians to augment their fleet
yearly with twenty thips. The object of this fkilful politi-
cian was to deprive.the. Lacedemonians of the fuperiority
hitherto poffefied by them over the other ftates of Greece.
But it muft be confefled that he was not very fcrupulous
with regard tothe means employed by him for that purpofe.
An inftance of this was his projeét of burning the Grecian
fleet iu the harbour of Pegazus, whither it had retired to
winter after the defeat of Mardonius; or, according to
fome authors, that part of it only which belonged to the
Lacedemonians. But not daring openly to.propofe this
{cheme, he was defired by the people to communicate the
matter privately to Ariftides who having been accordingly
informed of it, declared to the people, that though the
project of Themiftocles was indeed highly ufeful, yet at the
fame time, it was moft unjuft! Themiftocles was therefore
prohibited from. putting it in execution.—How becoming
thus to fee a whole flate prefer what was jult to what was
‘ufeful! and what a high idea of the jultice of Ariftides
mutt we not conceive, when we fee him chofen fingly by.a
whole people, to determine whether a project of the utmoft
‘general importance was jut or unjuft! At the fame time,
the allies prepared to reltore to their freedom the Grecian
cities in which the Perfians had left garrifons. A numerous
fleet, under the command of Panfanias and Ariftides,
obliged the enemy to abandon the ifle of Cyprus; and the
city Byzantium, fituated on the Hellefpoot. The condu@
of Paufanias on this expedition was fo infolent, as to difgult

the allies, who refufed any longer to obey the Spartans, ,
and thenceforward to fight under the orders of the Athe-
nians. (B.C. 476.) “The farther proceedings of the Laces
demonian general, and his fate, will be found under the a2
ticle Pausanias, and Sparta. The Spartans, with a
praife-worthy moderation, yielded to the Athenians the
coramand of the fea. About this time, Themiftoclés @x-
perienced the viciffitude of fortune, and the tranfitory na2
ture of popular,fayour. The civil adminiftration’ of this -
illuftrious Athenian was no lefs eminent and fuecefsful than
his political and military efforts. By yielding mote prote@ién
to ftrangers than they enjoyed in neighbouring cities; he aes
mented not only the populoufnefs, but the wealth of Atheris:
as that defeription of men paid an annual contribution“in
return for their fecurity. This, together with other bianches
of the revenue, he employed iv buildiag” annually about
fixty gallies, the addition of which to the Athenian favy
abundantly compenfated fuch loffes as were fuitained by the
accidents of the fea in foreign parts. Notwithitanding the
envy and malice of worthleis demagogues, who infeed the
Athenian aflembly and courts of juftice, Themiitocles was
falt advancing to the attainment of the fame authority at
home which Ariftides enjoyed abroad, when complaints ar-
rived from Sparta, that he had confpired with Panfanias to
betray the public liberty. The known refentment of the
Spartans againit this extraordinary man fufiiciently explaits
the reafon why they, who were fo dilatery in their proceed-
ings againft Paufamias himfelf, fhould be fo eager to bring
to punifhment his fuppofed accomplice. But it is not ealy
to conceive how the Athenians could admit fuch an accufa-
tion againft a citizen, whofe fingular valour and conduct
had gaiaed the decifive victory at Salamis ; whofe counfels
and addrefs had fortified their city with impregnable
ftrength ; whofe forefight and activity had procured them a
fleet which no nation in the world could refit; and whofe
abilities and patriotifm had not only faved his country from
the moft formidable invafion recorded in hiltory, and which
was principally direGted againft Athens, but amid# the
terrors of this invafion, the treachery of falfe friends, and
the violeace of open enemies, had fo eminently contributed
to raife his republic to the firft rank in the Grecian confe-
deracy. Yet fuch, on the one hand, was the effect ef that
envy which in republics always accompanies excellence ; and
fuch, on the other, the influence of Spartan bribery and
intrigues, that Themiftocles was banifhed by the oftracifm,
a punifhment inflicted on men whole afpiring ambition
feemed dangerous to freedom, which required not the proof
of any particular delinquency, and which had effe& ouly
during a term of years. { Gillies, vol.ii. p.65.) This il-
luftrious man retired into Perfia, where his treatment and
death will be feen under the article THemistocres. —_
Ariftides alfo died about the fame time (B.C. 467 or 471;
and the conduét of the Perfian war was devolved on his col-
league Cimon, who united the integrity of that great man to
‘the valour of Miltiades his father, and the decifive boldnefs of
Themiftocles, _ But as he felt. an ambition for eminence
which difdains bare imitation, he not only refleGted the molt
diftinguithed excellenciés of his predeceffors, but improyed
aad adoraed them by an elegant liberality of mariners, an int
dulgent humanity, and candid condefcention ; virtties which
long fecured him the affections of his fellow citizens ;, while
his military talents and authority, always direéted by mode-
ration and juftice, maintained an .abfolute fway over the
allies of the republic. His firft operations were employed
egainft the coait of Thrace, which the taking of Byzan-
tium feemed to render an eafy conqueft. The only placeg
in that country fitted to make an obftinate refiftance, wére
5 3 5 R e . 2 tea

AW (HE Ns.

the towns of Eion and Amphipolis, bath frtuate on the river
Strymon; the former near its junction with the. Strymonic
gulph, the latter. more remote from the fhore, but entirely
furrounded by an arm of the gulph, and the principal
branches of that copiousriver. mphipolis, however, was
taken, and planted by a numerous colony of Athenians.
But Lion fall oppofed a vigorous refittance ; Boges, the
Perfian governor, having determined rather to perith than
furrender. After long baflling the efforts of the befiegers,
by fuch perfevering courage and activity as none of his
countrymen had difplayed in the courfe of the war, this
fierce barbarian was at length not tamed but exafperated by
hunger. His companions and attendants, equally defperate
with their leader, followed his iatrepid example; and mount-
ing the ramparts with one accord, threw into the middle
{tream of the Strymon their gold, filver, and other precicus
effects. After thus attefting their implacable hatred to the
affailants, they calmly defcended, lighted a funeral pile,
butchered their wives and children, and again mounting the
walls, precipitated themfelves with fury into the thickelt
of the flames. After this, Cimon fubdued the other ftates
in that country, drove from Syrops the pirates that infefted
the /igean fea, eftablifhed an Athenian colony ia their
place, and made himfelf mafter of Naxos. Cruiling along
the coaft of Afia, he reduced all the maritime cities of
‘Caria and Lycia, and left not the Perfians in pofleffion of a
fingle inch of ground betweenToniaand Pamphylia. Hear-
ing that the Perfian fleet lay at anchor at the mouth of the
river Eurymedon, waiting for a reinforcement of Phenician
fhips, that they might attack hin with their united forces ;
he immediately failed againit the former to prevent their
junGtion; charged them with fuch vigour, that they were
obliged, in fpite of their great fuperiority, to run their
Thips a-ground ; and took more than a hundred of them.
Without giving his men time to breathe after their victory,
he inftantly landed them, and attacked the army of the
enemy, which was drawn up on the banks of the Euryme-
don. The Perfians fultained the firft charge of te Greeks
with great firmneis. But the troops of Cimon, animated
by their late fuccefs, broke them at lait, put them fairly to
‘flight, made a great number of them prifoners, and got a
vait booty. Cimon crowned his victories with the capture
of the Phenician fleet which was coming to the affiflance of
the Perlians, and by that means, gave a fatal blow to the
‘Perfian naval power. The rich fpoil of the Barbarian camp
rewarded the enterprife and celerity of the Greeks, who,
Joaded with wealth and glory, returned home during winter,
and pioufly dedicated to Apollo a tenth of the plunder
‘acquired by thefe ever memorable achievements. A con-
fiderable portion of the remainder was employed in
firengthening the fortifications of Athens. Agreeably
‘to the Grecian cuitom, the general was entitled to a
valuable fhare. Crmon received it as a teftimony of the
‘public efteem, andexpended it for thepublicufe, embellifh-
ing his beloved native city_with fhady walks, gardens, porti-
coes, fchocls of exercife, and other works af general plea-
fire and utility. (See Gillies, vol. i. p. 74.) ;
While Cimon wasattending the power, glory, andinfluence
of the Atheniansabroad, amanof very great talents acquired
‘the direction of affairs at home. This was Pericles, one of the
moit extarordiaary men that even Athens herlelf produced.
‘Fis mind, naturally ef the Firft capacity and wgour, was
enriched by extenfive and ufeful knowledge, adorned by
elegant literature, and fortified by the foundeft philofophy.
‘Damon, profeiledly a teacher of rhetoric, but really mafter
of hiftory, politics, and all the learning of the times, was his
tutor. Anaxagoras initructed him in philofophy. That
Vor. Fit.

wife man» had made it his chief fludy to confirm the mof
important and pleafing. doétrine, that a Being of fupreme
intelligence and benevolence governs the world, rewards the
virtuous, and punifhesthe vicious. ‘¢ From him (fays Dr. Gil-
lies, Pericles early learned to control the tempeit of youth-
ful paffions, which fo often blaft the promifing hopes of
youthful manhood; to preferve an unfhaken conftancy in all
the viciflitudes of fortune, fince all are the varied dilpenta-
tions of the fame wife Providence.’ . Fertile in means for
the attainment of his objects; fkilful:in the varied applica-
tion of them, according to the variation of circumitances ;
having the ready and compleat command of his own great
intellect and extenfive information, both in forming and
executing plans; courageous, temperate, verfatile, yetfteady ;
decifive, yet cautious; bold, yet prudent; enterprizing, yet
circumfpeét; he excelled in poltics, in war, and in every
purfuit which required combined genius and condua. ; His
eloquence united plenitude of information, force of genius,
and nervoulnefs of ftyle: it was either convincing or per-
fuafive, according to the objects he had in view: at one
time, its majefty commanded the hearers; at another, its
foftnefs and delicacy infinuated themfelves into their hearts.
The fuperiorstalents of this celebrated ftatefman greatly
increafed the ;*ofperity of the country, and his policy was
peculiarly beneficial inimproving theadyantages that hadbeen
acquired in war by his predeceflors, or his cotemporary. Ci-
mon. He promoted agriculture and manufactures, and
greatly extended the commerce.and maritime power of his
country. Riches flowed from all quarters to Athens,
and were ina confiderable degree employed in ftrengthening
and adorning the city. He encouraged the fine arts, lite-
rature, and philofophy. Under him jlourifhed Polygnotus,
Pazrhafius, aud Phidias, thofeingeniousartifts, whofohappily
made painting, fculpture, and itatuary, the vehicles of fen-
timent and charaéter, as well as.of external feature. and
figure. Refpected byhim, lived Anaxagoras, the father of
moral philofophy ; and Euripides, who, in the garb of
fiction, exhibits the juft and elevated reafoning, the pious
and virtuous fentiments of both. afte, genius, and phi-
lofophy, were never more prevalent than at Athens in the
age of Pericles. But with the many advantages which
were conferred upon the Athenians by Pericles, there were
mixed feveral difadvantages, but rather in ultimate effect
than in immediate appearance. There were two parties at
Athens, the ariftocratical and democratical. . Cimon by
blood and affinity was conneéted with the former, and by
his difpofitions and character was fitter for gaining an afcen-
dancy over the chief people in the ftate, than far courting
the multitude. With all the powers and accomplifhments
which could form a patriotic and beneficial ftatefman and
foldier, he wanted the dexterous verfatility which conciliates
the favour of the multitude. Pericles, with genius and
{trength of mind that muit have rendered him a leaderin any
clafs ‘of men, in any age or country, chofe popularity .as the
road to the gratification of ambition, and indulged the in-
clination of the populace, as well as purfued the intereft of
the flate. With this view he promoted luxury, licentiouf-
nefs, and profufion. he firm and rigid virtue of Cimon
was adverfe to {uch a pernicious watte of the treafures which
his exertions had acquired. Between two fych great men,
embracing oppolite principles and parties, rivalry naturally

arofe. Foreign politics, as well as comeitic, ehflamed their
differences. Cimon, ariflocratical in his own principles,

was attached to the Spartans, and wifhed amity to fubfilt
between Sparta and Athens. The Athenian multitude,
elated with their fignal {yccefles, and wifhing to domineer
over all Greece, was hoftile to Sparta, which would be the

ie moft

AT TH

moft powerful obftacle to the accomplifhment of their de-
fieng; ©The Spartans, on the other hand, were extremely
jealous of the progrefs of the Athenians, and of the formi-
dable power they hadacquired. Cimon endeavoured to ap-
peafe, Pericles to promote, this hoftile {pirit between the two
chief nations of-Greece ; and his fchemes appeared to be
the more fuccefsful. But their animofity, before it broke
out into action, was diverted by a calamity equally fudden
and unforefeen. In the year four hundred and fixty-nine
before Chrift, Sparta was overwhelmed by an earthquake.
Taygetus and the neighbouring mountains were fhaken
to the foundation, and twenty thouvfand Lacedemonian
citizens or fubjects perifhed in this dreadful difatter.
Amidit the ruias of Sparta, one defcription of men beheld
the public misfortunes not only without horror, but with a
foeret fatisfaction. ‘The oppreffed Spartan flaves, known
by the appellations of Helots and Meffenians, affembled in
crowds from the village:in which they were cantoned, and
took meafures for delivering themfelves, during she cruelty
of the elements, from the not lefs inexorable cruelty of their
unfeeling tyrants. Thepradent arrangements of king Archi-
damus, who, forefeeing the revolt, had fummoned the citi-
zens to arms, prevented them from getting immediate pof-
fefion of the capital; but they rendered themfelves matters
of the ancient and {trong fortrefs of Ithomé, from which
they continued many years to inteft the Lacedemonian ter-
ritories. Cimon earneftly feconded the application of the
Spartans, and the Athenianswere prevailed on to fend them
the required affiftance, and the combined forces proceeded
to the fiege of the fortrefs. The beficgers, however, met
with folittle fuccefs, that the Spartans difmiffed their Athe-
nian auxiliaries, on pretence indeed that their help was no
Jonger neceflary, but in reality, from a fufpicion that they
favoured the intereft of the rebels. The Athenians were
greatly offended by this caprice, and Pericles inftructed his
partifan Ephialtes to remind the people that Cimonwas the
chief promoterof fending affiftance to the Spartans. The il-
luftrious captain wasacculed, anda farthercharge laid againtt
him that by prefents from the Macedonians he was prevailed
upon to let flip a manifeft opportunity of enlarging his con-
guetts, aftertaking fromthe Perfiansthe goldminesof Thrace.
To this accufation Cimon replied, that to the utmoft of his
power he had profecuted the war againit the Thracians and
other enemies of the ftate of Athens; but that it was true
he had not made any inroads in Macedonia, becaufe he did
not imagine that he was to act asa public enemy to man-
kind, and becaufe he was ftruck with refpeét for a nation
modeft in their carriage, juit in their dealings, and ftriéily
honourable in their behaviour towards him and the Athe-
nians ; that if his countrymen looked upon this as a crime,
he muft abide their judgment ; but, for his part, he could
never be brought to think fuch condué amifs. His defence
however was unavailing, and he was banifhed for ten years.
(B.C. 460.) i
Pericles, thus free from the control of Cimon, confirmed
his own credit with the people, and made innovations on the
eftablithed form of government. He deprived the Areopa-
us of the power BE toning in the moft important queftions
that had formerly belonged to their jurifdiction ; he render-
ed the other courts of juftice fubfervient to his pleafure ;
and he became fo abfolute in Athens, that under this repub-
lican government he poffeffed a power almoft defpotic. To
fecure the permanency of his power, while he promoted in-
duftry and beneficial a&tion, he gratified their love of plea-
fure. The city now ‘to ufe the language of Dr. Gillies)
afforded a perpetual fcene of triumph and feftivity. Dra-
matic entertainments, to which they were pafficnately ad-

ENS.

dicted, were no longer performed in flight unadorned edi.
fices, but in ftone or marble theatres, erected at great exe
peuce ; and embeilifhed with the moft precious produétiong
of nature and of art, The treafury was opened not only to
fupply the decorations of this favourite amufement, but to
enablethe poorer citizens toenjoy itwithout incurring any pri-
vate expence ; andthusat the coit of the ftate, or rathero its
tributary allies and colonies, to feaft and delight their ears and

fancy with the combined charms of mufic and poetry. The °

pleafure of the eye was peculiarly confulted aad gratified in
the architeGtre of the theatres and other ornamental build-
ings ; for as Themiitocles had ftrengthened, Pericles adorn-
ed his native city ; and unlefs we had the concurring tefti-
mony of antiguity, as well as the immortal remains of
the Parthenon or temple of Minerva, which flill excite the
admiration of travellers, it would be difficult to believe that
in the {pace of a few years there could have been created
thofe ineftimable wonders of art, thofe innumerable temples,
theatres, ftatues, altars, baths, gymnafia, and porticoes,
which, in the language of ancient panegyric, rendered
Athens the eye and light of Greece. Sums earned in ho-
nourable contefts with the Perfians, or extorted from
dependant allies, were expended in multiplying theatres, in
giving gratuitous admiffion to the poorer citizens to thefe,
and alfo to feafts and revellings, in procuring paralites, dan-
cers, andbuffoons, to flatterand gratify the coarfe tafteof the
caroufing populace, in importing the delicacies of diftant
countries, in preparing them with all the refinements of
cookery to gratify their palates, in encouraging the recep-
tion of beautiful courtezans, in coftly perfumes and fplendid
dreffes, in delighting the ears and fancy with the charms of
mufic ; in fhort, in gratifying the fenfes and the vanity of
the multitude, without the exertion of their own labour.
Meanwhile Pericles anxioufly and ably promoted the fupre-
macy of Athens over the reft of Greece. Stimulated and
affilted by the Spartans, the Thebans made war upon the
Athenians; but the ative vigilance of Pericles fent an army
to Beeotia; the valour and conduct of Myronides the Athe-
nian general obtained a decifive victory near the walls of
Tanagra. Pericles placed Athenian garrifons in feveral Beeo-
tian fortreffes ; he made the neighbouring republics of Co-
rinth and Megara feel and acknowledge the fuperiority of
Athens, and after fending Tolmidas, a commander endued
rather with an impetuous than well-regulated courage, to
ravage the coaft of the Peloponnefus, he failed thither
next year in perfon, and made the Lacedemonians and their
allies deeply regret, that they had too foon difcovered their
animofity againft a republic alike capable to prote& its
friends, and take vengeance upon its enemies. While the
Athenians were thus triumphing over the ftates of Greece,
they found an inducement to undertake an expedition
againft the territories of the Perfian king. Egypt, taking
advantage of the fucceflive defeats of the Perfian monarch,
revolted, and headed by Inarus a Libyan chief, expelled the
Perfians. Inarus, in order to ftrengthen hisintereft by foreign
alliance, difpatched an embaflyto Athens, craving the affift-
ance of that vi@orious republic againit its moft odious and
inveterate enemy. ‘The application was fuccefsful, and the
Athenians fent an army to Egypt. On their junGtion with
the king of Libya, they gave battle to the Perfians, put
them to flight, and got pofleffion of a part of Memphis.
Next year however the fcene was greatly altered; for
after feveral fruitlefs affaults, they were at laft obliged to

raife the fiege of that city on the approach of the enemy,

and to retire to Bibhs, an ifland in the Nile. In this place
they withftood an eight months liege. But their fleet hap-
pening tolie at anchor in the Nile, the Perfians, by changing

pet De Bee

ATHENS.

the courfe of the rivers rendered the ground round the thips
dry, took every one of them, and put the greateft part of their
crews to the fword, The army being thus dilabled from op-
pofing the enemy any longer, partly perifhed and partly dif.
ian During thefe misfortunes the Athenians became
fenfible of the injultice of their treatment of Cimon, and
recalled him after five years banifhment. Soon after his
return, that great man fucceeded in bringing about a peace
between his countrymen and the Lacedemonians (B.C.
455); and with a view of diverting the Athenians, grown
prefumptuous by their late good fortune, from making
war on their neighbours, he nay Fa to find occupation for
theirarms abroad. Departing, therefore, for Cyprus witha
fleet of a hundred and forty veffels under his command, and
being there joined by fixty more from Egypt, he attacked
Artabazus, the admiral of Artaxerxes, and took a hundred
of his fhips: he next made a defcent upon Cilicia, and
totally Boned Megabazus, another officer of that aes "
he thea returned to Cyprus to form the fiege of Citium,
In the courfe of the fiege, Cimon fell fick : perceiving his
end approaching, he befeeched his men to keep his death a
fecret. They followed his advice, and, proceeding with
their operations, obtained a fignal victory, in which they
took a hundred of the enemy’s fhips, and then failed back
in triumph to Attica. Artaxerxes, finding his inability to
contend with the Athenians, fent deputies to Athens to
folicit peace. His ambafladors were favourably heard in
the Athenian aflembly by thofe who were more folicitous
about confirming their ufurpations over their allies and
colonies, than ambitious of extending their Afiatic con-
quefts. Cimon, who invariably maintained the contrary
fyitem, was now no more. A peace, therefore, was con-
cluded on the following conditions: that, all the Greek
colonies in Lower Afia thould be declared independent of
the Perfian empire ; that the armies of the great king fhould
not approach within three days jouraey of the weftern
coait ; and that no Perfian veffel fhould appear between the
Cyanean rocks and the Chelidonean ifles; that is, in the
wide extent of the Zigean and Mediterranean feas, between
the northern extremity of the Thracian Bofphorus and the
fouthern promontory of Lycia. On fuch terms the Athe-
nians and their allies ftipulated to withdraw their armament
from Cyprus, and to abftain theaceforward from moletting
the territories of the king of Perfia. Such was the con-
clufion of this memorable war, which, fince the burning of
Sardis, the firft decifive a of hoftility, had been carried on
with little intermiffion during fifty-one years. [The fame
Magnanimous republic which firft ventured to oppofe the
pretenfions of Perfia, diétated to that haughty empire the
moft huiniliating conditions of peace ; an important and
iliuftriens era in Grecian hiftory, which was often celebrated
with pompous panegyric during the declining ages of Athe-
mian glory.

Having terminated the war againft the Afiatic foe with
fuch honour and advantage, the Athenians directed more
conftant and undivided efforts to render themfelves para-
mount in Greece; and, during twenty years, various con-
tefts arofe between the Athenians and neighbouring ftates.
Without purfuing the detail of thefe contentions, and the
various truces by which they received a temporary fufpen-
fion, we fhall merely mention the refult, which was ex-
tremely favourable to Athens, fo that the republic rofe to un-
precedented power. With her profperity the pride of
Athens rofe in proportion, until her neighbours, both ap-
prehenfive and envious of her power, and farther inflamed to
refentment by her infolence, formed for her humiliation a
confederacy which brought on the Pelopennefian war.

Jealoufy of an overgrown potentate, and what in modern
language is called the balance of power, was the chief and
ultimate political caufe of that celebrated war; rivalry, re-
fentment, and pride, inflamed the difference on both fides ;
but the proximate and incidental caufe was a difpute be-
tween the Corinthians and the Corcyreans, a colony from
Corinth ; the conteft was inflamed intoa war. (The details
of the difpute belong to the articles Corcyra, and Co-
RINTH.) The Corcyreans were firft fuccefsful, and gained
a great naval victory, the Corinthiaas formed a confederacy
with neighbouring ftates of the Peloponnefus (B.C. 443),
to combat the power to which they were themfelves un-
equal. Alarmed at thiscombination, the Corcyreaus applied
(B. C. 433.) for aflittance to the Athenians; and urged
that an alliance between Athens and Corcyra woul’ be ad-
vantageous to both parties; and of its benefits the Athenians
would become immediately fenfible, if they reflected that
the people of the Peloponnefus being equally hoftile to
both (the open enemies cf Corcyra, the feeret and more
dangerous enemies of Athens) ; their country muft derive a
valt acceffion of ftrength by receiving, w-thout trouble or
expence, arich and warlike ifland, which, unaffifted and
alone, had defeated a numerous confederacy, and whofe
naval force, augmenting the fleet of Athens, would for, ever
render that republic fovereign of the feas. If the Corin-
thians complained of the injuftice of receiving their colony,
let them remember that colonies are preferved by modera-
tion, and alienated by oppreflion ; that men fettle in foreign
parts to better their fituation, not to furrender their Ither
ties; to continue the equals, not to become the flaves cf
their lefs adventurous fellow-citizens. Ambaffadors from
the Corinthians endeavoured to counteraé the ‘eloquence of
the Corcyreans, conteited their propofitions concerning the
independence of colonies, affirmed that the mother-country
always retained a fupremaecy over its emigrated defeendants,
and appealed to the intereits of the Athenians, as power-
fully inducing them pratically to fupport their dodtrines
concerning the relative duties of colonies. Thefe iflanders
(they faid) acknowledged themfelves a colony of Corinth,
but pretended that fettlements abroad owe nothing to thofe ,
who eftablifhed them, to thefe whofe foftering care reared
their infaaey, from whofe bloed they fprung, by whofe arms
they have been ‘defended. We affirm, on the contrary (and
appeal to you, Athenians ! who have planted fo many colo-
nies), that the mother-country is entitled to that authority
which the Corcyreans have long fpurned, to that refpeét
which their infeignee pow refufes and cadains ; that it be-
longs to us, their metropolis, to be their leaders in war, their
magiltrates ia peace ; nor can you, Athenians! oppofe our
juft preteidions, and proteét our rebellious colony, without
fetting an example moft dangerous to yourfelves. The
Athenians. did pot implicitly liften to the arguments of
either fide, but were more favourable to the Corcyreans,
and extered into a defenfive alliance with that fate. Before
the Atheiians difpatched a flect to fupport the obje&s of
their new engagement, the Corinthians attacked the {qua-
dron of their enemies, and gained a fignal victory ; but the
arrival of the Athenian armament (B.C. 432.) prevented
them from reaping any decifive advantage from their late
fuccefs. To divert the force of the Athenians, the Coriv-
thiaas flirred up revolt among colonies which the Athes
nians had planted along the coats of Theffaly, Mace-
don, and ‘Thrace. But thefe were not their only mea
fures ; aware of the jealoufy and alarm with which Sparta
and her allies regarded the Atheaians, they tried to kindle
the combuitible particles into a conflarration, which they
truited would overwielm Athens.: They eatily fucceeded

Be 2 in

ATH

in an application fo very agreeable to the difpofitions of
thofe whofe co-operation they defired, and a general con-
federacy was formed, confifting of the feven republics of
the Peloponnefus (B. C. 431), except. Argos and Achaia 3
the firft of which from ambition, and the fecond perhaps
from moderation, preferved, in the beginning of the war,
a fafpicious neutrality. Of the nine northern republics,
Acarnania alone declined joining the allies, its coait being
particularly expofed to the ravages of the Corcyrean ficets.
The cities of Naupactus and Platea, for reafons that will
foon appear, were totally devoted to their Athenian pro-
teétors ; whofe caufe was likewife embraced by feveral petty
priaces of Theflaly.. But ail the other ftates beyond the
ifthmus longed to follow the ftandard of Sparta, and to
humble the afpiring ambition of their too powerful neigh-
bour. While they were preparing for this concert, the
Peloponnefians fent hottile embaffies and manifeitoes to the
Athenians, requiring them to grant independence) to the
colonies, and announcing the force by which the requifition
would be fupported. Alarmed by this menacing combina-
tion, the Athenian populace were filled with rage againit
Pericles, whom they accufed of having caufed this con-
federacy by his general conduct, and efpecially by a decree
which he procured againft the inhabitants of Megara, which
had revolted from the authority of Athens, and imputed his
enmity to that city to the private pique of his favourite
miitrefs Afpafia; and with the petty fufpicion of a vulgar
mob, conceived him to have appropriated to his own ufe

reat portions of the national treafure. Though the tran-
cendent virtues of Pericles were not unalloyed, yet his were
not the vices of common minds ; avarice made no part of his
compofition: he proved that his priyate expences were
juilly proportioned to the meafure of his patrimony ; many
inftances were brought of his generous contempt of wealth
in. the fervice of his country; and it appeared, after the
firiGeft examination, that his fortune had not increafed
fince he was eatrufted with the exchequer. He contended
that the fituation of the republic did not juftify defpon-
dence or fubmiffion to the di€tates of an imperious rival.
Their financial refources, military and political ftrength,
and above all the fpirit of the people, enabled them to reiift
with effe&t the efforts of their banded enemies, and by a de-
tail of the various conftituents of Athenian greatnefs con-
trafted with thofe of their rivals, illuftrated his propofition.
He therefore propofed that the anfwer to their demands
fhould difclaim their right to interfere, difavow every inten-
tion of commencing holtilities, but declare the readinefs and
ability of the Athenian republic to repel force by force.
Such an anfwer, in the relative difpofition of the parties,
was deemed tantamount to a declaration of war.

The war which now enfued, is celebrated in Grecian hii-
tory by the name of the Peloponnefian war. It-lafted for
twenty-feven years ; twenty-one of which are the fubject
of the hiftory of Thucydides; but death having prevented
that illuftrious author from purfuing it to its termination,
its continuation and conclufion was referved for Xenophon.

Hoftilities were begun by the Thebans, who attacked
Platza, a city of Beeotia, in alliance, as we have jut
mentioned, with Athens. All Greece was immediately
in motion. The Lacedemonians march toward the ifth-
mus of Corinth, a narrow neck of land about fix miles
broad, which joins the Peloponnefe to ‘the country pro-
perly called Greece, Archidamus, one of the Spartan
kings, before advancing farther, difpatches an ambaffador

to the Athenians, to. require of them to relinquifh their ©

pretenfions, But the Athenians command the meffenger
to retire, without deigning even to give him an audience.

EN 6.

The Lacedemonians thereupon advanced with an army of
60,009 men, while that of the Athenians amounted to no
more than 18,000; but, to make up the odds, the latter
had a fleet of 300 gallies. .On the approach of the Lace-
demonian army, the inhabitants of the country abandoned
their habitations, and carrying away every thing they could,
took refuge in Athens. The plan of operations purfied
by the Athenians, on the fuggeftion of Pericles, was to
weary out the enemy by protratting the war. The Lace:

zmonians entering Attica, laid fiege to Enoe, bit being
obliged, after a few fruitlefs affaults, to relinquifh that at-
tempt, they advanced {till nearer to Athens, and encamped
within half a league of the city. Unwilling, while fo much
inferior in point of numbers, to hazard the fate of the re=
public in a general battle, Pericles found it difficult to’ pre-
vent the Athenians, exafperated at the fight of the ravages
committed on their country, from fallying forth upon the
enemy. But by means of his admirable art in managing
the multitude, he kept both the fenate and the people from
affembling to deliberate, though at the expence of number-
lefs infults from his enemies ; in {pite of which he perfifted
in his plan, unmoved either by threats or entreaties. In
the mean time he difpatched a fleet of one hundred fhips to
ravage the coafts of the Peloponnefe; which being joined
by that of the allies, made a defcent upon Laconia, and
laid watte the territories of Sparta. The Lacedemoniaasfind=
ing all their endeavours to draw the Athenians out of their
city ineffectual, and receiving intelligence of the ravages
committed in Laconia by the Athenian fleet, found them-
felves under the neceflity of withdrawing from Attica.
On the fetting out of the expedition againit the coaft of
Laconia, an extraordinary eclipfe of the fun happened juit
as Pericles was going on board of his galley.” Pericles
perceiving the Athenians to bé terrified at this phenomenon,
which they confidered as an unlucky prefage, threw his
cloak over the face of the pilot, and afked him if he faw?
the pilot having anfwered in the negative, Pericles explained
to the by-itanders, that the body of the moon, being in
like manner interpofed at that inftant between their fight
and the fun, prevented them from feeing his light. Wher
the Lacedemonians retired out of Attica, the Athenians
appropriated a hundred talents of money, and a hundred of
their beft fhips, for the more immediate defence of their
country, in cafe of a frefh invafion, prohibiting any perfon,
under pain of death, from propofing a different application
of thoie refources. They then expelled from the ifland

4
-

of Egina its prefent inhabitants, whom they regarded as.

the principal caufe of the war; and they divided that
ifland by lot among the citizens of Athens. They made
an alliance with the kings of Macedon and Thrace; fub-
dued the ifland of Cephalonia ; laid waite the territory of
Megara; and took the harbour of Nifeum; this concluded
the frft campaign. The Athenians next celebrated funeral
rites to the memory of thofe who had fallen fince the
beginning of the war. For this purpofe, a large tent was
conftruGed, wherein they expofed the bones of the flain,
which were covered with flowersand perfumes. Then the
bones were carried with much pomp and folemnity to a
fuburb of the city called Ceramicus, where they were de-
polited in a monument deftined to be the tomb of thofe
who fell in war, and laftly, one of the citizens pronounced
a funeral oration in their praife; a charge which on this
occafion was undertaken by Pericles himfelf. Though
always fuperlatively eloquent, he at this time feemed to out-
do himfelf ; and in pronouncing the eulogium on thofe who
were no more, he omitted no argument that might inflame
the courage of the furvivors. ‘Thucydides has preferved

this

os

a

this famous oration, of which the beautiful expreffions and
lofty fentiments are equally admired. The army of the
Lacedemonians and their allies returned into Attica, and
laid every thing watte with fire and fword, But the plague,
which then raged among the Athenians, was ftill more
pernicious to them, depriving them of their beft citizens and
bravelt foldiers; and Athens exhibited nothing but a me-
lancholy fcene of ficknefs and death. Of this dreadful
feourge, an awfully itriking account is exhibited in the
energetic defcription of Thucydides. Without dwelling
on the corporeal fymptoms which the hiftoriam prefents in
his affecting narrative of this feourge, we fhall merely give
the fubftance of its moral effets. At the beginning of this

dreadful calamity, fublime examples of filial piety and ge-_

nerous friend{hip were difplayed ; but as the confequences
were almoft always fatal to the children and friends, they
were but rarely repeated afterwards. Then the molt re-
fpeGable ties were broken ; the eyes about to clofe for ever,
beheld on all fides only the moft profound folitude, and
death no longer produced a tear. This callous infentibility
save birth to an unbridled licentioufnefs. The death of
fo many worthy men, mingled without diftin&tion in the
fame tomb with villains; the deftru€tion of fo many for-
tunes, become fuddenly the inheritance or prey of the
lowelt citizens, made a lively impreflion on thofe who have
no other principle but fear. Perfuaded that the gods no
longer protected or regarded virtue, and that the vengeance
of the laws would not be fo prompt as the death impending
over them, they imagined that the inftahulity of human pol-
feffions pointed out the ufe that they fhould make of them,
and that having but a few moments to live, they were jufti-
fied at leaft in palling them in the midft of pleafures.
Notwithitanding the diftreffes in which Athens was in-
volved, the elevafed foul of Pericles, witli unbroken forti-
tude, planned the extrication of his country, as far as it
was practicable by human means. A fumerous family fell
fucceilive viétims to the rapacious peftilence. ‘Though a
tenderly affectionate father, he bore the difafter with mag-
manimous ferenity. At the funeral of the laft of his fons,
he dropped, mdced, a few reluctant tears of paternal ten-
dernefs ; but afhamed of this momentary weaknels, he bent
his undejeéted mind to the defence of the republic. Having
colleéted an hundred Athenian, together with fifty Chian
and Lefbian veffels, he failed through the Saronic gulph,
and ravaged the unprotected coalts of Elis, Argos, and
Laconia. The plague breaking out in the fleet, defeated
the fuccefs of the expedition, and revifiting Athens with
redoubled fury, almoft defolated the city. Maddened by
their accumulated fufferings, the Athenians imputed their
miferable fituation to Pericles: they deprived him of his
authority, and condemned him to a fine; but they foon
acknowledged their folly and injuftice. He was again pre-
yailed on to refume the reins of adminitraticn, and _ his
lait efforts were employed to ftimulate his country to that
vigour of counfels and of conduét which only could preferve
her power, honour, and independence: temporary difafter
might affail, but in the nature of things its duration could
not be long; Athens would ultimately triumph, if fhe was
true to herfelf. . «* Of the two elements,” he {aid, «¢ deitined
for the ufe of men, the fea and the land, we abfolutely
command the one, nor is there any kingdom, or republic,
or confederacy, that pretends to difpute our dominion.
Let this confideration elevate our hopes, and perfonal
affliétions will difappear at the view of public profperity.
Let us bear, with refignation, the ftrokes of Providence,
and we fhall repel with vigour the affaults of our enemies.
« Stis the hereditary and glorious diftinétion of our republic,

ENS.

never to yield to adverfity. We have defied danger, ex.
pended treafure and blood, and amidft obftinate and for-
midable wars, augmented the power, and extended the fame
of acity, unrivalled in wealth, populoufnefs, and fplendor,
and governed by laws and inftitutions worthy of its magni-
ficence and renown. If Athens muft perifh, (as what
human pvandeur is not fubje€&t to decay ?) let her never fall
at leaft through our puiillanimity ; a fall that would can-
cel the merit of our former virtue, and deftioy at once that
edifice of glory which it has been the work of ages to
rear. When our walls and harbours are no more, when
the terror of our navy fhall have ceafed, and our external’
magnificence fhall have fallen to decay, the glory of Athens
fhall remain. ‘(his is the prize I have hitherto exhorted,
and itillhexhort you to defend, regardlefs of the clamours
of floth, the fufpicions of cowardice, or the perfecution of
Thefe were the laft efforts of this illuftrious man ;
he was foon after feized with the plague, which proved fa-
tal. On his death-bed, retaining his underftanding, his
chief comfort was, not the fplendor of his genius and
achievements, but the recolleétion of his well-fpent life.
When he was about to yield his laft breath, the leading
men of Athens affembled round his bed were foothing
their affliction by recounting his viétories and the number
of his trophies. “ Thefe attions,’’ faid he to them, railing
himfelf up with difficulty, “ are the works of fortune, and
common to myfelf with other generals ; the only eulogium I
merit is, that I have never been the caufe that any cit
zen fhould wear mourning.”? ( Gillies.)

After thedeathof Pericles,two perfons contended for the di-
rectionof affairs; Cleon, aturbulentandimpudent demagogue,
devoid of talents, or of any moral qualities which entitled’
him to pre-eminence, but a great favourite with the lower
populace ; and Nicias, a man of folid ability, prudence, and’
integrity: and for feveral years the war was fuccefsful or un-
fuecefsful according as the one or the other predominated.

About this time the Peloponnefians invefted Platea, a city
in alliance with Athens. ‘This fiege is not only remarkable
for the obitinate refiftance of the belieged, but for being the
firft recorded in hittory which was conduéted with any fort
of regularity. Both parties here made ule of mounds of
earth, the one to attack, the other to defend. The Pelo-
ponnefians burnt a part of the town by means of bundles of
{ticks, to which they fet fire. On the otherhand, the be-
fieged negleéted no expedient to fruitrate the various at-
tempts of the enemy. But the moft furprifine circumftance
of all is, that fo fmall a place as Platea, which contamed
no more than four hundred inhabitants, and eighty. Athe- -
nians, was capable of making fo vigorous a refiftance
again{t a powerful army, ‘The enemy at laft changed the:
fiege into a blockade, and furrounded the town with two
ditches. The Bootians were left to guard thefe intrench-
ments, and the bulk of the army marched away. The be-~
fieged having loft all hope of fuccour, refolved to attempt
to make their efcape out of the town; which about one
half of them effeGted by a very daring ftratacem, fuggelted
and executed by defpair. The remaming half, difmayed at
the dangers attending the attempt, continued in the town.
But finding themfelves unable to defend it any longer, they
were obliged to furrender at diferetion: eight Spartans
went to decide their fate ; the miferable Platceans pleaded
in vain that they had been forced, through neceffity, to
fide with the Athenians, in order to obtain their protection
againft the Tkebans, by whom they were grieyoufly ’
oppreffled. ‘They were all murdered in cold blood ; their
wives were carried into flavery ; and their town was razed
to the ground. Such was the melancholy fate of the Pla- -

6 = teans,

envy.”

ACE HE EM S. .

teans, who, during the Perfian way, had rendered the mot
figoal fervices to Greece.

(B.C. 428.) In the fourth year of the war, the Pelo-
ponnefians, agreeably to their general plan, iavaded Attica
by land, whilft the Athenians as before fent a naval force
to devaftate the coalts of their enemics. Between two
parties, of which the one was evidently fuperior by land,
aud the other by fea, if both fxilfully employed their
refources, there muft be an alternation of victory. and de-
feat, which by reciprocal diminution of refources through
the evils of war, demonftrated peace to be mutually bene-
ficial. This year, however, threatened a blow to the naval
power of Athens that might materially affect the equi-
ponderancy. The maritime firength of Athens depended
in a confiderable degree upon her foreign fettlements and
domiaions. As her treatment of thefe was frequently im-
perious, and even oppreflive, her dependencies did not bear
‘her fupremacy without repining. Avvailing themfelves of
the prefent difficulties, all the inhabitants of Lefbos, except
thofe of Methymne, refolved to feparate from Athens.
The Athenians, fenfible how great alofs the defcQion of
this ifland muft be, fent out a fleet of forty gallies to
attack that of the Mitylenians, who, finding themfelves re-
pulfed, propofed terms of accommodation; which were
liftened to by the Athenians. A fufpenfion of hoftilities
being agreed on, the Mitylenians. difpatched ambafladors
both to. Athens and to Lacedxmon at the fametime. The
ambafladors were told by the Lacedemonians, that they
fhould be fully heard at the approaching Olympic games,
where the other allies would have an opportunity of affitt-
ing at the conference. ‘Thucydides has tran{mitted to us
the import of what was urged by thefe ambafiadors ;
from which we fee, that they admitted the treaty anciently
concluded between the Lefbians and Athenians, and afliga-
ed the ambition of the iatter, not their prefent misfortunes,
as the reafon that induced them now to relinquifh that
treaty. The allies were fatisfied with their reafons, and
admitted them into their confederacy. Informed of thefe
preparations, the Athenians fitted out a fleet of a hun-
dred fail, appeared unexpectedly off the promontory of
the ifthmus of Corinth, and made a defcent upon the Pe-
loponnefe, while another fleet protected the coats of At-
tica. Never had they raifed fo formidable an armament
before ; and it fo overawed the Lacedemonians, that they
hurried back to the defence of their own country. The
Athenians, in the mean time, puthed on the fiege of Mity-
lene, whither they fent a detachment of a thoufand fol-
diers, and the town was blocked up both by fea and land.
The iphabitants receiving no afliftance from the Lacedxmo-
nians, and being prefled by famine, were obliged to furrender
at diferetion. The authors of the revolt, to the number of
more than a thoufand, were conveyed to Athens, and there
put to death. Orders were at the lame time iffued to maf-
facre the reft of the inhabitants, by way of example. But
the people, fhocked at fuch horrible cruelty, caufed the de-
cree to be revoked, and difpatched counter orders ; which
luckily arrived at the inflant they were proceeding to put
the firft iu execution. (Thucydides.) ‘Then the town was
difmantled, and the whole territory of the ifland, except
Methymne alone, was divided by lot among the inhabitants
of Athens. The fifth (B.C. 427) year of the war was
principally diftinguifhed by the fedition of Corcyra. In the
courfe of hottilities, the Corinthians had captured a confi-
derable number of thofe iflanders, and wifely treated them
witha gentlenefs and kindaefs which gained their affections.
Having brought them to this difpofition, they earneftly
perfuaded them, when they fhould retura to their country,

to employ their efforts for reconciling the children with the
parent country,-and detaching their fellow-citizens from
Athens, the tyrant over her allies. ‘The Corcyreans were
difmiffed, and arriving at home, endeavoured to reconcile’
their countrymen tothe Peloponnefians. The ariftocratical
party very readily agreed, and formed a confpiracy for
maflacring the leaders of the democratic party. The com-
mons applied to the Athenians, who fent a fleet to affift
their partifans. The Peloponnefians alfo fent 2 fquadron
to fwpport the nobles: but the Athenians preferving their
maritime fuperiority, their enemies retired, and the demo-
crats were paramount. ‘Their cruelty was fo fignal, as from
that time to give the name of Corcyrean to every fedition
of uncommon atrocity. The following account, in the ele-
gant language of Dr. Gillies, contains an awful monument .
of the dreadful effects of inteftine diffenfion.

<< The unhappy prifoners were firft confined in a dungeon.
Dragged fucceflively from thence, in parties of twenty at a
time, they were compelled to pais in pairs, their hands tied
behind their backs, between two ranks of their enemies,
armed with whins, prongs, and every ieitrumest of licentious
and difcraceful torture. The wretches left in prifon were
long iguorant of the ignominious cruelty infli@ed on their’
compantous: but, as ee as they learned the abominable
fcenes traafaéted, they refufed to qiit their confizement,
guarded the entrance, and invited, with one confent, the
Athenians to murder them. But the Athenians wanted
either humanity or firmneis to.commit this kiad cruelty.
The Corcyrean populace ventured not to force a paflage
from def{pair. They mounted the prifoa walls, uncovered
the roof, and overwitelmed thefe below with itones, darts,
and arrows. Thefe weapons were deltructive to many, and
furnifhed others with the means of deftroying themfelves,
or each other. They laid down their heads, opened their ~
breatts, expofed their necks, mutually folicitiag, in plaintive
or frantic accents, the fatal fireke. The whole night (for
night intervened) was {pent in. this horrid fecene ; and the
morning prefented a {pectacle too fhocking for defertption.
The-obdurate hearts of the Corcyreans were incapable of
pity or remorfe; but their relenting eyes could not bear
the fight; and they commanded the bodies of their fellow=
citizens, now breathlefs or expiring, to be thrown on carts,
and coaveyed without the walls.” ‘Thus ended the fedition
of Corcyra; but its confequences were not foon to end.
The contagion of that unhappy ifland, engendered a politi-.
cal malady, which {pread its baneful influence over Greece.
The arifocratical, and {till more, the popiar governments
of that country, had ever been liable to faction, which occa-
fionally blazed into fedition. But this morbid tendeaey,-
congenialto the contlitution of republics, thenceforthaffumed
a more dangerous appearance, and betrayed more alarming
fymptoms. In every republic, and almoft in every city,
the intriguing and ambitious found the ready protection of
Athens, or of Sparta, according as their felfifh and guilty’
defigns were fcreened under the pretence of maintaining
the prerogatives of the nobles, or aflerting the privileges.
of the people. A virtuous and moderate ariftocracy, an:
equal impartial freedom, thefe are the colourmgs which
ferved to jutify violence, and varnifh guilt) Sheitered by» -
the fpecious coverings of fair names, the prodigal affaffin
delivered himfelf from the importunity of his creditor.
The father, with unnatural cruelty, pusifhed the licentious
extravagance of his fon; the fon avenged, by parricide, the
flern feverity of his father. The debates of the public
aflembly were decided by the fword. Not fatisfied with
victory, men thirfted for blood. ‘This general diforder
overwhelmed laws human and divine. The ordinary ate a

0

AT FEN.

of ovents wes reverfed: fentiments loft their natural foree,

and words their ufeal meaning. Dulloefs and ftupidity
triumphed over abilities and yefinement; for while the
crafty and ingeniqyis were laying fine-fpun fares for
enemies, men of blunter minds bar immediate recourfe to
the ford and peignard. Hitherto the war had been car-
ried on without any maternal advantage to cither party,
The following year (B.C. 426.) more critical events took
place; Demoithenes, a general of merit and exterprile,
commanded the Athenian forces at Naupaétus, which had
been beitowed on the unfortunate Meflenians; by. whofe
alfiitance, together with that of the Athenian allies in Acar-
mania, Demeilthe.--s undertook to fubdue Agiolia, The
Mefienians being continually harafled by the tolians, per-
fuaded Demofthenes that it would be eafy to overrun
their country, before the inhabitants, who lived in feattered
villages; widely feparated from each other, could colleét
their force, or attempt refiftance. In purfuance of this ad-
vice, Demofthenes entered /Etolia, took and plundered the
towns, azd dreve the inhabitants before him. During feve-
ral days he marched unrefifled; but having proceeded to
Egitium, the principal, or rather only city in the province,
he found that his defign had by no means efcaped the notice
of the enemy. Living in a country abounding in defiles,
and involved in woods, the A&tolians, though irregular and
defultory in their warfare, yet employirg a fpecies of buth
fighting not unlike to that which, two and twenty centuries
afterwards, has been ufed by the American Indians, defeated
the regularly difciplined heroes of Athens, asd Demoithenes
was obliged to take refuge in Naupactus. The Athenian
general, however, foon found means to irritate thofe Barba-
rians to venture a conteft in the plains, and, with great eafe,
obtained a fignal victory. Elevated with this fuccefs,
Demofthenes undertook an expedition to the weftern fhore
of Peloponnefus, and feized Pylus. ‘The Spartans, eager
to recover this important poft, attempted to diflodge the
enemy, but were defeated, and obliged to take refuge in
Sphatteria, a {mail ifland upon the coaft; andthe Athenians,
being matters of the fea, {vrrounded their retreat, aud cut off
all dupplies of provifions. Anxious to fave thofe troops,
the Spartans fent ambafladors to Athens with propofals of

eace. ‘The ambafladors frankly owned the extreme ne-

‘ceffity that had obliged the Lacedemonians to fubmit to fo

humiliating a ftep, put the Athenians in mind of the uncer-
tain fate of arms, and exhorted them to embrace this op-
portunity of -reftoring tranquillity to Greece. But the
Athenians, grown prefumptuous by their good fortune, as
well as by the flattering oration of their favourite demagogue
Cleon, required, as a preliminary condition, that the troops
confined in the ifland fhould lay down their arms, and be
conduéted to Athens, upon the promife of the Athenians
to fet them at liberty as foon as the Lacedemonians hed
delivered up the places conquered by them, from the Athe-
nians. The Lacedemonians refufed to comply with this
conditicn, and beth parties prepared themfelves for war. The
Athenians, in the mean time, were very vigilant to prevent
any provifions from paffing into the ifland of Sphacteria.
The Lacedemonians, on the other hand, engaged the whole
country round to contribute their utmott efforts to relieve
the befieged troops, and promifed to fet free all the flaves
who fhould fucceed in carrying them provifions; which
many did, at the extreme hazard of their lives. In the
mean time, the Athenians in Pylus began, on their part,
to be ftraitened for provifions. Cleon perfuaded the
people, that the flownefs of the fiege was owing to the
inactivity of their commanders; and maintained, that a
little vigour muit very foon reduce the ifland, which he

offered to accomplith himfclf. Tdaving been according]
6 Sy
fent thither, and having joined Demosthenes, they landed
together in epialeria, and beat the enemy to the extre-
mity of the ifland, The Lacedemonians, however, took
pohiefiion of a fortification, asd deferded, with the moft
defperate courage, the only paffage by which they could
be attacked. But the general of the Meiecians, havine
& 2 3
difcovered a difficult pafs that led to ¢ fortification
, 7
marched that way, and appearing unexpectedly on the
rear of the Lacedwmoniang, called alend to them to lay
Gown their arms. The Lacedemonians, exhaujted with
heat and fatigue, obeyed the fummons, by layirg t!
fhields on the ground; aud, after a fhort conference, they
furrendered at diferetion. The Athenians, aiter ereftine
o
a trophy, reimbarked on beard of their flect. This flece
J? t
continved 4ixty-two days. Cleon is faid to have ca
fed 128 of thofe unhappy Spartans to be murdered.
The reft were conveyed to Athens, and thrown i.to pri-
? .
fon, till peace fhould take place ; the Athen eaten~
L£ b]
ing, at the fame time, to p:

£

t them a:! to death, if the
Lacedemonians made any more incurfions into their comutry.
Soon after happened the fedition of Megar
bitants of that town, after expelling tt

quarreiled among themfelyes, one party being for recalling

their magifirates, the other, for delivering their tcwn iato

the hands of the Athenians. Brafidas, in the mean time,

the bet officer the Lacedemonians then had, having come

before Megara, its gates are immediately throwa open

tohim. The exiled magiftrates returning foon after, and re-

fuming their authority, condemn to death one hundred in-

habitants of the oppofite faGion. Brafidas advances into

Thrace, fubdues feveral cities, and lays fiege to Amphi-

pelis, a place of much impertance to the Atheniars, who

thence got the greateft part of their wood. They therefore

difpatched Thucydides, the famous hiftorian, to its relief ;

but the place was taken before his arrival. His country-
men, however, imputed to him the lofs of the place, and

banifhed him at the inftigation of Cleon. The Athenians

having about the fame time advanced into Beotia, under

the command of Demofthenes and Hippocrates, were de-
feated near Delium by the Thebans, who, after their vitory,

befieged and took that town. No decifive advantage had

been hitherto obtained by either party. “The Athenians

and Lacedemonians therefore agreed on a truce fora year 5.
which Brafidas, who had been fuccefsful in all his enter-
priles, bore with great impatience. Cleon, on the other

hand, who had acquired much authority in Athens by

means of his bold and vehement eloquence, incited his coun-

trymen to refume the war. Being more prefumptuous than

flalful in military operations, he refolyed to attempt the re-

taking of Amphipolis, hoping to be aflifted by a body of
troops from Perdiccas king of Macedon. But Brafidas

got the flart of him, and threw himfelf into the town. To.
increafe the prefumption of Cleon, the Spartan general,,
who was well acquainted with his character, affected to be

afraid of an encounter ; but after making the proper difpo-
fitions, Brafidas fallied forth unexpetedly, and attacked the

left wing of the Athenians, which, being the flower of their
army, made a vigerous refiftance. LBrafidas, however, at

laft broke them, and killed fix hundred, with very little

lofs on his own fide. This attack difeoncerted and terrified

Cleon, who was killed by a Spartan foldier as he was flying

from the battle. Brafidas was of the number of the flaia

on the fide of the Lacedzmonians. He was an excellent offi-
cer, equally brave and prudent, and deferves to be ranked

among the Lacedemonian heroes. Ji was the mother of

this general, who, on hearing the exploits of her fon com-.
a mended,,

LS 5
ihe in

- ={ > LARS
magiftratcs,

2

ATHENS. | |

mended, anfwered, “ It is true, my fon was a brave man ;
but I doubt not that Sparta has many citizens as brave as
“he.”
' 'The-battle of Amphipolis removed the principal obftacles
to peace. There was not any Spartan general qualified to
accomplifh the defigns of Bralidas ;, and the Athenians, de-
jected by defeat; and humbied by difgyace, wanted thie
beld impofing eloquence of Cleon, to difguife their weak-
efs, and varnifh their misfortunes. (Gilles.) With the
heartened remains of da enfeebled armament, they de-
{paired of recovering their Macedonian poffeflions ; and
the greater part returned home, well difpofed for an accom-
nodation with the enemy. Thefe difpofitions were con-
firmed by the pacific temper of Nicias, who had fueceeded
to the influence of Cleon, and whe fortunately difcovered
in the moderation of Pleifloatax; king of Sparta, a coad-
jutor extremely foligitous: to promote his Views. During
winter, fevexal, friendly conferences were held between the
commiffione#s of the two republics ; and towards the com-
mencement ef the, eniuing {pring, a treaty ofpeace, and
foon afterwards a defenfive alliance, for fifty years, was ra-
tified by the kings and ephori of Sparta/on the one fide,
and by the apchons and cenerals of Aitiiens on the other.
In confequence of this negotiation, which was intended to
comprehend the refpective allies of. the contracting parties,
all placesand prifoners taken apthe courfe of the war,, were
to be mutually vied; tht revolted cities in Macedon
were fpecified by tia:ne; but it was regulated that the
Athenians fhov id not rgquire from them any higher revenue
than that apjoriioyed by the juttice of Aniftides.. (See
Thucydides.) er”

While thée,Athenians were thus engaged in wars, and
often employed in injuftice, their city produced a perfonage
who taught his couatrymen and mankind the purett ethics
that ever flowed froma human fource. Socrates was now
in the full vigour of his genius, which he employed in fim-
-plifying practical philofophy to the comprenenfion of com-
mon minds, and to inculcate the #ecefiary connection be-
tween piety and virtue and happinefs. “(See Xenophon’s
Memorabilia.) From the perfections of the fupreme intel-
ligence he deduced his julk government of the univerfe,
which implied the immortality of the human foul.’ But
the great cbhjeCvof his refearch was to difeover the general
laws by which, even in this life, the fuperintending provi-
dence had varioufly difpenfed to men good and evil, happi-
nefs and mifery. Thefe laws he regarded as the promul-
gated will of the gods, with which, when clearly afcertained,
it became our duty invariably to comply: fince nothing
but the moft fhort-fighted folly could rifk incurring the di-
vine difpleafure, in order to avoid pain or poverty, ficknefs
or death, far lefs to enjoy perifhing grattfications, which
leave a fting behind-them. Reafouing on fuch principles,
and taking experience only for his guide, he deduced with
admirable peripicuity the interefts and duties of nations
and individuals in all the complicated relations of fociety.
The aGtions of men furnifhed the materials, their inflruGtion
formed the object, their happinefs was the end of his dif-
courfe. Wherever his leffons might be moft generally ufe-
ful, there he was always to be found, frequenting at an
early hour the Acadethy, ‘Lyceum, and other public gym-
nafia; pundtually attending the forum at mid-day, the hour
of full affembly ; and in the evening, joining, without the
aife€tation of aufterity, in the convivial entertainments of
his friends, or accompanying them in the delightfnl walks
which adorned the banks oF the Tlyffus. Asa hufband, a
father, a citizen, and a foldier, the fteady practice of his
duty continually Iuftrated his do@rine. ‘The converfation

and example of this truly practical philofepher (and thisis his
higheft praife) perfuaded many of his fellow citizens fincerety
to embrace a virtuous courfe of hfe; and even thole who
allowed the current of their paffions to prevail over the cou-
viétion of their fober hours, were’ fill charmed with the
wonderful extent, as well 2s the fingular accuracy, of his
various knowledge, with the acutenefs and penetration of
his various arguments; the beauty, vivacity, and periuafive-
nefs of his flyle, with which he aflumed the tone of reafon
or of cule, furpaffed whatever had been deemed moit
eloquent. Among the Atheniax youth whom this fape at-
tempted to form to yirtue, was the celebrated Alcibiades,
but a previoufly corrupted education vendered his tafle ex-
tremely difficult. The tender years of Alcibiades were
committed to the illiberal difcipline of mercenary precep-
tors ; his youth and inexperience were befet by the de-
{tru€tive adulation of feryile flatterers (Plutarch’s. Al ibi-
ades), until the young Atheman, having begun to relifh
the poems of Hiomer, the admiration of which is congenial
to every great mind (Ibid.), learned from thence to defpife
the pedantry of the one, and to deteit the meannefs of the
other. Vrom Homer, Alcibiades early imbibed that ambi-
tion for excellence which is the great leflon of the immortal
bard. Having attained the verge of manhood, he readily
diftinguifhed, among the crowd of rhetoricians and fophiits,
the fuperior merit of Socrates. The fage, whofe company
was courted by his other difeiples, himfeli courted the com-
pany of Alcibiades ; and when the ungrateful youth fome-
times efcaped to his centious companions, the philofopher
purfued him with the eagernefs of a father or matter,
anxious to recover a fugitive fon or flave. See Aucinia-
prs. But this favourite laboured under a defeét which
could not be compenfated by the higheit birth, the molt
{plendid fortune, the nobleft endowments of mind and bo-
dy, and even the incltimable friendfhip of Socrates. He
wanted an honett heart. This we are warranted to affirm
on the authority of contemporary writers, Lyfias and Xe-
nophon, who acknowledge that firlt admiration, and then
intereft, was the foundation of his attachment to the
illuitrious fage, by whofe initruction he expected to’, be-
come not a good but an able man. Some inclination to
virtue he might, in fuch company, perhaps feel, but more
probably feign; and the niceit difcernment might miftake
the real character of a man who could adopt at pleafure

the molt oppofite manners ; and who, as will appear from _

the fubfequent events of his various life, could furpafs the

fplendid magnificence of Athens, or the rigid frugality of

Sparta; could conform, as intereft required, to the labo-

rious exercifes of the Thebans, or to the voluptueus indo-

lence of Ionia; affume the foft effeminacy of an Eaftern

prince, or rival the fturdy vices of the drunken Thracians.
Nepos’s Alcibiades.)

The firll fpecimen of his political condu& difcovered
the extraordinary refources of his verfatiie mind. Ge o E
pofed the peace of Nicias, as the work of a rival whom he
wifhed to difgrace. His ambition longed for war, and
the Spartans deferved his refentment, having in all their
tranfactions with Athens, teltified the utmoit refpeét for
Nicias, while they were at no pains to conceal their want
of regard for himfelf, though his family had been long
connected with their republic by an intercourfe of hofpi-
tality, and he had endeavoured to ftrengthen that connec-
tion by his perfonal good offices to the Lacedemonians
taken in Sphaéteria. ‘To gratify at once his refentment,”
his ambition, and ‘his jealoufy, he determined to renew
the war with Sparta; a defign by no means difficult at
the prefent junéture. In compliance with the peace of

Niciasy

’ the conditions ftipulated in return.

AYE ELIE NS:

Nicias, the Spartans withdrew their troops from Amphi-
‘polis: but they would reftore neither that city nor the
neighbouring places in Macedon, to the dominion of Athens.
The Athenians, agreeably to the treaty, allowed the cap-
tives taken in Sphacteria to meet the longing embraces of
their kinfmen and friends; but good policy forbade their
furrendering Pylus, until the enemy had performed fome of
Mutual unwillingnefs
or inability to comply with the articles of peace, fowed the
feeds of animofity, which found a favorable foil in both re-
publics. The authority of thofe magiftrates who fupported
the pacific meafures of Nicias and Pleiftoanax had expired.
The Spartan youth, wifhed, by new hottilities, to cancel
the memory of a war, which had been carried on without
profit, and terminated’ with difionour; but the wifer part
perceived that better fuccefs could not be expected while
the Athenians poffeffed Pylus. In their eagernefs to reco-
ver that fortrefs, they renewed their alliance with the The-
bans, from whom they received Phanactum, which they
hoped to exchange for Pylus ; forgetting in this tranfaétion
an important claufe in their treaty with Athens, ‘that nei-
ther of the contracting powers fhould, without mutual com-
munication and confent, conclude any new alliance.” T'he
Thebans rejoiced in the profpeét of embroiling the affairs
of Athens and Sparta; and the Corinthians, guided by
the fame hoftile views, readily concurred with the Thebans,
‘and openly re-entered into the Lacedemonian confederacy.
‘The Peloponnefian war was renewed with various fucceis.
‘The addrefs of Alcibiades prevailed on the Argives to join
‘the Athenians ; and though the Spartans gained a confider-
‘able vi€tory at Mantinza, the Athenians were on the whole
pre-eminent. Elated with fucceis, the Athenians undertook
the conqueft of the ifland of Melos, a fate that never had
‘been dependent on Athens, nor ever interfered in the Pelo-
ponnefian war. The Athenians fent Ambafladors to require
the iflanders to furrender. ‘The conference between their
deputies and the Melian ftatefmen is detailed by Thucydides,
and is one of the moft curious and interefting pieces re-
corded in ancient political hiftory. It may indeed well be
ftyled the moral creed of conquering adventurers, more
‘openly promulgated than in modern manifeftoes, but con-
taining the fame fentiments which dictated in our own
times the partitioning fcheme fer the fpoliation of Poland,
with this difference, that modern robbers on a great f{cale,
by fome fpecious plea of right, do homage to the juftice
which they tranfgrefs; whereas the Athenian deputy did
not fhock common fenfe by fuch an unfounded pretext.
‘He ftated the real title to the feizure of other people’s pro-
perty, fuperior power ; that the ftrong may uig what free-
dom they pleafe with the weak. There is not a fingle word
faid tending to prove either juft right in the Athenians, or
agereffion in the Melians. "The Athenian {tates the power
of his country, and the miferies the Melians would fuffer if
‘they attempted refiftance. The peroration to this cele-
‘brated difcuffion fully illuftrates the principles on which the
Athenians proceeded, and fums up the diplomatic reafon-
“ing: ‘ You are determined,” faid the Athenian ambaflador,
« it feems, to learn by fatal experience, that fear never
compelled the Athenians to defift from their defigns, efpe-
“cially never to raife the fiege of any place which they had
once invefted. Por during the whole of this long confer-
ence, you have not mentioned a fingle particular capable of
affording any juft ground of confidence. Deceived by the
{plendor of words, you talk of honour and independence,
rejecting the offers of a powerful ftate, whofe arms you are
_unable to refiit, and whofe protetion you might obtain at
Biber Pence of a moderatetribute. Left fhame fhould have
ox. III.

any fhare in this dangerous behaviour, we fhall leave you to
confult. privately, only reminding you once more, that your
prefent deliberations inyolve the fate of your country.” The
Athenian ambafladors retired, and fhortly afterwards the
Melians recalled them, and declared their unanimous refo-
lution not to betray in ore unlucky hour the liberty which
they had maintained for feven hundred years ; depending on
the vigorous affiftance of t] ter cinfmen, and
ch had hi-
eral convulfions of

therto preferved then
Greece. But they entreated the Athenians to accept their
offers of neutrality, and to abftain from unprovoked vic-
lence. ‘The ambafladors prepared for returning to the camp,
leaving the commiffioners with a farcaftic threat, “ that of
all men, in fuch a delicate fituation, the Melians alone
thought the future more certain than the pait, and would
grievoufly fuffer for their folly, in preferring to the pro-
polals of certain and immediate fafety, the deceitfulnefs of
hope, the inftability of fortune, and the vain profpect of
Lacedemonian aid.”” The Athenians, mritated by oppo-
fition, invefted without delay the capital of Melos, which
was blocked up for feveral months by fea and land. The
befieged, after fuffering cruelly by famine, made feveral
defperate failies, feized the Athenian magazines, and de~
flroyed part of their works. But towards the end of win-
ter, their refiftance was defeated by the vigorous efforts of
the enemy, combined with domeftic treafon. The males
above the age of fourteen were put to the fword; the
women and children were fubjeéted to perpetual fervitude ;
and five hundred new inhabitants, drawn from the neigh-
bouring colonies of Athens, were fent to occupy the vacant
lands which had been cultivated and adorned for feven cen-

turies by the labour of the exterminated Melians.
Succefsful injuftice encouraged the Athenians to more
arduous {chemes of aggreffion and conqueit, and they hoped
to fubjugate the whole courfe of the Mediterranean. Under
thefe vifionary fancies, they projected an expedition to Si-
cily, which proved fo fatal to Athenian greatnefs. With
the ufual policy of conquerors, they maintained a clofe in-
tercourfe with the weaker ftates of a country which they
projefted to fubdue. Since the death of ‘Pericles, they had
concluded a treaty with the Leontines, who, being hard
prefled by the Syracufans, applied for affiftance to their new
confederates; for this purpofe they fent an embafly to
Athens, at the head of which was the celebrated orator
Gorgias, who pleaded the caufe of the Leontines in an ora-
tion fo elegant and pathetic, that the requeft of the ambafla-
dors was granted ; and the Athenians fent a fleet to Rhe-
gium, to affiftthe Leontines. Next year (B.C. 415), they
{ent thither a more numerous fleet ftill, under pretence of
afiiiting the towns oppreffed by the Syracufans, but in fact
to open to themfelvesa way to the conqueft of Sicily. Al-
cibiades, by his harangues, inftigated the Athenians fill
more and more to this undertaking, and talked of nothing
lefs than extending the congueils of Athens over Africa
and Italy. While the minds of the Athenians were full of
thefe mighty proje€ts, ambaffadors arrived from the Egiftians,
to implore their affiftance againft the Selinontines, who
were fupported by the Syracufans; offering at the fame
time to pay the troops that fhould be fent to their afliflance.
The Athenians, tempted by thefe promifes, named Alci-
biades, Nicias, and Lamachus, tocommanda fleet deitined
to fuccour the E-giftians. Nicias remonfirated againit this
expedition in the ftrongeft terms, and painted out in the
mott lively colours what ruinous confequences might thence
refult to the republic. He reprefented to the Athenians, that
they had but too many cs on their hands already, with-
g out

ATHENS.

put going abroad to feck for more ; and that though they
were hardly beginning to recover from the misfortunes oc-
rafioned by the late war and plague, they were wantonly
mfelves to a greater danger dtl. Nicias, in
, likewile reflected indire€tly on the luxury of
y carried his extravagance to an in-
ace cf the furniture of his houfe,
} His table was as fump-
he contended at the
Qlympie games with feven different fets of horles. To

expohiag ti
this haraney
fe A

ABACIDIaGLS

reflect honour on his country; he put them in mind of
his fervices to the commonwealth; he afiured them that
the cities of Sicily were fo weary of the cppreffion of their
petty fovereigns, that they would initantly open their gates
to the firft power which fhould appear to deliver them trom
their prefent flavery ; and he concluded with telling them,
that to carry their arms abroad was the fureft way to damp
the courage of their enemies, and that the Athenians muit
always continue matters at fea, in fpite of the Lacedeme-
mians. The Athenians, delighted with this flattering
fpeech of Alcibiades, entirely difreoarded that of Nicias,
who was a man of a foft pufillanimous difpofition, and cf
an irrefolute temper. ‘They therefore perfilted in their re-
{olution to undertake this expedition, and began to make
the neceffary preparations for it with the utmoit difpatch.
(Thucydides.) Juft as the Athenian fleet was on the point
of fetting fail, feveral evil prefages fell out that extremely
perplexed the minds of the people. 1ft. The feait or
Adonis happened at this time, which was celebrated by the
women uttering piteous groans and lamentations; and it
was cuftomary for all the inhabitants on that occafion to
wear mourning. 2dly. The ftatues of Mercury, one of
which ftood before the entry of every houfe, were all maimed
in the fame night, and the author of this piece of facrilege
could not be difcovered. The wild libertine chara@ter of
Alcibiades expofed him to fufpicions of having been con-
cerned in this mifchief. But the affection entertained for
him “by the foldiers and failors, who declared that they
would not proceed on the expedition, if the fmalleft violence
was offered to his perfon, preferved him at prefent from any
trouble on that account. Alcibiades demanded to be tried,
that he might have an apportunity of juftifying himfelf be-
fore his departure. But the people, impatient for the ex-
pedition proceeding, obliged him to fet fail. The view of
the fleet under fail attracted the admiration both of the ci-
tizens and of itrangers; for never had a fingle city in the
wettern world difplayed fo grand and magnificent an arma-
ment, It confilted of a hundred and thirty-fix veffels, car-
-rying fix thoufand two hundred ard eighty foldiers, of
whom the greater part were heavy armed. Befides thefe,
‘there were thirty veflels loaded with provifions, and the
whole was attended by one hundred barks, without includ-
ing merchant ihips, or the after augmentations of the fleet.
Befides the fea forces, there was a body of troops for the
land fervice, and among thefe a few cavalry. All the forces
were equipped in the moft complete manner ; and, upon the
whole, there could hardly be a grander or more beautiful
exhibition. (B,C, 414.) When the troops were embarked,
the whele fleet on a fignal given by a trumpet, weighed
anchor, attended with a general fhout of the fpe&ators,

pouring out their moit earneft vows for the fuceefs of their
fellow-citizens. The fleet directed its courfe towards Rhee
gium, whither they difpatched fome fhips before the. reft,
to fee that the money promifed by the Egiftians was ready 5
ofwhich, however, they found no more than thirty talents
provided. Nicias availed himfelf of this circumitance to
enforce the reafons he had infiited on againit the expedition,
and advifed to terminate the difpute between the Egiftians
and Selinontines in an amicable maaner; to oblige the for-
mer to fulfil their engagements; and thea to. return to
Athens, Alcibiades, en the contrary, faid it would be
difgraceful to return without performing fome fignal exploit
with fo powerful an armament ; that they ought to endea-
your to detach the Greeks in Sicily from their connection
with Syracufe, to bring them over to their own party, and
after obtaining from them reinforcements both of troops aad
provifions, to attack Syracufe.. Lamachus advifed to march
immediately againft Syracufe ; but the opinion of Alcibia.
des prevailed. They therefore coatinued their courfe for
Sicily, where Alcibiades reduced Catana. At Athens the
enemies of Alcibiades, intent alone on gratifying their re=
fentment, without regarding the public interelt, took ad-
vantage of his abfence to renew againft him an accufatioa
of having in a debauch profaned the mytteries of Proferpine
and Ceres; and they profecuted the accufation with the
moft inveterate malice and animofity. Many perfons were
accufed, and thrown into prifon, without beimg even per
mitted to be heard; and a_veflel was difpatched to bring
Alcibiades to ftand trial before the people. To this he ap-
parently confented, and went on board of the galley ; but
on arriving at Thurium, he difappeared. Not having there-
fore obeyed the fummons within the limited time, he was
condemned to death for contumacy, and his ‘effects were
confifcated. (Thucydides, 1. vi.) The departure of Alci-
biades {pread apprehenfion through the army. Nicias, now
chief commander, by his irrefolute conduét, fuffered the
ardour of the Athenians to cool, and he fpent the greateit
part of the fummer ina¢tive at Catana. The Athenian
foldiers, impatient of fuch dilatory proceedings, reproached
their general, who, to pleafe the army, refolved to befiege
Syracufe. Though flow in counfel, yet vigorous in con-
du&, he conduéted his attacks with fo much ability, that
the inhabitants were inclined to furrender. Already feveral
ftates of Sicily and Italy had declared in his favour, whea
a Lacedemonian general named Gylippus entered the be-
fieged city, with a few troops which he had brought from
Peloponnefus, or colleGed in Sicily. Nicias might have
prevented him from landing in the ifland, but lof& the op-
portunity ; an irreparable fault, which proved the fource of
all his misfortunes. Gylippus revived the courage of the
Syracufans, defeated the Athenians, and held them blocked
up in their intrenchments. Athens fent to Sicily another
fleet confifting of about feventy-three gallies, under the
command of Demofthenes and Eurymedon, and a fecond
army of five thoufand men heavily armed, and fome light
troops. _Demofthenes having loft two thoufand men at the-
attack of an important poft, and confidering that the fea
would foon be no longer navigable, and that the troops
were wafting away by diforders, propofed to abandon the
enterprife, or tranfport the army to fome healthier fituation..
When they were on the point of fetting fail, Nicias, terri
fied at an eclipfe of the moon, which fpread confternation
through the camp, confulted the augurs, who direéted him,
to wait twenty-feven days longer, Before the expiratiqn
of his time, the Athenians, vanquifhed by fea and land,
no longer able to remain under the walls of Syracufe for
want af creeicns, nor to efcape out of the harbour, ac
B mout

a ee

5

PAT AE NS.

mouth of which was fhut up by the Syracufans, took the
refolution to abandon their camp, their fick, and their thips,
and retire by land into fome town of Sicily. They begah
their march to the number of forty thoufand men, includ-
ing not only the troops furnifhed them by the flates. of
Italy and Sicily, but the crews of the galleys, the work-
men, and flaves. ‘lhe Syracufans, by feizing the defiles,
and breaking down bridges, and other obitructions, im-
peded the retreat of the Athenians, while at every ftep they
havaffed their flank and vear. . The retiring forces for eight
whole days had to {truggle againtt new obitacles continualiy
increafing. But Demoithenes, who commanded the rear-
guard, compofed of fix thoufand men, lofing way in his
march, was puthed into a confined place, and, after prodigies
of valour, obliged to furrender on condition that his foldiers
fhould have their lives granted them, and be {pared the hor-
rors of a dungeon. Nicias, having failed ina negotiation he
had entered into, conducted the remainder cf the army as
far as the river Afinarus. _ On his arrival there, the greater
part of the foldiers, tormented by a burning thirlt, rufhed
in confufion into the river, while others were driven into it
by the enemy. Such as atten pted to fave themfelves by
{fwimming found on the oppolite fhore fteep banks lined
with dartmen, who made a terrible flaughter of them.
Hight thoufand men perifhed in the attack; till at length
Nicias thus addrefled Gylippus: ‘ Difpofe of me as you
Shalithink proper; but fhew mercy at leaft to thefe unhappy
foldiers,?? Gylippus immediately put an end to the car-
nage. The Syracufans returned %o their city, bringing
back with them feven thoufand prifoners, who were thrown
into the quarries, where for many months they experienced
inconceivable miferies. Numbers of them perifhed there,
and others were fold as flaves. WNicias and Demotthenes
were among the maffacred. A few efcaped both death and
bondage through the charms of dramatic poetry, by recit-
ing paflages from the beautiful and pathetic tragedies of
Euripides.

The difcomfiture of the expedition to Sicily filled Athens
with confternation and difmay, and fhe had reafon to dread
Hall greater calamities. Her allies were ready to fhake off
the yoke; the other ftates of Greece were confpiring her
ruin; the Peloponnefians already thought themfelves jutti-
fied by her example in breaking the truce. Already fhe
difcovered in their operations, more flalfully planned and
conducted, the fpirit of vengeance, and the fuperior genius
by which they were dire&ed. Alcibiades enjoyed at Lace-
demon that refpect and influence he every where obtained.
“Hi was-by his advice that the Lacedemonians adopted the
refolution of fending fuccours to the Syracufans, renewing
their inreads into Attica, and fortifying, at the diltance of
ene hundred and twenty ftadia from Athens, the pott of
Decelia, which held that city blocked on the land fide. To
annihilate the power of Athens, it was neceflary to favour
the revolt of her allies, and deftroy her navy. Alcibiades
repaired to the coafts of Afia Minor; and Chios, Miletus,
and other flourifhing cities, declared for the Lacedemonians.
By his accomplifhments he captivated ‘Tiflaphernes, the
governor of Sardis; and the king of Perfia engaged to pay
the fieet of Peloponnefus. This fecond war, conducted
with more regularity than the former, would quickly have
Deen terminated, had not Alcibiades, purfued by Agis,
Aing of Lacedemon, whofe wife he had feduced, and by
the other chiefs of the league, who took umbrage at his
Biory,,.at length confidered that, after avenging himfelf on
his country, it now only remained for him to protect it from
inevitable ruin. With this view, he contrived to fufpend
+he operations of Tiflaphernes, and the departure of the

au

Perfian fuccours, under the pretext that it was theintereft
of the great king to fuffer the nations of Greece mutually
toenfeeble each other. ‘The Athenians haying foon after
revoked the decree for his banifhment, he put himfelf. at
their head, reduced the ftrong holds of the Hellefpont,
forced one of the Perfian governors to iign an advantageous
treaty with the Athenians, and the Lacedemonians to fue
for peace.. Their demand was rejected; for, decining them-
felyes invincible henceforward under Alcibiades, the Athe-
nians made,a rapid, tranfition from the moft profound. con-
iternation, to the moft infolent prefumption. The hatred
with which they were animated againit that general was as
quickly fucceeded by the moit extravagant gratitude, and
the moft unbounded affection. When he returned to his
own country, his arrival, and the pains he took, to juftify
his conduét, were a feries of triumphs for himfelf, and of
public rejoicings for the multitude. When, amidft the ac-
clamations of the whole city, they faw him fail from the
Pireus with a fleet of a hundred fhips, no doubt was enter-
tained but that his rapid victories would foon force the
inhabitants of the Peloponnefus to f{ubmit to the law of the
conqueror; the arrival of a courier was every moment ex-
pected with the news of the deflruétion of the enemy, and
the conqueft of Ionia. In the midit of thefe flattering ex-
pectations, they learnt that fifteen of the Athenian galleys-
had fallen into the hands of the Lacedemonians. The
engagement took place during the abfence, and in contempt
of the precife orders, of Alcibiades, who had been obliged
to pafs into Ionia to levy contributions for the fubfittence of
his troops. On the firlt intelligence of this check, he in:
{tantly returned, and offered battle to the yictor, who did
not venture to accept it. He had retrieved the honour of
Athens ; the lofs was trifling, but it fufficed for the jealoufy
of his enemies. They exafperated the people, who flripped
him of the general command of the armies with as much
precipitation as they had manifetted in invefting him with
that dignity. After the fecand exile of Alcibiades, the
war continued for feveral years, the Spartans being now
commanded by Lyfander, after Alcibiades the firft general of
Greece. Till the twenty-feventh year of the war, the fuc-
cefs was various, and operations were principally maritime.
The great objet of the Peloponnefians was the redu@tion
of the Athenian colonies; and the northern parts of the
figean fea were the chief fcenes of warfare. In the twenty-
feventh campaign, a large Athenian fleet was ftationed at
the mouth of the river /Egos. Confidering themfelves as
incontrovertibly fuperior to the enemy, many of the Athe-
nian foldiers left the fhips, and were carelefsly difperfed on
fhore. Alcibiades, being in that neighbourhood, and,
though in banifhment, anxious for the welfare of his coun-
try, warned the Athenian generals of their hazardous pofi-
tion, and the want of difcipline among their foldiers and
feamen; after reprefenting to them the danger of their fitu-
ation, on an inhofpitable coaft, without either harbours or
cities to which they might retire in cafe of neceflity, he offer-
ed to co-operate with them, by falling upon the enemy at
land, with fome Thracian troops under his command. But
the generals defpifed his advice, and refufed, out of jealoufy,
toaccept of his fervice. Lyfander, in the mean time, prepared
to attack the Athenians when totally off their guard. Hav-
ing learned from his feouts, that the enemy were ftraggling
with even more than their ufual careleffneis, Lyfander em-
braced the opportunity, and bore down upon the fhips thus
deferted by the chief portion of the fighting men. The
victory was complete, if that can be called a victory where
there was fcarcely any refittance. he vigilant activity of
Conon endeavoured HpelneeNy to aflemble the ftrength oF
‘ Ff2 Le “the

ATHENS.

the Athenians; but his advice was difdained by officers in-
capable and unworthy of command, and his orders were
defpifed by feamen unaccuftomed and unwilling to obey.
At length they became fenfible of the danger, when it was
too late to avoid it. Their fhips were taken, either altoge-
ther empty, or manned with fuch feeble crews as were
unable to work, much lefs to defend them. The troops
and failors who flocked: to the fhore from different quarters,
and with difordered precipitation, were attacked by the
regular onfet and difciplined valour of the Peloponnefians.
Thofe who fought were flam ; the remainder fled into the
utmoft recefles of the Cherfonefus, or took*refuge in the
Athenian fortrefles, which were fcattered over that penin-
fula. Out.of a fleet cf an hundred and eighty fail, only
nine veflels had efcaped, eight of which were conducted by
Conon to the friendly ifland of Cyprus, while the ninth
carried to Athens the melancholy news of a difaiter equally
unexpected and fatal. Lyfander propofed to purfue his
blow to the deftruGtion of the Athenians, reduced all the
colonies of Athens under the dominion of Sparta, and pro-
ceeded to the fiere of Athens. While he inveited this
city by fea, a powerful army co-operated with him by land.
The Athenians, having defended themfelves forthreemonths,
were reduced to the extremity of diltvefs, andat lencth this
celebrated city was captured, difmantled, and rendered a
dependency of Sparta. Such was the ruinous termination
of the Peloponnefian war. (B.C. 404.) The conquerors
placed the government in the hands of thirty perfons, who,
from their rapacity and cruelty, earned and acquired the
name of the ee) tyrants. During their fway Athens had
fearcely any political exiftence, and its hittory is only
marked by domettic injuftice and mifery. The unhappy
Athenians caft their eyes on Alcibiades, in the confidence
that he could, and the hopés that he would, effeét their
deliverance. But Lyfander, entertaining a fimilar idea of the
powers and difpofition of that illuftrious exile, prevailed
on Pharnabazus, the Perfian fatrap, to perpetrate his mur-
der. ‘The thirty tyrants, freed from the fear of fuch an
avenger, proceeded to greater enormity than ever; until
Thrafybulus, inheriting the magnanimous fpirit of a free
Athenian, put himfelf at the head of his injured country-
men, expelled the tyrants (B.C. 401), and, favoured by the
diffentions of the Spartan leaders, re-eftablithed a free go-
vernment in Athens, Deprived, however, of her colonial,
naval, and many of her commercial refourees, Athens con-
tinued of little importance’ in the public tranfactions of
Greece. The chief domettic event which diftinguithes this
part of Athenian hiftory, is the fate of Socrates; but of the
life as well as of the death of this extraordinary fage, a full
account will be given under the appropriate article.

While the Athenians had thus lott not only pre-eminence
but independence ard political importance, they were full
diftinguifhed for good and bad qualities, which had fhone fo
conipiczoully in the days of their profperity. Gemius was
Hill tranfcendeat, though directed to different cbje&s from
thofe which had employed a Themiftocles and a Cimon.
Inftead of a€tive efforts for aggrandizing their country,
Athenian talents were now chiefly employed in purfuits
deftined to delight and initruct all the enlightened world.
Poetry, hiftory, and philofophy by different means purfued
the fame end, the promotion or wifdom, virtue, and happi-
nefs. But as epic and dramatic excellence had been already
carried to the higheft conceivable perfeétion ; the poetry
of Athens at this period was lefs fupereminent than her
hiftory and philofophy. Thucydides and Socrates being
dead, Xenophon and Plato occupied the higheft rank.

The over-bearing infolence with which the Spartans exer-

cifed their fupremacy over the Grecian ftates proved ulti-
mately the means ot their degradation, #nd enabled the
Athenians to recover a certain portion of their political
power, and their confequence among their neighbours, The
confederacy which was formed again{t Sparta emabled the
Athenians to defeat the Lacedeemonians at fea, to regain
their naval fuperiority, and to rebuild their harbour and
walls. (B.C. 394.) This revolution from dependency to
maritime fupremacy they owed to the courage and policy of
the celebrated Conon. (See Conon). Thralybulus feconded
the exploits of Conon, and the Athenians refumed the com-
mand of maritime fettlements, which had been wrefted from
them ten years before by the victorious Spartans. ‘The re-
viving fortune of the Athenians recalled their military ener-
gies, and various commanders ttarted up, not unworthy of
the native country of Pericles and Alcibiades. Iphicrates,
Chabrias, and ‘Timotheus, gave glorious {pecimens of valour
and conduét; but the peace of Antalcidas (B.C. 387.)
fufpended their exertions. For feveral years after this
treaty, the Spartans endeavoured by ftratagera and furprife
to re-eftablifh their predominancy 3 they feized the citadel of
Thebes, and attempted to make themfelves matters of the
harbour of Athens, though nominally at peace with both
countries. The Athenians joined with the Thebans m re-
yvenging this outrage: Chabmas repulfed the army of Sparta,
while Iphicrates and Timotheus deltroyed her fleets, and
Athens rofe to an equality with her rival. Peace being again
concluded between the Spartans and Athenians, the latter
were {pectators of the conteit between Sparta and Thebes,
where the renowned Epaminondas gaveat Leuétra( B.C. 371)
fuch a blow to Spartan power; the Athenians were invited
by the victors to join in an alliance for crufhing their ancient
enemies ; but they regarded found policy more than refent-
ment, and would not throw their weight into the Theban
feale, already preponderant. The Theban hero having {til
farther reduced the Spartans, and invaded Laconia, the
Athenians took active iteps for rendering affiitance to the
now weaker party, and fent anarmyto defend Peloponnefuss
but the battle of Mantineea (B.C. 363) arrefted Epaminon-
das in the career of vitory. After him no Theban arofe fit
for imitating his example, or executing his defigns. The °
Thebans became languid; the Spartans on the other hand
were exhauited. Athens did not fail to take advantage of
the contefts which had weakened her two fucceflors in the
dominien of Greece. Taught by experience, they did not
attempt to fubdue the territories of her warlike neighbours$
but the numerous iflands of the /Egean and Jonian feas, the
remote coafts of Thrace and Aiia, invited the a@tivity of
their fleet, which they might now employ in foreign con-
quetts, fearlefs of domeftic envy. Jt appears, that foon
after the death of Epammondas, Eubcea again acknow=
ledeed the authority of Athens, an event facilitated by the
deftruction of the Theban partifans belonging to that place,
in the battle of Martina. From the Thracian Bofphorus
to Rhodes, feveral places along both #roves fubmitted (B.C.
360.) to the arms ot Timotheus, Chabrias, and Iphicrates;
men, who, having furvived Agefilaus and Epaminondas,
were far fuperiorin abilities and in virtue, to the contempo-
rary generals of other republies. "The Cyclades and Corcyra
courted the friendfhip of a people able to imterrupt their navi-
gation, and to deftroy their commerce : Byzantium had be-
come their ally ; and there was reafonto hope that Amphi-
polis would foon be reduced to fubjeGtion. Such multi-
plied advantages revived the ancient grandeur of Athens,
which ence more commanded the fea, with a fleet of near
three hundred fail, and employed the bet half of her citi«
zens and fubjects in fhips of war or commerce. This “
0

AT AE WN S.

‘of profperity, flowing fo cratefel atter adverfity and oppref-
fion, proved eventually the caufe of their ruin. ‘The popu-
lace abandoned themfelves to idlenefs, diffipation, and ien-
fuality; and to fupply their extravagance, fought projects of
injuflice and rapacity. To direct the formation, and head
the execution of fuch f{chemes, a daring and prodigate
leader prefented himfelf in Chares, whofe foldjer-like ap-
pearance, blunt addrefs, and bold impetuous valour, mafked
his felfith apbition, and rendered him the idol of the popu-
lace. His perfon was gigantic and robult, his voice com-
manding, his manners haughty ; he aflerted pofitively, and
romifed boldly; and his prefumption was fo excefliye, that
it concealed his incapacity, not only from others, but from
himfelf. Though aa enterprifing and fuccefsful partifan, he
“was unacquainted with the great duties of a general; and
his defects appear the more itriking and palpable, when
compared with the abilities of Iphicrates wid ‘Timotheus,
his contemporaries, who prevailed as oftea by addrefs as by
force, and whofe conqueits were fecured to the republic
by the moderation, juitice, and humanity with which they
had been obtained, and with which they continued to be go-
verned. Chares propofed a very differentmode of adminiftra-
tion; he exhorted his countrymen to fupply the defeéts of
their treafury, and to acquire the materials of thofe plea-
fures which they regarded as effential to their happinefs
by plundering the wealth of their allies and colonies.
This counfel was too faithfully obeyed; the vexations
anciently exercifed againit the tributary and dependent itates,
were renewed and exceeded. ‘he weaker communities
complained and remonitrated againit this intolerable rapacity
and oppreffion ; while the iflands’or Chios, Coos, Rhodes,
“aswell as the city of Byzantium, prepared openly to revolt,
and engaged with each other to repel force by force, until
‘they fhould obtain peace and independence (B.C. 358).
Chares, probably the chief inftrument as well as the adviler
of the arbitrary meafures which had occationed the revolt,
‘was fent out with a powerful fleet and army to quafh at
once the hopes of the infurgents. He failed towards Chios,
with an intention to feize the capital of that ifland, which
was fuppofed to be the centre and prime mover of rebellion.
The confederates, informed of his motions, had already
drawn thither the greateft part of their force; the city of
Chios was befieged by fea and land ; the iflanders defended
‘themfelves with vigour; Chares found it difficult to repulfe
their fallies: his feet attempted to enter their arbour with-
‘out fuccefs ; the fhip of Chabrias alone penctrated thus far;
and that able commander, whofevalour and integrity merited
a better fortnne, though deferted by the fleet, yet forfook
not the fhip entrufted to him by the republic. His compa-
nions threw away their fhields, and faved themfelves by
fwimming to the Athenian fquadron, which was ftill within
theirreach ; but Chabrias, fighting bravely, fell by the darts
of the Chians, preferring an honourable death to a difgrace-
ful life. Encouraged by advantages over their enemy, who
had at firit affeted to defpife them, the infurgents augment
their fleet, andravaged the ifles of Lemnosand Samos. The
Athenians, indignant that the territories of their faithful
allies fliould fall a prey to the depredations of rebels, fitted
out, éarlyin the next year, a new armament under the com-
mand of Mneftheus, the fon of Iphicrates, and fon-in-law to
‘Timotheus, expeGting that the new commander would re-
fpectiully liften to the advice of thofe great men, who per-
haps declined aéting as principals in an expedition where
Chares poffeffed any fhare of authority. ‘That general had
raifed the fiege of Chios, and now ernifedin the Hellefpont ;
where, being jomed by Mneflheus, the united fquadrons
amounted to an hundred and twenty fail. It was imme-

diately determined to caufe a diverfion of the enemy’s forces
from Samos and Lemnos, by laying fiege to Byzantium.
The defign fucceeded; the allies withdrew from thefe
iflands, colleéted their whole naval ftreagth, and prepared
vigoroufly for defending the principal city in their confede-
racy. ‘Vhe hoftile armaments approached each other with
a refolution to join battles, when a fudden and violent ftorm
arofe, which rendered it impoflible for the Athenians to bea
up to the enemy, or evento keep the fea, without being ex-
pofed to Mlipwreck. Chares alone confidently infifted on
commencing the attack, while the other commanders, more
cautious and experienced, perceived the difadvantage, ard
declined the unequal danger. His impetuofity, thus over-
ruled by the prudence of his colleagues, was converted into
refentment and fury; he called the failors and foldiers to
witnefs their oppofition, which he branded with every odions
epithet of reproach ; and with the firft opportunity, dif-
patched proper meflengers to Athens, to accufe them of
incapacity, cowardice, and total neglect of duty. The ac-
culation was fupported by venal orators in the pay ef Chares;
Timotheus and Iphicrates were tried capitally. The former
truited to his innocence and eloquence; the latter ufed a
very extraordinary expedient to {way the judges, conform-
able, however, to the {pirit of that age, when courts of juf-
tice were frequentiy initruments of opprefiion, governed by
every {pecies of undue influence, eafily corrupted and eafhly
intimidated. The targeteers, or light infantry, who had
been armed, difciplined, and long commanded by Iphicrates,
enjoyed the fame reprtation in Greece, which the “ Fabian’’
foldiers afterwards did in Italy. ‘They were called “* Iphi-
cratentfian”’ troops, from the name of this commander, to
whom they owed their merit and their fame, and to whofe
perfon (notwithftanding the dtriftnefs of his difciphine), they
were ftrongly attached by the ties of gratitude and efteem.
The youngeft and braveft of this celebrated band readily
obeyed the injunctions of their admired general; furrounded,
on the day of trial, the benches of the magiftrates, and took
care feafonably to difplay the pots of their daggers. It
was the law of Athens, that after prclimmaries had been ad-
jufted, and the judges affembled, the parties fhould beheard,
and the trial begun and ended on the fame day ; nor could
any perfon be tried twice for the fame offence. ‘Therapidity
of this mode of procedure favoured the views of Iphicrates ;
the magiftrates were overawed by the immmence of a dan-
ger which they had neither ftrenzth to refit nor time to
elude; they were compelled to an immediate decifion 5 but
inftead of the fentence of death, which was expected, they
impofed- a fine on the delinquents, vhich ro Athenian
citizen in that age was in condition to pay. This feverity
drove into bauifhment thofe able and illuftrious commanders.
Timotheus failed to Chalcis, in Euboea, and afterwards to
the ifle of Lefbos, both which places his valour and abilities
had recovered for the republic, and which, being chofen as
his refidence in difgrace, fafficiently evince the mildnefs of
his government, and his moderation in profpentty. Iphi--
crates travelled into Thrace, where he long refided ; he had
formerly married the daughter of Cotys, the moft confider-
able of the Thracian princes, yet he hved and died in ob-
feurity ; nor did either he or Timotheus thenceforth take
any fhare in the affairsof their ungrateful country. Thus did
the focial war deftroy or remove Iphicrates, Chabrias, and
Timotheus, the beft generals whom Greece could boat ; and,
honeit Phocion excepted, the laft venerable remains of Athe-
nian virtue. (See Gillies, yol. i. p. 454.)

Sunk in idlenefs, amufement, and vice, the Athenians
wanted nothing to complete their deitruction but an am-
bitious and enterprifing foreign enemy. This they pes in

Philip,

ATHENS.

Puilip; king. of Macedon, who firft extended his powerin
countries not immediately coanected with Greece, and at
the fame time increafed the means of farther extenfion.
Meanwhile a war broke out in Greece; firft between the
"Thebans and Phocians, concerniag lands annexed to the
temple cf Delphi, which afterwards invelved the greater
part of Greece, and among ethers the Athenians. Philip,
taking advantage of thefe diffenfions, marched towards the
jaterior cf Greece, knowing that the Athenians were the
moft immediately interefted to oppofe his progrefs, and the
ableft, if they. exerted themfelves, to do it ee ee he
dire&ted.a great part of his policy to the prevention of thofe
exertions. He was aware that ina democracy the governors
are the tools of the demagogues; by flattery, by carefles,
and by bribery, he effe€tually procured the favour of thofe
leaders cf the populace. One patriot, however, he could
never corrupt ; Demoifthenes exerted the whole force of his
energetic eloquence (from B.C. 356 to 236) to roufe the
Athenians to a fenfe of their danger, from the encroachments
of Philip. (Fer the nature and character or Demofthenes’s
eloquence, fee article DEmosTHEN This powerful
orator cccafionally roufed his cou: ren from their le-
thargy, but never to fuch great exertions as he declared
neceflary, and as the circumftances required: on gaining
fome partial advantages, they returned to their indolence
and licentioufnefs. Philip amufed them by embaffies, fe-
duced them by their demagogues, and continued his en-
croachments: when they fhould have been fending power-
-ful armaments, they fent ambafladors : thefe, Demoithenes
excepted, Philip corrupted; and the interefis of the Athe-
“nians were betrayed. Jn vain Demofthenes demonitrated
the views of Philip, and treachery of the demagogues : he
could not fltimulate them to vigcrous and perfeyering eflorts,
until Philip’s power became too formidable for refiitance.
A combination of the ftates of Greece was at length formed
againft Philip ; but too late to be fuccefsful. The allies
were, totally. defeated at Chzronea (B.C. 338), and the
Athenians became a dependency of Macedon. A popular
writer (fee Travels of Anacharfis, -vol. i. p. 1 12+) obierves,
that the hiflory of the Athenians, properly {fpeaking, com-
mences about 150 years after the firft olympiad; and con-
cluded at the battle of Cheronea, it contains fearcely more
than 300 years. In this feries of years it is eafy to difcover
certain important intervals, which mark the rife, progrefs,
and decline of their empire ; and if thefe eras be diftinguifhed
by charaGeriftic names, the firft may be called the age of
Solon, or of the laws; the fecond, the age of Themittocles
and Ariftides, or the age of glory; and the third, that of
Pericles, or the age of luxury and the arts.

The Athenians after the battle of Charonea never re-
covered their importance. During the contefts of Alexan-
der’s fucceffors, they followed the fortunes of different chief-
‘tains, but chiefly adhered to the fide of Demetrius and his
defcendants, who eftablifhed themfelves on the throne of
Macedon. _ When the intrigues of the fecond Philip with
the renowned Hannibal provoked the Remans to. invade
Greece, the Athenians joined the inyaders, and Athens
became the dependent ally of the conquerors.. In the
Mithridatic war, Athens having been conquered by the
Afiatic monarch, was befieged by Sylla (B.C. 87), who tcok
and plundered their city, demolifhed its walls and fortifica-
tions, butchered its inhabitants, and reduced it to a itate of
defolation. When this ftorm fubfided, Athens enjoyed
profound tranquillity till the civil war broke out between
Czfar aad Pompey, when it took part with the latter, and
‘was reduced to great ftraits by Calenus, the lieutenant of
€exfar. Difappointed in their hopes of being relieved by

c : 3

‘therefore, who applied themfelves to public

Pompey, the Athenians furrendered at diferetion, and were
more kindly treated than they expe€ted; for Czfar nat
only pardoned them, but took them under his protection,
alleging “that he {pared the living for the fake of the
dead.”? But averfe from fervitude, they no fooner heard of
Cwfar’s death than they openly declared for his murderers ;
receiving Bratus and Caffius into their city, and even ereét-
ing ftatues to them, which were placed next to thofeof Har-
modius and Ariflogiton. After the defeat of Brutus and
Caffius, they attached themfelves to Antony, who reitored
them to their former privileges, and enlarged their domi-
nions, by fubjectiung to Athens the iflands of Cea, Scia-
thus, Paparathus, and Aégina. OF this ifland, however,
they were deprived by Auguftus, and forbidden to fell the
freedom of their city, as a puaifhment which he indicted
upon them for their isgratitude to Julius Cefar. “Towards
the latter end of the reiga of Auguitus, they revolted, but
were foon reduced to their former cbedience. Germanicus,
the adopted fon of Tiberius, honoured them with the
privilege of having a litor, which was confidered as amark
of fovereign power. This grant was confirmed to them by
Tiberius and his fucceffors, under whofe protection they
maintained their ancient form of government till the reign
of Vefpafian, who reduced Attica, with the reft of Greece,

They were favoured by Valerian; but the city was. taken
and plundered by the Goths in the reign of Gallienus, , or
of Claudius (A.D. 267 or 268); but the invaders were
foon obliged, by a precipitate flight, to abandon their
new conqueft. Conftantine the Great was a peculiar patr

and benefactor of the Athenians. , He honoured their c
magiitrates with the title of grand duke, an office at firit
annual, but afterwards hereditary ;‘and granted them mar
privileges, which were confirmed, and enlarged by Conftan-
tius, who alfo put them in. pofleffion of feveral iflands in
the Archipelago. ,In the time of Theodofius I. 380 years
after Chritt, the Goths laid wafte ‘Theffaly and Epirus 5

‘but Theodore, géneral of. the Achzans, preferved the

cities of Grecce from pillage ; and a ftatue of marble was
ere€ted to him at Athens by order of the city. Dunng
the reigns of Arcadius and Honorius, the Athenians were
cruelly haraffed and pillaged by the Goths under Alaric
(A.D. 396), who reduced all their ftately and magnifice
ftruiures into heaps of ruins, and removed the invaluable
treafures of antiquity. Synefius, a writer of that age, fays,
that Athens refembled the bleeding and empty fin of a
flaughtered vidtim. After Athens became only part of a
Roman province, it {till remained the central point in the
republic of letters, and continued to be frequented by all
who defired to acquire that atticifm fo highly valaed by
the ancients, and that ftandard tafte which enabled them
to eftimate, with peculiar accuracy, the real beauties of
every work of genius and art. Here too, and here only,
were to be learned the true principles of eloquence. "AL
oe “fl
~~ SS Citere

ee ee

¥

‘

ATH

Cicero in particular, repafred to Athens, to ftudy under the
ableft matters of oratory, 'Thither did the fame Cicero
fend his fon to hear the lectures of Cratippus; hither
Horace was fent by his father ; every Roman of any rank
or confideration followed the fame courfe ; and Greek
learning, according to the teftimony of Plutarch, was
accounted fo requifite a branch of education among that
judicious people, that a Roman who did rot undevitand
the Greek language, never arrived at any high depree of
eftimation. When St, Paul vifited Athens, it was the feat
of philofophy ; and we cannot enough admire the fuperior
eloquence of that apoitle, in his manner of addrefilng fo
intelligent an audience. He adapted his difcourfe to the
character of his hearers, by the fublimity of its exordium ;
and he .very properly mentioned the altar which he found
there fee Aurar); and his quotation from Aratus, one
of their well-kuown poets, was particularly pertinent. Nor
was Athens only celebrated for the refidence of philofo-
phers, and the inttitution of youth ; men of rank and for-
tune found pleafure in a retreat which contributed fo much
to their liberal enjoyment. The progreffive ftate of litera-
ture and philofophy at Athens, is thus deferibed by a popu-
Jar hiitorian :

‘ Athens, after her Perfian triumphs, adopted the philo-
fophy of Ioria and the rhetoric of Sicily ; and thefe ftudies
became the patrimony of a city, whofe inhabitants, about
thirty. thoufaad males, condenfed, within the period of a
fingle life, the genius of ages and millions. Our fenfe of
the dignity of human nature, is exalted by the fimple re-
colleétion, that Ifocrates was the companion of Plato and
Xenophon; that he affifled, perhaps with the hittorian
‘Thucydides, at the firft reprefentations of the Oedipus of
Sophecles and the Iphigenia of Euripides ; and that his
pupils Aifchines and Demotthenes contended for the crotvn
of patriotifm in the prefence of Ariftotle, the matter of
Theophraftus, who taught at Athens with the founders of
the Stoic and Epicurean feéts. The ingenious youth of
Attica enjoyed the benefits of their domeftic education,
which was communicated without envy to the rival cities.
Two thoufand diiciples heard the leffons of Theophrattus ;
the {chools of rhetoric mult have been {till more populous
than thofe of philofophy ; and a rapid fucceffion of ftudents
diffufed the fame of their teachers, as far as the utmott
limits of the Grecian language and name. Thofe limits
were enlarged by the vidtories of Alexander; the arts of
Athens furvived her freedom and dominion; and the Greek
colonies which the Macedonians planted in Egypt, and feat-
tered oyer Afia, undertook long and frequent pilgrimages
to worlhip the mufes in their favourite temple on the banks
ofthe Mliffus. The Latin conquerors refpectfully littened
to the inftructions of their fubjeis and captives ; the names
‘ef Licero and Horace were enrolled in the {chools of
Athens; and after the perfect fettlement of the Roman
empire, the natives of Italy, of Africa, and of Britain, con-
-verfed in the groves of the academy with their fellow-
fludents of the Eaft. The ftudies of philofophy and elo-
quence are congenial toa popular flate, which encourages
the freedom of inquiry, and fubmits only to the force of
perfuafion. . In the republics of Greece and Rome, the art
of fpeaking was the powerful engine of patriotifm or am-
bition ; and the fchools of rhetoric poured forth a colony of
ftatefmen and legiflators. When the liberty of public de-
bate was fupprefled, the orator, inthe honourable profeilion
ofan advocate, might plead the caufe of innocence and
jultice ; he might abufe his talents in the more profitable
trade of panegyric; and the fame precepts continued to
dictate the fanciful declamations of the fophift, and the

ENS,

chafter beauties of bifterlcal eompofition. The fyittens

which profefled to unfold the nature of God, of maa, and
of the univerfe, entertained the curiolity of the philofophic
ftudent ; and according to the temper of his:mind, he might
doubt with the {ceptics, or decide with the ttoies, fublimely
ipeculate with Plato, or feverely argue with Ariftotle. "Uhe
pride of the adverfe fects had fixed an uattatnable term of
moral happineis aud perfection ; but the race was glorious
and falutary ; the difciples of Zeno, and cven thote of Epi-
curus, were taught both to aét and to fuffer; and the death
of Petronius was! not lefs effectual than that of Seneca,
to humble atyraut by the difcovery of his imp The
light of fcience could not indeed be coafined within the
walls of Athens, ‘Her incomparable writers addrefs them-
felyes. to the human race; the living masters emigrated to
Italy and Afia; Berytus, in later times, was devoted to the
itudy of the law ; aftronomy and phyfic were cultivated in the
muiwum of Alexandria; but the Attic fchools of rheteric
and philofophy maintained their fuperior reputation from
the Peloponnetian war to the reign of Juftinian. Athens,
though fituate in a barren foil, potfetied a pure air, a free
navigation, and the monuments of ancient art. ‘Chat facred
retirement was feldom difturbed by the bulisefs et trade or
government ; and the lalt of the Athenians were dutinguifhed
by their lively wit, the purity of their taite and language,
their focial manners, and fome traces, at leait in difcourfe, of
the magaanimity of their fathers. Jn the fuburbs of the
city, the academy of the Platonitts, the lyceum of the Peri-
patetics, the portico of the Stoics, aad the garden of the
Inpicureans, were planted with trees and decorated with.
ftatues ; and the philofophers, inftead of being immured in
a cloyfter, delivered their mitructions im fpacious and _plea-
fant walks, which, at different hours, were confecrated to
the exerciles of the mind and body. ‘The genius of the
founders flill lived in thofe venerable feats; the ambition of
fucceeding to the mafters of human reafon, excited a gene-
rous emulation ; and the merit of the candidates was deter-
mined, on each vacancy, by the free voices of an enlightened
people. The Athenian profeffors were paid by their difci-
ples, according to their mutual wants and abilities ; the price
appears to have varied froma mina to a talent ; aud Ifocrates
himfelf, who derides the avarice of the fophitts, required in
his {chool of rhetoric, about thirty pounds from each of his
hundred pupils. ‘Lhe wages of nduttry are juft and honour-
able, yet the fame Ifocrates fhed tears at the firit receipt
of a tipend; the Stoic might blufh when he was hired to
preach the contempt of money; and I fhould be forry
to difcover, that Aritotle or Plato fo far dewenerated from
the example of Secrates, as to exchange knowledge for gold,
But fome property of lands and houfes was fettled by the
permiffion of the laws, and the legacies of deceafed friends,
on the philofophic chairs of Athens. Epicurus bequeathed
to his difciples the garden which he had purchafed for
eighty mine or two hundred and fifty pounds, with a fund
fufficient for their frugal fubfiftence and monthly fettivals ;
and the patrimony of Plato afforded an annual rent, which,
in eight centuries, was gradually increafed from three to
one thoufand pieces of gold. ‘The fchools of Athens were
protected by the wifeft and moft virtuous of the Roman
princes. ‘The library which Hadrian founded,, was, placed
in a portico adorned with pictures, ftatues, and a. roof of
alabatter, and fwpported by one hundred columns of Phry~
gian marble. The public falaries. were aflizned by the
generous {pirit of the Antonines; and each profeffor, of
olitics, of rhetoric, of the Platonic, the Peripatetic, the

Stoie, and the Epicurean philofophy, received an annual
ftipend of ten thoufand drachme, or more than three hun-
dred.

otence

ATHENS.

dred pounds fterling. After the death of Marcus, thefe
liberal donations, and the privileges attached to the thrones
of f{cience, were abolifhed and revived, diminifhed and en-
larged: but fome veftige of royal’ bounty may be found
under the fucceffors of Conftantine; and their arbitrary
choice of an unworthy candidate might tempt the phi-
lofophers of Athens to regret the days of independence and
poverty. Itis remarkable, that the impartial favour of the
Antomines was beitowed on the four adverle feéts of phi-
lofophy, which they confidered as equally ufeful, or at leait as
equally innccent. Socrates had formerly been the glory
aud the reproach of his country; ard the firft leffons of
Epicurus fo ftrangely fcandalized the pious ears of the
Athenians, that by his exile, and that of his antagonits,
they filenced all vain difputes concerning the nature of the
gods. But in the enfuing year they recalled the hafty de-
cree, reftored the liberty “of the fchools, and were con-
vinced by the experience of ages, that the moral character
of philofophers is not affeéted by the diverfity of their
theological {peculations.”’

But the fehaols of Athens were fupprefled by an edict
of Juftinian, an edi€&, which excited the grief and indig-
nation cf the few remaining votaries ef Grecian f{cience and
fuperftition. Seven friends and philofophers, Diogenes ard
Hermias, Eulaiius and Prifcian, Damafcius, Ifidore, and
Simplicius, who diflented from the religion of their fove-
reign, refolved to feek in a foreign land the freedom of
which they were deprived in their native country. Ac-
cordingly the feven fages fought an afylum in Perfia, under
the protection of Chofroes ; but, difguited and difappointed,
they baftily returned, and declared that they had rather
die on the borders of the empire, than enjoy the wealth and
favour of the barbarian. Thefe affociates ended their lives
an peace and obfcurity 3 and as they left no difciples, they
terminate the long hit of Grecian philofophers, who may
be juftly praifed, notwithitanding their defeéts, as the wifeit
and moft virtuous of their contemporaries.

From the time of Arcadius and Honorius, nothing memo-
rable concerning the Athenian ftate has been recorded in
hhiftory till the thirteenth century, when it was in the pof-
feflion of Baldwin, as Nicetas informs us, and unfuccefsfully
befieged by Theodorus Lafcaris, one of the generals of the
Greek emperor. Inthe 252 years, irom A.D. 1204 to
A.D. 1456, that elapfed between the firft and laft conqueft
of Conftantinople ; the poffefion of Greece was difputed
by a multitude of petty tyrants. However, in the partition
of the empire, the principality of Athens and Thebes was
affigned to Otho de la Roche, a noble warrior of Bur-
gundy, with the title of great duke. Otho followed the
itandard of Boniface, the Marquis of Montferrat ; and the
ample ilate which he acquired, was peaceably inherited by
his fon and two grandions, till the family was changed
by the marriage of an heirefs into the elder branch of the
houfe of Brienne. The fon of that marriage, Walter de
Brienne, fucceeded to the duchy of Athens: but his family
and nation were expelled by the Catalans, who feized pot-
feffion of Attica and Beotia, During fourteen years they
were the,terror of the Grecian flates. Their factions drove
them to acknowledge the fovereignty of the houfe of Arra-
gon; and,-during the remainder of the fourteenth century,
Athens, as a government or an appendage, was fecceflively
beftowed by the kings of Sicily. After the French and
Catalans, the third dynafty was that of the Acciaioli, a
family, plebeian at Florence, potent at Naples, and fovereign
in Greece. Athens, which they embellifhed with new
buildings, became the capital of a fate, that extended over
Thebes, Argos, Corinth, Delphi, and a part of Theffaly;
” Lol

i

and their reign was finally determined by Mahomet the
fecond, about the year 1455, who ftrangled the laft duke,
and educated his fons in the difcipline and religion of the
feraglio. This fatal cataftrophe, which happened near
2000 years after the time of Pififtratus, brought Athens,
together with the whole of Greece, under the defpotic
dominion of the Turks. In 1464, the Venetians landed
at the Pirzus, furprifed the city, and carried off their plunder
and captives to Eubeea. In 1687, it was taken, after a fhort
fiege, by the Venetians ; and not many years after, retaken
by the Turks, under whofe yoke it has ever fince continued.
“ As to the prefent ftate of Athens, though no moze than
the fhadow ofits former fely, it Rill containsabeut $or 10,000
inhabitants: of thefe, three fourths are Greeks in religion
and language ; and the Turks, who compofe the remainder,
have relaxed, in their intercourfe with the citizens, fome-
what of the pride and gravity of their national charaGer.
The olive-tree, the gilt of Minerva, flourithes in Attica;
nor has the honey of mount Hymettus loft any part of its
exquifite flavour: but the languid trade is monepolized by
ftrangers: and the agriculture of a barren-land is abandoned
to the vagrant Walachians. The Athenians are {till diftin-
guifhed by the fubtlety and acutenelfs of their uaderftanding :
but thefe qualities, mnlefs ennobled by freedom and en-
lightened by itudy, will degenerate into a low and felfith
cunning: and it is a proverbial faying of the country,
« From the Jews of Theffalonica, the Turks of Negropont,
and the Greeks of Athens, good Lord deliver us!” This
artful people has eluded the tyranny cf the Turkith bafhaws,
by an expedient which alleviates their fervitude and aggra-
vates their fame. About the middle of the laf century-(the
17th) the Athenians chofe for their proteCter the Kiflar
Aga or chief black eunuch of the feraglio. This A&thiopian
flave, who poffeffes the fultan’s ear, condefcends to accept
the tribute of 30,000 crowns : his lieutenant, the Waywode,
whom he annually confirms, may referve for his own about
five or fix thoufand more; and fuch is the policy of the
citizens, that they feldom fail to remove and puniih,an op-
preflive governor. ‘Their private differences are decided by
the archbifhop, one of the richef prelates of the ‘Greek
church, fince he poffeffes a revenue of 1cool. fterling ; and
by a tribunal of the eight geronti or elders, chofen in the eight
quarters of the city: the noble families cannot trace their
pedigree above 300 years; but their principal members are
diftinguifhed by a grave demeanour, a fur-cap, and the lofty
appellation of archon. By fome, who delight in the con-
trait, the modern language of Athens is reprefented as the
moft corrupt and barbarous of the feventy dialeéts’of the
vulgar Greek: this pi@ture is too darkly coloured ; but it
would not be eafy, in the country of Plato and Demoithenes,
to find a reader, or a copy of their works. The Athenians
walk with fupine indifference among the glorious ruins-of
antiquity; and fuch is the debafement of their charaéter,
that they are incapable, of admiring the genius of their pre-
deceffors.”” Gibbon’s Hift. vol. xt. p.355, &c. Fer the
modern account of Athens and the Athenians, fee Spon,
Voyage en Grece, t. ii. p. 79—199.3 Wheeler’s Travels in-
to Greece, p. 337—414.; Stuart and Rivett’s Antiquities
of Athens, vols. i. ii. and iii. paflim ; and Chandler’s Travels
into Greece, p.23—172. It is now called Arurnt, ‘and
Setixes; which fee. ; ;
ATHENIANS, Chara@er and Manners of the. “Thefe
people were highly fufceptible of lively and tranfient fenfa-
tions, and, accordingly, they ftand diftinguifhed nd all
other nations for uniting the moft difcordant qualities, and
fuch as were often perverted and made occafions of miflead-
ing them. Hiftory reprefents them’to us: (fee the authori-
ties

oOo ee

Pe ee ee

a

=

Sal i

“ties cited in the “ Travels of Anacharfis,’’ vol. ii. p. 260.),
fometimes as an old dotard, who may be deceived with im-
punity ; or as an infant who requires continual amufement ;
and fometimes as difplaying the difcernment and fentiments
of elevated minds ; as paflionately fond of pleafure and of
liberty, of indolence and of glory ; or intoxicated with flat-
tery, and yet receiving merited reproach with applaufe ; as
polleffing penetration to apprehend ata word the plans pro-
pofed to them, but tco impatient to liften to the particulars,
or to forefee their confequences ; as making their magiftrates
tremble before them, and at the fame moment pardoning
their moft bitter enemies ; as pafling with the rapidity of
lightning from rage to compaffion, from defpondence to
infolence, from injuftice to repentance ; as beyond concep-
tion fickle ; and fo frivolous, that in the moft furious, and
even the molt defperate fituation of their affairs, a fingle
word fpoken at random, a happy fally of pleafantry, the
{malleft obje&, the moft trivial incident, provided it were
unexpected, fufliced to difpel their fears, or to divert them
from attention to their moit important interefts. As nothing
was more caly than to excite and inflame the paffions of
fuch a people, it was equally eafy to acquire, and alfo to
Jofe, their confidence. A popular leader, whilft in favour
with them, might without difficulty perfuade them to adopt
good or evil meafures with an equal degree of ardour.
When guided by firm and virtuous men, they beftowed
public offices of truft or power on thofe, who united great
abilites with eminent virtue: at other times, they made a
choice at which they ought to have blufhed ; and they were
thus frequently the fport of flattering orators and ambitious
tyrants. Such, however, was their inherent deteftation of
tyranny, that they were extremely jealous, on many memo-
rable occafions, of their privileges, and both zealous and
aGtive in defence of their liberty, whenever they. thought
t attacked and violated by men in power. Indeed, an ar-
dent love of libecty was their predominant quality, and the
main {pring of their government. They left, without hefita-
tion, their cities and their houfes, to fight at fea or by land
the common enemy, who threatened them with the danger
of fervitude. It was a glorious day for Athens, when, all
her allies yielding to the advantageous offers of the king of
Perfia, fhe replied by Ariftides to the ambaffadors of that
monarch ; ‘that it was impoffible for all the gold in the world
to tempt the republic of Athens, and to prevail with her
to fell her liberty, and that of Greece.”’ By fuch fentiments,
and a condu¢t actuated by them, the Athenians not only
became the bulwark of Greece, but likewife guarded the
reft of Europe from a Perfian invaiion. ‘The Athenians,
however, notwithftanding their attachment to the rights
of their country, and the jealoufy with which they watched
over them, were volatile, capricious, and inconftant ; and
this, difpofition betrayed them into errors, incompatible
with true patriotifm. Whilft the Athenians indulged views

» of conqueft that were extenfive and aftonifhing, they were,
in private life, and in their domeftic arrangements and expen-
diture, frugal, fimple, and unoftentatious; but when the
honour of the ftate required it, fumptuous and magnificent.
Their conquefts, their riches, and their conneétions with
the inhabitants of Afia Minor, never betrayed them into
luxury, pomp, and profufion, Xenophon obferves, that a
citizen was not diftinguifhed frorn a flave by his drefs : and
it is remarked with approbation by Demoithenes, that in
the beft times of the republic, the houfes of 'Themittocles
and Aniftides could not be diftinguifhed from thofe of their
neighbours. ‘The wealthieft citizen, and the moft renowned

eneral, were not afhamed to go themfelves to market. Inthe

Pini and difpofition of the feveral articles of drefs, the men

Vou. III.

E N.S.

were expected to fludy decency, and the women to unite
elegance with tafte. The latter, whenever they went out,
wore a veil over their heads ; and they painted their eye-brows
black, and applied to their faces a layer of cerufe or white
lead, with deep tinge of rouge. Their hair, which they
crowned with flowers, was {prinkled over with a yellow-
coloured powder, Shut up in their apartments, they never
participated in the pleafures of the companies affembled by
their hufbands. In the day, the law permitted them to go
out only on certain occafions, and never in the night time,
but ina carriage, and with a flambeau to light them ; but
notwithftanding the reftraint of this law, the women of the
lower claffes indulged themfelves with greater liberty. In
public feftivals they were prefent at the {peétacles as well as
the ceremonies of the temple; but they were generally attend-
ed byeunuchs, or female flaves. At an early period the Athe-
nians were fo jealous, that they wouldnot permit theirwomen
to fhow themielves at the window ; but this reftraint was gra-
dually relaxed, andfevere laws were introducedto guard againft
feduction and infidelity. (See Aputrery.) M. de Pauw,
in his ** Recherches Philofophiques fur les Grees,” on the
authority of Athenzus and Plutarch, reprefents the Athe-
nian matrons as addiéted to drunkennefs, and the moft dif-
folate fenfuality : he fays that they ‘were turbulent and
quarrelfome, and that, notwithftanding all the conceffions
of ther hufbands, dotnettic peace was very feldom found
in their habitations. It is certain, that the feafts of Bacchus,
and fome other religious inftitutions which the women
claimed a right to celebrate, could not tend to infpire cither
gentlenefs of manners or purity of morals. Courtezang
were protected at Athens by the laws, but the public man-
ners were contaminated by this licence. Females of this
defeription, however, were not allowed to appear in the
ftreets with rich trinkets or jewels, nor were men in office
permitted to appear with them in public. The Athenians
were naturally abftemious ; their chief food confifted of falt
meat and vegetables. ~The neceflities of the poor were fup-
plied either from the public treafury, or other means. In
Athens there were feveral focieties, the members of which
entered into a folemn engagement to affift each other in
cafes of judicial profecution; and there was one fociety,
whofe only object was to obferve and colleé every {pecies
of ridiculous abfurdity, and to divert itfelf with pleafantries
and bon-mots. At Athens, a {mall number of citizens
enriched themfelves by commerce, and by filver mines which
they poffeffed at Laurium. Others deemed themfelves
matters of a decent fortune when they poflefled eftates to the
value of fifteen or twenty talents (the talent being equal to
about 2251. fterling), and when they were able to give their
daughters a marriage portion of 100 minz, or about 3751:
fterling.

The tafte of the Athenians for literature and {cience is
well known. The inhabitants of Athens, fays Cicero
(De Orat. and Orat. pro Flacco), were the inventors of all
learning, the men who invented and perfeéted eloquence,
and from whom humanity, learning, religion, and laws
were difperfed through the whole world; neverthelefs, he
adds, “ they only knew what was right, but would not do
it.’’? When the Athenians, fays the ingenious Mr. Harris
( Philofophical Inquiries, part. ii. c. 30) had. delivered
themfelves from the tyranny of Pififtratus, and after this
had defeated the vaft efforts of the Perfians under Darius
and Xerxes, they may be confiaered as at the fummit of
their national glory ; and for more than half a century
afterwards, they maintained, without control, the fove-
reignty of Greece. As their tafte was naturally good, arts
of every kind foon arofe among them, and flounthed.

Gg - Valour

ATHENS.

Valour had given them reputation ; reputation gave them
an afcendant ; and that afcendant produced a fecurity, which
Jeft their minds at eafe, and gave them leifure to cultivate
every thing liberal or elegant. It was then that Pericles
adorned the city with temples, theatres, and other beau-
tiful public buildings. Phidias, the great fculptor, was em-
ployed as his architect, who, when he had ereéted edifices,
adorned them himfelf, and added ftatues and baffo-relievos,
the admiration of every beholder. It was then that Polyg-
notus and Myro painted; that Sophocles and Euripides
wrote; and not long after that they faw the ‘ divine”
Socrates. Athough their military ftrength and political
fovereigaty were impaired by the Lacedemonians, humiliat-
ed by the Thebans under Epaminondas, and wholly cruthed
by Philip the Macedonian; yet, happily for mankind,
their love of literature and arts did not fink along with it.
Juft at the clofe of their golden days of empire, flourifhed
Xenophoa and Plato, the difciples of Socrates, and from
Plato defeended that race of philofophers called the * Old
Academy,” which was fucceeded by the ‘* New Academy.’”
(See AcApemy.) Withthe ftudy of philofophy was united
that of rhetoric, upon which treatifes were written by the
ableft Greek philofophers. To this object they were in-
cited by the intrinfic beauty of their language, as it was
then fpoken among the learned and polite. The fame love
of elegance which made them attend to their ftyle, made
them attend even to the places where their philofophy
was taught. Such was the Academy of Plato ; the Lyceum
of Ariftotle ; the portico or colonnade of Zeno, the walls
of which were decorated by various paintings of Polyg-
notus and Myro; and the gardens of Epicurus. Thefe
public inftitutions were called among the Greeks by the
name of Gymnafia, in which were taught all thofe exer-
cifes, and all thofe arts, which tended to cultivate not only
the body but the mind. Dr. Gillies, in his, ‘* Hiftory of
Greece,”’ has dwelt with a degree of enthufiafm on the
advantages, both natural and moral, refulting from the
gymnattic exercifes and public games; but M. de Pauw
(ubi fupra), differs in opinion, afferting that nothing could
be more pernicious, or tend more to ener®ate the human
race, than thefe exercifes. As to the moral advantages
of thefe public games, it is not very eafy to decide; but
their phyfiological effet is much lefs queftionable, and
cannot be juftly difputed. f

AtueEns, Population of. From comparing the feveral
accounts of the population of Atticain the time of Pericles,
of Demoithenes, and of Demetrius Phalereus, M. de Pauw
(ubi fupra) conjetures, that the number of citizens was
preferved nearly at the fame level, in confequence of the
adoption of itrangers, to repair the extraordinary devafta-
tions of war and difeafe, and of emigrations, when the
number exceeded that which the rules of policy had efta-
plifhed; this was 20,000 men; and he fuppofes that there
was an equal number of women. In the time of Deme-
trins Phalereus, the ftrangersfettled in Attica amounted to
10,005, and the flaves to 400,000; fo that the whole
number may be eitimated at 450,000 to about eighty-fix
fquare leagues of territory, or above 5000 on an average to
each fquare league. This, he obferves, is a much greater
population than that of France, which, according to M.
Necker’s calculations, contains not more than goo inhabi-
dants to a fquare league.

The people of Athens were comprehended under the
claffes of freemen or citizens, TloAas ; fojourners, or M¢loxor ;
and flaves, or Azan. Cecrops diftributed them into four
gua~, or tribes, each tribe being fubdivided into three parts,
and each of thefe into thirty families. The names of the tribes

‘Solon’s law was reftored.

were different at different eras: and their number waa
increafed by Clifthenes to ten; and they were afterwards
augmented to twelve. Thefe tribes had public feafts, at
which they met to promote friendfhip and good neighbour-
hood. To each tribe belonged feveral little boroughs in
Attica, called Avuo; of thefe there were 174, befides other
boroughs that belonged to no particular tribes. It was
enacted, that all ftrangers who intended to live at Athens,
fhould be compelled, after a fhort refidence, to enroll their
names among the free citizens, and that none but perfons
of emirent meritorious charaéter fhould be citizens. This
privilege was conferred by the popular affembly. It was
alfo enacted, that none fhould relide as free citizens at
Athens, except thofe who were banifhed from their own
country, or who voluntarily fettled there with their whole
families. 'They were admitted to their rights by certain
ceremonies, and enrolled in a certain tribe. Solon de-
creed, that none fhould be accounted free but fuch as were
Athenians both by father and mother: this regulation was
revived, after difuf-, by Pericles, and at his motion re-
pealed; and after the expulfion of the thirty tyrants,
In the Cynofarges there was a
court of judicature, towhich caufes of illegitimacy belonged ;
and great care was taken that none fhould be enrolled as
citizens, whofe title was not examined and proyed.

The M:zoixo, orfojourners, were thofe who camefroma fo-
reign country and fettled ia Attica, being admitted by the
council of Areopagus, and publicly regiltered. Of thefe,
feveral fervices were required ; and both men and women
paid an annual tax. Thofe who failed to pay it were feized
and expofed to fale by the officers of the public revenue:
fuch, according to Diogenes, was the fate of Xenocrates
the philofopher ; but thofe who rendered any fervice to
the public, were exempted from the payment of all impofts,
except fuch as were demanded of free citizens. Such
perfoas as did not conftantly refide at Athens, were called
E21, or ftrangers. :

The flaves were of two forts; fuch as became fo from
poverty, the chance of war, or the perfidy of thofe who
trafficked in them, and who were at liberty to change their
matters, and to releafe themfelves from fervitude ; and fuch
as were at the abfolute difpofal of their mafters. Slaves
were not allowed to imitate freemen in their drefs and man-
ners. They were forbidden to wear long hair, and what
is more afhonifhing, Solon prohibited them to love boys, as
if this practice where honourable: they were not permitted
to plead for themfelves, or to be witneffes in any caufe ;
confeffion was extorted from them by torture ; nor were they
allowed to worfhip certain deities, to be called by honour-
able names, and to bear arms. ‘They were reduced to obe-
dience, and punifhed by corporal feverities ;_ they were
fometimes marked on the forehead, or ftigmatized in any
other part of the body. Neverthelefs they were allowed
at Athens to take refuge in the temple of Thefeus, when
they were oppreffed, and it was facrilege to force them from
it. They were allowed to bring an action againft their
mafters for ill treatment, and againft thofe who injured
them ; and in various refpects their condition was preferable
to that of flaves in other places, as they might purchafe
their freedom, and were fometimes advanced to the dignity
of citizens. In the firft day of every month, the merchants
called a:tearceoxarnra, expofed them for fale in the flave-
market. In the time of Adrian, matters were prohibited
from putting their flaves to death. ‘

Aruens, Magifirates and Government of. By the law of
Solon no man who had not a good eftate, could bear the
office of a magiltrate ; but by the law of Ariitides, every

man

ATHENS.

man, was admitted to a.fhare ia the commonwealth; but be-
fore he was admitted, he was obliged to give an account of Ins
patt life before judges in that part of the forum called Sox-
posi. It was a capital crime for a perfon to enter on his
office in debt. The magiftrates of Athens were of three
forts, vize Xsszozovnlns, who were eleéted by the ; eople, and
fo called becaufe chofen by holding up of hands; KArputos,
who were promoted by lots drawn by the Thefmothetw, in
the temple of Thefeus;, and Aigeva, who were extraordinary
officers appointed by particular tribes, to fuperintend public
affairs. ‘he magiftrates entered on their office on the firlt
day of the month Hecatombazon. The jirit and moft im-
portant of thefe magiftracies was that of the archons. (See
Axcton.) Among the inferior magiftrates may be reckon-
ed the Nomoruytaces, Puyrarcui, PHyiosasiLes,
Purarrrarcut, Demarcui, Lexrarcadi, Toxors, and
Nomoruere, to whom were added the Ruzrores; which
fee refpectively. There were other magiitrates who had the
fuperintendence and regulation of the general affembly of
the people called Eccuesia; fuch as the Episrarss,
Prytywnes, and Prorpri. (Seealfo Senarz,and Pryra-
NeEuM.) The courts of juftice, exclufive of the Arzoré-
Gus, were ten in number, of which four had cognizance of
criminal, and fix of civil caufes. Thefe courts were painted
with various colours, and on cach was engraven one of the
ten firlt letters of the Greek alphabet; and hence they were
denominated Alpha, Beta, &c. The names of thofe who
were to hear and determine canfes, and the names alfo of
their father and borough, infcribed upona tablet, were deliv-
ered to the Thefmothetz, who returned it with another te-
blet om which was inferibed the letter of one of the courts
according to the lots. Thefe tablets were carried to the
crier of the feveral courts direéted by the letters, who gave
to every man a tablet inferibed with his own name and the
name of the court in which he was to fit; and having re-
ceived a fceptre, the ufual enfign of judicial power, they
were feverally admitted into the court. When their refpec-
tive caufes were determined, they returned the {ceptre to
the Prytanes, from whom they received their due reward,
fometimes one obolus, and fometimes three oboli. No man
was allowed to fit in more than one court in a day ; and if
they were convicted of bribery, they were fined. The
firft criminal court after the Areopagus was that of the
Epuera; the fecond was called De_puinium ; the third,
Pry taneuM; and the laft Porearum; fee the refpective
articles. Of the judicatory courts for civil caufes, the firft
was the Parasuston; the fecond, the Carnon; the third,
Triconon ; the fourth, the court of Lycus; the fifth,
that of Meticuus; and the fixth, Herixza. All the
Athenians who were free citizens were allowed to fit in
thefe courts as judges; but they were previoufly obliged to
take a folemn oath, by Apollo Patrius, Ceres, and Jupiter
the king, that they would pafs a juit fentence, and accord-
ing to law, and to the beft of their judgment. This oath
was adminiftered near the river Ilyflus, in a place called
«© Ardettus’? from a perfon of that name, who, in a public
fedition, united the contending parties, and engaged them
to confirm their treaties of peace by mutual oaths in this
place ; whence common {wearers were called agdevia. There
were other courts of lefs confequence, where the dissinics.
er reszapaxovlz, or other magiftrates, took cognizance of
caufes belonging to their fevera] offices, Such were the
courts at Cynofarges, Odeum, the temple of Thefeus, Bu-
coleum, &c. Jn the judicial procefs, the plaintiff delivered
to the magiftrate the name of the perfon againft whom he
brought his action, with an account of his offence ; this was
followed by an inguiry on the part of the magiftrate, whether

it belonged to his cognizance, and whether it ought to be
tried, called Anacrifis;” the plaintiff then, with permiffion
of the magiftrate, fummoned his adverfary to appear; but if
he refufed to appear, he was dragged by force. When both
plaintiff and defendant were before the m viltrate, he in-
quired of the former whether the witneffes were all ready,
which was the fecond “ Anacrifis;””? when no plea was urged
on the part of either plaintiffor defendant for j uiting off the
trial, an oath was adminiftered to both partics. “Uhefe oaths,
with thofe of the witneffes, and other matters » lating to the
action, were written upon tablets, and depofited in a veffe!,
wareh was delivered to the judges. Vhe judges, being ap-
pointed by lots, took their places at the alligued day ia the
tribunal. The magiftrate then propofed the caufe to them,
and gave them authority to determine it. The public crier
read the indiétment coutaining the grouids of the accufatioa
which were noted down by the judges. If the defecdant
did not appear, fentence was immediately paffed acainit him;
but if he prefented himfelf withi: ten days, affizaing rea‘ons
for his abfence, the fermer fentence was reverfed, and the
trial was to be brought forward by the defendant within
two menths; but if it was not brought on, the former fen-
tence was confirmed. Before trial, both parties depoiited
a fum of money in the hands of the magiitrate, who intro-
duced their caufe isto the court, who, if the money was
not paid, erafed their caufs from the roll. The depofit,
which was 3 drachmas for a caufe of the value of 100
drachmas to 1000; and 30 for more thaa 1000 and lefs
than 10,000; was divided among the judges ; aad tie per-
fon who loft his caufe, reftored the money to his adverfary,
and paidthe charzes. The witreffes in the trial were to be
free-born, and deferving of credit; aad they were confidered
as infamous if they had forfeited their privileges by mifcon-
duét. The teftimony was fometimes given aloud in open
court, and fometimes ia writing upon a tablet of wax. If
the parties required it, they. were allowed advocates, whofe
fpeeches were limited as to length of time, meafured by a
water-glafs. When the parties had finifhed, the crier was
commanded by the prefiding magiftrate, to order the judges
to bring in their verdiét; and where the law had provided
penalties, a verdiG of guilty or not guilty was fufficient; but
where the laws were filent, another fentence was nece{lar Y>
determining the punifhment due to the offence. When the
laws were filent, the judges might limit the punifhment; fer-
tence was at firft given by black and white fea-fhells called
xobivzs, or pebbles called tx? ; balis of brafs were after-
wards ufed, and then beans ; the white beans were whole,
and ufed to acquit ; the black were bored through, to con-
demn. The caufe while pending was engraved ‘ona tablet

and expofed to public view, and hung up at the ftatue of the
heroes named Exwwyor. If the perfon convicted was guilty,
he was delivered to the E,3-x~, to receive punifhment ; but if
he was fined, the Tajas t# Ss faw the fine paid; if unable
to pay it, he was doomed to perpetual imprifonment. Tf the
plaintiff had unjuftly accufed his adverfary, he was fentenced
to fuffer that punthment which the law inflicted on the
crime with which his adverfary was accufeds The plaintiff
was called dvuxws, the caufe itfelf diols, and the accufed Pru ycay.
Aisiz was the name of the indidtment before conviction, and
casyx2; after it. When the trial was clofed the judges went
to the temple of Lycus, returned their ftaves, and received
their money.

The Athenian judgments were of two kinds: public, con-
cerning thofe crimes that afleCted the ftate, called ARG ZyOphaty
and all perfons were encouraged by law to avenge the pub-
lic wrong, by bringing the criminal to puniffiment ; and
private, concerning all cantroverties between private perfons,
called

x 2
5 *

d/ shag lied
called 3ixzi s and no one could profecute an offender except
ke who was injured, or fome of his family. The public
judgments were murder, malicious wounding, @ conflagra-
tion of the c ty, poifan, conipiracy againit the life of ano-
ther, facrilege, punifhed with death, impiety, treafon, for-
nication ; whoredom, punifhable by fine; celibacy ; refufing
to ferve in war, and cowardice, puniihable with infamy ; de-
fertion of the fleet and of the army, punifhed by fine; defer-
tion from their poit, as leaving the infantry for the cavalry ;
refufing to ferve in the fleet, or lofing their fhield, punifhed

with infamy ; charging men with debts already paid, pu-°

nithed by-fine; an action for falfe arrefts, for beating a free-
man or reducing him to flavery, affault or frivolous accufa-
tion, puntihed by a fine ; receiving bribes for any public at-
fair, or perverting juitice, fined ten times the value of what
they received, and punifhed with the greateit degree of in-
famy; for offering bribes for the perverfion of juitice, and
particulasly in caufes relating to the freedom of the city; for
erafing a name out of the public debt-book before the debt
was difcharged; digging a mine without the public know-
ledge, a twenty-fourth part of the metal belonging to the
public ; againit magiitrates who had neglected to furrender
their accounts; fer propofing a new law, and ating contrary
to the eitablifhed laws ; againft magiitrates, ambafladors, and
other public officers, who had mifemployed the public mone},
or otherwife offended; againft ambaffadors who had forfeited
their truit; againtt difaffeGed tumultuous perfons; an action
for debts due to the public, falfely charged upon thofe who
had never paid the fines impofed upon them ; for the dif-
covery of any fecret injury ; and againit fuch as exported
corn from Attica, appropriated the public money or land, or
for mifapplying the property of orphans; againtt thofe who
confeffed their crimes without flanding atrial; againft thofe
who protected murderers 5 and againit fuch as had been cuilty
of certain fate offences. Of private judgments, which were
very numerous, the principal were againit thofe who had
done an injury punifhed with fine, an action of affault, a law-
fuit generally for the recovery of an eftate, a fuit concerning
relationfhip, an aétion of divorce, an action by a matter or
patron again{t his clients who were freed flaves, and who re-
fufed to perform the fervices incumbent upon them, an ac-
tion againit fojourners who neglected to chufe a patron, an
ation of ingratitude, againtt thofe who had violated the
chaftity of women, or injured the perfons of men, an action
concerning nuifance, againft thofe who would not divide
their property among juit claimants, for demanding rent,
againit guardians who had defrauded their wards, of flander,
by which the criminal was fined 500 drachmas, againit thofe
who had fuborned falfe witneffes, againft thieves, an action
claiming an eitate againft thofe who refufed to reftore that
with which they were entrufted, againit thofe who would
not fulfil their contraéts, and a fuit between debtors and
creditors. ;

The criminal punifhments of the Athenians were avtpix,
infamy or difgrace; BageSz0, a deep pit into which con-
demned perfons were cait headlong (See BaraTuRruM) ;
Aeoxo:, or the ignominious punifhment of hanging or ftrang-
ling; d:cpos, the punifhment of fetters or imprifonment ;
Yeaux, fervitude, by which a criminal was reduced. to the
condition of a flave ; 2muiz, a peculiar fine laid upon the
criminal, according to the nature of his offence ; death in-
Aliéted for various offences 5 xgnyvos, a precipice from which
the malefa@or was thrown headlong; xvG«y, a collar ufually
made of wood; 2s$:f0?1, lapidation, a common punifhment
for adultery ; oc, with which the criminal was beheaded ;
fetters with fiye holes; ravcmzar, a round] inftrument to
confine the hand; a crofs, confiftmg of two beams laid

ENS.

acrofs one another, to which the malefaétor was nailed ;
sax, a pillar, on which the crimes of the offender were en-
graven ; styzztz, marks imprefled with a hot iron upon
flaves 3 zuxavz, OF syuwavx, clubs, with which malefaétors
were, beaten to death; cx, {mall cords, by which eri-
minals were itretched upon the rack; $x;u2x0, poifon, of
which various forts were ufed, but the moft common was
the juice of hemlock ; ?ufn, or banifhment, of which there
were feveral forts; 3<ssZ, the fetters, in which the legs
were faftened; cxu;s, a piece of wood to which the crimi-
nal was bound; xzrarsziczyos, drowning in the fea; and
wuz, or burning. Public honours and rewards were aziz
(fee ATELE14), or an immunity from taxes and other pub-
lic duties ; xx», the honour of a ftatue erected in any pub-
lic place ; =p0:¢x, or the liberty of the firft feats at public
entertainments ; zivsz, an entertainment at the public ex-
pence, given to thofe who had deferved well of their coun-
try; and s:%zv1, crowns conferred by the vote of the people
in their public aflembly, by the fenators in council, by the
tribes to their own members, and by the demotai in their
Own ¢cnzc:, or borough.

As to the laws of the Athenians, it was a received opi-
dion that they were taught the ufe of laws by Ceres; but
it is certain that Thefeus retained the privilege of making
and preferving laws. Draco was the next law-giver, and
his Jaws were called S:cuo 5; thefe were all, except thofe of
murder, repealed by Solon, whofe laws were diftinguifhed
by the term iouc:. The thefmothete fore to the obfervance
of them, on the penalty of dedicating a ftatue as large as
life to the Delphian Apollo; and the people were bound
to obey them for a hundred years. Pifiltratus afterwards
affumed for himfelf, and left to his fons, the authority of a
law-giver ; but the laws of Solon were in fome degree en-
forced by Cliithenes, who himfelf added new ones. Thefe
continued in force till the Peloponnefian war, when the go-
vernment was altered by the four hundred, and afterwards
by the thirty tyrants. The ancient laws were again reftored
by Euclides, and others by the influence of Diocles, Ari-
ftophon, and afterwards by Demetrius Phalereus; and thefe,.
with /Efchylus and Thales, were the chief legiflators of
Athens. (Suidas.) The laws were annually revifed; and
a new law was to be propofed-before an old one could be
repealed. Solon, and other law-givers who fucceeded him,
committed their laws to writing. The laws of Solon were
engraved on tablets of wood; and fome affirm, that the
original in his hand-writing were always kept in the citadel,
and copies of them in the prytaneum. The laws were all
engraven on the wall in the @zciixn soz, oF royal portico,
for the infpection of the public. T’his was the cuftom after
the expulfion of the thirty tyrants.

ATHENIANS, Commerce of the. The harbour of Pirzus.
was much frequented, not only by Grecian veffels, but alfo
by thofe of the nations which the Greeks denominated Bar-
barians. But as the Athenians were actuated by the {pint
of conqueft, and afpired to the fovereignty of the fea, in
order to obtain that of the land, they direéted their atten-.
tion to the navy with this view ; and therefore their com-
merce was reftrained to the procuring from other countries:
the commodities and produétions neceffary to their fub-
fiftence. Neverthelefs, the Athenians adopted a variety of
regulations, and ena¢ted many laws for extending commerce,
and preventing as much as poffible the litigations and
obftacles which impeded its operations. They infli@ed a
fine of a thoufand drachmas (about 37]. ios.), and fome-
times the punifhment of imprifonment, on him who'accufed
a merchant of any crime which he was unable to prove.
As Attica produced but little corn, the exportation of it

I was

|

thd igh

was prohibited ; and thofe who fetched it from foreign
countries were forbidden, under rigorous penalties, to carry
it to any other market but that of Athens. A great
quantity was brought from Egypt and Sicily ; and a greater
quantity from Panticapeum and Theodofia, cities of the
Cherfonefus T'aurica, becaufe the fovereign of that coun-
try, the mafter of the Cimmerian Bofphorus, exempted the
Athenian veffels from paying the duty which he levied on
the exportation of that commodity. In’ confequence of
this privilege, they traded in preference to the Cimmerian
Bofphorus, from which Athens received annually 400,000
medimni of corn. The Athenians alfo imported from Pan-
ticapeum, and the different coafts of the Euxine fea, tim-
ber for building, flaves, falt, honey, wax, wool, leather,
and goat-fkins; from Byzantium, and other parts of
Thrace and Macedonia, falt-fifh and wood; from Phrygia
and Miletus, carpets, coverlets for beds, and the fine wool
of which they made their cloths ; from the iflands of the
Aigean fea, wines of the various kinds of fruits which they
produce ; and from Thrace, Theflaly, Phrygia, and many
other countries, a great number of flaves. Oil was the only
commodity which Solon allowed them to exchange for
foreign merchandize ; the exportation of all other produc-
tions from Attica was prohibited ; nor was it permitted to
carry out of their country, without paying heavy duties,
the timber of the fir, the cyprefs, the plane, and other
trees which grew in the environs of Athens. In their filver
mines the Athenians found a great refource for their com-
merce. As feveral {tates debaled their coin, the money of
Athens, in greater eftimation than that of other countries,
procured for them an advantageous exchange. In general,
they purchafed wines in the iflands of the A‘gean fea, or on
the coaits of Thrace ; for it was principally by means of this
commodity that they trafficked with the people who in-
habited the borders of the Euxine fea. The tafte confpicuous
in the works of their artifts, rendered the productions of their
fkill and induftry defirable; fo that they exported to diftant
countries {words and arms of different kinds, cloths, beds,
and various utenfils. Books were with them alfo an article
of trade. They maintained correfpondents in almott all
the places to which they were attraéted by the hope of
gain ; and, on the other hand, many of the ftates of Greece
appointed agents at Athens to fuperintend the interefts of
their trade. The Athenians for the moft part employed
their money in trade; but they were not allciied to lend
it for any place but Athens. The lender had his fecurity
on the merchandize or goods of the borrower ; and as the
dangers of the fea were partly rifked by the former, and the
profit of the latter might be very confiderable, the intereft
of money thus lent might rife as high as 30 per cent.
more or lefs, according to the length and hazards of the
voyage. ‘The landed intereft amounted to 12 per cent. per
annum, fometimes to 16 per cent. monthly, and among the
lower clafles of the people, the quarter of the principal was
exacted for daily intereft. Commerce, by increafing the
circulation of wealth, gave rife to the occupation of bankers,
and thus its circulation was ftill more facilitated.

ATHENS, Money of, was of three forts. Silver was firft
eoined, afterwards gold, and laftly copper. The matt
common coins were thofe of filver, and they were of dif-
ferent value. Above the drachma (gd. Englifh), confift-
ing of fix oboli, was the didrachma, or double drachma, and
the tetradrachma, or quadruple drachma ; below it were the
pieces of 4, 3, and 2 oboli; after which were the obolus and
femiobolus (1. e. 6d. 44d. 3d. 14d. and 3d. Englifh). The
latter being found inconvenient for common ufe, copper
money was coined about the beginning of the Peloponnefian
war, and pieces of that metal were ftruck, which were not

EN 5S.

worth more than the eighth part of an obolus. The largefl
piece of gold weighed two drachmas, and was worth
twenty filver drachmat (i. e. fifteen fhillings Englith). Gold
was very fearce in Greece ; it was brought from Lydia and
Macedonia, where the peafants colleéted the fmall pieces
which the rains wathed down from the neigbouring moun-
tains See Money.

ATHENS, Revenues of; fometimes amounted to the fum of
2000 talents or 450,0001. and thefe revenues were of two
kinds; théfe which were raifed in the country itfelf, and thot
that were drawn from the tributary cities and flates. he
firft clafs comprehended the product of the houfes, lands,
and woods, appertaining to the republic, and farmed out
for a certain fum; the twenty-fourth part referved from
the filver mines, payable by individuals who had permiffion
to work them; the annual tribute received from freedmen
and the 10,000 foreigners fettled in Attica; the fines and
confifcations, the principal of which went into the treafury
of the ftate; the fifth, levied on corn and other merchan-
dize imported, and alfo on feveral commodities that were
exported from the Pireus; which, during the Peloponnetian
war, were farmed at thirty-tix talents (S81ool.); anda num-
ber of other taxes of le{s importance, yielded by commodi-
ties fold in the market, and levied on fuch as kept courtezans
in their houfes. Moft of thefe duties were farmed; and
the farmers remitted, before the ninth month of the year,
the fum ftipulated to the receivers of the revenue. The
fecond and principal branch of the revenues of the ttate,
confifted in the tributes which were paid by a number of
cities and iflands dependent upon it. Its claims of this
kind were founded on the abufe of power. After the
battle of Platea, the conquerors having refolved to revenge
on Perfia the infults offered to Greece, the inhabitants of
the iflands who had entered into the league agreed to fet
apart every year a confiderable fum to detray the expences
of the war. The Athenians collected in different places
460 talents (103,5001.); and by degrees, as their power
increafed, they changed the gratuitous contributions of the
allied cities, into an humiliating exaction, impoling on
fome the obligation to provide {hips whenever they fhould
be called upon, and demanding of others the annual tribute
to which they had formerly fubjected themfelves. In the
fame manner they taxed their new conquefts, and the fum
total of the foreign contributions amounted, at the begin-
ning of the Peloponnefian war, to 600 talents (135,000l.) ;
and towards the middle of the fame war, to twelve or
thirteen hundred. The conquefts of Philip reduced this
fum to 400 talents, and the Athenians flattered themfelves
they fhould again be able to advance it to 1200 (270,000l.).
The 460 talents drawn annually from the ftates leagued
againft the Perfians, and depotited by the Athenians in the
citadel, at firft amounted to the fum of 10,000 talents
(2,250,000l.) according to Ifocrates (t. i. p. 395+); ar g700
(2,182,5001.) according to Thucydides (1.11. c.13... Peri-
cles, during his adminiftration, had laid up 8000; but
having expended 3700, either in the embellifhment of the
city, or the expences of the fiege of Potidea, the g70o
were reduced to 6000 (1,350,000].) at the beginning of the
Peloponnefian war. This war was fufpended by a truce,
which the Athenians entered into with the Lacedemonians,
and the contributions which they had then received amounted
to 12 or 1300 talents; and during the feven years of the
truce, they placed 7000 talents (1,575,0001.) in the public
treafury. Thefe revenues, however confiderable, were in-
fufficient to defray the expences of the ftate ;, and recourfe
was frequently had to free gifts and forced contributions.
Of all the branches of public expenditure, the maintenance
of the navy was the moft heavy: when an armament was

to

yer DB sf

to be fitted out, each of the ten tribes levied in its diftrict
the fame number of talents as there were gallies to be
equipped, and demanded them trom thr fame number of com-
panies, compofed fometimes of fixteen perfons liable to con-
tribute. Demoithenes made an amendment in the mode of af-
fefling this tax. The decree propofed by him for this purpofe
was as follows: every citizen, whofe fortune amounted to
ten talents, wis to furnifh the ftate with one galley ; if he
poffeffed twenty talents, with two; and however rich he
might be, no more fhould be required of hum than three
galleys and a fhallop. Thofe whofe fubitance was leis than
ten talents were to join in contributing a galley.
Aruentans, Religion of the. From the earlieit times the
ebjects of religious worfhip multiplied among the Athenians.
They received the twelve principal divinities from the
Egyptians, and others from the Libyans and different
naticrs ; and they were fo fearful of omitting religious
worthip, that they even erected altars to t] unknown Ged.
{Pavfan. in Attic.) See Arrar. In procefs of time a
law was enacted, prohibiting, under pain of death, the intro-
duétion of any foreign worfhip, without a decree of the
areopagus. It was an ancient practice, to con‘ecrate, -by
monuments and feftivals, the memory of kings, and other
diftinguifhed perfone, who had rendered effential fervice to
their country, or to mankind. To this clafs the Athemans
referred Thefeus, Erechtheus, fuch as deferved to have their
names appropriated to the ten tribes, andmany others, as Her-
cules, &c. But the worfhip of the latter differed from that
of the gods, in the ceremonies that accompanied it, as well as
in the objeét to which it was directed. Before the deity they
proftrated themfelves, imploring his protection, thanking
him for his bounties, and acknowledging their dependence.
In honour of the heroes, and as a memerial of their illuttri-
ous deeds, they confecrated temples, altars, and groves, and
celebrated feftivals and games. Incenfe was burnt on their
a tars, and libations were poured over their tombs to precure
repofe to their manes. The religion of the common people
entirely confifted in prayers, facrifices, and purifications.
Individuals prefented their prayers to the gods at the com-
mencement of any undertaking: and they offered up their
addrefles in the morning, the evening, at the rifing and
fetting of the fun and moon. Sometimes they repaired to
the temple with downcaft eyes and dejected countenances ;
they kifled the ground, offered their prayers ilanding, on
their knees, and proftrate, and held branches in their hands,
which they lifted up towards heaven, or itretched out to-
wards the ftatue of the god, after applying it to their
mouths. In addreffing the infernal deities, they {truck the
earth with their feet or hands. Some pronounced their
devout addrefles in a low voice ; but Pythagoras wifhed
them always to be uttered aloud, that. nothing might be
aiked which could excite a blufh. At the feafons of wor-
fhip, the {pace before the temple, and the porticoes that fur-
rounded it, were full of people ; fo juitly has the apoftle Paul
charatterifed the Athenians, when he called them (Aés,
XVil. 22.), dsissdasuovesspesy “ too fuperftitious,”’ as the com-
mon tranflation renders it, or perhaps as it might be ren-
dered lefs offenfively and more conformably to the concilia-
tory addrefs, which the apoftle would have ufed on fuch an
occafion, and alfo to the frequent ufe of the term, « very
devout.”” See Lardner’s Works, vol. i. p. 193. The priefts
were the principal minilters of religion; and they. were
next in precedence to the kings and chief magittrates.
They obtained their office by inheritance, fometimes by lot,
by the appointment of the prince, or by popular cleétion :
and they were required to be unmaimed in body, chafte and
uncontaminated by the pleafures of the world in their dif-
pofition and character, and in their habits devoted to retire-

ATH

ment and piety. | Of thefe priefts there were fevérsl orders,
ard among them there was one, denominated Apyszxcunsy
high prieit, who had the fuperintendence of the reft, Some
temples were ferved by priefteffes, as particularly that of
Bacchus in the quarter of the marfhes. Lhe revenues affigned
fer the maintenance ef the priefts and temples were denved
from different fources, as a certain part; of the produce of
penalties and confifcatians, and of the fpotls taken from the
enemy, and the offerings of individuals. They formed how-
ever, no feparate and independent body ; nor had the mini-
fters of different temples any common intereft : and in caufes
which refpeéted them perionally, they were amenable te
the ordinary tribunals, Funétions of inferior fan@ity, that
related to the fervice of the temple, were intruitéd: to day
cficers: fome of whom were guardians of the: ureafary,
and others affift:d as witneffes and infpeétors at folemn
facrifices.. Next to the priefts, were the iecthizyers and
interpreters of omens. The worfh:p of the Athemans wus
originally performed in the open air, upen the tops of moun-
tains; and on jhefe {pots temples were afterwards erected,
and dedicated to Jupiter, Apollo, and the ether gods.
Their altars were, alfo, conitru¢ted of various materials, and
of different dimenfions, according to the variety of gods to
whom they were confecrated. Both temples and altars
were places of refuge or afylum for malefaciors and crimi-
nals of all defcriptions: and it was dezmed an aét of f{aeri-
lege to force them from their fasctuary. See Asyium.
Their facrifices were alfo of various kiads, as to their ebject
and defign, the materials of which they confifted, and the
places in which they were offered, and the ceremonies that
attended them. (See Sacrifice.) As public worfhip was
preferibed by one of the fundamental laws, and therefore
clofely conneéted with the couftitution, it was impoflible to
attack religion, without endangering that conttitution.» It
was confequently the duty of the magiftrates to maintain it,
and to oppofe all innovations vifibly tending te its deftruc-
tion. Hence the poet #ichylus was accufed of having, in
one of his tragedies, revealed the do¢trine of the myfteries;
Diagoras, undera fimilar charge, faved himfelf by flight ;
Protagoras was criminally profecuted, and obliged to fiy ;
Prodicus of Ceos was condemned to drink poifon; Anaxa-
goras was imprifoned, and his life was preferved by the in
terpofition and influence of Pericles; and the life of Alci-
biades was endangered by a charge of his having been con-
cerned in the mutilation of the ftatues of Mercury. — See
each of thefe biographical articles. :

Avuens, in Geography, a townthip of America, inWind-
ham county, Vermont, thirty-two miles north-eait from
Benn‘nzton, and about fix weft from Conneéticut river,

-having 450 inhabitants.

ATHENS, in the ftate of Ohio and county of Wathing-
ton, lies on the great Hockhocking river, 40 miles by wa-
ter from the Ohio, in the eleGtion diftriét of Middletown.
This fettlement, which commenced it 1797, isin a healthy
fituation; and the town, which is feated on eleyated
ground of ‘eafy afcent, is abundantly fupplied with fprings
of excellent water. The adjacent country is deemed fupe-
rior to any in the ftate for pleafantnefs and fertility. An
at paffed in r8o1 for eftablifhing an univerfity in this town,
which is called ‘The Ohio Univertity,’”’ and endowed a
two townfhips of land, amounting to 46,080 acres; within
which the town of Athens is fituated. .

ATHERDEE. See Arper.

ATHERINA, or Atuerine, in Ichthyology, one of
the Linnzan genera of abdominal fifhes; and diftinguithed
by having the upper jaw rather flat, fix rays in the gill-mem-
brane, anda filvery {tripe on each fide of the body. Gme-

lin

a En

Vin notices five fpecies of this genus, viz. Hepfetus, Menidia,
Sihama, Japonica, and Brownii ; which fee refpedtively.

ATHERINOIDES, a fpecies of CLupea, diftinguifhed
from the other fifhes of the fame genus by having a filvery
lateral line. Gmelin obferves, that this fith from its broad
filvery line appears to belong to the genus Atherina ; but
having a comprefled body, and {mall ventral fins, approaches
nearer to the Clupea genus, in which he places it. This
kind is a native of Surinam.

In the dorfal fin are twelye rays ; fourteen in the pectoral
fins ; eight in the ventral fins; thirty-two in the anal fin ;
and eighteen in the tail.

ATHEROMA, in Surgery, is a foft, pultaceous, unin-
flamed tumour; generally contained within a Cys'r, or mem-
branous bag. The cure of this {welling confilts in its re-
moval with a fealpel. See Tumour, and Exrrraparion.

ATHERSTON, in Geography, a market town in the
county of Warwick, fituated upon the Watling Street way,
conlifting principally of one long ftreet, excepting two finall
avenues or ftreets on the north fide leading to the market-
place and the chapel, the mother church being at Mancetter,
now a {mall village about a mile to the fouth, on the road
leading to Coventry. The liberty is bounded on the north
by the river Anker, which feparates it from Leicefterfhire.
The market is on Tuefday. The trade confifts principally in
the hat manufacture; wool-combers, ribband-weavers, and the
cotton trade has been likewife lately introduced. It contains
about 2600 inhabitants. Diltance from London 108 miles.

ATHESIS. See Apice.

ATHIAS, in Biography, a Jew, was a famous printer of
Amfterdam, in the feventeenth century ; and in 1661, and
1667, he printed two editions of the Hebrew bible, in two
volumes 8vo., for which he obtained of the States-general
an honorary recompence of a medal, and a chain oF gold.
He alfo printed the bible in Spanifh, German, and Englifh.
He died in 1700. Did. Hitt.

ATHIE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Somme, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t
of Peronne, two leagues S.S.E. of Peronne.

ATHINI, or Serines, the modern ATHENS, is not
inconfiderable, fays Chandler (Travels in Greece ), either in
extent, or in the number of its inhabitants.. It enjoys a
fine temperature, and a ferene fky; the air is clear and
wholefome. The town ftands beneath the acropolis or cita-
del, and does not encompafs the rock as it formerly did,
but fpreads into the plain, chiefly on the weft or north-
weft. The houfes are moftly mean and ftraggling, with
many large areas or courts before them. ‘The water is con-
“veyed to them in channels from mount Hymettus, and in
the market-place is a large fountain. The Turks have fe-
veral mofques, and public baths. The Greeks have con-
vents for men and women, with many churches, in which
fervice is regularly performed, and oratories, or chapels, fre-
quented on the anniverfaries of the faints to whom they are
dedicated. Befides the more ftable antiquities, of which
fome notice has been taken under ATHENS, there are many
detached pieces that have been found in the town, near the
fountains, and alfo in the ftreets, the walls, the houfes, and
the churches. Among thefe are fragments of feulpture, a
marble chair or two, which probably belonged to the gym-
nafia or theatres, a fun-dial at the catholicon or cathedral,
infcribeéd, as it is faid, with the name of Euclid ; and at the
archiepifcopal houfe, a curious veffel of marble, ufed as a
ciftern for receiving water, but once, probably, ferving as a
public itandard or meafure. Many columns, maimed ftatues,
and pedettals, are fcattered about ; and alfo a fine mutilated
Herma. The acropolis, or citadel, is now a fortrefs, with a
thick irregular wall, ftanding on tlie brink of precipices,

ATH

and inclofing a large area, about twice as long as broad,
Some portions of the ancient wall remain, and it is repaired
with patches of pieces of columns, and with marbles taken
from the ruins. ‘Uhe garrifon confits of a few Turks, who
refide there with their families, and are called by the Greeks
** Caftriani,” or foldiers of the caftle. Their houfes over-
look the city, plain, and gulf; but the fituation is as airy
as pleafant; the rock is lofty, abrupt, and inacceffible, ex-
cept the front, which is towards the Pireus ; and on that
quarter is a mountainous ridge, within cannon fhot. The
acropolis furnifhed, fays Chandler, an ample field to the
ancient virtuofi. It was filled with monuments of ancient
glory, and exhibited an amazing difplay of beauty, of opu-
lence, and of art ; each contending, as it were, for the fu-
periority. Heliodorus, named Periegetes or the guide, em-
ployed in this plac fifteen books. Polemo Periegetes,
four volumes ; and Strabo, in the Auguftan age, affirms,
that as many would be required in treating of other portions
of Athens and of Attica. ‘The number of ftatues, in par-
ticular, was prodigious. Tiberius Nero, who was fond of
images, plundered the acropolis, as well as Delphi and
Olympia; and yet Athens, and each of thefe places, had
not fewer than 3000 remaining in the time of Pliny. This
banquet of the fenfes, continues this traveller, has long been
withdrawn; and is now become like the tale of vifion.
The {pectator views with concern the marble ruins intermixed
with mean flat-roofed cottages, and extant amid rubbith ;
the fad memorials ef a nobler people. The antiquities of
this city have been alfo defcribed by Wheeler and Spon,
wlio vilited it in the time of Charles II. ; and by Mr. le Roy
and many others. Mr. Stuart, however, who refided there
between three and four years, has furpaffed others in the
accuracy and elegance of his plans and of his defcription.
Spon, in {peaking of Attica, fays, that the road near Athens
was pleafing, and the very peafants polifhed. Wheeler, his
fellow-traveller, {peaking of the civilization of the Athe-
nians, obferves, that even the fhepherds bid them welcome,
and wifhed them a good journey ; and that their bad fortune
had not been able to deprive them of that fubtlety of wit
which they poffeffed by nature ; and that, notwithitanding
the barbarifm that hath long prevailed, they feem to be
much more polifhed in their manners and converfation than
any others in thofe parts. Stuart confirms, with regard to
the prefent Athenians, the account given by Spon and
Wheeler of their anceftors; as he found among them the
fame addrefs, and the fame natural acutenefs, though feverely
curbed by their defpotic mafters. At their convivial
meetings, it was a frequent cuftom for one of them to take
a lyre, or a fpecies of guitar, and after a {hort prelude on
the inftrument, to accompany the initrumental mufic with
his voice ; fuddenly chanting fome extempore verfes, feldom
exceeding two or three diftichs ; this performer delivered the
lyre to his neighbour ; who, after he has done, delivers it
to another; and thus the inftrument circulated, till it had
paffed round the table. He adds, that, notwithftandimg the
various fortune of Athens as a city, Attica was ftill famous
for olives, and mount Hymettus for honey. Thus. “human
inftitutions perifh, but nature is permanent.”

The prefent Athens, Athini, or Setines, is the capital of
Livadia, a province of European Turkey, the fee of an
archbifhop ; and contains, as fome fay, 10,000, or, accord-
ing to others, 15 or 16,000 inhabitants, chiefly Greeks.
The chief articles of trade are filk, wax, wool, and oil.
It is a fea-port, and fituated on the north-eaft coaft of the
gulf of Engia in the archipelago, with a fafe and large har-
bour, narrow at the entrance, and commanded by the cita-
del. N. lat. 38°55’. E. long. 23° 57.

ATHIS, a town of France, in the department: of the

Orne,

ATH

Orne, and chief place of a canton in the diftric&t of Dom-
front ; thirteen miles fouth-weft of Falaife. The place
contains 3351, and the canton 15,8775 inhabitants: the
territory includes 185 kiliometres and 29 communes.

Arnis, in dncient Geography, a town of Afia, fituate
on the weftern bank of the Euphrates, fouth-weit of Nice-
phorium.

ATHLET, in Antiquity, perfons of ftrength and
agility, difciplined to perform in the public games. The
word is formed from 2$do:, certamen, combat ; whence alfo
Snor, the prize, or reward, adjudged to the victor.

Under athlete were comprehended wrelllers, boxers,
runners, leapers, throwers of the difk, and thofe practifed
in-other exercifes exhibited in the Olympic, Pythian, and
other folemn {ports ; for the conquerors in which there were
eftablifhed prizes. .

From the five ufual exercifes, the athlete were alfo deno-
minated wzviz$a0, and by the Latins quinquerliones ; at leait
fuch as profeffed them all.

Thofe who were defigned for this profeffion, frequented
the gymnafia or paleftre from their youth ; and they were
obliced to fubmit to the mott ftrié difcipline and abftemious
eo men. ‘Their fare was coarfe and feanty ; they were pro-
hibited the ufe of wine, and enjoined continence ; and thus
Horace (Art. Poet. v. 412.) deferibes them :

«© Qui ftudet optatam curfu contingere metam,
Multa tulit fecitgue puer; fudavit et alfit ;
Abftinuit venere, et vino.”’

The apoftle Paul, in his firft epiftle to the Cormthians
(ch. ix. 25.) enforces temperance by an allufion to the
athlete; and Tertullian encourages the martyrs by the
fame reference. But when the privilege of being {upported
at the public expence, was granted to fuch of the athlete as
were vidtorious, they abandoned their habits of abftinence
and exercife, and indulged themfelves to a very fhameful
degree of indolence and of gluttony. Before their exer-
cifes, their bodies were rubbed with oils and various unguents,
in order to render them fupple and vigorous ; and they
practifed a kind of noviciate 1a the gymnafia for feveral
months, that by previous application and practice they might
be fit for the contefts in which they engaged. At firft
they made ufe of a belt, with an apron annexed to it, for
the fake of decency ; but they afterwards laid afide this
covering, and engaged in feveral of the combats naked.
To this infult on public decency, fome of the beft writers
of antiquity have attributed that infamous paffion, to the
indulgence of which the Greeks were notorioufly addicted.

"ke women, indeed, were prohibited from approaching the
places where thefe public games were celebrated. Before
they were admitted to the combat, they were examined as
to their birth, for none but Greeks were admitted; as to
their condition, which was required to be free ; and as to
their manners, which were to be irreproachable.. The name
aad country of each champion were regiftered, and a herald,
before the commencement of the conteft, proclaimed their
names. They folemnly vowed not to employ any unfair
means, and to conform to the eftablifhed regulations by
which the games were conducted.

ATHLETIC Crown. See Crown.

Araveric Habit denotes a ftrong hale conftitution of
body, which was the object the athlete aimed at, and to
which their diet correfponded.

Atucetic Weicht. See WEIGHT.

ATHLONE, in Geograph;, the moft confiderable townof
th: county of Weftmeath, ia Ireland, fituated on the river
Shannon, overwhich it hasalong bridge of many arches, fothat
it was formerly an important pafs into the weftern province.
It is partly in the county of Rofcommon, and is the moft

ATH

central town in the ifland. Notwithftanding its advanta-
geous fituation for trade and improvement, it is faid to be
in many parts a poor, ruinous, dirty looking place. Inthe
middle of the bridge is a monument, with cane figures, to-
gether with queen Elizabeth’s efcutcheon of arms, and fome
inferiptions declaring the time and founders of the building.

The caftle, which was on the Rofcommon fide, called the
Irifh town, was built by king John, ona high raifed round

hill refembling a Danifh rath or fort, fo as to command the
bridge and the adjacent country. This was long the refid-
ence of the lord prefidents of Connaught, who held in it
their courts of juitice. In the time of the civil war, it was
ftrongly fortified on both fides of the river; andthe Englifh
under the lord prefident itood a long fiege in the caftle, in
1641 and 1642. During the whole of this melancholy period;
it was a place of great itrength and importa:ce, generally

in the poffeffion of the Infh or Catholic party; till,in 1651

it was taken by fir Charles Coote, at the head of the par-
liamentary forces. After the defeat of James the Second
at the Boyne, his adherents remained at Athlone, and havy-
ing deftroyed the Englifh town which was eait of the Shan-
non, and broken the bridge, refolved to maiatain the Irith

diftriét on the weft. For this purpofe they ftrongly en-*
trenched themfelves ; and in the following year the general
St. Ruth took his ftation with the main army behind the
town. The Englifh, under Ginckle, fucceeded however
in pafling the river after many unfuccefsful attempts, and
by a furprifing effort of valour got poffeflion of the town
and ca{tle, which was in great meafure to be attributed to
the careleffnefs and confidence of St. Ruth, the French ge-
neral. General Ginckle received a title from the town,
which is {till enjoyed by his defcendants. W. long. 7° 49’.

N. lat. 53° 21’ 30”.

ATHLOTHETA, in Antiquity, an officer appointed to
fuperintend the public games, and adjudge the prizes.

The athlotheta was the fame with what was otherwife
called @/ymneta, brabeuta, agonarcha, agonotheta, &c.

ATHNACH, the name of one of the principal of the
Hebrew accents, which ferves not only to regulate the
voice, but to diftinguifh the members of a fentence, whence
its name athnach, i.e. refpiratio : on this account it is called
king, and paufe, and aniwers to our colon, and fometimes to
a note of interrogation: it is marked underaletter thus (.).

ATHOL, in Geography, the moft northern dittrict of
Perthfhire, in Scotland ; extending about 43 miles in length,
and 30 in breadth, and bounded on the north by Badenoch,
on the weft by Lochaber,.on the eaft and fouth-eaft by
Mar and Gowrie, on the fouth by Stratherne and Perth
proper, and on the fouth-weit by Braidalbane. It is moun-
tainous, and contains part of the ancient Caledonian forett ;
but the mountains are interfperfed with fruitful vallies.
It has feveral villages, but no towns of any importance.
The moft famous places are Blair caftle, feated on the river
Tilt, near its influx into the Gurry, an agreeable ftream that
flows into the Tay, and belonging to the duke of Athol,
whofe title is derived from the diftri@ ; and the pafs of
Gillicranky, memorable on account of the battle fought
here in the beginning of king William’s reign, between his
general M‘Kay, and the highlanders who adhered to king
James.

Aruot, a townfhip of America, in Worcefter county,
Maffachufetts, comprehending 16,000 acres of rocky land,
and watered with ftreams and rivers, and containing 848 inha-
bitants ; 35 miles N.W. from Worcefter, and 72 from Bofton.

ATHOR, or Atuyr, in Mythology, the name of one
of the moft ancient divinities of Egypt ; fignifying in the
Coptic language, “ night.” By this name the pricils did
not originally mean to denote the obfcurity which is occa~

: fioned

we, |

——.

é
-

AT A

Toned by the difappearance of the fun, but the darknefs
which overfpread chaos previoufly to the creation, and from
which the ‘Almighty Creator called forth into an habitable
{tate the material univerfe. ‘This mytterious night was in
their opinion the origin of things, Orpheus, initiated in
the mytteries of the Egyptians, communicated them to the
Greeks, and recommended them by the harmony of his
verfes. Paufanias, when he vilited Greece, faw at Megara
“the oracle of the night,’’ where every thing was taught
that related to Athor. This fymbolical deity, by which the
Egyptians charaCterized the principle of things, became, in
the language of the Greek philofopher, the “ Venus Ce-
leftis,”” or the mother of the world. Orpheus taught them
this part of their theogony in his hyran to the night, where
he fays, ‘I fhail fing the night, mother of gods and men,
the origin of the creation, whom we fhall call Wenus.’’
The poets foon took: poffeffion of this metaphylfical idea,
and as they muft have a deity for embellifhing their poems,
they made her fpring from the froth of the fea, and repre-
fented her as animating the world, and giving life to every
thing that breathed. See Ovid de Fatt. liv. v. gt. and Lu-
cretius, 1. i. v. 1. &c. The Egypuan prielts, who had painted
night as a divinity, apprized that the minds of the vulgar re-
quired fenfible objects, made another metamorphofis of night
into the moon, the planet of the night, and the moon was re-
prefented by the cow, whofe horns exhibited, as their ima-
gination fuggefted, her firft phafis. he philofophers far-
ther extended this doGtrine; and they beltowed the name
of night, Athor, and Venus, on the period during which
the fun, having pafled the equator, remaius in the fouthern
hemifphere, when the days are fhortelt and the mghts
longeit. See Macrobius, 1. 1. c. 21. The following pafiage
from Plutarch (De Ifid, & Ofir.) proves that this opinion
originated in Egypt. “Inthe month of Athyr (the third
month of the Egyptian year), the Egyptians fay that Ofi-
ris (or the fun), is dead. ‘Then the nights become longer,
the darknefs increafes, and the force of the hight is dimi-
nifhed. On this occafion, the priefts perform mournful ce-
xemonies. ‘They expofe to the people a gilded ox covered
with a black veil, in token of the gricf of the goddefs
Ifis (or the moon): for in Egypt the ox is the fymbol
of Ofiris, and of the earth.”’

Athor had temples in Egypt. Herodotus mentions
** Athor-Beki,” the city of Athor, which Strabo (1. 17.)
and Diodorus (1. i.) render by the name of Aphrodito-
polis, the city of Venus. Atlan (De Anim, 1. il. c. 27.)
{peaking of Chufas, a town of the [ermopolitan nome,
fays, that in this town they worfhip Venus; and that a pe-
culiar worthip was alfo paid to the cow. He alfo informs
us, that Ifis, or the moon, was reprefented by the horns
of the cow. Jablonfki, Pantheon /Egypt. vol. i, Savary’s
Letters, vol. ii. p. 354—364.

ATHOS, in Geography, a famous mountain of Greece,
in the Chalcidian region of Macedonia, feated on a penin-
fula, the coafts of which form the Sinus Strymonicus, or
gulf of Conteffa, and the Sinus Singiticus, or gulf of Monte
Santo, and joined to the land by an ifthmus about twelve
leagues broad. The circuit of this peninfula, and of the
bafe of mount Athos, is commonly reckoned to contain
about forty leagues. NJ lat. 40° 10. I, long. 24° 45’.
This mountain confilts of a chain of eminences or fummits,
feven or eight leagues long, and three or four broad, one of
which attracts particular attention on account of its height
and habitations, and is denominated Athos Agioforos or
the holy mountain, and Monte Sanéto. Of its elevation
very extravagant and incredible accounts have been given
by fome ancient writers. Mela reports, that it is fo high as

Vot. III.

ATH

to reach above the clouds.. Martianus Capellus affirmed
that it was fix miles high; and it was believed that no
rain fell upon it, as the afhes left on the altars ereéted near
its fummit remained dry and undifperfed, Plutarch and
Pliny have afferted, that it projected its fhadow, at the
fummer folftice, on the market-place of Myrina, the prin-
cipal city of the iflaud Lemnos. On this account, it is
faid the inhabitants of the city erected a brazen cow at the
termination of the fhadow, on which was infcribed this
verte ;
& ASuwe xvaubes mAcupa Anpvics Boos.”?
« Half Lemnos? calf doth Athos’ fhadow hide.?’
According to Pliny, the diftance between the foot of
mount Athos and the ifland of Lemnos was 87000 paces;
and according to Belon (Obferv. Ll. i.c. 25.), eight leagues.
The Greeks, {truck with the fingular fituation and tower-
ing afcent of this mountain, erected upon it fo many
churches, monafteries, and hermitages, that it became al-
moft wholly inhabited by devotees; and this circumftance
gave occafion to its being denominated “ the holy moun-
tain;” which it ftill retains, though many of the confe-
crated buildings are decayed. Among modern travellers,
there is a confiderable difference of opinion about its height ;
fome make it thirty miles in circumference, and two in per
pendicular elevation ; and add, that it may be travelled over
in three days, and feen at, the diftance of ninety miles;
others ftate the altitude of its conical fummit at 3300 feet.
The cold on its fummit is extreme; neverthelefs it abounds
with many different kinds of plants and trees, particularly
the pine and fir, and it fupplies a multitude of {prings and
ftreams. Its variety of monafteries and churches gives it a
picturefque appearance. It is now inhabited by Caloyers,
a fort of Greek monks, of the order of St. Bafil, who
never marry, and fare hardly, as they abftain from fleth,
and fubfift chiefly on olives pickled when they are ripe.
Their number is reckoned about 6000, and they inhabit
feveral parts of the mountain, on which are twenty-four mo-
nafteries, raifed to the height of five or fix ftories, and
furrounded with high walls, flanked with towers, and guarded
with artillery againtt the aflaults of banditti and robbers.
They are much refsected by the Turks, and receive alms
from them, They have the charaGer of being very in-
duftrious, and they clothe themfelves like hermits. They
had formerly feveral valuable Greek manufgripts, and em-
ployed themfelves in writing copies of the Greék Tefta-
ment (fee ALexanprian Manu/feript), but they are now
become fo illiterate, that they cay f{carcely read or write.
As the fea on this coait 1s very tempeftuous, and the
Perfian fleet had fuffered fhipwreck in doubling this pro-
montory, Xerxes is faid, for preventing a fimilar difafter,
to have cut a paffage through the mountain of fufficient
width to admit two gallies, with three banks of oars each,
to pafs in front: by thefe méans he fevered from the com-
tinent the cities of ‘Dion, Olophyxus, Acrotheon, Thyfus,
and Cleone. Before he began his worke, he is faid to have
written a letter, addrefled to the mountain, in the following
terms; “ Athos, thouprondand afpiring mountain, that lift.
eft up thy head to the fkies, T advife thee not to be fo auda-
cious, as to put rocks and ftones in the way of my work-
men: if thou thus oppofeft me, I will cut thee entirely
down, and throw thee headlong into the fea.’” Modern
travellers inform us, that they perceive no traces of thig
work : and many of them are of Juvenal’s opinion :
« Perforatus Athos, et quicquid Grecia mendax
Audet in hiftoria.’”’
Dinocrates, an architeét in the fuit of Alexander, pro.
pofed to his conqueror to perpetuate his memory by form.

Pi

Wh ing

AT

ing a flatue of this mountain, holding im one hand a city,
and reprefenting a river as flowing from the other, But the
extravagant propofal was not accepted.

ATHOTIS, or Tuor, in Biography, king of Thebes,
and according to the practice of the early ages, prieft and
phyfician, is faid to have cultivated, and written on ana-
tomy. The precife time in which he lived is not known,
though fuppoied to be about 2000 years before the birth of
Chritt. :

ATHULIA, in Zntomology, a very little {pecies of P-
PIL10 (Wymph. Phal. Gmel.) found in the northern parts of
Raflia. The wings are fulvous, dotted with black, the
lower ones white on the under fide, dotted with black, and
marked with two fulvous bands. This is Papilio Phebe
of Efper,. and belongs to the family Satyri in the Fabrician
fyftem. O02/. Papilio Athulia minor of Efper, Pap. t. 89.
is a variety of the Papilio Diétynna of Fabricius

ATHWART, in Navigation, is fynonymous with acrofs
the line of the courfe.

Aruwarr the fore-foot, is a phrafe that denotes the
flight of a caimon-ball from one {hip acrofs the courfe of
another to intercept the latter, and oblige her to fhorten
fail, that the former may come near enough to examine her.

Aruwarr-haufe, expreffes the fituation of a fhip, when
fhe is driven by wind or tide, or any other accident, acrols
the fore-part of another.

Aruwart-/bips, reaching acrofs the fhips from one fide
to the other.

ATHY, in Geography, a town of the county of Kildare,
near the borders of the Queen’s county, 32 miles from Dub-
lin, at which the affizes are held alternately with Naas. It
is fituated on the river Barrow, which is navigable hence to
the fea, and which a branch of the grand canal from Dub-
lin-to the Shannon meets at this town. It was founded in
the twelfth century, on account of a ford over the river 5
and became of importance as a pafs, and fometimes as a
frontier town of the Englifh pale, in the diffenfiors which
harafled the,country for many centuries, whilft the old
towns of Ardree and Ardfcull in its ne:ghbourhood gradu-
ally decayed ; and the pofition of either can now ouly be
afcertained from a Danifh rath, and fome ruins.
early granted the immunities of a merchant or market town,
being mentioned as fuch in a ftatute of Henry VI.; and it
was made a borough by James I. in 1615, in confequence of
which two members were returned to parliament previoufly
to the union, under the patronage of the duke of Leintfter.
Athy contained 550 houfes in 1793, 0f which 160 were
flated and built of lime and ftone, and 390 thatched cabins;
the population of which might be eftimated at about 3300.
‘There were at that time no manufaGtories which deferved
the name, notwithitanding the advantages derived from the
canal; and the unhappy ftate of that part of the country
fince gives too much reafon to fuppofe that no improvement
has yet taken place. The exports from the neighbouring
country to Dublin, by the canal, confifted of coals, corn,
flour, butter, and*potatoes, to the amount of above 20,000
pounds per annum. N. lat. 52° 59’. W. long. 7° 1’. An-
tholog. Hibern, vo]. i. Dr. Beaufort’s Map and Memoir.

ATHYNA, a {mall town of Hungary, in Sclavonia
proper, and county of Poffega, beyond the Drave.

ATI, or Ary, a {mall canton of Africa, in Guinea,
upon the Golden Coaft, north of Fantin, and to the eat
of Abramboé. )

ATIA.. See Onio et Aria.

ATIBAR, a name given by the inhabitants of the
kingdom of Gago, in Africa, to gold-duft; from
which word the Europeans, and efpecially the French,

S

“ oblong form, and beiet with rounded fpines.

It was.

ACTAI

have compofed the word tier, which alfo fignifies gold-duft :

among thwfe who trade in that commodity.

ATICHY, fn Geography, a town of Fratice, in the de-
partment cf the Oife, and chief place of a canton in the
diitriG of Noyon, eight miles eait of Compiegne.

ATICK-OOM-ASHISH, in Ornitholegy, the name by
which the fpecies of Lox1a Audfonica is known in Hudfon’s’
bay. Latham. Sonuini, ia his “ Additions a l Hittoire
Naturelle de Buffon,”’ adopts the firft part of this long de-
nomination, Atick, as the name’of this fpecies. See Hup-
SONICA Loxia. chet hbase

ATIENCcA, in Geography, a.town of Spain, in Old
Caitile, with an ancient caitle, ituate among the mountains
called «Sierra d’Atienga,”’? between Siguenga and Borgo
d@’Ofima.

ATIMIA, infamy or difgrace, in Antiquity, a punifh-

ment among the Athenians, infiéted for various erimes.
A perfon futfered this punifhment, when, retaining his pro-
perty, he was deprived of fome privilege, enjoyed in common
with other citizens: and alfo, when he iufiered a temporary
deprivation of the privilege ef free citizens, and his goods
were confifcated. Thofe who were indebted to the publie
treafury, till their debts were paid, ineurred this penalty.
Alfo, when the criminal and his-pofterity were deprived of
every right of a free citizen. This was incurred by thofe
that were guilty of theft or perjury, or other fimilar of-
fences. Infamous perfons were not allowed to give evi-
dence. ; :

ATINGA, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Diopan, of an
Gmelin, &e.
In Mnf. Ad. Fr. it is defcribed as oftracion diodon corpore
{pinis undique armato; and in Amoen. Ac. oftracion conico=
oblongus, aculeis undique longis teretiformibus, in primis in
lateribus. It is called Maregraave cuamajacu atinga, and
is Patingue, or poiffin ermé of French writers. In England
it is known by the name of porcupine fith.

This fpecies lives in the American feas, and about the’ cape
of Good Hope? and keeps the fhores for the fake of ‘its
food, which confifts of crabs and teftaceous vermes or fhell-
fifh.! The length rather exceeds twelve inches ; the body
is comprefled at the fides, and bluifh; the back rather broad,
round, and dufky; belly broad, long, white, and fpotted all
over with black. The head is fmall, broad above, and
rather comprefled on the fides; eyes large, iris yellow ;
nottrils fimple and tubular; mouth narrow; upper jaw
rather longeft, and angular in the middle; fins yellow,
{potted with black; margin brownith, and the rays ramofe.
This creature has the power of dilating its. body, and ereét-
ing its {pines at pleafure. It is ufuaily taken in nets, but
will alfo take bait, which is commonly the tail of a crab,
fattened en the hook. The flefh is eatable ; but if the re-
lation of Pifo may be depended upon, it fhould be pre-
pared for the table with the utmoit caution; he tells us that
the gall is very poifonous, and that fhould the flefh become
impregaated with it (which mutt be the cafe if the gall-
bladder barit in gutting of the fifh), the moft dangerous
confequences might enfue to thofe who eat of it; the fenfes
of the aflicted perfons fail, their limbs become languid, and
their tongue immoveab!e, cold fweats fucceed, and in this
{tate they die, unlefs fome {peedy remedy be applied.

Gmelin deems diodon holocanthus «aculeis capitis colleque
longioribusof Lin. Syit. Nat. and hiftrix alter of Willughby,

to be a variety of the preceding fpecies ; it is diftinguithed ~

by having the {pines ef the head and neck longer than ia

the other.
ATINGACU Camucu, in Ornithology, the name af-
figned by Maregraave in “ The hiftory of Brafil,””? Ray,
Willughby,.

.

‘y

|

— a

ATK
Willughby, and others, to the bird defcribed under the title

of cuculus cornutus by Gmelin. Buffon calls it atingacu du
Brefl, and Latham the horned cuckow. See Cornurus
Cucutus.

ATINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and country of Lavora, once the fee of a bithop,
fupprefled by Leo III.; three leagues north of Aquino.
This was the ancient Atina or Atinum, fituate in the vorth-
ealt part of Latium, and fouth-eaft of Sora. It belong-
ed to the Samnites ; and Frontinus fays, that Nero Claudius
Czar eftablifhed a colony in this place.

ATINTANES, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Europe, who, according to Thucydides, inhabited the eatt-
ern part of Illyria. Their country, however, is joined, by
Livy and Polybius, to Macedonia. ‘They fubmitted to the
Romans, commanded by Pofthumius.

ATISIS, or Ariso, ariver of Italy, in Infubria, which
difcharged itfelf into the lake Verbanus.

ATITLAN, in Geography, a lake of America, in
Mexico, in the government of Guatimala, and the country of
the Choutales. It is about ten leagues in circuit.

ATIZOE, in the writings of the Ancient Naturalifis, a
name of a ftone ufed in the confecration and anointing of
kings. Pliny defcribes it to have been of a lenticular
figure, and of the fize of three fingers} of a bright filvery
colour, atid of a pleafant {mell. He fays it wes found in
India, and in fome other places. Agricola is of opinion it
was a kind of bitumen.

ATKINS, Ricuarp, in Biography, the defcendant of a
good family at Tuffleigh, in Gloucetterfhire, finifhed his
education at Paliol college in Oxford. Frem thence he
removed to Lincoln’s Inn; and, aftera fhort interval, during
which he travelled into France, he became an accomplifiied
courtier. In the civil war, he joined the king’s party, and
was a confiderable fufferer. After the reftoration, he was
appointed one of the deputy leuterants of the county of
Gloucefter. But being imprifoned in the Marthalfea gaol
of Southwark for debt, he died therein. 1677. He was
the author of feveral pieces ; and particularly of a treatife
« Of the origin and growth ef Printing ;” in which he gives
an extract from an old MS. chronicle, faid to be preferved
in the palace of the archbifhop at Lambeth, containing an

hiftorical accovat of the introdudtion of this valuable art into

eurcourtry. The authority of thischronicle has been much
difpnied by Mr. Palmer, in his «« General Hiftory of Print-
ing,’? andalfo by Dr. Middleton: andvindicatedby Mr. Bow-
yer inthe notes to his abridgment of Dr. Middleton’s ** Dif-
fertation on thecricgin cf printingin England.” See Paintinc.
ATKINSON, in Grograpsy, a townfhip of America, in
Rockingham county, New Hamphhire, incorporated in 1767,
and containing, in the year 1790, 479 inhabitants. It is
diftant irem Portfmovth thirty miles; and has an academy,
founded in 1789 by the hon. N. Peabody, and endowed with
‘tooo acres of Land.
‘AATKYNS, Sir Rozert, in Biography, an eminent and
patriotic Englith lawyer, defcended of an ancient family in
Jloucefterfhire, and bornin 1621, was the fon of fir Edward
Atkyns, one of the barons of the exchequer. Having
finifhed his academical courfe o1*education at Baliol college
Oxford, and entered for the ftudy of the law at Lincoln’s
Inn, he afterwards became eminent in his profeffion. Diitn-
guithed by his profeffional reputation and his loyalty, he was
foon aster the reftoration created a knight of the bath, and
in 1672 appointed one of the judges of the court of common
pleas. In 1679, difgufted by the arbitrary meafures of the
exifting government, he refigned his poit and retired into
the country. On occafion of the trial of lord William
Roffel, he gave his advice, and afterwards wrote free re-

AT AL
marks on this fubjeét. He then avowed the maxim, “ that.
there neither is, nor ought to be, conitructive treafon ; it
defeats the very fcope and defign of the flatute 25 Edw. III.
which is to make a plain declaration what fhall be adjudged
treafon by the ordinary courts of juftice.””? His argument in
favour of fir William Williams, fpeaker of the commous’
houfe of parliament, who was profecuted by the crown for
figning an order for the printing of Dangertield’s narrative
concerning the popith plot, was afterwards printed under the
title of “ The power, jurifdiGion, and privilege of parlia-
ment, and the antiquity of the houfe of commons afferted.’*
In the reign of James II. his attachment to the contlitutien
was maniteited by an argument on the cafe of fir'Edward
Hales, which was priated-under the title of “ Aw Inquiry
into the Power of difpenfing-with Penal Statutes.” The
dottrine of difpenfations was further difeufled in his « Dif
courfe concerning the ecclefiaftical jurifdiction in the realm
of England.” After the acceflion of king William IIT. this
friend to the revolution was appointed, in 1689, lord ‘chief
baron of the exchequer. He then wrote two pieces in
defence of the memory of lord Ruffel, whofe attainder was
reverfed by parliament.. In 1689, he was advanced to the
office of fpeaker of the houfe of lords, and retained it till the
year 1693. The laft public aét of his life was his mes
morable {peech addrefied to fir William A thurft, lord mayor
of London, on occafion of his being {worn into his offices:
in OGober 1693. This fpeech, referring to the alarming
projects of Lewis XIV. and the defigns of Charles If. and
James II. to eftablith abfolute power, and to introduce
popery, was very favourably received; it paffed through
feveral editions, and’ was thought to have been eminently
ferviceable to the government. In 1695, he refigned his
offices, and retired to his feat in Glouceiterfhire, where ke
died in 1709, at the age of 88 years. ‘¢ He was a. man of
great probity, as well as of great {kill in his profefition; and
a warm friend to the conftitution, which he was ready to:
maintain againft all opponents.” ‘¢ In whatever view we

‘confider him,” fays his biographer, ‘in his private, or in

his public ftation; as a gentleman, or as a judge; as an
eminent lawyer, or a diftinguifhed patriot ; as a ftatefman,
or an author; we fhall find nothing but what is ‘great and
amiable, worthy of love and refpeét, and of that veneration
which is due to virtuous men from potterity.’? Befides
his valuable “* T'raéts,”’? which were colle&ted and publifhed
in one volume, he is faid to have been the author of a treatife’
againft the exorbitant power of the court of chancery.
Biog. Brit. :

His only fon, fir Robert Atkyns, who was born in-1646,
and died in 1711, differed from his father in his opinions,
but inherited his prudence and probity, and was equally
efteemed and beloved by men of all parties. As he pre-
ferred the charaéter of a country gentleman, he is chiefly
known as the author of a topographical work, intitled
“ The ancient and prefent State of Gloucefterfhire,” which
was publifhed after his death. A great part of the copies
of this work was deftroyed by a fire in the printer’s ware-
houfe, fo that thofe which remained became fearce and ‘dear.
Biog. Brit. 5 r

ATLANTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greecey,
in the country of the Locrii, deitroyed by an earthquake:
before the birth of Plato. ; -

ATLANTES, a people of ancient Libya, of whom no
récord now remains but the name.

ATLANTIC Ocean, in Geography, a name given to-
the fea which feparates Europe and Africa on the eaft from
America to the weft. Mr. Kirwan, conceiving that at the.
time of the deluge the water of the great fouthern ocean be~
low the equator, rufhed on the northern hemifphere;

Hoh2 aicribes

ATT

afcribes the formation of the bed of the Atlantic, from
Jat. 20° fouth up to the north pole, to the concuflion
of thefe enormous maffes of water. The bare infpec-
tion of a map, he fays, is fufficient to fhow that this vait
{pace was hollowed by the impreflion of water: the pro-
tuberance from cape Frio to the river of the Amazons, or
La Plata, in South America, correfponding with the im-
cavation on the African fide, from the river of Congo to
capé Palmas; andthe African protuberance from the {traits
of Gibraltar to cape Palmas, anfwering to the immenfe
eavity between New York and cape St. Roque. The de-

reffion of fuch a vaft tra of land. cannot appear impro-
Bable, adds this author, when we confider the fhock it mutt
haye received, and the moft enormous load with which it was
charged. Nor are fuch deprefiion and abforption unex-
ampled, fince we have had frequent inftances of mountains
fwallowed up, and fome very lately in Calabria. Inrith
Tranf. vol. vi. p. 228. See Ocran.

ATLANTIDES, in Afronomy, a denomination given
to the Pleiades, or feven f{tars, fometimes alfo called vir-
gilie. They are thus called, as being fuppofed by. the
poets to have been the daughters either of Atlas, or his
brother Hefperus, who were tranflated into heaven. See
ATLAS.

ATLANTIS, in Antiquity, an ifland fpoken of by Plato,
and many other writers, under fome extraordinary circum-
ftances; and ‘rendered famous by a controverfy among
the moderns, concerning its place and exiftence. The
Atlantis took its name from Atlas, Neptune’s eldeit fon,
yee they tell us, fucceeded his father in the government
of it.

The moft diftin& account of this celebrated country is
given us in Plato’s Timeus and Critias ; which amounts, in
a few words, to what follows. “ The Atlantis was a large
ifland in the Weftern ocean, fituate before, or oppolite to,
the ftraits of Gades. Out of this ifland there was an
eafy paflage into fome others, which lay near a large con-
tinent, exceeding all Libya and Afia. Neptune fettled in
this ifland, which he diitributed among his ten fons; to the
youngeit fell the extremity of the ifland called Gadir, which
in the laneuage of the country fignifies fertile, or abundant in
fheep. The defcendants of Neptune reigned here from
father to fon, for a great number of generations, in the
order of primogeniture, during the fpace of gooo years.
They alfo poffeffed feveral other iflands; and pafling into
Europe and Africa, fubdued all Libya as far as Egypt,
and all Europe to Afia Minor. At length the ifland funk
under water ; and, for 2 long time afterwards, the fea there-
abouts was full of flats and fhelves.”’

’ This ifland was 30,000 ftddia in-length, and 2000 in
breadth ; it was ina very high degree fertile and productive,
abounding with pafture and arable, and in metals and trees.
The northern part of it had various mountains, which were
ftored with villaces and magnificent habitations.. The in-
habitants were numerous and powerful, and diftinguifhed
both by arts and arms. It was governed by ten archons,
who, in their refpeAive diftn€ts, adhered to eftablifhed cuf-
toms, and were inveited with the power of life and death
over their fubjects. This federative republic was eftablifhed,
according to Plato, ina dialogue of which only a fragment
vemains, by a law derived from Neptune himfelf, its firft
founder, engraved upon a column and placed ina temple.
Affemblies were held alternately every five years, in which
all public affairs were the fubjeéts of deliberation. The of-
fences of citizens were examined by the archons and punith-
ed according to the degvee of their aggravatiou. Plato in
this dialogue has recited feveral ceremonies which were ob-

A'E L

ferved by the archons in the exercife of their legiffative and
judicial offices.

The aétual exiftence and local fituation of the Atlantic
ifland has given occafion to many different opinions. The
reality of Plato’s Atlantis has had many advocates. Buf-
fon (Nat. Hift. by Smellie, vol. i. p, 507-), after citing
the paflage relating to it from Plato’s Timzus, adds ; < this
ancient tradition is not devoid of probability. .The
lands fwallowed up by the waters, were, perhaps, thofe
which united Ireland to the Azores, and the Azores to the
continent of America, for in Ireland there are the fame fof-
fils, the fame fhells, and the fame fea-bodies, as appear in
America, and fome of them are found in no other part of
Europe,” ~ ,

M. Bailly,~in his « Lettres fur PAtlantide de Platon,
&c.”’ publifhed at Paris, in 1779, Svo., maintains the exift-
ence of the Atlantides, and their ifland Atlantis, by the au-
thorities of Homer, Sanchoniathon, and Diodorus Siculus,
in addition to that of Plato. In proof of the opinion that
Plato’s account of the Atlantic ifland is not a fiction of his
own devifing, a late writer (fee Taylor’s tranflation of the
Cratylus, Phedo, Parmenides, and Timezus of Plata, 1793)
alleges the following relation of one Marcellus who wrote an
hiftory of Ethiopian affairs, according to Proclus in Tim.
p- 55. ‘ That fuch and fo great an ifland once exifted is
evinced by thofe who have compofed hiftories of things re-
lative to the external fea; for they relate that in their times
there were feven iflands inthe Atlantic fea facred to Profer-
pine ; and befides thefe, three others ofan immenfe magni-
tude, one of which was facred to Pluto, another to Ammon,
and another, which is the middle of thefe, and is of a thou-
fand ftadia, to Neptune. And befides this, that the-inha-
bitants of this laft ifland preferved the memory of the prodi-
gious magnitude of the Atlantic iffand, as related by their
anceftors, and of its governing for many periods all the

iflands in the Atlantic fea ; and fuch is the relation of Mar- .

cellus in his Ethiopic hiftory.”

The learned Rudbeck, profeffor in the univerfity of Up-
fal, in an exprefs treatife, intitled,‘¢ Atlantica, five Manheim,”
maintains, very ftrenuoufly, that Plato’s Atlantis is Sweden
and Norway ; and attributes to his country whatever the
ancients have faid of their Atlantis or Atlantic ifland.

M. Bailly (ubifupra, letter 24.), after citing many ancient
teftimonies which concur in placing this famous ifle in the
north, quotes that of Plutarch, who confirms thefe teftimo-
nies by a circumftantial defcription of the ifle of Ogygia, or
the Atlantis, which he reprefents as fituated in the north of
Europe, and as having near it three iflands more, in one of
which the inhabitants of the eountry fay, that Saturn is
kept prifoner by Jupiter. Thefe four iflands may, as M.
Bailly conje€tures, be Iceland, Greenland, Spitzberg, and
Nova Zembla, or fome others near the Pele. He coutro-
verts the opinion of Rudbeck as not conformable with the
account of Plato, who reprefents the Atlantis as an ifland,.
which Sweden is not. Adhering ftill to his fyftem, M.
Bailly, perfuaded by a variety of plaufible circumitances;
which he has ingenioufly combined, places that famous
ifland among thole of the Frozen ocean. In this he is
ftrongly feconded by Plutarch, who tells us that the Atlan~
tis is in a region where “ the fun during a whole fummer
month is fearcely an hour below the horizon, asd where
that fhort night had its darknefs diminifhed by a twilight.’?
This, it may be faid, is a palpable indication of a northern
climate ; but how is this fituation reconcileable with the fer.
tility of the foil, the mildne!s of the air, particularly the
ftrait called the columns of Hercules, which Plutarch and
Piato mention among the circumiftances pertaining to the

abode

|
|
|

“college of the fix days work.

ATL

abode of the Atlantis? how is it alfo poffible to conceive
aftronomy cultivated in a frozen and loudly region, where
the obfervations of the heavenly bodies mutt have been in-
convenient and impracticable ? Thefe difficulties, fays our
fanciful author, cannot be remoyed without fuppoling a
change of air and climate in thofe regions by the gradual cool-
ing i the earth, and its progreflive motion towards univerfal
congelation. Such is the “ fairy tale” of this learned and
ingenious author. Sir W. Jones, the learned prefident of
the Afiatic Society, in his elaborate account of the Perfians
(Afiatic Refearches, vol. i. p. 44.), fuggeits that one may
confider “Iran”? as the noblelt ifland, for fo the Greeks and
Arabs would have called it, or at leaft as the nobleft penin-
fula in this habitable globe ; and he adds, “if M. Bailly
had fixed on it as the Atlantis of Plato, he might have fup-
ported this opinion with far ftronger arguments than any
that he has adduced in favour of Nova Zembla. If the ac-
count indeed, of the Atlantes,”’ fays this writer, “ be not
furely an Egyptian or an Utopian fable, I fhould be more
inclined to place them in Iran thanin any region with which

am acquainted.”

Others will have America to be the Atlantis; and hence
infer that the new world was not unknown to the ancients ;
but what Plato fays, does by no means fupport this fuppo-
fifion. America fhould rather feem to be the vaft continent
beyond the Atlantis, and the other iflands mentioned by
Plato.

_ Kircher, in his Mundus Subterraneus ; and Beckman, in
his Hiftory of Iflands, chap. v. advance the moft probable
opinion, if the reality of this ifland be admitted.—The At-
Ieatis, according to them, was a large ifland which extended
from the Canaries to the Azores; and thefe iflands are the
remains thereof not fwallowed up by the fea.

_ Arrantis, New, is the name of a fictitious, philofophi-
eal commonwealth, of which adefcription has been given by
Jord Bacon.

The new Atlantis is fuppofed to be an-ifland in the
South-fea, to which the author was driven in a voyage
from Peru to Japan. The compofition is an ingenious
fable, formed after the manner of the Utopia of Sir
Thomas More, or Campanella’s City of the Sun. Its
chief defign is to exhibit a model or defcription of a col-
lege, inftituted for the interpretation of nature, andthe

roduétion of great and marvellous works, for the bene-

a of men, under the name of Solomon’s houfe, or the
Thus much, at leaft, is
finifhed ; and with great beauty and magnificence. ‘The
author alfo propofes a frame of laws, or of the beit flate
or mould of a commonwealth: but this part is not exe-
ented. Bac. Works, tom. iil. p. 235-

ATLAS, in Biography and Mythology, an ancient king
of Mauritania, the fon of Uranus and brother of Pro-
metheus, who is faid to have lived about the time of Mo-
fes, or about 8582 years B.C. He is reprefented as hay-
ing been an excellent aftronomer, as an obierver of the
ftars, and as the inventor of the fphere. The poets have
exhibited him as bearing the heavens on his fhoulders,
and thus he is feen in the famous itatue at the Farnefe
palace in Rome; and one of them reprefents him as
groaning under the burden, on account of the multitude
of gods whom fuperftition had placed in this elevated man-
fion. He was metamorphofea into a mountain for his in-
hofpitality to Perfeus. His daughters, it is faid, were
transformed into ftars, in complement to his aftronomiecal
talents and obfervations ; feven of them forming the Pleiades,
and the other feven the Hyades.

Arvxas, in Geography, a celebrated mountain or rather

I

ATL

chain of mountains, in Africa, which is fo high, that jt
feems to bear the heavens. Hence the fable, in which
Atlas, the king of this country, is faid to bear the heavens
on his fhoulders,

The ancients, however, afcribed to this mountain a
magnitude and an elevation to which it has no claim; as it
can no where ftand in competition with the Alps or the
Apennines. They feem to have confidered it as one
high mountain, not as a ridge. Thus Pliny (I. v. c. 1.),
defcribes it asa detached mountain, rifing from the fands to
a great height on the fhores of the ocean to which it gave
its name ; and yet, in the fame chapter, he reprefents it as a
range pafled by Suetonius Paulinus on his progrefé to the
Niger. Strabo (1. xvii.) mentions its being called Dyris,
(fee Apiris) by the ancients, and as being beyond the
pillars of Hercules, on turning to the left or fonth.. Dr..
Shaw (Tray. p. 5.) reprefents it as a remarkable chain of
eminences, which fometimes borders upon the Sahara, and
fometimes lies within the Tell. He adds, “ that if we
conceive, in an eafy afcent, a number of hills, ufually of
the perpendicular height of 4, 5, or 600 yards, witha
fucceffion of feveral groves, and ranges of fruit and foreft-
trees, growing one behind another, upon them ; and if to
this prof{pect we fometimes add a rocky precipice of fuperior
eminence, and more difficult accefs, and place upon the
fide, or f{ummit of it, a mud-walled Dathkrah of the Ka-
byles, we fhall then have a juft and lively pi€ture of mount
Atlas, without giving the leaf credit to the nocturnal
flames, the melodious founds, or lafcivious revels of fuch
imaginary beings, as Pliny, Solinus, and others, have ina
peculiar manner attributed to it.”? According to fome
modern accounts, this ridge divides the kmgdom of
Algiers from Zaab and Biledulgerid, or its dire€tion is
fouth-weft and north-eaft ; and therefore it may be confider-
ed as extending from cape Geer in a north-eaft direction,
and giving fource to many rivers flowing north and fouth,
till it terminates in the kingdom of Tunis. This main
ridge in fome places may prefent a double chain, and in
others diverge its branches. Its ftru€ture towards the
weitern extremity is granite and primitive. M. Lem-
priere, in his journey to Morocco, feems to have clearly
afcertained the range of Atlas. The town of Santa Cruz
ftands near its furtheft extremity ; while ‘Tarudant, to
which he paffes through an open plain, lies on the fouth
of the Atlas. Hence it appears, that Cape Geer is its
termination, or the great Atlas of Ptolemy, while the
{maller Atlas is a branch extending towards Saffi or Cape
Canatin; and another branch, now called the Leffer Atlas,
reaches to Tangier, According to Chenier ( Prefeit State
of Morocco, vol. i. p. 13.}, Mount Atlas is the eaitern
boundary of all the weftern provinces of Morocco. He
reprefents it as formed by an endlefs chain of lofty eminen-
ces, divided into different countries, inhabited by a multi-
tude of tribes, whofe ferocity permits no ftranger to ap-
preach. He profeffes to be unable to defcribe thefe moun-
tains accurately ; but adds, that nothing would be more
interefting to the curiofity of the philofopher, or conduce
more to the improvement of our knowledge in Natural
Hiftory, than a journey over mount Atlas. The climate,
though extremely cold in winter, is very healthy and plea-
fant, the vallies are well cultivated, abound in fruits, and
are diverfified with forefts and plentiful {prings, the {treams
of which, uniting at a little diftance, form great rivers, and
lofe themfelves in the ocean. According to the reports of
the Moors, there are many, quarries of marble, granite, and
other valuable ftone, in thefe mountains ; ard it 1s proba-
ble, there are alfo mines, but the inhabitants have no se
°

AVA EL
ef thefe riches; they confider their liberty, which their
fituation enables them to defend, as the a ae a8 of
all treafures. “,

As the province of Morocco lies to the weft of mount
Atlas, part of the ancient Numidia, called the kingdom of
Tafilet, fituate in a fandy plain, lies'to the ealt: and from
Morocco to this province there 1s no way but by croffing
one of the extremities of the Atlas, either by the fide of
the proviace of Sus, or by that of Fez; the latter road,
being lefs fultry than the other, is moft frequented.

ATLAs, in Anatomy, the name of the firft vertebra of the
neck, which fupports the head. See VertTresRa, and Sxxz-
LETON.,

Arvas, in Commerce, a filk fatin manufactured in the
Kak Indies. It mul be owned that the manufacture of
thefe filks is’ wonderful, efpecially of the flowered atlafles ;
in which the gold and filk are wrought together in fuch a
manner, as no workman in Europe can imitate; yet they
are far from having that fine elofs and luftre, which the
French know how to give their filk

In the Chinefe manufactures of this fort, they gild paper
on one fide with gold leaf, thea cut it into long flips, and

weave it into their filks; which makes them with very,

little coft look very rich and fine. The fame long flips are’
twifted or turned about filk threads fo artificially, as to look
finer than gold thread, though it be of no great value.

Arxas, in Entomology, a {pecies of Puatazna, belong-

ing to the Bombyx tribe. The wings are falcated orh:ooked,
vellow-brown and varied ; a traufparent {pot in the middle
of each wing, with a {maller one next that on the anterior
pair. Linn. Fabr. &c. ; ;
«« Phalena Atlas is the largeft infeé&t of the moth tribe
hitherto difcovered, and is indeed a gigantic creature. ‘The
f{pecies is common in China, but is not peculiar to that
country, being found in other parts of Afia, and in Ame-
rica. The influence of climate may be eafily traced on the
varieties from different countries; that from Surinam is
the largeft, and of the deepeft colours. The Chinefe kind
is the next in fize; the colours incline to orange, and the
anterior wings are more falcated or hooked at the ends ;
there are two other Afiatic varieties known, that are {till
f{maller, and have the wings extremely faleated.

«The larva of Phalena Atlas is ficured by M. Merian
in her Infe&ta Surinamenfia, Plate 52; it is about four
inches in length, green, with a yellow {tripe difpofed lon-
gitudinally. Upon each fegment are four diftinét round
tubercles, of a coral-like orange colour, which are fur-
rounded with very delicate hairs. The pupa is large, and
is inclofed in a web of an ochraceous colour. The filk of
this web is of a ftrong texture, and it has been imagined,
if woven, would be fuperier in durability to that of the
common filk-worm. Seba has alfo reprefented the larva,
(aioplenys vol, 4.), in his Thefaurus Nature. It is
figured by him nearly fix inches in length, and bulky in
proportion; the Phalena or Moth is alfo larger than that
figured by Merian, which is afmall fpecimen of the Surinam
kind. According to Merian, there are three broods of this
infeét in a year; they are very commion, and feed on the
orange trees. Linneus fays, that they adhere fo tenaci-
oufly to the leaves, that they can fcarcely be taken off.
An opinion has been long prevalent, that the web of this
infeét might eafily be manufactured into a very durable
filk ; and it certainly admits of doubt whether the Chinefe
‘do not a€tually rear the moth for this purpofe. Silk is
an important article in China, and other Eaftern countries,
evhere the ufe of linen is little known; the Jefuit miffion-
aries mention feveral forts.in ufe among the Chinefe, fome

ATM

of which is admired for its beauty, and others for durae
bility ; thefe kinds are probably the produce of different
infects, and Phalena-Atlas may be of that number. Lef-
fer and Lyonet, in their “ Theologie des Infectes,” fay, that
at this day there are to be found in China, in the province
of Canton, filk worms in a wild ftlate, which, without any
care being taken of them, make in the woods a kind of
filk, which the inhabitants afterwards gather from the

trees; it is grey, without luftre, and is uled to make d ,
‘very thick and ilrong cloth, namtd there Kien Tcheon ;

and by fome European naturalifs, it is imagined to be the
product of this very f{pecies.”? Wide Donov. Inf’. China
(Atlas). We fhall again refume this fubject under the
articles PHALZNA, Si-k-Worms, &c. in treating of thofe
analogous creatures which produce a filk of fuch ftrength
or beauty as to be uieful, or promise to become fo, in the
concerns of man: a fubject this that highly merits coa-

fideration ; and which we fhall endeavour to elucidate as °

copioufly and accurately, as the magnitude and impoit-
ance of the article demand. js ae

ATLAS, a fpecies of Scaras =us, found in South Ame-
rica. The thorax is armed with three horns, the middle
one of which is very fhort; horn on the head recutved.
Linn. and Fabr. Ent. Sytt. ;

Arias Amboinenfis (Papilio f.) aname given by fome
Entomological writers to the Linnean Papilio Priamus.
Mul. petrop. 644, &e. ei

Arvasisalfo atitle given to books of univerfal geogra=
phy, containing maps oi: the known parts of the world ;
as if they were viewed from the top of that celebrated
mountain,-which the ancients eft2zemed the higheit in the
world ; or rather on account of their holding the whole
world like Atlas. The fame name is given to maps of the
ftars. ;

ATLENBURG, or ArreLnBurGa, in Geography, a
town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and
duchy. of Lauenburg, on the Elbe; four miles welt of
Lauenburg. ‘

ATLITA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Parrrio found
in the Eaft Indies. This butterfly is indented, brown,
glofied with blue ; beneath fulvous, with undulated glaucous
itreaks, and five blind-eye fhaped fpots. Fabricius and
Donoy. Inf. India. Gmelin has overlooked this {pecies in
his Syft. Nat.

ATLITES, a name under which the fpecies of Papriio
Laomepia, was at firft deferibed in Amoen. Acad. 6.

. 407. 72. :

ATMOSPHERE, formed of aio, vapour, and caper,
a fphere, an appendage of our earth ; confifting of a thin,
fluid, elaitic fubftanee, called air, which furrounds the ter-
raqueous globe to a confiderable height, gravitates towards
its centre, on its furface, is carried along with it reund the
fun, and partakes of all its motions both annual and diurnal.

By atmofphere is underftood’the whole mafs, or affem-
blage of ambient air: though among fome of the more
accurate writers, the atmofphere is retrained to that part,
of the air next the earth, which receives vapours and ex-
halations, and refra@ts the rays of light. ;

The farther or higher fpaaes, though perhaps not wholly
deftitute of air, are Hippoied to be pofiefled by a finer fub-
ftitute called ether, and are hence called etherial regions.

For the nature, conftitution, properties, and different
ftates and ufes of the atmofphere, fee Air, the fequel of,
this article, Eupromerer, and Euprometry 3 where this
fubject will be treated of at large as its importance re-
quires.

A late eminent author confiders the atmofphere as a large

: chemical

‘

|
.

ATMOSPHERE,

chemical veffel, wherein the matter of all the kinds of fub-
lunary bodies is copioufly floating; and thus expofed to
the continual aétion of that immenfe furnace the fun ;
whence proceed innumerable operations, fublimations, fe-
arations, compofitions, digeftions, fermentations, putre-
actions, &c.

We have a large apparatus of inftruments, contrived for
‘indicating and meafuring the ftate and alterations of the
atmofphere ; as ANemometeRs, Baromerers, Evupio-
METERS, HyGrometers, Manomerers, THERMOME-
TERS, &c. ~

ArmospuHere, Lledricity of the. Befide thofe large
quantities of the eleétric matter, with which the clouds are
charged in a thunder-{torm, it has been obferved firft by
M. Monnier in 1752, and ‘afterwards repeatedly and with

eculiar attention by others, particularly by the abbé
Massie in 1753, and Mr. Kinnerfley, that the atmofphere
is never wholly deititute of the electrical fluid. “A perfoa
eleétrified negatively may fatisfy himfelf of this, by ex-
tending his arm in the open air, and prefenting a loug
fharp needle with its point upwards; for the electric mat-
ter colieSted from the remoter air will appear luminous,
as it converges to the point of the needle. Mr. Canton’s
balls are likewife an excellent contrivance for the fame
purpofe, and may be made ufe of, not only for deter-
‘mining the electricity of the atmofphere in general, but the
politive or negative quality of it. According to this in-
genious philofopher, deficcated atmofpheric air, when heated,
becomes negatively electric ; and when cooled, the electricity
is of the pofitive kind, even when’ the air is not permitted
to expand or contract ; and the expatfion or contraction of
asebinexic air occafions changes in its ele¢trical ftate.
But no eleétrician, in the earlier ilage of this fcience, con-
duéed his obfervations in this way with greater accuracy
and farther purfued them, than 5. Becearia. (See “ Bec-
caria’s Effay on Atmofpheric Eleétricity, annexed to the
FEnglith tranflation of his Artificial Eleétricity,”’ p. 421,
&e.) From him we learn, that the atmofphere difcovers no
fhigns of ele&tricity in windy and clear weather, nor in moilt
weatherwithoutrain, nor whea the ficy is covered with diltinct
and black clouds with a flow motion; but he always ob-
ferved a moderate, though interruptedelectricity, forthe moft
part of the poditive kind, in a clear fy, when the weathe
was calm; and in rainy weather without lightning, ali
before the rain fell, and during the continuance of it, till
rain was almoft over. he eledtricity of the atmofphere,
according to Becearia, was always pofitive, during the day
and in dry weather, but always negative, when a bright or
ferene atmofphere fucceeded dark and moift weather. The
quantity of atmofpherical eleCtricity’ was found to increafe
atter the rifing of the fun, and during his progrefs ; and its
augmestation was the more confiderable, as the moiftnre of
‘the air was diminifhed; but it decreafed in the evening.
In days equally dry, the degree of eleétricity at noon
was proportional to the degree of heat; and in a ferene
atmofphere, with little wind, aconfiderable quantity of the
electrical matter commonly arofe after fun-fet, during tl}

he
precipitation of dew. ~Thick fogs were obferved, during
their afcent into dry air, to carry with them a confiderable
quantity of the electric matter. And the eleétricity was
ftronger, as his rods were higher, and the ftrings, which
were extended and infulated in the open air, were longer.

Mr. Cavallo (Complete Treatife on Eleciricity, vol. ii.
p- 42. ed. 4.) deduces the. following conclufions from his
experiments and oblervations on this fubje& ; viz. that there
isin the'atmofphere at all times a quantity of ele€tric mat-
ter :—that the eleGtricity of the atmofphere, and of fogs,
is always pofitive :—that, in general, the ftrongeft ele@ricity

8

is obfervable in thick fogs, and alfo in frofly weather; and
the weakelt, when it is cloudy and warm, and rain approach-
es :—that it does not feem to be lefs by night than in the
day :—and that the electricity is ftronger in places more
elevated than in thofe that are lower; and therefore, accord-
ing to this rule, if it may be extended to any diftance
from the earth, the eleétricity in the higher regions of the
atmiofphere mult be exceedingly ftrong. Mr. Read, in his
<< Summary View of the Spontaneous Elcétricity of the
Earth and Atmofphere,”’ obferves that the electricity of
the atmofphere in moderate weather, was always found to
be politive ; in ftorms and difturbed flates of the air, fre-
quenthy negative ; and fuddenly and repeatedly changing
from one flate to the other. Warm fmall rain was found
to be very flightly eletric; large drops, ftrongly ; hail
fhowérs, the moft intenfely of all. In an eafterly wind
of long continuance, and reckoned unhealthful, the electri-
city was fo faint, as to require. the niceft of -all known
tefts for difcovering its exiftence. The vapour of water,
as {oon as it had attained the height of five or fix inches of
infulation in the air, was found to be permanently and
potitively eleCtrified ; and the furface from which it evapo-
rated, negatively. Vapour has a greater capacity tor
electricity, or abforbs and requires more of this fuid, than
water in its denfe ftate; and therefore rarefaGtion muft
diminifh, and condenfation incveafe, the fenfible eleGric
charge of the vapour. Hence, in ferene weather, the at-
mofphere is fubje€t to a regular flux and reflux, or increafe-
and diminution of electricity, twice in every twenty-four
hours, depending on the action of the fun, and the confe-
quent evaporation and itate of the vapours. This diligent
obferver and judicious reafoner further obferves, that a
limited portion of the'earth’s furface is often fenfibly elec-
trified ; over it, there is always a proportionate quantity of
the contrary electricity in the atmofphere; and when an
ele€trified cloud is carried ferward by wind, an equal and
oppolite electric charge keeps pace with it on the earth,
tll the two charges, becoming more augmented, or ap-
proaching nearer to one another, or meeting with fome
conducting eminence, rufh together, and produce an ex-
ploficn.

The fubje& of atmofpherical ele&tricity has engaged the-
particular attention of M. Sauffure; and few perfons have
had more favourable opportunities for obferving the pheno--
mena that attend it, or poffefled a more extenfive ac—
quaintance with meteorology in general, for enabling him to
iiluftrate thefe phenomena by appofite obfervations, than
this author. He confirms the fact noticed by others, and
previoufly known, that aerial eleCtricity varies according to
the fituation, being generally ftrongelt in elevated.and infu-
lated fituations, and not obfervable under trees, in ftreets,
houfes, or inclofed. places. But it is not fo much the
height, aa-the fituation of the places, which determines the
degree of electricity :. for, the projecting angle of a high
hill will, often exhibit a flronger eleGiricity than the plain
at the top of the hill, as there are fewer points in the former
to deprive the air of its ele€tricity.. The intenlity of the
atmofpherical. electricity is fubjeét to a: great variety of
changes, of which fome depend on obyious circumftances
and others are altogether inexplicable. _'Thefe changes,
according to M. Sauflure, were fometimes fo rapid in their,
fucceflien, that he had not time to note them down. When
rain falls without a itorm, thefe changes-are not fo fudden 3;
but with refpeét to the intenfity of the cleétric force, they
aré very irregular ; whillt the quality of it is more conflant..
Rain or fnow almoft always gives pofitive eletricity. In
cloudy weather, without rains or ftorms, the electricity
generally follows the fame laws as in ferene weather. Its.

intenlity;

ATMOSPHERE.

. - 9
intenfity is generally diminifhed by ftrong winds, which
blend the different {trata of the atmofphere, caufe them to
fubfide towards the ground, and thus diftribute the eleétri-
city uniformly between the earth and the air. M. Sauffure
has obferved a flrong electricity, with a ftrong north wind,
In fogey weather, the el y is the ftrongeft, unlefs the
fog is about to be diffolv« fo rain. The various modif-
cations of eleétricity in the atmofphere are obferved with
the greateft advantage in ferene weather. M. Sauffure
found, in winter and in fuch weather, that the eleftricity
was generally weakeft in the evening, when the dew had
fallen, and fo continued till fun-rife ; afterwards its intenfity
augmented by degrees, fometimes fooner and fometimes
later ; but ufually before noon it attained a certain maximum,
from which it again declined till the fali of the dew, whea
it would be fometimes ftronger than it had been during the
whole day ; after which it would again gradually decreafe
during the whole night ; but it was never quite deftroyed
in weather perfe@tly ferene. Hence it may be inferred,
that atmofpherical eleétricity, like the water of the ocean,
is fubjeét to a flux and reflux, which produce an increafe
and diminution twice in twenty four-hours. The moments
of its greateft’ force are fome hours after the rifing and fet-
ting of the fun ; and thofe in which it is weakeit precede
its rifing and fetting. Of this periodical flux, M. Sauffure
has given a remarkable inftance, deduced from his obferva-
tions in an extraordinary degree of cold, and at an elevation
of fixty feet above the level of the lake of Geneva. From
the reiult of eighteen of thefe obfervations, made during
three fucceffive days, when the fiky was quite ferene, we
learn, that the electricity was pretty {trong at nine in the
morning ; that from this time it gradually ‘decreaied till
about fix in the evening, which was its firft minimum ; after
which it increafed again till eight, its fecond maximum ;
it then gradually declined till fix in the morning, which
was the period of its fecond minimum; after which, it
again increafed tili ten in the morning, which was the firit
maximum of the following day : but as this day was cloudy,
its periods were lefs regular. The eleCtricity of ferene
weather is lefs eafily obferved in fummer than in winter.
In fummer, if the ground has been dry for fome days, and
the air is alfo dry, the eleétricity increafes from the rifing
‘of the fun, till three or four in the afternoon, when it 1s
ftrongeft : it then decreafes till the dew. begins to fall,
when ‘it again increafes: but after this it declines and is
almoft reduced to nothing during the night. However,
the ferene days that fueceed rainy weather in fummer gene-
rally exhibit the fame diurnal periods or ftates of eleCinicity,
with thofe that are obfervable in winter. The ele¢tricity
of the air is invariably pofitive in ferene weather, both in
winter aid fummer, in the day and in the night, in the fun
and in the dew. “Hence it fhould feem, that the clectricity
of the air is effentially pofitive ; and that whenever it ap-
pears to be negative, as in particular rains or ftorms, this
itate is produced by fome clouds which have been expofed
to the preffure of the ele€tric fluid contained in the upper
part of the atmofphere, or to more elevated clouds that have
difcharged a part of their fluid upon the earth, or upon
other clouds. M. Sauffure, having collected thefe and
fimilar phenomena, as the refult of numerous and repeated
obfervations, inftituted a fet of experiments on evaporation,
in order to inveftigate and afcertain their. caufe.* Thefe
our limits will not allow us to detail ; but the general refult
was, that evaporation, which feems to be the vehicle that
couveys electric matter into the atmofphere, from china and

filver always produced negative electricity ; and from iron °

and copper, generally pofitive electricity ; and hence it may
be ipferred, that electricity is pofitive with thofe bodies that

are capable of decompofing water, or of being decompofed
themfelves by their contact with the water; and negative,
with all thofe which are not at all decompofed or altered,
As to the producing caufes or fources. of atmofpherical
eleGiricity, we may obferve in general, that they may be
reduced to four, viz. friction, evaporation, heat and cold,
and condenfation and expanfion: and with refpeét to the-
changes and modifications to which the atmofpherical
electricity is continually fubjeét, they may be attributed to
the operation of the various caufes that produce it, and to
the chemical proceffes that are conftantly carried on by
means of the various ingredients that compofe the atmo-_
{phere. M. Volta (Phil. Tranf. vol. lxxii. p. 32), in re-
ference to this fubject obferves, that as the vapours on their
condenfing lofe part of their latent heat, on account of their
capacity being diminifhed they part with fome ele€tric
fluid. Hence (he fays) originates the pofitive electricity
which is always more or lefs predominant in the atmoiphere,
when the fly is clear, viz. at that height where the vapours
begin to be condenfed. Accordingly the atmofpherical
electricity is ftronger in fogs, in which cafe the vapours
are more condenfed, fo as to be almoit reduced to drops, and
is fuill ftronger when thick fogs become clouds. In ae=
counting for clouds, negatively electrified, he fuppofes that
when a cloud, pofitivelyeleGiritied, has been once formed, its
{phere of a€tion is extended a great way round, fo that if
another cloud comes within that {fphere, its electric fluid,
according to the well known laws of eleétric atmofpheres,
mutt retire to the parts of it which are moft remote from
the firft cloud: and from thence the ele€tric fluid may be
communicated to other clouds, or vapours, or terreftrial
prominences: thus, a cloud may be electrified negatively,
which cloud may, after the fame manner, occafion a pofitive
electricity in another cloud, &c. This explains not only
the negative electricity, which is often obtained from the
atmofphere in cloudy weather; and the frequent changes
from pofitive to negative electricity, and contrarywife, in
ftormy weather ; but alfo the waving motion obferyed in
the clouds, and the hanging down of them, fo as nearly to
touch the earth. For an account of the inftruments that
are ufed for difcovering and eftimating the eleCtricity of the
atmofphere, fee Contecror, Conpenser, ConpucrTors,
and Erecrromerer: and for further obfervations on this
fubject, fee alfo Evecrriciry, Evaporation, Licut-
ninc, Rain, VArour, &e. : }
ArmMosPHEREe, Figure of the. The atmofphere.envelopes
all parts of the furface of our globe ; if therefore both the
one and the other continued at reft, and were not endowed
wirha diurnal motion rourid their axis, then the atmofphere
would be exaétly fpherical, according to all the laws of
gravity ; for all the points of the furface ofa fluid in a ftate
of reft, muft be equaily removed from its-centre. But the
earth and the ambient atmofphere are invetted with a diurnal
motion, which carries both the one and the other round
their axis: and the different parts of both having a centri-
fugal force, the tendency of which is more confiderable and
that of the centripetal lefs, as the parts are more remote
from the axis; the figure of the atmofphere muft become
an oblate fpheroid, beeaufe the parts that correfpond to the

~ equator are father removed from the axis, than the parts

which correfpond to the poles.
Befides, the figure of the atmofpheze muft reprefent fuch
a {pheroid, becaufe the fun ftrikes more dire€tly on the air
which encompafles the equator, and is comprehended be-
tween the two tropics, than on that which pertains to the
polar regions. Whence it follows, that the mafs of air, or
part of the atmofphere, adjoining to the poles, being lefs:
heated, cannot expand fo much, nor reach fo high, ever=
- thelefs,

,
|

7. oe

' of furface.

ATMOSPHERE.

thelefs, as the fame force which contributes to elevate the
air, diminithes the preflure on the furface of the earth, higher
columns of it at or nearer the equator, all other circumftances
beiag the fame, may not be heavier than thofe that are lower
at or near the poles.

Mr. Kirwan (Irifh Tranf. for 1788. p. 61.), ftating the

height of the mercury in the barometer on the level of the

“fea, indicating the natural flate of the atmofphere, to be

thirty inches under the equator and under the poles, ob-
ferves, that in order to produce this itate, the weight of the
atmofphere mult be every where equal at the furface of the
fea; and as the weight of the atmofphere proceeds from
its denfity and height, this equality of weight requires that
the atmofphere fhould be loweit where its denfity is greateit,
and higheit where its denfity is leaft, Thefe extremes of
denfity take place in the equatorial and polar regions.
Under the equator, the centrifugal force, the diftance from
the centre of the earth, and the heat are all at their maxi-
mum ; in the vicinity of the poles, on the contrary, they are
at their minimum. From this reafoning it follows, that the
atmofphere muft be highcft under the equator, and lowelt

under the poles, with feveral intermediate gradations. Kir-

wan fuppofes the rarefactions of the atmofphere in the polar
regions to proceed from the aurore borealis and auitralis,
which he takes to be a combuiftion of inflammable air,
caufed by eleétricity; and as this air is lighter than any
other, it confequently occupies the higheft regions of the
atmoiphere. See Avrora, and BaromerTer.
Armospuere, Weight and Prefure of the. The weight
of the atmofphere, depending partly upon its height, and
partly upon its denfity, and its confequent preflure, are
properties that have been long afcertained by means of the
afcent of mercury in the barometer, and of water in pumps,
fyphons, and otlier fimilar engines. (See Air, Weight of.)
The quantity of this preffure may be eafily eftimated by
comparing the weight of a column of atmofpherical air with
that of a correfponding column of quickfilver, or of water,
by which it is counterbalanced. Upon this principle it has
been found, that the preflure of the atmofphere fuftains a
column of quickfilver, in the tube of the barometer, of the
height of about thirty inches; and hence it follows, that
the whole preffure of the atmofphere is equal to the weight
ofa-column of quickfilver, having an equal bafe, and about
thirty inches in height. But asa cubical inch of quickfilver
weighs about 8 oz. 1.45 drams, avoirdupoife, the weight of
© cubical inches will be 15 pounds, nearly. Such, there-
ore, is the weight of the atmofphere on every fquare inch
It has alfo been found, by pumps and other
hydraulical engines, that the preflure of the atmo{phere
fuftains a column of water from 34 to 35 feet, fay 344 feet,
high ; and as a cubical inch of water weighs 9.25 drams,
and a cubical foot 1728 x 9.25 drams, nearly 1000 ounces
avoirdupoife, or 62 pounds, the amount of the preffure of
the atmofphere ona {quare foot will be 343 x 624, or 21564
pounds ; anda fquare foot containing 144 {quare inches,
2156.25
4p |
inch. Hence it follows, that if a man’s body contain 15
f{quare feet, which is near the truth, he will fuitain a weight
equal to 2156$ 315=32343% pounds, or about 14% tons,
when the quickfilver in the barometer ftands at 30 inches.
This preffure is fo great, that it would be abfolutely in-
fupportable, and even fatal to us, if it were not equal in
every part, and counterbalanced by the {pring of fome other

, OF nearly 15 pounds, will be its preffure on a fquare

~elaitic fluid within us, which is diffufed through the whole

body, and re-acts with an equal force againft the outward
preflure. The nature of this internal elaftic fluid is not
Vou. Il. :

clearly underftood, nor, indeed, is its exiflence pofitively
afcertained. But whatever it be, it is fuch as to counteract
the weight of the atmofphere. However, if any confiderable
preflure be fupeiadded to that of the air, as e. g. by defcend-
ing into deep water, it is always felt ina greater or lefs de-
gree (fee Divine), more elpecially when the change is
fudden; and on the other hand, if the preffure of the, at-
mofphere be taken off from any part of the human bocy,
as from the hand placed over the exhaufted receiver of an
air-pump, the weight of the fuperincumbent atmofphere is
felt, and the flefh of the hand ‘s thruft down, as it were by
fuction, into the glafs. We mght add, that the heat of
our bodies rarefies the air contiguous to their furfaces, and
therefore a living animal does not fuftain an equal atmolphe-
rical preffure with that of inanimate and cold fubttances.
Moreover, as the earth’s furface contains, in round num-
bers, 200,000,coo fquare miles, and every {quare mile
27,878,400fquare feet, there mutt be 5,575,680,000,000,0C0
{quare feet on the earth’s furface; which, muitiplied by
2156; pounds, will give 12,022,560,000,000,000,0c0
pounds for the preflure or weight of the whole atmo-
{phere. ;

Mr. Cotes (Hydroftatical apd Pneumatical Leét. p. 112.)
mentions the 1efult of a computation which he made of the
weight of all the air, which prefles upon the whole furface
of the earth; and he obferves, that it is equal to the pref-
fure of a globe of lead, nearly 60 miles in diameter. The
computation proceeds upon thefe principles; that the
weight of a column of air, reaching to the top of the at-
mo{phere, is moft commonly equal to a column of water,
having the fame bafis, and the altitude of 34 feet ; that the
femidiameter of the earth is equal to 20949655 feet ; and
that the {pecific gravity of water is to that of lead as 100
to 11,325.

The difference of the weight of the atmofphere, and ct
its confequent preffure, at different times, and in different
fituations, is a circumitance that deferves our particular
notice. This difference in the fame fituation arifes from
changes in the {tate of the atmofphere; and it chiefly occurs
in places at fome diftance from the equator. It is indicated,
and of courfe eafily eitimated, by the different height to
which the mercury is raifed in the barometer. As the
greateft variation of the height of the mercury occupies a
range of about 3 inches, or from 28 to 31 inches, being {th
of the whole range, a column of air of any aflignable bafe,
equal to the weight of a cylinder of mercury of the fame
bafe, and of the altitude of 3 inches, will be taken off from
the preffure upon a body of an equal bafe, at fuch times as
the mercury is three inches lower in the barometer: and
therefore every fquare inch of the furface of our bodies is
preffed upon at one time more than another, by a weight of
air equal to that of three cubical inches of mercury. As this
is about jth of the whole quantity, the difference of the
preflure, which the human body fuitains at one time more
than another, amounts to about 1 ton. The reafon why we
are not fenfible of this preffure is explained in the following
manner by Borellus, de Mot. nat. a grav. fac. prop. 29, &c.
After faying that fand, perfectly rammed in a hard _veffel, is
not capable, by any means, of being penetrated or parted,
not even by a wedge; and likewile that water, contained
in a bladder compreifed equally on all fides, cannot yield or
give way in any part: he proceeds; ‘ In like manner, within
the {kin of an animal is contained a diverfity of parts, fome
hard, as bones; others foft, as mufcles, nerves, membranes,
&ce.; others fluid, as blood, fat, &c. Now it is not poffible
the bones fhould be broke or difplaced in the body, unlefs
the weight lay heavier on one part than on another, as we

Ti fometimes

A TAM OS? HOE RB

fometimes fee in pérters. IF the prefiure be fubdivided, fo
that it lie equally all around, upwards, downwards, aud fide-
ways, and no partof the ficin be exen:pt therefrom, it is
Mble any fra€ture or luxation fhould follow. The fame
tay be obferved cf the mufcles and nerves ; which though
feft, yet being compofed of folid fibres, do naturally fuftain
each other, and refift the common weight. The fame holds
of blaod and other humours; aud as water does not admit
any manifeft condenfatior, fo the animal humours contained
in their veflels may fuffer an attrition from an impulfe made
in ane or more particular places, but can never be forced out
ef their veffels by an univerfal compreffion. It fellows, that
asnone of the parts undergo either feparation, luxation,
eantuiion, or any other change of fituation ; it is impofiible
any fenfe of pain fhould enfue, which can only be the effec
of a folution of continuity. This is confirmed by what we
fee in divers,” &e. See Divine.

The fame is farther confirmed by Mr. Boyle, who, in-
cluding a young frog ina veffel half full of water, and in-
trading fo much air that the water might futtain eight times
the weight it otherwife would; yet the animalcule, notwith-
ftanding the great tendernefs of its fkin, did not feem at all
affeted thereby.

Befides, it ought to be confidered that the preffure of the
atmofphere is uniform and equal on all parts of the body;
and that we have been accultomed to it by long experience.
dt fhould alfo be recollected, that when the ordinary weight
of the atmofphere is augmented, the weather is commonly
dry and ferene; the circulation is promoted; the blood is
driven to the internal parts; a more abundant fecretion of
the juices takes place; and the tonic tenfion of the folid
parts is increafed ; and thefe circumi{tances combined pro-
duce an additional flow of fpirits, and render us more lively
and active. The fame beneficial effect is cbfervable even in
brute animals. On the contrary, when the weight of the
air is diminifhed, the weather is ufually moift and foggy,
and the animal frame becomes fenfible of oppreffion, liftleff-
uefs, and inactivity. Thefe changes in the {tate of the at-
mofphere, which are felt more or lefs by perfons of all
deferiptions, and of which valetudinarians frequently com-
plain, would be more fenfibly experienced, if they occurred
by very fudden tranfitions: for to this circumftance the fenfa-
tion of uneafinefs and indifpofition is chiefly to be attributed;
and accordingly great and fudden changes in the ftate of the
barometer and atmofphere, are generally accompanied with
a correfponding alteration in the corporeal frame and animal
fpirits. But when a change of this kind occurs gradually,
and when the fame ftate of the atmofphere continues for
fome time, its effect is lefs fenfibly perceived; as the body
poffeffes a power of accommodating itfelf to fuch change.
The fpring of that elaftic fluid, to which we have already
referred, ferves as a counterpoife to the preflure of the at-
mofphere, and when this is diminifhed it becomes more re-
laxed, fo that the equilibrium between the one and the
other is maintained. Hence it happens, that in moift foggy
weather, when the preffure of the atmofphere is leaft con-
fiderable, our veins never fwell, nor are we fenfible of any
internal expanfion of our bodies; but, on the contrary, the
veffels are more diftended, the circulation becomes more
languid, and we feem to be oppreffed with a weight. Upon
the whole, we may obferve, that the preffure of the atmo-
fphere refembles a kind of bandage, which being drawn
tighter, as in the cafe of increafed preffure, conftringes the
veffels of the body, and accelerates the circulation; and
which being more relaxed, as in the diminifhed preffure, oc-
cafions a diftenfion of the veffels, and is attended by a more
flow and languid circulation. But this isa fubject, in the

‘bh

elucidation cf which phyfiologifts are not agreed. Ag
variations of the atmofpheric preffure in the fame place pro-
duce effects that are fenfibly felt, particularly by perfons of
delicate and tender conititution, whatever explication may
be given of thefe effects, and to whatever intermediate
caufes they may be afcribed; the changes of preffure are
alfo perceived ia different fituations, as they are more ele-
vated or deprefled. Indeed, if the afcent from lower ta
higher ftations, and vice verfa, be gradual, the body adapts
itlfelf to the changes that attend them, and they are {carcely,
if at all, perceivable; but in the cafe of a more rapid afceat
or defcent, or when the difference of height is very confider-
able, the effects are more fenfible and apparent. Many faéts
and obfervations to this purple have been furnifhed by thofe
who have afcended in balloons, or defcended in diving-bells.
(See Arrostarion, and Divine.) The accounts given by
perfons who have afcended confiderable eminences above the
level of the fea, have been very various; nor is it certain that
the effects they have perceived have been owing wholly or
merely tothe variation of the atmofpheric preffure. Some have
complained of a total laflitude, which they have aferibed to
the dilatation of the corporeal veffels, of obitruétions to the
functions cf the re{piratory organs, of violent reachings and
vomitings of blood, and, in fome cafes, of the extrution of
blood through the fine coats of the lungs, and an enfu-
ing hemoptyfis. M. Sauffure, in his afcent to the top
of mount Blanc, felt great uneafinefs, as he advanced up-
wards. He informs us, that his refpiration was much
oppreffed, the circulation of blood accelerated, and the
pulfe quickened, that he was feized with other fymptoms
of a fever; and that his ftrength was alfo very much ex-
haufted. Thefe fymptoms of oppreffion and debility, how-
ever, did not begin to appear till he had afcended to the
perpendicular height of 2§ miles above the level of the fea,
and upon an additional afcent of of a mile, he found the
fymptoms above recited. To fome other concurring caufe,
befides the rarity of the atmofphere, it is natural to afcribe
fome of thefe fymptoms; and, indeed, he himfelf fays, that
the atmofphere at the top of the mountain was much im-
pregnated with carbonic acid, which is known to be per-
nicious to animals, and to be produiive of fome of the
above-mentioned effedis. In other cafes, perfons in elevated
fituations have experienced no effects like thofe which M.
Sauffure has related, and which the mechanical theory of
diminifhed preffure would lead us to expe&i. Mr. Brydone
and M. Howel mention no inconvenience of this kind to
which they were fubje& on the top of mount Aitna; nor
do the French mathematicians, who were for fome time on
the fummit of a very high eminence of the Andes, make
any other complaint befides that of the difficulty of refpira-
tion. (See Annrs.) But Dr. Heberden, who afcended to
the top of Teneriffe, a mountain higher than /&tna, makes
no mention even of this circumftance. It has alfo been
alleced, that no inconvenience has been experienced by a
gradual defcent in the diving-bell to confiderable depths ia
the fea, as long as'the perfons who have defcended have
remained in the air in the bell; though they have found a
very material difference on expofing themfelyes to the pref-
fure of the water. See Divina.

It is not eafy to affign the true caufe of the variations of
the atmofpheric weight and pveffure that occur in the fame
fituation.. In places within the tropics, where thefe varia-
tions are not very confiderable, the chief caufe feems to be
the heat of the fun; and its effects are regular and uniform,
as the mercury in the barometer fubfides about half an inch
in the day, and rifes again to its former height in the night.
But in the temperate zones the range is much greater, ex-

tending

ATMOS? HE RE

tending from 28 to 31 inches, and fhowing, by its various alti-
tudes, correfponding variations in the weather. ‘The canfes
that influence the variations of the one, produce alfo a fimi-
lar effe&t on the other ; and if the former were known, the
latter might be afcertained. The immediate caufes may
_ probably be reduced to the two following ; viz. an emiffion
of latent heat from the vapours of We atmofphere, or of
eletric fluid from thefe or from the earth. Both thefe
caufes are obferved to produce the fame effet with the folar
heat in the tropical climates, which is that of rarefying the
air by blending with it, or fetting loofe a lighter fluid, which
did not previoufly act with fuch power in any particular
lace. For a more particular account of different theories
on this fubje&, fee Barometer, Hart, Mererotocy,
Rain, Snow, Wearuex, and Wind. Of the importance
and utility of this property of the’atmofphere, mary in-
{tances occur in the animal economy, chemical procefles,
and mechanical operations. See Cuppinc, Respiration,
Cotour;s Comuustion, Varour, Pump, and Sypuon.
» With the gravity and preffure of the zir are nearly con-
nected its other properties cf denfity and elaflicity. The
denfity of the atmofphere muit principally depend on its
gravity ; and, in general, increafe and decreafe in the fame
proportion. In the lower and intermediate {trata of the
atmo{pherical air, this ratio obtains; but it is not uniform
and conitant in all elevations. In the higher regions of the
atmofphere, where the eleétric fluid abounds, this fluid may
diminifh the gravity of the atmofphere, without affecting its
prey. Beiides, the denfity of the atmofphere in the
zone will not decreafe fo faft in proportion to the
) of the column, as in the temperate and frigid zones ;
becaufe the column is longer, and becaufe a greater
»portion of atmofpheric air occupies the higher parts
of this column. Confequently, the denfity of the atmo-
{phere at the equator, which is lefs at the furface of
the earth, muft ata certain height equal, arid at a greater
height exceed, the denfity of the atmofphere in the tem-
perate zores and atthe poles. As acurrent of atmofpheric
air is continually afcending at the equator, and part of it oc-
cupies the higher regions of the atmofphere, and as. its
fluidity will prevent its accumulation at the equator, it will
of courfe defcend towards the poles; and during our
winter a greater portion of the equatorial column will flow
to the northera than to the fouthern hemifphere ; but a lefs
portion will purfue this courie during the fummer. The
mercurial column, therefore, will be always higheft with us
in winter, and the correfponding range of the barometer
Pere confiderable than in ftimmers and vice verfa. The
enlity of the atmofphere will ‘be materially affected by the
caloric or matter of heat which it contains, and of courfe it
will depend in a great meafure on the degree of cold which
prevails. Where the cold is greateft, the denfity of the
atmofphere will alfo be greateft, and its height will be dimi-
nifhed. In thofe countries which abound with high moun-
tains that are gencrally covered with fiow, the cold will be
more intenfe than in others lefs elevated, though fituate in
the fame latitude ; and of courfe the height of the atmo-
fpherie?columus will be proportionally lower. Hence the
{uperior air in its pafage to the poles will be retarded, and
accumulate over them. ‘Such accumulations will take place
ever the north-weftern parts of A fia, and over North Ame-
rica; and on this account the barometer ufually ftands
higher, and its range is more uniform than in Europe.
Similar accumulations are alfo formed in the fouthern’
parts of the old continent; for inftance, over the moun-
tainous tract of Thibet, “Tartary, Turkey in Europe,
Africa, and even in fome degree on the Pyrenées and Alps.

When thefe a¢cumulations have for any time prevailed, the
denfity of the atmofphere becomes too Confiderable to be
balanced by the furrounding medium ; and of courfe it will
defeend towards the regions of the atmofphere that lie over
the adjacent countries, and produce cold winds, that will
raife the mercury in the barometer. Thus the north-cait
winds in Europe are occafionally accompanied by a rife of
the barometer, becaufe they proceed from accumulations of
the atmofphere in the north-wett parts of Afia, or about the
pole ; and hence it is, that the north-welt wind from the
mountains of Thibet raifes the barometer at Calcutta,

Asthe mean heat of our hemifphere is not permanent,
the denfity of the atmofphere, and coniequently the quaa-
tity of equatorial air which flows towards the pol
be fubje& to correfpondig variations. The accur
of atmofpheric air on the montamous parts ot
Europe aid Afia, occafionally exceed their ufual limits,
which is partly owing to earlier falis of faow, or to the ex-
elufion of the folar rays by fogs of long continuanes. | Fn
this cafe the atmofphere in the polar regions will futtain a
correfponding diminution of denfity. La the torrid zone
and equatorial regions the heat is uniform 5; and the deniity
of the atmofphere, modified by it, as well as the height of
the atmofphere, will not be fubjeét to much vanation.
Kirwan, Irifh Tranf. for 1788) p. 60. See Density.
See alfo BagomeTeER, under which article the caufe of the
variations in the weight and preffure of the atmofphere is
particularly difcufled. Tor the effects of the remoyal of the
preflure of the atmofphere, fee Air Pump, and Vacuum.
For the elatticity of the atmofphere, fee Air and Evasri-
ciry of the air.

ArmospHers, Height of the. The height of the atmo-
{phere has been a fubjest cf particular inveftigation ; more
efpecially fince it was difeovered by the Torricellian tube,
that air is endued with weight and preffure. And, indeed, if
the air pofleffed no elaitic power, but were every where of the
fame denfity, from the furface of the earth to the extreme
limit of the atmofphere, like water, which is equally denfe
at all depths, the whole height of the atmofphere might be
afcertained without difficulty. It has already been ob-
ferved, that the weight of a column of air, reaching tothe
top of the atmofphere, is equal to the weight of the mer-
cury contained in the barometer, sand counterbalancing it
and the proportion of weight likewife bemg known between
equal bulks of air and mercury ; it will be eafy to find the
heicht of fuch a column, and confequently that of the atme-
{phere itfelf— For a column of air, one inch high, being to
an equal column of mercury as 1 to 11364.6; it 1s evident
that 11364.6 fuch columis of air, that 1s, a column 947
feet high, wonld be equal in weight to one inch of mercury :
and confequently the 30 inches of mercury fuitained in the
barometer, require a column of air 28410 feet high 5
whence the height of the atmofphere would only be
28410 feet, or little more than five Enelith miles acd a
quarter high. .

But the air, by its elaitic property, expands and con-
traéts: and it being found by repeated experiments in Eng-
land, France, and Italy, that the {paces it takes up, when
comprefled by different weights, are reciprocally propor-.
tional to thofe weights themielves; or, that the air takes up
the lefs {pace, the more it is preffed; it follows, that the
air in the upper regions of the atmofphere, where the
weight is fo much lefs, muit be much rarer than near
the furface of the earth ; and, confequently, that the height
of the atmofphere muft be much greater than is above
affigned. :

Mr. Cotes, in his Hydroftatical Lectures, leét. ix. has

ane: demon-

Year
@S, Tmt

AXTAM ' OFS: P° HE?! RAE.

demonftrated, in a very familiar and intelligible manner,
that if any number of diftances from the furface of the earth
be taken in an arithmetical progreffion, the denfities of the
air at thofe diftances will be ina geometrical progreffion.
Let xaxx (Plate 1X. Pneumatics, fig. 72.) reprefent a yeffel
reaching from the furface of the earth ax to the top of the
atmofphere xx ; and let the fide ax be divided into inches
ab, be, cd, &c. and let the lines bf, c/, dm, &c. be drawn
parallel to az. It is evident that the air contained between
thefe parallel lines becomes rarer as we afcend, becaufe every
afcending parallel fucceflively is prefled by a lefs column of
fuperincumbent air than the next below it. Suppofe then
that the air aé is every where uniform, but denfer than the
air 6/, and fo upwards. Let the air 4/ be reduced inta a
lefs fpace 4g, fo as to become of equal denfity with the
air ak, by making the {pace ég lefs than d/, in the propor-
tion that the air 2/ is lefs denfe than the air af. And let a
fimilar conftruGion be continued, fo as to reduce every
inch breadth of air to the fame denlity with the air a#. The
{paces ak, bg, cr, &c. will evidently be as the denfities of
the feveral inches of air, aé, /, cm, &c. and the quantity
or weight of the fuperincumbent air belonging to each of
thefe fpaces, and reaching to the top of the atmofphere,
will always be as the fum of all the {paces fituated above
any fpace propofed ; the quantity or weight being, by the
conitruction of the figure, as the fpace which it pofiefles.
Since then the deniity of the air is as the force which com-
prefles it, and this force is the quantity of fuperincumbeut
air, the denfities of the air between az and $f, 3& and ci,
cland dm, &c. are to each other as the quantities of air
above ax, bk, cl, &c. up to the extremity of the atmof-
phere. But thefe deniities, by what we have already
fhown, are as the {paces a#, bg, cr, &c. and the quanti-
ties of fuperincumbent air are as othe {paces xdfgrstux,
xcyrstux, xdestux, &c.; therefore the {paces ak, bg. cr,
&c. are to each other refpectively as the {paces xl@grstux,
_xcyrstux, xdastux, &o, Now the former {paces ak, bg, cr,
being the differences of the latter, and mutually propor-
tional, are, by a well known theorem in proportion, in a geo-
metrical progreffion; as the diftances ab, ac, ad, are in an
arithmetical progreflion. And thus the denfities of the
air belonging to every one of the inches, continued to the
extremity of the atmofphere, decreafe inthe fame geome-
trical progreffion ; and every the leait variation of altitude
will caufe the fame proportionable variation ef deniity in
the air. As the rarity of the air is reciprocally as its
_denfity, we may conclude that if the diftances from the
earth increafe in an arithmetical progreflion, the different de-
grees of rarity of the air increafe in a geometrical progreffion.
Whence it is obvious, fince an arithmetical feries, adaptedtoa
geometrical one, is analogous to the logarithms of the faid ge-
ometrical one, that the diftances are every where proportional
to the logarithms of the correfponding rarities. It is alfo
plain, that, as the diftances or altitudes are, proportional'to
the logarithms of the denfities or weights of the air, any
height taken from the earth’s furface, which is the differ-
ence of two altitudes to the top of the atmofphere, is pro=
portional to the difference of the logarithms of the two
deniities there, or to the logarithm of the ratio of thofe
denfities, and their correfponding compreffing forces, as
meafured by the two heights of the barometer there.

This law was firit obferved and demonitrated by Dr.
Halley, from the nature of the hyperbola; and afterwards
by Dr, Gregory, by means of the logarithmic line.
Phil. Tranf. N° 181. or Abr. ibid. vol. ii. p. 13. and Greg.
Altron. lib. v. prop. 3. See the further illuftration and proof
of it under the article 4tmo/pherical LoGaritumic.

See ©

From this propofition, having made two or three baro-
metrical obfervations of the ra-ity or denfity of the air at two
or three different known heigats, it is eafy to deduce a ge-
neral rule for determining its rarity or deufity at any other
height, or the height correfponding to any rarity or den-
fity ; and:confequently the altitude of the whole atmofphere,
fuppofing the utmoit degree of rarity known, beyond which
the air cannot go. E

But it is to be obferved, that thefe computations of the
rarity of the atmofphere, at differext heights, are founded
oa this principle, that the denfity of the air is every where
proportionable to the fuperincumbent weight. And this
rule holds true only ‘upon the fuppofition that the heat is,
uniform at differen diftances from the earth; for if the
air be hotter m one part than in another, the air will be
more rarefied in the hotter part than it will be in the cooler,
although prefied by the fame weight, or at the fame alti-
tude above the earth’s furface. ty :

Tt mutt not be here omitted, that fome obfervations made
by Cafiini, and his affociates, feem to render this method
precarious.—In continuing the meridian line of the obferva-
tory at Paris, they meafured the altitudes of feveral moun-
tains ‘with great accuracy ; noting the height of the bare-
meter at the top of each ; and found that the rarefactions
of the air, as you afcend from the level of the earth, are much
greater than they ought to be, according to this proportion.

SufpeCing therefore the juftnefs of the experiments, the
Royal Academy made divers others, under great dilatatio
of air, far exceeding the rarities found on the tops’
mountains ; the refult whereof was, that they all exactly
f{wered the proportion of the incumbent weights. Whence it
fhould follow, that the higher air about the tops of moun~
tains is of a different nature, and obferves a different law.
from that near the earth. ee re y ae

This may be owing to the great man of grofs vapours
and exhalations here, more than there ; Whichwapours being/
lefs elaftic, and not capable of fo much rarefaction as the-
pure air above, the rarefactions of the pure air increafe in a
greater ratio than the weights diminifh. M. Fontenelle,
however, from the experiments made by M. de la Hire,
accounts for the, phenomenon in a different manner; al-
leging, that the elaftic power-of air is increafed by the ad—
mixture of humidity therewith ; and confequently that the
air near the tops of mountains, being moifter than that be-
low, becomes thereby more elaftic, and rarefies in a greater
ratio than naturally and in a drier {tate it would.—But Dr..
Juria fhows, that the experiments produced to fupport this
fyftem are by no means conclufive. Append. ad Varenit’
Geograph. ee ’ Fagin

M. Bouguer likewife, in the Memoirs of the
demy of Sciences at Paris for the year 1753, intimated his.
opinion, that the condenfations of the atmofphere did not
obferve the fame law at different heights : and endeavoured
to account for the variation, by fuppofing that particles of
air at different heights are poifefled of unequal degrees of
elafticity. If this were the cafe it would be impoffible to
apply the barometer to the menfuration of heights with any
degree of certainty. But M. de Luc has thownjeby his
more accurate experiments, that this. pretended its
of {pring in the particles of air does not fubfift ; and that
its condenfations and dilatations follow the fame law uni-
formly at all heights and in all climates,-excepting only the
differences that are caufed by heat, and other local circum-

7

itances. Admitting therefore the principles above ftated, as _

applicable to all altitudes within our reach, or as far as the
fummits of the higheft mountains on earth, when a correc-
tion is made merely for the difference of heat or tempera-

ture,

*

AMOR Pini D. RE,

ture, be determined the altitudes of ‘hills both by the baro-
meter and alfo by geometrical meafurement; aud fhowing
how to allow for the differeuce of temperature, he has
given a rule for the meafurement of heigits by the baro-
meter, deduced from a greater number of experimeuts, and
much more accurate than any before publifhed, See his
« Recherches fur les Modifications de ? Atmo{phere,”’ vol.ii.
Similar rules have alfo been deduced from accurate experi-
ments by fir George Shuckburgh aud general Roy, both
concurring to fhow that fuch a rule for the altitudes aud
denfities holds true for all heights that are acceflible to. us,
when the elatticity of the air 1s corrected on account of its
A, denfity ; and the refult of their experiments fhowed, that
the difference of the logarithms of the heights of the mer-
cury in the barometer at two flations, multiplied by 10,000,
is equal to the altitude in Engliih fathoms of the one place
above the other; that is, when the temperature of the air

; is about 31 or 32 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer ;
and a certain quantity more or lefs, according as the actual
temperature is different from that degree. See the princi-

ples and application of thefe rules, detailed more at large,

* underthe article Baromerer. But it may be here fhown,
that the fame rule may be deduced independently of a
train of experiments merely by means of the denfity of
the air at the furface of the earth. Thus, let D denote
the denfity of the air at one place, and d the denfity at the
other ; both meafured by the column of mercury in the
barometer ; then the difference of altitude between the two
places will be proportional to the log. of D — the log. of d,

*

or to the log. of = But as this formula expreffes only the

relation between different altitudes, with refpeét to their
denfities, recourfe muft be had to fome experiment in order
to obtain the real altitude which correfponds to any given
‘denfity, or the denfity which correfponds toa given altitude.
The firft and moft natural is that which refults from the
known fpecific gravity of air, with refpect to the whole
preflure of the atmofphere on the furtace of Pe earth.
Now, as the altitude is always as the log. of 7 affume
4, fo that a may be = 4 x log. - where /& will be of
one conftant value for all altitudes: and to determine that
value, fuppoie a cafe in which we know the altitude @ cor-

refpondmg to a known denfity d; as e.g. take a = 1 foot
or 1 inch, or fome {uch fmall altitude; and becaufe the
denfity L may be meafured by the preflure of the whole at-
mofphere, or the uniform column of 27,600 feet, when the
temperature is 55°, 27,600 feet will therefore denote the
denfity D at the lower place, and 27,599 the lefs denfity d
at one foot above it ; confequently, we have this equation,

v

viz. r = 4 x log. of ee) which by the nature of loga-
27599 »

apa retell -43429448 _ erat

rithms is neatly = 4 x ic Se ES nearly ; an

hence 4 = 63551 feet, which gives this formula for any

altitude in general; viz..a = 63551 x log.

4
63551 x log. af feet, or dividing by 6, the number of.
: m

>ora=
d

feet in a fathom, 10,592 x log. = fathoms, where M de-

notes the column of mercury which is equal to the pref-
dure of the atmofphere at the bottom, and m that at the

top of the altitude @; and where Meand m may be taken in
any meafure, either feet or inches, &c. This formula ig
adapted to the me&n temperature of the'air 55° 5 but it has
been found by the experiments of -fir George Shuckburgh
and general Roy, that for every degree of temperature, mn-
dicated by the thermometer, different from 55°, in the
medium. between the temperatures at the top and bottom
of the altitude a, the altitude a will vary by its 435th
part, which mult be added when the medium exceeds Chied
and otherwife fubtraGted. It thould alfo be obferved, that
a column of 30 inches of mercury varies its len«th by about
the 320th part of an inch for every degree of » or rather
the g6ooth part of the whole volame. This formula may
be rendered much more convenient for ufe by reducing the
factor 10,592 to 10,000 by changing the temperature pro-
portionably from 55°: thus, as the difference 592 is the:
18th part of the whole faétor 10,592, and as 18 is the 24th
part of 435; therefore the change of temperature, corre-
{ponding to the change of the factor /, is 24°, which re-
duces the 55° to.31°. Confequently, the formula becomes

a= 0000 x log. of - fathoms, when the temperature is
m

31°, ornearly the freezing point; and for every degree above
that, the refult muft be increafed by fo many times its 435th
part, and proportionably diminifhed below it. .

This formula may be comprifed under the following
practical precepts: 1. Obferve the height of the barometer
at the bottom of any height or depth propofed to be mea-
fured, together with the temperature of the mercury by
means of the thermometer attached to the barometer, and
alfo the temperature of the air in the fhade by another
thermometer which is detached from the barometer. 2. Let
the fame thing be done alfo at the top of the faid height or
depth, and as nearly as poflible at the fame time ; reduce
thefe altitudes of the mercury to the fame temperature, if
it be thought neceffary, by correéting either the one or the
other, viz. augmenting the height of the mercury in the
colder temperature, or diminifhing that in the warmer, by
its g6ooth part for every degree of difference between the
two ; and the altitudes of the mercury fo corre¢ted are thofe
denoted by M and m in the above formula. 3. Take out
the common logarithms of the two heights of mercury fo
correctéd, and fubtraG& the lefs from the greater, cutting off
from the right hand fide of the remainder three places for
decimals, and then thofe on the left hand will be fathoms
in whole numbers, the tables of logarithms being fuppofed’
to comprehend feven places of decimals, 4. Correct the
number lait found for the difference of the temperature of
the air, in the following manner ; viz. take half the fum of
the two temperatures of the air, fhown by the detached
thermometers, for the mean one; and for every degree by
which this divers from the ftandard temperature of anise
take fo many times the 435th part of the fathoms above
found, and add them if the mean temperature be more than
31°, but fubtraét them if it be below 31°, and the fum or
difference will be the true altitude in fathoms, or being mul--
tiplied by 6, it will give the true altitude in Englifh feet.

Example I. To find the altitude, when the ftate of the
barometers and thermometers is as follows, viz.

‘Thermometers Barometers

detached attached
57 57 29.68 lower
42 43 25.25 upper

%
Mean 494 | Dif. 14

ATMOSPHERE.

As 9600 14 oe 29-68 = .04
Cor. .04.
Mean 494 logs.
Stand. 31 M =°29.64 .... 4718712
m == 25.28 «. 4027771
Dif 184 -
As 435 18i :: 691-011 3 29.388

29-388

720.399 fathoms
22

The altitude fought is { or 4322.304 feet
-394 3

Example II. To find the altitude of a hill, when the
fiate of the barometer and thermometer, obferved at the

bottom and top of it, is as follows: viz
Thermometers ~}| Barometers
detached attached]
| 35 41 || 29.45
31 | 38 || 26.82
a 7
Mean 33 Dike 3.
As 9600 : 3 20:45 Ok
OI
Mean 33 = logs.

Stand. 31, =
Pitt. .2

44... 4689428
82 2. + 4284558

404.790 : 1.86
1.86

BSS) di icale sseeo cee

The altitude fought is { 406.65 fathoms,
or 2439.90 feet.

M. De Lue found that the height of the atmofphere,
Auppofing its limits where the mercury would ftand only at
one line, and the thermometer indicating o in his feale, 17°
in that of Reaumur, and about 70° in Fahrenheit’s, is
25105.45 toifes, or 11 leagues and 3 toifes; and in the
fame circumftances, if the mercury in the barometer funk
to _', of a line, the height of that part of the atmofphere
would be 35105.45 toifes.

Upothe principles above ftated, the following table is
calculated ; fuppofing firft as a mean of the obfervations at
the Puy de Domme in France, and thofe on Snowdon hill
in Wales, that at the altitude of feven miles, the air ts
four times rarer than at the furface of the earth.

.

Tilpea cla i kn eae enna ae
Dee |= at ane nO
aiva|- - - - 64/4
ZS = - 256) 2
Bo enc) re SONS
42/5 |- - - 4096/>
| 49/8 |- -@- 16384|5
56) 2 |- - - 65536) 8
5 63 ial 262144) 5
S| 70) G}- - 1048576/-5
| dd bel >) 7) 4194308 les
S| 84) \- - 16777216) c
2] gIial- - 67108864 |=
SG} 98) 2). - 268435456) 5
105|*|- 1073741824) 5
112) 5 |- 4294967296) -,
119 &|- 17179869184) 2
126, g|- 68719476736 | 4
133 "6 |=274877900044|
140 1099511627776

It might eafily be fhown by purfuing the calculation in
this table, that a cubic inch of the air we breathe would be
fo much rarefied at the altitude of 500 miles, that it would
fill a {phere equal in diameter to the orbit of Saturn.

Hence it appears that the atmofphere, however indefi-
nitely it may be expanded, becomes at a comparatively
{mall diftance, fo rare and light, as to be utterly impercep-
tible in its effects as a refifting medium: and it the atmo-
fpheres of the plsnets refemble that of the earth, they muft
be fo attenuated at the diftances of the planets from one
another, as to give no fenfible refiftance to their motions
round the fun for many ages.

M. de la Hire, after Kepler, recurred to the more an-
cient method of afcertaining the height of the atmofphere,
viz. from the confideration of the crepufcula. It appears,
from the obfervations of aftronomers, of the duration of
twilight, and of the magnitude of the terreftrial fhadow in
lunar eclipfes, that the effeét of the atmofphere to refle&
and intercept the light of the fun, is fenfible to the alti-
tude of between 40 and 50 miles. So far then we may
be certain that the atmofphere reaches ; and at that alti-
tude we may colleé, from what has been already faid,
that the air is above 10,0c0 times rarer than at the fur-
face of the earth. How much farther the atmofphere may
extend, we are altogether ignorant. Cotes’s Hydroft.
Led. p. 123. and 125. ph i

It is allowed by a{tronomers, that when the centre of the
fun is 18°, or allowing for the refra€tion 17° 27’, below the
horizon, the twilight begins or ends: now the ray which
we fee can be no other than a horizontal line, or a tan-
gent to the eaith in the place where the obferver is ; but
this ray cannot come direétly from the fun, which is under
the horizon ; and muft therefore be a ray reflected to us by
the lait inner and concave furface of the atmofphere. W:
are to fuppofe that the fun when 17° 27’ below the horizon,
emits a ray which is a tangent to the earth, and ftrikes
upon the lait furface of the atmofphere, and is thence re-
flected to oureye, being ftilla tangent, and horizontal. If
thcre were no atmofphere, there would be no crepufculum ;
and confequently, if the atmofphere were not fo high as it
is, the crepufculum would begin and end when the fun is
at a lefs ditance from the horizon than 7° 27’, and con-
trarily.—Hence we infer, that the extent of the are by
which the fun is depreffled when the crep feal i
ends, determines the height of the ao
to note, however, that 33’, mutt be fub
are of 18” for the refraction which raifes
higher than he would’ be; and 16’ more for t
the upper limb of the fun, which is fuppofed
above his centre, fo that the are which determin
of the atmofphere is only 17°11. Two rays,
the other reflected, but both tangents to the earth, muf
ceffarily meet in the atmofphere at the point of reflection,
and comprehend an arc between them of 17” 11’, of which
they are tangents.—Hence it follows, from the nature of
the circle, that a line drawn from the centre of the earth,
and cutting the arc in two, will go to the point of con-
currence of thofe two rays ; and as it is eafy to find the ex-
cefs of this line above the femi-diameter of the earth, which
is known, it is eafy to find the height of the atmofphere,
which is only that excefs. See CrepuscuLum. tf

On this principle, M. de la Hire difcovered the height of
the atmofphere to be 37223 fathoms, or near 17 Trench
leagues. ‘The fame method wasalfo made ufe of by Kep-
ler, who only rejeéted it, becaufe it gave the height of
the atmofphere twenty times greater than he aah a

owe

e

Sas

ATMOSPHERE.

lowed it. It muft be added, that in this calculation, the
direct and refleéted rays are fuppofed to be right lines ;
whereas in faét they are curves, formed by the perpetual re-
fraction which the rays undergo in paffing through a feries
of different denfities of air. Computing then «pon them,
as two fimilar curves, or rather as a fingle curve, one ex-
treme whereof is a taagent to the earth; its vertex, equally
diftant from both the extremes, determines the height of
the atmofphere; which therefore will be found fomewhat
lower than in the former cafe; the point of concurrence
of two right lines, which are here only tangents to the
curve, the one at one end, and the other at the other,
being higher than the vertex of the curve. In this way,
M. de la Hire finds the atmofphere 36362 fathoms, or 16
leagues. Hift. del?Acad. Roy. de Scien. an. 1713. p. 71.

he nature of the curve, which is defcribed by a ray of
light in pafling through the atmofphere, has been the fub-
ject of affiduous sae vation. M. De la Hire took great
pains to demonftrate, that, fuppoling the denfity of the at-
mofphere proportional to its weight, this curve is a cycloid;
and he fays, that if the ray be a tangent to the atmofphere,
the diameter of its generating circle will be the height of
the atmofphere ; and that this diameter increafes, till at laft,
when the rays are perpendicular, it becomes infinite, or the
circle degenerates into aright line. This reafoning fup-
pofes that the furface of the atmofphere is a plane; but fince
it is a curve, he obferves that thefe cycloids become in fact
epicycloids. Hermannus, in his “* Phoronomia,”’ has deteéted
the error of M. De la Hire, and fhown that this curve is
infinitely extended, and has an afymptote: and Dr. Brook
Taylor obferves, “‘ Method. Increm.” p. 168, that it is
one of the moft intricate and perplexed that can well be
propofed. This ingenious author computes the refractive
hal of the air, to be to the force of gravity at the
urface of the earth, as 320,000,000 to I.

The extreme rarity of the atmofphere at confiderable
altitudes, fuch as thofe of forty or fifty miles, bound-
ing the produdtion of twilight, has perplexed philofo-
phers in accounting for meteor:, which, whatever be
their origin, whether electrical or otherwife, are ob-
ferved at a much greater elevation than that to which the
refractive power of the atmofpherical air extends. A very
remarkable one of this kind was obferved by Dr. Hal-
ley in the month of March 1719; the altitude of which
he computed to have been between 69 and 734 Englith
miles; its diameter being 2800 yards or more than a mile
and a half, and its velocity about 350 miles in a minute.
Others ofa fimilar kind, but of a greater altitude and velo-
city, have been obferved by others; and particularly one

feen in Auguft 1783, whofe height above the earth could
not be lefs than ninety miles, and its diameter was not lefs
than the former, whilft its velotciy was certainly not lefs

than 1000 miles ina minute. From analogy and reafoning
it is very probable, that fuch meteors are not effentially
different from thofe that are feen near the furface of the
earth. Neverthelefs in the high regions where they are
obferved, the atmofphere, according to our computation,
ought not to have denfity fufficient to fupport flame and to
propagate found; and yet fuch meteors are commonly
fucceeded by one or more explofions, and are accompanied,
as it has been reported, with a hiffing noife as they pafs over
our heads. The meteor of 1719 was not only very bright,
fo that for fome time it changed the night into day, but
was atteded with an explofion that was heard over all the
ifland of Britain, occafioning a violent concuffion of the
atmofphere and feeming to fhake the earth itfelf. And yet,
in the regions in which this meteor moved, the air ought to

6

have been 300 thoufand times rarer than the air we breathe,
or 1000 times rarer than the vactum commonly made by a
good air-pump. Dr, Halley conjectures, that the immente
magnitude of fuch bodies may compentate for the rarity
of the medium in which they move. Allowing them to be
ele@rical phenomena, difficulties occur in explaining fev eral
circumftances attending them ; and particularly the {ple ndor
of their appearance, which requires a circumambient fluid
capable of confining and condenfisig the electric matter of
which they are compofed. From late experiments, it has
beea inferred, that the ele&tric fluid cannot pervade a perfect
vacuum. See METEOR.

ArmosruHers, Refrazion and RefleGion of the. That
the atmofphere has a refractive power, which is the caufe
of many phenomena, is ungu itionable. This power is af-
certained by the preduction of twilight above noticed, and
by many other facts and experiments. Alhazen the Ara-
bian, who lived about A. D. 1100, feems to have been
more iuquifitive into the nature of refraction than the pre-
ceding writers. But neither Alhazen, nor his follower
Vitellio, knew any thing of its juit quaatity, which was
not known to any tolerable degree of exactneis, till Tycho
Brahe, with incredible diligence, fettled it. But neither
Tycho, nor Kepler, difcovered in what manner the rays of
light were refracted by the atmofphere. Tycho thought
the refra€tion was chiefly caufed by denfe vapours, very
near the earth’s furface. Kepler placed the caufe whoily
in the higher regions of the atmofphere, which he took to
be uniformly denfe ; and thence he determined its altitude
to be little more than that of the higheft mountains. But
the true conftitutioa of the atmofphere, deduced afterwards
from the Torricellian “experiment, afforded a jufter idea of
thefe refraGtions, efpecially after it appeared by a repetition
of Mr. Lowthorp’s experiment, that the air’s refractive
power Is proportionable to its denfity. By this variation
of the air’s denfity, a ray of light, in pafliag through the
atmofphere, is continually refra€ted at every poit, and
thereby defcribes a curve, and not 2 ftraight line, as it
would have done were there no atmofphere, or were its
denfity uniform. See REFRAcTION-

The atmofphere, or air, has alfo a refleCtive power; and
this power is the caufe that enlightens objects fo uniformly
on all fides. The abfence of this power would occafion a
ftrange alteration in the appearance of things; their fhadows
would be fo very dark, and their fides enlightened by the
fun fo very bright, that probably we could fee no more cf
them than their bright halves; fo that, for a view of the
other halves, we muft turn them half round, or, if immove-
able, muft wait till the fua could come round upon them.
Such a pellucid unreflective atmofphere would indeed have
been very commodious for altronomical obfervations upon
the courle of the fun and planets among the fixed ftars,
vifible by day as well as by night ; but then fuch a fudden
tranfition from darknefs to light, and from light to darknefs
immediately, upon the rifing and fetting of the fun, without
any twilight, and even upon turning from or to the fun at
noon day, would have been very inconvenient and offenfive
to our eyes. ;

However, though the atmofphere is greatly affiftant to
the illumination of objects, yet it-muft alio be obferved
that it ftops a great deal of light. By M. Bouguer’s expe-
riments, it feems that the light of the moon is frequently
2600 times weaker in the horizon, than at the altitude of
66 degrees ; and that the proportion of her light at the
altitudes of 66 and 19 degrees, is about 3 to 2. The
lights of the fun muft bear the fame proportion to each
other at thofe heights, which M. Bouguer made choice of,

£ as

APT MQ, & PVE RE:

as being the meridian heights of the fun, at the fummer
and winter folitices, m the latitude of Croiiie in France.
Smith’s Optics, Rem. 95. See Licat, and Reriec-
TION.

ATMOSPHERE, Salubrity of ihe. See Eupiomerry.

ATMOSPHERE, Jemperaiure of the. he variable tempe-
rature of the atmofphere, at different feafons and in different
fituations, has been the fubjecé of elaborate invettigation ;
and many {peculations and theories have been propofed in
order to account for the changes which it undergoes. That

the prefence of the fun is the principal fource of heat as

well as of light, and its abfence of cold, is too obvious to
have been ever doubted ; and the effec: produced by the
greater or lefs obliquity of its rays Has been long and uni-
verfally obferved and acknowledged. From this faét, how-
sever, the ancient philofophers of Greece and Rome too

- haftily inferred, that the torrid zone, under a vertical fun,

and the frigid zone, where its rays fall very obliquely, were
uninhabitable. Time corre¢ted this miitake ; and prefented
new phenomena which it has been found difficult to explain.
The hotteft days are frequently felt in the coldeft climates,
and the greateft cold, as well as ‘perpetual {now, are found
in countries bordering on, or even immediately under, the
equator. In the fame latitudes, very different temperatures
have been obferved, not only in different, but even in the fame
hemifphere. The temperature of the eaitern coaft of North
America differs widely from that of the weftern oppotite
coait of Europe, but agrees nearly with that of the eaftern
coat of Afia lying between the fame parallels, Mem.
Philad. vol. i. Thefe, and fimilar circumftances, have made
it neceflary for meteorologifts to recur to other caufes of
varying temperature, befides the immediate agency or ab-
fence of the folar rays. Dr. Halley has, indeed, prored,
that, abftracting from the intervention of fogs, mifts, and
mountains of ice, the hotteft weather might, in fummer,
take place even under the poles, the duration of the fun’s
lizht more than compenfating for the obliquity of its direc-
tion (fee Hear); but as many phyfical caufes ob-
firu@ the activity of the folar rays in thefe and other re-
gions, it was {till neceffary to recur to fome other caufe.
At length M. de Mairan (Mem. Acad. Par. 1719 and
1767) difcovered, that the rigour of the cold of winter is
tempered by the heat imparted to the atmofphere by the
earth itfelf ; which heat, probably poffefled from its origin,
is preferved and renewed by the inceflant influences of the
fun, to which one-half of its furface is conftantly expofed.
Admitting this faét, the temperature of the atmoi{phere
mutt depend on the capacity of the earth for receiving and
retaining heat, and for communicating it to the furrounding
medium. Butas the earth is compofed of land and water,
it fhould be confidered that the capacities of thefe con-
ftituent parts for receiving both heat and cold are very dif-
ferent. Land, particularly when dry, receives heat from
the fun’s rays very readily, but tranfmits it through its
own fubftance to great depths very flowly; and, on the
other hand, water, by reafon of its tranfparency, receives
heat very flowly, but diffufes what it receives more readily.
Dr. Hales found, that in the month of Augufi, 1724, when
the air, and the furface of the earth, were both at 88°, a
thermometer, placed only two inches under the furface,
ftood at 85°; another, 16 inches under the furface, indicated
70°, and athird, 24 inches deep, ftood at 68°. The two
laft thermometers preferved’ the fame temperature both day
and night, till the end of the, month, and then fell to 63°
or 61°; the earth obftinately retaining its heat, at that
depth, though the temperature of the air frequently varied.
On the 26th of OGober, a thermometer, expofed to the

air, flood at 35.5°; but one funk two inches in the earth
was heated to 43.85°5 another at the depth of 16 inches,
ftood at 48.8°; and another, 24 inches deep, fhowed 50° ;
and from the 1ft to the r2th of November, when the tem-
perature of the external air was 27°, a thermometer placed
at the depth of 24 inches, food at 43.8° ; but from the
month of March to that of September in the following
year, the external air was conftantly warmer than the earth
at the depth of 16 inches or 2 feet: the feafon, however,
was very rainy, and the evaporation, thus occafioned, pre-
vented the earth from being warmed fo much as it otherwife
might have been. Hales Veget. Statics, vol. i. p.61, &c.
From thefe experiments it may be inferred, that the furface
of the earth is much heated during the fummer, but that
the heat defcends very flowly, a great part of it being com-
municated to the air; that during the winter, the earth
gives out to the air the heat which it had received durin

the fummer; and that wet fummers muit be fucceeded by
cold winters. The experiments of Dr. Hales furnifh nearly
the fame refults with thofe of Mariotte (Sur le Froid and
le Chaud, p. 189.) ; who found, that the earth is gradually
heated during the fummer, and as gradually cooled during
the winter months; and that, at the diftance of a few feet
under the furface, it is conftantly warmer than the external
air; ard the excefs was found to velit il April, when
the furface is again heated by the fun’s rays, and flowly
tranfmits its heat downwards. Hence it appears, that zt
the diftance of about 80 or go feet below the furface, pro-
vided that there be’a communication with the external airy
or at a lefs depth if there be no fich communication, the
temperature of the earth admi s of very flight variation, and
generally approaches to the mean annual heat. Then the
temperature of fpiing is nearly the fame as the annual

temperature, and varies very little. M. Van Swinden has
obferved, that the greatelmeal, and even that which ex-
ceeds o of Fahrenheit’s fcale, if it lafts no more than a few
days, penetrates no deeper than 20 inches when the earth
is covered with fnow, and not above 10 inches if no {now lies
on the furface ; and this fact evinces the important and ufe-
ful’ purpofes anfwered by this covering in high northern
latitudes. Such faéts tend to prove, that the heat of the
earth does not increafe as we defcend into it ; but at the
greateft depths it is nearly the fame as the mean annual
temperature of the latitude. It has been obferved, that
land is capable of receiving much more heat or cold than

water. To this purpofe, Dr. Raymond found, in the neigh- -

bourhood of Marfeilles, Jand frequently heated to 160°
but he never found the fea hotter than 77°; and in w

ter he frequently obferved the earth cooled down to |
or 15°, but the fea never lower than 44° or 45°.)
la Societ. de Med. de Paris, an. 1778. p. 70.) Fi
faéts it is an obvious inference, that the atmofphere whic

ic
$

lies over the fea fhould maintain a more uniform temperature

than that over the land; and this is found to bet

nor is it difficult to give a fatisfactory explication of ;
During fummer, the temperature of the fea on its furface is
conftantly diminifhed by the procefs of evaporation ; and
in the winter, when the fuperficial water is cooled, it
fcends by its augmented gravity to the bottom, and

re,

place is occupied by water of a higher temperature. This —

alternate change of this heavier and lighter air proceeds,

and the nla aye) before the atmofphere has diminifhed —

the temperature of the water below a certain deg ef Be-
tween the mean annual temperature of the atmofphere over
the ocean, and that of countries fituated at a confiderable
diftance from it, there is a very perceptible difference. As
the fea is never heated to the fame degree as the land,

3 the —

T o8

ATMOSPHERE

the mean temperature ‘of {immer over the fea’ may be con-
fidered as lower than that over the land. Ia winter, when
the force of the fun’s rays is weakened, the fea imparts its
heat to the atmofphere much more readily than the earth.
The mean temperature on fea, is, therefore, at this feafon
higher than on land, and in cold cowitries this difference in
the evolution of heat is fo very confiderable, that it more
than counterbalances the difference which takes place in
fummer ; infomuch that in high latitudes, the mean annual
temperature at fea ought to exceed that on the land. Mr,
Kirwan obferves, that, in order to find the temperature in
any place fituate between the’ latitudes 70? and 35°, the
ftandard temperature for the fame latitude fhould be lowered
$d of a degree for every 50 miles of ‘dittance; ‘fince in
winter the cold always) increafes in proportion to the dif-
tance from the ftandard. At-a lets diftance than 50 miles
the atmofphere on the ocean and land are fo blended toge-
ther by the agency of fea and land winds, that little dif-
ference is perceptible in’ the aanual mean temperature.
In lower latitudes than 30°, the folar rays even m-winter
act with no inconfiderable force, the furface of the earth
alfo retains a pretty confiderable degree of heat, and con-
fequently the mean annual temperatures of the fea and land
preferve a greater equality. In proportion as we approach
to the equator, the force of the fun’s rays in winter aéts
with additional energy, and the mean temperature of the
land atmofphere at this feafon approximates nearer and
nearer to that of the fea, till at the equator they become
equal.

In latitudes diftant from the equator, iflands are warmer
than continents, becaufe they participate more of the tem-

erature of the fea. Countries that lie fouthward of any
Loon warmer than thofe that have the fame fea to the
fouth of them, at leaft in our hemifphere, becaufe the
winds that fhould cool them in winter are tempered, by
palling to them from that fea; andthofe that are northward
of the fea are cooled in fummer by the breézes that iffue
from it; but a nothern or fouthern bearing of the fea ren-
ders a country warmer, than if it lay either to the eaft or
weft. rats of land which are covered with trees and lux-
uriant vegetables, are much colder than thofe which have
lefs furface of vegetable matter: for though living vegetables
alter their temperature flowly, and with difficulty, yet the
evaporation from their numerous furfaces is much greater
than from the fame {pace of land uncovered with vegetables ;
and-befides, when they are tall and clofe, as forefts, they
exclude the inn’s rays, and fhelter the winter {nows from the
wind and fun. From fome experiments of Mr. Williams
(Philad. Tranf. vol. ii. p. 150.) it appears, that foreits dif-
charge one-third more vapour into the atmofphere, than the
fame {pace of ground would do-if a€tually covered with
water. From this reafoning it appears, that woody coun-
tries are much colder than thofe that- are open and culti-
vated ; and it will enable us to account for the amelioration
of climate that attends agricultural cultivation. See Crr-
MATE.

Another principal fource of heat, befides the fun’s rays
and earth, which may be regarded as a repofitory of heat,
is the condenfation of vapour. It is well-known, that va-
pour contains a quantity of the matterof heat, which pro-
duces no other effeét but that of making it affume an aerial
expanded flate, until the vapour is condenfed into a liquid;
but dnring this condenfation a quantity of fenfible heat is
let loofe, which warms the furrounding atmofphere. This

_ eondenfation is frequently occafioned bythe attraétion of an

electrical cloud ; and hence proceeds the fultrinefs which we
often experience before rain.

Vou. III.

Notwithftanding the variations of temperature that occur
in every climate, and at every feafon, there is a mean tems
perature from which the atmofphere feldum-deviates beyond
a certain number of degrees. In order to determine this
Mr. Playfair, profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity of
Edinburgh (See Edinb. Tranf. vol. y. part 2. for 1802,
p- 193-),| divides every month into.three parts, and exhibita
the {tate of the barometer and thermometer for each of
thefe divifions, In ‘his tables the three firft columns contain
ateft, lealt, and mean height of the barom
the fourth ¢
room where |
lumns fhow the ;

4h of
the

rOMeLer IS |
ateft height of the thermometer
air, obferved daring the ten days towhich the numbers refer;
the next ‘three give the mean heights, as obferved at three
different tintes every day ; viz.iat eight in the morning, ten
in the evening, arid as neatly as poflible to the warmeft time
of the day, or fame time between mid-day and three in the
afternoon. -Tyhe'mean of al] thefe is taken for the mean
temperature of the day, which bei mmputed for each
day, the mean of all thefe measi temperatures is fet down
for the mean temperature of the atmofphere for every one
of the thirty-fix divifions of the year. The mean of the
three divifions of every month is given in the next column,
under the title of the mean temperature of the month.
It is prefumed, fays Mr. Playfair, that the mean tempera-
tures, which are the points moft difficult to be afcertained,
are given with tolerable exa€tnefs, as they are deduced from
three obfervations made every day, of which the firft, viz.
that at eight in the morning, is not far from the medium
temperature of the whole day, and the other two are as
near as circumftances will allow, to the two extremes of
greateft heat and greateft cold. At Edinburgh, the mean
temperature for the year 1797 was48.04'; for i798, 49.28°;
and for 1799, 46.13°. From a mean of the obfervations
made at the houfe of the Royal Society, from 1772 to 1780,
the annual temperature of London appears to be 51.9 , or
in round numbers 52°. ;

The greateft mean annual temperature prevails at the
equator, orin the fecond degree of north latitude. As we
recede from the equator, the mean temperature graduall
decreafes, and it is moft diminifhed at the poles. This di-
minution tales place in fuch a manner, that the mean annual
temperatures of all the latitudes are arithmetical means be-
tween the mean annual temperatures of the equator and of
the pole. The ratio between the decreafe of temperature,
and the diftance from the equator, was firfl afcertained by
Mr. Tobias Mayer of Gottingen (Oper. Ined. vol. i.) ; and
by means of an equation deduced from it, and rendered more
clear, accurate, and general, Mr. Kirwan has calculated the
mean annual temperature of every degree of latitude between
the equator and the pole. He fuppofes the mean annual
heat to be the greateft under the equator, and leaft under
the poles; that at the equator he calls m, and that at the
north pole m—n, and putting ¢ for any other latitude, the
temperature of that latitude will be m—n fin. ¢?- Hence, as
the mean annual temperature of lat. 40°, determined by the
beft obfervations, is 62°, and the temperature of lat. 50° is
found to be 52.9° ; thus the value of mand n being known,
the mean annual temperatures of the equator, and of the
poles, may be determined ; for the fquare of the fine of 40°
is.o.41, and the fquare of the fine of 50° is 0.58: then,

m— 0.41 2 = 62
and m — 0.582 = 52.9;
confequently 62 + 0.417 = 52.9 + 0.587.

Whence the value of 7 is found to be 53 nearly, and m inthe
firft equation is 84; and therefore the mean temperature of

Kk the

ATMOSPHERE

the equator is 84, and that of the pole 31.

Upon thefe
principles the following table was calculated.

TABLE of the Mean Annual Temperature of the Standard

Situation in every Latitude.

Lat. Temper | Lat. | Cemper. Lat. | Temper.
! ——|| ————
go | 31 Gr {43.5 || 32 | 6o.u
89 | 31-04) Go | 44.3 || 31 | 69.9
83 | 31-101 59 | 45-09 | 30 70.7
87 | 31-14]| 58 | 45-8 | 29 | 71.5 |
86 | 31.2 || 57 | 46.7 || 28 | 72.3
85 | 31-4 | 56 | 47-5 || 27 | 72.8
84. | 31-5. || 55 | 48-4 || 26 | 73.8
83 | 31-7 || 541 49-2 || 25 | 74.5
82 | 32 153 | 50.2 24 | 45.4
PT Nestes2reled 20a) kod | 23 | 75.9
Bo | 32.6 || 534 52.4 || 22 |76.5
79 | 32-9 || 50 | 52-9 | 20 | 77-2
78 | 33-2 || 49 52.6 We2Gul- 77.6
77 | 33-7 || 48 | 54-7 |) 19 | 78-3
76 | 34-1 || 47 | 55-6 || 18 | 78.9
75 | 34-5 | 46 | 56-4 | 17 | 79-4
74] 35 || 45.) 57-5 | 16) 79-9
73} 35-5 || 44.| 58-4 | 15 | 80.4
72 | 36 43 | 59-4 | 14 | 80.8
71 | 36.6 }} 42.| Go.3 || 13 | $1.3
70 | 37-2 |j 41 61.2 |) 12 | 83.7
69 | 37-3 | 40 ) 62 TT OZ
68 | 38.4 || 39 | 63 |] 10 | 82.3
67 | 39.1 || 38 |} 63-9 || 9 )} 82.7
66 | 39-7 || 37 63.8 | 8 82.9
65 | 49-4 |) 36 | 65.7 | Phat ReRy
64 | 41.2 35 | 66.6 | 6 | 83.4
63 | 41-9 |) 34 67-4 || 5 | 83.6
162 | 42-7 WY sae 6e.4 lO 84

In forming this table, Mr. Kirwan fought for a ftandard
fituation, with whofe temperature, in every latitude, we
may compare and appreciate the temperature of all other
fituations in the fame latitudes, on water only. Accord-
ingly, he chofe that fituation for a ftandard, which is moft
free from any befide the moft permanent caufes of alteration,
viz. that part of the Atlantic that lies between the 8oth
degree of northern, and the 45th degree of fouthern lati-
tude, and extending weftward as far as the gulf ftream, and
to within a few leagues of the coaft of America; and all
that part of the Pacific ocean, reaching from N. lat. 45° to
S. lat. 40° from the zoth to the 275th degree of longitude;
ealt from London, which is by far the greater part of the
furface of the globe. Within this fpace the mean annual
temperature is as expreffed in the tables and the author has
added the temperature of latitudes beyond 807 in the nor-
thern hemifphere, though not ftri€ily within the ftan-
dard.

Mr. Kirwan has alfo attempted to afeertain the mean
monthly temperature of the ftandard ocean. With this
view he ftates, that in eyery latitude, the mean temperature
of the month of April feems to approach very nearly to the
mean annual heat of that latitude ; and as far as heat de-
pends on the action of the folar rays, the mean heat of
every month is as the mean altitude of the fun, or rather,
as the fine of the fun’s mean altitude during that month.
Hence to find the mean heat of May, fay, as the Ane of
the fun’s mean altitude in April isto the mean heat of April,
fo is the fine of the fun’s mean altitude in May to the mean

~

/

heat of May. By a fimilar procefs, the temperatures of
June, July, and Auguft may be found ; but this rule would
give the temperatures of the fucceeding months too low;
becaufe it does not comprehend the quantity of heat accruing
to the atmofphere by communication of tlie internal heat of
the globe, which in every latitude is nearly the fame as the
mean annual heat of that latitude. Hence the real tempe-
rature of thefe months mult be regarded as an arithmetical
mean between the aftronomical and tevreftrial heats. E. g.
In lat. 51°, the aftronomical heat of the month of Septem-
ber is 44.66°, and the mean annual heat is 52.4°; confe-

quently the real heat of this month is AeO4 S24 — 48.4,

which is more conformable to obfervation. Mr. Kirwan has
with great labour formed a table, {howing the monthly mean
temperature of the ftandard ocean from lat. 80°. to Jat. 10°
Hence he fhows, that the coldeft weather in all climates
prevails in the month of January; and that July is the
warmeit month in all latitudes above 48° ; but in lower lati-
tudes, Augult is generally the warmeit ; that December and
January, and alfo June and July, differ but little ; that
the differences between the hotteft and coldeit months, with-
in 20° of the equator, are inconfiderable, and that they in-
creafe as we recede from the equator ; that in the higheft
latitudes, we often meet with a heat of 75 or 80 degrees ;
that every habitable latitude enjoys for two months a heat

of 60 degrees at leaft, which feems to be neceffary for the
growth and maturity of corn; and that the quicknefs of ye-
getation in the higher latitudes proceeds from the duration
of the fun above the horizon; that as the cold of the higher
latitudes, and the heat of the lower, are moderated by the
vicinity of feas and mountains, thefe, inflead of being irre-
gular and fortuitous, may be regarded as a wife and benefi-
cial provilion of nature, in this refpeét as well as in many
others. Mr. Kirwan has alfo fhown, that the greateft cold
within the twenty-four hours generally happens half aa hour.
before fun-rife, in all latitudes; the greateit heat in all lati-
tudes between 60° and 45° is found about half paft two.
o’clock in the afternoon; between lat. 45° and 35°, at two
o’clock ; between lat. 35° and 25°, at half pait one ;. and
between lat. 25° and the equator, at one o’clock. On fea,
the difference between the heat of day and night is not fo
great as on land, particularly in low latitudes. i

TABLE exhibiting a Comparifon of the Temperature of —
Londou with that of other noted Places. f

Annual Jan. July.
Dyondonsinds= late | - | reoo | 1000 | 1000
Paris - care - - 1023 | 1040 | 1037
Edinburgh -— - - - 923 | 1o40 | 914
Berlin - - - - = 942 .
jSteckholm -— - - - 811 | 1583 | 964
\Peterfburgh - - =i hue 746 | 3590 | 1008
Vienna - - - - 987 | 1305 | ‘1037
Pekin - - = - - | 1067 | 1730°} 1283
Bourdeaux - - - - | 1090 | 925 | 1139
Montpelier - - - - | 1170 | 850 | 1196
Madeira - - - - 1319 | 559 | 1128-
Spanifh Town in Jamaica - 1557
Madras - - - - 1565 { 491] 1349

The firft column of this table exhinies the differences of
the annual temperature ; the fecond, that of January; and
the third that of July ; that of London, as the itandard,

being

ATMOSPHERE.

being eftimated at tooo. ‘The degree of cold is eftimated
in the fecond column, and the degree of heat in the firlt and
third.

A View of the Annual Temperature of different Places,
according to the Order of their Latitude.

Mean
North Longitude. | Annual
¥ | mat . Heat. |
a in Lapla - 70° 5° 36° |
ea in I auland | 60 2, 22°18'E, | 40
Peterfburgh = auth 59 56| 30 24 E. | 38.8
Upfal = hs |59 5t) 17 47 a | 41-88
Stockholin - ts 59 20| 18 E. [42-39 |
Solyfkamflci - 4 59 54 E. | | 36-2 |
Edinburgh = ~ 55 57 3 Ve | 47-7
Franeker - 5 53 5g ADE. 152.6 |
Berlin 2 a | 52 32| 13 31 E. | 49° |
Lyndon, in Rutland 152 30] oO 3 W.| 48.03
Leyden - 2 52 10) -4 32 E. | 52.25
London = © 5 31 [51-9 |
Dunkirk - = SIPOz| 2 #7) i | 54-9
Manheim - = Bows 7) *ol 2. 515
Rouen = 4 49°26" .1 W.| 51
Ratifbon - = 48 56| 12 05 E. | 49.35
Paris < 48 (5O)||\" a2) 25 sens 2
Troyes, in Champaigne 48 18) 4 10 E. | 53-17}
Vienna 48 12. 16 22 E. | 51.53
Dijon = i 47 19] 4 57 E..| 52.8
Nantes = - - 47 13] (1 28 Ee} 55.53
Poitiers - = 46 39| © 30 E. | 53.
Laufanne - = 46 31| 6 50 EF. | 48.87
Padua - . Ab 25) 8dow 52.2
Rhodez, in Guienne 45 21] 2 39 E. | 52.9
Bourdeaux ~ - 44 50] © 36 W.} 57.6
Montpelier = - - 43 36| 3 73 E. | 60.87
Marfeilles 2 43 19] 5 27 E. | 61.8
Mont Louis, in Rouklion 42 2 40 FE. | 44.5
a eae New En; B- } 42 25|.71. W.| 50.3
Philadelphia - 39 56| 75 09 W.| 52.5
Pekin - = 39 54] 116 29 W.| 55-5
Algiers - a BO. 4g. 2b En |t72
Grand Cairo 2 30 CBAs Oral aye)
Canton - - 23 113 Say Sere
Tivoli, in St. Domingo 19 74
Spanifh Town, in Jamaica | 18 15 | »76 38 W. | 81
Manilla - B x4 36/120 58 E. | 78.4
Fort St. George = 113 87 E. | 81.3
Ponticherry - ~- 12 67" NE SN88
South
Lat.
Falkland Iflands - EP 66 ~ W.1 47-4
pote nous na ay i- ib © 03] 77) 5O Wal. 6210-2 - - © 13] 77 50 W.| 62

As the earth is the chief fource of heat in the ambient
atmofphere, diftance from the earth is a fource of cold ;
and the greate/t cold muit prevail in the higheft regions of
the atmofphere, more efpecially as clear uncloudediair deems
to receive no heat from the rays‘of the fun, whether dire&
or refiected. Thus, if the focus of the molt powerful
burning glafs be direéted on mere air, it does not produce
the {malleit degree of heat, becaufe the air being tranfpa-
‘rent, a free pafiage is afforded to the fun’s rays. At the
level of the fea, the temperature correfponds to that of the
flandard ocean; but as we afcend above the level, the tem-

perature is gradually diminifhed ; but at a certain height
we arrive at the region of perpe Lust cor igelation, called "by
M. Bouguer “ the “tow ver term of congelation.”” The height
of this varies according to the latitude of the climate, and
at that height it conitantly freezes at night in every feafon.
At the equ nator it is at its ‘highest elevation ; andit defcend
towards the earth as we advance towards the poles. Oa
the fummit of Pinchinca, one of the Cordillerxs, immediately
under the line, M. Bonguer found the cold to extend from
7 to g degrees below the freezing point every morning be-
a fun-rife. _ He fixes the height of * the lower term of
congelation,’” Peover the tropics s, at an elevation of 15,577
feet ; but in lat. 28° he thinks that it fhould commence, in
fummer, at the heig ote t t of 133440 feet from the level of the
fea. At full grea ater hel ghts it never freezes, not becaufe
the cold decreatfes, but ecsaie vapours do not afcend fo
high : this height is called by M. Bouguer, “ the upper term
of congelation,” ” and he fixes it under the equator at the
height of 28,000 feet at moft. Mr. Kirwan thinks it of
importance to adjult the height of both thefe terms. To
this purpofe, he obferves, that under the coats the height
of both is nearly conftant ; but under other latitudes it is
variable both in fummer Bed winter, according to the degree
of heat which prevails on the furface of the earth. But as
there is a mean annual temperature peculiar to each latitude,
fo there is a mean height for each of thefe terms peculiar to
each latitude. And if we take the differences between the
mean temperatures of every latitude and the point of conge-
lation, it is evident that whatever proportion the difference
under the equator bears to the height of either of the
above terms, the fame proportion will the difference pecu-
liar to every other latitude bear to the height of thofe
terms. Thus, the mean heat of the equator being 84, the
difference of this and 32 is 52; and the mean heat of lat.
28° being 72° 3’, the eiiereyce between this and 32 is 40.3.
Then as 52 2: 15577 :: 40.3 : 12072. In this manner
Mr. Kirwan ealogaed the followi ing table.

Mean height | Mean baght }}
of the
Lower Term ee Be

of '

Mean height} Mean height

of the of the

Lowe: Term | Upper Term
of a of

Congelation. enon ation. Congelation. | Congelation.

Lat Feet. Feet. Lat. Feet. Feet.

o°| 15577 28000 | 45°) 7658 Lhe)

5 15457 27784." | 50 6260 11253

10 15067 | 27084 ||| -55 4912 8830

15 14498 | 26061 |) 60 2684. 6546
| 20 | 13719 | 24661 65 2516 4676

25. | 13030 | 23423 || 70) 1557 2809
| 30 | “11592 | 20838 | 7 748 1346
35 10664 19169 80 120 207
| 40 | 9016 | -'16207 | °

In this manner, the height of both terms of congelation
may be calculated in every latitude for every degree of heat
obferved at the furface of the earth, on which it evidently
depends; for when that is at 22°, the lower line of con-
gelation muft be alfo on the furface. Hence if the height
of the lower term of congelation in any latitude be known,
and alfo the general temperature at the furface of the earth,
the decrement of heat at any lower height may be found:
The heat is obferved to decreafe in afcending into the at-
mofphere nearly in an arithmetical progreffion: and thus,
having the firit and laft terms, if we make fo many terms in the
progreffion as there are hundreds of feet in the diftance of the
line of congelation, we fhall be able to determine the decre-

Kkz ment

ALT IEM) OPSER HE! R'E:

ment at each term.
ence between the heat at the furface and 32°; D =the
diftance of the lower line of congelation, in feet; » = the

D i
number of terms =——_; d=the firft decrement =—; and
100 n

R= the rank of any given term, whofe decrement is required.
Then the decrement at any given termis = Rd} and, fub-
tating this from the heat at the furface, we have the heat
at that given height. The temperature at the upper term
of congelation may be inveftigated in the fame manner, or
that of any other height in the atmoiphere, except over
mountains ; for the air over mountains is generally warmer
than air of the fame height over the fea or over plains.

Sometimes the temperature of the upper air is higher
than that of the lower, ticularly when a large mafs of
vapour is condenfed by elet 1cy 3 for no part of the
heat given out by that cante ; loit by communication
with air much colder, that whici yunds the condenfed
vapour muft be heated to a conhd rable degree. Air,
rendered opake by clouds, tranimits lefs, and abforbs
more light, and 1s therefore more heated than clear air.
Sometimes winds, in oppofite directions, and diferent tem-
peratures, flow at different heights, the uppermoilt being
often the. warmeft ; all which circumitances, efpecially m
cloudy weather, render all calculations of the height of the
terms of congelation on any particular day precarious,
though when they regard a particular month or feafon, they
may be fufficiently exact.

With regard to the effect of elevation on the temperature
of the atmofphere, we may obferve, that as heat is propa-
gated through the atmofphere, chiefly by contact and com-
munication with the earth, lofty mountains of limited furface
cannot warm it to any confiderable degree, as they receive
the fun’s rays more obliquely, and communicating lefs with
the common mafs of the earth, are lefs heated than plains.
Hence it happens that the fleepeit mountains are always
the coldeft. Indeed, the colduefs of the atmoiphere on the
tops of mountains has been afcribed, by M. Lambert and
M. De Lue, to the greater rarity of the igneous fluid, or ele-
mentary fire, in fuch elevated fituations, than on the plains.
M. Lambert is of opinion, that it is rarefied above by the
action of the air, and that it is condenfed below by its own
weight. Without abfolutely deciding the queition, he
feems inclined to admit the identity of fire and light.
M. De Luc compares elementary fire to a continuous fluid,
whofe parts are condenfed by being mutually compreffed :
and thongh-he denies that fire and light are the fame,
yet he fuppofes that light puts into motion the igneous
fluid contained in bodies, and that it ats with greater
force near the earth than at a diftance from its furface,
by means of this fluid, which he calls an heavy and elattic
one; by being more condenfed there than at a greater height.
M. Bouguer has demonttrated, by fimple and obyious prin-
ciples and facts, that in order to account for the diminu-
tion of heat on mountains, it is unneceflary. to recur
to ‘dubious hypothefis. In his account of what was ex-
perienced on the mountains of Peru, he fays, ‘it was
proper, in order to explain this fubject, to infift on the fhort
duration of the fun’s rays, which cannot {trike the different
fides Of mountains but for a few hours, and even this not
always. A horizontal plain, when the fun is: clear, is ex-
pofed at mid-day to the perpendicular and undiminifhed
action of thefe rays, while they fall but obliquely on a plain
not much inclined, or on the fides of a high pile of tteep
rocks. But let us conceive for a moment an infulated
point, half the height of the atmofphere, at a diftance from
all mountains as well as from the clouds which float in the

Let L=the entire decrement or differ-.

air. The more a medium is tranfparent, the lefs heat it
ought to receive by the immediate action of the fun. The
free paflage which a very tranfparent body allows to the
rays of light, fhows that its {mall particles are hardly
touched by them. Indeed what impreffion could they
make on it, when they pais through almoit without ob-
ftruction? ‘Light, when it confifts of parallel rays, does
not, by paffing through a foot of free atmofpheric air, near
the earth, lofe an hundred thoufandth part of its force.
From this we may judge how few rays are weakened, or
ean aét on this fluid, in their paflage through a firatum of
the diameter, not of an inch or line, but of a particle.
Yet the fubtilty and tranfparency are ftill greater at great
heights, as was obvious on the Cordilleras, when we looked
at diftant objects. Laftly, the groffer air is heated below
by the contact or neighbourhood of bodies of greater den-
fity than itfelf, which it furrounds, aud on which if refts 5
and the heat may be communicated by little and little to a
certain diftance, ‘The inferior paris of the atmofphere by
this means contract daily a very contiderable degree of heat,
and may receive it in proportion to its denfity or balk.
But it is evident that the fame thing cannot happen at the
difance of a league and an half or two leagues above the
furface of the earth, although the light there may be fomes
thing more ative. The air and the wind therefore muft
at this heicht be extremely cold, and colder in proportion to
the elevation.”’ ;

This theory is adopted by Sauffure, who has fuperadded
the following faét to prove, that the foree of the fun’s rays,
confidered abftra€tediy and independently of any sce
fource of cold, is no lefs powerful on mountains than on
plains; viz. that the power of burning lenfes and mirrors is
the fame at all heights. For afcertaming this fat, he pro-
cured a burning-glafs, fo weak in its effect, that at Geneva
it would juft fet fire to tinder. This glafs. was carriedta
the fummit of mount Saleve, 3000 feet high, and it there
produced the fame effcét, and even with greater eafe.
Hence he concluded, that the principal fource of cold on
the tops of mountains is their being perpetually furrounded
by an atmofphere, which cannot be much heated by the
rays of the fun, on account of its tranfparency, or by their
refle@ion from the earth, by reafon of its diftance; but he
wifhed alfo to know, whether the direét folar rays had the fame
power on the top of a high mountain as on the plain below,
whillt the body on which they acted was placed in fuch a
manner as to be unaffected by the furrounding air. With
this view he inftituted a fet of experiments, from which he
deduced the following conclufions ; viz, that a difference of
777 toifes in height diminifhes the heat wirich the-rays of
the fun are able to communicate to a body expofed to the
external air, 14° of the thermometer ; that it diminifhes the
heat of a body partially expofed, only 6 ; and*that it augs
ments by 1° the heat of a third body completely defended
from the air. Hence it appears, that the atmofphere coun-
teraéts the operation of the folar rays in producing heat,
by a power which is exerted at all diftances, from the fur-
face to the higher regions. From the experiments of ‘M.
Pigtet, to this aaretes it is inferred, that even in places ex«
pofed to the rays of the fun, the heat at five feet from the
ground.is greater only by 1° or 2° than at fifty feet above
the furface, although the ground was at that time 15° or 20?
warmer than the air immediately in contaét with it. This
difference, however, {mall as it is, does not obtain in higher
regions; for if it did, the coldon the top of the mountain of
Saleve, 3000 feet above the lake of Geneva, would be 60°
greater than at the foot of it ; whereas it really is only 10°.
In the night the cafe is reverfed ; for the ftratum of pies

8 ve

A cT YMNOyS) PoOHVE TRAE.

five fect from the ground, was found by M. Piétet to be
colder than that at 50°. Befides, different ftrata are found
to poflefs very different and variable degrees of cold, without
any regard to the altitude or depreflion of their fituation.
In 1780, Dr. Wilfon of Glafgow (Phil. Tranf. for 1780,
p- 467.; and for 1781, p. 368.) found a remarkable cold clofe
to the furface of the ground; fo that the thermometer, when
laid on the furface of the {now and hoar-froft, funk many de-

rees lower than one fufpended twenty-four feet above it.
Bronce it has been concluded, that fnow, falling from the
higher regions of the atmofphere, is generally colder than the
lower air. :

With refpe& to the precife effec of elevation, Mr. Kirwan
found it to be nearly as follows: when the elevation is mo-
derate and gradual, fuch as that of the interior parts of
moft countries very diftant from the fea, its effeéts are fo
blended with thofe of diftance from the ftandard ocean, that
the fame allowance in the diminution of temperature is to
be made for both. By a gradual elevation, he means fuch
as rifes at a lefs rate than fix feet per mile, counting from
the neareft confiderable fea. If the eleyation proceeds at a
greater rate, then for every 200 feet of elevation, the annual
temperature of the ftandard mutt be diminifhed in that lati-
tude, as follows:

If the elevation be at the rate of

6 feet per mile = = = + of a degree.
7 feet = 2 = = 4

13 feet = = = - ag =

15 feet, or tpwards = 2 x

" For every 50 miles diflance from the ftandard ocean, the
mean annual temperature in different latitudes muit be de-
prefled or raifed, nearly at the following rate:

From lat. 70° to lat. 35° cooled, § of a degree.

=) x
35 a 5 %
°° - - fo)
5 25° warmed - +
°
20 - - 4
109 . i;

See on this febject Kirwan’s Eftimate of the Temperature of
different Latitudes, 1787, paffim.

Tt has been obferved, that in clear weather, though the
furface of the earth be then moft liable to be heated by the
fun, yet after fun-fet, and during the night, the air is coldeft
near the ground, and particularly in the vallies. ‘The expe-
riments made on this fubjeét for a whole year, by Mr. James
Six, may be feen in the feventy-eighth volume of the Philo-
fophical TranfaGions, but our limits will not allow our re-
citing them. The conclufions deduced from them are
thefe ; that a greater diminution of heat frequently takes
place near the earth in the night-time, than at any altitude
in the atmofphere within the limits of the writev’s inquiry ;
that is, 220 feet from the ground ; and that at {uch times the

reatelt degrees of cold are always met with neareft the fur-
he of the earth. This is a conftant operation of nature,
under certain circumftances of the atmofphere, and occurs at
all feafons of the year; and this difference never happens in
any confiderable degree, except when the air is ftill, and the
fky perfetly unclouded. The refrigeration was not at all
impeded, but rather promoted, by the moifteft vapour, as
dews and fogs. In very feyere frofts, when the air fre-
quently depefits a quantity of frozen vapour, it is commonly.
found greatcit ; but the excefs of heat, which in the day was
found in the loweft Ration in fummer, was diminifhed in
winter almoft to nothing. The fact of the mercury’s fink-
ing in a thermometer, included in a receiver, when the air
begins to be raretied, has been ufually attributed, not to any
degree of «old thus produced, but to the fudden expanfion of

a

the bulb of the thermometer, in confequence of the removal
of the atmofpheric preffure ; but from fome experiments of
Dr. Darwin (fee Philof. 'Tranf, vol. 78. p. 43. &c.) it ap-
pears, that the atmofphere always becomes warm by compref-
fion, and cold by dilatation from a comprefled ftate. "This
ingenious author mentions a curious phenomenon obferved in
the fountain of Hiero, conttruéted on a very large feale in
the Chemnicenfian mines in Hungary. In this machine the
air, in a large veffel, is compreffed by a column of water 260
feet high ; a flop-cock is then opened ; and as the air iffues
out with great vehemence, and in confequence of its previous
condenfation becomes immediately much expanded, the
moifture contained in it is not only precipitated, as in the ex-
haufted receiver, but falls down in a fhower of fnow, with ici.
cles adhering to the nofel of the cock. See Phil. Tranf, for
1761, vol. 52. From this phenomenon, as well as from his
experiments, Dr. Darwin-infers, that there is good reafon for
concluding, that in all circumftances where aiis mechani-
cally expanded, it becomes capable of attracting the fluid
matter of heat from other bodies in conta& with it. (See
Catroric.). “Now (fays he), as the vaft region of air
which furrounds our globe is perpetually moving along its
furface, climbing up the fides of mountains, and defcending
into the vallies ; as it paffes along, it muft be perpetually
varying its degree of heat, according to the elevation of the
couatry it traverfes ; for, in rifing to the fummits of moun-
tains, it becomes expanded, having fo much of the preffure
ef the fuperincumbent air taken away; and when thus
expanded, it attra¢ts or abforbs heat from the mountains in
contiguity with it; and, when it defcends into the vallies,
and is again compreffed into iefs compais, it again gives out
the heat it has acquired to the bodies it becomes in contaé
with. ‘The fame thing mutt happen in refpect to the higher
regionsoithe atmmofphere, which are regions of perpetual froit,
as has lately been difcovered by the aerial navigators. When
large diftriGs of air, from the lower patts of the atmofphere,
are raifed two or three miles hish, they become fo much ex-
paaded by the great diminution of the preflure over them,
and thence become fo cold, that hail or fnow is produced by
the precipitation of the vapour: and as there is, in thefe
high regions of the atmofphere; nothing ele for the ex-
panded air to acquire heat from after it has parted with its
vapour, the fame decree of cold continues, till the air, ou
defeending to the earth, acquires its former ftate of cons
denfation and of warmth.

The Andes, almoft under the line, refts its bafe on burn-

ing fands ; about its middle height is a molt pleafant and
temperate climate covering an extenfive plain, on which is
built the city of Quito; while its forehead is encircled with
eternal fnow, perhaps coeval with the mountain. Yet, ac-
cording to the accounts of Don Ulloa, thefe three dif-
cordant climates feldom encroach much on each other’s
territories. The hot winds below, if they afcend, become
cooled by their expanfion; and hence they cannot affect the
fnow upon the fummit; and the cold winds, that {weep
the fummit, become condenfed as they defcend, and of
temperate warmth before they reach the fertile plains of
Quito.
. Vhe temperature of the atmofphere, and the viciffitudes
of its heat and cold, are fubjeét to a variety of irregularities,
which no theory that has yet. been propofed is altogether
fufficient toexplain. For other obfervations on this fubje@,
fee the articles CLoups, Cotp, ConGeuation, vapora-
Tron, Hair, Heat, Hycromirer, Merrorotocy,
Rain, Snow, Wearuer, Winp, &c.

AtmosPHERE, Ufes of the. "Vhefe are fo numerous and
¥arlous, that it would require a very minute and extended

detail

ATMOSPHERE.

detail to recite even the principal of them. Of its indif-
pendile neceflity to the exiftence of animal and vegetable
ife, inftances frequently occur in the courfe of this work.
Animals and vegetables, in their immenfe variety, and from
their ftate of eggs and feeds to their fulleft maturity, owe
the commencement and continuance of their being to the
atmofphere that furrounds them. How much it conduces
to the fertility of the earth, by means of the parts that
compofe it, and to the convenience and comfort of man-
kind, by furnifhing a fit repofitory for the vapours that
defcend in refrefhing fhowers, and for the winds that form
an intercourfe of fociety and commerce with diftant nations,
and by affording thofe reflections and refraétions of light
which fhed luttre over furrounding objeéts, and which form
pleafing tranfitions from darknefs to day, and from day to
night, by means of twilight, it is altogether needlefs to
f{pecify. The fubjeét would afford fcope for much decla-
mation; ard we might derive from it arguments that would
imprefs a thoughtful mind with juft and’ honourable fenti-
ments of the creator. How neceflary it is to the various
operations of arts and fcience, as well as to the comman
purpofes of life, will amply appear under the feveral articles
which it would be almoft fuperfluous to mention. See
Air, and the feveral articles to which we have already
referred.

ArTMosPHERE, Method of navigating in the. See ArRo-
STATION.

ArmosPHERE of the Sun, Moon, Planets, and Comets. See
the feveral articles.

ArmospHEre of folid or confiftent Bodies, is a kind of
{phere formed by the effuvia, or minute corpufcles emitted
from them. Mr. Boyle endeavours to fhow that all bodies,
even the hardeit and moft coherent, as gems, &c. have their
atmofpheres. See Gem.

ATMosPHERE, in EleGricity, denotes that medium which
was conceived to be diffufed-over the furface of eletrified
bodies, and to confiit of efluvia iffuing from them: whereby
other bodies immerged in it become endued with an elec-
tricity contrary to that of the body to which the atmofphere
belongs. This was firft taken notice of ata very early period
in the hiftory of this {cience, by Otto Guericke, and after-
wards by the academicians de/ Cimento, who contrived to
render the eleCtric atmofphere vifible, by means of {moke
attraéted by, and uniting itfelf to, a piece of amber, and
gently rifing from it, and vanifhing'as the amber cooled.

3ut Dr. Franklin exhibited this eleétric atmofphere with
great advantage, by dropping rofin on hot iron plates held
under bodies eleGrified, from which the fmoke rofe and
encompafied the bodies, giving them a very beautiful ap-
pearance. He made. other obiervations on thefe atmo-
ipheres ; he took notice that they and the air did not feem
to exclude one another; that they were immoveably re-
tained by the bodies from which they iffued ; and that the
fame body, in different circumitances of dilatation and con-
traction, is capable of receiving or retaining more or lefs
of the electric fluid on its furtace. However, the theory
of electrical atmofpheres was not fufficiently explained and
underftood for a confiderable time; and the inveftigation
led to many very curious experiments and obfervations.
Mr. Canton took the lead, and was followed by Dr. Frank-
lin; Meff. Wilcke and Epinus profecuted the inquiry, and
completed the difcovery. ‘The experiments of the two
former gentlemen prepared the way for the conclufion
that was afterwards drawn from them by the latter, though
they retained the common opinion of eleétric atmofpheres,
and endeayoured to explain the phenomena by it. The
eonclufion was, that the eleftric Huid, when there is a re-

dundancy of it in any body, repels the eleétric fluid in any
other body, when they are brought within the fphere of
each others influence, and drives it into the remote parts of
the body, or quite out of it, if there be any outlet for that
purpofe.

By atmofphere, M. Epinus fays, no more is to be un-
derftood than the {phere of action belonging to any body,
or the neighbouring air eleétrified by it. Sig. Beccaria
concurs in the fame opinion, that electrified bodies have no
other atmofphere than the electricity communicated to the
neighbouring air, and which goes with the air, and not
with the electrified bodies. And Mr. Canton likewife,
having relinquifhed the opinion that ele¢trical atmoipheres
were compofed of effluvia from excited or eleCtrified bodies,

_maintained that they only refult from an alteration in the

{tate of the eleétric fluid contained in, or belonging to, the
air furrounding thefe bodies toa certain diftance; for in=
ftance, that excited glafs repels the eleCtric fluid from it,
and confequently beyond that diftance makes it more denfe;
whereas excited wax attraéts the elefiric fluid exifting in
the air nearer to it, making it rarer than it was et
In the courfe of experiments that were performed on this
occafion, Meff. Wilcke and Epinus fucceeded in charging
a plate of air, by fufpending large boards of wood covered
with tin, with the flat fides parallel to one another, and
at fome inches afunder ; for they found, that, upon ele¢tri-
fying one of the boards pofitively, the other was always
negative; and a fhock was produced by forming a com-
munication between the upper and lower plates. Beccaria
has largely confidered the fubje@ of electric atmofpheres,
in his Artificial Ele@tricity, p. 179, &c. Eng. edit. Dr.
Prieftley’s Hift. of Ele&tricity, vol. ii. fet. 5. Cavallo’s.
Eledtricity, vol. i. p. 241. vol. ii. p. 282. See ConDENSERy
and Conpuctor, Luminous ; and Experiments in Evec-
TRICITY.

AtTMosPHERE, Magnetic, denotes the {phere within which
the virtue of the magnet, &c. acts.

ArmosPHERICAL Logarithmic. See LocartTHMIc.

ATNAH, or Carrier Indians, in Geography, a tribe of
Indians in the north-weft continent of America, inhabiting’
the banks of the Columbia river, fouth of the Nagailer
Indians, about N. lat. 52°, and W. long. 122°. The Atnah
language, of which Mr. Mackenzie obtained fome fpeci-
mens, has no affinity to any with which he was acquainted.
Mackenzie’s Journal of a Voyage through the N. W. Con-
tinent of America, p. 258.

ATOM, formed of the privative z, and zzpyw, J divide, in
Philofophy, a part or particle of matter, fo minute as to be
indivifible.

Atoms are properly the minima natura, the laft or ultimate
particles into which bodies are ‘divifible; and are conceived
as the firft rudiments, or component parts of all phydical
magnitude ; or the pre-exiftent and incorruptible matter
whereof bodies were formed.

The notion of atoms arifes hence, that matter is not divi-
fible in infinitum. And hence the Peripatetics are led to deny
the reality of atoms, together with that of mathematical
points: an atom, fay they, either has parts, orit has none;
if it hath none, it is a mere mathematical pot; if it
hath, then do thefe parts alfo confiit of others, and fo on <o
infinity.

But this is to recede from the genuine charaéter of atoms,
which are not efteemed indivifible, becaufe of their want of
bignefs, or parts (for all phyfical magnitude muft have three
dimenfions, length, breadth, and thicknefs, and all extenfion
is divifible) ; but they are indivifible on account of their foli-
dity, hardnefs, and impenetrability, which preclude all srl

OR

a eT

» &T O

fion, and leave no vacancy for the admiffion of any foreign
force to feparate or difumte them.

As atoms are the firft matter, it is neceffary they fhould
be indifloluble, in order to their being incorruptible. Sir
Tfaac Newton adds, that it is alfo required they be immu-
table, in order to the world’s continuing in the fame ftate,
and bodies being ef the fame nature now as formerly. To
this purpofe he obferves, at the clofe of his inquiry into the
nature, laws, and conttitution of matter, that God in the
beginning created matter in folid, maffive, hard, impene-
trable, moveable particles, incomparably harder than any of
the porous bodies compounded of them; nay, fo hard as
neyer to wear or break in pieces; no human power being
able to divide what God made one at the creation, while
thefe particles continue entire, they may compofe bodies of
one and the fame texture in all ages; but if they fhould
wear away or break in pieces, the nature of things depend-
ing upon them would be changed. See Divisipiviry, and
Sovipiry.

Hence the ancients were alfo led to maintain atoms
eternal: becaufe what is immutable, muft be eternal.
They alfo added gravity; and, in confequence thereof,
motion to their atoms: and farther obferving that atoms
thus falling perpendicularly, could not join or unite toge-
ther; they fuperadded a fortuitous or fide motion, and
furnifhed them with certain hooked parts, in order to enable
them to catch and hang the better together.—And from a
cafual and fortuitous jumble of thefe atoms, they fuppofed
the whole univerfe to be formed.

ATOMARIA, in Canchelocy, a fpecies of Cyprma,
about half an inch in length. This hell is oblong, frowy-

white, dotted with brown, and at each end two duflcy marks.

Martini, Gmel. &c.

—Acromartia, in Lntomolocy, afpecies of Conors ( Myopa,
Fabr.), found im Europe. It is greyifh, with an ovate ab-
domen ; wings brown, crowded with white dots. Gmelin.

“Arqmaria, a fpecies of PHryGanea found in Ger-
many. ‘The wings are pale-grey, with numerous black
dots.

Aromarta, a {pecies of PHarazna ( Gecmetra) that inha-
bits Enrope. The wings are entirely yellowith, ftreaked and
f{peckled with brown. Gmelin, &c. This is Phalzena pennata
of Scopeli, and Phalenaartemifiaria. Phalzna glarearia of
Wien. Schmetterl. is fuppofed to be a variety of this fpecies
by Gmelin. The larva from which this moth is produced
is fmooth and greyifh, with numerous ferruginous interrup-
ted lines, and two tubercles on the pofterior part; feeds on
centaurea feabiofa.

AromariA, a fpecies of NoronecrA, about the fize of
a loufe, and inhabits the river Volchova in Ruffia. It
is white ; above and wing-cafes pale-greyifh ; wings milky.
Pallas, It.

Avromaria, a fpecies of SirpHa, (Spheridium Fabr-.)
This infeét is fmooth and black ; wing-cafes marked with
crenate ftrie; legs pale. Fabr. Gmel. &c. A native of
Europe.

Aromartvs,a fpecies of Scarasazus (Melolentha) that

Anhabits the cape of Good Hope. In fize and appearance
this infect refembles S.farinofus. It is powdered with
white ; thorax canaliculated and black: wing-cafes brown ;
abdomen white, with lateral black dots.

Aromarius, a fpecies of Curcutio found in Europe.
This infect is brown; wing-cafes {triated, with the intertti-
ces fmooth, finely pundtated, and fprinkled with fpecks of
greyifh brown hairs; fhanks rufous. Muf. Lefk. p. 18.
n. 380. Lin. Another curculio atomarius occurs m Linn.

Muf. Lefk. p. 19, 399-) and which does not feem to differ

A(T''O

fpecifically from the foregoing: C. atomarius fufcus, elytris
{triatis; atomis grifeis ibis:

Aromarius, a {pecies of Caranus that inhabits Eu-
rope. It is apterous, black, and glabrous; wing-cafes
rather f{mooth, with minute, fcattered, confluent drops of a
purple colour; margin purple. Muf. Leflc.

Avromarius, afpecies of Cimex (Rotunddlus feet. ), va=
ried with grifeous and brown; wings white, dotted with
brown. Fabricius.

ATOMELLA, a fpecies of Puavana (Tinea). ‘The
antenne are of a moderate length ; firlt wings yellowifh,
fpeckled with ferruginous; two ferruginous dots in the
difk, and a yellow marginal fpot. Linn. &c. Inhabits
Europe.

ATOMICAT. Puitosorny, denotes the doétrine of
atoms or a method of accounting for the origin and for-
mation of all things, from the fuppofition of atoms, enidued
with gravity and motion. Y

The atomic phyfiology, according to the account given
of it by Dr. Cudworth (Intellectual Sy{tem, b.1. c. 1. VOL. 1.
p- 7. Birch’s ed.), fuppofes “that body is nothing elfe but
Nesatey ev itu, that is, extended bulk ; and refolves there-
fore, that nothing is to be attributed to it, but what is in-
cluded in the nature and idea of it, viz. more or Jefs magni-
tude, with divifibility into parts, figure, and polition, toge-
ther with motion or reft, but fo as that no part of body can
ever move itfelf, but is always moved by fomething elfe. -And
confequently it fuppofes, that there is no need of any thing,
elfe befides the fimple elements of magnitude, firure, fite, and
motion, which are all clearly intelligible as different modes of
extended fubftance, to folve the corporeal phenomena by 3
and therefore, not of any {ubftantial forms, diftinét from the
matter, nor of any other qualities really exifting in the bo-
dies without, befides the refults or aggregates of thole fim-
ple elements, and the difpofition of the infenfible parts of
bodies in refpeé of figure, fite, and motion ; nor of any in-
tentional fpecies or fhews, propagated from the objects to
our fenfes ; norlaftly, of any other kind of motion or action
really diftm@ from local metion, fuch as generation. and al-
teration, they being neither intelligible as modes of extended
fubftance, nor any ways neceflary. Forafmuch as the forms:
and qualities of bodies may well be conceived to be nothing
but the refult of thofe fimple elements of magnitude, figure,
fite, and motion, varioufly combined together, in the fame
manner as fyllables and words, in great variety, refult from
the different combinations and conjunétions of a few letters,
or the fimple elements of fpeech ; and the corporeal part of
fenfation, and particularly that of vilion, may be folved only
by local motion of bodies, that is, either by corporeal efiu-
via (called fimulachra, membrana, and exuvie;) ftreaming con-
tinnally from the furface of the objects, or rather, as the
later and mare refined anatomifts conceived, by preffure made
from the object to the eye, by means of light in the medium,
So that ws dic Boxrneres Te rude ss p95 70 rsmopevoy AVY YEN~
ade; the fenfe taking cognizance of the objet by the fub-
tle interpofed medium, that is tenfe, and {tretched, (thruift-
ing every way from it upon the optic nerves), deth by that
as it were by a ‘laff touch it. Agait, generation and cor-
ruption may be fuiliciently explained by concretion and fe-
cretion, or local motion, without fubftantial forms and: qua--
ities. And, laftly, thofe fenfible ideas of light and colours;
heat and cold, fweet and bitter, as they are diftinét things
from the figure, fite, and motion of the infenfible parts of
bodies, feem plainly to be nothing elfe but our own fancies,
paffions, and fenfations, however they be vulgarly miftaken
for qualities in the bodies without us.” f

As to the origin and hiftory of this atomical eva

r, Cud-

ATO

Dr. Cudworth obferves, that though adopted by Epicurus,
it has been commonly afcribed to Democritus, who was
prior both to Ariftotle and Plato; but Laertius reprefents
Leucippus, who was fomewhat feniorto Demoeritus, as the
first iaventor of it. Ariftotle, who often mentions this phi-
lofophy, commonly afcribes it to Leucippus and Democritus
jointly. Plato refers its original to Protagoras, who was
an auditor of Democritus. ‘ However,” fays the learned
Cadworth (ubi fupra p. 12.), ‘ we are of opinion that nei-
ther Democritus, nor Protagoras, nor Leucippus, was the
fir: inventor of this philofophy 3 and our realon’is, becaufe
they were all three of them atheifts (though Protagoras

alone was banifhed for that crime by the Athenians); and_

we cannot think that any atheists could be the inventors of
it; and much lefs that it was the genuine {pawn and brood
of atheifm itfelf, as fome conceit, becaufe however theie
atheifts adopted it for themfelves, endeavouring to ferve
their turns of it, yet if rightly underitood, it is the moft ef-
fetual engine againit atheiim that can be.’? This learned
writer alleres alfo hiftorical probability for the opinion
that this philofophy was much more ancient than either
Democritus or Leucippus. To this purpofe he obferves,
that Pofidoaius, as we learn from Empiricus and Strabo,
avowed it for an old tradition, that the firit mventer of this
atomical philofophy was one Mofchus, a Pheenician, who,
according to Strabo, lived before the Trojan-war, and who
has been fuppofed by fome perfons to be the fame with
Mofes the Jewish lawgiver. See Moscuvs.

Dr. Cudworth further maintains, that Pythagoras, who is
thought to have coaverfed at Sidon with the Jewith philofo-
phers, prieits, and poets, who were the fucceffors of Moles, to
have borrowed many things from the Jews, and to have tranf-
lated them into his philoiophy, was not unacquainted with the
atomical phyfiology; and he therefore concludes, that the phi-
lofophy of Democritus was Pythagorean; and thephilofophy
of Pythagoras, Democritical or atomical. Accordingly, he
alleges the authority of Ecphantus, a famous Pythagorean,
and other teftimonies, to prove that the Monads of Pytha-

oras. were nothing elfe but corporeal atoms. In or-

er to reconcile Ariftotle with himfelf, and to preferve the
credit of Laertius, both of whem afcribe this philofophy to
Democritus and Leucippus, as its firft authors, Cudworth
fuggefts, that though the atomical phyficlogy was in ufe
long before Democritus. and Leucippus, yet thefe two with
their confederate atheifts, of whom Protagoras feems to have
been one, were undoubtedly the-firlt ‘that ever made this
phyfiology to be a complete and entire-philofophy by itfelf,
fo as to derive the original of all things in the whole univerfe
from feafelefs atoms, that had nothing but figure aad motion,
together with vacuum, and made up fuchafyftemorf it, as from
whence it would follow there could not be any God, not fo
muchasa corporealone.”? Theatomical philofophy, accord-
ing to this learned writer, exifted before and without athe-
iim; and Democritus and Leucippus are to be regarded
as the firft inventors or founders. of the atomical philofophy
“‘ atheized and adulterated.”? Confequently there have
been two forts of atomiits in the world ; the one atheiftical,
the other religious. The firft and moft ancient atomitts,
holding incorporeal fubftance, ufed that phyfiology in a
way of fubordination to theology and metaphydics. The
others, allowing no other fubftance but body, made fenfelefs
atoms and figures, without any mind and underftandine,
(i.e. without any. God) to be the original of all things ;
which latter is that, which was vulgarly known bythe name of
atomical philofophy, of which Democritus and Leucippus
were the eure Dr. Cudworth has fhown, by a variety
of citations from ancient writers, that the atomifts before

“FQ ©

Democritus did generally join theology and -incorporcalifm
with their atomical phyfiology ; and he has alfo proved by
the moft conclufiye reafoning, that atheifm, fo far from bein
a natural and neceflary appendage to atomifm, is totally dif-
tint from it ; that there is, neither in reafon nor in faét, any
inconfiitency betwixt the atomical phyfiology and theology;
and that there is, on the contrary, a moft natural cognition
or alliance’ between them. Ubi fupra, p. 27, &c. The
atomic philofophy of Democritus and Leucippus was culti-
vated and improved by Epicurus, though he would not
acknowledge that he had borrowed his hypothefis from
any ; and irom him it obtained the denomination of the
Epicurean philofophy. See the articles Dremocrrrus
Levcirpus, Epicurnus, and Eprcurean Philcfophy.
See alfo Cosmocony.

The opinion of Dr. Cudworth with refpe& to the anti-
quity of the atomic philofophy has been contefted by fome
later writers. The learned bifhop Warburton, in his “ Di-
vine Legation of Moles,” admits it as a fettled point, that
Democritus and Leucippus were the authors of this phy-
fiology: and Brucker (Hift. Philof. by Enfield, vol. i.
p- 60.) thinks, that the fingle evidence of Pofidonius, the
ftoic, who lived fo many ages after the time of Mofchus,
to whom Cicéro allows little credit, and of whofe authority
Strabo-and Sextus Empiricus, who refer to him, intimate
fome fufpicion, is ‘too feeble to fupport the whole weight
of this opinion. But the circumiftance, fays this writer,
which moft of all invalidates it, is, that the method of
phiiofophizing by hypothetis or fy{tem, which was followed
by the Greek philofophers, was inconfiltent with the genius
and character of the barbaric philofophy, which confifted
in fimple affertion, and reliedentirely upon traditional au-
thority. He adds, that the part of the hiftory of Pytha-
goras which relates to this fubjeét, has been involved in ob-
icurity by the later Platonifts; and that neither the do@rine
of monads, nor any of thofe fyftems which are faid to have
been derived from Mofchus, are the fame with the atomic doc-
trine of Epicurus. He therefore concludes, that, whatever
credit the corpufcular fyftem may derive from other fources,
it has no claim to be confidered as the ancient doétrine of
the Pheenicians. We incline however to admit the teftimo-
nies and arguments of Dr. Cudworth ; and with the diftine-
tion which he has adopted between the atomic philofophy
derived from tradition before the time of Democritus and
Leucippus, and that fyitem of materialifm and atheifm
connected with it by their fpeculations, and with this. re-
proach annexed to it tranfmitted to Epicurus and his fol-
lowers, by whom it was 2gain modified, it feems mof pro-
bable, that the atomic philofophy was not firft invented by
thefe fpeculative philofophers, but derived by tradition

The atomic philofophy has
affendt

philofopher ought to have done, that every ;
living body is alive, that every atom of a fenfitive body is en-
dued

AL O

dued withfenfe, and that the underftanding refides in anatom ;
‘though they differ as to the foul and knowledge, whether
they confilt in a ‘ngle atom, or a collection of feveral.
Maimon. in More Nevochim. c. 73.

The atomic fyttem, adopted by modern philofophers,
and extended by Le Sage and De Luc to great fubtleties,
fuppofes that matter fills its {pace merely. -by its exittence ;
that it is abfolutely impenetrable ; that its divifion can be
carried to a certain length only, ending in atoms, which,
though extended, are not further divifible; that there are
empty interftices between the atoms ; that the particles of
elaftic fluids, as air, vapours, caloric, &c. do not touch each
other, and confequently they form difcrete fluids, as they
are called; and that the rarity or denfity of a body depends
folely on the quantity of empty interftices, in a certain
volume of {pace occupied by the matter conftituting that
body. In thefe refpects, this fyftem is oppofed to that
denominated the dynamic fy{tem, illuftrated by Kant in
his “* Metaphyfical Elements of Natural Philofophy.’’ See
Dynamic Syflem.

A late writer bas diftinguifhed between common, and philo-
Sophie atomijis. Under the former appellation he compre-
hends thofe who think with the vulgar, not only that matter
exifts externally, but that it really poffeffes all thofe proper-
ties which ftrike the fenfes; fuch as cold, heat, colour,
found, &c. Under the general name of philofophic atomitts,
he comprifes all thofe philofophers, who admit the eflential
properties of matter, fuch as extenfion, impenetrability,
cohefion, and mobility, and who reject the real or external
exiltence of thofe properties that are called fenfible qualities.
Thefe latter atomilts he further diftributes into two claffes:
viz. fimple,and mixed : fimple or pure atomilts acknowledge
extention and impenetrability alone, and the attributes necef-
farily arifing from thefe, vis inertiz and cohefion. Accord-
ing to them, matter is merely paffive, endued with no in-
ternal powers; and cohefion, though not neceffarily con-
tained m the idea of matter, is eflential to the idea of exteri-
fion; fo that all changes are eifected by powers foreign to
matter: in nature, the power of God: in creatures,
the powers of the foul. Mixed atomitts, or Dynamifts,
place powers in matter itfelf, which in their opinion belong
to it, and inhere in it in fuch a manner that they are inde-
pendent of {piritual fubitance, and are either formed in
bodies or fuperadded as attributes of material exiftences.
Of this kind are gravity, elafticity, irritability, attraction,
sepulfion, &c. Thefe powers operate according to the
organization of bodies. ‘To atomiits of each clafs this
writer oppofes the /deali/ls, who entertain the fame opinions
concerning the primary qualities of bodies, which are held
by atomitts concerning the fecondary. As the latter maintain
that no light can exilt without being feen, or found without
being heard, fo the former aflert that neither impenetra-
bility nor extenfion can have place independently of our
conceptions. ‘This opinion, which feems to have been coun-
tenanced by Plato, is fully developed in the fyftem of
Berkeley. Malebranche is placed by this writer among
the Idealifts, as his mathematical peints, conftituent of ex-
¢enfion, vanifh into nothing when we attempt to analyfe
them. Locke, by fuppofing that matter may be made
capable of thought, approaches to the Dynamuts. Leibnitz
and Wolf may be deemed Idealiils, fince, in reality, the
allow of no material exiftence out of the mind; for although
the monads are the occafion of our ideas, yet thefe ideas
have nothing in common with the object. Kant, who
derives no fenfations from the attention of the foul to real
exiftences, though he acknowledges that our ideas are in
fome other manner excited, by fomething exilting out

Vou. Ill. ‘

/ c

ATO

of the mind, is placed alfo under the clafs of Idealifls;
as, according to him, all our oblervations and determi-
nations are founded on appearances. Of Dr. Prielticy
this anonymous writer remarks, that, although he makes
the foul material, he makes matter {piritual: and there-
fore he is ranked with the mixed atomifls. See account
of Prize Differtations, by Teyler’s Theological
yol. x. in Monthly Review Enlarged, vol: ni. p. 483, é&c.

ATOMOS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Cancer found
in runniag water in Murope. It islinear; hands four, with
afingle fang; legs fourteen, with two oval vefitles on each
fide between the fourth and fifth pair.

ATOMUS, a fpecies of IcuxnEumon, varied with pale
and brown. Thisinfe€t, Gmelininforms us, inhabits Upfal;
is fmaller than a mite, and fearcely to be diftinguifhed ex-
cept when it is in motion.

ATONEMENT, in Theology, is a term that has been
varioufly explained and applied by divines of different op:-
nions. However, there are three principal fenfes, in which,
with fubordinate modifications, the term hasbeea ufually un-
derftood. ‘The firitis,that which has been adopted by thofe
who are commonly called Calvinifts ; and it fuppofes, that
the death and fufferings of Jefus Chriit, partaking of the
divine and human nature in one perfon, being with refpect
to the former equal to the Father, were fuch, confidered
in their degree andvalue, as to be a properequivalent for the
penalty annexed by the divine law to the tranfgreflion of
thofe of the ele&t who are penitent and believing. Divine
juttice, it is faid, required its victim, either in the finner or
his fubftitute ; Jefus became the furety ; he paid the debt,
and fatisfied the demand. Others, who have not efpoufed
the doétrine of the proper deity of Chriit in the fenfe of the
Trinitarians, or who have not contended for an abfolute and
ftriG& equivalent to the demerit and confequent pumifhment
of tranfgreffion, have exprefled their notion of this doctrine
in a manner fomewhat different. Accordingly, Dr. Watts,
in his ** Redeemer and Sanétifier”? ({ee his Works, vol. ii.
p: 742-), explains his fentiments in the following manner.
«© By atonement for fin, I do not mean any fuch thing as
fhallin a proper and literal fenfe appeafe the wrath of God,
the offended governor, which is fuppofed to be kindled
againit his finful creatures, and fhall incline his heart to
mercy, which was before determined upon vengeance ; for
though this doétrine may be fo reprefented fometimes
after the manner of men, yet this is an idea or fuppofition
in many refpeéts inconfiftent with the attributes and actions
of the blefled God, and with the doGirine of the New Tetta-
ment. Inthat book God reprefents himfelf as rich inmerey,
and for this reafon he pitied finful creatures who had broken
his law, and had deferved to die, before he had received
any atonement ; and therefore God himfelf provided and
fent his own fon to become a facrifice of atonement, anda
ranfom for them ; he appointed him to bea furety for us,
the juft for the unjuft, and to fuffer death in the room and
flead of finners. By the words “ atonenient,”’ or ¢ propitia-
tion,” I-mean therefore fome toilfome or painful thing
done or fuffered, or both, by Jefus Chnift the fon of God,
in the room and inttead of finful men, asa penance or punith-~
ment on account of their fins; and this. by the wife and
righteous appointment of God, the univerfal governor,
fhall excufe the penitent offender from the punifhment that
was due, and obtain his pardon, becaufe it fhall give a re-
compence to"the authority of the divine lawgiver for the
affront which, was put upon him by the fins of men, and
{hall make fome reparation of honour to his holy law which
was broken. And this is not only intended to manifeft the
evil nature and the defert .of fin, together with Gaod’s

hatred

Society,

ATONEMENT. ‘

hatred of it; but it hall alfo anfwer the demand and defiga
of the threatening by fuch actual pain or unifhment,
though it is laid on the furety infkead of the Medes aad
thus # may fecure the law from being broken, in time to
come, as effe uly as if the offenders themfelves had been
pe Such a pain, penance, or punifhment, are the

fferings of Jefus Chrift, his labours and
is in this fenfe that the language of expiation
ropitiation and raifom, is fo often ufed.
2 Cory. 21, Gali, ro. “¢ Now by
ufferings of the Soa of God, in the room.
“a, there is au honourable amends made
world for the violation of his law, and
ife.of mercy inthe pardon-
1cut any imputation of re-
1efs of God’s nature and conduét, or
tice of hi ernment, as if he would
ce he difeovers and declares, that in paffing
s people in former ages, and in pardoning and

and it

Qr atone:
See 1 Pz

thefe appol
I

ons

connive atdin :

b yi - on i

I

rs who now believe in Chrift, he will manifeft

efs by requiring fuch a faerifice
De punifhed, though the fianer be {pared.””
- iil, 2426. To this purpofe, Whitby (in Heb. v.
3.) obferves, that Chriit, after he became our furety, was
not, nor could be delivered from thofe forrows which were
the punifhment of our fins: he being as our expiatory faeri-
fice, not only on the occafion of our fins, but in our ftead, to
bear the punifhment of our iniquity. (See SATISFACTION.)
In the fenfe above explained, the death and fufferings cf
Chrift were properly Vicarious. The advocates for this
opinion have fometimes afferted, without referye or qualifi-
cation, that the neceffity of an atonement arofe from the im-
mutable nature, and the indifpenfible demands of divine
juitice: and that Ged could not, in confiftence with his moral
attributes, have pardoned fin without receiving a plenary
fatisfaGtion; that this fatisfaction or atonement could not have
heen given by any other being but his own everlafting and
equal Son; and that even he could not have effected this
great and ultimate obje¢t of his mediatorial office, unlefs our
fins had been imputed to him in the fame degree as his
fnerits are imputed to us. (See Impurarion.) .On the
other hand, thofe who have carried Calvinifm to the ex-
treme in other points, have neverthelefs maintained, that
punitive juilice was not effential to the divine nature, and
that God might have pardoned fin by virtue of his own
abfolute authority, independently of an atonement. Dr.
Owen, however, has oppofed this tenet in a Latin tract,
intituled, ‘¢ Diatriba de juftitia divina.”’

“ Chrift’s death,’’ fays the learned biblical writer, Dr.
Glarke (Sermons, vol. viii. p. 366.), ‘¢ was truly and pro-
perly, in the ftriGeit meaning of the word, an expiatory
facrifice. For if finners, by having diminifhed the honour,
and defpifed the authority of God’s laws, were become
liable to the juftice and vengeance of God; if the Son of
God in our nature, by vindicating the honour of God’s
laws, hath difcharged this obligation, and obtained remif-
fion for us; and if the obtaining this remiffion was by the
fhedding of his blood, which is called ‘the price of our re-
demption”? (1 Cor. vi. 20); it follows, that the wrath of
God was appeafed by the death of Chrilt, and that God
was gracioufly pleafed to accept this vicarious fuffermg of
his Son, in the ftead of the punifhment that was due to the
finner in his own perfon; which is the exprefs and moit
proper notion of an expiatory facrifice.”” To the fame pur-
pofe this excellent writer obferves in another place (vol. v.
p. 203.), that “ Chrift hath vindicated the honour of God’s
laws, by taking upon himfelf the punifhment of their fins

who repent, and embrace the terms.of the gofpel. He cone
defcended to be made fin for us, i.e. to be made a facrifice for
our fins, that we through that expiatios might become fub-
jets capable of the mercy of Ged. He took upon him our
nature, and was clothed in fleth, partly indeed that he might
preach the will of Gad to mankind ina nearer avd more con
defcending converfation with them ; but, principally, that he
who in the form of God could not fuffer, might become
capable of fuffering by being made in the likenefs to man.
He led a moft innocent and {potlefs life, that he might in-
deed fet us an example, that we fhould follow his fteps; but
chiefly, becaufe, as it was required that the typical facrifices
under the law fhould be whole and without blemifh, io it was
neceflary, that he who was to be the real expiatory facrifice
for the fias of others, fhould have none that needed expiation
of his own.—He fuffered a fhameful and ignominious death
upon the crofs, that he might indeed give us an example of
patience and readinefs to fufier ; but the principal defign of it
was, that he might put away fin by the facrifice of himfelf,
and obtain eternal redemption for us through faith in his
bleed. His refurreétion was the demonttration of this facri-
fice’s being accepted by God; and his afcenfion into hea-
ven was in order to plead the merits of his fufierings before
God, and intercede for thofe who, according to the terms of
the gefpel-covenant, fhould be capable of receiving the gra-
cious benefits purchafed by his death.”? Similar tone

_ of the doéirine of atonement are largely illuftrated in a trea-

tife, by Mr. M. Tomkins, who was an avowed Arian with
regard to the Trinity, intitled, “ Jefus Chrift, the Mediator
between God and Man;” of which a fecond edition was
printed in London, in 1761. This writer, having produced
feveral paflages of {cripture, that fpeak of Chniil’s death as a
facrifice, and which declare him to be conftituted an high-
prieft, and having eftablifhed, as he conceives, beyond all
reafonable doubt, the literal fenfe of thofe feriptures, pro-
ceeds to confider what was the notion of expiatory facritices
and of the prieftly office, under the law of Mofes. (See
Sacrifice.) Thefe facrifices, he fhows, were intended to
make atonement for the perfon who offered them; i.e.
according to his ftatement they were, by divine appoint-
ment, of avail to free him from the guilt he had contracted,
and to prevent the punifhments to which he was liable. See
Numb. viii. 19. xvi. 46. Thefe facrifices he confiders as a
proper expiation, ora real propitiation; not that they were
the caufe of a merciful difpofition in God, and in that fenfe
rendered him propitious who was before implacabie ; but
they were appointments for procuring pardon, and the
priefts by offering them obtained from the mercy of God
thofe bleffings of which they otherwife muft have been de-
prived. Hence he infers, that the effects attributed to the
blood of Chrift correfpond with fuch effects of thele legal
facrifices, and that his acting as our high-prieit aniwers to
the office of the high-prieft under the law. See Heb. viii.
ix. 8, 23. x. 1., He proceeds to fhow, that our pardoa and
acceptance with God, and our freedom of accefs, are re-
prefented, inthe New Teftament, as the fruit of the fuffering
of Chrift not merely as an act of obedience, but as a facrifice
for fin, as a demonftration of ‘God’s difpleafure againit it,
and of his regard to the righteous fanGion of the original
law, which denounced death to the tranfgreffors of it,
With this view, when God refolves to fhow merey to
finners, he alfo determines that his only begotten fon, not
indeed without his confent, fhall fuffer death, the penalty
which the original law had denounced againft tranfgreffors,
Thus Chrift, by: fuffering death, prevented or warded off
thofe effeéts or confequences of fin, which would otherwife
have come upon mankind; and accordingly his death and

his

ae

—

AONE ME NET,

his mediation are very juftly reprefented as the means of
procuring for us the Blotting of which we are made par-
takers. See Heb. ix. 12. 1 Cor. vi. 20. vili. 23. Rev. v. 9.
This reprefentation of the matter gave rife to the term fatil-
faction, which has been generally ufed by writers in treating
of this fubject. (See Satisraction.) This author having
ftated his notion of the death of Chrift as an atonement for
fin, obviates the objections that have been urged againtt the
opinion he has adopted. But we mutt refer for further par-
ticulars to the author’s treatife, p. 105, &c. See alfo Chap-
man’s Eufebius, vol. ii. ch. iv, v, vie

The /econd explanation of the term atonement, which has
fometimes been called the Arminian fcheme, fuppofes that
the fufferings of Jefus Chrift were inconceivably tevere; and
that the obje&t of them was to exhibit the evil and de-
merit of fin, and the difpleafure of God againft it, who
would not even forgive a fincere penitent, without thus
manifeiting his hatred of wickednefs. This coincides, in a
degree, with the illuftration of this doctrine already given ;
it has been denominated the moderate do¢trine, and has been
adopted, with certain modifications, by many divines and
others.

A third hypothefis relating to this fubject is that of the
learned Dr. John Taylor (fee his “* Seripture Dottrine of
s\tonement examined, &c. and alfo his «* Key to the Apo-
ftolic Writings,” prefixed to his “* Paraphrafe, &c. on the
Tpittle to the Romans,”’ ch. viil.., who fuppofes, “ that the
{eriptures reprefent the death of Chrift as an act of obedi-
ence fo acceptable to God, that, as the reward of it, he
thought fit to-grant unto mankind, corrupt and wicked, the
forgiveneis of fin (ab/o/ute/y, ia relation to antecedent blef-
fings ; and upon condition of repentance, im relation to eternal
life), and to ereé&t a new difpenfation furnifhed with all pro-
per means to draw us from fin unto God, and to bring us
to the poffeffion of immortality. The blood of Chrilt, tays
this writer, or that by which he has bought or redeemed
us, is his love and goodnefs to men, and his obedience to
God, exercifed indeed through the whole of his ftate of
humiliation in this world, but moft eminently exhibited in
his death. It is his complete and fpotlefs righteoufnefs, his
humility, goodnefs, and obedience unto death, which makes
his blood precious in the beft and higheft fenfe, and gives
his crofs all its worth and eflicacy. Obedience was the fa-
crifice which he offered unto God fer us.”? * It was his
righteoufnefs, or righteous, kind, and benevolent action,
his obedient death, or the facrifice of his love and obedience,
which made atonement for the fin of the world; fo far, and
in this fenfe, that God, on account of his goodne{s and
perfe& obedience, fo highly pleafing unto him, theught fit
to grant unto mankind, whom he might in ftrict jultice have
Geitroyed for their general corruption and wickednetfs (John
iii. 17.), the forgivenefs of fins, not imputing unto them
their trefpafles, (2 Cor. v. 1g.) or thofe fins which were
paft, or which they had already committed (Rom. iit. 25.),
aad for which they deferved to fall under the dreadful effects
of God’s wrath. And not only did he forgive former tref-
paffes to all the /iving and to all the penitent and obedient
dead, but further he erected a glorious and perfect difpen-
fation of grace, exceeding any which had gone before it in
means, promifes, and prefpects; at the head of which he
fet his Son, our Lord Jefus Chrift, invefted with univerfal
power in heaven and on earth, conftituting him king and
governor over the new body, which he deligned to form,
captain of our falvation, the high-prieft of our profi fhion,
the mediator and furety of the new covenant, to negotiate
and manage all affairs relating to our prefent inftruCticn and
faactification, to raife all the dead out of their graves; and

to put the obedient ard faithful into poffeffion of eternal
life,?’—s« As in variois inftances, the virtuc, piety, and
prayers of good men were the reafon of God’s beftowing
pardon and fundry bleffings upon others, how much mor nf
according to this author, mut the perfect righteoufnels, or
obedience and gocdnefs of the Son of God, be a reafon for
remitting the fins of mankind, fo far as, in the nature of
things, they are capable of remiflion, or of being atoned ?
For the fins of the impenitent who finally neglect and refift
all means of reformation, cannot be atoned or forgiven.
Grace or favour, through the atonement of Chrift, may be
fo far fhown to fuch, as to allow them {pace and mears to
repent ; but none befides the penitent who duly improve
the divine goodnefs and patience, can receive the benefit of
eternal falvation through the atonement of Chrift. The
wifdom as well as the grace of this difpenfation, are illuf-
trated, when we confider, that pardon in the gofpel is raifed
to a very high degree ; and repentance is there made avail-
able, not only to exempt from punifhment, but alfo to gain
a new and glorious ftate of being in eternal life, which is a
grant of favour extended far beyond the natural value of
repentance. Befides, the grant of remiffion of fin, and
of other bleffings of the gofpel, through the blood of Chritt,
has a ftrong and direét tendency to promote our fantifica-
tion, and to render us penitent and obedient; and therefore
this conftitution muft be acquiefced in as perfe@tly wife and
beneficent.”? Dr. Taylor, in examining the notion of atone-
ment above ftated, and confidered as the fatisfying divine
juttice, by another’s fuffering the punifhment due to the cri-
minal’s fin in his ftead, adduces a variety of paflages per-
taining to this fubjeét, and thofe moye efpecially in which
the Hebrew word 45, by which, or its derivatives, atone-
ment is exprefled in the Old Teftament: and though he dif-
cards the notions of the imputation of our fins to Chrift,
his fuffering in our ftead the punifhment due to us, or his
paying an equivalent to divine juitice, yet he concludes
his examination with inferring from it, that the facrifice of
Chrift was, truly and properly, in the higheft degree, and
far beyond any other, piacular and expiatory, to make
atonement for, or to take away fin: not only to give us
an example; nct only to affure us of remiffion; or to pro-
cure our Lord a commiflion to publifh the forgivenefs of
fin; but moreover, to cbtain that forgivenefs by doing what
God in his wifdom and goodnefs judged fit and expedient
to be done in order to the forgivenefs of fin; and without
which he did not think it fit or expedient to grant the for-
givenefs of fin.”? The truly excellent bifhop Butler, in
delivering his fentiments on this fubjeét (Analogy, &c. pt.
lie cs 5.), obferves, “that fome have endeavoured to explain
the efficacy of what Chrift has done and fuffered for us be-
yond what the f{eripture has authorized; others, probably,
becaufe they could not explain it, have been for taking tt
away, and confining his office as redeemer of the world to
his inftruétion, example, and government of the church.
Whereas the doétrine of the gotpel appears to be, not only
that he taught the efficacy of repentance, but rendered it
of the efficacy which it is by what he did and fuffered for
us; that he obtained for us the benefit of having our re-
pentance accepted to eternal life, &c. How and in what way
it had this particular efficacy, there are not wanting perfons
who have endeavoured to explain; but we do not find that
the {eriptures have explained it. It is our wifdom thank-
fully to accept the benefit, without difputing how it was
procured.”? 'o the fame purpofe, Dr. Price, who formed
his featiments very much on the general plan of Butler’s
Analogy, fays, in his ** Sermons on the Chriitian Doétrine,”’
p- 85. that Chnift defcended to this earth froma ftate of
Tales

ATO

pre-exiflent dignity; and that, after haying paffed through
human life, enduring all its forrows, he delivered himfelf up
to death, and thus acquired the power of delivering us from
death. By offermg himfelf a facrifice on the crofs, he vin-
dicated the honour of thofe laws which finners had broken,
and rendered the exercife of favour to them’ confiftent with
the holinefs and wifdem of God’s government ; and by his
refurre¢tion from the dead, he proved the ethicacy and ac-
ceptablesefs of his facrifice. In a word, Chrift not only
declared, but obtained the availablenefs of repentance to par-
don; and became by his interpofition, not only the canveper’s
but the author aad the means of our future immortality ;7’-—
«in fuch a fenfe that we owe them to him, as well as pri-
marily to God.” Tis author has declined the ufe of the
terms /ub/titution and /atisfadion, becaufe they do not occur
jn feripture ; but others have alleged, that though the literal
expreffions do not occur, the phrafeology o the facred
writers warrants the ufe of them.

Among other writers who have totally rejeGted the doc-
trine of atonement according to either of the explanations
above given of it, we may mention Dr. Prieftley, who
reckons it in the clafs of the corruptions ef Chrilanity.
See Hiitory of the Corruptions of Chriftianity, vol. 11.
p- 152, &e. In all the books of feripture, fays this riter,
we no where fizd the principle on which the doétrine of
atonement is founded, which is a difplay on the part of
God, of juitice, and of his abhorrence of fin, fo that God
could not pardon it without an adequate fatisfaction being
made to his juftice, and the honour of his laws and govern-
ment. Admitting the popular do¢trine of atonement, the
whole of the Old Teftament, as he conceives, is a moit un-
accountable book, and the religion it exhibits is defective
in the moft effential article. The Jews in our Sayiour’s
time, it is faid, had certainly no idea of this do€trine; for
if they had, they would have expected a fuffering, and not
a triumphant Meffiah. And it is alleged, that our Lord
and his apoitles are filent with regard to it. This author
undertakes to explain the fenfe in which Chrift is repre-
fented as a facrifice, and other figurative interpretations of
it, independently of this doctrine. He proceeds to exa-
mine the fentiments of the Apoftolical fathers, and though
he allows that fingle expreffions occur in their writings
which feem to favour the doétrine of atonement, yet the
general firain fhows, as he apprehends, that they had no
proper idea of it. It is alfo argued that this dodtrine is
not enumerated as an article of Chriltian faith in any ancient
fummary of Chriftian doGtrine. To the too literal inter-
pretation of the figurative language of {cripture, Dr. Prieft-
ley afcribes that advance towards the doétrine of atonement,
which was obferved in the third and fourth centuries. Gro-
tius fhows (Opera, vol. iv. p. 347.) that this doétrine is
maintained by ‘Theodorus Abucara, a Greek writer of the
ninth century; but in the Latin church it does not feem
to have been fixed in the eleventh century, although there
are obvious and indifputable references to it in the writings
of Anfelm, and alfo in Theophilus, a Greek writer cited by
Grotius. Wickliffe evidently believed the abfolute necef-
fity of the death of Chrift.in order to the forgivenefs of
fin, and after the reformation by Luther, the doétrine of
fatisfation, or atonement for fin, was reduced to a regular
fyftem crounded on certain principles, and purfued to its
proper extent. It was unequivocally avowed in the con-
feffion of faith prefented to Charles V. at Augfburg, in
15303 in the Helvetic confeffion of the year 1536; and at
the fynod of Dort, 1618. It is now the doétrine of the
‘eftablifhed churches of England and Scotland ; and it is
very generally retained, at leaft in fome qualified fenfe, by

ATO

divines avd others, both Trinitarian and Aran. Socinus

difcarded it, and his followers have almoft univerfallyexploded-

it. We obferve, that though the word atonement trequently
occurs in the Old Teitament, we meet with it but once
in the New Teftament; and ia other places the fame
original word, zx72AAzyry 1s rendered reconciliation, As
for thole who reject the generally received doctrine of the
atonement, they maintain, that the great object of our Lord’s
mifion was to teach the doGrine of a refurrection to a future
immortal life, and that hence arofe the peculiar necefiity and
utility of his own death ard refurreétion as a proof of his
do@rine. See Expration, Lusrration, Propirrarion

SACRIFICE, and SATISFACTION. 0

ATONEMENT, Day of. Sec Meaj? of Exptation.

ANTONIA, 2roiz, in Medicine, aterm which fignifies a
want of tone, firmnefs of ftrength, in the mufcular fibre ;
in other words, a relaxation thereof; from « privative sae
Teiay tendo, I flretch, or extend. This condition takes place
either partially or generally in moft forms of chronic dif-
eafes, and in the conyalefcent period of acute difeafes
The remedies are the Peruvian bark, bitters, chalybeates,
the fulphuric acid, cold bathing, country air, and nies
with a mild and nourifhine diet.

ATONICS, in Grammar, denote words unaccented. See
ACCENT.

ATOOI, or Arrowat,in Geography, the moft northern
and the largeft of the weit group of the Sandwich iflands,
being about 300 miles in circumference ; containing, ac-
cording to the ftatement in the third volume of Captain
Cook’s voyage, about 54,000 inhabitants. It hasa good
road and anchoring place on the fouth-wett fide of the ifland
called Wymoa. It is obferved in the account of Pertlock’s
and Dixen’s Voyage to the north-weit coaft of America
that the eaft fide of the ifland rifes gradually from the fey
till it termimates in high land, near the centre of the ideas
The height of the moft elevated land or mountain, aecarte
ing to Marchand, (ubi infra. p. 16), 1s 1216 toifes
The hills are clothed fo the fummit with lofty trees, exhi.
biting a beautiful verdure. The land next the fhore on the
eaft fide is uncultivated and deftitute of inhabitants ; but to
the weitward it is generally cultivated, and houfes wee {cat-
tered along the fhore. ‘The domeitic animals on this ifland
are hogs, dogs, and fowls. Its principal vegetable produc-
tions are yams, fweet potatoes, the fugar cane, and a fweet
root called by the natives, tee. Some trees were found
about fifteen feet high, with {preading branches, a {mooth
bark, and a nut refembling a walnut; others about nine
feet high, with bloffoms of a beautiful pink colour; and a
variety with nuts, like our horfe chefnuts, which are ‘aed b
the natives as fubititutes for candles, and give an cece
light. The ifland affords a fupply of frefh water. In March-
and’s Voyage (vol. ii. p. 80.), we have an acgount of twa
Englith failors, who had been carried off from an Englifh
brig by the natives of this ifland, and who’ confirmed the
report of captain Cook concerning the natives of the Sand-
wich iflands, that thefe iflanders are cannibals, and eat their
prifoners. The relation. however, is difputed, and it is
fuggeited, that the natives of thefe iflands cut in pieces the
bodies of their dead enemies, burn their flefh, and preferve
their bones as trophies for perpetuating the memory of
their exploits. Thus, it is faid, they dealt with the bod
of the unfortunate captain Cook. y
couver, who vifited this ifland in 1792, we are informed
that the proftitution of the women is here carried to fhe
moft wanton excefs.. Vol. i. p. 171. N. lat. 22° E. Jon
200° 30. See Sanpwicu J/lands. es

ATOTOTL, in Ornithology, a name under which Seba

defcribes.

In the voyage of Van-.

ewe we i

ae

ATR

defcribes the purple creeper, or Certhia eres of Gmel,
avis virginiana pheenicea de Atotol diéta. Seba Mul. i.
t. 72. See Purpurea CERTHIA.

ATOUGIA, in Geography, a {mall town of Portugal,
in the province of Edremadara, feated on an eminence
near the fea, oppofite to the rocks called Burlings, defended
by a cattle, and containing about 1300 inhabitants; two
miles and an half eait of Peniche.

ATOUNI, a large tribe of Arabs that poffefs the ifth-
mus of Suez, and from thence go up between the Red fea
and the mountains that bound the eaft part of the valley of
Egypt. See Howapar.

ATOYAQUE, a deep. and large river of America, in
Mexico.

ATRA, in Cowholozy, a fpecies of Patera, defcribed
by Schroet. The {hell is. black and ftriated ; vertex pale ;
bottom with a Jpatulate brownifh {pot, and furrounded with
a horfe-fhoe fhaped band of white. About-an inch and a
quarter in length. ‘The country is unknown.

Arra, a {pecies of Huurx, about two inches in length,
and confifting of feven whorls, The fhell is taperiag,
biack, and minutely ftriated ; whorls rather convex : aper-
ture oblong-oval. Gualt. Tet.

Arra, in Lxtomology,a {pecies of Conors ( MyopaYabr. )
that inhabits Denmark and Germany. The abdomen is cy-
lindrical and incurvated ; body black. Gmel. The mouth
of this infect is white; autenne black, with a yellowith
band; legs black ;.pofterior thighs yellowifh.

Avra, a f{pecies of PHALzNA (Bombyx), entirely of a
footy-black colour, aud without {pots. This is Bombyx
hieracii of Fabricius, and Tinea graminella of Wien Schmet-
terl, The larva is black and hairy, with a fanguineous
dorfal line ; it fecretes itfelf within a follicle compofed of
dried leaves and ftraws. The pupa is ferruginous brown.

Arra, a fpecies of Crcapa (Cercopis Fabr.) of a large
fize, that is found m South America. It is black, witha
marginal fanguineous ftripe on both fides of the wing-cafes,
Fabricius, &c.

* Arra, a fpecies of Popura, very common in Europe.
Tt is globofe, brown, and fhining ; antenne long, and of
many joints. Faun. Suec. Linn. Act. Stockh. 1743.

Arra, afpecies of Pimexia (Helops Fabr.) of a black
colour, with itriated wing-cafes. Gmel. Fabr. &c. This is
Pyrochroa (nigra) nitida corpore ovato, thorace convexo,
antennis pedibufque fufcis, of Degeer. Inhabits Europe.

Arra, a fpecies of Bupresris, that inhabits Germany,
and in fome refpeéts refembles Bupre/fis viridis. The wing-
cafes are entire, fomewhat linear and punctuated; thorax
deflexed ; body black and elongated. Fabricius.

ArrRA, a fpecies of Lampyais (Lycus Fabr.) of a deep
black colour; thorax orbicular, and with the wing-cafes
red; an imprefled black {pot on the back. This is a native
of Europe. Muf. Lefk. Linn.

AtrA, a fpecies of Canruaris, the body of which is
entirely of a deep black. Fabricius. A native of the north
of Europe.

’ Arra, a fpecies of Necypatts, of a black colour with
all the thighs clubbed. Inhabits the fouth of Europe. Fa-
bricius. ‘Phe thigh in one fex fimple.

Arra, a fpecies of Leptura, the body of which is to-
tally black. Fabricius. The legs of this kind are fome-
times ferruginous. Poda calls it Leptura ethiops, and Geof-
froy, Stenocorus totus niger. Inhabits the fouth of Europe.

Arka, a fpeciesof Curcutio, of an oblong form, and
black colour, with rufous antennez. A native of Europe
and fuppofed to be a variety of C. ch/oropus.. Gmel. Fabr.
Kc.

ye

St

AtR4y a fpecies of Hisra, the body of whiclt is cn=
tirely deep black. Schr. der Berl. &c. Gmel. Fabricius:
deferibes it as haying fufiform antenne ; thorax and wing-
cafes fpinous ; and body black. Geoffroy calls it Crioceris
atra {pinis horrida. It inhabits the fouth of Europe and
the north of Afia, and feeds on the roots of grafs.

AtRA, a {pecies of Cirysomera ( Altica Fabr.), found
in Germany. It is glofly or fhining black, with the bafe of
the antennz, and foles of the feet pitchy-black. Gmel.
Geoffroy, &e.

Ara, a fpecies of Coccinerta, of a black colour,
with two yellow {pots; margin of the thorax and tail yel-
low. Thunberg. The body of this infeét is very gibbous
and glabrous. i

AtRA, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Muscicapa, called in
the Arétic Zoology the Du/ky Ily-catcher. It is of an olive-
afh colour; breaft cinereous; belly pale reddifh-yellow ;
head, tail, and quill feathers black ;; margin of the fecon-
daries, and outer webs of the exterior tail feathers white.
Gmelin &c. This is a native cf New York, where it ap-
pears in March, and departs in Auguft ; feeds on bees, and
lays five fmall white eggs ; legs black.

Arra, a fpecies of Tanacra that inhabits Guiana.
The bird is cinereous; face, chin, and throat black in the
male, and brown in the female. Buffon calls it Camail ow
Cravatte, and Tangara 4 cravatte noire de Cayenne. The
length of this bird ts feven inches ; the bill and legs black ;
bafe of the upper mandible white. *

ATRA, a {pécies of Trinca that inhabits the banks of
the Rhine. The head and neck are black ; back and wings
brownifh intermixed with black ; breaft and belly cinereous,
rump cinereous, undulated with black and white. . Sander.

Arra, a fpecies of Arpea, entirely of a black colour,
with a fmooth head and face, bare of feathers. Gmel. The
wings are gloffed with blue. -Briff. calls it ardea nigra ;
Buif. héron noir; and Latham the black heron. It inha-
bits Silefia.

ArraA,in Ancient Geography, the capital of the Arabians
of Singarena ; who formed a tribe, which poffeffed an inde-
pendent territory of Mefopotamia. Trajan befieged this
place in the year 117, but by the refiftance of the inha-
bitants, and the heat of the feafon, he was obliged to aban-
don the enterprife. ‘The town was feated on the top of a
high mountain in a dry and defert country, and encom-
pailed by a ftrong wall. It retained its reputation under
Severus, but was ruined under the reign of the emperos
Jovian.

ATRABILARIZ Carsura, in Anatomy. SeeCar-
SULE,

ATRABILIS, Black Bile, in Medicine.. The ancients
(fays Dr. Percival), as. appears from Galen, fuppofed the
atrabilis to be derived either from the dregs of the blood, or
from yellow bile torrefied and highly concoéted. A cele~
brated modern anatomitft is of opinion that it is blood, which,
haviag lodged fome time in the inteftinal canal, has acquired
a blacknefs and putridity. But is it not (this elegant and
ingenious writer afks) more probable, that. in general it is
no other than gall become acrid by ftagnation im the vefica
fellea, and rendered vifcid by the abforption of its fluid,
parts? When difcharged into the duodenum in this ftate;
it occafions univerfal difturbance and diforder till evacuated
either by vomiting or purging. A: young gentleman who.
laboured under a marafmus produced by intemperancey,
and which at laft proved fatal, voided feveral times both
by ftool and vomiting a confiderable quantity of black,,
tenacious, and mott offenfive bile. The fyrnptoms which
preceded the difcharge, and which ceafed foon afterwards,

were:

AS ae:

were a quick pulfe, head-ach, delirium, hiccup, intenfe
thirft, inward heat, and an. uncommon feetor in his breath.
A lady aged thirty, unhappily addicted to habits which
have a peculiarly pernicious effet upon the liver, after a
conttipation of the belly during fix days, was feized witha
violent and inceflant vomiting of black and vifcid bile. The
infufum fenne limoniatum, warmed with the tincture of
Columbo, foon checked her retching, and operating by
dtool, prevented the return of her vomiting. The matter
difcharged in both thefe cafes bore not the leaft refem-
-hlance to grumous blood. Dr. Percival adds, that he has
fever:l times obferved the febrile fymptoms in children,
which are afcribed to dentition, relieved by thefe pitchy
tools; and that he recolleéts three cafes of the difeafe
called acute afthma by Dr. Millar, in which the paroxy{ms
feemed to be critically terminated by a fimilar evacuation.
Whether, in thefe inftances, the black bile was the caufe
or the effeét of the difeafe, cannot (he obferves) with cer-
tainty be determined; but the former appears to him to
che the more prebable opinion. Percival’s Effays, Medical,
Philofophical, and Experimental, vol. i. p. 342. ath edit.
This view of the fubje&t is very fatisfactory: but as an
evacuant, peculiarly adapted to this diforder, we would
fuggeft the employment of calomel. Black bile was f{up-
pofed by the ancients to conftitute a peculiar temperament,
awhich they termed the atrabiliary or melancholic tempera-
ment. Sce TEMPERAMENTS. y

The difeafe termed Melena, or morbus riger, in which
there is a dark-coloured bloody difcharge, unaceempanied
-by griping pains and acute fever, feems to be a f{pecies of
diarrhea. (See Mrra#na.) Before we clofe this article,
we would obferve, that black or pitchy ittools may be
occafioned either by difcoloured bile, or by the effution of
venous blood into the inteftinal ca;'. An experienced
practitioner will feldom be at a lofs to dittinguith the dif-
ference ; but if any doubt arife, recourfe muit be had to
chemical analyfis.

ATRACES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Europe,
in that part of Greece called Adtolia. Their country was
watered by the river Atrax, whence their name.

ATRACTYLIS, in Botany (from aleazio:, fufus, a
Spindle.), diftaff-thiftle, Lin. Gen. 930. Reich. 1009.
Schreb. 1259. Clafs, /yngencfia polygamia equalis. Nat.
Ord. Compofite. Gen. Char. Cal. outer many-leaved, linear,
large, roughened, permanent, confining the common one ;
common ovate, imbricate ; the fcales oblong, very many,
lanceolate, converging, unarmed. Cor. compound radiate ;
corollules hermaphredite, numerous, tubular on the difk ;
herm. ligulate in the ray ; proper of the difk funnel-form,
five cleft ; of the ray, ligulate, flat, five-toothed. Stam.
filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anther cylindric, tubu-
lar. Pf. of the difk ; germ very fhort ; ftyle filiform, the
length of the ftamens. Stigma bifid; of the ray very like
that of the difk, but obfeure and withered. Per. none ;
calyx converging. Seeds turbinate, comprefled ; down plu-
mole. Rec. villofe, flat.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cor. radiated; corollules of the ray
five-toothed.

Species, 1. A. summifera, gummy rooted atraétylis.
“ Flowers ftemlefs.”” [rom the root which is perennial,
iffue many narrow deeply finuated leaves, armed with {pines
on their edges. Thiefe lie clofe to the ground, and between
them the flower is frtuated ; it is white at the border, but
yellow at the difk. A native of Italy. The root abounds
with a gummy matter, which has occafioned it to be chewed
for the fame purpofes as maitich. 2. A. Awmilis, dwarf

atractylis, Cavan. Hilp. 40. t. 54. 6. Barr. rar. 1127

ATR

t.592. ‘Leaves tooth-finuated; flower radiated, fenced
with an-expanding involucre ; item herbaceous.’? Stems
nearly a foot high; leaves indented, fpinous at the edges 3
flowers purple, in heads on the branches; root biennial.
A. native of France and Spain, flerering m June. Cava-
nille’s defcription of this plant differs from the above.
3. A. cancellata, netted atractylis. “ Involucres latticed,
bellying, linear, toothed; calyxes ovate; flowers flefen-
lous.” Annual, eight or nine inches high, producing two
or three flender branches, each terminated by a head of
flowers like thofe of the thiftle, with an involucre com-
pofed of feveral. narrow leaves, armed with fpines on
their fides, and curioufly netted over, which keeps off
the flies; florets purple. A native of the fouth of Eu:
rope. Jt was cultivated here in the time of Parkinfon.
4. A. lancea ; lance-leaved atra€tylis. ‘¢ Involuéves pinnate,
leaves lanceolate, ciliate, {mooth.”” Stem a foot high,
flexuofe, branching ; leaves alternate, acute, feffile, erect ;
flowers on the branches terminal, folitaty, fubfeffile. Tt
differs from the third in haying fmooth leaves, and a leafy
ftem. 5. A. ovata; ovate-leaved atraétylis. Involucres
pinnate, leaves ovate, ciliate fmooth.”? Stem fimple, {treaked,
icarcely a foot high; leaves alternate, petioled, acute, nerved,
pale underneath ; petioles with ciliate edges; flowers ter-
minating, folitary. Both thefe lait are natives of Japan.
6. A. oppofitifolia ; oppolite-leaved atractylis. * Leaves op-
polite.””. Leaves and calyxes tomentofe underneath. Recep-
tacle with hair-like chaff. In the ligulate florets the anthers
are effete, and there is neither ityle nor ftigma. A native
of the cape of Good Hope. 7. A. purpurata; purple-
flowered atractylis, Smith. Ic. med. 3. 65.
ftate, runcinate.”? Stem round, woolly ; leaves crowded, a
fpantin length, acute, irregularly toothed, veined, tomentofe
underneath ; peduncles longer than the leaves, branched, an-
gular, rugged, woolly, covered at top with linear acute
{eales; flowers large, ere€t, fpecious, purple; recep-
tacle naked. Found by Mutis in New Grenada. 8. A.
Mexicana ; Mexican atraGtylis. Smith. Icon. ined. 66.
‘¢ Leaves oblong, quite entire.’’? Stem fhrubby ; branches
fimple, leafy, without fpines, covered with a downy fub-
flance ; leaves alternate, lanceolate, actminate, with netted
veins ; beneath very white, tomentofe ; petioles keeled, to-
mentofe, flower terminating, nodding, purple, fupported by
two or three bracte-fhaped leaflets ; receptacle with very
fhort chaffs. Found by Mutis in Mexico. F

Propagaticn and Culture. ‘ 1, 2, 3, are propagated by

feeds, which muft be obtained from the countries in which

they grow naturally : thefe fhould be fown on a border of
light earth, in a warm fituation, early in April, and when
the plants come up, and are fit to tranfplant, they fhould
be thinned, and thofe which are drawn out may be tranf-
planted, leaving the others two feet afunder ; after which,
the only culture they require is, to keep them clear from
weeds in fummer, and in winter to cover the roots with
fome old tanner’s bark to prevent the froft from penetrating
the ground. ‘The other f{pecies are yet ftrangers to Euro-
pean gardens ; and whenever they are introduced, will re-
quire the proteétion of a green-houfe or ftove.”? See Mar-
tyn’s Miller’s Dict.

Arractyiis. See CARTHAMUS.

ATRA Dies, in Antiquity, denotes a fatal day, whereon
the Romans received fome memorable defeat. "The word
literally imports a d/ack day ; a denomination taken from
the colour, which is the emblem of death, and mourning.
Whence the Thracians had a cuftom of marking all their

happy days with white ftones, or calculi, and their unhappy

days with black ones, which they caft, at the clofe of each
day,

*© Leaves ha-.

So

ins Le ee el

a 9 gues

ae

ATR

day, Into an urn. “At the perfon’s death, the ftones were
taken out, and from a comparifon of the numbers of cach
complexion, a judgment was made of the felicity or infelicity
of his courfe of life.

The dies atre, or atri, were afterwards denominated nefz/?/,
and poferi. Such, in particular, was the day when the tri-
bunes were defeated by the Gauls, at the river Allia, and lott
the city; alfo that onwhich the battle of Cannz was fought;
and feveral others marked in the Roman calendar, as asre,
or unfortunate.

ATRAGENE, in Botany, a family of plants refem-
bling Clematis, but without a neCtary, Lin. g. 695. Schreb.
g49. Gaertn. 74. Jufl. 232. Clals, polyandria polycynia.
Nat. Ord. Multifilique. Ranunculaceae. Jufl. Gen. Char. Cal.
perianth four-leaved ; leaflets oval, {preading, obtufe, deci-
diious. Cor. petals twelve (in A. capenfis about twenty),
linear, very narrow at the bafe, obtufe, fpreading. Stam.
filaments very many, very fhort (outer petal-like, two-
anthered) ; anthers oblong, acuminate, fhorter than the
calyx. /i/?. germs numerous, oblong ; ftyles villofe, per-
manent ; itigma fimple, the length of the anthers. Per.
none. Sveds numerous, ending in a hairy tail (capfules
feather-tailed).

Ef. Gen. Char. Cal. four-leaved. Pet. twelve. Seeds, tailed.

Species, 1. A. japonica, japonefe atragene. ‘ Erect, leaves

oppoiice, triternate ; leaflets ovate, gafhed.””? Stem angular,
ftreaked, fubdichotomous, villofe, two feet high; leaflets
acute, toothed, very thinly villofe ; petiole item-clafping ;
flowers from the divifions of the item, few, on elongated one-
flowered filiform peduncles ; petals more than twenty, pur-
ple within, white-tomentofe without. Were it not for the
number of its petals it would belong to the anemone. A
native of Japan. 2. A. alpina. Alpine atragene, Jacq.
Auft. 3.t.241. Clematis Sibirica, Mull. fig. t. 284. ‘Leaves
doubly ternate, ferrate, outer petals four-fold.” Stems
flender, weak, covered with brown thin bark ; leaflets two
inches long, of a deep green colour; peduncles naked, three
or four inches long, one flowered; calyx yellowith, white
within. This plant is differently defcribed by {feveral
botanifts, and Jacquin afferts that the Auftrian plant is
{pecifically different from the Alpine. A native of the
High Alps of Switzerland, &c. 3. A. capenfis, Cape
atragene. ‘* Leaves ternate; leaflets gafhed, toothed,
outer petzls five-fold.’ Scape fimple, fix or feven inches
long ; iavolucre in the middle of the feape, compofed of
fwelling, ovate, villofe, foliaceous itipules; leaves wedge-
fhaped, trifid, acute, naked; petals about twenty, white,
the fix lower ones broader, villofe underneath, purplith.
A, native of, the cape of Good Hope. 4. A. tenuifolia, fine-
leaved atragene. ‘‘ Leaves doubly pinnate ; pinnules linear,
entire.”” Found at the Cape by Thuaberg. 5. A. zey/anica,
Ceylonefe atragene. ‘‘ 'Tendrils two-leaved.”’ Caulefcent,
feandent ; leaves oppofite, compound, conjugate, leaflets
ovate, entire, or fometimes with a fingle tooth, three-nerved,
on very fhort footitalks : panicle terminal, compofed of a
twice trifid peduncle, bearing commonly nine flowers;
petals twice the length of the calyx, purplifh.. A native of
Ceylon.
. Propagation and Culture. The fecond fpecies may be
increafed by cuttings or layers in the fame manner as Cle-
matis. In a ftrong foil, and trained againit a wall, it will
rife to the height of fix or eight feet. The flowers appear
early, and if the feafon prove favourable, they make a
handfome appearance ; but as this plant is apt to put out
leaves very early in the f{pring, it is frequently nipped by
the frofts.. The other fpecies have not yet been cultivated
in England. See Martyn’s Miller’s Diét..

: 6

AGI

ATRALIS, in Entomology, a {pecies-of PHarmna
(Geometra), of a black colour, with two white fpots on
each wing. Pabr. Donoy. Brit. Inf, &c. This is a native of
Europe; it is called Phalena funeraria by Mull. Zool.
Dan. Phalzna funcbris Act. nidrof..and phalena guttalis,
Wien. Schmettezl, &c.

ATRAMENTA. See Inxs.

ATRAMENTATA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Pua-
Lena (Geometra) that inhabits Europe. The wings are
white, ipriakled with black dots.

ATRAMIT A, in Ancient Geography, a name given to
the inhabitants of Hadramaut, or Hadramuth, a rich and
flourifhing country of Arabia Felix. See Hapramaur.

ATRANI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
Principato Citra, fituate between two cliffs. joined together
by buildings. Along the valley a road winds up to Ravello
and Scala, two epifcopal cities, or rather ftraggling villages,
on the mountain tops. It is not far from the city of
Amalia. :

ATRAPHAXIDIS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Cry P-
TOCEPHALUS, about the fize of C. quadripunciatus. It is
black, with three red fpots ;, wing-cafes teftaceous, with
three black fpots ; fhanks rufous. Fabr. This is chry/omela
atraphaxidis of Pallas, and inhabits Siberia.

ATRAPHAKXIS, in Botany, an exotic plant, refem-
bling polygonum. Lin. g. 449. Schreb. 612. Garin. t. 119.
Juff. 82. Clafs, hexandria digynia. Nat. Order, holoracee.
Polygonee. Juff. Gen. Char. Ca/. perianth two-leaved ;
leaflets oppofite, lanceolate, coloured, permanent. Cor.
petals two, roundifh, finuate, larger than the calyx, perma-
nent. Stam. filaments fix, capillary, the length of the
calyx; anthers roundifh. Pi//. germ comprefled; {ftyle-
none ; ftigmas two, capitate. Per. none ;. calyx clofed, in-
cluding the feed. Seed one, roundith, comprefled. O6/.
A. undulata has a four-parted calyx, and no corolla.

Eff. Gen. Char. Ca/.two-leaved. Pet.two, finuate; ftig-
mas capitate. Seed, one. '

Species, 1. A. /pinofa, prickly-branched atraphaxis.
L’Herit. Stirp. Noy. 27.t. 14. Branches fpiny.”” It rifes
four or five feet high, fending out many weak lateral
branches, armed with {pines, and furnifhed with {mall fpear--
fhaped fmooth leaves, of an afh-colour. Flowers at the
ends of the fhoots in clufters, each confifting of two white
petals tinged with purple, included in a two-leaved calyx, of
a white herbaceous colour. L’Heritier has defcribed this
plant very particularly, vide 1. c. It is a native of Arme-
nia, Siberia, and Perfia, flowering in Auguft. Cultivated
by Miller in 1759. 2.A.undulata, waved-leaved atraphaxis.
Dill. Elth. 36. t. 32. f. 36. (called arbufcula africana, &c. )
“« Without f{pines.’? Stems about a foot long ; leaves ovate,
obtufe, waved at the edges, alternate, longer than the in-
ternodes. Flowers in oblong fpikes, at the ends of the
ftem and branches, furnifhed with fhort bra&tes. Calyx
yellow, involving the fruit. The flowers are commonly
quadrifid, but fometimes they are fix-parted, with eight
{tamens. Several authors make this to be a {pecies of poly-
gonum, while others would unite the two genera.

Propagation and Culture. ‘*' The feeds of thefe plants
not ripening in England, they are propagated by cuttings
during any of the fummer months. In winter they mult be
fereened from hard froft, which commonly deftroys fuch as
are planted in the open air.’ See Martyn’s Miiler’s
Did.

ATRARIA, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Perca that
inhabits Carolina, and is called by Garden, the black fifh.
The body is black, and the fins fpotted with whitifh.
Gmelin. The anterior gill-cover is-denticulated, pofte-

rior

ATR

tior ciliated ; lateral line ftraight ; dorfal fins lineated with
avhite.

ATRATA, in Concholocy, afpecies of Paterta. This
fhellis rather convex, narrew, white, lineated with red ;
“outfide fpotted with black, with elevated, convex, unequal
itrie ; aperture at the vertex oblong, bordered with chef-
rut. Schroet. This fhell is about three quarters of an inch
in length, with a crenated margin, and the vertical aperture
furronnded with a reddifh ring within.

Avrarta, a fpecies of Nexira, found in the Atlantic,
American, and South feas. .Sheil deep, black, glabrous,
very thinly ftriated above ; both lips white; exterior one
very finely fulcated, and fomewhat toothed within; inner
one concave, rugofe, and tuberculated. Chemnitz.

Arxara, in Entomology, a {pecies of Scoura that inlta-
bits America. It is hairy and black ; wings. ferruginous,
and black at the tip. Fabricius.

Artrara, a {pecies of Tripura. The wings are glau-
cous ; marginal dot and body black ; firft fegment of the
abdomen and legsrufous. Fn. Suec. Linn. This is zipu/a
ichneumonea of Degeer. Inhabits Europe. The abdomen
of the female is recurved, fubulate, and very pointed.

Arata, a fpecies of Musca (Rhagio Fabr.) that in-
habits Italy. It is black, and without fpots; wings hya-
jine, with a black marginal fpot. Fabr. Gmel.

* Atrara, a fpeciesof Mutitxa that is found in Africa.
{t is black ; thorax rufous above ; abdomen blue, with two
white bands. Dabricius. This is mutilla atra, abdomine faf-
cia alba, thorace immaculato of Linn. Syit. Nat. It is hairy,
and has brownifh wings.

Arrara, a {pecies of Formica, with four fpines on the
thorax ; head depreffed and marginated, with two {pines on
each fide. This 1s formica guadridens of Degeer, and tapiiat
of Marcgrave Braf. 252. It inhabits South America ; 1s
black, with am obtufe head ; jaws very thort ; petiole of the
abdomen bituberculated.

Arrata, a fpecies of TeEnTHREDO, of a black colour;
back with a yellow-green band, and three curves of the
fame colour. Inhabits England. Forfter’s Nov. Inf,

Arrarta,a {pecies of PuryGAnea that mhabits Siberia.
It is black; wings whitifh, with many {pots and two bands
of black. Lepechin.

Arata, a fpecies of Puarena (Geometra). Fhe
fir wings whitifh, and black at the bafe, witha broad
black ftripe ; fecond pair brownifh, with two white undu-
lated ftreaks. Linn. &c.

Atrata, a fpecies of Crcapa found in China, and de-
{eribed in Donovan’s Infeéts of China, under the name of
cicada atraia, great black Chinefe frog-hopper. The co-
colour is black, with white wings, black at the bafe, and
veined with yellowifh brown. his is fuppofed from its
being extremely common in China, to be the fpecies of Ci-
cada obferved by fir George Staunton, in the route of the
Britifh embaffy to the court of Pekin, and noticed in his
work under the trivial name cf the noify cicada. ‘ The
mulic emitted by a fpecies of cicada,”’ fays that writer,
“* was not of the vocal kind, but produced by the motion of
awo flaps or lamelle, which cover the abdomen, or belly
ofthe infect. It is the fignal of invitation from the male of
that fpecies to allure the female, which latter is quite un-
provided with thefe organs of courtfhip.””—On this fubject
it is remarked, in the hiflory of Chinefe Infeéts referred to
above, that thefe organs of found are by no means peculiar
to the individual fpecies fir George deferibes ; all the males
in that feétion of Linnean cicade which Fabricius “calls
tettigonia, are furnifhed with fuch lamellz, and emit a found
in like manner; and the males of thoie {pecies included ia

‘

ATR

the cther fections of that genus are certainly furnifhed with
them alfo, although in fome kinds they are very {mall, and
in a few inftances not vifible to the naked eye. ‘Thefe organs
will be noticed more particularly in fpeaking of the genus
cicada.

Arrata, a fpecies of Miroe (MM;Jabris Fabr.) It is
of a deep gloffy black, with a yellow-waved band near the
apex. Is found near the Cafpian fea. Pallas.

Arrara, a fpecies of Lytra, the body of which is
entirely brown and immaculate. Fabricius. Inhabits Bar-
bary. ‘

Aorta, a fpecies of SirpHa. It is black ; wing-cafes
punétuated, with three elevated lines; thorax entire. A
native of Europe.

Arrata,a {pecies of Crcrnpeva (Llaphrus Fabricius,)
defcribed by Pallas as being entirely deep black and opake,
Pall. It. 1 App. n. 42. A native of Siberia; in form and
fize refembles Cicindela. germanica, and it is conjectured by
Gmelin may not properly belong to the. Elaphrus genus.

Arrata,afpecies cof Curysometa, deferibed by Geof-
froy asa native of France. This kind is black, with wings
of a blood-red colour. Gmel. :

AtrRATA, a fpecies of Casstpa, about the fize of caf-
fida nebulofa, or rather fmaller. It is black, with the
fhield of the head fanguineous in front. Found in Auf-
tria. ‘ .

AtraTA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Tanacra that
is entirely black and fhining. This is emberiza atra of Linn,
Syit. Nat. and black tanager of Latham. Is a native of
India, and has the back gloffed with fhining blue. About
the fize of a thrufh.

Atrata, afpecies of Moraciira, called by Latham
the d/ack red-tail. "This bird is fix inches in length ; colour
black ; crown lead-colour; quill-feathers black; exterior
margins of the fecondaries rufous; the two middle ones
black. Gmelin. Its country is unknown.

ATRATO, in Geography, a confiderable river of Ame-
rica, which runs into the gulf of Mexico, near Cartha-

ena.
ATRATORIUS, in Zntomology, a {pecies of IcHNEU-
Mon, with the fcutel white; thorax without fpots; three
lait fegments of the abdomen edged with white ; legs ru-
fous. A native of Germany.

ATRATUS, Hveu, in Biography, born at Evefham,
in Worcetterfhire, made fuch proficiency in philofophy, ma-
thematics, and medicine, that he was eiteemed the pheenix
of his age. He was invited to Rome by pope Nicholas ITI.
and addiéting himfelf to the church, in 1281, he was ad-
vanced to the cardinalate. He died of the plague in 1287.
The works attributed to him are, ‘* Canones medicinales,
fuper Opus Febrium Ifaaci Opufculum.’”? “ De Genealo -
giis Humanis.” Eloy.

Atratus, in Conchology,af{pecies of Turo,of a black-
ith colour, with double alternate black and cinereous moni-
liform belts of granulations ; and a fingle tooth on the pil-
lar lip. About the fize of a nut, and inhabits the Nicobar
iflands. Gmelin. ;

Arratus, a fpecies of Murex of adeep black ; whorls
tranfverfely ftriated with tubercles; pillar with a fingle
plait ; tail ftraight, Born.; whorls of the {pire ten in num-
ber ; lip circulated.

Arratus, in Entomology, a {pecics of Tenewrio (Scau-
rus Fabr.) It is a native of Egypt, and is entirely black
and glofly. Gmel. Fabr. &c. The wing-cafes are united,
and the anterior legs bidentated. t

Arratus, a fpecies of Curcutio found at the cape of
Good Hope. It is glabrous, fhining-black ; wing-cafes

itriated

ATR

ftriated, with impreffed dots on the interftices. Sparrm. nov.
acti, Stockh. 1785.

Arrarus, afpecies of Cryproceruatus. (Crioceris
Fabr.} It inhabits Tranquebar ; is pale with the wing cufes
entirely margioed with deep black. Gmel. &e.

Arrarus, « (pecies of Cerampyx (Prionus Fabr.) that
inhabits Ceylon. ‘The thorax is bidentated on each fide ;
body black ; antenna moderate, with ferrated {pines in front.
Gmelin, &c.

Arrarus, an European fpecies of Caranus, of a black

colour, with orbicular thorax, pale wing-cales, varied with
black ; antenne and legs ferruginous-brown. Mut. Lefk.
Linn.

Arrarus, a {pecies of Trnesrio foundin Egypt ; itis
entirely black and glabrous. Gmel. The wing-cafes are
united, and the anterior legs bidentated. ’

ArRatus, a tpecies of Cimex, of an oblong form
(Oblongus SeXt.) and entirely of a deep black. Geoffroy.
Tuhabits France.

Arrarus, a fpecies of Hemoronivus found in Africa.
The wings are whitith ; firlt pair {potted with black ; body
black. ‘This is a large infect, aud inhabits Africa; the
thorax is hairy, aud the abdomen cylindrical. Fabricius.

Arratus, afpecies of lcunzu mon thatinhabits Europe.
It is black ; abdomen ferruginous, with the four extreme
fegments black; legs rufous; antenna ferruginous, annulated
with brown, and tipped with black. A native of Europe.
Muf, Lefk. Linn. 02/. In Ginelin’s fubdivition of the ich-
neumon genus, this iudect belongs to that family which has
the Pentel and thorax of the fame colour, and the antenne
annulated or banded. Another fpecies occurs wider the
fame {p8eific name which belongs to that family in which
the feutel and thorax are of one colour, and the antenne
black, This is a large infect, and inhabits America. It is
black ; head, legs, and ftreak on thie tail, yellow ; {ting very
long. Fabricius. The mandibles and itreak between the
eye are black ; wings duiky ; ttig thrice the length of the

ody. : ;

Bawnce, in Natural Hiflory,a {pecies of Ecuinuss
that inhabits India. It is hemifpherical-oval, and rather de-
prefled, with very fhort, obtufe, truncated {pines ; the mar-
ginal ones clubbed and deprefled. Gmelin. This is cidaris
vialacea of Klein, and violette egel-meder of Phelf. Zee-cg.
p- 30. The form of this kind is rather orbicular, cinereous
imclining to violet ; fpaces ten, very finely granulated, with
a row of larger tubercles, in the larger ones difpofed ina
quincunx order, and a double row in the {maller ones ;
avenues brown, excavated, granulated, with four rows of
pores; {pines violet, fome of them clubbed, fome angulated
at the tip, and fome cylindrical.

ATREBATII, or Arrresatny, in Ancient Geography,
a people of Britain, fituated next to the Bibroci, in part of
Berkfhire and part of Oxfordfhire. According to Camden
they inhabited Berkthire; but Baxter fays that their country
was Oxfordfhire. They occupied, as it is faid, nearly the
whole of the weftern parts of Berkfhire, from the river
Lodden on the fouth-eaft, the banks of the Thames on the
north-weft and weft, and the hills of Eaft Ifley, Lamborn,
and Athbury on the fouth. ‘The Atrebatii were one of
thofe Belgic colonies which had come out of Gaul into
Britain, and there retained their ancient name: for they
were a tribe of the Belew, who inhabited the country which
is now called Artois. They are mentioned by Cefar among
the nations which compofed the Belgic confederacy againft
him ; and the qucta of troops which they engaged to furnifh
on that occafion was 15,000. Comius of Arras was a king
or siaeae among the Atrebatii in Gaul in Cefar’s time ;

ox. IIT.

ATR

and he feems to have poffefled fome authority, or at leaf
fome inflience, over our Atrebatii in Britain; for he was
deputed by Cwfar to perfuade them to fubmiffion, Hence
it is probable that this colony of the Atrebatii had not been
fettled in Britain very long before that time. Thefe were
among thofe Britifh tribes which fubmitted to Crefar; nor
do we: hear of any remarkable refiftance which they made
againit the Romans at¢heir next invafion under Claudius.
It is probable, that before this fecond iivafion they had been
fubdued by fome of the neighbouriag ftates, perhaps by the
powerful nation of the Cattivellauni, which will account for
their being fo little mentioned in hiftory. Calliva Attre-
batum, mentioned in Antouine’s Itinerary, and called by
Ptolemy, Calcua, feems to have been the capital of the
Atrebatii ; though our antiquaries differ in their fentimeits
concerning the fituation of this ancient city; fome, with
Horfley, placing it at Silchefter in Hampthire, near the con-
fines of Berkfhire; Stukeley, at Farnham; and moft others,
with Camden and Baxter, placing it at Wallingford in
Berkthire. It has been doubted, whether the country of
the Bibrocii and Atrebatii was within the Roman province
called Britannia Prima, or in that called Flavia Cefarientis ;
but it feems moft probable that it was in the lait of thef=
provinces. Heury’s Hitt, vol.i. p. 248. vol. ii. p. 413. See
ANCALITES,

ATRELLA, in>£ntomology, a fpecies of Puarmna
(Tinea) that inhabits Italy. The wings and body are
black and bronzed ; apex of the poiterior ones, and the tail
teftaceous.

ATRESIA, from », andrex« 3 whence tlexa,to perforate;
in Surgery, imperforation, or the ftate of thofe perfons whe
want fome natural aperture. i

ATRETI, thofe perfons of either fex, in whom the
anus, or genitals, are imperforate, or clofe, whether naturally,
or oceafioned by fome accident or difeafe, as the growth of
fome fle*:y excrefcence, or a membrane which {tops the
orifice. ;

ATRI, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and province of Abruzzo Ultra; nine miles eaft
of Teramo. See Anprra. :

ATRIB, a village of Egypt, on the right bank of the
Damietta branch of the Nile. A little below it runs alarge
canal, which empties itfelf into the lake Menzale, towards
the eaftern part of it.- The cottages that compofe this
village, cover the ruins of the ancient _4fridis, which,
according to Ammianus Marcellinus, was one of the moft
confiderable towns in Egypt. But no remains of its former
extent and grandeur now exift.

ATRIBUNIE, a river that runs through the weftern
part of the ifland of St. Domingo, and empties itfelf into
the fea.

ATRICAPILLA, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Em-
BERIZA, of areddifh brown aboye, beneath cinereous ; chin
white ; crown yellow ; forchead, and: ftripe through the
eyes black. This is emberiza atricapilla of Gmelin, and
black crowned bunting of Latham. It inhabits the Sandwich
ifles. There is a variety of this bird in which the breatt is
waved with black ; and alfo another bird correfponding with
the firft in fome refpeéts, but in which the crown is not yel-
low; this is fuppofed to be the female.

The black-crowned bunting is feven inches in length ;
upper part of the plumage reddifh brown, and each feather
marked longitudiually with a dufky colours coverts and
quills edged with a paler colour; the throat, breaft, and
belly are afh-colour ; the laft marked ala ig the middle with
yellowith buff; tail brown; legs brown; claws dufky.
Lath. d

Mm Arri-

A Y'R

ATRICAPILLA, afpeciesof Muscrcard,calledby Englifh
naturalifts the cold-jinch and pied fly-catcher. The colour is
black ; beneath, fpot on the front, and another on the wings,
white; outer web of the exterior tail-feather white. Kramer,
Gmelin, &c. This is motacilla remigibus extimo dimidiato
extrorfum albo of Linn. Fn. Suec. rubetra anglicana of
Briffon, ficedula atricapilla fe mutans Aldr. Orn. 2. p. 758.
le tarquet d’ Angleterre of Buffon, cold-finch of Willughby,
and pied fly-catcher of Pennant and Latham.

The length of this bird is four inches and three quarters ;
bill black ; ivides hazel; general colours black and white ;
the upper part of the body, wings, and tail black ; upper
tail-coverts intermixed with black and white, and fometimes
entirely black ; legs of the fame colour. Female brown in
thofe parts where the male is black, and deftitute of the
white {pot on the forehead. This bird inhabits Europe.
In England it is rare, and chiefly found in Yorkfhire, Lan-
cafhire, and Derbyfhire. Vide Lath. Gen. Syn.—Donoy.
Brit. Birds, &c.

OF this fpecies there are two or three varieties; the firft
mufeicapa nigra, and le gobe-mouche noir of Briffon Orn. a
bird about five inches and a half in length, and differing
from the laft in having a mixture of grey on the upper parts,
the thighs mixed brown and white, and the three outermott
tail-feathers white on the margin. ‘The other is motacilla
nigra torguata of Cramer, and le gobe-mouche noir a collier ot
Buffon: this is like the firft kind, but has the white on the
neck, pafiing entirely round, and forming a collar. It is met
with in Lorraine and Brie, where it arrives in the middle of
April. The principal food of this bird is flies. A third
kind, called by Linnezus mu/ticapa variegata, inhabits India;
this is about the fize of the white wagtail ; general colour
brown; forehead, fides of the head, and underparts white ;
and a line of white extending alfo from the fhoulders to the
middle of the back ; outer feathers white at the tip.

AraricaPiLca, a fpecies of Moracitya, well known in
England by the name of b/ack-cap, and in France by that of
la fauvette a téte noir, It is {pecifically defcribed as being
teitaceous, cinereous beneath; cap dufky or black. Linn.
&c. The length is five inches and a quarter; bill brown ;
top of the head black ; upper parts of the body greenifh, afh-
colour; fides of the head and under parts grey, becoming
almoft white near the vent ; quills and tail cinereous brown ;
the two middle tail-feathers rather fhorter than the reft ; legs
lead colour ; claws black. The female differs in having the
head of a ferruginous chefnut colour inftead of black.

This bird inhabits Italy, and other parts of Europe to the
northward of that country, and is not unfrequent in Eng-
land during the fummer months; it arrives here in the
fpring, and retires in September. In Italy it builds twice
a year, according to Olina, with as only once ; the neft is
generally placed in fome low bufh, and is compofed of dried
ftalks, mixed with a little wool, and green mofs ; the infide
is lined with the fibres of plants, and thinly covered with
horfe-hair ; the eggs are five in number, of a pale reddifh-
brown colour, mottled, and {prinkled with a few larger dark
fpots. It feeds on infects, but not exclufively on them, as
it will eat the fruits of fpurge, laurel, and ivy. The fong
of this bird is amazingly fine, and in fome particulars refem-
bles that of the nightingale ; emulating in delichtful fweet-
nefs and melody the note of that charming fongitrefs, and
being only deficient in that wild variety and extent of
modulation, for which the nightingale is fo much admired.
The black-cap is from this circumitance called by fome the
mock-nightingale. '

Dr. Latham deferibes three varieties of this fpecies of
warbler; one in which the body is entirely variegated with

2

ATR

black and white only 3 currzea albo et nigro varia of Briffon,
jicedula varia of Aldrovandus, and firit variety of Gmelin.—
Another, a bird fomewhat larger, having the upper parts
almoit black, with a white throat, and fides almoft grey ;
this is curruca fupra fere nigricans, gula alba of Gmelin, a
fecond variety of that author, and petite columbaude of Buffon.
—And the third variety is fauvete verdatre de la Loufiane of
Buffon, and curruca fubtus grifca, gula fuperciliifque albis of
Gmelin ; the under parts of this is greyifh; the throat and
flreak above the eye white ; the hiud part of the neck deep
ath-colour ; fides and back pale brown, tinged with green ;
wings and tail blackifh.

ATRICAPILLUS, in Entomalogy,a {peciesof Turpus,
of a brown colour, with a black head ; belly and rump
rufous; and a black {pot on the wing. Gmelin. This is
merle a téte noire du cap de Bon E/pérance of Buffon. It inha-
bits the cape of Good Hope; and is about nivie inches in
length ; the belly is ftriated with brown ; tail cuneated, the
feathers pale at the tips.

ATRICAPILLUS, a {pecies of Carnanus, of the winged
kind, The thorax is. rufous; wing-cafes teftaceous and
obtufe ; head black. Fabricius. Od/: Gmelin deferibes it
as a yellow, with a black head and very obtufe wing-
cafes.

ATRICAPILLUS, afpecies of SrapHy Linus that is found
in England. The thorax is rufous; wing-cafes fufcous,
with a dot at the bafe and pofterior margin white.. Fabri-
cius.

ATRICAPILLUS, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Lantus that
inhabits Surinam, and is called by fome the Surinam thrike,

The tail is wedge-formed, and with the crown, neck, Es :

ders, and wings black ; body above moufe-colenr ;. be-
neath of a blueifh afh-colour. Merrem. Beytr. &e. The
length of this bird is five inches ; wings fhort ; margins of
the wing-coverts and fecondary quili-feathers white ; “all
the tail-teathers, except the two middle ones, tipped with
white. olby say ‘
ATRICAPILLUsS, a {pecies of Psirracus called by Brif-
fon ara Moluccenfis varia. It isa native of the Molucea ifles,
and about fourteen inches in length; colour above blue ;
chin, throat, and breaft red ; belly and vent green; crown
black ; neck green and red. Gmelin. The wings and
upper tail-coverts are blue, lower green, varied with red ; tail
green above, beneath red, edged with black. Klein calls
this pfittacus capite nigro, collari viridi, and Buffon grande
perruche a bandeau noir. “
ArricaPitius, a fpecies of Cuaraprius, called by
Latham the d/ack-crowned plover. Above it is cinereous
brown, beneath white ; bill and legs red ; crown black ; en-
circled with white ; neck and breait cinereous, and terminat-
ing in a tranfverfe duiky ftreak. Inhabits New York.
Gmelin. The front is black; bill black at the apex ;
bafe of the tail white, blackifh near the extremity, tips.
white. ;
AtricaPiLius, a fpecies of Parus, found in North
America, and called the Canada titmoufe by Pennant and
Latham. The cap and throat are black ; body cinereous,
and white beneath. Briffon calls this parus atricapillus cana-
denfis, and Buffon méfange a téte noire de Canada. The
length of this bird is four inches and a half; it feeds on
worms and infeé&ts, and bears cold with remarkable perfever-
ance. The upper tail-coverts are whitifh; greater wing-
coverts brown, edgi d with grey ; quill-feathers brown, with
the exterior edges grey, and the inner ones whitifh ; middle
tail-feathers cincreous ; lateral ones brown, with grey mar-
gin; legs and claws blackith. Gmelin, &c.
ATRICES, or Arrrices, in Surgery, {mall ee
ut

ATR

about the anus, which fometimes difappear, and then return
again, at leaft while in the early flate.

The atrices are ranked in the number of condy/omata or
fi. Some authors alfo give the denomination africes to a
“kind of latent wounds in the extremity of the rectum, which
however do not perforate the fame.

ATRICILLA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Larus or
gull, called by Willughby Baftner’s great ath-coloured fea-
mew; andinthe Arétic Zoology of Pennant and Gen. Syn.
of Latham, the laughing-guil. Briff.names it gavia ridibunda,
and Buff. mouette rieule. This bird is very°common about
the fhores of Avmerica, and places contiguous. Its food is
fith and marine worms ; and it is fpecifically diftinguifhed
from the reft of the gull tribe by being of a hoary grey
colour, witha blackifh head, red bill, and black legs. Oedm.
Nov. A&t Stockh. &c.

ATRICILLA, in Lntomology, a {pecies of Curyso-
mrwa, of a black colour, with the thorax, wing-cafes, and
fhanks of the legs teftaceous. Linn. aun. Suec. Fabricius
deferibes it as chryfomela faltatoria nigra, thorace elytrifque
cinereis. Spee. Inf. Chiyfomela ehils of Degeer
is fuppofed to be a variety of this fpecies, by Gmelin. In-
habits Europe, and is found on various plants.

ATRICILLOIDES, in Ornithology,a{peciesof Larus,
that inhabits Siberia, about the falt lakes. The colour is
reddifh white, with the head, orbits, and neck black ; back
and wings cinereous; legs fearlet. Falck. It. 3. p. 335.

ATRIENSES, in Antiquity, a kind of fervauts or

‘officers, in the great families at Rome, who had the care

ATR

ATRIPLEX, ia Botany, the plant called Orache or
Avache. Lin. g. 1153. Schreb. 1577. Gartn. 75. Jui 85.
Clafs, polysamia monoecia. Nat. Order, holoracee. Atripli-
ces Jull. Gen. Char. Hermaphrodite flower. Ca/. perianth
five-leaved, concave, permanent ; divifions ovate, concave,
membranaceous at the edge. Cor. none. Stam. filaments
five, fubulate oppofite to the leaves of the calyx, and longer
than them; anthers roundifh, twin. Pé/. germ orbiculate,
{tyle two-parted, fhort; fligmas reflex. Per. none. Calyx,
clofed, pentagonal, with the angles comprefied, deciduous.
Seed, one, orbicular, depreffed. Temale flower on the fame
plant. Cal. perianth two-leaved ; leaficts fat, erect, ovate,
acute, large, comprefied. Cor. none. Piff. germ com-
preffed; flyle two-parted; ftigmas reflex, acute. Per.
none ; valves of the calyx very large, cordate, including the
feed between them. Seed, one, orbiculate, compreffed.

Eff. Gen. Char. Herm. Cal. five-leaved. Cor. none.
Stam. five. Style, two-parted. Seed, one, deprefled. Female,
Cal, two-leaved. Cor. none. Stam. none. Style, two-parted.
Seed, one, comprefled.

Species, 1. A. halimus, tall, fhrubby orache, or Spanifh
fea-purflane. ‘* Stem fhrubby; leaves deltoid, entire.’
Root perennial, woody, branched. The whole fhrub is
white; {tems from four to fix inches high or more, dividing
into woody brittle branches ; leaves fcattered on long foot-
{talks ; Howers {mall, purplifh, at the ends of the branches.
It grows in hedges near the fea about Nice, alfo in Spain,
Portugal, Sicily, &c. According to Parkinfon it was cul-
tivated here in 1640. 2. A. portulacoides, dwarf thrubby

orache, er common fea-purflane. Hudf. With. Lightf. Eng,
Bot. 4. t. 261. “ Stem fhrubby ; leaves cbovate.’? A low
underfhrub ; leaves narrow, wahitifh; branches angular, re-
clining, glaucous; flowers in cluttered {pikes terminal, yel-

_ and infpeétion of the atria, and the things lodged therein.

~ ‘Thefe are otherwife called atriarii ; though fome make a
diftinétion between atrienfes and atriarii; fuggefting that

“the latter were an inferior order of fervants, perhaps affitt-

ants of the atrienfes, and employed in the more fervile
offices of the atrium, as to attend at the door, {weep the
area, &c. J
‘The atrienfes are reprefented as fervants of authority and
“command over the reft; they acted as procurators, or
agents of their matter, in felling his goods, &c. To
their care was committed the {tatues and images of the
maiter’s anceftors, &c. which were placed round the
atrium ; and which they carried in proceffion at funerals, &c.

In the villas, or country-houfes, the atrienfes had the
are of the other furniture and utenfils, particularly thofe
of metal, which they were to keep bright from ruft. Other
things they were to hang from time to time in the fun, to

_ keep them dry, &c. They were clothed in a thort white
linen habit, to diftinguith them, and prevent their loitering
from home.

ATRIP, in Nautical Language, is applied either to the
anchor or fails. ‘The anchor is atrip, when it is drawn out
of the ground in a perpendicular direction, either by
the cable or buoy-rope. The top-fails are atrip, when
they are hoifted up to the mait-head, or their utmoft ex-
tent.

ATRIPALDA, in Geography, a {mall town of Naples,
in the Principato Ultra, built upon the ruins of the ancient
Abellioum Marficum, and itanding upon an eminence com-

” pofed of ftrata of foft coloured tufa. The inhabitants are

fuppofed to have retired from it in the middle ages, and to
have founded the prefent city/of Avellino,.as more conve-
nient for traffic. Attripalda carries on fome trace in paper,

cloth, and hard-ware. This town was firft held in fee by
the Montforts ; it was afterwards granted by Ferdinand I.
‘to George Caliriot, or Scanderberz, prince of Epirus, asa
reward tor his timely affitance in 1460; aud it now gives
the title of duke to the prince of Avellino’s eldeft fon.

- Hudf. With. Lightf. Eng. Bot. 3. 165.

low. It grows near the fea in falt marfhes, flowering in
July and Angut. 3. A. glauca. Stem underfhrubby
procumbent ; leaves ovate, feffile, quite entire; the lower
ones fubdentate.’? Stem three or four feet long, with de-
clining braaches ; leaves thickifh, of a filvery glaucous co-
lour ; flowers yellow at the axils of the upper branches. A
native of France and Spain. 4. A. rofea. Villars Dauph.
2.565. ‘ Stem herbaceous,; ‘leaves hoary, ferrated; fruit
quadrangular, toothed.”? Stem ereét, fomewhat angular,
white, fmooth, branched, a foot and a half high; leaves al-
ternate, fubfeffile, rhomb-heart-fhaped, finuate-toothed, co-
yered witha farinaceous white powder ; flowers in clofe clu
ters, axillary ; valves of the fruit hoary and finely notched.
A native of the fouth of Hurope. Annual. 5. A. /lerica,
Siberian orache. ‘ Stem herbaceous ; leaves deltoid angu-
lar, calyxes of the fruit muricated on the outfide.”? This
is of the fame fize asthe A. hortenfis. The fruit is tomen-
tofe at the bafe, and muricate on the outfide ; the leaves are
filvery beneath, aud the flowers white. A native of Siberia.
Annual. 6. A. tartarica, Vartarian orache. Hudf. 443.
n. 2.8. ‘ Stem herbaceous; leaves deltoid, finuate-tooth-
ed, waved, alternate.”? According to Linanzus, this rifes
five or fix feet high. Mr. Hudfon confiders it as a variety
of the laciniata produced by cultivation, 7. A. Aartenfis,
garden orache. Gmel. Sib. 3. 71. Gertn. Fruéct. 1. 362.
« Stem erect, herbaceous; leaves triangular’? Root an-
nual; {tem above three feet high; leaves thick, pale, and
variable in their fhape ; valves of the calyx ovate-cordate,
ftreaked, entire. A native of Tartary, aid cultivated by
Gerard in 1596. It was formerly cultivated as a culinary
herb, being ufed as fpinage, and it is {till eaten by the
French. There are fome varieties of it which depend
wholly upon colour. 8. A. faciniata, jagged fea orache,
* Stem herba-

Mma2 ceous |

AT Rt

ecous ; leaves deltoid, toothed, filyery wndermeath.”? "The
whole plant is covered with a fkin that peels off, and is of a
grey hoary colour; {tem two feet high, branched ; leaves ex-
cept the lowett alternate, and filvered with little plates; lower
ones deltoid; upper deltoid-lanceolate, below entire at the
edge, above varioufly jagged ; hermaphrodite flowers in fef-
file clufters at the top of the ftalks, females axillary and
twin. It grows on ourand other European fea-coatts, flower-
ing in July and Auguft. Annual. 9g. A. ha/lata, broad-lea-
ved wild orache, vulg. Fat-hen. Martya’s Mill. Dig. «Stem
herbaceous ; valves of the calyx in the female flowers large,
deltoid, finuated.”” Dr. Smith fays, “all our botaniils had
taken the A. patula, or common orache, for the A. hattata
of Linneus, till his herbarium difcovered it to be his patula.
‘The real haftata proves a very different plant, having the
valves of the female calyx, when in fruit, very large, mem-
branous, reticulated, with veins, and bordered with long
fetaceous teeth.”? The above two fpecies however bear fo
clofe a refemblance to each other according to Haller, that
he doubts if they really be diftinét {pecies. .A common
weed in cultivated grounds, gardens, and dunghills, flower-
ing from June till Auguit. 10 A, patula, {preading hal-
berd-leaved orache. Eng. Bot. 13. t. 136. A. hailata.
Hudf. 443. With. 274. Curt. Lond. 2. 66. ‘Stem herba-
ceous, {preading; leaves triangular-lanceolate, fomewhat
halberd-fhaped ; calyx of the fruit more or lefs tuberculated
at the fides.” Smith. Eng. Bot. It grows everywhere, on
dunghills, waite or cultivated land; root annual; fibrous ;
ftem with long, fpreading, numerous branches ; leaves alter-
nate, on {talks mealy beneath ;. the lower ones haftate, deep-
ly aad irregularly toothed; the upper narrow, lanceolate,
moftly entire; clufters of flowers terminal, and axiilary,
long, interrupted, a little leafy ; valves of the female calyx,
which alone feemis to ripen its feed, triangular, acute, tooth-
ed about the lateral angles, and ftudded in the middle with
tubercles. By the fea-fide the whole plant is procumbent,
more flefhy, reddifh, and all the leaves fomewhat entire.
Smith. lc. 11. A. /ittoralis, grafs-leaved fea orache.
Hudf. 444. With. 275. Eng. Bot. ro. t. 702. “ Stem her-
baceous, ereét ; leaves all linear, entire, or toothed 5 calyx
of the female flowers muricated, finuated.’? Stem ere&,
angular, with leafy branches ; leaves alternate, on footitalks,
flat, linear, having their margins entire, or more commonly
fet with {mall fcattered teeth, mealy underneath; fpikes
terminal, denfe, obtufe; valves of the female flowers
become much eularged, ovate deeply and irregularly finua-
ted, and furnifhed with large pointed tubercles. Found on
the eaitern and fouthern coafts of this kingdom, in a muddy
feil, flowering in Auguft and September. 12. A. peduncu-
lata, pedunculated fea-orache. Hudi. 444. With. 1146.
Eng. Bot. 4. 232. “ Stem herbaceous, with divaricating
branches; leaves lanceolate, obtufe, undivided; fruit ef
the female flowers peduncled.”” The pedunculated fruit,
ever, without the ziozag, angular ftem, fufficiently dif-
tinguifhes this fpecies from all its congeners. The ftem is
fix or eight inches high, with remarkably glaucous leaves.
It grows on the falt marfhes near Yarmouth, and was
found: by Dr. Smith on the muddy fhore of the river
Oufe, jute beiow Lynn. Annval. 13. A., marina, fer-
rated fea-orache. Lightf. 637...) “ Stem herbaceous, ere ;
leaves linear ferrate.”? Mr. Hudfou’s A. ferrata is cer-
tainly a variety of A. littoralis, and we are difpofed to con-
fider this as the fame plant. 14. A. alireans, white orache.
«© Stem fhrubby, ere&t; leaves haftate, entire, acute ;
{pikes terminating.””? A native of the Cape; difcovered
by Maffon, and introduced by him into the Kew garden in
3774+
3

. atrium.was an interior part of buildings; aad it appears —_

ATR

Propagation and Culture. 1, 2, 3. may be increafed by
cuttings planted in any of the fummer months, on a fhady
border ; where, if they be daily watered, they will be in a
itate to tranfplant the Michaelmas following. N° 7. muft be
fown for ufe inthe {pring, or at Michaelmas, foon after the
feeds are ripe, which is better. Thefe plants require no
other care, but to hoe them when they are about an inch
high; to cut them down where they are too thick, leaving
them about four inches alunder, and to clear them from
weeds. When the plants are about four inches kigh, it
will be proper to hee them a fecond time, and if this be
well performed in dry weather, the grouad will remain
clean until the plant isyfitfor ufe. Where it is fown on
a rich foil, and the plants are allowed a proper diftance,
the leaves will be very large and in that the excellence
of the herb coufifis. Uilefs it be eaten when young,
the ftalks become tough and good for nothing. The
feeds will ripen in Auguft, when the plants may be cut
or pulled up and laid on a cloth to dry; after which
the feeds may be beaten out and put in bags to dry.
Moft of the other forts, fo far from being cultivated 1a
cardens, are to be rooted out from them as rank weeds.
Martyn’s Miller’s Dict. :

ArrRipLex. See ArrarHAxis, Axyris, Brirum,
CueEnopopium, and GaLenia.

ATRIPLICIS, in Lnt:mology,a fpecies of ScanaBazus.
(Melolontha.) This infeé& is oblong, villofe, pale; future.
and apex of the wing-cafes black; thield of the head ¢
fle&ted. A native of Barbary, and feeds on the atriplex |
mifolia ; in fize and appearance refembles S. ruficornis.

Arripricis, a {pecies of Curcutio that is found on
the fhores of Norway. It islong and black ; thorax fhining;—
wing-cafes ftriated aud ebtyfe. Gmelix : gt

Arripuicis,a fpecies of PHauzn a (Nodua). Te
wings are clouded with brown, with a yellow biid nee a
the middle. Fn. Sy. Fabr. &c. The larva is naked, reddith,
dotted with white, and marked along the back with a brown
line. Pupa, naked and brown. ry ae
Arripuicis, a fpecies of Aruts that infelts the atriplex
hortenfis. The body is gloffy black, plaited at the fides ;
fhanks pale; tail obtufe. Fabr. &c. wie ‘:

ATRIROSTRIS, a fpeciesof Curcutio. It is cine
reous, with the fnout arched and black. Inhabits Leipzick, -
Paykull. i, UN

ATRIUM, in Ancient Archite@ur:, one of the interior
divifions of the ancient Romanhoufes. Aulus Gellius tells _
us, that even in his time many learned perfons confounded —
together the terms atrium asd veftibulum. Cecilius Gallus *
teaches us, that the veftibulum was not apart of the inte- —
rior of the houfe, but only a large recefs at the principal
entrance, perhaps analogous to the modern loggias of the
Italians. Cicere, in a letter to Atticus, feems to exprefs »
the fame thing, when he fays, that in paffiag through the ~~
facred ftreet, when he was purfued by affaflins, he took re- +
fuge in the veftibulum of Tatius. Seceffi in veftibulum
Caii Tatii Domionis.”? From the time of Aulus Gellius, the
fame uncertainty: of the exact meaning of thefe words con-
tinned, and they became almoit fynonymous. It muft be ;
{till more difficult at the prefent time, to affign to the |
atrium its true fituation and ufe. gl ie

Martial places the coloffus of Nero inthe atrium, and _
Suetonius in the veftibulum; from whence it refults that ~
one of them mutt have employed one of thefe terms impro-
perly. Vitruvius even fometimes employs the word atfium
for cavedium, Virgil by this verfe, “* apparet domus nitus
et atria longa patefcunt,’? gives us to underftand, that the

%

certain,

ATR

certain, that this was a particular place in private houfes,
pelaces, and temples.

From the defcription which Vitruvius gives us of it, it
appears to have been an oblong room, having its breadth
divided into three parts by two rows of columns. He gives

es for placing thefe columns accordiag to the general
proportion of the atrium.

The atrium was fituated after the cavedium which was
what we commonly call the court, and immediately before
the tublinum. It was in the atrium that the Romans placed’
the ftatues of their anceftors, and it was alfo fometimes ufed
as an eating room, though they had alfo other places de-
ftined for the purpofes of the table. This is proved by
Virgil, who in delcribing the place where they made their
repatt, fays,

Crateras magnos fatuuntt vina coronant,

Fit ftrepitus teétis vocemque per ampla volutant.

Atria dependent lychni laquearibus aureis.”’
Tt follows from this, that we muit confider the atrium as
one of the interior parts of the houfe, in which it differed
from the vellibulum, and that it was covered, which diftin-
guifhes it ftill more from the cavedium or the emplu-
vium.

Some temples had alfo an atrium: of this number was
the temple of Vefta, and that of Liberty. It was in the
latter (fays Titus Livius) that they der. fited the hoftages
of the Tarentines. It appears that it was a covered femi-
circ ilar court, if we may judge from the ancient marble

lan of Rome, which is preferved in the capitol, on which
we ftill read thefe words atrium libertatis.”’ :

If we may believe the hiftorians, the ufe and form of the
atrium were borrowed from the Etrufcans, and this appella-
tion come. from the city of Atria, or Adria, which gives
nam* to the Atriatic or Adriatic fea, and where this fort
of porticoes was much ufed.

Fefius fays “atrium proprie eft genus edificii di€étum
atrium, guia id genus edificii primum atria in Etruria fit in-
ftitutum.” Varro de ling. Lat. 1. 4. «atrium appellatum

_ ab atriaticis Tufcis ; iliac enim exemplum fumptum.

Araioum, in Ecclefafiical Antiquity, denotes an cpen

Place or court, before a church, making part of what was
calied the narthex, or ante-temple.
_ The atrium, in the ancient churches, was a large area, or
fquare plat of ground, furrounded with a portico or cloytter,
fituated between the porch or veftible of the church, and
the body of the church.

Some have miftakenly confounded the atrium with the
porch or vettible, from which it was diftin& ; others with
the narthex, of which it was only a part.

The atrium was the manfion of thofe were not fuf-
fered to enter farther isto the church. More particularly,
it was the place where the firft clafs of penitents ftood,
to beg the prayers of the faithful, as they went into the
church,

Arrrvm is alfo afed, in the Canon Law, for the ceme-
tery, or church-yard.

tn this fenfe we find a law, prohibiting buildings to be
_ raifed in afrio ecclefie, except for the clergy ; which the

a explains thus: id eft in cemeterio, which includes
_ the fpace of forty paces round a large church, or thirty
round a little church or chapel.

ATROPA, in Botany, (from Atropcs, the third fate,
who, was fuppofed to cut the thread of life) deadly
nighjfhade, Lin. g..249. Schreb. 335. Jul. 125. Gaertn.

-t. 131. Clafs, peniancdria monogynia. Nat. Ord. Luridz.
Solanee. jufl. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth one-leafed, five-
parted, gibbous; divifions acute, permanent. Cor. one-

ATR
petalled, bell-fhaped ; tube very fhort ; border ventricofed

ovate, longer than the calyx; mouth fimall, five-cleft, fpread-
lng ; divifions fubequal. Stam. Filameats five, fubulate from
the bafe of the corolla, and of the fame length with it,
converging at the bafe, above diverging outwards, bowed;
anthers thickifh, rifing. Pi/. germ lemiovate; ftyle fili-
form, the length of the flameis, inclined. Stigma headed,
rifling tranfverfely, oblong. Per. berry globular, fitting oa
a large calyx, two-celleds Receptacle fieihy, convex on both
fides, reniform. Seeds, very many, reniform.
Eif. Gen. Char. Cor. bell-fhaped. Siam. diftant. Berry
globylar, two-celled. :
Species, 1. A. Mandrazora, mandrake, Woody. Med.
Bot. t. 225. “-Stemiefs, feapes onz-flowered.”? Root
perennial, large, tapering, three or four fect long, exter-
nally brown, internally whith. Fron the crowa of the
root arifes a circle of leaves, which are large, ovate, finu-
ated, veined ; they fit clofe to the root, and are of a deep
green colour, and fetid fmell; among thefe arife three or
four fhort flender feapes, each fupporting a fingle flower
of an herbaceous white colour; fruit a globular foft berry
of a yellowith colour, and about the fize of a nutmeg.
A. native of the fouth of Europe. It was cultivated here,
according to Turner, in 1562. The fuperttitious and abfurd
ftories related of the mandrake would not now for a moment
impofe on the moft credulous and ignorant. The fuppofed
refemblance of fome of the roots to the human form, the
daiger of taking them out of the ground, as well as their
furprifing effets, feem to have been the invention of char-
latanical knavery and impofture. Boerhaave ufed the
leaves as a cataplafm with fuccefs in cafes of indurated
tumours, and Hoffberg experienced the like effets from
the roots in glandular {wellings ; the latter alfo found that
three grains of the root givea internally had a confiderable
narcotic effe€&t in mitigating arthritic pains. See Woody.
1. c. 2. Av belladonna, deadly nighthhade, Hudf. 93. With.
252. Smith. Brit. 255. Curt. Lond. 5. t. 16. Woody.
Med. Bot. t. 1. Eng. Bot. 592. ‘ Stem herbaceous;
leaves ovate, entire.”” Root perennial, thick, flefhy, creep-
ing ; ftalks herbaceous, annual, erect, firm, three feet high,
rouad, branched, leafy, fubpubefcent ; leaves lateral, two
together, of an unequal fize, petioled, ovate, acute, entire,
fmoothith, and of a dull green colour; peduncles lateral,
fubaxillary, folitary, o%e-flowered, nodding ; flowers of a
dirty violet colour; calyx rather pubefcent, vifcous; anthers
large, white; berry depreffed, furrowed; when ripe of a
fhining black colour, and abounding with a purple juice.
It grows in wafte-ground and gloomy lanes, &c. This
plant has been long known as a very ftrong poifon of the
narcotic kind; the berries, which are faid to be lefs power-
fully fo than the leaves, have produced many inftances of
their fatal effe@s, particularly upon children, who arereadily
tempted to eat this fruit by its alluriag appearance and
{weet tafte. Whether thefe berries eaten in different ftates
of maturity renders them more or lefs deleterious, has not
been afcertained; but we are told that in fome initances, one
berry, or even half of one, has produced a fatal efieG ;
while Haller informs us, that he has feen a fellow-itudent of
his eat more than three or four without fuffering any incon-
venience from them. The fymptoms produced by this
poifon are vertigo, delirium, great thirit, painful deglutition,
and retching, followed by furor, ftridor dentium, and con-
vulfions ; <ife.eye-lids are drawn down, the uvea dilated and
immoveable, the face becomes red and tumid, and fpafms
affe& the mouth and jaw ; the fenfibility and irritabihty of
the body fuffer fuch great diminution, that large and re-
peated dofes of the ftrongeft emetics produce no ao
effet 5

v5 Mat eS

effect; the pulfe is {mall, hard, quick; and fubfultus ten-
dinum, rifus fardonius, and coma, clofe the fatal fcene.
Vinegar liberally drank has been found mott efficacious in
obviating the effects of this poifon. On opening the bodies
of thofe poifoned by this plant, inflammation and erolions
of the ftomach and jinteftines have been difcovered. A fimi-
lar effect was produced in the ftomach of a horfe, at the
Veterinary College, from a large dofe of opium, viz. three
ounces. ‘The leaves of the belladonna were firit ufed exter-
nally to difcufs fcirrhous and cancerous tumours, and as
an application to iil-conditioned ulcers, and their good
efiects in this way at length induced phyficians to employ
them internally for the fame diforders, and we tind a con-
fiderable number of well-authenticated faéts, which prove
them to have been of important fervice. Dr. Cullen fays,
«« T have had a cancer of the lip entirely cured by bella-
donna ; a {cirrhofity in a woman’s breaft entirely difeufled
by the ufe of it; a fore a little below the eye, which had
put on a cancerous appearance, was much mended by the
iaternal ufe of this plant; but the patient having learned
fomewhat of the poifonous nature of the medicine, refufed
to continue the ule of it, upon which the fore again {pread,
and was painful; but upon a return to the ule of bella-
-donna, it was again mended to a confiderable degree ;
when the fame fears again returning, the ufe of it was
again laid afide, and with the fame coniequence.”” The root
is much lefs powerful than the leaves. See Woody. |. c.
-and :Murray App. Med. 3. A. phy/aloides, Peruvian deadly
night-fhade. ‘ Stem herbaceous ; leaves finuate-angular ;
calyxes clofed, acute-angular.”? Root annual, fibrous;
ftem {preading, two feet high; leaves alternate, fmooth,
oblong, running down the footitalk ; peduncles fubaxillary,
folitary, LN a one-flowered; calyx ovate, deeply five-
parted ; leaflets fagittate-ovate; corolla bell-thaped, flightly
five-lobed, blue, with a white eye, having five blue fpots ;
berry about the fize of a cherry, with five fharp angles,
and inclofed in a ventricofe bladder. A native of Peru.
Cultivated by Miller. 4. A. folanacea. “ Stem fhrubby ;
peduncles folitary ; corollas bell-fhaped; leaves fubovate.””
Six feet high, fomewhat branched and angular ; leaves alier-
nate, ufually many from the buds, petioled, entire, naked ;
peduncles axillary, one-flowered, filiform, the length of the
leaves ; flowers penculous. A native of thie cape of Good
Hope. 5. A. arbore/cens, tree atropa, belladonna frutef-
cens, ke. Pium. 46. f. 1. 6 Stem fhrubby ; peduncles
crowded ; corollas revolute ; leaves oblong.”? A {mall tree
or fhrub. Leaves alternate, in tufts towards the ends of
the branches, lanceolate-ovate, acute, entire, nerved, of a
dark colour; flowers peduncled, heaped, white, fragrant,
nodding ; peduncles numerous, one-flowered, whitith ;
corolla fomewhat bell-fhaped, narrow at the bottom, fwelling
at top; filaments twice as long as the corolla. This fpe-
cies is often tetrandrious. A native of South America and
Jamaica. 6, A. frutefcens, fhrubby atropa. Stem fhrubby ;
peduncles crowned; leaves cordate-ovate, obtufe.”? Six or
eight feet high ; leaves alternate, roundifh; fowers come out
between the leaves on fhort peduncles, and refemble thofe
of belladonna, but much finaller, and of a dirty yellow
colour. A native of Spaia. Cultivated by Miller in 1739.
7. A. herbacea, herbaceous atropa, Mill. Dit. n. 3. * Stem
herbsceous ; leaves ovate, nerved, with waved edges.”? Root
perennial ; items channelled, about two feet high, dividing
into two or three branches ; leaves four inches long and
three broad, having feveral tranfverfe prominent ribs on the
under fide; flowers white, bell-fhaped. The feeds were
fent to Mr. Miller from Campeachy. 8. A. procumbens,
whee!-Jowered atropa; Cavan. Hifp. n. 80. t. 72. * Stem

ATTAR

procumbent, hérbaceous; leaves twin, unequal, ovate,
{mooth ; flowers in umbels,”? Root annual ; {lem grooved,
much branched, three feet high ; leaves fharp-ovate, running
down the petiole, fmooth, entire, one-curved, glaucous
beneath ; common peduncle, folitary, fearcely an inch in
length ; rays of the umbel from two to five ; corolla her-
baceous, yellow, wheel-fhaped, which fufficiently diftin-
guifhes it from all its congeners. A native of Mexico,

Propagation and Culture. 1. Mandrake is propagated by
feeds, as foon as they are ripe, when they are to be fown
upon a bed of light earth, and ecccafionally refrefhed with
water. In Auguit they muft be taken up very carefully
and tranfplanted into the places where they are to remain,
obferving that the foil be light and deep, for the roots run
far down, and will grow to a large fize in a few years if
not interrupted by gravel or chalk, or rotted in winter by
wet foil, The plant fhould alfo have a warm fituation.
‘he root will remain found above fifty years, and continue
to be as vigerous as a young plant. Deadly ae
may be propagated both by its roots and by its feeds ; it
requires a fhady fituation. If the feeds of the third {pe-
cies be permitted to featter, the plants will come up the
following {pring, and may then be tranfplanted into the
borders of the pleature garden, where they will grow to
a large fize. Species 4th, &c. may be propagated by
feeds, which fhov}d be fown in a hot-bed in the fpring;
and when fit to be removed, they fhould be each put into
a feparate {mall pot filled with loamy earth, and thaded
until they take root. The 4th and 6th may be placed with
other hardy exotic plants in a fheltered fituation, and in
Oétober they muit be removed into the green-houfe. The
sth, 7th, and Sth, muft be kept in the bark-ftove. The
7th may be increafed by parting the roots. See Martyn’s
Miller’s Dict.

ATROPATENE, or Artropasia, in Ancient Geo-~
graphy, a country of Adia, occupying the north-wett part of
Media, and lying between mount Taurus and the Cafpian
fea. It is faid to have taken its name from one Atropatus,
who, being governor of this province in the time of Darius,
the laft Perfian monarch, oppofed Alexander the Great,
and upon the deflruction of the Perfian monarchy, feized
this part of Media, and tranfmitted it to his pofterity,
who held it as fovereigis to the time of Strabo. betin i
lib. xi. p. 523.) It was a cold, barren, and inhoipitable
country, and on that account allotted by Shalmanezer for
the refidence of many captive Ifraelites, after the conqueft
of their kingdom. Its imhabitants, according to Polybius
(1. v. p. 492.), were good foldiers ; and we learn from
Strabo, that its kings could bring into the field 40,0C0
foot and 20,000 horfe. The metropolis of Atropatene
was Gaza. ’

ATROPHY (eieotia from «, privative, and spePx2, nu-
trio’, in Medicine, a defe& of aourifhmeat, and confequent :
emaciation. It differs from phthifis, by being unaccom-»
panied with cough, and purulent expectoration ; and from
tabes, by the abfence of hectic fever.
however, of fy{tematic writers, between tabes and atrophy
is not altogether fo fatisfactory as could be wifhed; fince,
atrophy in its advanced ftage is often attended with a lymp-_
tomatic fever refembling the heétic. In the fourth volume
of his Firft Lines of the PraCtice of Phyfic, Dr. Cullen has.
candidly acknowledged that he was not fatisfied with his
arrangement of the vec {pecies of atrophia pe
even exprefies a doubt, whether the diflia€tion atten
Nofology, between the two difeafes, will properly
being of opinion that there are certain affeGtions of
nature, which fometimes appear with, and fometimes”

This diftin@tion,»

&

Me

ATR

fever. If, however, incompliance with fy fem, the diftindtion is

to be made, we would re({trict the term tabes to emaciations
shisha either from glandular and vifceral obflruction, or

trom purulency and ulceration, If this be done, the third {pe-

cies of tabes in Cullen’s Nofology will rank under atrophy ;

~ of which we fhall then have fix peice placed in the follow-
ing order; viz. Atrophia inanitorum; A. famelicorum ;
; § A. debilium ; A. cacochymica; A. venenata; A. a com-
_. preffione duétis thoracic. The caufes which induce the
: firft-mentioned f{pecies, are long-continued and profule
4 eyacuations ; fuch as an immoderate flow of faliva, profule
: perfpirations, diabetes, fluor albus, femiual emiffions, abufe
of venery, continuing to fuckle too often or too long in
the cafe of nurfes, &c. &c. ; chronic diarrhea and rejection
of the food foon after being fwallowed, are among other
caufes enumerated by practical writers: of thefe two, the
firit brings on that emaciation which is coy monly known
under the name of marafmus; the latter (viz. vomiting),
when it arifes from a fcirrhofity of one of the orifices of
the flomach, or other organic difeafe of that vifcus, we
would rather refer to the caufes which produce tabes.
When the vomiting depends upon mere irritability, without
injured organilation, it will then give rife to atrophy. The

mott frequent form under which the atrophia famelicorum
appears, 1s, that whichis defcribed by medical writers under

; the name of tabes dorfalis. It is occafioned by a lois
and forced fecretion of the feminal fluid, and happens to

ofe who are too much addicted tz venery, to thofe who

inflame their imaginations with lafcivious ideas, and efpe-

cially to youths who indulge themfelves in the obfcene aad
baneful praGtice of onanifin. This difeafe was well known

to the ancients, and is defcribed in the collection of writ-

ings attributed to Hippocrates. (zee! vec, lib, ii.) With

. the frequent emiffions of femen-there is a pain in the back
and loins, coftivenefs, head-ach, giddinefs, and dimnets of
fight ; epee of the breath, hurry of the ipirits, reftlefs
nights, laflitude, palenefs of the countenance, walting of the
flefh, pains of the joints, tremors, and in fome inftances pally,
with a failing of the memory and dejeCtion of mind.
In fetting about the cure we mutt firft remove the exciting
eaufes, by forbidding venereal intercourfe, and reftraining
manual pollution (manuitupratio). ‘The foft downy bed
muit be exchanged for a hard one, and early rifing enjoined.
‘The patient mutt abitain from ftrong wines, efpecially white
wines, hot liquors, and feafoned food, and take to a plain,
mild, nutritious diet, of which milk and its preparations
fhould conititute the chief part. Sago, tapioca, animal
jellies, and eggs, will alfo be proper. The common cold-
h or fea-bathing fhould be employed, with daily exercife
01 ack ; and befides the free ufe of cow’s milk, affes
yuld be taken at leaft once a day. The proper me-
es will be the Peruvian bark, the lichen iflandicus, the
infufion of the red rofe, the infufion of catechu, and cha-
lybeates ; or if the laft-named metallic preparations prove
‘too ftimulant, the zincum vitriolatum. In fome of thefe
_ cafes, mild opiates, or the cicuta, may alfo be given with
advantage. Coftivenefs fhould be prevented by occafional
dofes of the eleétuarium fennz, or olewm ricini, or magnefia
and ri barb. (See Tiffot on Onanifm.) The fame means
will be equally fuited to moft of the other varieties of atro-
phia inanitorum. When itis occafioned by profufe perfpira-
tions the fulphuric acid fhould be given with the other
tonics; and when the urinary evacuation is exceflive, the
fame remedies as in diabetes; which fee. When this dif-
order cccurs in nurfes giving too much fuck, the aftringent
vegetable fubftances ihe Peruvian bark excepted) and
metallic falts above mentioned will not be proper; a more

ATR

liberal ufe-of fermented liquor and animal food fhould be
allowed, and the infant fhould be weaned. When it pro,
ceeds from a diarrhea, opiates mey be given more freely,
joined with teftaceous powders, and {mall dofes of ipeca-
cuanha. When it is occafioned by the food being re-
jected from the ftomach fhortly after it is fwallowed, the
peculiar condition of that organ, on which the vomiting a.
pends, muit be afcertained and remedied accordingly, In
fuch cafe, glyfters of milk and animal jellies fhould be
adminiftered once or twice every day, until the difpofition
to inverted action is removed.

A. famelicorum. This oceursin infants at the breaft, not
being fupplied with a fufficiency of milk. It is known by
the daily emaciation of the infant, conftant cries, avd
wakefulnefs, its eagernefs to fuck, and its tranquillity and
difpofition to fleep after being put to the breaft. It hap-
peus when the mother’s or nurfe’s milk is either deficient in
quantity, or poor and watery in its quality, It may be re-
medied in part by putting the mother upon a generous diet,
and fupplying the infant with nourifhment by the fpoon ;
but the moft ciectual method is to refort to a nurfe ca-
pable of affording a healthier and more abundant ftream of
milk.

A. debilium. To this fpecies belong the nervous atrophy,
and the emaciation which accompanies old age. It depends
upon a debility of the organs of digettioa and nutrition,
In the firft inftance, it is fometimes the confequence of clofe
application to bufinefs or ftudy, and exceffive anxiety, grief,
a longing after one’s native country or a beloved object,
with other deprefling paflions. In thefe cafes, a removal
from the fcene of ftudy or bufinefs, and from the fource of”
anxiety, regular exercife and proper recreations, will form
the bafis of the cure. At the fame time, bitters, chaly-
beates, and opiates, fhould not be omitted. (Morton de Atro-
phia, fen Phthifi nervofa.) When the diforder is the confe-
quence of old age, much relief cannot be expected. In that
cafe, little more can be done than to render the diet as nu-.
tritious as poffible.

A. cacochymica. When the emaciation in this fpecies is
connected with a {corbutic acrimony, the remedies proper
for correcting the fame muft be employed ;, fuch as fubacid
fruits, frefh malt liquor, &c. all falted meats being ftn@ly
avoided. When it is conneéted with a fyphilitic acrimony,
the cure fhould be attempted by mercurials, opiates, and the
guaiacum and farfaparilla decottions, with the warm bath.
When it occurs in a ricketty conftitution, the fame treat-
ment as in rachitis will be proper. (See Ricxers.) If
this {pecies (the A. cacochymica), is accompanied wita icer-
butic or fyphilitic fores, it fhould be referred to tabes.

A. venenata. This happens when the concoCtive pow
are impaired or deltroyed by vegetable or mineral poifons.
Among the vegetable poilons which prove the cauie of’
atrophy, may be mentioned the abufe of green tea in wo-
men, and the chewing of tobacco in men.. In like manrer
the opium-eaters in the Levant and other parts of the eait
are affected with atrophy. Another poifon extracted from
vegetable fubftances undergoing fermentation, which pro-
duces the fame effect, is alcohol, or brandy, rum, &c. Among-
the mineral poifons which have been obferved to caufe this
difeafe, may be mentioned lead and arfenic. The remedies
in this fpecies of atrophy mutt be varied according to the
kind of poifon by which it was induced. (See Porsons.):
In the Nofological Syftem of Dr. Cullen, this fpecies of ema-.
ciation is ranked under tabes ; but as it is not accompanied:
either with glandular obftruétion, or with purulency or ulcer-
ation, we have conceived it to belong to the prefent genus,,
and have accordingly introduced it here.. iad

‘he-

ATR

The laft fpecies we have to notice is the A. 3 comprefficne
du@us thoracici. ‘This takes place when the thoracic dué
is fo compreffed by a tumor or other mechanical canfe; that
the tran{miflion of the chyle through it is either partially cr
wholly intercepted. In the latter cafe it is irremediable.
Fortunately this {pecies of atrophy is of very rare oceur-
rence. See Morton’; Phthifiologia ; and Hoffman de Atro-
phia, Suppl. II. 1. Cullen’s PraGice of Phyfic, vol. iv.

ATROPICA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Manris de-
{eribed by Pallas. It is a native of the ifland of Java; on
the thorax are four {pines ; wing-cafes fhort and mucronate
at the bafe.

ATROPOS, a fpecies of Spuinx, with yellow pofte-
rior wings fafciated with brown, and yellow abdomen
with black rings. Varieties of thig fpecies differing in
fize, colour, and fome peculiarities of the marks on the
anterior wings, are found in Egypt, I. dia, the cape of Good
Hope, America, and Europe. It is the largeit of the Eu-
ropean infeéts of the lepidopterous tribe, and is certainly a
beautiful creature. In England this kind is rare, and is
called the death’s head hawk-moth, from certain character-
i lic and very fingular marks on the thorax, by which the
figure of a human {kull is ftronaly depi&ed. Thefe ines
for this reafon have generally been regarded as an ominous
prefage of fome approaching calamity by the peafantry in
moit countries where they have appeared by chance; and
Linnzus has him{eif named it after one of the three fates of
the heathen mythology. The larva feeds on the jefmine,
potatoe, and elder ; is folitary, yellow, with oblique, blue,
green, and black lateral ftripes, and a refle@ed tail 3 pupa
veddifh. Vide Donov. Brit. Inf. g. t. 289. Linneus in
Ameenit. Acad. names this infeét caput mortuum ; and Geof-
froy in Hift. des InfeGes, le fpbinx a téte de mort.

AtRopos, is alfo a fpecies of Musca, about half an
inch in length, that inhabits Audtria. It is rather downy ;
thorax whitifh with three black fpots ; abdomen black, with
interrupted yellow bands, and margin of the fegments of
the fame colour. Schrank Beylr.

Arropos, in Mythology, one of the Parce or Fates,
whofe office % was to cut the thread of life.

Arropos, in Zoology, a fpecies of Coruser, defcribed
by Linneus in Muf. Ad. Fr. & Gmel. Syit. Nat. as having
131 abdominal plates, and 22 fubcaudal feales. It is a nae
tive of America, and deemed an extremely poifonous fer-
pent ; the colour hoary grey, with a quadruple feries of
brown ocellated fpots, each with a white iris or margin.
The head is heart-fhaped, gibbous, with four and fometimes
more black fpots ; and the feales are lanceolate. Gmel. It
is cobra atropos of Laur. Amph.

Dr. Shaw obferves that this fpecies is of a thick and
fhort form, fcarcely exceeding fifteen or fixteen inches in
Iength ; the head is large and viperine, marked with four
or five large dufky {pots, and covered with {mall feales ; the
remainder of the animal of a pale brown, marked all along
the upper part by four rows of very large, alternate, round,
black fpots bordered with white; the abdomen afh-colour,
and tail very fhort, meafuring about a ninth part ofits whole
length ; the feales on all the upper parts are of a flightly
fharpened form, and carinated. Gen. Zool. vy. 3. p. 2.

)

‘i A'TRO-VIOLESCENS, in Entomology, a fpecies of
Curysoms ta, once taken in the month of September, in
the county of Norfolk. It is ovate, violaceous-black ;
wing-cafes ftriated ; legs pitchy-black. Marth. Ent. Brit.

ATROVIRENS, in Zoology, a fpecies of Corungr,
deferibed by the count de Cepede under the title of « la
coleuvre verte et jaune ;”” and by Dr, Shaw, under that of

ATR
coluber atrovirens, G. atrovirens, favo maculatus, abdomine
favo, lateribus nigro pun¢iate. Black-green f{nake, fpeck-
led with yellow; the abdomen yellow, with a row of black
{pecks down each fide. French fuake. c ,

“ This feems,” fays Dr. Shaw, «to be the {pecies figured
by Aldrovandus, underthenameof anguis A: /culapii niger, and
which appears to have been fo littleattended to by modern
naturaliits, as to have been generally confounded with the
ringed fnake (C. natrix), till it was again brought to notice
by Monf. Daubenton, and afterwards by the count de Ce-.
pede, who has accurately defcribed it, and who informs us
that it is very frequent in fome of the provinces of Franer,

being found in woods aad moift fhady places ; in its general ~

fize and appearance it refembles the ringed fnake or natrix,-
but differs in colour, being ot an extremely dark or black.
Th green, fo as to appear black on a curfory view, the fides
being marked by numerous rays of yellow {pecks of differ.
ent forms, fome oblong and fome fquare, and which form
fomewhat more decided or dittin@tly marked itripes towards
the head; the eyes and edges of the mouth are bordered
with yellow fcales; the abdomen is alfo yellow, each feu-
tum being marked on each fide by a black fpeck. This
fnake is an animal of a perfecily harmlefs nature, and like
the ringed fuake, is capable of being tamed to a confider=
able degree.””—* On the approach of winter, it retires,
like the latter, into fubterraneous retreats, and pafles that
feafon in a ftate of torpidity, from which it recovers in the

{pring, when it cafts,its fin, and appears in its highet
beauty.”” f’ i

ATROX, in Zoolgy, a kind of Coruser, which ace
cording to Linanzus is fpecificaily characterifed by having
169 abdominal plates, and 69 fubcaudal {cales. Amoen.
Acad. This creature is a native of Adia, and is about a
foot and a half in length; the colour hoary ; feales cari-
nated; beneath marked with dark brown, tranfverfe, al-
ternate fpots ; head depreiled, compreffed, angulated, and
covered with minute feales. Gmelin makes « dipfas indica”
of Laur. Amph. a variety of this {pecies. Dr. Shaw-de-
{cribes it in his Gen. Zool. as being the “grey brown fnake,
with tranfverfe linear whitilh ftripes, and dufky abdomen,
with white tranfverfe variegations ;
Jnake. ‘This author alfo notices one error of Linneus re-
fpecting this fpecies that deferves particular remark, _«& Ia
the Mufeum Adolphi Friderici, p. 33.” fays he, this fpe-
cies is, by a miftake, inferibed angulatus, while the figure on
plate 22 of that work, reprefents the body marked by feve-
ral diftant, narrow, tranfverfe whitith bands reaching to the
abdomen, which is {potted with fmall, round, white {pecks ;
the duilcy tranfverfe {pots appearing only beneath the tail ;
the general colour of the abdomen, however, in this fnake
is rather deep brown or blackith, beautifully variegated
or marbled by numerous narrow tranfverfe bands, accom-
panied here and there with fmall fpots; the tail is remark.
ably fhort and lender. In the Syftema Nature a miftaken
reference appears to be made to a figure in Seba reprefente
ing a very different {pecies.. The ©: atrox.is a poifonous
fnake, and is a native of the ifland of Ceylon.”? ;

ATSCHARES, in Geography. a iribe of the Manp~+
suURES, who inhabited the banks of the middle Amor, in
Siberia, before it was taken poffeffion of by the Ruffians,
They then fubfifted in a ftate of independence; but the
were afterwards removed, by order of the Chinefe govern.
ment, from the Amoor farther towards China. ; :

ATTACAMA, in Geography, one of the fourteen jurif-
dictions belonging to the archbifhopric of Plata, in the’
audience of Charcas, in South America. It is the weftern
boundary of the audience, extending to the South fea ;

and

and names it the fierce

a7 T

and the principal town, called alfo Atacama, is no lefs than
120 leagues from Plata. Its jurifdiction is of a confiderable

extent, and a great part of it very fruitful ; but intermixed

with fome deferts, particularly towards the fouth, where it
divides the kingdoms of Peru and-Chili. On the coatt in
this province there is annually a very large fifhery of Tolo,
a fifh common in the South fea, with which a very great
trade is carried on with the inland provinces, this being the
chief food in Lent and other days of abftinence. There is
a great defert of the fame name, and a chain of mountains,

‘which feparate Peru, on the north, from the province of

Example.

are:

remiss

ATTACHIAMENTA Bonogvm, in Law, a diftrefs
taken upon goods or chattels, where a man is fued for per-
fonal eftate or debt, by the legal attachiators or bailiffs, as

fecurity to anfwer an action.

ATTACHIAMENTA DE Spinis ET Bosco, is a pri-
vilege granted to the officers of a foreft to take to their own
ufe thorns, brush, and wind-falls, within their own pre-
cinéts.

ATTACHING, or Artacumenrt, denotes the ap-
prehending a perfon or thing, either by a precept or writ.
The word is formed of the French attacher, to fajfen or tie 5
and that from the corrupt Latin aftachiare, of attexere, to
aweave to; or rather, as others think, from the Celtic tach,
a nail; and tacha, to nail ; or the Saxon tecan, to take.

Lambard makes this difference between an arreit and an
attachment ; that an arreft procéeds out of an inferior court
by precept only, and an attachment out of a higher court,
either by precept or writ ; and that a precept to arreft hath
thefe formal words, duci facias, &c. and a writ of attach-
‘ment thefe, “ precipimus tili quod aitachies talem, F habeas
‘eum coram nobis.

' By this it appears, that he who arretts carries the party
arrefted to another higher perfon, to be difpoted of forth-

Vor. III.

4

, :

fag

Quito. The cold in thefe mountains is fometimes fo ex-
tremely fevere, that thofe who pafs it are occationally frozen
to death. S, lat. 22° W. long 80° zo.

ATTACANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in greater Armenia. Ptolemy.

ATTACCO, in Mu/ic, is a kind of fhort fubje& or point,
not reftri¢ted to all the laws of recular fugue. | Sometimes
it is a fection of the principal theme itlelf, treated rather
as an imitation than a fubject of regular fugue, and may be
an{wered in any interval, at pleafure.

oo

with: whereas he that attaches keeps the party attached,
and prefents him in court at the day affigned in the attach-
ment.

There is this farther difference that an arreft lies only
upon the body of a man; and an attachment fometimes on
his goods too ; fora man may be attached by an hundred
fheep.

Moreover, attachment is a procefs from a court of record,
awarded by the juftices at their difcretion, on a bare fug-
geftion, or on their own knowledge; and is properly grantable
in cafes of contempts, againft which all courts of record,
but more efpecially thoie of Weftminiter-hali, and above
all the court of B. R. may proceed in a fummary manner.

The contempts that are thus punifhed, are exther dire,
which openly infult or refift the powers of the courts, or
the perfons of the judges who prefide there; orelfe are con-
Sequential, which, without fuch grofs infolence or direct op-
polition, plainly tend to create an univerfal difregard of their
authority. The principal inftances of either fort that have
been ufually punifhabi¢ by attachments, are of the fellow-
ing kinds: 1. Thofe committed by inferior judges and
magittrates by acting unjuitly, opprefiively, or regularly,
in adminiftering thofe portions of juftice which ave en-

No trufted

ATT ;

trufted to their difiribution ; or by difobeying the king’s
writs iffuing out of the fuperior courts, by proceeding in
a caufe after it is put a ftop to or removed by writ of pro-
hibition, certiorari, error, fuperfedeas, or the like. 2. Thofe
committed by fheriffs, bailiffs, gaolers, and other officers
of the court, by abufing the procefs of the law, or deceiving
the parties, by any aéts of oppreflion, extortion, collufive
behaviour, or culpable negle&t of duty. 3. Thofe com-
mitted by attorneys and folicitors, who are alfo officers of
the refpective courts, by grofs initances of fraud and cor-
ruption, injuftice to their clients, or other difhoneft prac-
tice. 4. Thofe committed by jurymen in collateral mat-
ters relating to the difcharge of their office ; fuch as mak-
ing default when fummoned, refuling to be fworn, or to
give any verdi&, eating or drinking without the leave of
the court, and efpecially at the coit of either party; and
other irrecularities of a fimilar kind; but not in the mere
exercife of their judicial capacities, as by giving a falfe or
erroneous verdict. 5. Thofe committed by witneffes ; by
making default when fummoned, refufing to be fworn or
examined, or prevaricating in their evidence when fworn.
6: Thofe committed by parties to any fuit or proceeding
before the court ; as by difobedience to any rule or order
made in the progrefs of a caufe ; by non-payment of cofts
- awarded by the court upon a motion ; or by non-obfervance
of awards duly made by arbitrators and umpires, after hav-
ing entered into a rule for fubmitting to fuch determination.
7. Thofe committed by any other perfon under the degree
of a peer; and even’ by peers themfelves, when enormous
and accompanied with violence, fuchas forcible refcous, and
the ike; or when they import a difobedience to the king’s
great prerogative writs of prohibition, habeas corpus, and
the reit.

Some of thefe contempts may arife in the face of the
eourt ; as by rude and contumelious behaviour; by obfti-
nacy, perverfenefs, and prevarication; by breaking the
peace, or any wilful difturbance whatever: others, in the
abfence of the party; as by difobeying, or treating with
difrefpect, the king’s writ, or the rules or procefs of the
court ; by perverting fuch writ te the purpofes of private
malice, extortion, or injuftice ; by {peaking or writing con-
temptuoufly of the court, or judges acting in their judicial
capacity ; by printing falfe accounts (or even true ones,
without proper permiffion) of caufes then depending” in
judgment ; and by any thing, in fhort, that demonftrates a
grois want of that regard and refpect, which, when once
courts are deprived of, degrade and deftroy their authority
among the people. The procefs of attachment for thefe
and fimilar contempts mult neceffarily be as ancient as the
laws themfelves ; for laws, without a competent authority
to fecure their adminiftrations from difobedience and con-
tempt, would be vain and nugatory. This has accordingly
been exercifed as early as the annals of our law extend.

If the contempt be committed in the face of the court,
the offender may be inftantly apprehended and imprifoned,
at the difcretion of the judges, without any further proof
or examination. But in matters at a dittance, and of which
the court cannot have fo perfe& a knowledge, unlefs by the
confeffion of the party, or the teftimony of others, it the
judges upon affidavit fee fufficient ground to fufpect that a
contempt has been committed, they either make a rule on
the fufpeéted party to fhew cauie why an attachment
fhould not iffue againft him ; or in very flagrant inftances of
contempt, the attachment iffues in the ft inftance ; as it
alfo does, if no fufficient caufe be fhewn to difcharge, and
therefore the court confirms and makes abfolute the original
rule. This procefs of attachment is merely intended to

A THE

pipe the party into court ; and when there, he muft either
ftand committed, or put in bail, m order to an{wer upoa
oath to fuch interrogatories as fhall be adminiftered to him,
for the better information of the court with refpe& to the
circumftances of the contempt. Thefe interrogatories are

in the nature of a charge or accufation, and muft by the’ *

courfe of the court be exhibited within the firft four days ;
and if any of the interrogatories is improper the defendant
may refufe to anfwer it, and move the court to have it
itruck out. _ If the party can clear himfeif upon oath, he is
difcharged ; but, if perjured, may be profecuted for the
perjury. If he confeffes the contempt, the court will pro-
ceed to correct him by fine or imprifonment, orboth, and
fometimes by a corporal or infamous punifhment. If the
contempt be of fuch a nature, that when the fa@ is once
acknowledged, the court can receive no farther information
by interrogatories than it is already pofleiled of (as in the
cafe of a refcous), the defendant may be admitted to make-
fuch fimple acknowledgement, and receive his judgment,.
without aniwering to any interrogatories ; but if he wilfully
and obitinately refufes to anfwer, or anfwers in an evafive
manner, he isthen clearly guilty of a high and repeated con-
tempt, to be punifhed at the difcretion of the court. Black-
ftone’s Com. vol. iv. -

The terrors of attachment in cafe of difobedience on the

part of unwilling witneffes, as well as the compulfory pro- ”

cefs for obtaining their attendance, are of excellent ufe in
the thorough inveitigation of truth : and upon the fame prin-
ciple, in the Athenian courts, the witnefles who were {um-
moned to attend the trial, had their choice of three things,
either to fwear to the truth of the fact in queftion, to deny
or abjure it, or elfe to pay a fine of a thoufand drachmas.

ArracuMEnt, Writ of, called alfo Pone, is a-writifluing
out of the court of Common Pleas, and grounded on the
non-appearance of the defendant at the return of the original.
writ ; which commands the fhenff to attach him, by taking
gage, that is, certain of his goods, which he fhall forfeit,
if he doth not appear ; or by making him find fafe pledges or
fureties who fhall be amerced in cafe of his non-appearance..
This is the firft and immediate procefs, without any previous
fummons, upon actions of trefpafs vi ef armis, or for other
injuries, which, though not'forcible, are yet trefpaffles againit-
the peace, as deceit and confpiracy ; where the evidence
of the wrong requires a more {peedy remedy, and therefore
the original writ commands the defendant to be at once
attached, without any precedent warning. See Process.

ATTACHMENT out of Chancery, is a writ in the nature of
a capias, directed to the fheriff, and commanding him to
attach, or take up the defendant, and bring him into court.
It is had of courfe, upon an affidavit made that the defendant
was ferved with a /udpena, and appears not; or it iffueth>
upon not performing fome order or decree. ;

After the return of this attachment by the fheriff, guod-
non ef? inveflus in balliva fua; another attachment, with
proclamations, iffues: which, befides the ordinary form of»
attachment, directs the fheriff that he cavfe proclamations .
to be made, throughout the county, ta fummon the defend-
ant, upon his allegiance perfonally to appear and anfwer;
and if this be alfo returned with non ef? inventis, and he fill”
ftands out in contempt, a commiilion of rebellion is awarded
againfthim. See Commission of Redellion.

ATTACHMENT, Foreign, is an attachment of goods or -
money found within a liberty or city, to fatisfy fome credi- -
tor within fuch city or liberty. ,

Under the cultom of London, if a plaint be exhibited in
the mayor’s or the fherifPs court (the proceeding intheformer ~
being the moft advantageous) againft 4, and the procefs be

returned |

=

YN td

returned niAi/, and thereupon the plaintiff fugeefts that
another perfon within London is indebted to 4, the debtor
fhall be warned (whence he is called the garni/bee), and if
he does not deny himfelf to be indebted to 4, the debt
fhall be attached in his hands. The cuftom of foreign
attachment is faid to prevail in Exeter and other places.
But a foreign attachment cannot be had when a fuit is
depending in any of the courts at Weftminfter. Cro. Eliz.
691. And nothing is attachable, but fora certain and due
debt ; though by the cuftom of London, money may be
attached before due, as a debt, but not levied before due.
pid. 327. 1.Nelf. Abr. 282, 283. \

Foreign attachments in London, upon plaint of debt,
are made after this manner: 4 oweth B tool. and C is in-
debted to 4 t1ool.; B enters an action againit 4 of
rool. and by virtue of that ation a fergeant attacheth rool.
in the hands of C, as the money of 4, to the ufe of B,
which is returned upon that a€tion. Upon this the plain-
tiff is immediately to fee an attorney before the next court,
or the defendant may then putin bail to the attachment,
and nonfuit the plaintiff. Four court days mult pals before
the plantiff can caufe C, the garnifhee, in whofe hands the
money was ee to fhew caufe why B fhould not con-
demn the rool. attached in the hands of C as the money
of 4 the defendant in the aétion (though not in the attach-
ment) to the ufe of 8 the plaintiff; and the garnifhee C
may appear in court by his attorney, wage his law, and
plead that he hath no money in his hands of the defendant’s,
or other fpecial matter ; but the plaintiff may hinder his
waging of law, by producing two fufficient citizens to
{wear that the garnifhee had either money or goods, in his
hands, of at the time of the attachment, of which affidavit
is to be made before the lord mayor, and being filed, may
be pleaded by way of eltoppel: ‘then the plaintiff muft put
in bail, that if the defendant come within a year and a day
into court, and he can difcharge himfelf of the money con-
demned in court, and that he owed nothing to the plaintiff
at the time in the plaint mentioned, the faid money fhall
be forthcoming, &c. If the garnifhee fail to appear by
his attorney, being warned by the officer to come into
court to fhew caufe as aforefaid, he is taken by default for
want of appearing, and judgment given again{ft him for
the goods, and money attached in his hands, and he is with-
out remedy either at common law or inequity; for if taken
in execution, he muft pay the money condemned, though
he hath not one penny, or gouito prifon; but the garnifhee
appearing to fhew caufe why the money or goods attached
in his hands ought not to be condemned to the ufe of the
plaintiff, having feed an attorney, may plead as aforefaid,
ti.at he hath no money nor goods in his hands, of the party’s
againft whom the attachment is made ; and it will then be
tried by a jury, and judgment awarded, &c. but after trial,
bail may be put in, whereby the attachment fhall be diffolved,
but the garmifhee, &c. and his fecurity will then be liable to
what debt the plaintiff fhall make out to be due, upon the
action: and an attachment is never thoroughly perfected,
till there is a bail, and fatisfation upon record. Privilege
Londoa.

But the original defendant muft be fummoned, and have
notice: otherwife judgment againft the garniflee will be
erroneous ; and the money paid or levied in execution ; or it
will not difcharge the debt from the garnifhee to the defend-
ant (though it was allowed that the cuftom of the city court
is £0 give no notice}. 3 Wilf. 297. 2. Black. Rep. 834.
See 1 Ld. Raym. 727. Where a foreign attachment is
pleaded to an action, the cuftom is to fet forth that he
who levied the plaint fhall have execution of the debt

Aa ae

owing by himfelf, and by which he was attached, if the
plaintiff inthe original action thall not difproye it within a
year and a day; now if the plaintiff in the a€tion below
doth not fet forth fuch conditional judgment given by the
court, it is wrong, becaufe he doth not bring his cafe within
the cultom. Vide'2 Lutw. 985.

A fum of money was to be paid at Michaelmas, and it
was attached before that day: adjudged, that a foreign at-
tachment cannot reach a debt before it is due ; e
though the judgment on the attachment was after Michael-
mas, yet the money being attached before ‘it was die, it is
for that reafon void. Cro. Eliz. 184. For further usatter,
fee Com. Dig. tit. Attachment.

Money due to an executor or adminiftrator, as fuch, can-
not be attached. It would give a fimple contraét creditor
priority over judgments. ifher v. Lane and others,
3 Will. 297. Nor truft money in the hands of the garniffiec.
Dougs383.

Debtor and creditor being both citizens of London; the
debtor delivered feveral goods to the Exeter carrier then in
London to carry and deliver them at Exeter, and the cre-
ditor attached them in the hands of the carrier for the debt
due to him from his debtor : adjudged, that the aétion fheuld
be difcharged, becaufe the carrier is privileged in his perfon
and goods, and not only in the goods which are his own,
but in thofe of other men, of which he is in poffeffion, for
he is anfwerable for them. 1 Leon. 189. See Jacob’s Law
Dic. by Tomlins, art. ditachment.

ATTACHMENT of the Foreft, or Woodmote, is one of the
four courts held in the forett. (See Covarts of Foref, &c.)}
The court of attachments feems fo called becaufe the ver-
derors of the foreft have therein no other authority, but to
receive the attachments of offenders againft vert and venifon
taken by the forefters, to enrol them, and to certify them
under their feals, to the court of juttice-feat, or fweinmote ;
for this court can only inquiré of, but not convict of-
fenders.

This attachment is by three means; by goods and chat-
tels; by body, pledges, and mainprize ; or by body only.
Offenders may be attached by their bédies, if taken with
the mainour (or mainoeuvre, a manit), that is, in the very
aét of killing venifon, or ttealing wood, or preparing fo to
do, or by frefh and immediate purfuit after the act is done ;
otherwife, they muit be attached by their goods. This
court is held once in every forty days throughout the year ;
whence it is alfo denominated forty days court.

ATTACHMENT of Privilege is, by virtue of a man’s pri-
vileze, to call another to that court whereto he himfelf
belongs, and in refpeét whereof he is privileged to anfwer
fome action : or, it is a power to apprehend a man ina place
privileged. Corporation courts have fometimes power by
charter to iffue attachments, and fome courts-baron grant
attachments of debt. Kitch. 79.

ATTACK, an attempt upon any perfon or thing; or
the aét of beginning a combat or difpute.

Arrack, inthe Miliiary Art, fignifies an engagement
haying for its objet the forcing of an entrenched poft, or
diflodging an adyerfe army from its lines, when in a fitua-
tion calculated to impede the progrefs of an invading
army.

War is naturally an offenfive operation. In the earlier
ages we find it carried on by a feries of engagements uni-
formly on the principle of attack, and unconnected with any
of thofe flcilful manceuvres which theready genius of mankind
has fince carried into execution for their mutual deftrudiion.
The ultimate obje& ‘of-a battle confitted in plundering, in
cafe of fuccefs, a {mall traét of the enemy’s country, and

Nnz in

AE T

in burning a few miferable villages. Superiority of numbers
generally infured the advantage, The vanquifhed were ex-
terminated. The victors withdrew with their hard earned
booty, diminifhed in numbers, and exhaufted by fatigue.

The Greeks, who firft brought the military art to fome
degree of perfection, were fully fenfible of the advantages
to be derived from the attack. Even at the famous plain
of Marathon (vid. Mararuon), where, by themotft moderate
accounts, the Perfianarmy exceeded them tentimesin number,
they had the temerity te forfake a well-chofen pofition, and
(Herodotus, I. vi. c. 112.) advance running to the onfet ;
a degrve of rafhnefs, which, though in the intitance before
us crowned with the moft clorious fuccefs, can never find
an excufe in the eyes of military judgment. At the final
engagement of Thermopylx, the defpair of Leonidas drove
him to purfue a fimilar conduét, (Herod J. vil. c. 223.)
The particular circumitances of his fituation, and the cele-
brity of his death, extenuate in part his conduct.

Among the Greeks, the Lacedzmonians alone advanced
to battle in filence, and at a iteady pace, regulated by the
found of muficalinftruments. ('Thucyd. 1]. v.c. 70.) On
the contrary, the other Grecian nations rufhed forward with
the utmott eargerne!s and velocity, clafhing their {pears upon
their bucklers, and, at the moment of the onfet, raifing a
loud fhout to aftonith and terrify their enemies. This mode
of attack was generally irrefiltible, where only oppofed by
an undifciplined and tumultuous affemblage of A fiatics.
Witnets the battle of Cynaxa‘(vid. Cynaxa}, where a pha-
lanx of 13,00d@sreeks difperfed in an initant the almoit in-
numerable forces of Artaxerxes Mnemon: and, if it had
not been for the fatal temerity of Cyrus the younger, would
infallibly have placed the crown of Perfia on his head.
(Xenophon, Anab. 1.1, c. 8.)

In engagements with every nation, the vigorous onfet of
the Greeks was attended with {plendid yiG@ory. Even in the
declining ages of their monarchy, when the arbitrary fway
of Macedonian tyranny badextinguifhed within their bofoms
that {pirit of liberty which glowed fo fervently at Marathon
and Platza, their formidalle phalanx was regarded with
apprehenfion by Roman intrepidity ; and in the famous and
decifive battle of Pydna (vid. Pypna), the firmnefs and ta-
lents of a Paulus Emilius defpaired of viGtory, till a happy
and well-timed exertion of his fuperior military abilities de-
cided the doubtful conteit. (Plut. in Em. Paul.)

The Romans, thofe great mafters in the art of war, were
not ignorant of the advantages of a¢ting offenfively, nor
how to improve them. ‘The impetus of their legion, a
heavy and well-organized body of infantry, exceeded in effec
that of the Macedonian phalanx ; and no weight of armour,
no exertion of courage, no refolution, however daring,
could preferve the front of that army unbroken, which
once experienced the terrible difcharge of the Roman
pilum. j

In every age the fyftem of attack has been preferred by
experienced generals (with fome few exceptions juitified
always by coincident circumftances), to that of protracting
a war by tedious and indecifive manceuvres, and it has gene-
rally been attended with fuccefs. Hannibal, Sylla, Alex-
ander, Cwfar, the greateft captains of antiquity, never fuf-
fered a favourable opportunity of engaging to efcape them.
Their attacks were general, violent, frequently unexpected,
and rarely unattended with the moft ample fuccefs.

Of later days we may reckon among the commanders,
who, in their eagernefs to engage an enemy, have fometimes
oyerleaped the bounds prefertbed to genius by mederntactics,
a Condé, a Guitavus, an Eugene, a Charles the Twelfth,
and a Frederic the Great, whole rapid maneeuvres frequently

\

A TE

baffled the moft acute obfervation of their antagonifts, and
the impetuofity of whofe attacks feldom gave time for effece
tual oppolition.

It is fcarcely neceflary to infift upon the manifeft advane
tages an attacking army poflefles, over that which aéts upon .
the defenfive. With numbers generally fuperior, a confin’
‘dence in their own itrength, and faite which defy oppofi=
tion, they rarely encounter an enemy able, or refolute enough
to repulie them.

In the courfe of the late war, Europe has beheld with
furprize the fyftem of attack, which before only affected a
tract of country comparatively trifling, carried to an extent
and a perfection truly aitonifaing, Jn 1794, armies acting
offentively, though in bedies widely diftaut, pierced, as if
animated by the fame foul, in all direétions from the frone
tiers of France to the left bank of the Rhine, and the cen.
tre of the Batavian territories. ‘Two years after, at the
fame moment when Moreau was penetrating by the circle of
Suabia, and along the Danube to the Auitrian borders, the
army of the Sombre and Meufe advanced through Franconia,,
and Buonaparte fought his way through Italy to gain the
fummit of the Noric Alps. According to the new princi~
ple, fuccefs in a general engagement, however complete,
in no wife contributed to terminate the campaign. A battle
gained only opened the road to new attacks. A tewn taken,
merely furnifhed materials for frefh fieges. The armies ri-
valled each other in overcoming, with incredible expedition,
obftacles which formerly would have been deemed infur-
mountable ; and as long as any veltige of an adverle power
remained to face them in the field, all fuccets was regarded
as incomplete. ; ‘ ‘

In the flu@uating campaign of 1799, the fame fyitem
was carried to a ftill greater extent. ‘Che rocks and moun-
tains of Switzerland furnifhed frefh fubjets for plans of a
nature {till more difficult, intricate, and complicated. The
line of attack and defence was lengthened in an unexampled
manner, and from the Zuyder Zee to the Adriatic formed
but one vait field of battle, on which French, Auttrians,
Ruffians, Helvetians, Dutch, Englifh, and Italians, alter-
nately deftroyed each other; and itrove with infinite vieifli-
tude of fortune, but finally with nearly equivalent fuccefs,
to gain a dear bought advantage. Sake

Arrack, in Befeging, fignifies the operations carried on.
by the befiegers, with mines, faps, trenches, batteries, &c.
againit an enemy’s fortrefs. The rules of war naturally pre-
{eribe the weakeft fide of the place as the point of attack.
Neverthelefs, prince Eugene thought proper to infringe upon
them in the initance of the fiege of Lifle, where, to favonr
the movements of the covering army, he direéted his ap-
proaches againit the ftrongeit part ot the fortifications. -

Twa, or even three attacks, are formed in fieges where
difpatch is neceflary. In fuch cafes, their communications
fhould be eafy, carefully conitructed, and nduttrioufly main-
tained. roe

Arrack, Falj, is anattack but faintly profecuted, though
fufficiently ferious to induce the enemy to divide his forces,
and more efpecially to weaken, if poflible, that part of
his pofition, or works, which is the objeét of the true

.

affault. ».
ATTACOTTI, in Ancient Hiflory, a favage people of

Great Britain, mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus (1. 27,

c. 8.) and St. Jerom (tom. il. p. 75.), as well asin the No-
titia Imperii, whofe fituation is not precifely afcertained by
antiquaries. Some have fuppofed that they inhabited Wales,
and allege, that their name was derived from the Britifh —
words ‘ ata-coit, or coed,” fignifying amoneft do ods.
But it is probable, that they were feated fomewhere further
I north

i]
hn

o a

;

<<

ATT

uorth than any part of Wales ; for Ammiaaus Marcellinus
reprefents them as allies aud confederates of the Scots and
Picts, and therefore they were probably their neighbours.
'Thefe enemies, and afterwards the foldiers, of Valentinian,
are accufed, by an eye-witnefs, of delighting in the talte of
human fiefh) When they hunted the woods for prey, it is
faid by Jerom (ubi fupra), that they attacked the fhepherd,
rather than his flock ; and that they curioufly feleéted the
moit delicate and brawny parts both of males and females,

paitorum nates et feminarum papillas), which they prepared
for their horrid repaits.

ATTAGEN, Arracas, in Ornithology, names given
by Briff. and Buff. to the red or moor-gamé, or red grous,
in Gmelin’s arrangement the fourth variety of tetrao lagopus.
Linn. & Gmel. Brill. alfo calls tetran umbellus of Gmelin
atiagen, Penn/ylvania. :

ATTAINDER, in Law, is that ftain or infamy which
is incurred by a man who has committed felony, treafon, or
other crime,’and who is capitally convicted for the fame.

This, by the common law, is the immediate infeparable
confequence of the fentence of death that is pronounced.
The law, in this cafe, fets a note of infamy upon the cri-
minal, oe him out of its protection, and takes no farther
care of him than barely to fee him executed. He is then
called attaint, attin@us, ftained or blackened. He is no
longer of any credit or reputation; he cannot be a witnefs
im any court; neither is he capable of performing the
funétions of another man: for, by an anticipation of his
punifhment, he is already dead in law. ‘This is after
judgment ;” for there is a great difference between a
man “ convicted,” and “ attainted ;” though they are fre-
quently, through inaccuracy, confounded together. After
conviction only, a man is liable to none of thefe difabilities;
for, in the contemplation of law; there is {till a poffibility of
his innocence. Something may be offered in arreit of judg-

ent ; the indi¢tment may be erroneous, which will render

is guilt uncertain, and thereupon the prefent conviction may
be quafhed ; he may obtain a pardon, or be allowed the
benefit of clergy ; both which iuppofe fome latent {parks
of merit, which plead in extenuation of his fault. But
when i once pronounced, both law and fact con-
{pire to prove him compietely guilty; and there is not the
remoteft poffibility left of any thing to be faid in his favour.
Upon judgment, therefore, of death, and not before, the
“ attainder”? of a criminal commences ; or upon fuch cir-
cumitances as are equivalent to judgment of death ; as judg-
ment of outlawry on a capital crime, pronounced for ab-
iconding or fleemg from juitice, which tacitly confeffes
the oa “ind, therefore, upon judgment of outlawry,
or of death, for treafon or felony, a man fhall be faid to be
* attainted.””

A man is “ attainted by appearance or by proce/s. ‘* At-
tainder’”? on appearance 1s by confeflion, or verdi&t, &c. :
by confe/fion, when the prifoner, upon his ndiétment, being
aiked whether guilty or not guilty, owns himfelf guilty,

“without putting himfelf upon his country; and formerly

confeflion was allowed before the coroner in fan€uary,
upon which the offender was to abjure the realm, and this
was called “attainder”? by aljuration. ‘‘ Attainder” by
werdid, is when the prifoner at the bar pleadeth not guilty,
and is found guilty by the verdi&t of the jury of life and
death. ‘“* Attainder” by prace/s, otherwife called “attain-
der” by default or by outlawry, is when a party flies, and is
not found, and he hath been five times publicly called
or proclaimed in the county, and, at laft, upon his default,
is pronounced or returned outlawed. Staundf. Pl. Co. 44.
122. 182. Perlons may alfo be attainted by act of parlia-

¢

* ATF

ment. Accordingly a&ts of attainder have been paffed in’
feveral reigns, on the difcovery of plots and rebellions, from
the reign of Charles II., when an aét was made for
the attainder of feveral perfons guilty of the murder of
king Charles I., to this time. Among thefe, the molt

remarkable is that for attainting fir John Fenwick for

confpiring againtt king William ; this act having been made
for attainting and convicting him of high treafon on the

oath of one witnefs, juft after a law had been enacted, that

no perfon fhould be tried or attainted of high treafon, where

corruption of blood is incurred, but by the oath of two

lawful witneffes, uulefs the party confefs, iLand mute, &c.”

Stat.7 and8 W.I1I.c.3. However, fir Jolin Fenwick was

indiéted of treafon, ‘on the oaths of two witnefles, though

only one appeared again{t him on his trial; and it was al-

leged, that fir John had tampered with and prewailed/on one
of the witnefles to withdraw.

The confequences of “‘attainder”’ are forfeiture, and cor-
ruption of blood; which latter cannot be regularly taken
out but by aé of parliament. See thefe articles.

“© Attainder?? may be reverfed or falfified by writ of
error, or by plea; in the former cafe it mutt be by the
king’s leave, &c.; and in the latter it may be by denying
the treafon, pleading a pardon by act of parliament, &c.
3 Infk. 232.

By aking’s taking the crown upon him, all attainders of
his perfon are ‘¢ipfo faéto” purged, without any reverfal.
1 Inft. 26. Finch. L. 82. Wood. 17. .This was the'de-
claration of parliament, made in favour of Hgnry VII.

ArrainDER, Bill of, is a bill brought “Mto parliament
for attainting, condemning, and executing a perfon for high
treafon. See ATTAINDER. 7

ATTAINT, Artixcra, in Law, a writ which lieth to
inquire, whether a jury of twelve men gave a falle ver di ae
that fo the judement following thereupoa may be reverlec;
and this muit be brought in the life-time of him for whom the
verdict was given, and of two at leaft of the jurors who gave
it. ‘This lay, at the common law, only upon writs of allife ;
and feems to have been coeval with that imititution by king
Henry II. at the inftance of his chief juftice Glanvil; being
probably meant as a check upon the vat power then repoted
in the recognitors of affife, of finding a verdi&t according to
their own perfonal knowledge, without the examination of
witnefles. And even here it extended no farther than to
fuch inftances, where the iffue was joined upon the very
point of aflize (the heirfhiip, diffeifin, &c.), and not on any
collateral matter, as villenage, baftardy, or any other dif~
puted fact. (See Assisa injuratam, &c.) It feems that no.
attaint lay againft the inqueit or jury that determined fuch
collateral iffue ; nor did fuch a procefs obtain after the trial
by inqueft or jury, in the old Norman or feudal a€tions
profecuted by a writ of entry ;, nor did any attaint be
in trefpafs, debt, or other aétion perional, by the old commen
law; becaufe thofe were always determined by commoa
inquefts or juries. At*length the ftatute of Weftm. 1.
(3 Edw. I. c. 38.) allowed an attaint to be fued upon in-
quells, as well as affifes, which were taken upon any plea
of land or of freehold. But this was at the king’s dif-
cretion, and fo it is underftood by the author of Peta, a
writer cotemporary with the ftatute; though fr Edward
Coke (2 Inft. 130. 237.) feems to hold a dilterent opinion.
Other fubfequent ftatutes(1 Edw. 11. ft. 1.¢.6. 5 Edw.IIl.
c. 7. 28 Edw. IIT. c. 8.) introduced the fame remedy in all
pleas of trefpafs ; and the ftatute 34 Edw. III. c. 7. extended
it to all pleas whatfoever, perfonal as well as real 3. ex-
cepting only the writ of right, in fuch cafes where the mife

or iffue is joined on the mere right, and not on any collateral

queftion,

ATT ATT

<queftion. For though the attaint feems to have been gere- here are no Jand animals but ice-foxes and rock-foxes, more
rally allowed in the reign of Henry IJ., at the firft intro- frequentty bluethan white. “The fea-otters come hither but
duction of the grand affile (which at thattime might confit fingly; whereas fea-lions, fea-bears, manatis, and fome
of ouly twelve recognitors in cafe they wereall unanimous), other fea-animals frequent thefe fhoresin herds, See ALEu-
ful »s have holden, that noattaint lieson rian //fards. ;
: the mere right, either 2t common ATTALIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
atute ; becaufe i 1 by the grand Pamphylia, on the coaft of the fea, which there formeda
: ed to by the par and now conififting of gulf of the fame name, now called the gulf of Satalia.
fixteen jurors. Braét. 290. Flet. 5. 22.7. Britt. 243. 4. Strabo (1. xiv. p. 459.) fays that it was built by Attalus
12 Hen. VL. 6. Bro. Abr. 4iteint, 42. 1 Roll. Abr. 280. Philadelphus, king of Pergamus, who founded a colony
there, aud that it was the chief refidence of the prefect.
St. Paul proceeded from Perga to this town. Acts xiv. 25.
* —Alfo, a town'of Afia, in Lydia.

ATTALICZ Vesres, in Axtiguity, garments made
of a kind of cloth of gold.

They teok the denomination from Attalus, furnamed Phi-
lometer, a wealthy king of Pergamus, who was the firit,
according to Pliny, who procured gold to be woven inte
cloth. Hit. Nat. lib. iii. cap. 48. .

ATTALIS, in Ancient Geography, the name of a tribe
of Attica. Ae

ATTALUS, in Biography, the name of feveral kings
of Pergamus.—Attalus I. fucceeded his coufin Eumenes L.
in the year 244 B.C. Having expelled the Gauls who
their own knowledge, which never appeared in ¢ourt. had fettled in his country, he affumed the title of kin
the grand jury found the verdi& a falfe one, the judgment and extended his conquefts of the Afiatic provinces as Z
by the common law was, that the jurors fhould lofe their as mount Taurus. But in the diftrefs to which he was
“ Jiberam legem,” and become fér ever infamous; fhould afterwards reduced by the united forces of his grandfather
forfeit their goods and the profits of their lands; fhould Achzus and Seleucus, he availed himielf of the fuccour
themfelves be imprifoned, and their wives and children afforded him by the Gauls fettled in Thrace, and recovered
thrown out of doors; fhould have their houfes razed, their ‘his dominious of which he had been difpoffeffed. He thea
trees extirpated, and their meadows ploughed; and that purfued his conqueits in Jonia, till his career was ftopped by
the plaintiff fhould be reftored to all that he loft by reafon the refufal of the Gauls to advance any farther. Upon this-
of the unjuft verdi&. But as the feverity of the punifh- he returned to the Hellefpont, and allowed his allies to
ment had its ufual effeét in preventing the law from being fettle there in a very fertile and extenfive region. For the
executed, therefore by the ftatute 11 Hen. VII. c. 24. re- fecurity of the territories he had acquired, he formed an al-
vived by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 3. and made perpetual by 15 liance with the Romans, whom he vigoroufly affifted in~
Eliz. c. 25. an attaint is allowed to be brought after the their two wars againit Philip of Macedon. In conjunétion
death of the party, and a more moderate punifhment was in- with the Athenians he invaded Macedonia, and recalled
flied upon attainted jurors ; viz. perpetual infamy; and if Philip from his enterprife againit Athens; and on this
the caufe of a€tion were above forty pounds value, a for- account the Athenians gave his name to one of their tribes.
feiture of twenty pounds a-piece by the jurors; or if under At Thebes in Beotia, whilft he was haranguing the peo-
4ol. then five pounds a-piece ; to be divided between the ple, and urging them to take arms againft Philip, he was
king and the party injured. So that a man may now bring feized with an apoplexy ; and being conveyed to Pergamus,
an attaint either upon the ftatute or at common law, at his he foon after died, in the 72d year of his age, and 43d
eleGion (3 Inft. 164) ; and in both of them may reverfe of his reign. He is reprefented as a generous and amiable
the former judgment. But the practice of fetting afide ver- prince, a liberal encourager of literature, and alfo a writer.
di&s upon motion, and granting new trials, has fo fuper- Of his veneration for Homer the following fingular ini
feded the ufe of both forts of attaints, that few inftances of is mentioned by Suidas and Valerius Maximus; viz. his
attaints occur in our books later than the fixteenth century. caufing the grammarian_Daplinidas to be thrown from a
Cro. Eliz. 309. Cro. Jac. go. By the old Gothic confti- rock, ior fpeaking difrefpeGtfully of this celebrated bard.—
tution, indeed, no certificate of a judge was allowed, in Attalus II. was the fecond fon of Attalus I. and called

-matters of evidence, to countervail the oath of the jury; Philadelphus, from his fidelity and affe€tion to his brother
-but their verdi@, however erroneous, was abfolutely final Eumenes, who was king of Pergamus before him. Upon
and conclufive. Yetthere was a proceeding, from whence a falfe rumour of the death of Eumenes, he haftily afflumed
our attaint may be derived. If upon a lawful trial before the regal enfigns, and married his brother’s wife ; but on
a fuperior tribunal, the jury were found to have given a falfe his brother’s fafe return, he manifelted every token of
verdi@, they were fined, and: rendered infamous for the fatisfa€tion and allegiance, and bore an halbert as one of
future. Stiernhook de jure Goth. l. i.c. 4. Blackftone’s his guards. Eumenes kindly embraced him, and in a whif-

>

Comm. vol. iij. p. 402, &c. per cautioned him “not again to be in fuch hafte to marry
ATTAINTED,Arraintus,orArTtinctus,inZaw. his wife, till he was fure of his death.” Attalus was ac-
See ATTAINDER. tively attached to the Romans in their war againft Perfes ;

ATTAK, in Geography, the largeft of the iflands com- and made fucceflive vifits to Rome for the purpofe of ex ate
monly denominated the Aleutiky or Aleutian iflands. It - pating his brother from the charge of indifference to their
feems to have a larger extent of furface than Behring’s intereit. At his death, Eumenes bequeathed both his king.
iland, and kas an oblong form, lying more weft and eait. dom and his wife to Attalus ; and appointed him di
Jin thefe iflands no volcanic traces have been difcovered, and of his infant fon, ee truft he faithfully executed. =

us

LOT” TT

talus commenced his reign in the year 159 B.C. and after
a reign of 21 years, diltinguithed principally by his fuecefs
in reftoring Anarathes VI. to the throne of Cappadocia,
and by his conteft with Prufias king of Bithynia, which
terminated after alternate defeats and fuccefs in the de-
thronement and affaffination of this prince, he died in his
82d year. He was a patron of literature, acknowledged
as the founder of two cities in Afia, viz. Attalis and Phi-
ladelphia, and eficemed much by the Romans, by whom
he was confidered as one of their moft faithful allies. —
Attalus III. was the fon of Eumenes II. and fuc-
ceeded his uncle in the year 138 B.C. His difpofition
was cruel and fufpicious, and led him to facrifice molt of
his own family, and feveral perfons of diftinétion in his
court, with their wives and children. From his real or
affe@ed love for his mother Stratonica, he was denominated
Philometer. After filling his capital and kingdom with
deplorable diftrefs, he retired into folitude, and fequeftered
from all focial intercourfe, devoted himfelf to the cul-
ture of a garden, in which he planted a variety of poifonous
herbs ; and thefe-he occafionally fent in packets, mixed with
pulfe, to thofe who were the objeéts of his gloomy fuf-

iciors. ‘This conduét indicates infanity ; but it has been
afer‘bed by Varro and Columelia to a tondnefs for horti-
culture, and the ftudy of medicinal fimples; and Attalus
has been numbered among thofe who wrote on thefe fub-
jects. By the heat and toil which he experienced in the
chemical employment of calting a ftatue of his mother, he
was thrown into a fever, which terminated his life and
reign in the year 133 B.C. The Roman people were by

his teftament left the heirs of his goods, which they inter--

preted to mean his dominions and fubjects. Their claim to

this rich inheritance was contefted, but at length eftabhfh--

ed. The wealth of Attalus feéms to have been a pro-
verbial expreffion, and is frequently alluded to by the
Roman poets. Gen. Biog. See Percamus.

Arrauus, a Chriftian martyr, was a native of Pergamus
in Phrygia,’and fell a facrifice to perfecutien at Lyons,
in the 17th year of the emperor Marcus Antoninus, and
the 177th year of our Lord. In an epiftle of the churches
of Vienne and Lyons, addreffed to the churches of Afia
and Phrygia, containing a relation of the fufferings of their
martyrs, Attalus is denominated “ the pillar and fupport of
the churches there,”’ and-a zealous champion for the truth.
He was led round the amphitheatre with a board carried
before him, on which was inferibed, “¢ This is Attalus the
Chriftian ;” whilit the people were inceffant inexprefling their
great indignation againft him. For the gratification of the
people he was delivered to the wild beafts, and after having
been run through with a {word, he was fet in an iron chair
and burned to death. The conduct of Attalus, as well
as that of his fellow-fufferers, manifefted a fortitude that
was invincible. Eufebius, |. vy. Prep. c.1. Lardner’s works,
vol. vii. p.425, &c.

ATTALYDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Lydia.

ATTAMINATUS, in Entomolocy, a fpecies of Sca-
RAB«US, with the thorax black and glabrous; head tuber-
culated ; wing-cafes teftaceous, with five black fpots on
each. Marfham’s Ent. Brit. Panzer names this little infect
S. inguinatus, Ent. Germ.

ATTAR of Rofes. See Orrar.

ATTARSOAK, in Zoology, a name affigned by Cranz
(Groenl. p. 163.) to the fpecies of Puoca, groenlandica,
or harp.feal of Pennant. See GroENLANDICA.

ATTELABOIDES, in Entomology, a {pecies of Ca-

-RaBUS that inhabits Coromandel, and ts about the fize of

ANT 'T

the European fpecies leucophthalmos, It is apterous and
black, with a narrow thorax; the pofterior part of the
head attenuated ; wing-cafes furrowed and truncated. Fae
bricius.

ATTELABOIDES, a fpecies of Circurio that inhabits
Brazil. The fhells are rough, varied with brown and grey 5
legs variegated and thighs clavate. It is thus {pecifically
defined by Fabricius; “ roftro clytrifque unituberculatis
beak and wing-cafes with a fingle tubercle.

ATTELABOIDES, a fpecies of Ruinomacer that in-
habits the pine. It is downy ; antenne and lees teftaceous.
A native of Sweden. Gmel. &c. ;

ATTELABOIDES, a fpecies of Formica of a black
colour; two {pines on the thorax ; legs ferruginous ; pofs
terior part of the head attenuated. Fabricius.» Inhabits
Brazil.

ATYELABOIDES, a fpecies of Cimex ( Reduvins Seék.),
found in New Holland, . It is teftaceous, varied with black;
anterior part of the thorax teflaceous, with: two black
teeth. Fabricius. The fnout is pale, with a black dorfal
line ; a black band in the middle of the- thorax; anterior
margin of the wing-cafes black ; wings black ; body telta-
ceous beneath ; thighs annulated with black.

ATTELABUS, a genus of Couzoprerous infects
in the Linnzan fyftem, that is diftinguifhed by having the
head inclined and pointed behind ; antennz:moniliform, and
thickeft near theend. Linn. &e. -

Of this genus, Gmelin enumerates thirty-four fpecies,
including the Fabrician cleri, and fpondylides defcribed in
Spec. Inf.—Fabricius in his Ent. Syft. defcribes thirty-

”

feven {pecies of the attelabiexclufively ; his charafter of the -

genus is, feelers filiform ; jaws bifid ; lip horny, concealing

the feelers ; antennz moniliform, and fituated on the beak. -

This genus Linnzus obferves is very obfcure, the infeéts
arranged under it differing much from one another in their
external appearance. But this obfcurity’a later writer
remarks, “ proceeds rather from Linneus not having known
a fufficient number of infeéts proper to be arranged under
it; and his placing with thofe, the fpecies included in the

Crerus genus by Geoffroy, in which the generical charac- -

ters he afligns for his attelabi are not found, than to any
defeét in the characters themfelves.”? Scopoli diftinguithes
the attelabi by the following character; hinder part of the
head gradually diminifhing in fize ; eyes prominent ; thorax
fomewhat broader than the diameter of the head, and of a
cylindric form. Among thefe are included fome of the
Linnean chryfomela, whofe bodies are oblong and narrower
than the thorax. The clerus of Geoffroy and Scheffer is
partly taken from the Linnzan attelabi, and partly from
the dermeites of that author; the characters they affign it

are, antenne club-formed, and placed on the head; the

knob compofed of three joints ; no probofcis; thorax al

mott cylindrical, and without margin; foles of the-feet -

fpongy.

The body of the infe€ts in the genus attelabus- is com-

monly of an ovate form; the head projeCting,- ovate, and

narrow behind, where it unites with the-thorax 3 the eyes

are globofe and fituated in front; the antenne fhort and
approximate, moniliform, and compofed ‘of eleven joints,
of which that at the bafe is large,.and the three at the
extremity form an oval of a fomewhat lengthened fhape ;
thorax and fcutel are both roduntated ; wing-cafes as long
as the abdomen, and rather convex; legs fhort and the feet
of four jomts. The infects of this genus approach very
nearly to les brachiceres, les brentes, les rhinomacers, les
macrocéphales, and les bruches of modern French natural-

ifts, but are fufficiently diftinguithed by their antenne.. -

The.

GAT

The larve of the attelabi, according to fome writers, are
furnifhed with fix feet; are very fat, of a whitifh colour,
and have an annulated body. The head is protected by a
hard {caly covering, and the mouth furnifhed with two very
ftrong jaws, with which it does great mifchief. It attacks
the leaves, the flowers, the fruits, and even the ftalks and
roots of different plants; but moft of the f{pecies penetrate
into the plant, and fubfift entirely on the parenchymous or

’ fpongy parts within. Preparatory to the transformation to
the pupa ftate, fome fpecies {pin a filky web, and others
form a little ball of a very folid kind, in which they remain
during the fecond ftate. The perfe& infeéts inhabit the
fame plants as the larva, but are deemed lefs injurious to
them.

Gmelin, as before obferved, defcribes thirty-four {pecies
of this genus: thefe are coryli, avellane, bicolor, denigratus,
erythropterus, bipuftulatus, gemmatus, indicus, curculio-
noides, furinamentis, pennfylvanicus, melanuros, angulatus,
ruficollis, pubefcens, betulz, mutillarius, dubius, ichneumo-
nius, formicarius, {fphageus, fexguttatus, quadrimaculatus,
uninfafciatus, oGtopunétatus, tricolor, bifafciatus, fipylus,
ammios, apiarius, cyaneus, crabroniformis, ceramboides,
bupreitoides ; which fee refpectively.

OL/. A few of the figures in the third entomological
plate of this work having been inadvertently mifplaced, the
infe& infcribed g. 15. atte/abus will be found to belong to
another genus, and that marked g- 13. bruchus being one
of the Linnzan afielabi, may ferve to illuftrate this genus,
till another figure can be given.

ATTELEBUSSA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
Mediterranean fea, on the coait of Lycia. Ptolemy calis
it Atelebufa, and places it on the coaft of Pamphylia.
Pliny.

ATTELLANA. See ATELLAN.

ATTENA, in Aacient Geography, a town of Ethibpia,
below Egypt. Pliny.

ATTENBY, iv Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
ifland »f Oeland.

ATTENDANT, or ArrenpeNT, in a general fenfe.
See Assistant, Retinve, and Sarevvires.

ATTENDANT, Atiendens, in Law, iignifies that one owes
duty, or feryice to another, or depends in fome manner
upon him.

Where the wife is endowed of lands by guardian, the
fhall be attendant on the guardian, and on the heir at his
full age.

ATTENDORN, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the archbiihopric of Cologne, and duchy of Weltphalia,
feated on the river Bigge, and feven leagues fouth of
Arenberg.

ATTENHOVE, a town of Brabant, one league north-
eaft of Landen.

ATTENTION, Arrtenrio, compounded of ad, to,
and tendo, I ffretch, a due application of the ear, or the
mind, to any thing faid or done, in order to acquire a know-
ledge of it.

Attention of mind, is not properly an a& of the under-
ftanding, but rather of the will, by which it calls the under-
ftanding from the confideration of other objects, and dire&ts
it to the thing in hand. Neverthelefs, our attention is not
always voluntary: an interefting obje& feizes, and fixes it
beyond all power of control.

Tt is by the attention that is given to any object of fenfe
or intelleG, that we form a diftin& notion of it, or difcover
its nature, its attributes, or itsrelations: and fo great indeed
is the effe& of attention, that, without it, it is impoflible to
acquire or retain 2 diftin@ notion of any objeét of thought.

AEE

To this purpofe it is faid, that fir [fac Newton, when he was
complimented upon the force of genixs which had madefuch
improvements in mathematics and natural philofophy, made
this reply, no lefs judicious than modeft ; « that, if he had
made any improvements in thofe fciences, it was owing more
to patient attention, than to any other talent.’? As it is

very helpful to memory, if not effential to it, that the per-

ception of the idea which we with to remember fhould remain
in the mind for a certain {pace of time, and fhould be con-
templated by itfelf exclufively of every thing elfe, we can be
at no lofs to account for the affiftance which the memory
derives from attention, which confifts partly, if not entirely,
in the effort of the mind, to detain the idea or the percep-
tion, and to exclude the other objeéts that folicit its notice.
Hence it happens that in folitude, or the Siler the
night, when the attention is undiverted and undiftraéted by
furreunding objects, the impreffion made by any one object
is ftronger and deeper: and the memory becomes more re-
tentive. When one faculty of the mind is intenfely engap-
ed about any object, the other faculties are laid, as it were,
faft afleep ; hence a man fees not what is before his eyes,
when his mind is occupied about other things. In the tu-
mult of a battle, a man may be thet through the body with-
out knowing any thing of the matter, till he difcovers it b
the lofs of blood or of ftrength. The moft acute fenfation
of pain may be deadened if the attention be vigoroufly di-
rected to another object. The anecdote relating to the at-
tention of Archimedes at the fiege of Syracufe is well
known. (See AncuimepEs.) When there is no particular
object that draws away our attention, there is a defultorinefs
of thought in man, and in fome more than in others, which
makes it very dificult to give that fixed attention to import-
aut objets which reafon requires. A habit of attention
may be acquired by pra€tice ; and the itudy of the mathe-
matical feieuces has a peculiar aptitude to dire& and fix it.
Attention is one of thofe operations of the mind, which, ac-
cording to Dr. Reid’s diftribution (Effays, p. 78.), belong to
the clafs of thofe that are voluntary. :

Attention, in refpect of hearing, is the ftretching or
flraining of the membrana tympani, fo as to make it more {nf-
ceptible of founds, and better prepared to catch even a fee-
ble agitation of the air. Or it is the adjufting the tenfion
of that membrane to the degree of loudnefs or lownefs of
the found to which we are attentive. 3

«¢ Sounds,”? fays the celebrated Bacon in his Natural
Hiftory, “are meliorated by the intenfion of the fenfe,
where the common fenfe is collected moft to the particu-
lar fenfe of hearing, and the fight fufpended. Therefore
founds are fweeter, as well as greater, in the night than in
the day ; and I fuppofe they are fweeter to blind men than
to others ; and it is manifeit, that between fleeping and wak-
ing, when all the fenfes are blind and fufpended; mufic is
far fweeter than when one is fully waken.”’

ATTENUANTS, in Medicine. This term is applied
to thofe medicines which are fuppofed to poffefs the power
of reftoring the concreted parts of a fluid to the fame flate

of fluidity which they~ poifefied before concretion. It is
nearly fynonymous with re/o/vent. A very reafonable doubt

has been entertained, whether there is properly any fuch at-
tenuating power refiding in any medicine, independent ei-
thes of mere dilution, or elfe of the ftimulant property.
The idea, however, of the operation of attenuants is the
following :—many of the older phyficians, and after them
the Boerhaavians, fuppofed obftruction in the circulating
fyftem to be produced by the red blood, or a thinner im-
pervious humour joined with it, ftagnating in their proper

veflels, or wedged into other veflels of a {mallr diameter

‘ ; than

RUS.

AT T

'
than the faneuiferous by an error loci. This, they fup-
pofed, would produce a preater motion and heat, owing to
the refiftance of the veffels, which would incline the hu-
mours very much to a ftate of putrefadtion.
eretions fome are foluble by water alone, fuch as the faline,
faponaccousy and mucous; but dthers require the diffolving
power of certain medicines; and hence in the.former cafe,
diluents alone ave fuflicient to remove the obltruction, but in
the latter recourfe muft be had to the atienuants. Concre-
tious fuppoted to be produced by an inflammatory f{piffitude
of the blood, and oily, febaceous, and calculous concre-
tions, were confidered as yielding to the internal ufe of va-
rious falts, fuch as fal gem, fal ammoniac, and fixed alkali,
alfo foays, decoctions of the acrid and alkalefcent vegeta-
bles, and bile (which isa kind of natural foap ), all of which
were confidered as highly attenuating ; and the reader will
here perceive how clotely the experiments of the laboratory
were applied to the living animal. Another {pecies of atte-
nuating or refolving remedies was the whole clafs of mercu-
vial medicines, which are known to produce the moft vio-
lent flow of faliva and thin ‘foctid humours from the body,
the coufequence (as was imagined) of the power pofleffed
by this mineral to refolve and break down acrid matter im-
acted in the glands and minuter veffels.

The term attenuant is not now much employed in its
original fenfe ; the alleged caufe of ob{tructions being en-
ety difputed, as well as the fuppofed folvent power of
thefe medicines upon the concreted humours, whilft remain-
ing in the veifels of the body.

ATTENUATA, in £ntomology, a fpecies of Lerrura
that inhabits Europe, and is both defcribed and figured
by feveral authors. The wing-cafes are attenuated and ful-
vous, with four black bands ; legs teftaceous.

Arrenvara, a {pecies of Bu prestis that inhabits Rio
Janeiro. The wing-cafes taper towards the end, terminate
in two teeth, andare dtriated; body braiiy-green; beneath
coppery. Fabricius.

TTENUATA, a {pecies of Vespa with a ferruginous
abdomen, and black petiole, with yellow band. This kind
inhabits America. Tabyicius, &c. O4/. Tlie antenne are
ferruginous, tipped with black; head black, with the lip
yellow.

ATTENUATION, compounded of ad, and tennis,
thin, the act of attenuating ; that is, of making any fluid
thinnerand lefs confiftent than it was before.

Attenuation is defined more generally by Chauvin, the
dividing or feparating of the minute parts of any body,
which before, by their mutual ess or implication, formed
amore continuous mafs.—Accordingly, among alchemilts,
we fometimes find the word ufed fer puiverization, or the
act of reducing a bedy into an impalpable powder, by grind-
ig, pounding, or the like.

ATTENUATUS, in Entomology, afpecies of Cara-
(Cychrus atieniuatus Fabr. Append.) This infec is
apterous, black, wing-cates rather coppery, with three rows
‘cf raifed dots ; thorax narrow; head very narrow. Panz.

ATTENUATUS, in Natural Hiflory, a {pecies of Escui-
NoRYNCHUS, deferibed by Mall. Zool. Dan. It is globi-
ferous, with an equal {mooth yellow body ; and neck filifom.
Sometimes found in the inteftines of the flounder. This is
tenia longicollis of Pallas.

ATTENUATUS, pedunculus, in Botany, denotes a foot-
talk that grows fmaller towards the flower.

ATTENY, in Geography, atown of India, in the king-
dom of Deccan, beautifully fituate in a foreft of palm-trees,
not far from the fea, about twenty two leagues north of
Vifiapour.

Vou, IIT.

Of thefe con-,

fan,” addrefled to Mifs Ofborn, who afterwards was |

A a
ATTERBURY, Francis, in Biography, a prelate of

eminence in the political and literary world, was born, in
1662, at Milton Keynes near Newport-Pagnel, in Bucking-
hamfhire, where his father, Dr. Lewis Atterbury, was
rector. Having pafled through a courfe of grammar leari-
ing at Wellminiter {chool, he was eleéted, in 1680, a ftudent
of Chrift-church coilege in Oxford. Here he acquired
reputation as a claflical icholar, and exhibited {pecimens of
his political talents in a Jatin verfion of Mr. Dryden’s
« Abfalom and Achitophel;”? an epigram on A lady’s

wife ; and a tranflation of «* Two Odes of Horace ;”’ viz.
Od. g, 1. ui. and Od. 3. lv iv. Thefe are publifhed in his
“ Epittolary correfpondence.” He took his degree of
bachelor of arts in 1684, and that of mafter in 1687; and
at this period he firft appeared as a controverfial writer, by
vindicating the reformation, in a piece intitled, « An An-
{wer to fome confiderations on the {pirit of Martin Luther,
and the original of the Reformation.’? Whilft he continued
at college, he is thought to have taken a part inthe famous
difpute between Mr. Bentley and the hon. Mr. Charles Boyle

afterwards earl of Orrery), concerning the genuinenefs of
« Phalaris’s Epittles,” although his name did not appear on
the oceafion. ‘he time of his taking orders is not precifely
af{certained ; but it may be inferred from circumitances that
it was either at the clofe of the year 1690, or in the begin-
ning of 1691. He feems to have been tired of -a college
life, and thinking himfelf formed, as he expreffes himfelf,
for ‘¢ another fcene, and another fort of converfation,’? he
determined, whenever any favourable opportunity occurred,
to leave Oxford. Dilappointed in his application for the
re€tory of Milton, which was the place of his birth, he came
to London in 1693, and was appointed one of the chaplains
in ordinary to king William and queen Mary, preacher at
Bridewell, and lecturer at St. Bride’s. His compofitions for
the pulpit were dittinguifhed by boldnefs of fentiment and
warmth of language, and accordingly they foon commanded
attention. One of them, ‘* On the power of charity to
cover fin,” excited the notice and animadverfionsof Hoadly ;
and another, intitled «* The {corner incapable of true wif-
dom,”’ was more acrimonioufly cenfured. In the year 1700
he commenced a controverfy with Archbifhop Wake, con-
cerning . ‘¢ the rights, powers, and privileges of convo-
cations,” which lalted four years, and in the profecution of
which he appeared as aa able and ardent advocate for high
ecclefiaftical authority, and the independence of the church
on the itate. ‘The learning, ingenuity, and zeal manifetted
on this occafion, procured from him the thanks of the lower
houfe of convocation, and the degree of doétor in divinity
from the univerlity of Oxford. At the commencement of
the year 1700, he was initalled archdeacon of Totnefs; and
in the progreis of it lie was engaged with fome other learned
divines, 12 reviling an qtended edition of the Greek tefta-
ment, with Greek fcholia, collected chiefly from the fathers,
by Mr. Archdeacon Gregory. The acaelffion of queea
Anne, in £702, was to him a favourable event ; and it was
{oon followed by his appointment as one of her majetty’s
chaplains in ordinary ; and in 1704, he was advanced to the
deanery of Carlifle. In 1706, he preached a funeral fermoa
on 1 Cor. xv. 19. which occafioned a difpute with Hoadly
“© concerning the advantages of virtue with regard to the

refent life.” In the following year he was appointed ong
of the canons reiidentiary of the cathedral at ixeter; and
in 1709, his ditinguifhed talents in the pulpit introduced
him into the honourable office of preacher at the Rolls
chapel. In this year he was engaged in a controverfy with
Hoadly concerning ‘ Paflive obedience ;”’ and in, the fol-

Oo , lowing

AT Ff
ing year he affifted Sacheverell in ‘his famous trial, who re-
compenfed him by a legacy of 5ool., and in performing the
office of prolocutor to the lower houfe of convocation. In
171i he was appointed by the convocation one of the com-
mittee for comparing Mr.- Whifton’s doétrines with thofe of
the church of England ; and he was principally concerned
in drawing up ‘A reprefentation of the prefent ftate of
religion,’ which, though too exceptionable in its principles,
and too virulent in its f{pirit to be prefented to the queen,
was neverthelefs printed and privately difperfed. In 1712,
Dr. Atterbury was made dean of Chriit-church ; and in
3713 he attained, by the recommendation of the ‘earl of
Oxford, the height of his promotion, that of the bifhopric
of Rochefter; and deanery of Weftminiter. It is faid, that
he afpired to the primacy ; but the death of the queen, in
1714, difconcerted allhis projects, aid difappointed all his
hopes of higher advancement. The acceffion of George I.
was an event which he had reafon to deplore. The per-
fonal diflike of the king, of which he had mortifying evi-
dence, was retaliated on his part by difaffection to the efta-
blifhed government. In the firft year of this reign, during
the rebellion in Scotland, he, and one other bifhop at his in-
itigation, refufed to fign the ‘‘ Declaration” of the bifhops ;
and his name occurs i the moit violent proteits againit the
meafures of government. Not content with a conttituticnal
oppolition, he ‘engaged in a correfpondence with the pre-
tender’s party, in order to bring about a revolution in favour
of the abdicated family ; and in Auguft 1722, he was ap-
prehended on this account, and committed to the Tower.
Whilft he was under examination, previous to his commit-
ment, he is faid to have adopted our Saviour’s anfwer to
the Jewifh council; “If I tell- you, you will not beliéve
me; and if I alfo afk you, you will not anfwer me, nor let
me go.” In the month of March of the following year, a
bill was brought into the houfe of commons for “ inflicting
certain pains and penalties on Francis bifhop of Rocheftér ;”’
and having pafled the commons, it was fent up to the lords
for their concurrence. In this houfe it was ftrongly op-
pofed, and the bifhop, in his defence, made an able and
eloquent fpeech, clofing, after a folemn proteftation of his
innocence, and an appeal to the fearcher of hearts, with
this memorable declaration: ‘‘ If your lordfhips fhall pro-
ceed to pafs this bill againft me, I fhall difpofe myfelf
quietly, and tacitly {ubmit to what you do; God’s will be
done; naked came [ out of my mothers womb, and naked faall
J return ; and whether he gives or takes away, bleffed be the
name of the Lord!’ At length, however, aiter a long and
very warm debate, the bill paffed into a law, and the bifhop
was condemned to the deprivation of all his offices and
benefices, and to perpetual exile. The juftice of this
fentence, though much litigated at and immediately after
the time when it was pafied, has been fince generally al-
lowed. Of his attachment to the pretender, the following
firiking inftance is related by the author of the Memoirs
of Lord Cheiterfield, from Dr. Birch’s MS. papers. “Lord
Harcourt leaving the old miniftry, provoked Atterbury’s
abufive tongue. He, in return, declared, that, on the
queen’s death, the bifhop came to him/and to lord Boling-
broke, and faid, nothing remained but immediately to pro-
claim king James. He further offered if they would give
him a guard, to put on his lawn fleeves, and head the pro-
ceffion.” Of his difaffeGion to the exifting .government,
many convincing evidences occur ; and particularly his con-
duct towards Mr. Gibbin, a worthy clergyman, and curate
of Gravefend, whom he fufpended for allowing the ufe of
his church to the chaplain of the Dutch troops, who were
talled over in 3715 to fupprefs the rebellion, Atterbury,
t

APY

in confequencé of his fentence, left the country in June,
1723, accompanied by his daughter, Mrs. Morrice, to whom
he was affectionately attached, and landed at Calais. From
thence he went to Bruffels ; but being obliged to leave that
place, he removed to Paris, where he refided till his death,
foftening the rigours of exile by fludy, and converfation
and correfpondence with learned men. It appears, how-
ever; by fome letters publifhed at Edinburgh in 1768, of
ungueftionable authenticity, that he was attively engaged
im 1725, in fomenting difcontents in the highlands of Scot-
land, with a view of encouraging another rebellion. In
1729 he loft his daughter, and this afflictive event, which
he bore with refignation, is neverthelefs thought to have
haftened his own diffolution, which happened at Paris, in
February 1731. His remains were brought over to Eng-
land, and’ privately interred in Weltminiter-abbey. We
cannot forbear inferting, in this place, Mr. Pope’s fine
epitaph on the bifhop, written in the form of a dialogue
between his daughter, fuppofed to be expiring in his arms,
immediately after her arrival in France to fee him, and him-
felf, and preferved in Pope’s Works, vol. iv. p. 58. 8vo.
1776. As to thejuftice of the compliment, which it pays
to his political fentiments, the reader muit judge.

; Dialogue. i
She. “Yes, we have lived,—one pang, and then we part !
May heaven, dear father! now have all thy heart.
Yet, ah! how much we loved, remember {till,

Till you are duit like me.—”
“ Dear fhade! I will:
Then mix this duft with thine—O fpotlefs ghoft
O more than fortune, friends, or country lott!
Is there on earth, one care, one with befide !
Yes, Save my Country, Heav’ns he faid, and
died.”’

Bifhop Atterbury had-four children, two fons and twa
daughters. His fon Ofvorn alone furvived him. ;
Some time before his death the bifhop publifhed a vindica-
tion of himfelf, bifhop Smalridge, and Dr. Aldrich, from a
charge brought againit them by Mr, Oldmixon, of having
altered and interpolated the copy of lord Clarendon’s, «¢ Hi-
ftory of the Rebellion.”? His fermons are extant in four
volumes 8vo. : thofe contained in the two firft were publifhed
by himfelf, and dedicated to his great patron, fir Jonathan
Trelawney, bifhop of Winchefter: thofe in the two lait
were publifhed after his death hy Dr. Thomas Moore, his
lordfhip’s chaplain. His epiftolary correfpondence with
Mr. Pope is extant in the colleGion of that poet’s “« Let-
ters.” Mr. Nichols has lately publifhed in three volumes,
8vo. “ The Epiftolary Correfpondence, Vifitation, Charges,
Speeches, and Mifcellanies of the right reverend Francis
Atterbury, D.D. lord bifhop of Rochetter,”’ with hiftorical
notes ; the greater part of thefe volumes is entirely new.
From the General Dictionary (vol. i. 445.) we learn, that
Dr. Atterbury is faid to have tranflated “ Virgil’s Georgics”?
in Englifh, and to have written an “‘ Harmonia Evangelica.”
In an elegant differtation on the fictitious perfon of Japyx,
or Japis m the A®neid, he attempted to prove that Virgil
meant by this perfon to allude to Antonius Mufa, an emi-
nent phyfician and polite fcholar at Rome, in the reign of

He.

Auguftus ; but the attempt does no honour to his entical —

erudition, and has been deemed futile by judicious commen-
tators. His tranflations of two odes of Horace, are re-
puted by a competent judze to have received more than

their due fhare of applaufe.
As to this prelate’s character, however the moral and poli.
tical part of it may have been differently appreciated by
oppolite

re
,

“ ee vee ae ae

mT 'T:

opnofite parties, it is univerfally agreed, that he was a man
of great learning and uncommon abilities, a fine writer, and
a moit excellent preacher. With refpeét to Atterbury’s
public and political charaéter, it “* was marked with that

‘turbulent ambition and contentious violence which animated

the Beckets and Lauds of former times, and which was ill
difguifed by the affected mildnefs and moderation of his
epittolary writings.” “ The turbulent and imperious tem-
per of this haughty prelate,” fays Dr. Wharton (Effay on
the Writings and Genius of Pope, vol. ii. p. 4325 433-)>
« was long felt and remembered in the college over which
he pretided. It was with difficulty queen Anne was per-
fuaded to make him a bifhop ; which fhe did at laft on the
repeated importunities of lord Harcourt. After her deceafe,
Atterbury occafionally urged his friends to proclaim the
Pretender ; and, on their refufal, upbraided them with their
timidity, with many oaths; for he was aceuftomed to {wear
on any {trong provocation.” From an anecdote related
by lord Cheiterfield to Dr. Maty, and recorded in ** Maty’s
Memoirs” of that nobleman (p. 279.), it has been inferred,
that Dr. Atterbury had been long known, among his friends,
to bea fceptic, or an unbeliever, with regard to revelation.
The anecdote is as follows. “ I went to Mr. Pope one
morning at Twickenham, and found a large folio bible with
gilt clafps lying before him upon his table ; and, as I knew
his way of thinking upon that book, I afked him jocofely,
if he was going to write an anfwer to it? It is a prefent,
faid he, or rather a legacy, from my old friend the bifhop
of Rochefter. I went to take my leave of him yefterday
in the Tower, where I faw this bible upon his table. After
the firfi compliments, the bifhop faid to me, my friend

Pope, confidering your infirmities, and my age and exile, it

is not likely that we fhould ever meet agai, and therefore
I give you this legacy to remember me by it.—Does your
lordfhip abide by it yourfelf?—I do.—If you do, my lord,
it is but lately. May I bee to know, what new light or
arguments have prevailed with you now, to entertain an
opinion fo contrary to that which you entertained of that
book all the former part of your life ?—The bifhop replied,
we have not time to talk of thefe things; but take home
the book; I will abide by it; and I recommend to you
to do fo too, and fo God blefs you! This fingle ftory,
however, nor only uncorroborated, but contradicted by other
faGts, is not fufficient to warrant the charge of feepticiim
againit this prelate. Whatever were his faults, he does
not appear to have difbelieved or even doubted the truth of
Chriftianity. His aGtions and writings exhibit the fiery
zealot and bigot rather than the infidel; though it mult be
acknowledged, that thefe charatters may be united in the
fame perfon. His fermons on the miraculous propagation
of the gofpel, and on a ftanding revelation’s bemg the bett
means of conviction, befides other difcourtes, furnith im-
portant and pleafing evidences of his attachment to the
Chriftian religion. It ought alfo to be contidered, that
he generally treats unbelievers with contempt, as an ignerant,
fuperficial, and conceited fet of men; which be would icarcely
have done if he had been of the fame fentiments. For
though a man may conceal, or deny, or even perfecute the

opinions which he himfelf holds, :t is not very hkely that he ~

fhould appear to defpife the retainers of them. Befides,
there is an ardour of affectionate efteem in Mr. Pope’s two
laft letters to Dr. Atterbury (Pope’s Works, vol.v. p.351—
355-), written to him when he was in the Tower, which that
eminent poet, who valued himfelf upon his moral character,
could not well have expreffed to the bifhop, if he had known
that he had ated the bafe and hypocritical part of publicly
profefling and defending that religion which he privately

AVEST

difavowed. Not to add, that he actually derived much of
his confolation in adverlity from his religious principles.
His correfpondence with Dr, Wall and bilhop Potter, pre-
ferved in Nichols’s publication, fully proves his belief in,
and his zeal for, the honour of the Chriftian revelation ; and
the tellimony, derived from his private correfpondence and
from the uniform tenour of his life and writings, ought
furely, with impartial and candid judges, to outweigh the
evidence deduced from a fingle flory, however well authen-
ticated. In his letters to Mr. Pope, and to his other cor-
re{pondents, bifhop Atterbury appeats in a very pleafing
light, both as a writer andaman. In eafe and elegance,
thefe letters are fuperior to thofe of Mr. Pope, which are
more {ludied. If we were to form our judgment of him, as
aman, from thefe letters, we fhould incline to think that
it was his fole wifh to {pend his life in a learned and elegant
focial intercourfe with a few private friends ; and yet nu-
merous facts fufficiently fhew, that nothing could be more
ditant from his real difpofition and character, and that he
was actuated in early lite and in the progrefs of his years,
bya reftlefs and turbulent ambition. His panegyriit, bifhop
Smalridge, in the fpeech which he made, upon prefenting
him to the upper houfe of convocation, as Prolocutor, re-
prefents him as “ Vir in nullo literarum genere hofpes, in
plerifque artibus et ftudiis diu et feliciter exercitatus, in
maxime perfectis literarum difciplinis perte¢tiflimus: i. e.
‘one, who is well acquainted with all parts of. literature,
long and fuccefstully exercifed in moft arts and ftudies, and
meoit accomplifhed in thofe f{ciences which admit of the
greatelt perte€tion.”” Although it is allowed, that he was
{ometimes too fevere upon his adyerfary, and dealt rather
too much in fatire and invective, yet this is imputed
by his panegyrift more to the natural fervour of his
wit, than to any bitterneis of temper, or prepenfe malice.
As a compofer of fermons and a preacher, he excelled
his cotemporaries, and in this refpect few Englith authors
have attained to fo high a rank. Of his character, as a
preacher, the following encomium is beltowed upon him
by the author of the “ Tatler’? (N°. 66); who, having
obferved that the Englith clergy too much negle& the
art of fpeaking, makes a particular exception “With re-
gard to this prelate. “ Atterbury,” fays he, “ has’ fo par-
ticular a regard to his congregatioa, that he commits to his
memory what he has to fay to them; and has fo foft and
graceful a behaviour, that it muft attra€t your attention.
His perfon, it is to be confeffed, is no {mall recommenda-
tion, but-he is to be highly commended for nat lofing
that advantage, and adding to the propriety of {peech
(which might pafs the criticiim of Longinus), an aétion*
which would haye been approved by Demofthenes, He
has a peculiar force in his way, and has many of his audience,
who could not be intelligent hearers of his difcourfe, were
there not explanation as well as grace in his a@tion. This
art of his is ufed with the me exaét and honeftefkill. He
neverattempts your paffions, till he has convinced your reafon.
All the objections, which you can form, are laid open and
difperfed, before he ufes the leaft yehermence jn his fermon ;
but when he thinks he has your head, he very foon wins
your heart, and never pretends to thew the beauty of holi-
nefs, till he has convinced you of the truth of it.” Dr,
Blair (Lectures on Rhetoric, &c.. vol. ii. p. 127—155.),
fays of this prelate, that he is defervedly accounted ane of
our moft eloquent writers of fermons. “ At the fame time,”
he adds, “ he is more diftinenifhed for elerance and purity
of expreftion, than for profoundnefs of thought : his ftyle,
though fometimes carelefs, is, upon the whole, neat and
chafte; and more beantiful than that of moft writers of
Og2 fermons,

AT
fermons. In his fentiments, he is not only rational, but
pious and devotional, which is a great excellency.” Dr,
Warton (ubi fupra, p. 435.), thinks, that Atterbury was,
on the whole, rather a man of ability, than a genius; and
that he writes more with elegance and eis ie than with
ai force of thinking or reafoning. Biog. Brit. Gen,
16k.

Arrersury, Lewis, the elder brother of the bifhop,
was bora at Caldecot, in the parifh of Newport-Pagnel in
1656, and after finifhing his grammatical education under
Dr. Bufby at Weitminfter fchool, removed to Chrift church
college, Oxford, in 1674. In 1695, he was elected preacher
to the chapel at Highgate, in the neighbourhood of Lon-
don; and in 1707, he was prefented by the queen to the
re€tory of Shepperton, in Middlefex. In 1719, he was col-
lated to the rectory of Hornafey, in Middlefex, in which
parifh the chasel of Highgate is fituated. Upon applica-
tion to his brother for the archdeaconry of Rochefter, he
was refufed; probably more from a mean opinion of his
talents, than from delicacy. However, he fuftained the
charaéter of an ufeful parith prieft, annexing the profeffion
of phyfic, which he ftudied for the benefit of his poor
parifhioners, to the clerical charaéter ; and he acquired the
reputation of a plain, folid, ufeful preacher. At the age
of feventy he had a ftroke of the palfy, and died at Bath
in the year 1731. He publithed feveral fermons, which
formed two volumes, and other pieces ; and fince his death,
two volumes of his fermons have been publifhed, in confe-
quence of his teftamentary directions, by Mr. E. Yardley,
archdeacon of Cardigan. Dr. Atterbury was intimately
acquainted with archbifhop Tillotfon, formed his ftyle of
preaching on his model, and publifhed a defence of him
againft the attack of an Irifh prieft. Biog. Brit.

ATTERKEAA, ia Geography, a town of Germany,
in the archduchy of Auttria, fix miles north-weft of Ent-
zerftorff.

ATTERMINING, in our Old Writers, is ufed for a
time or term granted for paymeat of debt, according to
Blount.

ATTERN, in Geograp)y, a town of Hindooftan, in the
country of Agra, thirty-eight miles $.S.E. of Agra, and
thirty-nine north-eaft of Gwalior.

ATTESTATION, compounded of ad, fo, and toffis,
witne/s, the giving teftimony or evidence of the truth of any
thing ; efpecially m writing.

Arrestation of Deeds, in Law. See Deep.

Arresration of Devifes. See Devise.

ATTHIS, in Ornithology, afpecies of Gracuta, called
by Haffelquift corvus Aigyptius ; and by Latham, the Egyp-
tian grakle. The colour of this bird is greenifh ; belly fer-
ruginous; legs fanguineous. Gmelin. It inhabits Egypt,
as the fynonymous names imply ; and is believed to live on
centipedes, fcorpions, and other infects, the remains of fuch
haviag been found in the ftomach.

Tt is about the fize of a lark; bill dull black, reddifh at
the bafe; eye blueifh ; head rather flattened at the top ;
upper parts of the plumage deep green, fpotted with blue-
green on the crown, hind part of the neck, and the fhould-
ers ; neck and back of the fame deep green, but not {potted.
Oneach fide of the neck and back is a longitudinal broad
line, the fore-part of which is ferruginous, the reft: of a
wihitith lucid blue; throat whitifh; tail nearly even at the
end, and of a deep blue colour; claws blackifh. Lath.
Gen. Syn.

Among the ancients, the name of atthis was given to
fome bird at prefent not very accurately known. By Aldro-
vandus, and other naturaliits, the fame name has been alfo

3

ATT

affigned to birds altogether different from the prefent
{pecies, .

ATTIA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, ten leagues
fouth of Kin. '

ATTIC, fomething relating to Attica, or the city of
Athens. In matters of Philology, we ule, Attic falt, fales
Attici, meaning a delicate, poignant kind of wit and humour,
peculiar to the Athenian writers. Attic witnels, was a
witnefs incapable of corruption; fo an Attic mufe was an
excellent one, &c. :

Artic Dialed, in Grammar, one of the four Grecian dia=
1>4&s, which was ufed in Athens and the adjoining country.
Thofe who have chiefly diftmguifhed themfelves in this diae
Jeé&t, are Thucydides, Ariftophanes, Plato, Ifoerates, Xeno-
phon, and Demofthenes. Its general properties are, that
it afiects contractions of fyllables in the fame. word, and alfo
the joining of words; it often changes ¢ into &, e, and =,
as EvvIo: for culo: prudent, Sager for Jags, to confide, and
mputla for zpaccw, to do; it caits aways from at and #, as
xraw for xreuw, fo weep, and rex for xAziy, more 5 it changes
o into #, as sews for yasc, a temple ; it joins & to the end of
words, giving it a circumflex accent, as oh& foro, 71, what;
and it annexes + to the end of adverbs, as vu, now. Befides,
the Attics have feveral phrafes peculiar to themfelves. Port
Royal Greek Grammar, vol. ii. p. 332, &c. :

Artic, or Attic Story, in Architedure, alow ftory ereGed
over an order of architeéture, to finifhthe upper part efabuild-
ing. Itis fo called becaufe fuppofed to have been firlt ufed ia
Attica ; but whether it was origimally employed to conceal
the roof, or from fome reafons of convenience ja the internal
diftribstion, does not clearly appear; what has been men-
tioned refpeCting it by ancient authors being very obfcure.
There is no inftance of an Attic among the exiiling antiqui-
ties of Athens. In Italy it is met with in the triumphal
arches, and in the forum of Nerva.

It has been much employed by the moderns, and part
cularly by the Italian areiitets. But the rules which they
give for its proportions are various, fome making it in
height equal to one half, and others to one third of the
principal order. It is ufually decorated with pilafters, and
frequently with baflo-relievos, in the fpaces between; or
there are windows in thefe fpaces. ‘The pilatters are fome~
times plain, and fometimes have a funk pannel, or other
ornaments. They have no diminution, nor have they any
peculiar bafe or capital, the mouldings at the top and bot-
tom of the Attic continuing round the pilaiters. In the
arch of Conitantine at Rome there are ttatues placed over
the columns of the principal order, immediately before the
pilafters of the Attic; and this has frequeatly been imitated
in modern buildings. ,

Artic Story is alfo frequently applied to the upper ftory
of ahoufe, conftrnéed in a roof, when there is no order
of archite€ture employed in its decoration.

Artic Order. This term has been by fome authors ufed
to denote the pilafters that are employed to decorate an Attic
ftory. Pliny, after enumerating the other orders, faya,
«: Prater has funt que vecantur Attice columng quaternis
angulis pari laterum intervailo.” But how thefe fquare
columns were formed is very uncertain, fince we have no
remains of columns which are known to have been of the
kind here defcribed ; and Vitruvius makes no mention of
them. The Attic of the forum of Nerva correfponds moft
with Pliny’s defcription, there being projections that come
forward from the attic over the detached columns, faced
with fquare pilafters, whofe fides are nearly equal in width
to their fronts. It feems improper, however, to call this
an order of archite¢ture, as it has-no peculiar parts efien.

tially

APT! T

tially constituting an order, fuch as capital, bafe, entabla-
ture, &e,

Artic or Atticurgic Bofs. Vitruvius, lib. iii, cap. 3.
{peaking of the bafes of columns, fays, ‘ This done, the
bafes are fixed in their places, and are fo proportioned that,
including their plinth, they have in height half the thicknefs
of the column ; and in projection, which the Greeks call
sxQopx:, they fhould have one quarter of the thicknefs of the
column ; fo that their breadth and length will be once anda
half the thicknefs of the column. Their height, if they
are to be in the Attic mode, is fo divided, that the upper
part is one third of the thicknefs of the cclumn, and the
yemainder is left for the plinth. The plinth being excluded,
the remaining part is divided into four parts, and the upper
torts has one of them; the remaining three parts are equally
halved, and one half makes the lower torus, and the other
the feotia, which the Greeks call zpoxAo1, with its fquares.””

This kind of bafe is frequently found in the ancient ex-
amples of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, both Greek and
Roman, but the proportion of its parts varies iu almoft
every different example. We fometimes alfo meet with
altragals between the torufes and fillets, and all its mouldings
are in Roman architeCture, frequently covered with orna-
ments. This bafe is extremely beautiful, and has been
much employed by modern archite&s, who have, though
very improperly, applied it alfo to the Doric order, or rather
to the order which has long been called Doric by the mo-
derns. See Dorrie Order.

For an example of the Attic bafe we refer the reader to
Plate XVI. of Architecture.

Artic or Aiticurgic Door. Vitruvius, lib. iv. cap. 6.
fays, in fpeaking of doors, that “ they are of three kinds,
Doric, Ionic, and Attic.” And he afterwards proceeds to
deferibe the manner of forming the Attic door, concluding
with this rernarkable paflage, “’Thefe rules, which are prac-
tifed in the compofition of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
temples, I have explained as well as I have been able, ac-
cording to the approved methods;”’ intimating thereby, that
he has applied the term Attic only, as relating to the Corin-
thian order.

Artic Year. See YEAR.

ATTICA, in Ancicnt Geography, one of the eight di-
ftriéts into which Achaia was divided, anciently called 4ée,
AGea, and Atthis. Plin.1. iv.c. 7. Paufan. in Attic. c. 11.
Mela, I. ii. c. 3. This country is a kind of peninfula of a
triangular form, bounded on the north by Beeotia and the
‘gulph of Euripus, on the weft by Megaris, on the fouth by
the Saronic gulf, and on the eaft by part of the A®gean
fea; and extending from north-weft to fouth-eaft about
eighty miles with decreafing breadth, but at an average about
fifty miles, fo that its area is confiderably lefs than that of
Yorkfhire. This little country, every where interfeGed with
recks and mountains, is by nature extremely barren. ‘The
fterility of the feil: requiring affiduous induitry to produce
the common neceffariés: of litc, rendered the territory much
Jef iiviting to plundering or conquering invaders than the
fruitful lands in otherparts of Greeee. Hence Thucydides
obferves, in his Introdution to his Hiftory, that a much
greater portion of its inhabitants was aboriginal than thofe
of neighbouring divifions. The phyfical deficiencies of At-
tica tended to invigorate the intelle€tuai and moral energies
ofthe people ; anda political eftablifhment happily adapted
to the circumftances and charaéters of the citizens. che-
sifhed and improved the genius and {pirit from which it
fprung. A. region lefs extenfive and naturally produétive
than North Wales,. was tranfeendent in the arts of war and

_of peace, and repelled the chofen myriads of the moft potent
monarch. . Tnfpirited by freedom, this hittle body made the

BT TE

gigantic defpot of the Eaft tremble on his throne, and left
monuments of military’achieveménts, {pringing from liberty
and patriotifm, and guided by wifdom, which have only been
furpafled by the tranquil and pacific efforts of its genius in
the various departments of the arts, litcrature, and philo-
fophy.

Though in the early periods of their hiftory, they were lit-
tle fubjeét to foreign invafions that fought to difpoffels them
of their habitations, their maritime expofure opened the way
to emigrations of fea-faring adventurers who fought efta-
blifhments, not by exterminating and enflaving the natives,
but by conciliating them through an interchange of benefits.
The firft navigators recorded in hiftory to have vifited the
Autochthones, or aboriginal pofleflors of Attica, came from
the mother country of erudition and fcience. Cecrops, an
Egyptian (B.C. 1556), led a colony of his countrymea
into Greece, (See Strabo, lib. ix.) The colony of Cecrops
derived its origin from the city of Sais, in Egypt. The
adventurers who compofed it had quitted the banks of the
Nile, to withdraw themfelves from the tyranny of an inex-
orable conqueror ; and after a tedious voyage, reached the
fhores of Attica, at all times inhabited by a people whom
the fierce nations of Greece had difdained to bring under
the yoke. Their fterile fields offered no plunder, nor could
theirnweaknefs infpire any dread. Habituated to ‘the en-
joyments of peace, free without knowing the value of in-
dependence, rude rather than barbarous, they muit have
united themfelves without difficulty to ftrangers inftruéted ~
by misfortune. Ina fhort time, the Egyptians and the in-
habitants of Attica, formed but one people ; the former,
however, affumed over the latter that afcendancy which
fooner or later invariably attends fuperiority of knowledge ;
and Cecrops, placed at the head of the united people, con-
ceived the noble defign of beftowing happinefs on his adopt-
ed country.

The ancient pofleflors of thefe lands yearly faw a regular
fucceffion of the wild fruits of the oak, and relied on nature
for a reproduction which fecured their annual fubfiftence.
Ceerops firft engaged the wandering hunters or thepherds
of Attica to unite in villages of hufbandmen. Cerna, wine,
and oil, rewarded their ufeful labours; and thefe produCtions,
being acquired by common toil, were regarded, with the
ground itfelf, as a common property. The idea of an ex-
clufive and permanent right to all the uies of a piece of
land, whether belonging to communities or to individuals,
is one of the moft interefting fteps in the progrefs of fo-
ciety. In Attica, this invaluable right was immediately
followed by fuch inftitutions as tended to fecure its enjoy-
ment, and to check the injuftice of man, who is feldom
willing to acquire by flow labour what he can ravifh by
fudden violence. The falutary influence of religion was em-
ployed on this important occafion. With agricultural pro-
perty religious rites were introduced, and Cecrops initituted
facrifices to the attributes of wifdom and of power under
the names and fenfible reprefentations of Msnerva and Ju-
piter. He is alfo by fome hiftorians faid to have taught
his fubjeés the art of navigation ; to have initituted the
areopagus, and to the inflitution of civil rights to have
added the punifhment of crimes. Aware of the advantages
which might be derived from union of.effort, Cecrops pro-
pofed to facilitate it by contiguity of refidence ; he induced
his fubje€ts to collect and fecure themfelves within a wall,
and laid the foundation of Athens. He placed this new
city ona hill in the midi of a large plain, ard built the
citadel on the rock in which the hill terminated; this
prince reigned fifty years. For an abftract of the hiftory
of this country, and other particulars relating to it, fee

ATHENIANS, ald ATHENS, ‘
Thee

ATT

The chief city of Attica, next to Athens, was Evru-
sts. Rhamunus was famous for the temple of Amphiaraus
‘and the ftatue of Nemefis. ‘The principal river was Aso-
pus ; as to thé Hiffus, Eridanus, and Cephiffus, they were
rather brooks than-rivers ;: but Attica, having a number of
havens, was lefs in want of rivers. The riches of this king=
dom, according to’ Thucydides (1. ii.) occafioned by its fru-
gality and commerce, are faid to have amounted to 1200
£ttic talents a year; hence it was enabled to maintain a
powerful army and navy, and thus to extend its poffeflions.
The coin of Attica was commonly flamped with the figure
of an ox, and this circumitance gave occafion to the phrafe
frequent- among the Greeks, of a thing being worth ro or
300 oxen; and hence alfo arofe the common proverb
* bovem habet in lingua,” when a man was thought
bribed to fpeak contrary to his own fentiments. But the
wealth, ftrength, and population of Attica, were princi-
pally difplayed in the number of tribes, amounting to thiva
teen, into which it was divided, and the great number of
cities and towns belonging to each tribe.

ATTICHY, in Geography, a town of France in the
department of the Oife, and chief place of a canton in the
diftné of Compiegne. The place contains 830 and the
canton 42,621, inhabitants: the territory includes 2674
kiliometres and 22 communes.

ATTICUS, Heropes Tiseritus Craupivs, in Bie-
graphy, was def{cended of a noble family, which traced their
pedigree as high as Cimon and Miltiades, and born at Ma-
tathon in the territory of Athens. His father, Julius
Atticus, was reduced to a low condition by the profcrip-
tion of his father; but by the-accidental difcovery of a trea-
lure in his houfe, he was unexpectedly raifed to the poffeffion
of affluence. Dreading the event of this difeoveryhe commu-
nicated it to the emperor Nerva, who empowered him to
ufe it at his pleafure ; and ona fecond reprefentation, that
it was too large for a private perfon, the emperor renewed
his licence, adding’ that if it was too large for ufe, he
might abufe it, if he pleafed, for it was his own. Atticus
having increafed his wealth by marriage, lived at Athens
with very fingular magnificence, giving to the people fre+
quent largefles, and offering to the gods very {plendid fa-
¢rifices. Whillt he had-the command of the free cities in
Afia, in the time of Adrian, he perceived that the city
of ‘T'roas wanted water, and he obtained of this emperor
a grant of three millions of drachmas, in order to defray
the expence of procuring the neceflary fupply; but the
charge of executing his project for this purpofe amounted
to feven millions of drachmas inftead- of three, and the ad-
ditional expence*he defrayed out of his own fortune. The
great wealth of Atticus enabled him to make very liberal
provifion for the education of his fon, Herodes; and ac-
cordingly he employed Scopelian, one of the moft eminent
orators of the age, as his inftruCtor, and rewarded him. libe-
rally for his fervices. Herodes pofleffed diftinguifhed ta-
Tents, which hé cultivated with diligence ; and his attention
was principally dire&ted to the ftudy of rhetoric. In this
fcience, as it was then practifed, he made great proficiency ;
and fuch were the ardour of his purfuit, and his ambition of
gaining applaufe, that when he was deputed at an early age
to addrefs a fpeech to the emperor Adrian, who was then
in Pannonia, the young orator is faid to have failed in the
attempt, and to have been almoft urged by fhame and de-
fpair to throw himfelf into the Danube. ‘The misfortune,
however, ferved only as an incitement to future diligence:
Having finithed his attendance in the fchools of rhetoric,
Herodes returned to his own country, and delivered publie
lectures, which were popular and much frequented by the
fophitts, philofophers, and rhetoricians of the age, who were

AeTeD

munificently vewarded for their attendance and applaufe.
The liberality of Heredes was, however, fomewhat im<
pofed upon and abufed. Aulus Gellius, who was himfelf a
difcipie of Herodes, mentions one inftance to this purpotes

A. man with a cloak, long hair, and a beard down to hig —

waift, prefented himfelf to the orator, and fupplicated alms.
Being interrogated who he was, the pretended: philofophen
indignantly replied, that he wasa philofopher, and expreffed
furprife at the quettion. «I fee,’ replied Herodes, “the
cloak and the beard, but I do not fee the philofopher.’*
One of the company interpofed, and obferved, that this pers
fon was an impudent beggar, who {pent his time in the
tavern, and infulted thofe who refufed to relieve him. “Well
then,” faid Herodes, ‘let us give as men, though not as ta
aman ;’? tanquam homines non tanquam homini.

The fame of Herodes having extended through Greece,
and even to Rome, he was appointed by the emperor Titus
Antoninus the preceptor of eloquence to his two fons Mar-
cus Aurelius and Lucius Verus ; and being there introduced
into the way of promotion, he was created conful in the
year 143. About this time he was appointed prefect of the
free cities of Afia, and prefident at the Panhellenia and
Panathenian games, at which he was crowned. On this oc+
cafion he ere¢ted the ftadium, 600 feet in length, and formed
of white marble, a moft famptuous work, of which fome
remains are ftill vifible.
theatre at Athens, called Regillum, in honour of his wife
Regilla; he alfo repaired and beautified the odeum of Pe-
ricles ; and decorated many other places in Greece ‘and
Afia with ufeful and ornamental works.. He likewife con-
fecrated rich offerings in the temples at Athens, Delphos,
Olympia, Pifa, and other places. To this liberal and
even profule expenditure of his wealth it is owing, that his
name has not funk into oblivion ; as the productions of his
eloquence, fome of which exiited in the time of Philoftra-
tus and Suidas, have been all loft. Notwithftanding thefe
difplays of his public {pirit, and the benefits he beftowed on
his country, his influence excited jealoufy ; and two bros
thers, named Quintilii, who commanded in Greece, feized

occafion for tranfmitting complaints againft him to the ems _

peror Aurelius. Herodes prefented himfelf before the
emperor, but inftead of employing his eloquence for the
purpofe of conciliation, he rudely reproached him with @
predetermination to ruin him. An officer, who ftood by,
exclaimed, that this infolence merited death. ‘ A man of
my age,” {aid Herodes, “ does not fear death.” The mild

emperor contented himfelf with punifhing the freedmen of
Herodes ; who himfelf retired to Attica; and attempting |

by a letter to Aurelius to regain his kindnefs, the emperor
returned a friendly anfwer. Herodes was again mortified b
a charge of having been acceffary to the death of his wife,
preferred againft him before the fenate by his brother, who
had been conful ; but he was acquitted. In token of his
forrow for her lofs, he ereéted to her memory a ftatue, bear-
ing an infcription, {till fubfifting. The clofe of his life was
fpent at Marathon, where he died at the age of 76; and
his countrymen honoured him with a public funeral at
Athens. Crevier’s Hiit. Emp. vol. vii. p. 250, &c. Mems
de ’ Acad. def Infeript. vol. xxx. Gen. Biog.

Articus, Titus Pompontus, aRoman knight, lived in
the latter period of the Roman republic, and acquired great
celebrity from the'{plendour of his private character. He
inherited from his father, and from his uncle Q. Czcili
who adopted him, great wealth; and availed himfelf of
his liberal education to fuch a degree, that he was exhibited
as a pattern to his {chvol-fellows, among whom were
the younger Marcus and Cicero. When he attained matu-
rity, the republic was dilturbed by the factions of Cinna

~ and

He alfo conftructed a magnificent’

TE

8 Ea

pms

ATT

and Sylla; but endowed with a peculiar fuavity of man-
ners, which made him uniformly averfe from civil conten-
tions, he retired to Athens with a great part of his pro-
perty, and there devoted himfelf to itudy, and particularly
to Grecian literature, in which he excelled his cotempora-
ries of his own country. At Athens he became popular
by his conciliatory difpofition and conduét, by the liberal
diftribution of his money, and by his charity to the poor
and diftreffed. ‘The Athenians withed to confer on him the
honour of a citizen, which he declined ; and though during
his abode with them, he would not fuffer them to erect
ftatues to him, they teftified their refpect in this way im-
mediately on his departure, an. event which occalioned
a general mourning through the city. The furname of
Atticus, which he acquired from his attachment to this
city, and his familiarity with its language and manners,
became his ufual appellation during his life, and continued
to diftinguifh him in after ages. At a diltance from the
feene of political contention, he interefted himfelf in the
welfare of his friends; and at the rifk of difpleafing the
triumphant party, he ferved a friend in diftrefs, for he affitted

ung Marius, when declared a public enemy, by fupplying

im with money to efcape from his enemies. He even oc-
cafionally made journies to Rome to fupport his friends in
contefted elections, and embraced every opportumity that
occurred of ferving thofe who needed his affiltance. To
Cicero he was particularly attached, partly from affinity,
as his fifter Pomponia was married to Quintus Cicero, but
chiefly from fimilarity of difpofition; and he fupplied him
with money in the time of his exile; and alfo intimate
with Hortenfius, the rhetorical rival of Cicero, he exerted
himfelf in preferving a good underftanding between them.
When Rome was in a tranquil ftate, it was the place in which
Atticus chofe to refide ; but he never engaged in public bufi-
nefs. He availed himfelf of none of the opportunities that
occurred of increafing his fortune ; whilft he was honoured
with a nomination to public offices, he difregarded the
emoluments accruing from them. He never engaged in a
law-fuit, nor was ever concerned in an accufation as the
principal, or fecond. He never bid for eftates at-public
auctions, or in any way partook of the f{poils of the un-
fortunate. When the war broke out between Cefar and
Pompey, Atticus was fixty years old; and his age was-a
plea of which he availed himfelf for not taking part with
either ; and by his fubfequent condué he offended neither
the on2 nor the other. After the death of Cefar, whofe
favour he had conciliated, he fuccefsfully oppofed the efta-
blifhment of a private treafure for the ufe of the party
which had taken him off, though he was upon very inti-
mate terms with Brutus. Neverthelefs, when Brutus and
Caffius were obliged to leave Italy, he fupplied Brutus with
a large fum of money. He afterwards exerted himfelf to
the utmoft of his power in favour of Antony and his
family. Upon the return of Antony from his retreat, and
when every friend of the republican party was expofed to
great danger, Atticus withdrew into a place of refuge ;
and though Antony was urged to deftroy him, he remem-
bered his obligations to his benefaétor, affured him by a
letter written with his own hand of his fafety, and ap-
pointed a guard for his protection. In this feafon of dif-
trefs, Atticus fuccoured the fallen party, and fupplied the
neceffities of thofe who, under profcription, had fled to
Epirus, out of his own eftates ; and he fhewed no lefs re-

fpeé& to. Servilia the mother of Brutus, after the death of
His:

this patriot, than he had done during his profperity.
family afterwards became allied to the imperial family by
the marriage of his daughter with M. Agrippa, the friend
and favourite of Octavius, who formed with Atticus an

ANTE
intimate acquaintance, and communicated to him all his
movements and defigns. While Antony lived, an intimate
correfpondence was carried on between him and Atticus.
Thus from the firft to the laft, he maintained the charaéter
of “the general friend of all parties, in all fortunes,’’
The conduct by which this character was acquired and
maintained, has not efcaped cenfure ; and Atticus has been
charged with a neutrality and indifference, with regard to
public concerns, which was difhonourable and criminal.
To his Epicurean principles, which he imbibed at Athens
under Phedrus and Zeno the Sidonian, fome have afcribed
the peculiarities of his temper, and the refolution by which
he feems to have been actuated, that amidit the fluctuation
and viciffitudes of political events he would maintain a com-
pofed and tranquil mind. But others have attributed his
difcriminating charaéter to natural difpofition and early
habits, more than to any f{peculative principles. In domettic
life, as well as in the more extended circle of focial inter-
courfe, he poffeffed a degree of felf-command, which, all
circumftances confidered, appears to have been very extra-
ordinary and fingular. The temper of his uncle Czcilius was
intolerably perverfe, and yet Atticus humoured it in fuch a
manner that he retained his favour to the laft, and inherited
the greateft part of his very large fortune.. With his mother,
who died at the age of 90, when he was 67 years old, and
with his filter, who was nearly of the fame age with himfelf,
he lived with a harmony fo uninterrupted, that he never
had occafion to be reconciled to the former, nor ever had
any quarrel with the latter. By his own patrimony and
his uncle’s bequeft, he was mafter of a large fortune, which
he expended with liberality. His mode of living corre-
f{ponded to his affluence, and to his tafte and habits, as a
man of literature and philofophy. His domeitics were

felect, but not numerous; feveral of them -had been born..

and brought up in his own family ; and many of them
were in one way or other, as readers or copyiits, employed
to the purpofes of literature. His table was elegant, but
not coitly. . Reading was always an accompaniment of the
fupper; and he had no guefts to whom fuch an entertainment
was not acceptable. In his enjayments he was moderate ;:
in his itudies, which formed a great part of his occupation,
he was particularly attached to inquiries relative to the
antiquities of his country ; its laws, treaties, cuftoms, and
the genealogies of its illuftrious families. On thefe fub-
jects he wrote feveral treatifes, which were held in high
eftimation. His poetical talents were employed in concife
defcriptions of the characters and ations of illuitrious men,
which were placed under their ftatues. He wrote in Greek
a hiftory of the confulate of his friend Cicero. Of the
writings of Atticus, none remain; but we have a large
number of the letters of Cicero, addrefied to him, and
written from the year of his confulfhip almoft to the time-
of his death. “Thefe letters are confidential, and contain.
a variety of curious particulars ; both political and literary.:
Atticus having attained to the age of 77, with little inter-
suption of health, was feized with a diforder of the intefs
tines, which terminated in'a painful and incurable ulcers
Apprized of the danger of his cafe, he communicated to his
fon-in-law Agrippa, and other friends, his refolution of
putting a period to a’life that was no longer valuable to
himfelf and others. Unmoved by their remonftrances, he
determined to abitain from food; and though his fever’
left him and his pain abated, after an abftinence of two days,
he perfifted in his purpofe, and onthe fifth day, death clofed
the fcene, in the year of Rome 721, B.C. 33. Corn,
Neposin Vit. Attici. Gen. Di&. Gen. Biog.
Arricus, a Platonic philofopher, lived under the emperor
M, Aurelius, and took pains in afcertaining the precife differ-
enc

ACE ee

ence between the dodtrines of Plato and thofe of Aviftotle.
Enufebius has preferved feveral fragments of his works, in
which he argues againit Arittotle, concerning the ultimate
end of man, providence, the origin of things, the immor-
tality of the foul, and other topics. Plotinus, of the Ecleétic
{chool, held the writings of Atticus in high eftimation, and
recommended them as very ufeful for obtaining an accurate
knowledge of the Platonic fyitem. Atticus pronounced it
impoflible for thofe who had imbibed the Peripatetic notions,
to elevate their minds to a capacity of underitanding a re-
lifhing the fublime conceptions of Plato. Eufeb. Chron.
fub. Aurel. A. 170. Prep. 1. xv. c. 4, &c. Fab. Bib.
Gree. ¥. il. p. 54+

Arricus, a patriarch of Conftantinople in the fifth cen-

tury, was a native of Sebaltia in Armenia, and having re-
eived his education among the Macedonian monks, became
firt prefbyter, aad afterwards, viz. in 406, patriarch of the
church of Conitantinople. But having feized-this fee while
John Chryfoftom was living, he was'excommunicated by
pope. Innocent I. and the weftern bifhops. However, on
“the death of Chryfoftom he was again reftored, on condition
of replacing his name in the diptychs, or lift of the arch-
bifhops of Conftantinople, whofe names were recited at the
altar, as having died in the communion of the church. At-
ticus is extolled.for his learning, prudence, and piety ; for
the gentlenefs of his temper and manners ; for his zeal
againit the Neftorians ; and! for his charity to the poor,
without difcrimination of religious party and profeffion.
He died in the year 427. . Whillt he was prefbyter, he
committed his fermons to memory; but when he became a
bifhop he preached’extempore. Of his writings there are
extant “ A Letter to Cyril of Alexandria,’’ on the reftora-
tion of the name of Chryfoftom in the diptychs (apud Nice-
- phor. Hift. Eccl. 1. xiv. c. 26.) 5 “ A Letter to Calliopus,
prefbyter of the church at Nice,”? accompanying 300 crowns
fent to the poor of that city (Soerat. 1. vii. c. 25.); and
another fin Nicephor. ubi fupra)addreffed to the deacons of
the church of Alexandria, concerning the means of rettor-
ing peace to the church. He allo wrote a book «¢ On
Faith and Virginity,” dedicated to the daughters of Ar-
eadius, and cited by Cyril in his book to the empreffes.
Socrat. H.E. 1. vii. c. 2. Sozom. H.E. 1 vii. c. 27. Cave,
HL. volwi. p. 384.

ATTIDIUM, now Arricio, in Ancient Geography, a
city of Umbria, fituated between Sentinum, Camerinum,
and Matilica, near the feurces of the river /Efis. Pliny calls
the inhabitants Attidiates. Several ancient infcriptions have
been found in the vicinity of Attigto.

ATTIGNY, in Geography, atown of France, and feat of
a tribunal, in the department of Ardennes, and chief place
of a canton ia the diftriG of Vouziers: two leagues north-
welt of Vouziers, and fix fouth of Meziteres., The place
contains 950, and the canton 6136, inhabitants: the tern-

ory includes 105 kiliometres and 15 communes.

ATTILA, in Biography and Hiflory, king of the Huns,
and by the modern Hungarians denominated ‘ The Scourge
of God,’”? was the fon of Muadzuk, and deduced his defcent
from the aacient Huns, who had formerly contended with
the monarchs of China. Indeed the modern Hungarians
have traced his genealogy upwards, in the thirty-fifth degree,
to Ham, the fon of Noah. Atthe death of Rugilas, A. D.
433, Iris two nephews, Attila and Bleda, fucceeded to the
throne of their anceftors. Having concluded an humi-
ljating peace“vith the emperor Theodofius II., they ex-
tended their arms towards the north with fo much fuccefs,
as to reduce all the nations between the Danube and the
Buxine under their dominion. _ Under pretence of an offence

t- 9

Tr
given them by the Romans, they made an irruption into the
eaftern empire, took feveral towns on the fouth of the
Danube by ftorm, defeated feveral imperia: armies, and
laid wafte the whole adjacent country with fire and fword. -
Theodofius, thinking himfelf infecure at Couftantinople,
retired into Afia, and was glad to purchafe an inglorious
peace. At this time the two nephews of Rugilas fhared
the government of the Huns; but Attila, whole ambition
admitted ofno partnership in power, caufed Bleda to relign
both his {ceptre and his lite, and acquired the fole fovereignty
of the nation and its dependent territories. Che extent
of his empire affords the only evidence of the number and
importance of his victories. Ifa line of feparation were drawer
between the civilized and the favage climates of the globe;
between the inhabitants of cities, who cultivated the earth,
and the hunters and fhepherds who dwelt in tents; Attila
might aipire to the title of fupreme and {ole monarch of the
Barbarians. He alone, among the conquerors of ancient
and modern times, united the two mighty kingdoms of Ger-
many and Scythia, in their molt ample latitude ; Thuringia,
extending to the Danube, was in the number of his pro-
vinces ; he interpofed with the authority of a powerful
neighbour, in the domeétic affairs of the Franks; and one
ef his lieutenants chaftifed, and almoft exterminated, the
Burgundians of the Rhine. He fubdued the iflands of the
ocean, the kingdoms of Scandinavia, encompailed and. di-
vided by the waters of the Baltic; towards the eaft
his dominion extended over the Scythian deferts to the
banks of the Volga; and he fent ambafladors to negotiate
an equal alliance with the empire of China. He alfo
reckoned among his fubje¢ts the numerous and warlike
tribes of the Gepide and Oftrogoths. ‘ The crowd of
vulgar kiags, the leaders of fo many martial tribes, who
ferved under the flandard of Attila, were ranged in the
fubmiffive order of guards and domettics, round the perfon
of their mafter. They watched his nod; they trembled at
his frown; and, at the firft fignal of his will, they exeeuted,
without murmur or hefitation, his {tern and abfolute com-
mands. In time of peace, the .dependent princes, with
their national troops, attended the royal camp in regular
{fucceifion ; but when Attila colleéted his military force,
e was able to bring into the field an army of five, or,
according to another account, of 700,000 Barbarians.?” The
portrait of Attila, fays Jomandes, a Gothic hiftorian, ex-
hibits the genuine deformity of a modern Calmuck; with a
large head, a fwarthy complexion, fmall deep-feated eyes, a
flat nofe, a few hairs in the place of a beard, broad fhoulders
and a fhort fquare body, of nervous ftrength, though of a
difproportioned form. His haughty ftep and demeanour
exprefled confcious fuperiority ; aad by fiercely rolling his
eyes, he feemed to enjoy the terror which he iufpired.
Neverthelefs, this favage hero was not inacceflible to pity ;
his fuppliant enemies might coafide in the affurance of pardon:
and peace ; aud Attila was regarded by his fubjects as a juit
and indulgent matter. His delight was war, and he in-
dulged his paffion for it to the dettruGion of myriads. Ap-
prized of the influence of fuperitition over ignorant and
favage minds, he availed himfelf of it, as a collateral aad
weful inftrumtut for the accomplifhment of his purpofes.
Accordingly he pretended to have difcovered, by meaus of
a fhepherd, the famous {word of the Scythian Mars; and
being in poffeffion of this, he afferted his divine and inde-
feafible claim to the dominion of the earth. As the fa-
yourite of Mars, whom he propitiated by bloody rites and:
facrifices, Attila foon acquired a facred character, whiciy
rendered his conquefts more eafy and more permanent ; and
the Barbarian princes confefled, in the language of devo-
tien, or of flattery, that they could not prefume to gaze,
with

eee

:

ATT

eth a fteady eye, on the divine majefty of the king of the
Huns. In his garb and mode of living, the king of the
Huns affected no peculiar diftin@ion, but rigidly adhered
to the fimplicity of his Scythian anceftors. ae drefs, his
arms, and the furniture of his horfe, were plain, without
ornament, and of a fingle colour. The royal table was
fervedin wooden cups and platters; flefh was his only food ;
and the conqueror of the north never tafted the luxury of
bread. His palace, though it furpafled all other houfes
in his dominions, was built entirely of wood; and it con-
tained, within a pallifadoed caalelers: a variety of feparate
buildings, appropriated to his numerous wives. When
the Roman ambafladors were introduced into the private
apartment of Cerca, the principal queen, fhe received their
vilit, reclining on a couch; her domeftics formed a circle
round her; and her damfels, feated on the ground, were
employed in working the variegated embroidery which
adorned the drefs of the Barbaric warriors. The other
wives of Attila politely admitted them to their prefence and
table, nor was there any appearance among them of the
rigid and illiberal confinement impofed by Afiatic jealoufy,
When thefe ambaffadors had audience of Attila himfelf, he
was furrounded by a formidable guard; and when they
were invited to the royal fealt, they had reafon to praife
his politenefs and hofpitality. On this occafion the com-
pany were diverted by a variety of buffooneries, which pro-
duced loud and licentious peals of laughter; but Attila
himfelf maintained an inflexible gravity, and never relaxed
his features except on the reception of his favourite fon,
Irnac, who, by the aflurance of his prophets, was to be the
future fupport of his family and empire. Thus did this
powerful monarch live familiarly among his people, and
pride himfelf in trampling upon the pomp and parade of
kings and emperors. 7
After the lait peace with Theodofius, Attila fent various
embaffies, with complaints and threats, to Contftantinople ;
and, to the difhonour of the imperial court, a bafe defign
was formed, with the privity and fanétioa of the emperor,
. of murdering Attila, under the difzuife of a folemn em-
bafly. The confpiracy was difcovered, and the king of the
Huns, with a fingular moderation, contented himfelf with
exacting a large ranfom for the immediate agent in the
-bufinefs, and with feverely reprimanding Theodofius. —The
treaty with the eaftern emperor was renewed, at the expence
of frefh payments. On the acceffion of Marcian, in 450,
Attila’s demand of tribute was refufed ; upon which he ient
‘a threatening mefiage to the emperors of the eaft and weit,
»which was delivered by his envoys inthefe terms: “ Attila,
my lord, and thy lord, commands thee to provide a palace
for his immediate recepticn.’”? He propofed, however, to
direét hisarms, in the firft inftance, againit Valentinian III.
a weak and unwarlike price. The pretext of this hoiti-
lity was founded on the following circumftance. Honoria,
the fifter of Valentinian, having difhonoured herfelf by an
intrigue with her chamberlain, was banifhed to the court of
Conitantinople. Here fhe found means to fend an ofler of
her perfon to Attila, with a ring, and an urgent requett that
he would march and claim her for his fpoufe. ‘Thefe over-
tures were at firlt reccived with coolaefs on the part of
Attila, but afterwards conceiving that he might derive ad-
vantage from them, he made a formal demand cf Honoria,
with an equal fhare of the imperial patrimony, before he
proceeded on his intended irruption into Gaul. His demand
was refufed, and Honoria was married to an obfcure perfon
in Italy, and there configned to perpetual imprifonment.
Antila, profefling to be fatisfied with refpe€@t to Hororia,
entered = under a pretence of making war upon Theo-
Vou. IIL.

E'S,
doric, king of the Vifigoths, in Languedoc. With this

view he affembled, in 451, an immenfe army of northern
Barbarians, and without oppofition croffed the Rhine. In
his progrefs through Gaul, he defolated the country, pil-
laged and burnt feveral cities, and at length laid fiege to
Orleans. Here he was overtaken by the armies of Theo-
doric, and of the empire, under count /it1us, who obliged
him to retire. After the bloody battle of Chalons, he
marched without moleftation to the confines of Thuringia,
where he paffed the Rhine, and.continued his progrefs to
Pannonia. At the commencement of the following year,
Attila, having recruited his forces, paffed the Alps, entered
Italy, and invefted Aguireta, which he utterly deftroyed.
He then ravaged Lombardy, facked and reduced to afhes
many of their towns; and thus, by means of the fugitives
who fled from the terror of his name, was unintentionally in-
ftrumental in laying the foundation of the Wenetian repub-
lic. Valentinian, incapable of refiftance, fled from Ravenna
to Rome, and fent a deputation to Attila, at the head of
which was Leo, bifhop of Rome, for the purpofe of depre-
cating his wrath, and propofing terms of accommodation.
Attila confented to leave Italy, on the payment of a very
large fum, as the dowry of the princefs Honoria, and aa
annual tribute. But this was only a temporary truce; as
he threatened to return the next-year, if Honoria and her
dowry were not punctually tranfmitted to him. Attila,
however, did not long furvive his retura into his own
country. . Having added to the number of his wives a
beautiful young virgin, whofe name was Ildico, he cele-
brated his marriage with great pomp and feflivity at his
wooden palace beyord the Danube; and, opprefled with
wine and ileep, he retired at a late hour to the nuptial bed,
In the night a blood-veffel burft, and as he lay in a fupine
pofture, he was fuffocated by atorrent of blood. His
attendants found the trembling bride fitting by the fide of
the bed, hiding her face with a veil, and lamenting the death
of the king, as well as her own danger. His body was ex-
pofed in the midit of the plain, under a filken pavilion;
and “ the chofen fquadrons of the Huss, wheeling round in
meatured evclutions, chaunted a funeral fong to the memory
of a hero glorious in his life, invincible in his death, the
father of his people, the feourge of his encmies, and the
terror of the world. According to their national cuftom,
the Barbarians cut eff a part.of their hair, gathed their
faces with unfeemly wounds, and bewailed their valiant
leader as he deferved, not with the tears of women, but
with the blood of warriors. The renmins of Attila were
inclofed within three ccoffizs, of gold, of filver, and of iron,
and privately buried in the night ; the fpoils of nations were
thrown into the grave ; the captives v.10 had opened the
ground were inhumanly maffacred; and the fame Huns,
who had indulged fuch exceffive grief, feafted with diffolute
and intemperate mirth about the recent fepulchre of their
king.” The death of Attila is commonly dated in the
year 454; by fome in 453. With him the empire of the
Huns terminated; for, aiter his death, his numerous fons
either deftroyed one another by their mutual contefts, or
were dilpoflefled by thofe bold chieftains- who afpired to
the rank of kings. Ane. Un. Hitt. vol. xvii. p. 144159.
Gibbon’s Hilt. vol. vi. p. 40—135. :

ATTILE, Arritium, in Antiquity, denotes the rigging
or furniture of a fhip. Fleta, li. c.25.

ATTILUS, in Schthyology. a term fynopymous with
adella, adano, and adalus Autorum ; andapgled by Pliny
and Rondeletius to the variety @ of the Linnxan_acipenfer
furio, or common ftyrgeon. 4 44.

ATTINGA Anericana, in Ornithology, a name by

Pp which

a ee

its or apices, one upon each ftamen.

The florid attire is ufually called the thrums, as in the
fiowers of marygold, tanfy, &c. Thole thrums are called
fuits, which confift of two, but moft times of three pieces.
And the outer part of the fuit is the floret, whofe body is
divided at the top like a cowflip flower, into five parts, or
diftinG leaves.

Arrire, in Heraldry, figaifies a fiagle horn of a flag.

Artire, in Hunting, denctes the head or horns of a
deer. The attire of a ftag, if perfeét, contifts of bur, pearls,
beam, gutters, antler, fur-antler, royal, fur-royal, and
croches:—- of a buck, of the bur, beam, brow-antler, ad-
vancer, palm, and fpellers.

ATTIRED, in Heraldry, a term ufed in {peaking of the
horus of a ftag, hart, or buck.

ATTIRES, are both the horns of a ftag, hart, or
buck.

ATTITUDE, in Painting and Sculpture, the pofture or
cefture of a figure or ftatue ; or fuch a difpofition of their
parts, as feems to exprefs the action and the fentiments of
the perion reprefented. See Mecuanicar Motion of the
Human Figure, and Compofition, aud Contraff, under the
article SCULPTURE.

ATTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a premontory on the
weftern coaft of the ifland of Corfica; now called Punta di
Acciaclo. :

ATTLEBOROUGH, in Geography, a townfhip of
America, in Briftol county, Maffachufetts, eighty-two
miles fouth from Bofton, and nine north from Providence.

ATTLEBURGH, a town of England, in Norfolk,
diftaat N.N.E. from London ninety-four miles.

ATTMELLA. See AcmELLA.

ATTNANG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auttria, one mile W.S.W. of Schwannaftadt.

ATTOCK, a city and fertrefs of Hindoostan, on the
eaftern bank of the Indus, built by Acbar, in 1587, to
commard the pafs that leads from Cabulto Lahore. This
pals. is fo confized,. etther by the nature of the banks, or of
the channel of the river, or both, that the pafiage from the
landing place leads through the very fortrefs itfelf. The an-
cient Taxila, where Alexander croffed the Indus, ftood on or
near to the fite of Attock. N. lat. 33° 6’. E. long. 71° 15".
That part of the river Indus, called alfo Nilab and Sinde,
that feparates the province of Lahore from Paifhawur, is
alenominated the Attock, probably from the city founded
on its banks. At Attock, the river Cabul, after receiving
the rivers of Sewad, Bijore, &c. joins the Indus, and yery
confiderably increafes it. For thoegh the Indas is fome-
times fordable above Aittock, Bee Mr. Fortter a€tually
forded it at twenty miles above this place, July roth, 1783;
we never hear of its having been forded beto.y that poist.
* From Attock downwards to Moultan, or to the confiux
of the Panjab waters, this river (fays Major Rennell) has
obtained the name of Attock ;”? but fpoken of generally, it
is called Sinde.

ATTOLLENS, compounded of the Latin ad, to, and
tollo, I lift, in Anatomy, a name common to teveral mufcles,
whote office or action is to raife the parts they belong to.

The attollent mufcles are otherwife called /evators and
dlevators,

AUT FT

Arrotrens Mujculus Aurem, isa thin broad mufcle con-
nected at its upper part to the tendon ef the fronto-occipi-
talis, and at the lower to the pinna of the ear oppofite to
the antihelix. Its ufe is to draw the external ear upwards,
and to render it tenfe. T'his mufcle ts called /uperior auris
by Winflow.

ATTOMBISSEUR, in Ornithology, a term by which:
the French falconers diftinguifh thofe falcons which will
attack the heron in sts flight; fuch a bird they call ua bom
attombiffeur.

ATTORE, in Geography, a town of Hindcoftan, in the
Myfore country; fifty-four miles north of Tritchinopoly, and
twenty-nine N.N.W. of Rajanagur.

ATTORNARE, in the original fenfe, fignified to turn
over mneney and goods, that is, to aflign and appropriate
them to certain perfons, or ufe. This is. properly called
ativrinare rem. Attornare perfonam denotes to depute a re-

refentative, or proxy, to appear and act for another.

ATTORNATO faci.ndo vel recipiendo, in the Common
Law, a writ to command 2 fherifl, or teward, of a count¥e-
court, or hundred-court, to receive and admit an attorney t@
appear for the perfon that oweth fit of court. HF. N. BR
156. very perfon that owes fuit. to the county-court,
court-baron, &c. may make an attorney to do his fuit.. Stat.
20 He Tiiver ro:

ATTORNEY, Arrorxatvs, in Law, a perfon ape
pointed by another to do fomething in his ftead, particu-
larly to folicit and carry on a law-fuit.

The word is compounded of the Latin ad, to, and the
French tourner, to turn, q. d.to turn a bufne/s over io another.
The ancient Latin name, accordiag to Bratton, is re/pen=
falis.

fin attorney is cither public, in the courts of records,
the king’s bench, common pleas, &c. aad made by warrant
from his client ; or private, upon oceafion for any parti-
cular bufinefs, who is commonly made by letter of at
torney.

Attorneys, in Common Law, are much the fame with
procurators, proétors, or fyndics, inthe Civil and Canon Law.

Attorneys are properly thofe who fue ovt writs or pro-
cefs, or commence, carry on, and defend aétions, or other
proceedings, in the names of other perfons, in any of the
courts of common law.—They are diftinguifhed from /o/i-
citors, who do the like bufineis in courts of equity ; as the
chancery, equity-court in the exchequer, chamber-court of
the duchy, or the like.

Formerly every fuitor was obliged to appear in perfon to
profecute or detend his fuit, according to the old Gothic
conftitution, unlefs by f{pecial licence under the king’s let-
ters patent. F.N. B.25. This is ftill the law im criminal
cafes. Nercan an ideot appear to this day by attorney,
but in perfon; becaufe he is fuppofed not to have fufficient
diferetion for appointing a proper fubftitute ; and upon his
being brought before the court in fo defencelefs a condition,
the judges are bound to take care of his interefts, and they
fall admit the beft plea in his behalf that any one prefent
can fuggeft. But as inthe Roman law ™ cum oli in ufu fu-
iffet, alterius nomine agi non poffe, fred, quia hoe nor minimam
incommoditatem habebat, caperunt hominzs per procuratores li-
tigare,’’ (Init. 4. tit. 10.) ; fo with us, upon the fame prin-
ciple of convenience, it is now permitted, in general, by
divers ancient ftatutes, of which the firit is flat. Weltm. 2.
e.10. (13 Ed. I. A. D. 1285.) that attorneys may be made,,
as if they had letters patent, to profecute or defend any
ation in the abfence of the parties to the fuit.
torneys are now formed into a regular corps; they are ad-
mitted to the execution of their oflice by the fuperior wo 7

°

Thefe at- -

AIT T

of Weltminfler-hall; and are in all points officers of the
refpective courts in which they are admitted ; and as they
have many privileges on account of their attendance there,
fo they are peculiarly fubjec: to the cenfure and animadver-
fion of the judges. No man can pra¢tife as an attorney in
any of thofe courts, but fuch as is admitted.and {worn an
attorney of that particular court ; an attorney of the king’s
bench cannot practife in the court of common pleas ; nor
vice verfd. ‘L'o practife in the court of chancery, it is aio
neceflary to be admitted a folicitor thereia ; aid by the ftat.
22 Geo. Ef. c. 46. no perfon fhall act as aa attorney at the
court of quarter feflions, but fuch as has been regularly
admitted in fome fuperior court of record. With refpect to
the feveral courts, there are attorneys at large, and attorneys
fpecial belonging to this cr that court ouly. An attoraey
may be a folicitor in other courts by a fpecial retainer ;
one may be an attorney on record, aud another do the bu-
fines; and there arc allo attornies who manage the bulinefs
out of the courts, So early as the ftatute 4 Hen. IV.
ec. 18. it was enacted that attorneys fhould be examined by
the judges, and none admitted but fuch as were virtuous,
learned, and fwor1 to do their duty. And many fubfequent
ftatutes have laid them under farther regulations. By
8 Jac. I. c. 7. attorneys, &c. fhall not be allowed any fees
faid out for counfel, or otherwife, unlefs they have tickets
thereof figned by them that receive fuch fees, and they {hall
give in true bills to their clients of all the charges of fuits
under their hands, before the clients fhall be charged with
the payment thereof. If they delay their client’s fuit for
gain, or demand more than their due tees or difburfements,
the client fhall recover coits and treble damages ; and they
fhall for ever after be difabled to be attorneys. None fhall
be admitted attorneys in courts of record, but fuch as have
been brought up in the faid couts, or are well flulled, and
honeft ; and no attorney fhall fuffer any other to follow a
fuit in his name, on pain of forfeiting 20 1. to be divided be-
tween the king and the party aggrieved. By 12 Geo. I.
€. 29. if any perfon who hath been convicted of forgery,
perjury, fuboraation of perjury, or common barratry, fhall
practife as an attorney or folicitor in any fuit or a¢tion in
any court, the judge where fuch aétion fhall be brought
hath power to tran{port the offender for feven years, by
fuch ways and under fuch penalties as felons. The aét
2 Geo. II. c. 23. ordains that all attorneys fhall be fworn,
admitted, and inrolled, before they fue out writs in the
courts of Weftminfter ; and they are required to have ferved
a clerkfhip of five years, and to be examined, fworn, and
admitted in open court; and attorneys fhall not have more
than two clerks at one time, except the prothonotaries in
the common pleas, and the fecondary in the king’s bench,
and the feveral prothonotaries in the counties palatine and
great feffions in Wales, each of whom may have three.
Attorneys, upon being fworn and admitted, fhall pay a
ttamp-duty, by feveral as, of 161. When the attoraey’s
bills are taxed, he is to pay the cofts of taxation, if the
bill be reduced a fixth part. A penalty of sol. and difabi-
ty to practife, are the confequences of acting contrary to
this flatute. By ftat. 6. Geo. IL. c. 27. attorneys of the
courts at Weilminfter may pra¢tife in inferior courts. By
12 Geo. II. c, 13. attorneys, &c. that act mm any county-
court, without admiffion according to the ftatute 2 Geo. II.
c. 23. fhall forfeit 201. ; and no attorney who isa prifoner,
fhal] fue out any writ, or profecute fuits; if he doth, the
proceedings, &c. fhall be void, and fuch attorney, &c. fhall
be ftruck off the roll. By 22 Geo. II. c. 46. perfons
bound clerks to attorneys or folicitors are to caufe affidavits
to be made and filed of the execution of the articles, names,

Ba ad ka |

and places of abode of attorney or folicitor, and clerk ; and
none to be admitted till the aflidavits be produced and read
in court. Clerks are a€tually to ferve during their whole
time, and make affidavits thereof. Perfons admitted fwora
clerks in chancery, or ferving a clerkthip to fuch, may be
admitted folicitors. By 23 Geo. II. c. 26. any perfon duly
admitteda folicitor, may be admitted an attorney without any
fee for the oath, orany ilamp; ard by fat. 2 G. II. c. ZR
J 20. attorneys may be admitted folicitors. By 25 Geo. 111,
»y, folicitor, not ary, proctor, agent,
or precuratoy, {hall annu: take t
with a five pound itamp within the billsof mortality,and three
pound ellewhere, from the courts in witich they pratife, ou
penalty of sol. and incapacity of practiling. By 34 Geo. III.
every perfoa who fhaidl become bound to feive as a

c. 80. ceveryadinitted attorn

> out a fkan ped ceitihcate,

clerk in order to his admiffion us a folicitor or attoreey in
any of the courts at Weitminiker, fhall be charged an addi-
tional ftamp-duty of 1001. And in any of the courts of
great feffion in Wales, or in the ceunties of Chefter, Lan-
cafter, or Durham, or in any coifrt of record in England
holding pleas, where the debt or damage {hall amount to
40s. and not in any of the fad courts at Wedtmintter, a
itamp duty of 501. And by the feveral tamp acts, if the
confderation money given with fuch clerk or apprentice be
under rol. a ftamp duty of 10s. If above rol. be given
by 37 G. ILI. c. 3. ros. more. The indenture fhall be
inrolled, and affidavit fhall be made within fix weeks. Per-
fons who have paid the duty of 1001. in any of the courts
at Weftmiaiter, may be admitted in any of the other courts
without payment of any further duty. New contraéts with
other maiters are fubject to no further duty. The privileges
belonging to attorneys are as follow : an attorney, in re{peét
of his attendance at the court, cannot be preffed for a {el-
dier ; but he is not privileged from ferving in the militia, or
finding a fubftitute: an attorney {hall not be made confta-
ble, nor be eleéted into any other office againft his will; as
to the office of overfeer of the poor, or churchwarden, or
any office within.a borough. Attorneys have the privilege
to fue and be fued only in the courts at Weftminfter, where
they practife; they are not obliged to put in fpecial bail,
when defendants ; but when they are plaintiffs, they may
infill upon {pecial bail in all bailable cafes. 1 Vent. 299.
Wood’s Init. 450. But an attorney of one court may, in
that court, hold an attorney of another court to bail. Pay-
ment to the attorney is payment to the principal. Dougl.
623. 1 Black. R. 8. An attorney hasa lien in the money
recoyered by his client, for his bill of cofts; if the
money come to his hands, he may retain to the amount of
his bill. He may ftop it ia tranfitu, if he can lay hold
of it; if he apply to the court, they will prevent its being
paid over until his demand is fatisfied. If the attorney give
notice to the defendant not to pay till his bill be difcharged,
a payment by the defendant after fuch notice would be in
his own wrong, and like paying a debt which has been

affigned after notice. Dougl. 238.
Attorneys are liable to be punifhed in a fummary way,
either by attachment, or having their names ftruck out of
the roll, for ill practice, attended with fraud and corruption,
and committed againit the obvious rules of juftice aid com-
mon honefty ; but the court will not eafily be prevailed
upon to proceed in this manner, if it appears that the mat-
ter complained of was rather owing to neglect or accident
than defign, or if the party injured has other remedy by
act of parliament, or action at law. 12 Mod. 251. 318. 440.
583- 657. 4.Mod. 367. If an attorney, defendant in an
aétion, does not appear in due time, the plaintiff may fign
a “ forejudger,”’ which enables him to firike the defendant
Ppz of

ATE

off the roll, and then he may be fued as a common perfon
(it. 2 Hen. IV. c.8.), and cannot be proceeded againit by
bill. On making fatisfaction to the plaintiff, an attorney
fo forejudged may be reftored. Impey’s Inftruétor Cleri-
Catiss C. Parone

Attorneys are fometimes ftrack off the roll on their own
application, for the purpofe of being called to the bar, &c. ;
and in this cafe they mutt be difbarred by their inn, before
they are ve-admitted attorneys. Doug]. 144. An attorney
convicted of felony is ftruck off the roll. Cowp. 829. At-
torneys are alfo liable to be puniflied for bafe and unfair
dealings towards their clients in the way of butinefs, as for
protracting fuits by little fhifts and devices, and putting the
parties to unneceflary expence, in order to raife their bills ;
or demanding fees for brfinefs that was never done; or for
refufing to deliver up their clients’ writings with which they
had been intrufted in the way of bufinefs, or money which
has been recovered and received by them. to their clients’
wfe, and for other fuch like erofs and palpable abufe.
2 Hawk. P. C. 144. § Mod. 306. 12 Mod. 516.

Artorney of the Duchy Court of Lancafler, attornatus
curie ducatus Lancaflria, is the fecond officer in that court 5
being there, for ‘his {kill in law, placed as affeffor to the
chancellor of the court, and chofen for fome f{pecial trutt
repofed in him, to deal between the king and his tenants.
Cowel.

Arrorty-General, is a great officer under the king,
made by letters patent. It is his province to cxhibit inform-
ations, and to profecute for the crown, in matters eriminal ;
and to file billsin the Exchequer, for any thing concerning
the king in inheritance or profits; and others may bring
bills againft the king’s attorney. His proper place in court,
upon any {pecial matters of a criminal nature, in which his
attendance is acquired, is under the judges, on the left hand
of the clerk of the crown; but this is only upon folemn
and extraordinary occafions ; for ufually he does not fit
there, but within the bar in the face of the court.

ArtorneEy, Letter of. See Letter.

ArtorneY, Warrant of. See Warrant.

ATTOURNMENT, or Arrornment,a transferring
of duty and fervice to another lord; or an acknowledg-
ment which a tenant makes of homage and fervice to a new
Jord.

By the nature of the feudal conneétion, it was not thought
reafonable nor allowed, that a feudatory fhould transfer his
lord’s gift to another, and fubftitute anew tenant to do the
fervice in his own ftead, without the confent of the lord ;
and, as the feudal obligation was confidered as reciprocal,
the lord alfo could not alienate his feignory without the
eonfent of his tenant, which confent of his was called an
*‘ attornment.”? This do€trine of attornment was afterwards
extended to all leflees for life or years. For if one bought
an eftate with any leafe for life or years ftanding out thereon,
and the leffee or tenant refufed to attorn to the purchafer,
and to become his tenant, the grant or contra€t was in moft
cafes void, or at leaft incomplete (Lit. §. 551.) : which
was an additional-clog upon alienations. But after the
Ytatute “* quia emptores terrarum’”’ (18 Ed. I. ft. 1.), was
“paffed, by which fubinfeudation was prohibited, it became
neceflary that when the reverfion or remainder-man after an
‘eftate for years, for life or in tail, granted his reverfion or
remainder, the particular tenant fhould attorn to the grantee.
‘’The neceflity of attornment was, in fome meafure, avoided
by the ftatute of ufes (27 Hen. VIII. c. 10.), as by that
‘Ytatute, the pofleflion was immediately executed to the ufe ;
and by the ftatute of * Wills” (34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 5.),
by which the legal eftate is immediately vetted in-the devifee.

ae

Attornments, however, itill continued to be neceffary in
many cafes; but both their neceflity and efficacy are now
almoft wholly taken away ; for by itat. 4 & 5 Ann. c. 16,
it is enacted, that all grants and conveyances of manors,’
lands, rents, and reverlions, &c. by fine or otherwife, fhall
be good, without the attornment of the tenants; but notice
mult be given of the grant to the tenant, before which he
fhall not be prejudiced by the payment of any rent to the’
grantor, or for breach of the condition for non-payment,
And by flat. 11 Geo. I]. c. 19. attornments of lands, &c.
made by tenants to {trangers claiming title to the eftate of
their landlords fhall be null and void, and their Jandlord’s
poffeffion not affected thereby ; though this fhall not extend
to vacate any attorrment made puriuant to a judgment at
law, or with confent of the landlord ; or to a mortgagee on
fofeited mortgage. ‘Till thefe ftatutes were paffed, the doc-
trine of attornment was one of the moft copious and abftrufe
points of the law. But thefe aéts having made attornment
both unneceflary and inoperative, the learning upon it may
be deemed almoit entirely ufelefs. 1 Init. 309. Jacob’s
Law Did, by Tomlyns, tit. 4tornment.

ATTOWAIL, in Geography. See Aroo.

ATTRACTION, in Natural Philofaphy, a general term
ufed to denote the power or principle, by which all bodies
mutually tend towards each other, without regarding the
caufe or kind of action that may be the means of producing
this effec.

The exiftence of a principle of this kind is fo clearly
manifefted by many of the moft common phenomena of
nature, which fall under our daily infpe€tion, that it muft
have been known in very early times ; but the information
we have hitherto obtained of the progrefs made by the an-
cients in phyfical inveftigations, is too vague and obfcure te
afford any proof of their ever having applied the action or
influence of this power to the purpofes of fcience. The
philofopher Anaxagoras, who flourifhed about 500 years
before the Chriftian era, is reported, by Diogenes Laertius,
to have attributed to the celeitial bodies a tendency towards
the earth, which he confidered as the centre of their motions 5
and the doétrines of Democritus and Epicurus are founded
upon the fame principle, as appears from their elegant in-
terpreter Lucretius, who thence derives the confequence of
the univerfe being without bounds. But though fome bold
and original characters had embraced thefe opinions, it is
no lefs certain, from the teftimonies of other writers, that
they were far from being generally received m the ancient
world.

The firft, among the moderns, who appears to have had
juit notions of this doétrine, was Nicholas Copernicus, the
celebrated reftorer of the old Pythagorean fyftem of the
univerfe ; who in his work “ De Revolut. Orb. Czleft.”
(lib. i. c. 9.), expreffes himfelf thus: “1 confider gravity
as nothing more than a certain natural appetence ( appetentia }
that the Creator has imprefled upon all the parts of matter,
in order to their uniting and coalefcing into a globular form
for their better prefervation ; and it is probable that the
fame power is alfo inherent in the fun, moon, and planets,
that thofe bodies may conftantly retain that round figure
in which we behold them.” He alfo confidered the fun as
the chief governing power of all the reft, as may be inferred
from fome of the laft words of ''ycho Brahe, who pereceiv-
ing the approach of death, called for the celebrated Kepler
(then a young man, and his affiftant in his obfervatory at
Prague), and after charg ng him with completing the A ttro-
nomical ‘Tables which he had left unfinifhed, thus addrefled
him: “ My friend, although what I afcribe to a voluntary,
and as it were, an obfequious motion of the planets —

2 the

——-

AP DE AC 7 LOW:

the fun, you attribute to an attractive energy of that body,
yet I mutt entreat, that, in the publication of my obferva-
tions, you would explain all the celeftial motions by my
hypothefis, rather than by that of Copernicus, which I
know you wonld otherwife incline to follow.” (Life of
Tycho Brahe.)

Kepler, however, in his own works, conftantly maintains
the doétrine of attraction, and even carries it farther than
Copernicus had ever done. Thus, he calls gravity ‘a cor-
poreal and mutual affection between fimilar bodies, in order
to their union.” He alfo remarks, with Copernicus, againft
the Peripatetics, that ‘* the heavenly bodies do not tend to
the centre of the univerfe, but to the centre of thofe larger
round bodies, of which they make a part; fo that if the
earth were not fpherical, things would not fall from all
points towards its centre. Ifa itone, for inftance, were to
be placed at a diltance from another ftone, in any part of
the univerfe; without the {phere of action of a third body
like two magnets, they would come together in fome inter-
mediate point ; each advancing, ia fpace, in the inverfe pro-
portion of their quantities of matter. Hence, if the moon
and the earth were not kept afunder by fome power, in
their refpeCtive orbits, they would move towards each other;
the moon pafling over fifty-three parts of the way while
the earth pafled over one, {uppofing their denfities equal.”
(Aftron. Noy. in Introdué.)

From the fame principle, Kepler alfo accounted for the
general motion of the tides; viz, by the attraction of the
moon, and exprefsly calls it virtus tra@oria que in luna eff ;
adding, that if the earth did not exert an attractive power
over its own waters, they would rife and rufh to the moon.
We alfo find him fufpecting that certain irregularities in
the motion of the moon are owing to the combination of
the earth and fun upon this body. (Ibid. )

Thefe and other refleGtions concerning the univerfality of
attraGtion, he accompanies with an ingenious anticipation of
a law of nature, from conjeture only, but which was after-
wards verified by experiment. The {chools had taught that
fome bodies were by their nature heavy, and fo fell to the
ground; and that others were naturally light, and for that
reafon afcended. But Kepler pronounced, that no bodies
whatever are abfolutely licht, but only relatively fo ; and
confequently that all matter is fubje@t to the law of gra-
vitation. So far the genius of Kepler was fortunate, in
tracing“out the great principle which prevents the planets
from flying off from the fun ; but his fagacity failed him, when
he endeavoured to fhew by what means they were kept from
falling into that immenfe body, and what power perpetuated
their motion in their orbits: a general inveltigation of the
laws of motion was yet wanting ; the difcevery of which,
as well as many other things, being referved, as he himfelf
prophefies at the end of his work, “ for the fucceeding age,
whea the Author of nature would be pleafed to reveal thefe
myiteries.”’

The firft perfon in this country, who embraced the doc-
frine of attraction, was Dr. Gilbert, a native of Colchetter,
and a phyfician at London, in a work publifhed in the year
1600, intitled, «« De Magnete Magneticifque Corporibus ;”’
which contains a number of curious things ; but he did not
properly diftinguifh betvreen attraGion and magnetifm. The
next after him was lord Bacon, who, though not a convert
to the Copernican fyitem, yet acknowledged an-attractive
power in matter (Nov. Organ. hb. ii. aplior. 36. 45. & 48.) ;
and in the dawn of philofopby, in which he lived, he con-
ftantly recommends an inquiry into the phyfical caufes and
reafons of things ; obferving, “« that he who fhall duly at-
e tend to the appetences and general afieCtions of matter (which

both in the earth and heavens are exceedingly powerful, and
indeed pervade the univerfe) will receive, from what he fees
palling on the earth, clear information concerning the nature
of the celeftial bodies; and, contrariwife, from motions
which ke fhall difcover in the heavens, will learn many par-
ticulars relating to the thiags below, which now lie coz-
cealed from us,” (De Diga. & Augm. Scient. lib. iii,
c. 4.)

In France, alfo, we find Fermat and Roberyal, matt
ticians of great eminence, maintaining the
The latter, in particular, made it the fundamental
of his fyftem of phyfical aftronomy, which he pu
1644, under the title of “ Arift. Samii de Mundi Sy
In this work, Roberval attributes to all the parts of matter
of which the uniyerfe is compofed, the property cf haying
a tendency towards each other; obferving,. that this is the
reafon why they arrange themfelves in {pherical figures, not
by virtue of a centre, but by their mutual attractions, and
fo that one may be placed in an equilibrium with another.
Galileo, in Italy, had likewife conceived this idea; but wit!

fame (@) p
principle
ied in

m
far lefs precifion and extenfion than we find it in his contem--
poraries Bacon and Kepler.

But no one, before Newton, had entertained fuch jut and
clear notions of the doétrine of univerfal gravitation, or had
approached fo near to the making a general application of
it to the laws of nature, as the celebrated Dr. Hooke. The
philofophers before mentioned had feized, fome one branch,
and fome another ; but Hooke, in his work, called «* An At-
temptto prove the Motion of the Earth,” 1674, 4to.,appears
to have embraced it in nearly the whole of its generality. He
there obferves, that the hypothefisupon which he explainsthe
fyftem of the world, is, in many refpects, different from ail
others; and which is founded upon the three following princi-
ples: 1. Thatalltneceleftial bodies have not only an attraction
or gravitation towards their proper centres, but that they
mutually attract each other within their {phere of activity.
2. That all bodies which have a fimple and dire& motion,.
continue to move ina right line, if fome force, which operates
without ceafing, does not conitrain them to deferibe a circle,
an ellipfe, or fome other more complicated curve. 3. That
attraction is fo much the more powerful, as the attraGing
bodies are nearer to each other.

He alfo made feveral experiments with a view to ftrengthen
the preceding conjeG&tures. For this purpofe, he fufpended
a bullet to the end of a long ftring, and after it had been
made to ofcillate, he impreffed npon it a fmall lateral mo--
tion ; and remarked, that the bullet deferibed an ellipfe, or
a curve of that form, round the vertical line. He then at-
tached to the {tring of the firft bullet, another, which carried
a fmaller one ; and after having given to the latter circular
motion rouad the vertical line, he put the other in motion,
as in the former experiment ; when it was found, that neither
one nor the other defcribed an ellipfe, but moved round a
point at a mean diitance between them, which appeared to
be their centre of gravity. (Life of Dr. Hooke, prefixed:
to his poithumous works.)

This was certainly very ingenious ; but Hooke did not
confider that the centre of force refides in one of the foci
of the ellipfe, and not in its centre ; and though the obfer-
vation was fugeefted to him, and he was even excited by the
promife of a very confiderable reward, to determine the law
of attraétion, which would occafion a body to defcribe an
ellipfe round another quiefcent, body, placed in one of its
foci, he was unable to accomplifh the undertaking... The
problem, which belongs to the higher geometry, was too
difficult for that time ; this admirable difcovery, which dees
the higheit honour to the human mind, being referved ee

the

APRA GT PON,

the genius of Newton ; and though Hocke claimed a thare
of the glory of this difcovery, it was without the fmalleft
foundation ; as his conjectures were far fhort of the proofs
which were required in the fublime demonftration by which
the former ettablifhed this law of the uviverfe.

Such was the progrefs of the fyltem of univerfal gravi-
tation, when this extraordinary man firlt appeared ; who,
according to Pemberton (View of fir Lfaac Newton’s Phile-
fophy, 1725, 4to.), firit began about the year 1666, to fuf-

ect the exiftence of this pricciple, and to attempt to apply
it to the celeftial motiors. Having retired into the country
to avoid the placue, which about this time prevailed in Lon-
don and its vicinity, his meditations turned upon the nature
of gravity ; and one of his firft reflections appears to have
been, that this power, which, by its continual action, occa-
fions the fall of bedics towards the furface of the earth, to
whatever height they are taken, might poflibly extend much
farther than was commonly imagined ; as for nitance, to the
diftance of the moon or itill higher. And if fo, he began
to coviider that it might be this force which retained tke
moon in her orbit, by counterbalancing the centrifugal force
which arifes frem her revolution round the earth. It alfo
occurred to him at the fame time, that though this power
appears to fuffer no diminution at any heights to which we
-can afcend, thefe bei.g comparatively extremely finall, yet
it was highly probable, that, at very great diftances from
the earth, it might be confiderably weakened.

In following therefore this conjecture, he was farther led
to conceive, that if the attraétion of the earth was the caufe
of retaining the moon in her orbit, the planets, in like man-
ner, mutt be retained in their orbits by the attractive force
of the funs and as the fquares of the times of the revolu-
tions of the planets had been found by Kepler to be proper-
tional to the cubes of their mean diftances from the fun, it
followed that the diminution of their centrifugal forces, and
of courfe that of gravity, would be reciprocally as the fquares
of their diftances from that body. Hence, from the experi-
sents which had been already made on the defcent of heavy
bodies at {mall elevations, he determined the height from
which the moon, if left freely to herfelf, would defcend to-
wards the earth ina fhort interval of time: this is well
known to be the verfed fine of the are that fhe defcribes in
that time ; and which, by means of the lunar parallax, may
be determined in parts of the earth’s radius; fo that to com-
pare the diminution of gravity with~ the obfervations, no-
thing more was neceffary than to know the magnitude of
this line.

But Newton, having at that time only an incorreé&t mea-
fure of the terreftrial meridian, obtained a refult confiderably
different from that which he expected ; whence, imagining
that fome unknown forces might be connected with the
gravity of the moon, he abandoned his firft ideas. Some
years aiterwards, however, his attention was again called to
the fubject by aletter of Dr. Hooke ; and as Picard, about
this time, had meafured a degree of the earth in France with
greac exactnefs, he employed this meafure in his calculations
inftead of the one he had before made ufe of, and found, by
that means, that the moon is retained in her orbit by the
fole power of gravity, fuppofed to be reciprocally propor-
tional to the {quares of the diftances.

According to this law, he alfo found that the line deferi-
bed by bodies in their defcent is an ellipfe, of which the
centre of the earth occupies one of the foci ; and confider-
ing, afterwards, that the orbits of the plancts are, in like
manner, ellipfes, having the centre of the fun in one of their
foci, he had the fatisfaction to perceive, that the folution
which he had undertaken, only from curiofity, was applicable

8

to fome of the moft fublime obje&ts of nature. Thefe dif.
coveries gave birth to his celebrated work entitled, “ Philo.
fophiz Naturalis Prircipia Mathematica,” which appeared
in 1677; and is juitly coniidered as one of the greateit mo-
numents that has ever been erected by human genius to the
lio iour of Icience.

In generalifing thefe refearches, this profound geometer
afterwards thewed, that a projectile may defcribe any conic
fection whatever, by virtue ct a force diretted towards its
focus, and acting in proportion to the reciprocal {quares of
the diftances. He alfo developed the various properties of
motion ia thefe kinds of curves, aud determined the neceflary
conditions, fo that the feStion fhould he a circle, an elliple,
a parabola, or an hyperbola, which depend oaly upen the
velocity and primitive pofition of the body; aliiguing, in
such cafe, the conic fection which the body wou!d deicrihe.
He alfo applied thefe refearches to-the motion of the fatel-
lites and comets, fhewing that the farmer move round their
primaries, and the latter round the fun, according to the
fame law; and he pointed out the meaas of determining, by
obfervation, the elements of thefe ellipfes.

In confidering that the fatellites move round the planets
in nearly the {ame manner as ii thefe planets were quiefcent,
Newton perceived that they mult all equally pravitate to-
wards the fun. The equality of aGien and re-aétion did
not allow him to doubt that the fun gravitates towards the
planets, as well as thefe towards their fatellites ; and that the
earth is attra¢ted by all the bodies that are attracted towards
her. He afterwards extended, by analogy, this property to
all the parts of which bodies are compoled, and eftablifhed
it as a principle, that every molecule of matter attracts every
other body in proportion to its mafs and reciprocaliy as
the fquare of the diftance from the body attracted.

Having arrived ‘fat this principle, Newton foon faw that
all the great phenomena of the fyitem of the world might
be eafily derived from it. In confidering the force of gra-
vity at the furface of the celeftial bodies as the re/ultante of
the attra¢tions of all their molecules, he arrived at thefe re-
markable conclufions: that the attraGive force of a body,
or {pherical f{tratum, on a point placed without it,
is the fame as if the whole of its mafs was united
in the centre ; and that a point placed within the body, or
more generally in any ftratum terminated by two fimilar el-
liptical furfaces, fimilarly fituated, is equally attracted on all
parts. He alfo proved that the rotation of the earth upon
its axis muft cccafion a flattening of it about its poles,
which was afterwards verified by an aétual meafurement ;
and he determined the law of the variation of the degrees, in
different latitudes, upon the fuppofition that the matter of
theearth was homogeneous. He likewifefaw, that the actions
of the fun and moon upon the terreftrial {pheroid, mutt pro-
duce a movement of rotation of its axis, as well as occafion
a retroceflion of the equinoxes, and the various ofcillations
of the waters of the ocean which are called the tides. In
fhort, he alfo affured himfelf, that the inequalities of the
motion of the moon anfe from the combined actions of the
fun and earth upon this fatellite.

But, with the exception of what concerns the elliptical
motions of the planets and comets, and the attractions of
f{pherical bodies, thefe difcoveries were not wholly complet-
ed by Newton. His theory of the figures of the planets is
limited by the fuppofition of their homogeneity ; aud his
folution of the problem of the preceffion of the equinoxes,
although extremely ingenious, and nearly agreeing with the
refults obtained from obfervations, is defective in feveral
refpe€ts ; as among the great number of perturbations of
the celeftial motions, feveral {mall ones, and particularly

that

un

ATT RE AC TTON,

that which arifes from the eyvection of the moon, efcaped
his refearches. He has perfectly eftablifhed the principle
which he had difcovered ; but left the complete develope-
ment of its confequences and advantages to the geome-
ters that fhould fucceed him.

The profound analyfis, of which this great man was
alfo the inventor, had not, at this time, beea fufliciently
perfected, to enable him to give complete folutions to all
the difficult problems which arife in confidering the the-
ory of the fyftem of the world; fo that he was fome-
times obliged to give only imperfe@ fketches or approxi-
mations, and leave them to be verified by a more rigorous
calculation. But, notwithftanding thefe inevitable defects,
the importance and generality of his difcoveries, and the
great number of his origifial and profound views, which
have given vife to the moft brilliant mathematical theories
of the prefent age, will always affure to this performance
the pre-eminence above every other fimilar production of
the human mind.

Having thus given a concife hiftory of the difcovery of
this extenfive principle, and its application to the laws of
motion, it is proper to obferve, that though Newton makes
afe of the word attraCtion in common with the fchool phi-
lofophers, yet he very ftudioufly diftincuifhed between the
ideas. The ancient attration was fuppofed to be a kind
of quality, inherent in certain bodies themfelves, ard arifing
from their particular or fpecific forms ; but the Newtonian
attra&tion is a more indelinite principle, denoting no parti-
cular kind or manner of action, nor the phyfical caufes of
fuch aétion, but only tendency in the general, a conatus
accedendi, to whatever caufe, phyfical or metaphyfical, fuch
effe€ts be owtng, whether to a power inherent in the bodies
themfelves, or to the impulfe of an external agent.

He accordingly fhews in his Pliilofoph. Nat. Prin. Math.
that he ufes the words attraction, impulfe, and propenfion
zo the centre, indifferently ; and cautions the reader not to
imagine, that by attraction he expreffles the modus of the
action, or the efficient caufe thereof, as if there’ were any
proper powers in the centres, which in reality are only ma-
thematical points; or as if centres could attract. Lib. i. p. 5.
In like manner he confiders centripetal powers as attractions,
though phyfically fpeaking, it were more juft to call them
impulfes. {b. p. 148. He alfo adds, that what he calls
attraction may poflibly be effected by impulie, though not
a common cr corporeal impulfe, but after fome other man-
ner unknown to us. Optics, p. 322.

Attraction indeed, if confidered as a quality arifing from
the fpecific farms of bodies, ought, together with {ympa-
thy, antipathy, and the whole tribe of occult qualities, to
be exploded. But when we have fet thefe afide, there will
remain innumerable phenomena of nature, and particularly
the gravity or weight of bodies, or their tendency to a cen-
tre, which argue a principle of aGtion feemingly diftiné
from impulfe, or where at leaft there is ho feofible im-
pulfion concerned. It is alfo weil known, that this a¢tion
differs, in fome refpeéts, from all impulfion we know of, the
Jatter being always found to aQ in proportion to the furface
of bodies; whereas gravity acts according to their folid
contents; and confeqnently muft arife from fome caufe
that penetrates or pervades their whole fubftances. This
unknown principle, which can be confidered fo only with
re{pect to its caufe (for its phenomena and effects are moft
obvious), with all the fpecies and modifications of it, is
what we call attraction, which is a general name under
which all mutual tendencies, where no phyfical impulfe
appears, and which cannot therefore be accounted for from
any known laws of nature, may be ranged; and here arife

feyeral particular kinds of attraftions, as gravity, mapne-
tilm, electricity, &c. which are fo many different laws;
aad only agreeing in this, that we do not fee any phyfical
caufes of them; but that as to our fenfes, they may really
arife from fome power or efficacy in fuch bodies, by which
they are enabled to act, even upon diftant bodies, though
our reafon abfolutely difallows of any fuch aétion. x

Attraction may be divided with refpe& to the law it
obferves, into two kinds: 1. That which extends to fenfi-
ble diftances ; fuch are the attraétions of gravity found in
all bedies ; and the attraction of magneti{m and clettricity
found in fome particular bodies; the feveral laws and phe-
nomena of which fee under their refpeCtive articles.

Among thefe, the attraétion of gravity, which is alfo
called the centripetal force, is one of the greateft and moft
univerfal principles in nature; we fee and feel it operate
on bodies near the earth, and find -by obfervation, that the
fame power alfo obtains in the mocn, and in both the
primary and fecondary planets, as well as in the comets;
and that this is the power by which they are all retained
in their orbits, &c.: and hence, as gravity is found in alk
the bodies which come under ovr obfervation, it is eafily
inferred, by one of the fettled rules of philofophizing,
that it obtains in all others; and as it is found to be as
the quantity of matter in each body, it mutt be in every
particle thereof; and hence, every particle in nature is
proved to attraét every other particle, &c. See the demon-
{tration of this laid down at large under the articles Cen-
TRIFUGAL, CENTRIPETAL, Comet, Moon, NEwTONIAN
Philofophy, Puanet, SaTeELuitE, Sun, &e.

From this attraétion arifes all the motion, and confe-
quently all the mutation, in the univerfe ; by this, heavy
bodies defcend and light ones afcend, proje€tiles are direfted,
vapours and exhalations arife, and rains, &c. fall. Alfo
from the fame caufe rivers glide, the air prefles, the ocean
{wells, &c. In effect, the motions arifing from this prin-
ciple, make the fubjeét of that extenfive branch of mathe-
matics called Afechanics, or Statics, with the parts er apnend-
ages thereof Hydroffatics, Pneumatics. See MariieMATICs,
Puitosopuy, &c.

2. That which extends only to {mall diftances.—Such is
found to obtain in the minute particles whereof all bodies
are compofed, which attra& each other at or extremely
near the point of contact, witha force much fuperior to that
of gravity; but which at any diftance from it decreafes
much fafter than the power of gravity. ‘L'his power is
known by the name of the Attra@ion of Cobcfion, as beine:
that by which the atomsor infenfible particles of bodies are
united with largerand more fenfible fizures. See ConEsion.

The latter kind of attraction owns Newton for its dif-
cover, as the former does for its improver. The laws of
motion, percuffion, &c. in fenfible bodies under various
circumftances, as falling, projected, &c. afcertained by the
later philofophers, do not reach to thofe more remote in-
teftine motions of the competent particles of the fame
bodies, on which the changes of their texture, colour, pro-
perties, &c. depend; fo that our philofophy, if it were
founded wholly on the principle of gravitation, and carried
no farther than that would lead us, would neceffarily be:
very deficient.

But befide the common laws of fenfible maffes, the mi-
nute parts which they are compofed of are found fubject
to fome others which have been only of late taken notice of,
and are yet very imperfeCtly known. Newton, to whofe
happy penetration we ove the hint, contents himfelf with
eftablifhing that there are fuch motions in the minima
nature, and that they flow from certain powers or forces.

nos

ACT IT RVA.GIT TON.

not reducible to any of thofe in:the great world.—By virtue
of thefe-powers he Shews, ‘ that the {mall particles a& on
each other even at a diftance, and that maay of the phe-
nomena of nature are the refult of this aétion. Sentible
bodies, as we have already obferved, act on each other
feveral ways; and as we thus perceive the tenor and courfe
of nature, it appears highly probable that there may be
other powers of the like kind, nature being always uniform
-and confiftent with herfelf—Thofe juft mentioned, reach-
ing to fenfible diftances, have been generally obferved ;
but there may be others, which reach to fuch {mall dif-
tances as have hitherto efcaped obfervation ; and this, it is
probable, may be the cafe with eleétricity, even without
being excited by friction.

He then proceeds to confirm the reality of thefe ful-
picions from a great number of phenomena and experiments,
which plainly argue fuch powers and a¢tions between the
particles of bodies, e.g. of falts and water, oil of vitriol
and water, aqua fortis and iron, fpirit of vitriol and falt-petre,
and many other chemical fubftances. He alfo fhews that
thefe powers are unequally ftrong between different bodies ;
e.g. ltronger between the particles of falt of tartar and
thofe of aqua fortis, than thofe of filver } and between aqua
‘fortis and lapis calaminaris, than iron; between iron and
copper, than filver, or mercury, &c. So fpirit of vitriol
aéts on water, but more on iron or copper, &c. The
‘other experiments which countenance the exiftence of fucn
principles of attraction in the particles of matter are in-
numerable, many of which may be found enumerated under
the articles Arrinitry, Acip, Matrer, Menstevum,
SALT, &c.

Thefe actions, by virtue of which the particlesof thebodies
above mentioned tend towards each other, are called by the
general indefiaite name attraction, which is equally applicable
to all actions by which diftant bodies tend towards each other,
whether- by impulfe, or by any other more latent power ;
vand hence we can account for an infinity of phenomena
which would otherwife be inexplicable from the principle
of gravity; fuch as cohefion, diffolution, coagulation,
eryftallization, the afcent of -fluids in capillary tubes,
animal fecretion, fluidity, fixity, fermentation, &c. ; which
fee under their proper names.

«< Thus”? (adds our incomparable author) ¢ will nature be
found conformable to herfelf, and very fimple, performing
all the great motions of the heavenly bodies by the attrac-
tion of gravity which intercedes thofe bodies, and almoft all
the {mall ones of their parts, by fome other attractive
power diffufed through their particles. Without fuch prin-
ciples, there never would “have been any motion in the
world ; and without the continuance thereof, motion would
foon perifh ; there being otherwife a great decreafe or dimi-
nution thereof which is only fupplied by thefe aétive princi-
ples.” Optics, p. 373.

For thefe reafons it is certainly unjuft to’ declare againft
a principle which furnifhes {o beautiful a view, for
no other reafon but becaufe we cannot conceive how one
body fhould a& on another at a diftance. It is certain
that philofophy allows of no aétion: but what is by im-
mediate contact or impulfion (for how can a body exert
any active power where it does not exift? to fuppofe this of
.any thing, even of the Supreme Being himfelf, would per-
haps implya contradiction) ; yet we fee effetswithout feeing
any fuch impulfe ; and where there are effects, we can eafily
infer there are caufes, whether we fee them’ or not. We
may confider fuch effeGs, therefore, without entering into
the confideration of the caufes, as indeed it feems the bufinefs
of a philofopher to do; for to exclude a number of pheno-

mena which we fee, would be to leave a great chafm in
the hiftory of nature: and to argue about thofe which we
do not fee, would be to build caitles in the air. Hence it
follows, that the phenomnea of attraétion are matter of
phyfical confideration, and as fuch entitled to a fhare im the
fyltem of phyfics; but that the caufes of them will only be-
come fo when they become fenfible, i. e. when they appear
to be the effe& of fome other higher caufes (for a caute is
no otherwife feen than as‘itfelf is an effet, fo that the firlt
caufe mutt, from the nature of things, be invifible) ; we are,
therefore, at liberty to fuppofe the caufes of attraétion
what we pleafe, without any injury to the effets. The il-
luitrious Newton himfelf feems, indeed, a little irrefolute as
to the caufes, inclining fometimes to attribute gravity to the
a€tion of an immaterial caufe, Optics, p. 343, &c.; and
fometimes to that of a material one, Ibid. p. 325.

In his philofophy, the refearch into cautes is the laft
thing, and never comes under confideration cill the laws and
phenomena of the effects be fettled ; it being to thefe phe-
nomena that the caufe is to be accommodated. The caufe
even of any of the groffeit and-mott fenfible ations is not
adequately known ; how impulfe or percuffion itfelf, for in-
ftance, producesits effe&, that is, how motion is communi-
cated by one body to another, confounds the deepeit philo-
fophers; yet is impulfe received not only into philofophy, but
into mathematics ; and accordingly the laws and phenomena
of its effeGis make the greateft part of common mechanics.

The other fpecies of attraction, therefore, in which no
impulfe is remarkable, when their phenomena are fufficiently
a{fcertained, have the fame title to be promoted from phytical
to mathematical confideration ; and this without any pre-
vious inquiry into their caufes, which our c6nceptions
may not be proportioned to; let them be occult, as all
caufes ftri€tly {peaking are, fo that their effeéts, which alone
immediately concern us, be but apparent. See Cause.

Our illuitrious countryman, therefore, far from adulterat-
ing philofophy with any thing foreign or metaphyfical, as
many have reproached him with doing, has the. glory ef
having thrown every thing of this kind out of his fyitem,
and of having opened a new fource of the moft fublime me-
chanics yet known; it is hence, therefore, that we muft
expect to learn the manner of the changes, productions,
generations, corruptions, &c. of natural things ; with all that
fcene of wonders which is opened to us by:the operations of
chemiltry.

The caufe of attraction was long accounted for, by fuppof-

ing that there exifted a certain unknown fubftance which

impelled all bodies towards each other ; an“ hypothefis to
which philofophers had recourfe, from an epinion which had
conftantly been admitted as a firft principle, ‘ that no body
can aét where it is not ;”’ as if it were more difficult to con-
ceive why a change is produced in a body by another which
is placed at a greater diftance, than why it is produced by
one which is fituate at a {mall diftance; it being not only
as impofflible to explain the phenomena of attra€tion by im-
pulfion as it is to conceive how bodies fhould be urged
towards each other by the aétion of an external fubftance,
as how they fhould be urged towards eachother by a power
inherent in themfelyes. The fa@t is, that we can neither
comprehend the one nor the other; nor can any reafon be
affigned why the Creator might not as eafily beftow upon
matter the power of acting upon matter at a diftance, as
the power of being acted upon and changed by matter in

aCtual conta&. : é
But we have no‘reafon befides for fuppofing that bodies
are ever in any-cafe actually in conta&t. For all bodies are
diminifhed in bulk by cold, that is to fay, -their particles
are

aS

Jo id PD

are brought nearer each other, which would be impoffible,
unlefs they had been at fome diltance before the ¢ ap »plication
of the cold. Almoft all bodies are diminifhed in bulk by
preffure, and confequently their particles are brought nearer
each other; aud the diminution of bulk is always propor-
tioned to the preffure. Newton has alfo fhewn that it re-
quires a force of many pounds to brinp two glafles within
the 8o0oth part of an ich of each other; that a much
greater force is neceflary to diminifh that ditance: and that
no preflure whatever is capable of diminifhing it beyond a
certain point. Confequently there is a force which impedes
the actual contaét of bodies, which increafes inverfely as
fome power or funétion of the diftance, and which no
power whatever is capable of overcoming. Bofcovich has
likewife demonttrated, that a body in motion communicates
part of its motion to another Body betore it actually reaches
it. Hence we may conclude, that, as far as we know,
there is no fuch thing as actual contact in nature; and that
bodies of courfe always act upon each other at a diftance.
Even impulfion, therefore, or preffure, is an inftance of
bodies acting on each other without being in contaét, and
confequently this is no better an explanation of attraction,
than the fuppofition that it is an inherent power. Wemutt
therefore be fatisfied with confidering Bicra@ion as an wn-
Known power, by which all bodies are drawn towards eah
other, aud+ which aéts conftantly and uniformly in all
times aid places, foas always to diminifh the diltance between
them, unlefs when they are prevented from approaching
each other by fome force equally powerful. But why it
diminifhes as the diftance increafes, it is impoffible to fay 3
although the faét is certain, ‘and is almoit incompatible
with the {uppolition of impulfion being the cauie of attrac-
tion. ‘The truth is, that we mutt not be too precipitate in
drawing conclufions, but mutt wait, with patience, till future
difcoveries fhall enable us to advance farther; fatisfying our-
felves, in the mean time, in arranging the laws of nature
which have been afcertained, without attempting to deve-
lope the caufes upon w hich they depend.
ATTRACTION, in Chemifiry. See AFFINITY.
ArrrRaction, Centre of. See Cenrre.
Arrracrion of Mountams. According to the New-
tonian theor y of attraction, this principle pervades the mi-
nutelt particles of matter, and the combined action of all
the parts of the earth forms the attraction ot the whole.
For the fame reafon, therefore, that a heavy body tends
downwards in a perpendicular to the earth’s furface, confi-
dered as fmooth and even, it mult be attraéted towards the
centre of a neighbouring mountain, by a force proportional
to the quantity of matter eonfainedG in it; and the effect of
this attraction, or the accelerative force produced by; it;
muit depend on the nearnefs or diltance of the mountain
from the gravitating body, becaufe this force increafes as
the {quares of the diftances decreafe. Upon thefe principles
it is obvious, that the plumb-line of a quadrant, or of any
other aftronomical inftrument, mutt be deflected from its
proper fituation, by a {mall quantity, towards the mountain,
and the apparent altitudes and zenith diltances of the flars,
taken with the inftrument, be altered accordingly: e.g. if
the zenith diftance of a ftar on the meridian were pied
at two ftations under the fame meridian, one on the fouth
fide of a mountain, the other on the north ; and the plumb-
line of the inftrument were attracted out of its vertical po-
fition by the mountain, the {tar muft appear too much to
the north, by the obfervation at the fouthern ftation, and
too much to the fouth by that at the northern ftation ; and
confequently the difference of the latitudes of the two fta-
tions refulting from thefe obfervations, would be greater
than it really is. If then the true difference of their laté-
Vou. II.

Ag Ty 'T

tudes be determined by mealugingss the diftance betw tlie
two {tations on the ground, the excefs of the difference,

found by the obfervations of the ftar above that found by
this meafurementy mult have been produced by the atttac-
tion of the mountain; and the half of it will be the effect
of fuch attraction on the plumb-line at each obferyation,
provided that the mountain attracts equally on beth fides.
The firkt hint for determining the quantity of this attrac-
tion was fuggelted by Newton, in his T'reatife of the Syftem
of the World; and tee firit experiment for this purpole was
bonduteed by M. Bouguer, and M. de la Condamine, in the
year 1738. Wrillt they were employ ed in meafuring thre
degrees of the meridian, near Quito in Peru, they phn
voured to afcertain the effect of the attraction of Chimbo-
raco, a mountain in that neighbourhood, which, bya rough
computation, they fuppofed to be equal to about the 200o0th
part cf the attraétion of the whole earth. By oblerying
the altitudes of fixed {tars at two ftations, one on the fouth
fide of the mountain, and the other on the north, they
found the quantity of 7£" in favour of the attraction of the
mountain by a mean Ge their obfervations ; whereas the
plumb-line, according to the theory, fhould have declined
from the true vertical line 1’ 43.. However, though tue
general refult is favonrable to the Newtonian doétrine, the
experiment was perfooned under fo many difadvantages,
as not to afford the fatisfation which was to be wifhed ;
and M. Bouguer terminates his account of their pe ees
tions, with exprefling his hopes, that the experiment might
be repeated under more favourable circumftances, either in
France orin England. Bouguer, Figure dela Terre.
Nothing was Hea ards donee till Mr. (now Dr.) Mafke-
lyne, the prefent aftronomer royal, made a propoial to the
Royal Society for this purpofe, inthe year 17723 and in
1774, he was deputed to make the trial, accompanied with
proper affittants, and furyifhed with the moft accurate in-
{truments. He made choice of the mountain Schehallien,
in Scotland, for the fcene of his operations, the direGtion
of which is nearly from eait to welt, its mean height above
the furrounding valley about 2000 feet, and its higheft part
above the level of the fea 3550 feet. Two itations for ob-
fervations were felected, one on the north, and the other on
the fouth fide of the mountain. Every cireumtts ance that
could contribute to the accuracy of the experiment was re-
garde d; and from the obfervation of ten ftars near the ze-
nith, Mr. } ee found the apparent difference of the
altitudes of the two dtations to be 54.6'; and from a mea-
furement by triancles, formed from two bafes on different
fides of the mountain, he found the difference of their paral-
lels to be 4304 feet, which, in the latitude of Schehallien,
Viz. aay 40’, anfwers to an arch of the meridian of 43”,
11.6” than that found by the fector. Its
half, theref or 5.8” is the mean effect of the attraétion
of the mountain. From this experiment, conducted with
great afliduity and accuracy, and tending to the eitablith-
ment of the Newtonian theory, Mr. Mafkcely ne infers, that
the mountain Schehallien exerts a fentible attraction; and,
therefore, that every mountain, and every particle of the
earth, is eadued with the fame property, in proportion to
its quantity of matter. The law of the variation of this
force, in the inverfe ratio of the {quares of the diftanves, is
likewife confirmed by it; for if the force of the attraction
of the hill had been only vo that of the earth as the mat~
ter in the hill to that of the earth, and had not been greatly,
increafed by the near approach to its centre, the attra€tion
mutt have been wholly infenfible. He infers alfo, that the
mean denfity of the earth is at leaft double of that at the
furface ; and confequently, that the denfity of the internal
parts of the earth is much greater than that of thofe ncar

Qq the

which is lefs by

ore,

EE

the furface ; alfo that the whole quantity of matter in the
earth will be at leaft twice as great as if it were compofed of
matter of the fame denfity with that at the furface; and
therefore that the hypothefis of thoie naturalifts, who fup-
pole the earth to be only a great hollow fhell of matter, is
groundlefs. And finally, that the fenfible deflections in the
plumb-lines of aftronomical inftruments, by the denfity of
the fuperficial parts of the earth, mult cauie apparent ine-
qualities in the menfuration of degrees in the meridian. He
candidly acknowledges, however, that a fingle experiment
is not fufficient to afcertain a matter of fuch importance,
and recommends other experiments of a fimilar kind to be
repeated in various places, and attended with different cir-
cumftances ; fince Schchallien may differ in its internal con-
ftitution from other mountains, as there is no appearance of
its ever having been a volcano, which is the cafe of many
others. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv. part 2. N° 48 and 49.

ATTREBATII, in Ancient Geography. See ATRE-
BATII.

ATTRIBUTE, from attriduo, in a general fenfe, that
which agrees to fome perfon or thing ; or a quality which
determines fomething to be after a certain manner. Among
logicians, it denotes the predicate of any fubjeét, or whatever
may be affirmed or denied concerning it. But more ftrictly
fpeaking, an attribute is the fame with an effential mode,
or it is that which belongs to the nature or eflence of the
fubjects in which it is. ‘Thus, underftanding is an attribute
of mind; figure, an attribute of body, &c.

Of the feveral attributes belonging to any fubftance, that
which prefents itfelf firft, and which the mind conceives as
the foundation of all the reft, is called its e/éntial attribute.
Thus, extenfion is by fome, and folidity by others, made
the effential attribute of body or matter. The other attri-
butes are called accidenial ones; e. gr. roundnefs in wood,
or learning in a man. Mr. Locke endeavours to prove,
that thinking, which the Cartefians make the effential attri-
bute of the mind, is only an accidental one.

Mr. Harris (Hermes, p. 29.) confidering all things what-
ever that exiit either as the energies or affections of fome
other thing, or as not being the energies or affe€tions of
fomething elfe, refers the former to the denomination of at-
tributes, and the latter to that of fubfiances. Thus; to
think is the attribute ofa man; to be white, of a fwan; to
fly of an eagle, &c. If they exift not after this manner,
then they are called fubftances.

Spinoza makes the foul and the body to be of the fame
fubfiance, with this only difference, that the foul is to be
conceived under the attribute of thought, and the body
under that of extenfion.

ATTRIBUTES, in Theology, denote the feveral qualities
and perfe€tions which we conceive in God, and which con-
flitute his proper effence; as juftice, goodnefs, wifdom,
&e. The perfeStiions of God are called his attributes, be-
eaufe he cannot be without them. Theological writers have
diftributed the attributes of the deity into natural, fuch as
knowledge and power; and moral, fuch as juftice and be-
nevolence. £ thefe writers fome have maintained that all
the natural attributes are comprehended under power and
knowledge; and that benevolence comprehends all thofe that
are denominated moral. Others, alleging that God always
does that which is right and fit, have confidered all his moral
attributes, viz. juftice, truth, faithfulnefs, mercy, patience,
&c. as merely different modifications of reGtitude. Others,
again, have reprefented wifdom as the {pring of all the di-
wine aétions. Accordingly, they have ftated the moral
attributes of God to be only different ways-of confidering
his will, as invariably determined by his: wifdom to that
which is beift in all poffible cixcumitances.. The attributes

ATs

difcriminated hy this denomination are goodaefs, juftice, truth,
and faithfulae’s. Goodnefs is the will of Ged, determined by
his wifdom, to the communication of being and happinefs be-
caufe it is fit, and as far as it is fit; ju&ice is the will of God,
determined by his wifdom, to maintain right and order, and
for this purpofe to do all that is neceffary for convincing his

2s of the regard he hath for the preferva-
tion of his own rights and of theirs; truth, or fincerity,
is the will of God, determined by his wifdom to avoid
ufing all fi in his intercourfes with his intelligeat crea-
tures, fr ich they may not only take oceafion, with-

=

th being their deceiver, having
a meaning to h quite different from that which the
words or other figns he made ufe of naturally fuggelted,
and were intended to fuzgeit ; faithfalnefs is the will cf
God, determined by his wifdom to make good all his
promifes and engasements ; aad the holinefs of God feems
to ftand for all thete perfections ia conjunétion, the Deity
being feparated by them from all fociety and friendihip
with falfe Gods. According to this ilatement it is alleged,
that we have clear, diitiact, aad proper, though not ade-
quate, ideas of the moral attributes of the diviae natures.
whereas fome have maintained, that our notions of juitice
and goodnefs do not at all agree to thefe attributes as they
pertain to the Deity, in whom they figaity fomething, of
which we have only a confufed or rather no apprehenfion,
and very different from what they do when afcribed to men.
To this purpofe, lord Bolingbroke (Works, vol. iv. and v.):
founds his fyftem on this extravagent paradox, as it has beer
juitly called, that we have no adequate ideas of God’s mo-
ral attributes, his goodnefs and juitice, as we have of his
natural, his wifdom and power; and accordingly he denies
‘juitice and goodnefs to be the fame ia sd in God as in
man; and he pretends, that the ideas of God’s moral attri=
butes cannot be acquired by any reafoning at all, either 2
priori or a pofteriori, anid hence concludes, that if a man has
fuch ideas, they were not found but inveated by him. See

his objections itated and anfwered by the late Bifhop War--
burton, in his “ View of Lord Bolingbroke’s Philofophy,’?’

Letter I. See Hartley’s Obf. on Man, p. 316. Bays
on Divine Benevoleace. Wollaiton’s Rel. of Nat. p. 116
—119. Grove’s Wifdom the firlt Spring of A@tion in the
Deity, in his Works, vol. iv. p. 1—46, &c.. Balguy’s
Divine ReGutude, p. 3—S.

the palm is an attribute of victory ; the peacock, of Juno;

the eagle, of Jupiter; the trident, of Neptune ; the balance

of juftice; the olive, of peace, &c. See Paintine.
ATTRIBUTIVES, in Grammar, are words which are

‘ fignificant of attributes ; and thus include adje€tives, verbss

and participles, which are attributes of fubftances, and ad-
verbs, which denote the attributes:only of attributes. Mas’
Harris, who has introduced this diftribution of words, de-
nominates the former attributives of the firfl order, and the

latter attributives of the fecond order. Harris’s Hermes.
ATTRITION, formed of atterere,.to wear, triture or
friGtion, expreffes fuch a motion of bodies again{t one ano-
ther, as ftrikes off fome fuperficial particles, whereby they
gradually become lefs and lefs. The grinding and polifhing
of bodies is performed ‘by attrition. The.effects of attri-
“thon

ee

‘

AAT

tion in exciting heat, light, electricity, &c. fee under
Evecrraiciry, Firs, Hear, and Lieu.

ATTRITION, among Divin s, denotes a forrow or regret
for haying offended God ; ariling froma fenfe of the odiouf-
nefs of fin, and the apprehenfion of punifhment; i.c. of
the lofs of heaven, and the pains of hell.

Attrition is elteemed the loweft degree of repentance, be-
ing a ftep fhort of contrition, which fuppofes the love of
God an ingredient or motive of our forrow and repentance.
Attrition, in the church of Rome, was confidered as a fuffi-
cient difpofition for a man in the facrament of penance to
receive abfolution, and be juttified before God, by removing
his guilt, and the obligation to punifhment. Hence Dr.
Jer. Taylor mentions this netion as one of thofe which ac-
cidentally taught or led to an ill life. Liberty of Prophe-
fying, p. 252.

ATTROW, in Botany, a name given by the people of
Guinea to a plant which they ufe in cafes of {wellings, boil-
ing the leaves in water, and ufing the decoction by way of
a fomentation.

It is a {pecies of Kaur, and is called by Petiver dali Gui-
neen/e foliis polygoni, floribus verticilli in madum difpofitis, trom
its leaves refembling the common knot-grafs, and its flowers

growing in bundles round the ftalks. Phil. Tranf. N° 232.°

ATTRUMMAPHOC, aname given by the people of
Guinea to a fhrub which they ufe in medicine ; they boil it
in water, and give the decoétion in the venereal dif-
eafe. The juice of it, when freth prefled out, is alfo
ufed, fnuffed up the noftrils, to promote fneezing, and cure
feyeral diforders of the headandeyes. Phil. Tranf. N°\232.

It isa {pecies of Coturea, called by Petiver, CorurEa
Januginofa floribus parvis filiquis pilofis deorfum tandentibus ;
and Dr. Herman calls it an affragalus.

ATTUARLI, in Lacient Geography, a people of Ger-
many, called by Strabo Chattuarii, and placed by him in
the neighbourhood of Cattes. By Tacitus they are deno-
minated Chafuar?. Julian marched againft thefe people, and
after an expedition of three months, defeated them.

ATTUIE, in Geography, a town of Arabia, 76 miles
W.S-W. of Saade.

ATTUND, or Osrunp, a country of Sweden, being
one of the three parts cf Upland, between Stockholm, Up-
land, and the Baltic fea; famous for its mines.

ATTURNATO faciendo vel recipiendo, in Law.
ATTORNATO, &c.

ATTUSA, in Ancicnt Geography, a town of Afia Mi-
nor, on the confines of Bithynia and Myfia. Pliny.

ATUACA, or Aruaruca, a town of Belgic Gaul,
mentioned by Cwfar as belonging to the Eburones, and
ealled by Anton. (Itin.) ddvoca Tungrorum. This city,
under the appellation of Tongres, was ruined by Attila in
451, and its epifcopal fee was transferred to Maettricht 5 and
from thence, in 8&1, to Liege.

ATUED, or Atuer, in Geography, atown of Sweden,
mm Eaft Gothland, having in its vicinity fome good mines ;
fix leagues fouth-eait of Lindkoping.

ATUN-JAUXA.. See Jauxa.

ATUN-CANAR, or Grear Canar, avillage of South
America, in the jurfdiGtion of Cuenca, and province of
Quito, famous for its fertility and the treafures fuppofed to
be buried in the earth. One of the Incas is faid to have
built in this place feveral magnificent temples, {plendid pa-
laces, and forts of ftone, lke thofe of Cufco, and to have
plated the infide of the walls with gold. Some remains of
its ancient magnificence are {till viible. Juan and Ulloa’s
Voyage to South America, by Adams, vol. i. p. 319.

ATURE, or Arurensium Civitas, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of Gaul, in the diftri& of Novem-popi-

See

AVA F

Jania, feated on the river Aturus; now Aire on the
Adour.

ATURES, in Geography, a famous cataraé& of the river
Oronoko, in South America.

ATURI, a town of European Turkey, in Beffarabia,
twenty-two miles fouth of Bender.

ATURIA, or Aryaia, in Ancient Geography, a name
given by Strabo to Aflyria.

ATWOOD’s Key, in Geography, a {mall ifland fur-
rounded by rocks, twelve miles north-ealt from Crooked
ifland, and fifty eaft from Yuma, or Long ifland, one of the
Bahamas. _N. lat. 23° 28’. W. long. 73°.

ATYADAE, in Ancient Geography, the firlt race of kings
who reigned in Lydia, fo calied from Atys, the fon of Co-
tys, and grandfon of Manes, who was faid to be the fon
of Jupiter and Tellus. The Atyadw were fucceeded by
the Heraclide, or defcendants of Hercules. See Lypia.

ATYMNUS, in Lntomology, a fpecies of Paritio (Pleb.
Rur. Linn.) that inhabits China and Siam. The wings are
tailed, fulvous; with the anterior ones black at the apex.
Fabricius. Donovan’s Inf. China, &c. Ob). This is He/peria
Aiymnus of Fab.

ATYPOS, from @ negative, and zzo-, form, or tenory
erralic, or irregular, a word ufed by the old writers in me-
dicine, for fuch difeafes as did not obferve any regularity
in their periods. ‘

Others have alfo ufed the fame word ina very different
fenfe, namely, for deformities and i:r2gularities in the limbs ;
and others, tor perfons who, from fome defeéts in the organs
of {peech, cannot articulate certain particular founds.

ATYS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Sicily, now
called the Corbo. :

Arys, in Zoology, a {pecies of Stmra, in Audebert’s
Hiftoire des Singes. (Fam. 4. fect. 2. fig. 8.) It belongs to
the family of Guenons, and meafures one foot five inches
from the muzzle to the tail. The whole body is of a dirty
whitifh colour; the feet, hands, face, and ears are of a
flefh colour ; the muzzle is long ; tail moderate ; ears nearly
fquare. ‘This is reprefented as a mifchievous and choleric
animal ; and capable of biting with great violence. It is
conjectured to be the great white Eat Indian Ape figured
by Albert Seba in his Thefaurus Rer. Natur. t. 1. pl. 48.
fig. 3. by fome modern French naturalifts; and alfo the
Cercopithecus fenex of Erxleben. Syft. Reg. Anim. p. 24.

ATZEL, Ortorus Nosirts, in Ornithology, the name
given in Merrem Beytr. to the bird called by Latham the
long-billed Grakle ; Graccula longiroftra of Pallas and Gme-
hn. Merrem alfo calls it Oriolus chry/ocephalus of Gmelin,
Goldkoepfige gelbfchulderichte Atzel.

ATZMANSDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of the Lower Rhine, four miles fouth-eaft of
Erfurt.

AU, a town of Germany, in the arch-duchy of Auttria,
fix miles north of Gemunden.—Alfo, a town in Lower
Bavaria, twelve miles north-wett of Mofburg.

AVA, a kingdom of Afia, in the peninfula of India be-
yond the Ganges; for an account of which fee Birman

erie
vA, or Auncwa, the capital city of the kingdom of the
fame name, or of the whole of the Birman empire, fituate
in N. lat. 2295’. E.long. 97°54’. It is divided into an
upper and lower city, both of which are fortified: the lower
is the moft extenfiye, and is fuppofed to be about four miles
in circumference : it is protected by a wall thirty feet high,
with a deep and broad foffé. The communication between
the fort and the country is over a mound of earth, crofling
a ditch that fupports a caufeway; the upper or fraller
fort, which may be called the citadel, and does not exceed
Qq2 a mile

AVA

a mile in circuit, was much ftronger and more compact than
the lower; but neither the upper nor the lower had a ditch
on the fide of the river. This ancient capital has been fuf-
fered to fink into ruins, fince the recent foundation of Um-
merapoora. ‘ The walls,” fays colonel Symes, ‘ are now
mouldering into decay ; ivy clings to the fides; and bufhes,
fuffered to grow at the bottom, undermine the foundation,
and have already caufed larre chafms in the different faces of
the fort. The materials of the houfes, confifting chiefly of
wood, had, on the firft order for removing, been tranfported
to the new city of Ummerapoora; but the ground, ualefs
where it is covered with bufhes, or rank grais, fill retains
traces of former’ buildings and ftreets. The lines of the
royal palace of the Lotoo, or grand council hall, the apart-
ments of the women, and the {pot on which the piafath, or
imperial fpire, had ftood, were pointed out to us by our
guide. Clumps of bamboos, a few plantain trees, and tall
thorns, occupy the greater part of the area of this lately
fiourifhing capital. “We obierved two dwelling houfes cf
brick and mortar, the roofs.of which had fallen in; thefe,
our guide faid, had belonged to Colars, or foreigners : on
entering one, we found it inhabited only by bats, which
flew in our faces, whilit our fenfe of fmelling was offended
by their filth, and by the noifome mildew that hung upon
the walls. Numerous temples, on which the Birmans never
lay facrilegious hands, were dilapidated by time. ; It is im-
poflible to draw a more ftriking picture of defolation and
ruin.’ To the gloomy and deferted walls of Ava, a fine
contraft is exhibited by the new city of Ummerapoora.
Ava, River of, now called Irrawaddy, is the chief river
of the Birman empire; according to major Rennell (Memoir,
p- 298.), it is the Nou-Kian, httle, if at all, inferior to the
Ganges, and it runs to the fouth through that angle of
Yunan which approaches neareft to Bengal. It is faid to
be navigable from the city of Ava to Yunan; it paffes by
Moguang to Bamoo, and thence to Ummerapoora and
Chagain, and thence to Prome towards the fea, into which it
difcharges itfelf by many mouths, after a comparative courfe
of near 1200 Britifh miles. The two extreme branches of
the Ava river are the Perfiam and Syrian rivers, which
major Rennell (Mem. p. 39.) has been able to trace to the
place where they feparate from the main river, at about 150
geographical miles from the fea. The bearings of thefe
two branches interfect each other at an angle of about fixty
degrees. The mouths of the Ava river form an affemblage
of low iflands like thofe of the Ganges. M. D’Anville
erroneoufly f{uppofed the Sanpoo, Thibet river, or Burram-
pooter, to be the fame with that which is called, in the
loweft part of its courfe, the river of Ava; and the Nou-
Kian he fuppofes to be the fame with the river of Pegu.
This river of Pegu, according to Buchanan (fee Symes’s
Embaffy, vol. ii. p. 414.), which is fuppofed to come from
China, rifes among hills about roo miles from the fea,
which form the boundary betweea the Birman and Pegu
kingdoms. ‘The river coming from Thibet, fuppofed to be
that of Arracan, is in reality the Keenduem, or the great
weftern branch of the Ava river. That which is fuppofed
to be the weftern branch of the Irrawaddy, is in fa& the
eaftern one, which paffes by Ava, and runs to the north,
keeping weit from the province of Yunan, and leaving be-
tween it and that part of China a country fubjeét to the
Birmans. He adds, that between the Pegu and Martaban
rivers there is a lake from which two rivers proceed ; the
one runs north to Old Ava, where it joins the Myoungnya,
a little river of Ava, which comes from mountains on the
frontiers of China; the other river runs fouth from the lake
to the fea, and is called Sitang. The country bordering on
the Ava river, from the fea to Lundfey, is flat, and the foil
1

ALVA

rich, and refembles the lower parts of the courfes of the
Ganges, Indus, and other capital rivers, formed out of the
mud depofited by the inundations of the river. This low
traét is called Pecu. Renneli’s Mem. p.297. Symes’s
Embafly to Ava, vol. ii. p. 413.

Ava, Cepe, a point of land in the ifland of Japan, in the
eaftern ocean, lying in N. lat. 34° 45’, and E. long. 140° 55’.

Ava Ava, in Bofany, a plant fo called by the inhabitants
of Otaheite, in the South Sea, from the leaves of which they
exprefs anintoxicating juice. IJtis drank very freely by the
chiefs and other contiderable perfons, who vie with each
other in drinking the greateft number of draughts, each
draught being about a pint: but it is carefully kept
from their women. Hawkefworth’s Voyages, vol. ii. p. 200.

AVADIA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia,

laced by Ptolemy in Baétriana.

AVADOUTAS, a fe& of Indian bramins, diftinguifhed
by their aufterity and abftinence, and depending on acci-
dental beneficence for their neceflary fupplies.

AVAIL of Marriage, in Scots Law, denotes that cafu-
alty in ward-holding, by which the fuperior was entitled to
a certain fum from his vaffal, upon his attaining-the age of

uberty, as the value or avail of his tocher.

AVAILLE, in Geosraphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri€&t of Civray ; five leagues eaft of Civray, and fix anda
half S.S.W. of Mostmorilion. The place contains 2115,
and the canton 5194 ithabitants: the territory includes 212%
kiliometres and 4 communes.

AVAL, the largeit of the iflands in the gulf of Perfia,
known to the Eurepeans by the name of Bahrein. — In this
ifland were once 360 towns and villages; but at prefent
it contains, befides Bahrein the capital, only fixty wretched.
villages; the others having been ruined by a long feries of
wars. This ifland produces great abundance of dates; but
its chief dependence is upon the pearl-fifhery, as the beft
pearls are fupplied by it. The duties upon the two articles
of dates and pearls affords its fovereign a lack of rupees,
out of which he is obliged to maintain a garrifonin the city.

AVALANCHES, a name given in Swifferland and Sa-
voy to thofe prodigious maffes of fnow, which are precipi-
tated, with a noife like thunder, and im large torrents, from
the mountains, and which deftroy every thing in their courfe,
and have fometimes overwhelmed even whole villages. In
1719, an avalanche from a neighbouring glacier overfpread
the greater part of the houfes and baths at Leuk, and de-
ftroyed a confiderable number of inhabitants. ‘The beft
prefervative againft their effects being the forefts, with which
the Alps abound; there is fcarcely a village fituated at the
foot of a mountain, that is not fheitered by trees; which
the inhabitants preferve with uncommon reverence. Thus,
what conftitutes one of the principal beauties of the country,
affords alfo fecurity to the people.

Our readers may be gratified by the defcription which
Thomfon has given of the avalanches, in his ‘* Seafons :’”

«© Among thefe hilly regions, where embrac’d

In peaceful vales, the happy Grifons dwell ;

Oft, rufhing fudden from the loaded cliffs,

Mountains of fnow their gath’ring terrors roll

From fteep to fteep, loud thund’ring down they come,
A wintry wafte in dire commotion all ;

And herds and flocks, and travellers and fwains,

.And fometimes whole brigades of marching troops,
Or hamlets fleeping in the dead of night,

Are deep beneath the fmothering ruin hurl’d.”

AVALAS, atown of Servia, twelve miles fouth of Bel-

rade.

AVALITES Sinus, in Ancient Geography, a gulf on
the

AVA

the right of the Erythran fea. In this gulf was a fea-port,
called Avalis, on the coaft of Ethiopia: the people of
Ethiopia who lived near this gulf were called Avalites, and
Abalites. Ptolemy.

AVALLON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
‘department of the Yonne, and principal place of a diftrict,
feated on the river Coufin. This is a town of confiderable
trade in grain, wine, and cattle, with a cloth manufactory ;
twenty-three miles S.S.W. from Auxerre, and fifty fouth of
Troyes. The place contains 5045, and the canton 9668,
inhabitants: the territory includes 157% kiliometres and 11
communes. N. lat. 47° 29’. E.long. 3° 5’.

AVALON, a peninfula of the ifland of Newfoundland,
not far from the fouth-eaft part of it, with Placentia bay on
tbe fouth, and Trinity bay on the north.

AVANCAY, a jurifdiftion in the diocefe of Cufco, in
South America, lying north-eaft from the city of Cufco,
and extending above thirty learues. ‘The climate is variable,
but in general hot, and many parts of it are cultivated with
canes, which yield a very rich fugar. The more temperate
parts abound in wheat, maize, and fruits, which are feat to
the city of Cufco. In this province is the valley of Kaqui-
jaguna, or Xajaguana, where Gonzalo Pizarro was defeated
and taken prifoner by Pedro de la Gafco.

AVANCHE. See Avencne.

AVANIA, in the Turti/h Leviflature, a fine for crimes,
and on deaths, paid to the governor of the place. In the
places where feveral nations live together under a Turkifh
governor, he takes this profitable method of punifhing all
crimes among the Chriftians or Jews, unlefs it be the mur-
der ofa Turk. Pocooke’s Eg. vol ii. part ii. p- 30.

AVANT, a French prepofition, figaifying before, or any
priority either in refpect of time or place ; fometimes ufed in
compofition in our language, but more ufually contracted,
and wrote vaunt, or vant, or even van.

Avant-Fofe, &c. See Van-Foffe.

Avant-Guard, &c. See Van Guarp, &c.

AVANTICI, in Ancient Geography, a people reckoned
among the inhabitants of the Alps, and, according to Pliny,
comprehended by Galba withia the. province called Narbon-
nenfis. Some have reprefented them as the inhabitants of
Acvanticum or Aventicum, the capital of Helvetia; but as
Gallia Narbonnenfis never extended fo far, Hardouin rejects
this opinion. Menard (Mem de Liter. t. xxix. p. 248.)
fixes them ina place, now called Avangon, between Gap
and Embrum.

AVANTURINE, in Natural Hiflory, a yellowith ftone
full of fparkles, refembling gold, very common in France.
‘An artificial imitation is made of it by mixing fparkles of
copper with glafs, whilft it isin fufion, which is ufed by
enamellers, and to fprinkle as fand upon writiag. Various
ftones have been known by this appellation. See Quartz,
and FevsPar.

AVAOU, in Ichthyology, the name given by the natives
of Otaheite to a {pecies of Gobius figured by Brouffonnet
in his decade of fifhes. See Gosprus Ocervaris.

AVARA, or Avera, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Gaul, which paffes by the town of Avaricum.

AVARAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loir and Cher, and chief place of a canton
in the diftriét of Mer, 12 miles N.E. of Blois.

AUARCAVELICA. See Guamanca.

AVARES, or Avart, a tribe of Sarmatian origin, de-
noting far diffant, and fermerly applied to a clafs of the in-
habitants of the fouthern parts of Ruffia, from their dwelling
farther to the eaft than any of the Sarmatian ftocks.

In the differtation of M. Peyffonnel on the origin of the
Sclavonian language, we are informed that the flaves, who

AVA
poffeffed Macedonia, Greece, and Epirus, were alfo called

avares or avari; and that they were unknown to the inha-
bitats of Conftantinople till the end of the reign of Jufti-
nian. At this time, fays Gibbon, A.D. 558, their ambaf-
fadors addreffed the Roman emperor who admitted them to
an audience, as the reprefentatives of the ftrongeft and moft
populous of nations, the invincible, the irrefiftible Avars.
Their friendfhip was purchafed by the timid emperor, and
Valentin, one of the emperor’s guards, was fent under the
charatter of an ambaffador to their camp at the foot of
mount Caucafus. He perfuaded them to invade the ene-
mies of Rome. Thefe fugitives, who had fled before the
Turkifh arms, paffed the 'Vanais and Boryfthenes, and b«
ly advanced into the heart of Poland and Germany, violating
the law of nations and abufing the rights of victory. Be-
fore ten years had elapfed, their camps were feated on the
Danube, and the Elbe, many Bulgarian and Sclavonian
names were obliterated from the earth, andthe remnants of
their tribes are found, as tributaries and vaflals, under the
ftandard of the Avars.. ‘The Chagan, by which appellation
their king was diftinguifhed, ftill affeéted to culti:
friendfhip of the emperor; and Juitinian entertai
thoughts of fixing themin Pannonia, to balance the prev
ing power of the Lombards. But the virtue or treac
of an Avar betrayed the fecret enmity and ambitious defi
of their countrymen; and they loudly complained of tl
mid, though jealous*policy of detaining their ambaiiadors,
and denying the arms which they had been allowed to pur-
chafe in the capital of the empire. An embaffy that was
received about this time from the conquerors of the Avars,,
might poflibly have produced an apparent change in the
difpofition of the emperors. The Turkifh ambaffadors hav-
ing purfued the footiteps of the vanquifhed to the Jaik, the
Volga, mount Caucafus, the Euxine, and Conftantinople, at
length appeared before the fucceffor of Conftantine, to re-
queft that he would not efpoufe the caufe of rebels and fu-
gitives. In confequerce of this embafly, the emperor
renounced, or feemed to renounce, the fugitive Avars, and
accepted the alliance of the Turks. Inthe year 566, Juf-
tin II. gave audience to the ambafladors of the Avars, and _
the fcene was decorated to imprefs the barbarians with atto-
nifnment, veneration, and terror: After the firft emotions
of furprife, the chief of the embafly extolled the greatnefs
of the Chagan, by whofe clemency the kingdoms of the
fouth were permitted to exift, whofe victorious fubjeéts ha
traverfed the frozen rivers of Scythia, and who now covered
the banks of the Danube with innumerable tents. It was
alfo alleged, that the late emperor had cultivated, wich aa-
nual and coftly gifts, the friendfhip of a grateful merarch,
and that the enemies of Rome had refpected the allies of
the Avars. ‘The fame prudence, it was intimated, would
inftruét the nephew of Juftinian to imitate the liberality
of his uncle, and to purchafe the bleflines of peace
from an inyineible people, who delighted and excelled in the
exercife of war. To this addrefs the emperor replied in the
fame ftrain of haughty defiance; and he derived his
confidence from the God of the Chriftians, the ancient glory
of Rome, and the recent triumphs of Juftinian. The Cha-
gan was awed by the report of his ambafladors; and inftead
of exercifing his threats againft the eaftern empire, he march-
ed into the poor and favage countries of Germany, which
were fubject to the dominion of the Franks ; but after two
doubtful battles, he confented to retire. The fpirit of the
Avvars being chilled by repeated difappointments, their pow-
er would have diflolved away in the Sarmatian defert, if the
alliance of Alboin, king of the Lombards, had not given a
new object to their arms, and a lafting fettlement to their
wearied fortunes. (See Arsorn,; and LomBarps.) By the
departure.

LAVV AA

departure of the Lombards, and the ruin of the Gepidz,
between the years 570 and 600, the balance of power was
d-ftroyed on the Danube; and the Avars, at this time,
fpread their permanent dominion from the foot of the Alps
to the fea-coait of the Euxine. The reign of Baian is the
brighteft era of their monarchy ; and the Chagan, who occu-
pied the ruftic palace of Attila, appears to have imitated his
charaéter and policy. The pride of Juftin I1., of Tiberius,
and of Maurice, was humbled by 2 proud barbarian, more
prompt to inflict, than expofed to fuffer, the injuries of war;
and as often as Afia was threatened by the Periian arms,
Europe was opprefled by the dangerous inroads, or coltly
friendthip, of the Avars. As the fucceffor of the Lombards,
the Chagan afferted his claim to the important city of Sir-
mium, the ancient bulwark of the Illyrian provinces. The
plains of the Lower Hungary were covered with the Avar
horfe, and a fleet of large boats were built in the Hercynian
wood, for the purpofe of defcending the Danube, and tranf-
porting into the Save, the materials of a bridge. But as
the firong garrifon of Singidunum, which commanded the
conflux of the two rivers, might have {topped their paflage
and batfiled his defigns, he difpelled their apprehenfions by a
folemn oath that his views were not hoftile to the empire.
Sirmium, however, was invefted by the perfidious Baian, and
its defence was prolonged above three years ; but at length
diftrefled by famine, a merciful capitulation allowed the ef-
cape of the naked and hungry inhabitants. Singidunum, at
the diftance of fifty miles, experienced a more cruel fate ; its
buildings were razed, and the vanquifhed people condemned
to fervitude and exile. From Belgrade to the walls of Con-
ftantinople a line extended of 600 miles, which was marked
with flames and blood. The horfes of the Avars were al-
ternately bathed in the Euxine and the Adriatic; and the
Roman pontiff, alarmed at the approach of a more favage
enemy, was reduced to cherith the Lombards as the protec-
tors of Italy. The defpair of a captive, whom his country
refufed to ranfom, difclofed to the Avars the invention and
practice of military engines, but in the firft attempts they
were rudely framed and aukwardly managed 5 and the refiit-
aace of Discletianopolis and Berga, of Philipopolis and
Adrianople, foon exhautted the flcill and patience of the be-
flerers. Although the warfare of Baian was that of a Tar-
tar, his mind was fufceptible of fentiments that were gene-
rous and humane; accordingly, he fpared Anchialus, by
whofe fulutary waters the health of the beit beloved of his
wives was reftored; and the Romans confefs, that their
ftarving army was fed and difmifled by the liberality of a
foe. His empire extended over Hungary, Poland, and
Pruffia, from the mouth of the Danube to that of the
Oder; and his new fubjeéts were divided and tranfplanted
by the jealous policy of the conqueror. ‘The ealtern re-
gions of Germany, which had been left vacant by the emi-
gration of the Vandals, were replenifhed with Sclavonian
conquefts ; the fame tribes are difcovered in the neighbour-
hood of the Adriatic and the Baltic, and with the name of
Ba‘an himfelf, the lyrian cities of Neyfs and Lifla are again
found in the heart of Silefia. In the di{pofition both of his
troops and provinces, the Chagan expofed the vailals, whofe
lives he difregarded, to the firft aflault, and the {words of
the enemy were blunted before they encountered the native
valour of the Avars. ‘The emperor Maurice, after having,
for ten years, fupported the infotence of the Chagan, declared
his purpofe of marching againft the barbarians. Deaf to
the advice and intreaty of the fenate, the patriarchs, and the
emprefs Conflantina, who diffuaded him from perfonelly en-
countering the fatigues and perils of a Scythian campaign,
he boldly advanced feven miles from the capital; but An-
chialus was the limit of his progrefs both by tea and land,

AVA

In five fucceffive battles, 17,200 barbarians were made prifo-
ners ; near 60,000, with four fons of the Chagan, were flain;
the Roman general, Prifcus, furprifed a peaceful diftri& of
the Gepide, protected by the Avars ; and his laft trophies
were erected on the banks of the Danube and the Teyfs.
Baian, however, again prepared, with dauntlefs {pirit and re-
cruited forces, to avenge his defeat under the walls of Con-
ftantinople. In the reign of Heraclius, A. D. 610—622.
Syria, Egypt, and the provinces of Afia, were fubdued by
the Perfian arms under Chofroes; while Europe, from the
confines of Iitria to the long wall of Thrace, was opprefled
hy the Avars, unfatiated with the blood and rapine of the
Italian war. They had coolly maffacred their male captives
in the field of Pannonia ; the women and children were re
duced to fervitude, and the nobleft virgins were abandoned |
to the promifcuous luk of the barbarians.

When Hevaclius was preparizg to abandon his capital,
and to transfer his perfon aud government to the more fes
cure tefidence of Carthage, the Chagan was encamped in
the plains of Thrace ; and diffembling his perfidious defigns
folicited an interview, for the. purpofe of rezongilianeae
with tke emperor, near the town of Heraclea. Ona fudden,
the Hippodrome was encompafied by the Scythian cavalry ;
the tremendous found of the Chagan’s whip gave the figual
of affault ; and Heraclius was faved by the fleetnefs of his
horfe. So rapid was the purfuit, that the Avara almo't
entered the golden gate of Conftantizople with the flying

\crowds; but the plunder of the fuburbs rewarded their
treafon, and they traafported beyond the Danube 270,000
captives. The Perfian king haying ratified a treaty
of alliance and partition with the Chaghan, A‘ D. 626;
30,000 Barbarians, the vanguard of the Avars, forced the
long wall of Conftantinople, and drove into the city a pro-
mifcuous crowd of peafants, citizens, and foldiers. In the
mean while the magiitrates of the capital repeatedly ftrove
to purchafe the retreat of the Chagan; but their deputies
were rejected and infulted; and he fuffered the patricians
to ftand before his throne, while the Perfian envoys, richly
drefled, were feated by his fide. For ten fucceifive days
the capital was aflaulted by the Avars, who had made eas
progrefs in the feience of attack. At length however, by
the vigorous refiftance of the inhabitants, the Avars were
repulfed; a fleet of Sclavonian canoes was alfo deftroyed in
the harbour ; the vaffals of the Chagan threatened to defert ;
his provifions were exhautted, and after burning his engines,
he gave the fignal of a flow and formidable retreat. To
the hoftile league cf Chofroes with the Avars, the Roman
emperor oppoied the honourable and ufefel alliance of the
Turks ; and the Perfians were then reduced to the neceflity
of retreating with precipitation. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. vii. viii.

From the annals of France, cited by Bolandus, we learn,
that Thudun, a leader of the Avars, fent ambafladors to
Charlemagne, in 795, with propofals for furrendering himfelf
and his people to that prince, and for embracing Chriftianity
under his aufpices.

At this day there exifts an Avarian nation in Dagheftas,
in the diftrit of Derbent and Kubet, who, thouch by their
cohabitation for feveral centuries with various nations, they
have adopted their language and the Mahometan religion,
have neverthelefs retained fome Sarmatian words, that prove
their ancient origin. They marched, fays Mr. Tooke ! Hilt.
Ruff. vol. i. p. g-), inthe fourth century to Pannonia, difpof-
fefled the flaves, and eftablifhed themfelves with thofe that
remained. On the arrival of the Mafhares and Komanes
they. colle&tively afflumed the name Mafhares, and by this
name they are {till diftinguifhed.

AVARICUM, called alfo Brrurices, now Bourzes,
the capital of the Bituriges-Cubi, and afterwards of Aqui-

3 tania

AY A

tania Prima, was one of the moft confiderable cities of
Gaul at the time of the Roman conqueft. About the
forty-feventh Olympiad, or 592 years before the Chriftian
zra, it was the capital of Gaul, ov of that part of it which
was fubjet to the Celtes. The Romans ereéted an amphi-
theatre in this place, which was not demolifhed before the
year 800; and alfo a capitol.

AVARILLO, Cape, lies N.E. from Padaran bay, and
nearly in the fouth-eaft extremity of Cambodia. N. lat. 11°
35. E.long. 109° 21’. See Comorin Bay.

AVAROMO Temo, in Botany, the name of a filiquofe
tree, which grows in the Brafils. The bark is externally of
acineritious, and internally of a deep red colour; and is the
only part of the plant ufed by the flcilful for medicinal pur-
poles: though the fame attringent qualities are by fome
applied to the leaves: for the bark, which is of a bitter
tailte, whether reduced to a powder, or boiled and ufed by
way of fomentation, happily cures inveterate and obftinate
ulcers, and, as it is faid, has been found to cure cancers
themfelves, by means of its remarkably cleanfing and drying
nature.

Befide thefe purpofes, it is alfo mada ufe of on account
of its effectually altringent quality, for baths defigned to
ftrengthen and invigorate the mufcular parts of the body,
when weakened, or too much relaxed. Ray {ays it is much
ufed by courtezans for contracting the pudenda.

AVARUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Hifpania Tarragonentis. Ptolemy.

AVAS. See ATHAMANIA.

Avas, in Geography, a mountain of Hungary, in the di-
fliict-of Marmarufs.

AVAST, a term frequently ufed on board a fhip, fignify-
ing to ftop, hold, or ftay. The word is formed of the Italian
wafla, or bafta, it is enough, it Juffices.

AVASTOMATES, in Anctent Geagraphy, a people of
Africa, in Mauritania. Amm. Mare.

AVATSCHA, or Awarsxa, called alfo St. Peter and
St. Paul, in Geography, a fea-port of Kamtf{chatka, lying in
N. lat. 52° 51’. and E.long. 158° 48’. The bay of Avatf-
cha lies in the bight of another formed by cape Gavareea to
the fouth, and Cheeponfkoi-nofs to the north: the latter
bearing from the former N.E. by N. and diftant from it
thirty-two leagues. From cape Gavareea to the entrance
of Avatfcha. bay the coalt bears to the north, extends about
eleven leagues, confifts of a chain of ragged cliffs and rocks,
and prefents in many parts an appearance of bays or inlets,
which ona nearer appreach are found to be low grounds con-
neCting the head-lands. Frorn the entrance of Avat{cha bay,
Cheeponfkoi-nofs bears E.N.E. at the diltance of feventeen
leagues. ‘The fhore on this fide is flat and low, with hills
behind that rife gradually to a confiderable height. When
navigators approach this bay from the fouthward, this
difference of the land on both fides of cape Gavareea in lat.
52° 21’, will dire€t them in their courfe: when they ap-
proach it from the northward, Cheeponfcoi-nofs becomes
very confpicuous, as. it is a high projeting head-land,
amited to the continent by alarge extent of level ground
Jower.than the Nofs, and it. prefents the fame appearance
both from the north and fouth. The fituation of Avatfcha
may. be alfo: known, in clear weather, by the two high
mountains to the fouth of it ; of which that neareft to the
bay is in form of a fugar-loaf, and the other flat and not
fo high. Thefe very confpicuoys, mountains alfo appear
on the north fide of the bay ; that to the weft being the
higheft ; the next, which is‘a volcano, may be known by its
Smoke; and the third, which is the molt. northerly, is a
elufter of mountains,.with feveral flat tops. Within the
€apes, the entrance of Avatficha bay to the north is pointed

AVA

out by a light-houfe on a perpendicular head-land, to the
ealtward of which are many funken rocks, ftretching two
or three miles into the fea: four miles to the fouth of the
entrance lies a {mall round ifland, principally compofed of
high pointed rocks. ‘The entrance into the bay is at firft
about three miles wide, and in the narrowelt part 14; the
length in a north-wett direction is four miles. Within the
mouth is a noble bafon about twenty-five miles in cireum-
ference ; in which are the harbours of Rakoweera to the
ealt, V'arcinika-to the weft, and St. Peter and St. Paul to
the north. Such is the account of Avatfcha given in the
continuation of Cook’s voyages. ‘The bay of Avatfcha, ac-
cording to the relation of La Peroufe, who vifited it in 1787,
is certainly the fineft, moft commodious, and fafett that can
poffibly be met with in any part of the world. Its mouth
is narrow, and fhips would be compelled to pafs under the
guns of the fort, which might be ereéted there. It has ex-
cellent holding ground, as the bottom is of mud. ‘l'wo
vatt harbours, one on the eaft, and the other on the weftern
coa{t, would contain all the fhips of England and France.
The rivers of Avatf{cha and Paratounha empty themfelves
into this bay ; but they are impeded by fand banks, and
can only be entered at high water. The village of St. Peter
and St. Paul is fituated on a tongue of land, which, like an
artificial bank, forms behind the village a little arbour,
inclofed like a circle, which might accommodate three or
four difmantled fhips during the winter: its entrance is
lefs than 25 toifes wide. On the fide of this bafon
M. Kafloff, the governor, propofed to mark out the plan
of a town deftined to be the capital of Kamtfchatka, and
perhaps the grand centre of commerce with China, Japau,
the Philippines, andAmerica. A large lake of foft water
lies to the north of the fite of this projected city, and at
the diftance of only 300 toifes are many fmall brooks, the
junCtion of which would facilitate the conveyance of all the
commodities neceflary for a large eftablifhment. M. Kafloff
gave orders for announcing, that an union of feveral diftridts
with that of St. Peter and St. Paul would foon take place,
and that he intended immediately to build a church. ‘The
ice in the bay of Avatfcha never extends within 3 or 400
toifes from the baek ; and during the winter it often hap-
pens, that the land winds difperfe that which obitruéts the
paflage into the rivers of Paratounha and Avatfcha, when
the navigation again becomes practicable. T’his bay is faid
to beara great refemblance to that of Breft, but it affords
better anchorage by the mud of its bottom; its mouth is
narrower, and of courfe more ealily defended. The two
fhoals at the entrance of this bay, which are feparated by a
large channel for the paffage of fhips, may be eafily avoided,
by leaving two detached rocks on the eaft fhore open with
the light-houfe point, and by keeping, on the contrary,
fhut in with the weft fhore, a large rock on the larboard-
hand, and which is only feparated from the fhore by a
channel lefs than a cable’s length wide. ‘The tides in this
bay are very regular; and the greateft rife of high water,
which happens at half paft three on the days of new and full
meoon, is four feet. From M. Dagelet’s obfervations, the
governor’s houfe at St. Peter and St. Paul, is fituated in
N. lat. 53° 1’. and E. long. from Paris, 156° 30’. La Pe-
roufe’s Voyage, vol..ii. ch. 22. p. 177, &c. Eng. Tranf.

AVATHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
Petrea. Ptolemy,.——Alfo a town of Pheenicia. Notit.
Imp.

AVATICI, apeople of Europe, in Gallia Narbonnenfis,
whofe capital according to Pliny was Maritima ; oras Steph.
Byz. has it, Ma/framela.

AVAUNCHERS, among Hunters, the fecond branches

of a hart’s horn.
AUAXA,

AULD

AUANA, or Avaz, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Adia, in Pontus. Not. Imp.

AUB, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, and bifhopric of Wurzburg, onthe river Gol-
lach, feventeen miles fouth of Wurzburg, and twenty eight
north-weit of Anipach.

AUBADE, Fr. in Mufic, a concert given at day-break
in hot climates, in the open air; eecnerally by a lover under
the window of his miftrefs. ‘The Italians term this har-
monical morning falutation, mastinata ; a noon fong of the
ame kind, giornata; evening fong or concert, /erenala; 2
midnight concert, notturno.

AUBAGNE, in Geography,atown of France in the de-
partment of the mouths of the Rhone, and chief place of a
canton in the diftriG of Aix ; three leagues eait of Marfeill
and 5 S.S.E: of Aix. N. lat. 43°17’. E. long. 5° 52:

AUBAINE, in the French Cufloms, a right veited in
the king, of being heir to a foreigner, who died within his
gominious.

The word is formed of gudain, 2 foreigner ; which Me-
nage derives farther from the Latm a/idi ratus ; Cuias,
from advena, which is the name foreigners bear in the capi-
tularies of Charlemagne; Du-Cange, from 4/banus, a
Scot or Irifhman ; becaufe thefe were anciently much given
to travelling and living abroad.

The king of France, by the right of aubaine, claimed the
inheritance of all foreigners in his dominions ; exclufive of
all other lords, and even of any teftament the deceafed could
make. An ambaflador, though not naturalized, is net
fubje& to the right of aubaite. The Swifs, Savoyards,
Scots, and Portuguefe, are alfo exempted from the aubaine,
as being reputed natives and regnicoles. 1

M. de Lauriere (Gloffaire du Droit Francois, art. Au-
baine, p. 92.) produces feveral ancient deeds which prove,
that in different provinces of France, ftrangers became the
flaves of the lord on whofe lands they fettled. Beauma-
noir fays (Couit. de Beauv. ch. 45. p. 254.), that there are
feveral places in France, in which if a itranger fixes his
refidenve for a year and a day, he becomes the flave of the
lord of the manor. Asa practice fo contrary to humanity
could not-fubfift, the fuperior lords found it neceflary to
veft fatisfied with levying certain annual taxes from aliens,
cr impofing upon them fome extraordinary duties or fer-
vices. But when-any ftranger died, he could not convey
his effe&s by a will; and all his real as well as perfonal
eftate fellto the king, or to the lord of the barony, to the
exclufion of his natural heirs. This pratice of confif-
cating the eftates of ftrangers upon their death, was very
ancient. It is mentioned, though very obfeurely, in a law
of Charlemagne, A. D. 813. Not only perfons who were
born in a foreign country were fubjeét to the droit d’au-
baine, but in fome countries fuch as removed from one dio-
cefe to another, or from the lands of one baron to another.
«Tt is fearcely poffible,” fays Dr. Rebertfon (Hilt. Ch. V.
vol. i. p. 397-), “to conceive any law more unfavourable to
the intercourfe between nations. Something fimilar to it
may be found in the ancient laws of every kingdom in Eu-
rope. With refpeét to Italy, fee Murat. Ant. vol. ii. p. 14.”
It is no fmall difgrace to the French jurifprudence, that this
barbarous, inhofpitable cuftom, fhould have fo long remained
in a nation fo highly civilized.

AUBAITS, in Geography, a town of France in the de-
partment of the Gard, one league 5. E. of Sommieres, and
three anda half S.W. of Nifmes.

AUBAN, a town of France in the department of the
Var, and chief place of a canton in the diftriét of Graffe ;
the place contains 624, and the canton 3931 inhabitants :
the territory includes 2724 kiliometres and 14 communes,

AUB

AUBAREDE, a town of France; inthe department of
the Higher Pyrenees, and chief place of a canton in the
difirict of Tarbes: the place contains 404, and the canton
5595 inhabitants ; the territory includes 130 kiliometres and
29 communes.

AUBE, a river of France, which rifes near Auberive,
in the department of the Upper Marne, paffes by Fert fur
Aube, Bar fur Arbe, Dienville, Arcis, &c. and joins the
Seine feven miles below Mery. -Aube gives name to a
department which it waters. This department is one of
the four into which the province of Champaigne is dif-
tributed. It is bounded on the north by the departments
of Upper Marne, Marne and Seine, and Marne; on the
ealt by that of the Upper Marne; on the fouth by thofe
of Cote d’Or and the Yonne; and on the weft by this laft,
and that of the Seine and Marne. The fuperficies is about
1,196,370 fquare acres, or 610,608 heétares; its popula-
tion coniifts of 228,814 perfons ; and it is divided into five
communal diftriGs. J

AUBEL, a town of France, in the department of the
Ourte, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Mal-
medy. The place contains 3904, and the canton 12,649,
inhabitants: the territory includes 130 kihometres and 11
communes.

AUBENAS, a town of France in the department of
the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@
of Privas, three and a half leagues S.W. of Privas. N.
lat. 44° 32’. E. long. 5° 32’. The place contains 3315 and
the canton 12,944 inhabitants: the territory includes 1375
kiliometres, and 16. communes:

AUBENTON, a town of France, in the department of
the Aifne, and chief place ofa canton, in the diftric of
Vervins, nine leagues N. E. of Laon, and three and three
quarters eait of Vervins. ‘The place contains rreo and the
canton 9020 inhabitants: the territory includes 1424 kilio-
metres and 13 communes. s

AUBERG, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of
Auttria, on the north fide of the Danube, oppoiite to
Lintz. ore. os

AUBERIVE, a town of France, in the department of
the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG of _
Rheims, on the Suippe, 15 miles north of Chalons —Alfo °
atown of France, in the department of the Upper Marne, -
and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Langres,
12 miles fouth weft of Langres. The place contains 535 and
the canton 6966 inhabitants: the territory includes 367%
kiliometres and 29 communes.—Alo, a town of France in
the department of the Ifere, and chief place of a canton in
the diftri& of Vienne, five miles fonth of Vienne.

AUBERT, Perer, in Biography, a French Ta
was born at Lyons in 1642, and at an early age difcove
marks of genius, and a fondnefs for books. He was dif.
tinguifhed by reputation and fuccefs in his profeifion, and -
employed in feveral offices in his native city. His library,
which was large and valuable, he left for public ufe to the
city of Lyons. He publifhed, befides a {mall romance
which he wrote at feventeen, intitled ‘“‘ Retour de Pile
Amour,” a colleGion of « Factums’’ of various advocates,
in 2 vols. 4to., printed at Lyons in 1710; and a much ime
proved edition of ‘ Richelet’s Dictonary,” publithed in
1728, in 3 vols. fol. Nouv. Diét. Hift.

AUBERTIN, Epmunp,a learned French divine of the
reformed church, was born at Chalons on the Marne, ‘in
1595, chofen minifter of the church of Chartres, in 16185
and removed to the church of Paris, in 1631. His famous
work, intitled « L’Eucharifte de P Ancienne Eglife,”” and
printed in folio in 1633, was highly efteemed by the re-
formers but gave great offence to the catholics. In any
wor.

AUB

work he difcuffes the fubjeét of the ancient church, on
the grounds of reafon and feripture, and examines the faith
of the church for the fix firft centuries, in order to fhew,
that, through the whole of this period, the doétrines of
tranfubftantiation and of the real perfon were unknown.
The Hittorica] part of this performance was anfwered by
Arnaud, and other Port Royal divines, in a work intitled
“ T,a Perpetuité de la Voi’? Aubertin became the object
of clerical odium ; a procefs was initituted again{t him for
flyling himfelf paftor of the reformed church of Paris,
and he was fufpended two or three years for fome expref-
fions which he ufed in the pulpit. Intolerant bigotry pur-
fued him to his laft moments. On his death-bed, and when
he was juft expiring, Ollerius, the curate of St. Sulpice,
with a bailiff and an armed mob, confilting of forty perfons,
intruded on his retirement; under a pretence, that he withed
to make an abjuration before a prieft, which he was pre-
vented from doing, and that they would give him an op-
portunity of difburdening his confcience. The leader of
this gang obtained admittance by feigning himfelf to be
a phyfician, The honeft Aubertin, rouzed by this intrufion
and aflault, diftin@ly declared his perfeverance in the faith
of the reformed church. When the curate and bailiff with-
drew, the mob were with difficulty perfuaded to depart
without plundering the houfe, In thefe happier days. this
extreme of bigotry, which would not allow a man of dif-
tinguffhed probity and worth to die in peace, and which at
a feafon when
“ Claudicat ingenium, delirat linguaque menfque,”
Lucret. 1. iii. v. 454.

& When reafon halts, and thought and fpeech are wild,”
endeavoured to extort from him a declaration, which his
found reafon had difclaimed, will be univerfallyreprobatedand
condemned. ‘This good man died at Paris, in the year 1652,
at the age of 57 years. A Latin tranflation of his.work by
bimfelf, was publifhed at Deventer in 1654, folio. Gen. Dic.

AUBERY, or Ausry, Jounx, was phyfician to the
Duc de Montpenfier. He was educated under the famous Du
Laurens; and publifhed in 1604, ‘* Les Bains de Bourbon-
Lancy;”’.and in 1608, “De retlituenda et vindicanda Me-
dicing Dignitate;”’ both at Paris: but the work which gained
him moft reputation, and which is {till in requeft, is his
*¢ Antidote de ? Amour,’’ 12mo., firft printed in 1599, and
fince at Delft. 1663.

Ausery, Anruony, a French hiftorian, was born in
1617, and after having been educated at Paris for the law,
retired into the tranquillity of private life, and devoted him-
felf to hiltorical refearches. In 1642, his ‘¢ General Hil-
tory of the Cardinals” was publithed in 5 vols. 4to.; in
1649, appeared his hiftorical treatife “On the Pre-emin-
ence of the Kings of France above the Kings of Spain and
the Emperors ;’? in 1654, the “ Huktory of the Cardinal
de Joyeufe, and Collection of Letters written by that Car-
dinal to Henry IIL.;”’ aad in 1660, his “ Hiltory of Car-
dinal Riehelieu, containing the principal events in the reign
ef Lonis XIIT.” in folio, which was accompanied by two
other volumes of titles, letters, difpatches, inftructions,
and memoirs, ferving as documents and vouchers to the
general hiltory. When Bertier the printer waited upon
the queen regent, requefting her authority for the publica-
tion of the work, which contained fevere {trictures on many
perfons in high life, it is faid that the queen replied,
« Finith your work without fear ; and put vice to the blufh,
that victue alone may dare to fhew her face in France.”
Aubery, notwithftanding the freedom with which he wrote,
has been charged with drawing, in this work, too flattering
a picture of Cardinal Richelieu, and it has been faid that
this was done from Iuccattve motives, for gratifying the

Wor. iil.

AUB

vanity of the duchefs d’Arguillon, the cardinal’s niece.
A book, written by Aubery, in 1667, on the jult preten-
fions of the king of France to the empire, and dedicated to
Louis XIV. alarmed the princes of the empire, and excited
complaints againlt the author, who was committed to the
Baftile, in order to filence and conciliate them, but he was
foon releafed. This work was followed by a treatife “On
the dignity of Cardinal,’”’ and another of little value, * On
the Regale, or the right of enjoying the Revenues of vacant
Bifhoprics.”” His latt work, publiihed in 4 vols. r2mo. in
1751, was “* The Hiftory of Cardinal Mazarin”? The
facts colleéted in this publication from the regifters of par-
liament, now no longer to be found, conftitute its chicf
excellence; for neither the ftyle nor method of it have
much to recommend them, and the author had not fuf-
ficient independence of mind or fituation to write with
impartiality. While he was preparing for the prefs other
hiftorical colleCtions, his life, which had been fpent in a
courfe of literary labour and induftry, was terminated by
an accident in 1695, at. the age of 78. Journal des Sca-
vans, t.xxill. p. 185. Nouv. Dict. Hitt.

AvubBeEry, Louis p—E Maurier,a french hiftorian of the
17th century, accompanied his father, who went, whilft he
was young, as ambaflador to Holland, and vifited Ger-
many, Poland, and Italy. On his return to Paris, he ob-
tained the favour of the queen regent; but having no
public employment, he retired, after the death of Richelieu,
to his family manfion, and {pent his time in literary avoca~
tions. He died in 1687, and his works were ‘¢ Memoirs for
the Hiftory of Holland,’”? publifhed in two vols. 12mo. in
1682; and “‘ Memoirs of Hamburg, Lubeck, Holitein,
Denmark, Sweden, and Poland,’”’ publifhed after his death,
and both printed together at Amfterdam in 1736. The
former work contains interefting faéts, though it gave
offence to the Dutch. Nouv. Di&. Hit.

AUBETERRE, in Geography. a town of France, in
the department of the Charente, and chief place of a canton
in the diftriét of Barbefieux, fix leagues fouth-eaft of Barbe-
fieux, and 74 fouth of Angoulefme. he place contains
776, and the canton 8813 inhabitants; the territary in-
cludes 135 kiliometres, and 13 communes. N. lat. 45° 15’.
E. long. 0° 10.

AUBETTE, a river of France, which runs into the
Seine, near Rouen.

AUBEVILLIERS, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Somme, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Montdidier, thirteen miles $8. S. E. of Amiens.

Avsevitpiers (Les), a town of France, one leagye
WN. N. E. of Paris.

AUBIERES, a town of France, in the department of
Puy de Dome, and chief place of a canton in the diftriét of
Clermont-Serand, one league fouth-eaft of Clermont.

AUBIERES (Les), a town of France, in the department
of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a canton in the diftriét
of Chatillon fur Sevre, 24 leagues E. N. E. of Chatillon.

AUBIGNE’,, Tureopore-Acrippa D’, in Biography,
was born at St. Maury, near Pons, in Saintonge, in 1550;
but, although he was betimes a proficient in literature, the
circumftances of his family, on the death of his father,
obliged, him to recur to the profeffion of arms. In the fer-
vice of Henry IV. of France, then king of Navarre, he fa
far recommended himfelf to the royal favour, as to obtain
feveral confiderable pofts, both of honour and profit. Such
was his known and approved ffdelity, that his royal matter
received his remonftrances on fuch parts of his private and
public condu& as deferyed animadverfion, without offence.
«The word of D’ Aubigné difcontented (faid Henry on one
occalion ) is worth as much as the gratitude of anctherman:’’

Rr and

ASU B

and when he was reproached for his friendfhip for La T're«
mouille, whom Henry had difgraced and banifhed, he ex-
cufed himfelf by faying, “Sire, he is unfortunate enough
to have loft the favour of his maiter—coul!d I withdraw from
him my friendfhip when he has moft need of it??? D’?Au-
bigné, however,foundat length that extreme franknefs becomes
not only unacceptable but offenfive to the beft of princes.
He therefore quitted the court and the kingdom, and retired
to Geneva, where he died much honoured and regretted, in
1630, at the age of 80 years. By his wife, Sufanna de
Lezai, he had feveral children, one of whom was the father
of the famous madame de Maintenon. The principal of his
works is “An Univerfal Hiftory from 1550 to 1Gor,
with an abridged account of the death of Henry IV.” in
3 vols. folio, printed in 1616, 1618, and 1620. The ttyle is
exceptionable, being partly vulgar and partly affetted and
turgid, but the fentiments are free, and the reprefentations
of the tranfaétions and characters of the times in general
are impartial. On the appearance of the firft volume, in
which the charaéter of Henry III. is reprefented in an
odious and contemptible light, the parliament of Paris con-
demned it to the fames. ‘The detail of the military opera-
tions is the part of the work that has been moft efteemed for
its accuracy. The ‘ Confeffion of Sancy,”’ and the “ Baron
de Fenette,”’ are two fatirical poems; the firft of which is
commended for its vein of ingenious and delicate raillery;
but the fecond, though not lefs acrimonions, is of a grofler
kind. Befides mifcellaneous pieces, tragedies, poems, &c.
D’ Aubigné alfo wrote ‘ Memoirs of his own life,’? which
were not publithed till 1731. They abound with curious
and free anecdotes, and exhibit a lively pi€ture of the man.
Of thele we have an Englifh tranflation. Gen. Did.
Nouv. Di&. Hittor.

AUBIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the ftraits of Calais, and chief place of a canton
in the diftriét of St. Pol, eight miles W.N. W. of St. Pol.—
The place contains 640 and the canton 12,152 perfons ;
the territory includes 1774 kiliometres and 30 communes.
Alfo, a town of France, and chief place of a diftri& in the
department of the Cher, fix leagues north-weft of Sancerre,
and 74 north of Bourges. ‘The place contains 2533 and the
canton 4305 inhabitants: the territory includes 2424 kili-
ometres and 4 communes. In 1442, Charles VII. granted
the eitate of Aubigny to John Stuart, conftable of Eng-
land and his heirs male, as a recompence for fervices rendered
to him in France, with remainder to the crown on failure of
male iffue. © This reverfionary claufe took effeé in the 16th
century, by the death of Charles Stuart without iffue.
Lewis XIV. made anew grant in favour of Charles II. king
of England, the defcendant of John Stuart, and made the
eitate a duchy, annexing a peerage to it in favour of Charles
Lenox, duke of Richmond, (natural fon of Charles IT. by
Louifa de Quervuaille, the dutchefs of Portfmouth), from
whom it defcended to the prefentduke. The rightof peerage
to this ‘eftate was .euaranteed by the treaty of Utrecht,
confirmed-to the'prefent duke, and regiftered in the par-
liament of Paris,'m 1777. WN. lat. 47° 29’. E. long.
2° i201!

AUBIN,-in French Hoblin, inthe AManege, is derived
from the Italan word Usino, fignifying a little horfe. Ac-
cordingly the licht-armed troops were termed in unclaffical
Latin Aoblearii, in contradiftin€tion to the cataphracti, or
heavy-armed troops. Berenger. See Hozpy.

Avein’s, St.; Bay, in Geography, lies on the ifland
of Jerfey, in the Enghth channel; and at the bottom of it
is a town of the fame name with a good harbour, defended
bya fort near the fouth-weft extremity ; three miles weft

from St. Helier’s. IN. lat..49° 7’. W. long. 2° 15’.

AUB

Avs, Sr., is alfo a town of Swifferland, in the prin«
cipality of Neuchatel.

AUBLETTA, in Botany (named after M. F. Aublet,
author of the Hittory of Plants in Guiana). Schreb. 889.
Apeiba, Aubl. 213. Swartz. Prod. 82. Sloanea, Lefl. Zit.
Clafs, polyandria monogynia. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth fve-
leaved, rigid, fpreading, coloured within, pubefcent without,
deciduous, five-parted; parts linear-lanceolate, acute, with
thick margins, which before flowering are contiguous. Cor.
petals five, roundith-oblong, fmaller than the calyx, with
very fhort claws. Svam. filaments very many, very fhort ;
anthers oyate-oblong, outwardly gibbous, gaping on the
inner fide, foliaceous at the tip, acute, the exterior ones
fterile, lanceolate, ending in a foliaceous point, fhorter than
the corolla. Pi/?. germ roundifh, depreffed; flyle long, ftri-
ated, gradually thickening, flightly incurved ; f{tiema {pread-
ing, perforated, ten-toothed. Per. capfule large, orbiculate,
deprefled, coriaceous, echinate, ten-celled, gaping at the
bale. Seeds, very many, fimall, roundifh, fomewhat com-
prefled ; receptacle of the feeds, flethy.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. five-leaved. Cor. five-petalled.
Cap/. many-ceiled, echinate, with many feeds in each cell.

Species, 1. A. Zidourbsu, apeiba tibourbou. Aubl. 1. c.
Swartz. 1]. c. “ Leaves acutely ferrate, hirfute.”’ A tree
of a middling fize, having a trunk feven or eight feet high,
and a foot in diameter, with irregular, chopped, foft bark,
which is fibrous, and fit for making ropes. Wood white and
light; branches {preading in all dire€tions, and bent down;
twigs villofe; leaves alternate, ovate-oblong, cordate at the
bafe, green above, on fhort petioles ; ttipules in pairs, acute 5
flowers in racemes, oppofite to the leaves. A pair of oppo-
fite brates is placed at the origin of each twig, and four at
the peduncle. The raceme, peduncles, and under fide of the
leaves, are covered with ruflet-coloured hairs. A native of
Brafil, Guiana, the iflands of Cayenne and Tobago. Apeiba
is the Brafilian name, and Tibourbou the Caribbean. 2. A.
Petoumo, apeiba potoumo. Aubl. 1. c. Swartz. |. c. ‘* Leaves
elliptic, acute, ferrulate, hoary beneath.”? This tree often
rifes forty feet high, with a brown, thick, filamentofe bark,
fit for cordage. Wood whitith, foit; branches fpreading,
arifing from the top of the trunk; leaves alternate, nine
inches long, and four broad, entire, fmooth, ending in a
point, petiolated; flowers yellow, in racemes oppofite to
the leaves, on long peduncles, furrounded by four large feales
at the bafe. A native of Guiana, in the vaft forelts of
Sinemari. It is called petoumo by the Caribbees. 3. A.
afpera. Aubl. and Swartz. 1. c. ‘ Leaves quite entire,
pubefcent beneath; fruit compreffed.” A tree from thirty
to forty feet high, with bark and wood like thofe of the
preceding. Leaves alternate, ovate, fmooth, pointed, rounded
at the bale, five inches long, ona fhort footftalk, at the bafe of
which are two ftipules, which foon fall off; flowers at the
extremities of the branches, in racemes which have at the
bafe two braétes, and at the divilions three or four fcales,
from which frping three yellow flowers. A native of
Guiana and Cayenne. It is alfo called petoumo by the
Caribbees. 4. A. devis. Aubl. J. c. t. 214. (apeiba glabra),
“ Leaves quite entire, fmooth on both fides; fruit rough, de-
prefled.” A tree of middling fize, with a trunk from ten to
twelve feet hich ; its wood is very light, leaves ovate, acu-
minate, on fhort footftalks; ftipules in pairs, fhort, deci-
duous; flowers in racemes, greenifh. A native of Guiana,
flowering in May. The inhabitants call it Ivouyra, and ufe
pieces of the wood rounded and pointed to procure fire :
hence the Creoles cail it bois de méche.

AUBONDAGE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Meurte, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Chateau-Salins, fixmiles N.N.E. of Chateau-—Balins,)

AUBONNE,

AUB
AUBONNE, the name of a government and of “a town

in the canton of Berne, in Swifferland, which was formerly a
lordfhip belonging to the marquis du Quefne, purchafed by
him of the famous traveller, Tavernier, and afterwards fold
to Berne; cleven miles W.S.W. of Laufanne. The town
is fituated near a river of the fame name, on an eminence,
with a gentle declivity, at the foot of which the river runs
with an impetuous torrent. ‘The form of the town is that
of an amphitheatre, and in its upper part is a handfome
cattle, from the top of which may be feen not only the town
and its adjacent fields, but the whole lake of Geneva,
and the land that furrounds it. In the cattle of Aubonne,
as well as Thonen in Savoy, which is oppofite to it on the
other fide of the lake, is a tower covered with tin, which
makes a glittering appearance when the fun fhines upon it.
In the balliage of Aubonne are feveral villages, moft of
which lie at the foot of mount Jura ; and in one part of this
mountain is a deep cave, which forms a natural ice-houfe ;
and from the bottom of it afcends the noife of a fubter-
raneous river, fuppofed to be the river Aubonne, becaute it
firft appears, with feveral fources, about 100 paces from the
foot of this mountain.

AUBREY, in Latin Arsericus, Joun, in Biography,
an eminent Englifh antiquary, was born at Eafton Piercy m
Wiltthire, in 1625 or 1626; and after preparatory education
at Malmefbury, entered in 1642 as a gentleman commoner
of Trinity college at Oxford. Whilft he was at the uni-
verfity, he affitted in compiling materials for the ‘ Mo-
nafticon Anglicanum.”? In 1646, he was admitted a
ftudent in the Middle Temple; but the death of his
father, and the derangement of his affairs, devolved upon
him much bufinefs and many perplexing law-fuits, which
prevented him from profecuting his legal ftudies. How-
ever he did not abandon his favourite purfuit, but main-
tained a regular correfpondence with the lovers of antiqui-
ties, and furnifhed Anthony Wood with many valuable ma-
terials for his great work. He alfo preferved an intimacy
with feveral OF thofe philofophical friends, who formed the
Royal Society, of which he became a member in 1662.
His domeftic circumftances were peculiarly diftreffing ; for
he married unfuitably, and by the total lofs of his patri-
mony he was reduced to abfolute indigence. But he had
the wifdom and fortitude to adapt his mind to his circum-
{tances ; and accordingly he fays of himfelf, «* From 1670,
I have, I thank God, enjoyed a happy delitefcency.’”
«© This obfcurity, which he calls happy, confilted in follow-
ing the bent of his genius, while he owed his fubfiftence to
the kindnefs of his friends; and in labouring to inform the
world, in which he knew not how to live.” The principal
of thofe who contributed to his fupport was lady Long of
Draycot in Wiltfhire, in whofe houfe he had an apartment
till his death, which happened about the year 1700, as he
was on a journey to Oxford. Aubrey was a good clafiical
{cholar, a tolerable naturalift, and a moft laborious anti-
quarian ; but he was credulous, and addicted to fuperitition.
His works were numerous, but moft of them were left be-
hind him in MS. Thefe are 1. “ The life of Thomas
Hobbes of Malmefbury,”’ never publifhed, but having fup-
plied materials for Dr. Blackbourne’s account of this phi-
lofopher. 2. *¢ Mifcellanies upon the following fubjeéts :
viz. Day-fatality, Local-fatality, Oftenta, Omens, Dreams,
Apparitions, Voices, &c. &c. Corpfe-candles in Wales,
Magic, &c. Second-fighted perfons, &c.’”? ‘This work, the
title of which fufficiently indicates the trifling tafte and
eredulous difpofition of the author, was printed in 1696, and
Aubrey left corre€tions and additions for a fecond edition,
which was not printed till the year 1721. 3. * A Peram-
bulation of the county of Surrey, begun 1673, ended

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ruited in 1719, in § vols. 8vo.,and often referred to

‘phical writers. 4. ‘The Natural Hiftory of the
ivilion of Wiltfhire, never publifhed.”? 5. « Moau-
menta Britannica, or a difcourfe concerning Stonehenge,
and Rollrich ftones in Oxfordfhire’? MS. On thefe fub-
jects, Aubrey’s judgment was held in high eftimation by
Mr. Toland; and it was his opinion that thefe remains are
druidical, and anterior to the Roman invafion of Britain.
6. ‘ Architetonica Sacra, a differtation concerning the
manner of our church-building in England.”” MS. 7.“ The
idea of univerfal education,’ and feveral letters on natural
philofophy, and other curious topics, publithed ia « Ray’s
Letters,” by Derham, and other colleGtions. Among: his
MSS. at Oxford, there is one which is an account of
Engtith writers, efpecially poets, with many of whom the
author was well acquainted. his MS. “was lent to
Wood, while he was drawing up his “ Athene;’? but
Wood greatly caftrated the MS. while it was in his pot-
fefhon. Wood’s account of Milton, the firft that ever ap-
peared in print, and which has fince furnithed the fubfauce
of all the materials now extant of Milton’s life, was literally
taken from this MS.”? See Warton’s Life of Dr. R.
Bathurft, p. 151—153. Biog. Brit.

AUBURG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Weitphalia, and county of Diepholz, fix miles eait
of Diepholz.

AUBURN, or Avzovurn, is a {mail town in Wilthhire,
75 miles weft from London. It is feated ona branch of the
river Kennet, and has a fmall market on Tuefdays. Its
inhabitants are principally employed in the manufacture of
fuftians, a confiderable quantity of which is annually fent to
the metropolis. The foil of Auburn and its vicinity is
chiefly gravel, with a fubftratum of chalk. About one mile
from the town is a very extenfive rabbit warren, whence
many hundred couple of rabbits are fent to London dur-
ing the proper feafon. Auburn fuffered materially in ite
trade and buildings by a furious fire that occurred here on
the twelfth of September 1760, when feventy-two houfes,
and other property, to the eftimated amount of 20,000l.,
were confumed. By means of a public fubf{cription, the
diftreffed inhabitants obtained fome remuneration for their
loffes; but the town has never recovered the ferious injury
it then fuftained.

AUBUSSON, a town of France, and chief place of a
diftrié: in the department of the Creufe, fourteen leagues
welt of Clermont. Its manufacture of tapeftry renders the
town populous. The place contains 3460°and the canton
9977 iwhabitants; the territory includes 155 kiliometres
and 12 communes.. N. lat. 45- 58. E. long. 2°15’.

AUCA, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Candahar,
forty-five leagues north-eaft of Zarene.

AUCAGUERELE, atown of Africa, in the country
of Adel. N.lat.g° 10’. E. long. 44° 25’.

AUCAS, the name of a warlike and independent tribe
in South America, occupying the fame parts of Paraguay
with the Anrponrans, and refembling them in their difpo-
tion and manners.

AUCH, a city of France, and capital of the department
of Gers. Before the revolution it was the capital of Ar-
magnac, and the fee of an archbifhop, who had the title of
primate of Aquitaine; and it was the metropolis of Gaf-
cogny. It is feated near the Gers, on the declivity of a
hill. Some of the ftreets are ftraight, well paved, and full
of neat buildings. ‘The cathedral is a large and beautiful
building, adorned with painted windows, whofe colourings
are bright and fuperior to moft of the kind. The number
of inhabitants has been eftimated at 7696; that of its two
cantons at 21,447; the territory of both includes 515

Rrz kiliometres

fo)

north diy

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kilometres and 47 communes. ‘The country round Auch
confifts of high limeftone hills, with narrow vallies, in
which are many vines, and in the vineyards are alfo fig-trees.
N. lat. 43° 40’ E. long. 0° 4o’.

AUCHA, in dacient Geography, ariver, upon which was
feated«the town of Galtis.

AUCHASES, in Geography, the name of a tribe of
mount Caucafus, called alfo Abafes, or Abafges, who dwell
on the fouthern fide of the Kuban, and on the eaitern coaits
of the Euxine. The proper Auchafia or Abafa is under
the Ottoman fupremacy, having a prince, who reiides at
Anchopia. The weftern races of the Auchafians acknow-
ledge the paramount fovereignty of the khan of the Crimea ;
and thefe are they who at prefent belong tothe Ruflian Ku-
ban, ‘They moftly live about the river Laba. See Asassa.

AUCHAT AE, in dacient Geography, a people of Atia,
in Scythia.

AUCHENIA, in Entomology, the name of a genus of
coleopterous infects, adopted aiter profeflor Thuuberg, by
Mr. Martham, in his late and very excellent work intitled
Entomologia Britannica. It comprehends a tribe of infects
before arranged with the Linnean chryfomele, and among
themfeveral which Linnzushad himfelf aifignedto that genus;
fuch as merdigera, 12-punciata, alparagi, cyanella, me-
Janopa, flavipes, hirta, 4-maculata, and tenella; to which
Mr. Marfham adds the fubfpinofa and rufipes (criocerides )
of Fabricius ; and a new f{pecies which he names flavicollis.
The character of the auchenia genus is, antenne filiform ;
head advanced ; thorax cylindrical, and narrower than the
wing-cafes, and the body oblong. T. 1. p. 213.

AUCHISA&, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
in the Cyrenaic territory.

AUCKLAND, or Bisnorp Auck ann, in Geography,
is a neat market and corporate town fituated about ten miles
fouth-weft from Durham, and 246 N. by W. from London.
This place obtained the latter name at the time of bifhop
Bec, who is faid to have built a magnificent caftellated edi-
fice here during his prelacy, which continued from 1283 to
1310. But this building has been wholly deftroyed, and
fucceeding bifhops have ereéted and enlarged another noble
manfion where the prefent diocefan occafionally refides.
Mr. Pennant defcribes the palace and grounds as peculiarly
beautiful and grand. ‘‘ Nothing”’ he obferves, “¢ can equal
the approach to the former through the latter, which is va-
yied with verdant flopes, rifing hills, woods, and deep pre-
cipices impending over the Wear.”” The ground on which
the town and caitle are placed is of an angular form, and
the ftreets are extended on the fides of the angle, having the
caftle at one of the terminating points. The eminence is
wafhed on the north fide by the river Wear, and on the
fouth-eaf by the river Gainelefs ; the banks are formed into
hanging gardens, and the whole afpeét is extremely beauti-
ful. The town is built on high ground, which rifes nearly
one hundred and forty feet from the level of the plain be-
low, and the fteepnefs of the roads that approach the town
renders them very difagreeable and difficult for the paf-
fage of carriages. A free grammar {chool was founded here
by Anne Swyfte, under letters patent from James I. in the
fecond year of his reign. It has been further endowed in
1783, and is held in an apartment under a {mall and neat
chapel which was then rebuilt by a fubfeription of the in-
habitants, and dedicated to St. Ann. As the parifh church
is at St. Andrew Auckland, a village about one mile diftant
from the town, this was a neceflary improvement. Here are
a weekly market on Thurfday, and three annual fairs. The
market place is a large open {pace in the middle of the
town, and on its weftern fide has lately been erected and
eftablifhed a large manufactory for printing all kinds of cot-

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tons, calicoes, muflins, &c. On the north-weft is a fub-
itantial old bridge, built by bifhop Skirlaw about 1403s
over the river Wear ;.and in the vicinity of the town are
four or five refpectable and handfome gentlemen’s feats.
Leland’s itin. vol. i. and Hutchins’s Hiftory of the County
of Dunhan, vol. in.

AUCTA, in Entomology, a {pecies of CurysomELa,
with an azure fhinmg thorax; wing-cafes blue, dotted,
with a red margin. Fabricius. A native of Europe. In
fize and appearance it refembles CurysomeLa marginata.

Aucra, afpecies of Vespa, of a black colour, with
the anterior margin yellow; two yellow dots and a trani-
verfe line on the icutel; and fix yellow bands, the firit with
a dot on each jide, upon the abdomen. This kind inhabits
Germany. Gmel. &c.

AUCTION, in Commerce, denotes a kind of publie
fale, much in ufe for eftates, houfes, houfehold goods, and
other commodities, fubject to certain conditions, in which
the higheit bidder is the buyer. Thefe fales are fubje&t to
legal regulations. By 19 G. III. c. 56. an auctioneer is re-
quired to take out a licence, fetting forth his true name and
place of abode; and for the faid licence, if it be within the
limits of the chief office of excife in Lordon, he fhall imme-
diately pzy the fum of 20s. and elfewhere 5s. over and
befides any other duties er payments for trading in or vend-
ing any gold or jilver plate, or otherwife; and. ating with-
out fuch a licence incurs, within tbe bills, a forfeiture of
rool. and clfewhere sol. The faid licence muft be re-
newed annually ; and bond muft be given at the time of
taking it out with two fureties in the fum of 2001. within
the bilis, and elfewhere in 501. ; that he will deliver ina
jutt account, and make payment of the duties. Thefe du-
ties are as follow : viz. for every 20s. of the purchafe mo-
ney arifing by virtue of any fale by auétion of any intereft
in poffefiion or reverfion, in any freehold, copyhold, or
leafehold lands, tenements, houtes, or hereditaments, and
of any annuities, or money charged thereon; and of any
utenfils in hufbandry and farming ftock, fhips and veffels s
and of any reverfionary intereft in the public funds; and
of any plate or jewels, fhall be paid by the au€tioneer or
agent 6d. viz. 33d. by 27 G.- II. c. 13. and 2id. more by

37 G. III. c. 14. And for every 20s. of the purchafe mo-_

ney arifing or payable by virtue of any fale by au€tion, of
furniture, fixtures, piiures, books, horfes, and carriages,
and all other goods and chattels whatever, 10d. viz. 7d.
by 27G. III. c. 13. and 3d. more by 37 G. III. c.144.
Piece goods are exempted from duty by 29 G. III. c. 63. ;
and alfo all goods imported from Yucatan, and fundry com-
modities imported from Africa in Britifh fhips, or from
any Britith fettlement abroad by 32 G. Ili.c. 41. There
are alfo further exemptions fpecified by the ftatutes 17 G. 111.
c. 50. § 11, 12, 13. and 19 G. EIT. c. 56. § 13514.
15. The auétioneer is required to give previous notice to
the office of excife of the day of fale, and deliver a written
or printed cataiogue fpecifying the feveral articles to be
fold, attefted and figned by himfelf or his known clerk,
under a penalty of zol. 19 G.IIil.c. 56. §'9. He thall
alfo within 28 days, within the limits of the chief excife
office in London, and elfewhere within fix weeks, deliver
in an “ccount in writing of the total amount of the meney
bid at each fale, and of the feveral articles or lots there
fold, and the price of each; and at the fame time make
payment of the duties: the truth of the account to. be at-
tefted upon oath. And by 38 G. III. c. 54. every auc-
tioneer, negleGting to make payment within the hmited
time, fhall forfeit double the duty.
Auction, or Auéio, was originally a kind of fale amon

the ancient Romans, performed by the public crier Se

AUD

Aafia,’ that is under a {pear ftuck up on that occafion, and
by fome magiftrate, who made good the fale by delivery of
the goods. ‘The cuitom of fetting up a {pearat an auction
feems to have been derived from this circumftance, that at
firft only thofe things which were taken in war were fold in
that manner. Hence Asafa is put fora public fale, and * /ud
haftam venire”’ denotes to be publicly fold, This was termed
aniiio, q.d, increafe ; becaule, according to Sigonius, the
oods were fold to him, ** gui p/urimum rem augeret,’? who
would bid moit for them, ‘lhe day, and fometimes the
hour, andthe terms of the auction, were advertifed, either
by a common crier, or in writing ; and there were courts in
the forum, called * atria au@ionaria,’ where auctions were
made ; and to thefe Juvenal is {uppofed to allude. (Sat. vil.
7.) A money-broker, argentarius,’? was alfo prefent,
who marked down what was bidden, and to whom the pur-
chafers either paid down the price, or gave fecurity for it.
The feller was called “ auctor,’’ and the right of property
conveyed to the purchafer was called * autoritas.””

Averion by Inch of Candle. See Canvue.

AUCTORATI, in Roman Antiquity, an appellation
given to fuch as entered the lift as gladiators, and who re-
ceived wages ; or who hired themfelves for money to per-
form in the games or fpectacles. The auctorati degraded
themfelves by the act, and became fervile and infamous.

Avcrorat: Milites alto denoted foldiers bound by oath,
and the receipt of wages, to ferve in war. In this fenfe
auttorati fland oppofed to exauctorati, who were difbanded.
‘The itipend they received for their fervice was denominated
aufloramentum.

AUCTORITAS Senatus, in Roman Antiquity.
Senatus ducoritas.

AUCTUS, in Botany, an epithet applied to the calyx,
when it has the addition of another fmaller calyx 5 or when
it is augmented by a feries of diftin€ leaves shorter than its
own, that furround its bafe.

Avcrtus, in Lntomology, a fpecies of Crmex (Lygeus
Fabr.), the thorax of which is flightly {pinous, black, with
two fulvous {pots; a yellow band on the upper wings ;
fhanks of the pofterior legs membranaceous and yellow.
Inhabits Cayenne.

AUCUBA, in Botany, a large Japanefe tree. Thunb.
Jap. 4. Nov. Gen. 61. Schreb. 1414. Jufl. 382. Clafs, mo-
noecia tetandria. Gen. Char. * Male flowers. Cal. perianth
one-leafed, truncate, obfeurely four-toothed, villole, very
fhort, permanent. Cor. four-petalled ; petals ovate, acute,
{preading ; underneath concave, hairy ; above convex, deci-
duous. Stam. filaments four, inferted into the receptacle
among the petals, thick, erect, very fhort; anthers ovate,
twin, with four furrows. — Recefit. plano-convex, fmooth,
with a fquare hole impreffed upon the middle. Female
flowers on the fame tree. Cal. and Cor. asin the male.
Pif?. germ inferior ; ftyle thick, fhort ; ftigma fimple, capi-
tate. Per. nut ovate, oue-celled.

Eff. Gen. Char. Male. Ca/jx four-toothed.
petalled; berry one-feeded.

Species, 1. A. japonica. Thunb. Jap. g4. t. 12, 13.
Kempf. Am. fafc. 5. 775. Ic. feleét. t. 6. A large tree.
Branches and fubdivifions dichotomous, fmooth, divaricate,
erect, angular ; leaves aggregate at the tops of the branches,
petiolate, oppofite, oblong, fharp, remotely ferrate, {mooth,
nerved ; flowers terminal, panicled ; peduncles and pedicels
villofe ; braétes lanceolate. It varies with brown green un-
Spotted leaves, and bright green leaves, variegated with
white. It is diftinguifhed from the ferpicula by the re-
ceptacle of the male being fmooth, not torulofe, but per-
forated in the middle. A native of Japan. Introduced by
Mz. John Greferin 1783.

See

Cor. four-

AUD

AUCUN, in Geography, a town of Fraree, in the de-
partment of the Higher Pyrenées, and chief place of a
canton, in the district of Argeles ; the place contains .1208
and the canton 10,254 persons; the territory includes 2724
kiliometres and ro communes. ;

AUDARISTENSES, in Ancient Geograply, a people
of Macedonia, in Pelagonia. Pliny.

AUDATTHA, a town of Arabia Deferta. Ptolemy.

AUDKE, in Geography, a viver of France, which rifes in
the Pyrenées, paffes by Quilan, Alet, Limoux, Carcaflonne,
&c. and difcharges itfelf into the Mediterranean, about ten
miles eaft of Narbonne. It gives name to a department
through which it flows. This department is one of the fe-
ven formed by Languedoc, Comminge, &c. ft is bounded
on the north -by the departments of Herault, Tarn, and
Upper Garonne; on the ecait, by the Mediterranean; on
the fouth, by the departments of the eaftern Pyrenées and
Avriege ; and on the weit, by thofe of Arriege and Upper
Garonne. Its fuperticies is about 1,275,593 fquare acres,
or 650,996 hectares; its population contilts of 219,107
perfons ; and it is divided into four communal diftriéts.

AUDELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Mefopotamia.

AUDENA, ariver of Italy, in Liguria.

AUDENAERDE, in Geography, a town of France;,
in the départment of the Escaut, and chief place of a dis-
trict. The place contains gooo, and its two cantons
29,924 perfons; the whole territory includes 70 kiliome-
tres and 21 communee.

AUDENGE, a town of France in the department of
the Gironde and chief place of a canton, in the district
of Bourdeaux. The place contains 800 and the canton
4,610 perfons; the territory includes 6924 kilometres and
6 communes.

AUDEUX, a town of France in the department of
Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Be-
fangon. ‘The place contains 159 and the canton 11,567
perfons; the territory includes 2274 kiliometres and 44
communes.

AUDIA, a town of Arabia Petrea. Ptolemy.

AUDIANISM, in Lcckfiaftical Hiflory, the fyftem or
fentiments of Audius, and his followers; particularly as to
the belief of the human figure of the deity. See ANTHRO-
POMORPHITES, and Auptus.

AUDIENCE, ina general fenfe. See Hearine.

The word is formed from audire, to hear.

Avptence is alfo ufed for the ceremonies prattifed in
courts, at the admiflion of ambafladors and public minifters
to ahearing. In England, audience is given to ambafladors
in the prefence chamber ; to envoys and refidents, in a gal-
lery, clofet, or any place where the king happens to be.
At their admiffion, the way in all courts is-to make three
bows, after which they cover and fit down, the king firft
covering and fitting down, and giving them tle fign to put
on their hats. When the king cares not to have them be
covered and fit, he continues uncovered himfelf, and ftand-
ing all the while, which is taken as a flight and an affront,
After the firft audience, it does not look weil to be too
hafty in demanding another. At Conftantinople, minifters
ufually have audience of the prime vizir; in his abfence the
caimacan admits them to audience.

Avpience is alfo aname of courts of juftice or tribunals
eftablifhed by the Spaniards in America, and formed upon
the model of the court of chancery in Spain. Of thefe
there are eleven, which difpenfe juftice to as many diftriéts,
into which the Spanifh dominions in America are divided.
They are eftablifhed at the following places; viz. St. Do-«
mingo in the ifland of Hifpaniola, Mexico in New iam

ima,

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Lima in Peru, Panama in Tyrra Firma, Santingoin Guati-
mala, Guadalaxara in New Galicia, Santa Fe in the new
kingdom of Granada, La Plata in the country of Los
Charcas, St. Francifes de Quito, St. Jago de Chili, and
Buenos Ayres. To each of thefe are fubjected feveral large
provinces ; and fome fo far removed from the cities where
the courtsare fixed, that they can derive little benefit from
their jurifdiction, The Spauifh writers commonly reckon
twelve courts of audience, including that of Manila in the
Philippine iflands. The number of judges is various, ac-
cording to the extent and importance of their jurifdiction.
Both civil and criminal caufes come under their cognizance ;
and for each peculiar judges are fet apart. The Spanifh
viceroys have often attempted to intrude themfelves
into the feat of juftice; and, therefore in order to
check this interference, which muft have annihilated juttice
and fecurity in the Spanifh colonies, the viceroys have been
prohibited by repeated laws, from interfering in the judicial
proceedings of the courts of audience, or from delivering
an opinion, or giving a voice with refpect to any point hi-
tigated beforethem. Thefe courts of audience are fubjeét
to reftraint and limitation. They may advife, they may
remonttrate ; but in the event of a dire& collifion between
their opinion and the will of the viceroy, what he deter-
mines muft be executed, and nothing remains for them but
to lay the matter before the king andthe council of the
Indies. But to be entitled to remonftrate and to inform
again{ft a perfon, before whom all others muft be filent and
tamely {ubmit to his decrees, is a privilege which adds dig-
nity to the courts of audience. Befides, upon the death of
a viceroy, without any provifion of a fucceflor by the king,
the fupreme power is velted in the court of audience refid-
ent in the capital of the yiceroyalty ; and the fenior judge,
affiited by his brethren, exercifes all the fun@ions of the
viceroy, while the office continues vacant. In matters
which come under the cognizance of the audiences, in the
courfe of their ordinary jurifdiGtion as courts of juftice,
their fentences are final in every litigation concerning pro-
perty of lefs value than 6000 pefos; but when the fubjeé
in difpute exceeds that fum, their decifions are fubject to
review, and may be-carried bv appeal before the royal
council of the Indies. Robertfon’s Hift. Amer. vol. iii.
p- 286, &c

AupieEnce is alfo the name of one of the ecclefiattical
courts in England, which is held wherever the archbifhop
calls a caufe to his own hearing.

The two archbifhops have their courts of audience : that
of the archbifhop of Canterbury is under the direGtion of
the dean of the arches, who is official of the the audience,
and keeps his court in the hall of Doors Commons.

The court of audience is chiefly concerned in differences'aris-
ing upon ele¢tions, confecrations, inftitutions, marriages, &c.

Avpisences, Chamber of. See CHAMBER.

AUDIENDO © terminando, a writ or rather commif-
fion, directed to certain perfons, when an infurreCtion or
great mifdemeanour is committed in any place, for the ap-
peafing and punifhment thereof.

AUDIENTS, or Aupirors, in Lcclefiafiical Hiftory,
an order of catechumens ; confifting of thofe who were
newly initructed in the mytteries of the Chriftian religion,
and not yet admitted to baptifm.

AUDIERNE, in Geography, a town of France in the
department of Finifterre, and chief place of acanton in the
diitrict of Ponterfoix, five anda half leagues weft of Quimper.

AUDIFRET, Joun-Barrist, in Biography, a French
geographer, was a native of Draguignan, in Provence, or
of Marfeilles, and flourifhed at the end of the feventeenth,
or beginning of the eighteenth centuries. He was appointed

7

AUD

by Louis XIV. in 1698, envoy extraordinary to the courts
of Mantua, Parma, and Modena. He died at Nancy, in
1733, at the age of feventy-tix years. His much efteemed
work, intitled, «‘ Geographie Ancienne, Moderne, et Hif-
torique,’? was printed in three volumes, gto, at Paris, in
1689 and 1691, and in 12mo., at Paris in 1694. This
work, which unites geography and hiitory, comprehends
only Europe, and being left unfinifhed, it wants Spain,
Italy, and part of Turkey in Europe. Nouv. Did.
Hitt.

AUDIGUIER, Virar Dr,a Frenchnoble, was born
at Naive, near Villefranche de Rouergue, about the year
1565, and united literature with the profeffion of arms.
Of his writings the principal are, «* A Treatife on the true
and ancient Ulage of Duels,’’ printed in 8vo. at Paris, in
1617, fhewing the injuftice of common duels, and recom-
mending a reviyal of the ancient practice of public combats
on great occafions, under royal authority; « Poems,” in
two volumes, 8vo, printed in Paris, in 1614; and two ro-
mances under the titles of “The Loves of Lyfander and
Califta,”’ printed at Lyons, in 1622; and ** The Loves of
Avriftander and Cleonice,’’ at Paris, in r625. His ftyle is
clear and {prightly ; and his romances were much read. He
is faid to have been affaffinated about the year 1630. Nouv.
Did. Hitt.

AUDINCOURT, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftrict of Portentruy. The place con-
tains 535 and the canton 6199 perfons; the territory in-
cludes 137% kilometres and 24 communes.

AUDIT, a regular hearing and examining of an account
by officers appointed for that purpofe. See Aupiror.

AUDITA Quere/a, in Law, is a writ by which a de-
fendant, againft whom judgment is recovered, and who is,
therefore, in danger of execution, or perhaps adtually in
execution (or on a ftatute-merchant, ftatute-ftaple, or re-
cognizance), may be relieved upon good matter of difcharge,
which has happened fince the judgment ; as if the plaintiff
hath given him a general releafe; or if the defendant hath
paid the debt to the plaintiff, without procuring fatisfation
to be entered upon the record. In thefe and the like cafes,
wherein the defendant hath good matter to plead, but hath
had no opportunity of pleading it (either at the beginning
of the fuit, or puis darrein continuance, which mutt always be
before judgment), an audita querela lies, in the nature of
a bill in equity, to be relieved againft the oppreffion of a
plaintiff. It is a writ direéted to the court, ftating, that the
complaint of the defendant hath been heard, audita querela
defendentis, and then fetting out the matter of the complaint,
it at length enjoins the court to call the parties before them,
and having heard the allegations and proofs, to caufe juf-
tice to be done between them. Finch. L. 488. F.N.B.
102. Italfo lies for bail, when judgment is obtained againtt
them by /cire facias, to anfwer the debt of their principal,
and it happens afterwards that the original judgment againft
their principal is reverfed ; for here the bail, after judgment
had againft them, have an opportunity to plead this {pecial
matter, and therefore they fhall have redrefs by auditu gue-
rela (1 Roll. Abr. 308.) ; which isa writ of a moft remedial
nature, and feems to have been invented, left in any cafe
there fhould be an oppreffive defect of juftice, where a
party, who hath a good defence, is too late to make it in
the ordinary forms of law. But the indulgence now fhewn
by the courts in granting a fummary relief upon motion, in
cafes of fuch evident oppreffion (Lord Raym. 439.), has
almoit rendered ufele fsthe writ of audita guerela, and driven
it quite out of practice. Blackft. Com. vol. iii.p. 406.

AUDITIONALIS Scholafticus, in Middle Age Writers,

is.

Eee yet

a eee ee ae

©

a.U PB

is ufed for an adyocate who pleads caufes for his clients in
audiences. Du-Cange.

AUDITOR, a hearer, one who liftens or attends to any
thing. ;

Avpiror is alfo ufed for feveral officers, appointed to
audit or hear accounts, pleadings, &c.

Anciently the word auditor was alfo ufed for a judge, and
even for an inquilitor, appointed by judges to examine and
find out the truth of forne matter in conteft. Notaries are
alfo frequently called auditores.

Avpiror, in our Law, is an officer of the king, or fome
other perfon, or corporation, who yearly, by examining the
accounts of under-oiticers that ave accountable, makes up a
general book, with the difference between the receipts and
charges, and the allowances or allocations.

Receivers-general of fee-farm rents, &c. are alfo termed
audtlors, and hold their audits for adjuiting the accounts of
the faid rents, at certain times and places appointed. ‘There
are alfo auditors affizned by the court to audit and f{ettle ac-
courts, in actions of account, and other cafes, who are
proper judges of the cauie, and pleas are made before
them, &c. 1 Brownl. 24. See Account, and
AssuMpsiT.

Avpitors of the Revenue, or of the Exchequer, are offi-
cers who take the accounts of thofe who collect the revenues,
taxes, &c. raifed by parliament; as alfo of the fheriffs, ef-
cheators, collectors, tenants, and cuitomers ; and fet them
down, and perfect them. :

Avonirors of the Pref, or Impreff, are officers in the ex-
chequer, who formerly had the charge of auditing the great
accounts of the king’s cuftoms, naval and military ex-
pences, and of all monies impreffed to any man for the
king’s fervice: but they are now fuperfeded by the com-
miffioners for auditing the public accounts. See Public Ac-
COUNTS.

Avonitor of the Receipts is an officer of the exchequer
who files the tellers’ bills, and makes an entry of them, and
gives the lord-treafurer a certificate of the money received
the week before. He makes debentures to every teller,
before they receive any money, and takes their accounts.
He alfo keeps the black book of receipts, and the treafurer’s
key of the treafury, (where the ancient leagues of-the realm,
and many records of the king’s bench, and common pleas,
are repofited) ; and fees every teller’s money locked up in
the new treafury. 4Isft. 107. All the exchequer bills,
‘orders, debentures, patents, and other inftruments which
pals the office of the exchequer, are figned by him,

There are alfo auditors of the firfl fruits; of the princi-
pality of Wales; of the duchy of Cornwall, &c. See
First Fruits, &c.

Avopitor ¢f the Rota, the apoftolic chamber, the chate-
let, &c.. See Rora, Cuamser, Xc.

Avopitors, in Church Hiffory. See AupienTs.

The auditors formed one branch of the Manichean fea,
which was divided into ele& and auditors ; correfponding,
according to fome writers, to cleray and laity ; and, accord-
ing to others, to the faithful and catechumens among the
catholics. By the Manichean rule, a difierent courfe of life
was prefcribed to the ele&t from that of the auditors. The
latter might eat fleth, drink wine, bathe, marry, tratlic,
pofiefs eltates, bear magiftracy, and the like; all which
things were forbidden to the elect. The auditors were
obliged to maintain the ele&, aad kneeled down to afk their
blefiing. Beaufobre obferves, that the elect were ecclefiaftics,
and in geveral fuch as made profeflion of obferving certain
countfels, called evangelic ; fuch as the clergy and monks ;
and they were called the perfed by Theodoret. The auditors
were the laity, and fo denominated, becaufe they heard in

AUD

the church, while others taught and inftruéted. Lardner’s
Works, vol. iti, p. 404, &c.

Avupirors, Convertual, Collegiate, &c. were officers for-
merly appointed among the religious, to examine and pals
the accounts of the houfe.

AUDITORIUS Mearvs, or Aupitory Paffage, in
Anatomy. There are two paflages diftinguifhed by this title ;
an external one, by which the air has accefsto thetympanum ;
and an internal one, by which the feventh pairof nerves pafs
from the brain into the petrous part of the temporal bone.
See the Defcription of the Ear.

AUDITORY, in an adjeCtive fenfe, fomething belong-
ing io the fenfe of Hearinc. ;

Avupirory, Aupience, is alfo a collective name, de-
noting an aflembly of perfons, hearing or attending to a
perfon who fpeaks in public.

Avpirory is alfo ufed for the feat or bench where a
magiltrate or judge hears caufes.

At Rome, the feveral magiftrates had auditories, or
feats of juitice, according to their dignity. —Thofe of the
fuperior officers were called tribunals ; thofe of the inferior,
fubfeliia.

The pedanei had their benches or auditories in the por-
tico of the imperial palace. Thofe of the Hebrews, at
the gates of cities. he judges appointed by the ancient
lords diftributed juftice under aa elm, which was ufually
planted before the manor-houfe, and ferved them for an
auditory.

Aupirory, Auditorium, inthe Ancient Churches, was that
part of the church where the audientes ftood to hear, and
be inftruéted : and it was that part now called navis ecclefie.
See Nave. In the primitive times, the church was fo ftri@
in keeping the people together in that place, that the per-
fon who went from thence in fermon-time was ordered by
the council of Carthage to be excommunicated.

Avopitory Pafage, or Canal, Difeafes of the, in Surgery,
are defcribed under the articles Ear, and DEAFNEss.

Aupirory Nerves, the feventh pair. See Nerves,
Defcription of the.

AUDIUS, in Biography, the founder of a Chriftian fe&,
was a native of Mefopotamia, and flourifhed about the year
350. In his own country he was much efteemed on account
of the holinefs of his life, and zeal for the faith ; but he
expofed himfelf to ill-treatment by his freedom in admonifh-
ing the bifhops and prefbyters, and particularly in reproving
the rich clergy, who purfued a luxurious courfe of life. At
length, he feparated from the church, formed an affembly
of thofe who were attached to him, and became their bifhop.
The clergy, offended by his rebukes, and jealous of his po-
pularity, accufed him to the emperor, either Conftantine or
one of his fucceflors, who banithed him into Scythia; and
here he converted many Goths to the Chriftian faith. His
followers, who were called Audians, adopted fome peculiar
tenets and cuitoms. They celebrated Eatfter, or the paichal
feaft, with the Jews, on the fourteenth day of the moon,
alleging that this'was the ancient cuftom, confirmed by the
apottolical conftitutions, and that the council of Nice had
innovated in complaifance to Conftantine ; and they are alfo
{aid to have ufed the apocryphal books in their aflemblies.
They have been likewife charged with fome errors in pomt
of doétrine, and particularly with attributing to the deity
a human form; whence they have been clafled with the
Anthropomorphites. Mofheim E. H. vol.i. p. 630. Lard-
ner’s Works, vol. iv. p. 304.

AUDON, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Africa,
in Mauritania Cefarienfis. Ptolemy.

AUDRAN, in Biography, the name of a celebrated fa-
mily of artilts, who acquired eminence in painting and en-

graving.

ATUSD

graving. Claude, the firkt of the family; was the fon of
Louis, who lived in the reign of Henry IV. of France. He
was born at Paris in 15923; but as he made no great pro-
grefs in the art of engraving, his prints are held in little or
no eftimation. He refided at Lyons, and died there in 1677.

Carl, or Karl, was the brother, or as fone fay, the coulin-
german of Claude, and born at Parisin 1594. Forthe pur-
pole of gratifying and improving an early tafte for the arts,
he went to Rome, and at his return adopted that {pecies of
engraving, which is performed merely with the graver.
Eis flyle was that of Cornelius Gloemart, but neater. The
abbé Marolles, who {peaks of this artift in terms of high
commendation, attributes 130 prints to him, amongit which
“The Annunciation,” a middling-fized plate, upright, from
Annibale Caracci; and “* The Affumption,” in acircle from
Dominichino, are the moft elteemed. His firft prints were
marked with the letter C ; aod he afterwards, by way of
diftinguifhing his prints from thofe of his brother Claude,
ufed the letter IK. He died at Paris, in 1674.

Germain was the eldeft fon of Claude, firlt mentioned, and
born at Lyons in 1631. At Paris he perfected himfelf un-
der his uncle Carl, and on his return to Lyons, publifhed
feveral prints which did honour to his graver. Such was
the eitimation in whieh he was held, that he was a member
and profeflor of the Academy eftablifhed in this town. He
died at Lyons in 1710, and left four fons, all artilts.

Claude was the fecond fon of Claude, and born at Lyons
in 1639: having ftudied painting at Rome, he was, on his
return, employed by Le Brun, to aflift him in the battles of
Alexander, which he was then painting for the king of
France. He was admitted into the Royal Academy in
1675, and died at Paris in 1684, applauded no lefs for his
virtues than his talents.

Girard, the mott celebrated artift of the whole family of
Anudrans, was the third fon of Claude, and born at Lyons
in 1640. Having learned from his father the firft principles
of delign and engraving, he removed to Paris, where his re-
putation introduced him to the acquaintance of Le Brun,
by whom he was employed in engraving the battle of Con-
ftantine, and the triumph of that emperor. At Rome, he
ftudied under Carlo Maratti, and engraved feveral fine plates,
and particularly the portrait of pope Clement IX. Recalled
to Paris by Louis XIV. at the inftigation of M. Colbert,
atter a refidence of three years at Rome, he affiduoufly ap-
plied to engraving, and was appointed engraver to the king,
who greatly encouraged him. In 1681, he was named
counfellor of the Royal Academy, and died at Paris in
1703. Strutt confiders him as one of the greateft engravers,
without any exception, that ever exilted in the hiftorical
line ; and a careful examination, he fays, of the battles of
Alexander, engraved by this artift, will of itfelf juftify this
aflertion. His diftingwifhing excellence confifts in his con-
tracting no manner of his own, but tranferibing on copper
fimply, with great truth and fpirit, the ftyle of the matter
whofe pittures he copied. “¢ On viewing his prints, you lofe
ficht of the engraver, and naturally fay, it is Le Brun, it is
Pouffin, it is Mignard, or it is Le Seur, &c. as you turn to
the prints which he engraved from thofe matfters.’? His
works, exclufively of his portraits, are diftributed into four
claflés 5 viz. 1. his flizht prints or etchings, to which little or
nothing was done with the graver, among which are the
« deluge,’’ the “ paflage through the red fea ;”” the “ com-
bat of Jofhua araintt the Amalekites ;’? the, “ empire of
Flora ;”? the ‘ prefervation of Pycrhus ;”? a “ cieling’’ from
Le Brun, reprefenting the “ four feafons”’ of the year. 2.
‘Thofe more fiaifhed, but in a rough, bold manner; e. g.
« Paul and Barnabas at Lyftra;’? * Coriolanus appeafed by
his family ;”? “ Time fupporting Truth ;”? the ceiling of the

AUD

chapel de Saulx, reprefenting the ** Accomplifhment of the
old law by the new one,’’ engraved in 1681, from Le Brun,
wonderfully uniting great (pirit,character,expreffion,and beau-
tifuldrawing; andthe ‘death of St. Francis.’’ 3..Thofe in his
moft fintfhed manner ; as the “battles of Alexander,” from
Le Brun; viz. « The paflage of the Granicus;” “ the battle
of Arbela ;”’ “ Porus brought to Alexander’’ after his de-
feat ; «* Alexander entering the tent of Darius ;’’ and ‘the
triumphal entry of Alexander into Babylon ;” the “ Peft,’’
from Peter Mignard ; the “ baptifm of the Pharifees,”’ from
N. Pouffin; the “ martyrdom of St. Laurence,” from Le
Sueur; the “ martyrdom of St. Agaes,”’ from Dominichino.
4. Such as he did with the graver only, which are few, and of
inferior merit; fuch as ‘* Avneas faving his father Anchifes,””
after Dominichino ; and a {mall folio “ Frontifpiece”’ to the
effigies of the popes and cardinals, from Cyro Ferri.

Benoit, fecond fon of Germain Audran, was born at
Lyons in 1661, and after receiving intftructions from his fa-
ther, removed to Paris, to enjoy the tuition of his uncle
Girard, where he acquired great reputation. He died at
Louzouer in 1721. ‘ His manner was founded upon the
bold clear ityle of his uncle. His outlines were firm, and
determined; his drawing correct ; the heads of his figures
are in general very expreffive ; and the other extremities
well marked.?? But his works, compared with thofe of his
uncle, want the mellownefs and harmony, which are fo
confpicuous in the latter. Among his neateft prints may
be reckoned that which reprefents “ Alexander fick,”
from Le Sveur.

John, the third fon of Germain, was born at Lyons in
1667, and perfected himfelf in the art ofengraving, at Paris,
under his uncle Girard. His reputation began to difplay
itfelf at the age of twenty years; and {uch was his future
fuccefs, that in 1707, he obtained the title of engraver to the
king, and had a penfion from his majeity, with apartments
in the Gobelins ; andin 1708, he was made a member of the
royal academy. He was eighty years of age before he
quitted the graver, and near ninety when he died. In his
moft mafterly and beft prints, the etching conititutes a great
part ; and he has finifhed them ina bold, rough ftyle. The
drawing of the human figure is correét ; the heads ave ex-
preflive, and finely finifhed ; the other extremities are well
marked; but he is inferior to his uncle. He wants that
harmony in the effect; his lights are too much and too
equally covered ; and there is not fufficient difference in the
{tyle, in which he has engraved his back grounds, and his
draperies. The following prints, betides many others, are
ufually much efteemed ; viz. “ Mofes faved by Pharaoh’s
daughter,”? “ Athaliah rending her clothes, on difcovering
the king ix the temple ;” “ Either before Athafuerus ;”
« Cupid and Pfyche ;”’ all from Ant. Coypel. _“ The pre-
fentation of Chriit in the temple,’’ from Corneille,. ‘ The
miraculous draught of fifhes,’? and its companion ‘ The
refurrection of Lazarus,” from Jouvenet. ‘ The battles of
Alexander,”’ {mall, from the large prints; “* Mofes defend-
ing the daughters of Jethro,”? and its companion, ‘* Mofes
efpoufing the daughter of Jethro ;” ‘the miracle of the five
loaves ;”” “ Chrift healing the fick and lame ;’’ and Chrift
carrying the crofs,’? both from Ant. Dieu, &c.

Louis, the laft fon of Germain, was born at -Lyons in
1670, and ftudied at Paris in the {chool of his uncle Girard.
He died fuddenly at Pa.isin 1712. Among his mott efteem-
ed prints are, “ The feven acts of mercy,” from Seb. Boar-
don, and “ The Cadavre or Corps,” from R. A. Heouaile.
Struit’s Dict. oF

AUDRUICK, in Geography, a town of France, in the
departinent of the ftraits of Calais, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftriGt of St. Omer, and 3% leagues gobs:

we

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_ but boait that their anceitors poflefled it.

AVE

welt of St. Omer. The place contains 2058 and the can-
ton 13,209 perfons; the territory includes 224 kiliometres
and 14 communes.

AUDUN Le Romanr, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mofeile, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Briey, 34 leauges weit of Thionville. The place
contains 286, and the canton 11,529 inhabitants; the ter-
ritory includes 2874 kiliometres and 43 communes.

AUDUS, in Ancien: Geography, ariver of Africa, placed
by Ptclemy at the bottom of the Sinus Numidicus, but
no traces of it now remain.—Alfo, a mountainous diftriét
in the interior part of Mauritania Sitifenfis, the Mons Au-
rafius of the middle age, and Jibbel-Aurefs, as the Turks
pronounce it. It is a chain of eminences running one into
another, with feveral beautiful little plains and vallies inter-
vening. The higher and the lower parts of it are very fer-
tile, and are rezarded as the garden of this province. The
whole mountainous traét is reckoned to be about 120
miles in circuit, and the northern part, which is vilited every

ear by a flying camp of the Algerines, is pofleffed by
Fach a number of clans, viz. the Boozenah, Lafhafh, Mai-
fah, and Booaref, that it requires 40 of their ftations to
bring them all under contribution, Shaw’s Trav. p. 57.
This mountain, according to Bruce (Travels, &c. Introd.
P: 28.), is inhabited by a favage tribe, of fair complexion,
red hair, and blue eyes ;. called Neardie, aad fuppofed to
be a remnant of Vandals, who have maintained themfelves
in the faftneffes, in defiance of the Moorsand Arabs. Each
of the people of this tribe have in the middle of the face
between their eyes, a Greek cro{s, marked with antimony;
and this mark feems to be the chief veftige of Chriftianity
among them, which religion they not only acknowledge,
Procopius (Bell.
Vand. |. ii. c. 13.) mentions the defeat of an army of the
Vandal nation near this place, of which thefe are probably
remains. They pay no taxes to the Bey, but live in con-
ftant defiance of him. In this mountain is the Lambefa
of Ptolemy.—Alfo, the name of a {mall port in the eaftera
part of Mauritania Ceiarienfis, mentioned by Ptolemy, and
placed by him in the promontory Jarfath, north-eaft of the
mouth of the river Nafavah.

AUE, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs
into the Wefer, three miles fouth of Nienburg, in the circle
of Weitphalia.— Alfo, a river of Germany, in Lower Sax-
ony, which runs into the Fuhfe, two miles S.S.E. of Zell.
—Allfo, a town of Germany, in Upper Saxony, and circle
of Erzebirg, five miles north-weft of Schwartzenberg.

AVE, a river of Portugal, which runs into the fea near
Villa de Conde, in the province of Entre Duero ¢ Minho.

AVEBURY, or Asury, a name given to a village in
England, fituated in the county of Wilts, about five miles
welt of the town of Marlborough, nineteen north of Stone-
ae and eighty weit from London. As a village it
prefents no particular claims to public notice, but as the
fite of the moft remarkable and itupendous monument of
Britifa Antiquity in the ifland, it becomes exceedingly in-
terefting to the antiquary aad hifterian.

The Britith bards and druids have been repeatedly noticed
and often defcribed by our ancient hittorians; fome of
whom have given very copious accounts of their relizious
and juridical rites and ceremonies; but none of them have
left complete and fatisfatory information relating to the
meh, their manners, or monuments. Hence arifes the great
difficulty of giving decifive defcriptions of thofe fubjects ;
‘and the repeated wars and invafions that have harafled this
‘country, have nearly deftroyed all documents and monu-
ments of Britifh antiquity. Among the veftiges of for-
‘mer times, we recognize the ftupeadous temple at Avebury,

Vor. III.

AVE

which was unqueftionably the moft confiderable and import-
ant in Great Britain. It confifted of a number of large
unhewn ftones placed perpendicularly in the ground, and
difpofed in parallel rows and circles. There were four of
the latter included within a fifth of larger circumference,
and at the end of the fouthern avenue, about one mile
diftant from the great circle, were two concentric oval
arrangements of ftones. ‘Ihe number of ftones originalli-
employed in the whole work amounted to fix hundred and
fifty, and moft of them meafured from ten to nineteen feet
in height above the ground, forty feet in circumference,
and weighed from forty to fifty-four tons each. The larve
circle, and the principal part of this temple, were furrounded
with a very confiderable vallum and ditch, which included
an area of twenty-two acres of ground, and meafured about
1400 feet in a tranfverfe diameter. This bank and ditch
muft have been produced with immenfe labour, and its
peculiarity of formation proves that it was never intended
for a fortified place in time of war, as the bank is thrown
up onthe outer verge of the ditch; whereas all military
encampments have the bank within the ditch, to give an
advantageous height of ground to the befieged inhabitants.
The vallum meafures about 30 feet in height from the top to
the middle of the ditch. Suppofing that it was raifed for
fpectators to behold any ceremonies performed in the in-
clofed area, it would. accommodate above 70,000 perfons,
and allow two f{quare feet to each. This boundary embraced
one large, and four {mall circular arrangements of ftones.
The firlt was about thirty-five feet within the ditch, and
confiited of roo ftones, placed at nearly regular diftances
from each other. Within this circle were two double con-
centric circles compofed with eighty-eight ftones, three
others called the cove, and one called the central obelifk.
From the large circle proceeded two avenues, or double
rows of large upright ftones, placed at inearly regular dif-
tances in each row, and from one row to theother. Thefe
confifted of 200 ftones, extended about one mile in
length each way, and were called the Beckhampton and
Kennet avenues. The firft proceeded from the temple in
a.welterly direction, and was terminated with a fingle itone;
whilft the other took a fouth-eaftern courfe, and had two
oval rows of ftones at the extremity. The objeéts we have
already defcribed, are confidered by fome perfens as the
whole of this extraordinary monument ; but it feems very
probable that Sillary Hill, fome cromlechs, other circles,
and numerous relics, were originally connected with it.
Silbury Hill is confidered as the Jargeit tumulus, or barrow,
in England, and its fituation implies that it was intended to
mark the meridian line from the centre of the temple.
Dr. Stukeley ftates, that it is direGtly fouth of the great
circle. It meafures 105 feet diameter at top, 560 feet at
the bafe, 240 feet in height, following the furface of its

northern fide, and 1680 feet in circumference at the bot-,

tom. From the top of this artificial hill a fpeG:ator com-
mands a view of the weftern avenue, and the whole area of
the temple, with a confiderable tract of flat country to the
north and weft. This barrow has been dug into by fome
perfons, who expeCted to make iaterefting difcoveries; but
for want of perfeverance, or weli-direGted refearch, they
diicontinued their operations, without gratifying. their
curiofity, or rewarding their labour.

The Goths, Vandals, and Turks, haveoften been ftigmatized
as the mercilefs deitroyers of every venerable and intereiting
monument of antiquity; butfurelythey are not morereprehen-
fible than many of the inhabitants of this highly civilized and
refinedcountry ; fomeof whom haveexercifed muchingeanity
and labourin wantonly and deliberately deftroying this finagular
monument of ancient cuitoms. We have already fated that

sf it

.

AVE

it originally confifted of 650 ftones, but moft of thefe have
been broken to pieces, by means of fire and manual labour,
and the diffevered fragments appropriated to the conftruCtion
of walls, hovels, and common roads. In 1722, only forty
remained of the great circle, of which number feventeen
were ftanding; but thefe are now reduced to nine. The
interior circles were almoft entire in 1716, butin 1723 only
two ftones were left eret belonging to the outward circle
of the northern temple. Of the Kennet avenue, there
were feventy-two ftones in 1772, of which only eight or
ten remain ; and only two of the Beckhampton avenue.

The ftones ufed in forming this temple are called by the
inhabitants, Bolderftones and Sarfons. They are of fili-
ceous grit, being of the fame fpecies as thofe that accom-
pany the great ftratum of chalk, which croffes England
from E.N.E.to W.S.W. Thefe ftones lie on the furface
of the ground in detached mafies, unconnected with any
ftratum of rock.

Having fhewa what the temple was,and what it is, we will
next endeavour to explain itsappropriation and ufes; in doing
which, we found our deductions principally on the triads and
traditions of the Welth bards, a clafs of people more likely
to preferve corre memorials of the ancient Britifh, than
will be found in anyof the Roman hiftories. By thefe writers
we learn that Avebury was the great national temple, or
circle of convention of the Ancient Britons; in which they
affembled from ail parts of the ifland, on the four grand
feftivals, which were held at the time of the two folitices
and the two equinoxes, but more particularly on midfummer
day, and new-year’s day, or the winter folftice. The
Bardic triads cail the temple at Avebury, one of the three
primary Gorfeddau, or fupreme feats of the ifland of Britain,
the other two were thofe of Beifgawen and Mael
Ewvor. »

‘The circles at Avebury and Silbury Hill had their names
reciprocally from each other, for the former was termed
Garfex-Bryn-Gwyzon, or the fupreme feat of the Hill
of prefence, or cognition ; and the other was called Cluder-
Cyvrangon, or the tumulus of the circle of conventions.
In this place the legiflative, facerdotal, and {cientific claffes,
which formed the ancient Britifh conftitution, held their
meetings, under the appellations of Beirz, Derwyzon, and
Ovizion, or Bards, Druids, and Ovates. We are informed
by Czfar, that the Druids of Gaul, “ who withed to be per-
feétly fkilled in the Druidical f{cience,” occafionally vifited
England to learn it. From the magnitude and fituation of
Avebury, we are induced to believe that it was their place

« of meeting or convention, The fituation was the moft con-
yenient of any in Great Britain ; and that it was the grand
metropolitan itation, feéms fatisfaCorily afcertained by its
magnitnde above all others in the ifland; by the various
Britith roads or ridgeways which converged to this {pot ;
by the vait number of barrows {cattered all over thefe plains,
and by feveral other relics of remote antiquity to be found in
the neighbourhood. To Dr. Stukeley we are indebted
for much information concerning this place, and but for his
diligent inquiries and refearches in 1722, &c. we fhould
never have been able to afcertain the figure and dimen-
fions of the temple ; with his affiftance, aided by repeated
examination of the fpot, we are enabled to prefent our
readers with an account which we hope will prove as fatis-
factory as it is faithful. To thofe who wifh for a more
minute defeription, we muft refer to Britton’s Beauties of
Wiltthire, vol. i. ; and for accounts of fome fubje&s col-
laterally conne€ted with this, fee Barp, Barrow, Crom-
Lecs, Druin, Kistvarn, SroNEHENGE, &e.

AVEHEN, a town of North America, in the country
of Mexico, and diftri@ of Chiametlan.
I

a VE
AVEIA, in Ansient Geography, a town of Italy, in

Samnium, fouth of Amiternum.

AVEIN, in Geography, a village of the Netherlands, in
the duchy of Luxemburg, near which the army of France
defeated the Spaniards; two leagues from Rochefort.

AVEIRO, or Bracanza Nova, a fea-port town of
Portugal, in the province of Beira, fituated in a flat and
marfhy country, at the mouth of the Vouga, and con- ~
taining about 1400 houfes, divided into four parifhes, and
fix monafteries. The river Vouga flows through the town,
where it is very narrow ; but it is adorned with a handfome
quay. Near the town it divides into two branches, one to
the left and running fouthward to the fea, the other flow-
ing northward to Ovar. Its trade is inconfiderable, as {mall
boats only come to the town ; and as the bar is continuall
fhifting, none but fmall fhips can pafs it. The fithery of
this place is alone worthy of notice; for Aveiro chie
fupplies the province of Beira with Sardinhas, which are
carried by large troops of mules into the higher parts of
the province. Salt is alfo produced here in large quanti-
ties; though it is not reckoned fo good as that at St.
Ubes and Lifbon. The town is, on account of its marfhy
fituation, unhealthy, which expofes the inhabitants to fre-
quent attacks of agues and putrid diforders. Avveiro is nine
leagues from Coimbra, and eleven fouth of Oporto. N.
lat. 40 30. W. long. 9° 8’. 304

AVEIRO, a river of France, which runs into the Tarn,
four leagues below Montauban. :

AVELGHEM, a town of France, in the department of
Leys, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Cour-
tray. The place contains 3355 and the canton 13,716 in-
habitants: the territory includes 574 kiliametres and 9 com-
munes. _e

AVELENE, in Conchology, a name given by French
naturalifts to one kind of land-fnail found in Amboyna, and
called by Linneus helix fearabeus. -

AVELLA, in Geography, a town of Tialy, in the king-
dom of Naples, and country of Lavora, four miles north-
ealt of Nola. The fituation of this town, with its caftle,
is delightful, and it commands a view as far as Naples. Not
far from this place are the ruins of Abella. It now gives)
the title of prince to the family of Doria. tat

AVELLANA, in Botany. See Coryuius. 5

AVELLANA, in Conchology, a {pecies of Hexix, witha
flichtly umbilicated fhell, of an obtufe and fomewhat trian-
gular form, rough, plaited, and filvery within; aperture
fmooth and eared; and an elevated circle on the firft whorls
of the fpire. ; ait ?

AvELbana, a fpecies of Patetta with a thin white
fhell, very finely ftriated ; and an oblong perforation divided
by a ligament. Native place unknown. Menfchen. Naturf.

AveLLanas, in Entomology, a fpecies*of PHALENA
(Tortrix) found on the nut-tree in the north of Europe.
‘The wingsteftaceous, with three fhortbands. Linn. Gmel. &

AVELLANA, a fpecies of ATTELABUS, of a black colour,
with the wing-cafes, thorax, and legs red. Thisinfeét Gmelin
conjectures, may be only a variety of atfelabus coryli ; it in-
habits Germany, and is called by Scopoli curculio collaris.-

AvELLANs, a {pecies of Crmex, of a black colour, with
brown upper-wings that are white at the bafe and tip; legs
fulvous. Found on the nut-tree. Gmel. Scop. &e.

Avetiana, a fpecies of Puarzna. (Bombyx) that is
found on the nut-trees in Europe. The wings are dull afh-
coloured, with an obfcure finuous band, and without fpots.
Fabr. Gmel. &c. i se

AVELLANE, in Heraldry,isatermpeculiartotheformof _
acrofs, whofe quartersrefemble thenux avellana, or filberd-nuts

AVELLINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom

a

AVE

kingdom of Naples, and Principato Ultra, the fee of a
bifhop, and fuffragan of the archbifhop of Benevento. Avel-
lino, which was probably founded by the Lombards, is a
contiderable city, extending a mile in length down the cavity
of a hill, with ugly ftreets, but tolerable houfes. ‘The
churches are crowded with monftrous ornaments in a barba-
rous ityle, which the Neapolitans feem to have borrowed
from the Spaniards. he cathedral is a poor building,
adorned merely with uncouth Latin diftichs, and fhapelefs
Gothic feulpture. The inhabitants have accefs to a f{tatue
of St. Laurence, with a phial of his blood, which for eight
days in the month of Auguit entertains them with a mira-
culous liquefaction fimilar to that of St. Januarius at Naples.
The only edifice of note is a public granary, of the compo-
fite order, adorned with antique ftatues, and an elegant
Bronze one of Charles II. king of Spain, while a boy, cait
by Cavalier Cofimo. The number of inhabitants amounts
to 8 or 10,000. The bifhop’s revenue is about 6000 ducats
or 1,125l. a year. The magiltracy confifts of a fyndic and
four eletti, who are chofen annually ; but thefe offices are
engroffed by a certain number of families of fome diftinCtion,
who neither intermarry nor affociatewith the other burghers.
The eftates of the prince amount to the yearly value of
20,000 ducats or 3,750]. and 2000 arife from duties on
the dye of cloth, which is made of various qualities and
‘colours, but chiefly blue. The fineit fells for thirty carlini
a canna, and pays twenty-fix grana duty of entrance into
Naples. Many wealthy merchants are concerned in this
cloth manufacture, fome of whom employ in it a capital of
80,000 ducats, or 15,0001. The poor women who fpin
the wool, muft work very diligently to earn about four
grana, aday. The fecond article of trade is maccaroni and
pafte of many kinds, which are of excellent quality, and
much efteemed through the country. Wooden chairs
are alfo made and fold here in great quantities. Avellino
abounds with all forts of provifions ; each {treet is fupplied
with frefh water; but the wine is indifferent. The foil
of this diftria, confifting chiefly of volcanic fubftances, pro-
duces little corn, but abundance of fruit, of which the apple
is held in high eftimation. The moit profitable of all fruit-
ees however, is the hazel. Nut-bufhes cover the face of

e valley, and in good years yield a profit of 60,000 ducats,
er 11,2507. The nuts are moftly of the large round
fpecies of filberd, which we call Spanifh; and the buthes
were originally imported into Italy from Pontus, and known
among the Romans by the appellation of ‘ Nux Pontica,”’
which, in progrefs of time, was changed into that of ‘¢ Nux
Avellana,” from the place where they had been moft fuc-
cefsfuly propagated. The proprietors plant them in rows,
and, by drefling, form them into large buthes of many items.
Every year they refrefh the roots with new earth, and prune
off the ftraggling roots with great attention. Swinburne’s
Travels, vol. i. p. 171, &c.

AVE-MARIA, or Avz-Mary, the angel Gabriel’s
falutation of the Virgin Mary, at his bringing her the tid-
ings of the incarnation ; thus called, as beginning with thefe
words, Ave, Maria, q. d. Hail Mary.

The ave-mary is a prayer or formula of devotion very
ufual in the Romifh.church. It was added to their prayers
by order of pope John XXII. in the fourteenth ceatury.—
Their chaplets and rofaries are divided into fo many ave-
marys, and fo many fiater-noffers ; aud hence the beads them-
felyes which indicate them, are alfo called aves, or ave-marys.

. AVENA, ‘in Botany, oat-grafs (fappofed from aveo, to
defire, or covet; cattle being fond of it). Lin. g. gt.
Schreb. 122. Jufl. 32. Clafs, triandria digynia. Nat. Ord.
gramina. Gen. Char. Cal. glume generally many-flower-
ed, two-valved, loofely collecting the flowers ; valves lance-

AV E

olate, acute, ventricofe, loofe, large, awnlefs. Cor. two-
valved ; lower valve harder than the calyx, the fize of the
calyx, roundifh, ventricofe, acuminate at both ends, eimit-
ting from the back an awn f{pirally twifted, reflex ; neétary
two-leaved ; leaflets lanceolate, gibbous at the bafe. Stam.
filaments three, capillary ; anthers oblong, forked. Pi/f.
germ obtufe ; ftyles two, reflex, hairy; fligma fimple. Per.
none. Cor. moft firmly clofed, grows to the feed and does
not gape. Sved, one, flender, oblong, acuminate at both
ends, marked with a longitudinal furrow.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. two-valved, many-flowered ;
from the back of the corolla, jointed, twitted.

Species, 1. A /ibirica, Siberian oat-grafs; feftuca glumis
villofis, aviftis calyce triplo longioribus. Gmel. Sib. i. 113.
t. 22. Panicled; calyxes one-flowered ; feeds hirfute ;
awns thrice the length of the calyx.’? Cuims very flender,
from two to three feet high; leaves rolled up at the edges,
from ‘fix to twelve inches long ; panicle refembling a fpike,
often directed to one fide; glumes of the calyx almoil
equal, dagger-pointed, membranaceous towards the point ;
glumes of the corolla of the fame length, extremely villofe,
A native of Siberia, introdued in 1777 by Meff. Kennedy

awh

and Lee. It flowers in July and Auguft. 2. A. elatior,
tall oat-grafs. Hudf. With. Curt. Lond. 3. 6. (2) gramen
caninum nodofum; Ger. * Panicled; calyxe vered;
hermaphrodite, flofcule almoft awnlefs, male awn Root

perennial; ftems erect, round, fmooth, with four or five
purplith joints, above three feet high ; leaves firiated from
feven inches to a foot in length ; panicle ereét, fhining, nu-
meroufly branched; fpikelets two-flowered, one male and the
other hermaphrodite; valves of the calyx unequal, the largett
marked with three, the {malleft with one green nerve. In
the hermaphrodite flower, the midrib of the outer valve
forms a fhort awn, and the bottom very hairy ; ne¢tary two
fmall lanceolate glumes, fomewhat globular at bottom ;
germ villofe. It 1s common on banks, in hedges, on the
borders of fields,-and fometimes in wet meadows. - It
flowers in June and July. It is an early grafs, very pro-~
dutive, and yields a plentiful aftermath. In particular
fituations the bafe of the {tem becomes knobby and forms
the variety above-noticed, which, in feme arable land, is very
troublefome, and is one of the feveral graffes confounded
under the name of quick or couch. 3. A. flipiformis. “ Pani-
cled; calyxes two-flowered ; awn twice the length of the
feed; culm branching.’ Culmsa foot high, often reclining,
{mooth, with brown joints; branches from each axil, fhort ;
one glume of the calyx lanceolate, the other ovate ; florets
two, feffile ; corolla {mooth, except the outer glume, which
is rough with hairs. A native of the Cape. 4. A. frenn/y/-
vanica. Pennfylvanian oat-grafs. ‘* Panicle attenuated ;
calyxes two-flowered ; feeds villofe ; awns twice the length
of the calyx.’? Obferved in Pennfylvania by Kalm. In-
troduced here in 1785, by Dr. Pitcairn. 5. A. /ocflingiana.
Spanifh oat-grafs. Cavan. Hifp. t. 45. f. 1. “¢ Panicle con-
trated ; florets in pairs, hirfute; one.peduncled, with two
awns at the top, the middle awn largeit.”” Root annual,
capillary ; culms feveral, flender, from two to four inches
high ; leaves fhort, flattifh ; one of the florets is feffile, the
other ona villofe pedicel ; valve of the corolla briltle-fhaped
at the tip, with a twifted awn on the back twice the length
of the valve. It grows near Madrid, and at the Cape of
Good Hope. Introduced here by Monf. Richard, in 1770.
6. A. fativa, cultivated oat. OF this there are four varieties,
the white, black, brown or red, and the blue oat. ‘* Pani-
cled; calyxes two-feeded ; feeds very {mooth, one-awned.””
Annual ; culm or ftraw upwards of two feet high ; panicle
various in different varieties, but always loofe and pendu-
lous ; the two glumes or chaffs of the calyx are marked

roel with

AVENA.

with lines, pointed at the end, longer than the flower, and
unequal. ‘There are ufually two flowers and feeds in each
calyx; they are alternate, conical, the fmaller one is awnlefs,
the larger one puts forth a ftrong, two-coloured, bent awn,
from the middle of the back. No botanift has been able to
afcertain fatisfaGtorily the native place of growth of this,
or indeed of any other fort of grain now commonly culti-
vated in Europe. ‘The varieties mentioned above have been
long known, and others have been introduced, as the Poland,
the Friefland or Dutch, and the Siberian or Tartarian oat.
The blue ozt is probably what is called Scotch greys. The
white fort is moft common about London, and thofe coun-
tries where the inhabitants live much upon oat-cakes, as it
makes the whiteft meal. The black is more cultivated in
the northern parts of England, and is efteemed a hearty
food for horfes. The red oat is much cultivated in Derby-
fhire, Staffordihire, and Chefhire ; it is a very hardy fort,
and gives a good increafe.. The ftraw is of a brownifh red
colaur, very heavy, and efteemed better food for horfes
than either of the former forts. In Lincolnfhire they culti-
vate the fort called Scotch greys. The Poland oat has
a fhort plump grain, but the thicknefs of the fkin feems to
have brought it into difrepute among the farmers. Add to
this the ftraw is very fhort. It was fown by Mr. Life, in
1709. Friefland, or Dutch, oat affords more ftraw, and is
thinner ficianed, and the grains moftly double. A white
oat, called the potatoe oat in Cumberland, where it was lately
difcovered, promifes, from the fize of the grain and the
length of the ftraw, to be the moft valuable we poffefs ; it
is now very generally bought for fowng. ‘The cat is a
very profitable grain, and a great improvement to many
eftates in the north of England, Scotland, and Wales; for
it will thrive in cold barren foils, which will produce no
other fort of grain; it will alfo thrive on the hoiteft land ;
jn fhort there is no foil too rich, or too poor, too hot, or
too cold for it; and in wet harvefts, when other grain is
fpoiled, this will receive little or no damage. The meal of
this grain makes a tolerably good bread, and is the common
food of the country people in the north. It isalfo efteemed
for pottage and other meffes, and in fome places they make
beer with it. 7. A. nuda, naked oat, pilcorn, or pillis. sé Pa-
nicled ; calyxes three-flowered ; receptacle exceeding the
calyx ; petals awned at the back; the third floret awnlefs.””
This has been confidered as a Britifh plant by Ray, Hud-
fon, and Withering ; but Dr. Smith fays it is by no means
to be claffed among our indigenous plants. Linneus obferves
it is very nearly allied to the fatrva ; and Haller remarks
that the calyx is fometimes two-flowered, but that the awn
36 neither twifted nor jointed. We are told the feeds have
been cultivated, and for the ufes of the poor anfwer all the
purpofes of oatmeal. 8. A. fatua, wild oat or haver. Hudi.
With. Smith. Brit. 139. Mart. Fl. Ruft. 81. « Panicled ;
calyxes moftly three-flowered ; florets awned, and hairy at
the bafe.”? Annual; culm ere&, fimple, three feet high, a
litile leafy, firiated, very fmooth; leaves linear, patent,
nervofe, {cabrous ; fheaths thin, nervefe, fmooth ; flipules ob-
tufe, tooth-letted, lacerated ; panicle ereét, much branched,
and fpreading ; peduncles alternate, capillary, feabrous,
thickened towards the apex, nodding; calycine glumes
equal, lanceolate, acute, nerved, fmooth, longer than the
florets; florets for the moft part three, remoie, graduall

diminifhing, roundih, befet with tufts of hair at the bafe,
awned from the middle of the back, awn twice the length
of the calyx, rough, jointed, twifted at the end; interior
glume concave, naked, ciliated. Seed has a foft hairy
covering. It grows in fields and hedges, and is one of our
moft deftruGtive annual weeds among corn. The awns are
fometimes ufed for hydrometers, and the feeds inftead of ar-

tificial flies, in fifhing for trout. 9.A./¢/quitertia. Scheuch.
Gram. 220.t.4.f.17. Panicled; calyxes moftly three-
flowered ; all the florets awned ; receptacles bearded.” Pa-
nicle oblong ; the flowers appear to be hairy, butall the
hairs fit on pedicels or receptacles within the calyx among
the flowers. The third flowerisimperfeG. Hallerthinks
it to be only a variety of the fave/cens. A native of Gere
many, Swiilerland, &c. 10. A. pubsfcens, Loft oat .
Hudf. With. Smith. “ Panicle erect, almott fimple, calyxés
commonly thtee-flowered, receptacle bearded, leaves flat,
pubefcent.”? Perennial; culm one or two feet high, erect,
fimple, roundifh, {mooth, ftriated, leafy; leaves ipreading,
fhort, obtufe, flat, which together with the fheaths are co-
vered with a foft down; ftipule fhort, deltoid ; panicle con.
tracted fo as to appear likeafpike ; calycine glumes very un-
equal, keeled, {eabrous, pointed, membranaceous, naked; in-
terior much longer, three-nerved; florets three, the third often
abortive, remotith, clubbed-cylindric, nervofe, roughifh, dia-
phanous, awned towards the middle of the back; interior
glume fmaller and weaker, rough at the edge; common
receptacle elongated above the florets, befet with white hairs.
It grows in dry meadows and ‘chalky paftures, flowerg
in June. rr. A. /ferilis, great wild, or bearded oat-grafs.
*¢ Panicled; calyxes five-flowered; the outer florets and
awns hairy at the bafe, the inner ones awnlefs.”” Annuak;
culms three or four feet high, fmooth ; leaves fmooth, flat,
fharp, very long ; flowers pendulous ; calyxes four or five-
flowered ; valves lanceolate, acuminate, concave, equal,
f{mooth, white with green ftreaks. In the two outer florets,
the outer valve of the corolla refembles a valve of the calyx
in form but fhorter, and puts forth an awn two inches long.
The other florets are awnlefs. A native of Barbary and
Spain. Curt. Lond. 3. t. 5. “ Panicle much branched,
1777- 12. A. flavefeens, yellow oat-grafs. Hudf. With.
Smith. Curt. Lond. 3.t.5. ‘ Panicle much branched,
loofe, calyxes moftly three-flowered, unequal ; \
hairy ; leaves flat, fubpubefcent.” re
at the bafe, a foot anda half high, ftriated, jointed; leaves
flat,- acute, ftriated, more or mi pubefcent ; panicle fome-
what nodding, fpreading, branched very much, many-flow-
ered, of a fhining gold colour; calycine
keeled, feabrous on the back, one twice -fize of the
other, three-nerved ; florets two or three, remotifh lanceo-
late, compreffed, ob{curely nervofe, awned ; awn twice the
length of the floret, feabrous ; interior glume narrower ; re-
cepiacle hairy. It grows in meadows, paftures, and the
fides of roads, flowering in June and July. In many of
our counties, this-fpecies forms the principal part of the
fineft pafturage on the downs, and in fome meadows it con-
tributes to the goodaefs as well as greatnefs of the crop.
13. A. hifpida. “ Panicled ; calyxes three-flowered, hairy.”
Cuims a foot high, fmooth; fheaths hairy; panicle or ra-
ceme with undivided pedicels, three or four ; glumes oblong,
acuminate, hairy, upright; corolla awl-thaped; awns

*

twifted, twice or three times the length of the flowers.

A. capenfis. “ Panicle contraCted ; calyxes three-flowered,
fubulate ; corolla pubefcent ; middle awn twifted, curved.”
Root creeping ; leaves few, fmooth with a mgged edge ;
culms a foot high, fmooth; panicle {pike-like, ovate-ob-
long, purple; the laft pedicels capillary ; calyx the length
of the flower; valves equal, attenuated into an awn; outer
valve of the corolla fubpubefcent, bifid, terminated by two
ftraight awns, and an intermediate one twifted, double the
length of the others; inner valve fhort. This and the hif-
pida aré natives of the Cape. 15. A.purpurca. ‘* Panicle
contraGed ; calyxes two flowered, ovate; corollas villofe;
outer glume bifid ; awn terminal, bent in.””? "A very little,

fmooth, jointed grafs ; leaves briitle-fhaped, fmooth, tufted,

thort,

-" . -

Culm ereGuslat curved

Se

AVENA.

fhort, like thofe of feftuca ovina; panicle fmall; glumes of
the calyx purple; valves lanceolate, keeled, {mooth; all
the florets are awned, and covered with a white down. A
‘native of Martinico. 16. A. /utea, * Panicle fpreading ;
calyxes two-flowered; fubulate; corollas naked, three-awned,
middle awn flexuofe.”? ‘This refembles aira flexuofa both in
habit and colour. A native of Martinico. 17. A. /upulina.
« Panicle contracted, ovate; calyxes three-flowered, lance-
olate ; corollas villofe, outer glume bifubulate ; middle awn
reflex.”’ ‘This is not readily diftinguifhed from the 15th.
Itis larger, with fheathsextremely tomentofe. Panicle yel-
low, clofely crowded ; flowers longer than thofe of the
15th, with the corollas bifid and more hirfute ; the divifions
fubulate, awned. A native of the cape, found by Thun-
berg. 18. A. fragilis, brittle oat-grafs. Schreb. Gram. t. 24.
«* Spiked; calyxes four-flowered, longer than the floret.’
Culms many, {mooth, with three joints, fix or feven inches
high ; leaves flat, ciliate ; {pike the length ef the culm; flo-
rets in a double row, .prefled clofe, znd alternate ; calyx two
or four-flowered, lateral, oblong, pubefcent ; one valve twice
the length of the other; outer valve of the corolla fharp,
with an awn from the back. This is the only ayena truly
fpiked. A native of Spain. Introduced by Monf. Richard,
in 1770. 19. A. pratenfis, narrow-leaved oat-grafs. Hudf.
With. Smith. Gramenaven, &c. Ray. Syn. t. 21. f. 1. ed. 2.
252. n. 2. & 345. Scheuch. Agr. 230. ‘ Spike erect;
calyxes moitly five-flowered ; receptacles hairy ; leaves invo-
lute, ferrulate, naked.’?. Root perennial; culms many, a
foot or a foot and a half high, ereét, fimple, with a fingle
joint near the bafe, above naked, ftriated, roughifh; radi-
cal leaves linear, acute, rigid, incurved, fmooth on both
fides, with the edges ferrulate-{cabrous ; thofe on the culms
broadeft, nervofe, with long fheaths which are nervofe
' .and fmooth ; ftipule lanceolate ; {pike erect, commonly very
fimple ; upper tpikelets fubfeffile ; under ones long, pedun-
culated; calycine glumes fubequal, acute, three-uerved, a
little keeled, fcabrous of the length of the lower fleret; flo-
rets four or more, fubremote, roundifh, roughifh, nervofe at
the apex, membranaceous, lacerated, awned from above the
middle of the back; awn double the length of the floret,
pele with a white apex; interior glume f{maller, very

ender, minutely ciliate; receptacle under the florets, befet
with fhort hairs. It grows on dry paitures and heaths, flow-
eringin July. 20. A. /picata. “ Spiked; calyxes fix-flow-
ered, longer than-the outer petal, which is awned and
forked at the top.”? Spike compounded of three or four re-
mote upright fpikelets; flowers fix, feffile, upright; calyx
fubulate, equal, longer than the fpikelet ; outer petal bifid
at the top, with a jointed awn between the divifious, the
length of the fpikelet. It has the habit of feftuca decumbens.
A native of Pennfylvania. 21. A. bromoides, Gr. alpinum
aven. &c. Scheuch. Gram. 228. t. 4. f. 21. “ Subfpiked;
fpicules binate, one peduncled; awns divaricate; calyxes
eight-flowered.”” Two feet high; culm flender; f{pikelcts
round, generally in pairs, one feflile, the other peduncled ;
calyxes from four to eight-flowered ; awns from the middle
of the back, twifted. A native of Switzerland, and about
Montpellier. 22. A. firiga/z. * Panicled; calyxes two
flowered; corolla fmooth at the bafe; outer valve ending in
two awns, fhorter than the valve, and with a bent awn from
the back.’”? Annual; culm and leaves bare ; peduncles from
one to four, rough ;'calyx the length of the florets; valves
feven or ten-ribbed, bordered with a row of minute dots;
valve of the cerolla fmooth below ; fegments terminating in
purple awns white at the tip; feeds hairy. This has been
found growing with the cultivated oat, but it is not anative
of this country. See Smith. 23. A. aurata, golden oat-
grafs. ‘ Calyxes two-flowered; panicle feattered, erect;

corollas golden, yillofe at the bafe.”” A handfome grafs,
nine inches high ; leaves very flender, briftle-fhaped; panicle
tiff, with mucronate {pikelets, one fhorter than the other ;
corolla elliptic, pubefcent at the bafe; top plaited, ferrate ;
at the bafe of the outer glume, a jointed awn, longer than
the flower. When this grafs arrives at maturity, it is of a
refplendent gold colour. A native of the Alps, of Swit-
zerland, and Piedmont. 24. A. fcheuchzeri. Scheuch.
Gram. 23. t. 3. “ Spikelets five-flowered, pubefcent at
the bafe; peduncles branching.’”? Culm from fix to twelve
inches high ; leaves fmooth, two lines broad, keeled; pa-
nicle narrow like a {pike ; calyx purple, fhining, curved at
the top; glumes unequal, mucronate ; outer glume of the
corolla mucronate, green, variegated with bay and gold co-
lour; inner with a gold and filver colour, membranaceous,
awn long, brown, jointed, twilted. A native of the fame
places as A. aurata. 25.A. jiliformis. Fort. Flor. n. 46.
«« Panicle erect, very lender; culyxes one-flowered ; awns
twice the length of the calyx.”? A native of New Zealand
and Eafter Ifland.

Propagation and Culture. For the grafles, fee Grass.
Oat. ‘The beft time for fowing oats is in February or
March, according as the feafon is early orlate. "The black
and red oats may be fown a month earlier than the white,
becaufe they are hardier. The advantage of early fowing
is proved by experiment to be found in the papers of the
Bath Agricultural Society. White oats fown the laft week
in May have produced feven quarters the acre, and in Hert-
fordfhire they do not fow them till after they have done
fowing barley, which is found to be a good pradtice; this
oat being more tender than the others. Mr. Marfhall
mentions the blowing of the fallow as a direétion for
the fowing of this grain. He fays “ moft people al-
low four bufhels of oats to an acre, but I am convinced,
that three buthels are more than enough ; the ufual produce
is about twenty-five bushels to an acre, though I have fome-
times known more than thirty.”? But forty bufhels and
more are cortainly no unufual crop. It appears from Mr.
Young’s “Tour through the Southern Counties,”’ that the
quantity of oats fown varies from five bufhels two pecks
to two bufhels and a half, and that the produce is as fol-

lows: Oona.
From 5-bufhels and upwards - - 46.0
4 buthels - - - Se a?
4.to 5 bufhels - - - Se Rove)
3 bufhelsandahalf - - - = 22
2 buthels and a half - - 21,0 "9

He thinks the quantity of feed fhould be proportioned to
the poverty of the ground; for in rich land corn tillers fo
much as apparently to cover the field; but in poor land it
does not tiller at all, confequently the grains fhould be fo
much the nearer. Mr. Young, in his “ Northera Tour,”
gives another table of the different quantities of feed corn,
with their refpeGtive average produce, as follow:

From 7 bufhels fown, average produce - Gore
6 bufhels - - - ah Ou! ab
5 bushels - - - 2
4 bufhelsandahalf — - - - : ; I
4 buthels - - - AOL
3 buthels - - - EPP Ak RNC)

Or thus :

From 6 and 7 bufhels_— - 5 268 One z
4 bufhels and a half and five He Sea
3 and 4 bufhels - - <A ony ane

Hence it appears, that although fome points remain doubt-
ful, yet the fuperiority of fix or feven buthels is fo great,
that there is abundant reafon to think the other quantities
are not equal to thefe in advantage, and that the modera

ideas,

AWE

ideas of fowing fmall quantities of feed are not univerfally
to be adopted. Mr. Young therefore recommends that ex-
periments fhould be tried on all forts of foils, and in every
fituation, on {mall pieces of land, to decide this important
point.

AVENACEA, in Conchology, a fpecies of Anomra,
with a pyriform fhell, protraéted, and fomewhat compreffed
near the hinges. Mull. Zool. Dan. A native of the north
feas.

AVENE, in Entomology, a fpecies of Musca, of a
black colour and {hining ; eyes brownith; wings red and
green and very fhining. Inhabits Sweden. Gmelin, &c.

AVENAGE, formed of the Latin aveng, oats, in Law,
a certain quantity of oats paid to a landlord in lieu of fome
other duties, or asa rent, from the tenant.

AVENAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Marne, feated on the river Marne, one
league and a half north-eafl of Epernay, and five W. N. W.
of Chalons fur Marne.

AVENCHE, or Avancue, a tow® of Swifferland, in
the canton of Bern, and the principal burgh of a bailliage
in the Pays de Vaud. Some contend that it was the capital
of Helvetia, becaufe Tacitus (Hitt. 1. i. c. 68.) calls it
s« Aventicum gentis caput;’? while others have endeavoured
to prove that by this expreffion the hiftorian only intended to
denote the capital town of its particular diftriQ. Accord-
ing to fome accounts, the city was built, and a Roman
colony founded, by Vefpaiian; but with greater probability,
according to others, it was only repaired and beautified by
Vefpatian, after it had been laid wafte and almoft ruined
by Cecina, one of the lieutenants of Vitellius, when many
thoufands were flain, and many thoufands fold for flaves.
lt was afterwards taken and pillaged by the Burgundians ;
and reduced to a heap of ruins by Attila. Without doubt
it was formerly a very confiderable town, and fubject to the
dominion of the Romans, as we may conclude not only from
fevyeral mile ftones found in many parts of the Pays de Vaud,
moit of which are numbered from Aventicum, as the prin-
cipal place of reference, and more particularly from the
prefent ruins. The ancient walls appear to have inclofed a
fpace near five miles in circumference ; of which the prefent
town occupies but a very {mall fpot; the remainder being
covered with corn fields and meadows. In an adjoining field
is a Mofaic pavement, which was the floor of an ancient
bath, about fixty feet long, and forty broad; confifting of
three compartments, in which are reprefented human figures
in various attitudes, but chiefly bacchanals. Troma glory
that furrounds the head of Bacchus in this Mofaic, it has
been inferred that it was wrought during fome part of the
intervening age between Vefpaiian and Marcus Aurelius ;
becaufe that mark of divinity is not ufual upon monuments
of Roman antiquity before that period. Beiides, the head-
drefs of a Bacchanalian woman reprefented in this Mofaic,
refembles the head-drefs on the medals of the empreffes
Plotina and Sabina. The ancient amphitheatre appears
from the ruins that remain, to have had an arena of about 80
yards in diameter; and under a tower is a cell from which
the animals were probably let loofe upon the arena. On
the outfide, remains of five dens -are vifible; and the walls
are adorned with feveral piecesof rude feulpture dilapidated.
Not far from thefe ruins ftands a column of white marble
about fixty feet high, compofed of large mafles neatly joined
without cement; and near it lies a confiderable fragment of
defaced {fculpture, which feems once to have formed part
of the portal belonging to a magnificent temple. There
are alfo feveral other relics of the ancient extent and gran-
deur of this place. Coxe’s Travels in Switzerland, vo}. ii.
p- 175, &c. Avenche is fituated at the fouth end of the

AVE
Jake Morat, 16 miles fouth-weft of Bern. N, lat. 46° 50"

E. Jong.7° 7’.

AVENTA Fouta, in Botany, denote leaves which have
no vifible veins.

AVENIO, now Avignon, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Gallia Narbonnenfis, upon the left bank of the Rhone.
See Avicnon.

AVENNE, a town of France, in the department of
Ourte, and chief place of a canton in the diftrit of Huy.
The place contains 175 and the canton 11,018 inhabitants;
the territory includes 1574 kiliometres, and 30 communes.

AVENOR, in Antiquity, an officer under the matter of
the horfe, who by order or warrant from him, made up the
accounts of the ftables, and iflued debentures for paying
the officers and fervants.

In a ttat. Car. II. we find the avenor mentioned as an
officer who provides oats for the itables. In the Rot.
Parl. Edw. III. wealfo read of avenor of the queen, of the
prince, &c.. >

AVENPACE, in Biography, a philofopher among the
Spanifh Saracens, who flourifhed about the middle of the
twelfth century, and was a follower of Ariftotle. He wrote
acommentary upon Euclid, as well as philofophical and
theological epittles. He was intimately converfant with the
Peripatetic philofophy, and applied it to the illuftration of
the Iflamic fyftem of theology, and to the explanation of
the Koran; and on this account he was fufpected of herefy,
and thrown into prifon at Corduba. It is faid that he was
poifoned at Fez, in the year of the Hegira 533, A.D. 1138;
or, according to others, 525, A.D. 1130. Pococke Spec.

Hitt. Arab. p. 373. Gen. Di&. Among the Arabian writers .

he is commonly known by the name of Ebn al Sayegh; and
was born in Spain, of Jewith ancettors.

AVENS, in Botany. See Geum.

AveENs, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in the
Sabine territory, which difcharged itfelf into the Tiber, and
which is fuppoied to have given the name of Ager Aven-
tinus to the neighbouring diftria.

AVENTIA, now dvenra, a river of Italy, in Etruria. .

AVENTINE, Joun, in Biography, a German hittorian,
was the fon of an inn-keeper at Abenfperg in Bavaria, and
born in 1466. Having ftudied at Ingolditadt and Paris, he.
gave private leétures on eloquence and poetry at Vienna, in
1503, and in 1507 taught the Greek language at Cracow in
Poland. After {pending fome time at Ratifbon, upon his
return to Germany, he removed to Ingoldftadt, in 1509,
and explained fome books of Cicero; and in 1512, he was
fent to Munich to undertake the office of preceptor to prince
Lewis and prince Erneft. His remaining time was_ princi-
pally devoted to the collection and compilation of materials
tor the work; intitled, ** Annales Boiorum,’’ or ‘ Annals
of the Bavarians,’’ by which he gained great reputation,
This work, which was not publifhed till the year 1554,
feveral years after his death, contained fome fevere ftri@ures
on the condué of the Romith clergy, and portions of fecret
clerical hiltory, which Zieglerus, the firft editor, chofe to
fupprefs, but which were afterwards publifhed from an un-
mutilated MS. by Cifner, at Bafil, in 1580. In the year
1529, Aventiné, for fome reafon now unknown, was com-
mitted to prifon, but he was foon releafed by the duke of
Bavaria; and after a celibacy of fixty-four years, he formed
an imprudent matrimonial connection, which difturbed the
tranquillity of his latter days. He died in the year 1534.
The catholics charged him with being fecretly a proteftant;
but though he corre{ponded with fome of the reformers,
and difapproved fome of the popifh doétrines, it doesmot
appear that he ever abandoned the Romifh church, On
the contrary, his adherence to it may be inferred from his

. having

—

ik ie

;
|

. AVE

having been buried at Ratifbon, in the monaftery of St.
Hemeran, with the ufual popifh ceremonies. Like Eraf-
mus, he feems to have been well inclined to the reformation;
but he contented himfelf with ferving it within the pale of
the church, by lafhing the vices of the monks and clergy.
Another curious work of Aventine, intitled, “ Numerandi
per digitos manufque, &c.” was publifhed in 1532, at Ratif-
bon, together with heads of a plan for a large work on the
antiquities of Germany. His “ Annals of Bavaria’? were
reprinted in folié, in 1710. Gen. Dict. Nouv. Dict. Hitt.
AVENTINUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, one of the
feven hills which formed the fite of ancient Rome, and the
fourteenth region of the city. The origin of the name is
uncertain; but fome have derived it from Avens, the river
which watered the diftrict, whofe inhabitants were afterwards
tranfplanted thither. It was alfo called “ Murcius’”’ from
. Murcia, the goddefs of floth, who had a little chapel there;
and * Collis Diane,” from the temple of Diana; and alfo
ss Remuria,”? from the time when Remus refolved to build
the city there. But Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus fpeaks of
mount Ayentine and Remuria as two different places ; and
Stephanus fays, that Remuria wasa city in the neighbour-
hood of Rome. The Aventine mount was taken within the
-compafs of the city by Ancus Martius, who, thinking it
might ferve asa place of defence againtt furprife, fyrrounded
it with a wall anda ditch. To the eaft, it had the city
walls; to the fouth the campus Figulinus; to the weft, the
Tiber ; and to the north, Mons Palatinus. It had a good
height, and was 18 ftadia in compafs. It is now called the
' mount of St. Sabine; and it is thought that the church of
St. Sabine was built on the ruins of the temple of Diana.
The flreet that pafled from the gate of Oftia to the amphi-
theatre and Colifeum, divided the Aventine mount into two

- fummits ; whence it was called “ Biceps.”
AVENTURS, in our dacient Writers, fignify tourna-
ments, or military exercifes on horfeback.

AVENTURE, or rather Apventure, in our Law
Books, a mifchance, caufing the death of a man, without
felony ; as, when he is fuddenly drowned, or burnt by an
accident or mifchance, falling into the water‘or fire. See
Missaventure, and CHance-MEDLEY.

AVENTURE, in Mineralogy. See Quartz, and
Feuspar.
| AVENUE, formed of avenir, or advenir, to arrive at,
; in Fortification, an opening or inlet into a fort, baftion, or
the like place ; or the pafies and ways to and from it. See
Fort, and Bastion.

AVENUE, in Ornamental Gardening, is a large and gene-
rally ftraight walk, bounded on each fide by one, two, or more
rows of foreft or other trees, defigred fometimes as a prin-
cipal way from the common road to the manfion-houfe of a
country feat, and often to form views, or to lead to different
diftriGs of the neighbouring country. But though avenues
of the more regular kind, when formed about extenfive feats,
or detached in parks, or othet extenfive pleafure-grounds,
always exhibit an air of grandeur, it is more agreeable to
the prefent tafte to have the principal front of the manfion
entirely open, and unincumbered with thefe or any other
kind of plantation, as it is certainly a great abfurdity to hide
a good front, and obftruét the profpet; an avenue can
therefore feldom be admitted with propriety in that part of
the ground. A fpacious lawn of grafs fhould, as frequently
as poffible, be exhibited in due extenfion in the moft con-
{picuous fronts of fuch dwellings. See Lawn.

But in directions from the wings, detached at cou/iderable
diftance, avenues may perhaps with propriety be occafionally
introduced, and extended on the iides of {pacious lawns,

ferving by way of boundaries, being backed up siext the

*

AVE

lawns with fhrubs and lower trees, difpofed irregularly ; and
if they be carried in an oblique direétion, the lawns will
widen gradually, and the profpeéts be more comprehenfive.

Avenues may alfo be admitted at fome diflance from
either the ends or the back fronts of the dwellings, in either
of which fituations, one may be extended towards any com-
mon road, village, or town, ferving as the common entrance
to the habitation, or merely by way of ornament, &c. And
in ftill more extenfive fituations, they may occupy different
parts at a diftauce, being direéted towards woods, groves,
edifices, or particular diftriéis about an eftate ; which, when
formed of confiderable width, and bounded on each fide by
a proper variety of trees, the nobleft of the foreft, and other
kinds, afford a ftriking effet as well as an air of dignity to
the fite.

Avenues of this fort fhould always be planted with the
ftatelieft trees ; an aflemblage of the different forts of which
effects the moft agreeable variety.

The width of the avenue in fuch cafes fhould feldom be lefs
than fixty feet ; and when it is to be extended any cor
able length, anhundred feet in width is not too much; a
the trees grow up, the branches on the oppofite fides continue
to approach each other, which by degrees greatly contract
the views; fo that if a confiderable width be not at firlt
allowed, the avenues in time appear narrow and confined.

The trees in the rows on the fides fhould be planted at leat
thirty feet diftant from each other, that they may have full
{cope to difplay their heads, and each fort exhibit itfelf
coafpicuoufly, according to its natural form and habit.

The forts of trees moft proper for this purpofe are thofe
of the deciduous tribe; as the elm, beech, Spanifh-chefnut,
horfe-chefnut, white poplar, fycamore, maple, walnut, wild-
cherry, &c. all of which, as being of loity growth, when
difpofed in a proper manner, will have a fine efie&. Some-
times evergreen trees are ufed amopg thefe: where this is
intended, the moit proper forts are the various fpecies of the
pine, including all the different varieties of the fir, moft of
which attain a great height and magnitude, with beautiful
fpreading heads, that are extremely ornamental and pleafing.

Avenues of the more rural kind, fuch as common wavs
or roads through parks or other pleafure grounds, to habita-
tions, may be continued either in dire& lines, or carried round
in a moderate {weep, or the courfe direéted in two, three,
or more, very gentle bends, or eafy ferpentine turns, each
fide being ornamented with different forts of trees, thinly ’
difperfed, fome fingly, others in clumps or greups, of two,
three, or more together, exhibiting them yarioufly, fome
breaking forward, others ftanding more backward ; and, for
the ftill greater diverfity, a clump of tall flowering thrubs
may here and there be introduced ; havine the whole fo con-
fiderably detached, as to admit a full profpect of the adja-
cent lawns, fields, or -plantations, in the whole extent.
This is the moft modern method of forming avenues, but t
cannot be practifed with full effe& except where the fitua-
tion is of confiderable extent. In fhort, in walks and con-
fined fituations, the row method is moftly to be preferred,
as having a better effect. ;

All the trees that are employed in this way, whether
deciduous or evergreen, fhould be permitted to take their
natural growth, without being much cut or pruned.

AVENZOAR, whofe true name was, At Wazir Asu
Merwan Anpetmerecn Inn Zour, in Biography, was
the fon of a phyfician of confiderable eminence of Seville ia
Spain, under whom he received the firft rudiments of his
education, which he afterwards improved by clefe applica-
tion and by travel. He appears alfo to have had the care of an
hofpital, and to have acquired an uncommon fhare of know-
ledge for the age in which he lived, both in the theory and

’ practice

ere

4

ANV-E

prattice of medicine. He was for fome time under the dif-
pleafure of Hali, the governor of Seville, by whom he was
imprifoned, but feems at length to have furmounted ail his
difficulties, as he was made phyfician to king Almanzor, in
which poit he continued probably to the end of his life.
He is faid to have died at Morocco in 1166, at the great
age of 135 years; though it is probable the age of his fon,
who fucceeded to his farne and praétice, is included in this
term. From a manufcript in the Efcurial (Bib. t. ii. p. 132),
cited by Dr. Ruffel in the appendix to his “ Hiftory of Alep-
po,” vol. ii. p. 30. it appears that Avenzoar died at Seville,
and not at Morocco, about the yéar 1162 ; and if it be true,
that he had lived to the age of 135 years, and began to
praGife very young, he muit have made a figure in the rth
century, and been bora eight or nine years before the death
of Avicenna. He prepared his own medicines, reduced
luxated bones, and performed other chirurgical operations,
but did not cut forthe ftone ; the Mahometan religion, which
he profeffed, prohibiting him from infpeéting or handling
the naked genitals.

The work by which he is principally known, called «Al
Theifer,” isa compendium of the practice of medicine ; in
which fome difeafes are defcribed, not found in other
writers. Itincludes a number of cafes, candidly, it fhould
feem, related, as the author does not conceal thofe in which
ie was unfuccelfsful. Averrhoes, not ordinarily profufe in
his commendation of other writers, fpeaks very favourably
of onr author, whom he efteemed as the belt phyfician that
had appeared fince the time of Galen. From his ative and
inquifitive turn of mind, and the pains he took to learn from
practice the real powers of the medicines he ufed, he was
called the ‘“¢ Experimenter.”

« Al Theifer,” which has been feveral times reprinted,
was firft publifhed at Venice, in folio, 1490. In 1628, J.
Celle publifhed «De cognitu difficilibus in praxi ex libro
Avenzear,” 4to. Fenet. Le Clerc Hiftoirede Med. Hal-
ler Bib. Med. Pra&.

AVER, in Agriculture, a general name, in fome diltricts,
for -a labouring beaft of any kind.

AUER, in Geography, a river of Lithuanian Ruffia, which
runs iuto the Pregel, twelve miles weit of Infterburg.

AVERA, in Doom/day-Book, denotesa day’s work of a
ploughman, or other labourer, which the king’s tenants in
his demefne lands were obliged to pay the fheriff, and which
was valued at eight-pence.

AVERAGE, in Agriculture, a term ufed by the farmers
in many parts of England, for the ftubble, or remainder of
firaw or grafs left in corn fields after the harveft is carried
away. In Kent, it is called gratten, in other places rough-
ings, &c. In this fenfe it may be derived from haver, an
Englifh name for oats; or from averia, beaffs ; being as
much as feeding for cattle, or pafturage. Ray.

Averace, Averacium, in Zaw, that duty or fervice
which the tenant is to pay the king, or other lord, by his
beafts and carriages. The word is derived from the bafe
Latin averia, catile or goods 3 or the French euvre, cork.

AVERAGE, or Averidse, in Navigation and Commerce, is
ufed to denote the damage which happens to fhips and
their cargoes, from the time of their loading and failing, till
their return and unlading. It is divided into three kinds.
1. The fimple averaze, which confifts ia the extraordinary
expences incurred for the fhip, fuch as the lofs of anchors,
mails, and rigging, by common accidents at fea; er for
the merchandize, fuch as the damages which they have
futtained by ftorms, capture, fhipwreck, wet, or rotting ;
all which mutt be defrayed: by the thing that fuffered the
damage. 2. The large and common average, being ex-
pences incurred, and damage fultained, for the common

AVE

fecurity both of the merchandize and fhip, which were to
be borne by the fhip and cargo: fuch are ranfom-money,
goods thrown overboard, expences of unlading, or entering
in a river or harbour, and the provifions and hire of the
{ailors, when the fhip is detained by embargo. 3. The {mall
averages, which are charges of towing and piloting the fhip,
one-third of which muft be charged to the fhip, and two- -
thirds to the cargo. Re

AVERAGE, is miore particularly ufed for the quota or
proportion which each merchant or proprietor in the fhip or
loading is adjudged, upon a reafonable eftimation, to con-
tribute to a common average. He?

Such fum fhall be divided among the feveral claimers, by
way of average, in proportion to their refpetive interefts
and demands. 10 Ann. cap. 17.

Averace is aifo a fmall duty, which thofe merchants
who fend goods in another man’s fhip pay to the matter
thereof, for his care of them, over and above the freight.

Hence, in bills of lading it is expreffed :—Paying fo
much for the faid goods, with primage and average ac-
cuftomed.

AVERANT, Benepicr, in Biography, a learned Floren-
tine, was born in 1652, and taught the Greck language
with great reputation in the univerfity of Pifa. He wrote
excellent “ Differtations’”? on the « Anthologia,” on Thu-
cydides, on Euripides, and other ancient Greek claffics.
His acquaintance winh Roman literature was accurate and
profound, as appears from his “* Remarks and Difcourfes
on Livy, Cicero, and Virgil ;”? aad his leGures and writi
were well ealculated to promote a correét and elegant tafte
in polite literature; fo that he contributed much to reform
the bad tafle of his age, and to bring back in Italy the
golden period of the 16th century. Avverani died at Pifa
in 1707, in the s5th year of his age. His works were
collected and printed at Florence, in 3 large volumes, in 4716
and 1717. Gen. Biog, =

AVERANO, in Ornithology, the name of the variegated
ay, (Ampelis variegaia, Gmel.), in Buffon’s Hiftory
of Birds.

AUERBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, 14 miles fouth of Zwickau,.
and 60 W.S.W. of Drefden. N. lat. 50° 26". E. long.
12° 26.

AVER-CORN, in Ancient Writing, fuch corn as by
cuftom is brought by the tenants’ carriages, to the lord’s
granary. 4

AVERDUPOIS Pound. See Pounp.

Averpupois Weight. See WEIGHT.

AUERHAHN, in Ornithology, a name affigned by
Frifch, Bloch, and others, to the wood grous, or mountain
cock, fetrao urogallus of Linneus. ‘

AVERIA, in our Law Backs, properly fignify oxen or
horfes ufed for the plough; but, in a general fenfe, any
cattle; and fometimes the term includes all perfonal eftate. -

When mention is made of one beatt, they fay, guidam
equus, vel quidam bos : when of two or more, they do not.
fay, egui or Loves, but averia. ¥

Avertia, in Commerce, a branch of the Spanith revenue,

enotes a tax paid on account of convoys to guard the
fhips failing to and from America, which was firit impofed
when fir Francis Drake filled the New World with terror
by his expedition to the South fea. It amounts to 2 fer’
cent. on the value of goods. Robertfon’s Amer. vol. iit.
Pp. 490. ; ige

AveriA, Replegiare de Averiis. See REPLEGIARE.

AVERIIS capitis in Withernam, in Law, awrit for the,
taking of cattle to his ufe who hath cattle unlawfully di-
{trained by another, and driven out of the county where,

i5 they

ig

vi

oy
i

_ pardon. Hob. 67. A perfon may aver he is not the fame
_ perfon on appeal of death in favour of life. 1 Nelf. Abr.

Be: Se merited. Plow. Comm. 87, 488.
__* tive fhall not, be averred, becaufe they cannot be preved;

AVE

they were taken, fo that they cannot be replevied by the
theriff. Reg. Orig. 82. See Distress.

_» AVERIUM. See Herror.

AVER-LAND, a term employed, under the feudal
fyftem, to fignify fuch lands as were employed by the
tenants for the ufe of their lords.

AVERMENT, in Law, ufually fignifies an offer of
the defendant to make good or juitify an exception, pleaded
in abatement or bar of the plaintiff’s action.

The word alfo fometimes fignifies the act, as well as the
offer, of jultifying the exception; and not only the form,
Dut the matter thereof. Co. Litt. 362. Averment is either
general or particular. /

AVERMENT, general, is the conclufion of every plea to
the writ, or in bar of- replications or other pleadings (for
counts, or ayowries in nature of counts, need not to be
averred), containing matter affirmative ; and ought to be
with the words, Hs paratus ef verificare.” See Purad-
ANG.

) Averment, particular, is when the life of a tenant for
life, or tenant in tail, or the parfon of a church, is averred,
&e. The ufe of averment being to afcertain what is al-
leged doubtfully, deeds may femetimes be made good by
averment, where a perfon is not certainly named ; but where
the deed itfelf is void for uncertainty, it cannot be made
good by averment. 5 Rep. 155. Averment, which is mere-
ly the allegation of a party, cannot be made againft a
‘record, which imports an uncontroulable verity. Co. Lit.
246. Jenk.232, Lil P.R.155.. Averment does not
lie againft the proceedings of a court of record.. 2 Hawk.
P.C. csi. § 14. Nor fhall it be admitted againit a will
concerning lands. 5 Rep. 68. And an averment fhall not
be allowed where the intent of the teftator cannot be col-
TeCted out of the words of the will. 4 Rep.44. Nor fhall
any one aver a thing contrary to the condition of an obli-
gation, which is fuppofed to be made upon good delibera
tion, and before witneffes, and therefore not to be con-
tradifted by a bare averment, 1 Lill, Abr. 156. If an
heir is fued on the bond of his anceftor, it muft be averred
that the heirs of the obligor were exprefsly bound. 2 Saund.
136. Another confideration than that mentioned in a deed
may be averred, where it is not repugnant or contrary to
the deed. Dyer, 146. But a confideration may not~be
averred, that is againft a particular exprefs confideration ;
nor may averment be made againit a conjideration men-
tioned in the deed, that there was no confideration
given. i Rep. 176. 8 Rep. 155. If one has two ma-
nors known by the name of W. and levies a fine, or grants
an annuity out of his manor of W., he fhall by averment
afcertain which of them it was. 6 Mod. 235. Cha. Rep.
138. If a piece of ground was anciently called by one
name, and of late is called by another, and it is granted to
_ me, by this new name, an averment that it is the {ame will
make it good. Dyer, 37.44. No averment lies againft any
‘returns of writs, that are definitive to the trial of the thing
returned ; as the return of a fheriff upon his writs, &c.; but
it may be where fuch are not definitive ; and againft certifi-
cates upon commillions out of any court; allo againft the

: returns of bailiffs of franchifes, fo that the lords be not

"prejudiced by it. Dyer, 348. 8 Rep.121. 2 Cro.13. A

fpecial averment mut be made upon the pleading of a

general pardon, for the party to bring himfelf within the

305. Where a man is to take a benefit by an ad of parlia-
ment, he muft aver in pleading, that he is not a perfon ex-
Pleas merely in the nega-

»

ee wv ox: TIT. .

A VB

nor fhall what is againft prefumption of law or any thing
apparent to the court, Co. Litt. 362. 373. By ftat.4 & 5.
Ann. ¢. 16, no exception or advantage fhall be taken upon
a demurrer, for want of averment hac paratus oft, &c. except
the fame be {pecially fet down for caufe of démurrer.

AVERNI, among the Ancient Naturalifis, certain lakes,
grottoes, and other places, which infeét the air with poi-
fonous {teams or vapours; called alfo mephites.

Vhe word is’ formed of the privative 2, and opus, bird,
as intimating that birds could not fly over them, but dropped
down dead. dvernus, q.d. aornus, locus fine avibus.

Averni are faid to be frequent in Hungary, on account
of the abundance of mines therein, ‘The Grotto del Cani, in
Italy, is a famous one. But the moft celebrated Avernus was a
lake near Baiz, in Campania, by the modern Italians called
Lago di Tripergola, and fituate in the county of Lavora in
Naples, near Puzzuoli, and faid to be about 600 yards in dia-
meter, and in fome: places 188 fect deep.—The fumes it
emitted are represented by theancientsas beingof fomalignant
a nature, that birds could not fly over is, but funk down dead;
which fome later writers have chofen to attribute to this, that
its fulphureous efluvia not being of conliftence to fuftain the

_ birds, they dropped by their own weight. This circumftance,

joined with the great depthof thelake, occafioned the ancients
to take it for the gate or entrance of hell; and accordingly
Homer brings Ulyfles to Avernus, as to the mouth of the
infernal regions ; and in imitation of the Grecian bard, Vir-
gil makes Aineas defcend this way into the fame abodes.—
Vibius Sequelter fays, that no bottom of it has been’ found.
(See Herz.) Next to the Baie (fays Strabo) lies the Lu-
crine bay, and within it the lake Avernus; which is a deep
darkfome lake, with a narrow entry from the outer bay:
it is furrounded with fteep banks, that hang threatening
over it ; and is only accefhible by the narrow paflage through
which you fail in. Thefe banks were anciently quite over-
grown with a wild wood, impenetrable by a human foot.
Its gloomy fhade impreffed an awful fuperftition upon the
minds of the beholders ; whence it was reputed the feat of
the Cimmerians, who dwelt in perpetual night. Whoever
failed hither, firft offered facrifice; and endeavoured to
propitiate the infernal powers, with the affiftance of fome
priefts, who. attended upon the place, and direfted the
myftic performance. Within, a fountain of pure water broke
out, jult over the fea; but no creature ever tafted of it,
believing it to be a vein of the river Styx: fomewhat near
this fountain was the oracle: and the hot waters frequent
in thefe parts, made them think they were branches of the
burning Phlegethon.

The holinefs of thefe fhades (fays a modern traveller) re+
mained unimpeached for many ages. Hannibal marched his
army to offer incenfe at this altar; though, perhaps, he was
led to this a& of devotion, rather by the hopes of furprifing
the garrifon of Puteoli, than by his‘piety. After a long
reign of undifturbed gloom and celebrity, a fudden glare of
light was let in upon Avernus; the horrors were diipelled,
and with them vanifhed the fanctity of the lake: the axe of
Agrippa brought its forelt to the ground, difturbed its
fleepy waters with fhips, and gave room forall its maligzanté
effuvia to efcape. The virulence of thefe exhalations is de=
{eribed by ancient authors as yery extraordinary; but modern
writers, who know the place merely in a cleared flate, charge
thefe accounts with exaggeration; and yet it muit be owned
that they claim fome refpee, as the air is even now feverith
and dangerous, which the jaundiced facés of the vine-
drefiers, who have fucceeded the Siby!s and Cimmerians in
the pofleffion of the temple, moft ruefully teflify. Boccacio
relates, that during his refidence at the Neapolitan comt,
the furface of this lake was fudderly covered with dead ne

ee black

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black and finged, as if killed by fome fubaqueous eruption
of fire. At prefent, however, it abounds with tench, and
the dufky Avernus is become clear and ferene ; fo that it
offers a moft alluring furface and a charming fcene for amute-
ments fimilar to thole which were fought for at the Lucrine
lake in the time of Seneca, and which he has defcribed.
Spallanzani informs us, that he faw great numbers of feals
{fwimming on its furface ; and the peaiants affured him, that
the lake abounded with water-fowl in the winter. ‘ Nor
do I know,” fays this writer, “ any caufe which can at
prefent drive them frem a place where they may find
plenty of food, as neither the environs, nor the lake itfelf,
afford any indication of noxious exhalations.’? There can
be no doubt that this lake was the crater of an ancient vol-
cano. Like other volcanic craters, its internal fides become
narrow towards the bottom; and both the bottom and the
external part of Monte Nuovo, fo called becaufe it was pro-
duced by fubterranean fires in 1538, confift of a friable
tufa, in many places covered with plants. The fea bathes
the fides of this volcano, which, if dug into as well within
the water as without, are found very warm. The fame
warmth is likewife perceived at. the bottom of the crater.
From fuch excavations likewife arife thin warm vapours. In
fa&, in the internal parts of Monte Nuovo, we find all the
laft remains of volcanic conflagration. In the external fides
of the mountain many pieces of lava were found, which
were of a middle character between lava and pumice-{tone,
and which Spallanzani on this account denominates pumice
of lava. The bafe of thefe ftones is a horn-ftone, mixed
with a few feltfpar feales; they {carcely adhere to the
tongue, and emit a flight argillaceous odour. In the fur-
nace they produc a compact enamel of a dark grey colour,
tranfparent at the angles, and which gives afew {parks with
theel. ‘Towards the internal bottom of the crater, Spallan-
zaui found, projecting from the tuta, the fame kiad of lava,
penetrated with feltipars, but more compact and heavy,
and interfperfed with beautiful and fhining veins of black
enamel of various thicknefs. On the fide of the bottom,
within the tufa, this fagacious obferver difcovered a {mall
cavity, formed either by nature or art, that abounds with
faline efflorefcences, which he at firft imagined to be mu-
riate of ammoniac (fal ammoniac), or fulphat of alumine
(alum); but their urinous acrid tafte, the gréen colour which
they gave to fyrup of violets, and other qualities that are
proper to foda, left no doubt that they were formed from
that falt. On the tufaceous fides of the crater, both inter-
nal and external, Spallanzoni perceived, as he had done in
the Jake AGnano, a great number of frogs that were leap-
ing about, nearly half an inch long, and about a quarter in
breadth. They had the complete form of the frog, were
of a dark ycilow colour, and their fore-feet were divided
into four toes, and their hinder into five ; though they have
not the fhape of the hand, which conttitutes an effential dif-
ference between thefe frogs, and the others of thofe coun-
tries. It was difficult to account for the production of thefe
amphibious animals. “ Among all the different fpecies*of
European frogs,’ fays Spallanzani, (and under this ge-
pus, 1, with Linneus, lkewife include toads), I know
none, which do not begin their exiftence in water, and con-
tinue to live in it fome time, until they throw off the mafk
of the tadpole, and afiume the thape of frogs. But Monte
Nuovo is not caly entirely without moiiture, but as I learned
from the peafants who refide in the neighbourhood, even
when heavy rains fall, the bottom of the crater, which is the
only place where rain water can be colleGed and retained,
imbibes all the water immediately, as in faé it mutt, fince
it confifts ofa light {pongy tufa, full of cracks and fiffures.
‘The only water near is that of the lake Agnano, about

AVE
half a mile diftant, from which thefe animals might be fup-

pofed to have derived’their origin, were it not that the
frogs of that lake are of a totally different {pecies.”” Upon
the whole this ingenious naturalifl concludes, that the pre-
fence of thefe creatures in this place was to him an enigma,
which it required a longer ftay in this volcanic country to
enable him to folve.
_ The cave, called the Sibyl’s Grotto, near Avernus, which
is oppofite to the temple, feems more likely, as Mr. Swin-
burne apprehends, to have been the mouth of a communis
cation between Cuma and Avernus, than the abode of a pros
phetefs; efpecially as the Sibyl is pofitively faid by hifto-
rians to have dwelt in a cavern under the Cumzan citadel”
Some have conjectured that it was part of the canal ab-
furdly projected by Nero, from the mouth of the Tiber to
the Julian port. On every hill, and in every vale of thefe
environs, appear the ruins of extenfive villas, once embel-
lifhed with all the elegancies of combined art, but now
traced only by half-buried mouldering walls, and fome mar-
ble ee the remaining indications of the tafte and
coftlinets with which they were conftruéted. Among the
ruins of this country, one, in particular, claims attention ;
and this is the villa in which Cicero had his academy, where
he penned iome of his mott admirable productions, and which
probably ftood on a {pot covered by the eruption of 1538.
Swinburne’s Travels, vol. iii. p. 51, &c. Spallanzami’s
Travels, vol. i. p. 128, &e, '

AUEROCHS, in Zoology, a fynonymous name of
the wild ox, given by Gefner and Ridinger. See Bos
Ferus.

AVERON, in Geography, an ifland in the North fea,
near the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 63° 6’. E. long. 7”

AVERPENNY, q.d. AversGs-rEnny, in Antiquity,
money contributed towards the king’s averages, or money
given to be freed thereof. See AVERAGE.

AVERRHOA, in Botany, (fo named after the famous
commentator on Ariftotle and Avicenna; commonly
called Averrhoes, of Corduba, in Spain; his « Ctlliget,’?
or the plants ufed in food, &c. was written about the end
of the twelfth century). Lin. g.576. Schreb. 784. Juif. 375.
Clafs, decandria pentagynia. ( Peniandria, Lour.) Nat. Order,
gruinales—ierebintacea. Jufl. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth five-
leaved, ereét, {mall ; leaflets lanceolate, permanent. Cor.
petals five, lanceolate, the lower part ere€t, the upper fpread-
ing. Stam. filaments ten, fetaceous, alternately the length
of the corolla, and fhorter; anthers roundifh. Pif, germ
oblong, obfcurely five-cornered ; ftyles five, fetaceous, ereét ;
ftimas fimple. Per. pome turbinate, five cornered, five-
celled; feeds angular, feparated by membrazes.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. five-leaved. Pet. five, expanding
above ; pome five-cornered, five-celled.

_ Species, 1. A. Bilimbi. Rumph. Amb. 1. 118. 't. 36.
Rheed. Mal. 3.55. t.45,46. Lour. Cochinch. 289. “Trunk
naked, fruit-bearing ; pomes oblong, obtufe-angled.”? A
tree about eight feet in height, with few reclining branches ;
leaves pinnate, with ten cr more pairs of leaflets ; flowers
on racemes adhering to the trunk, of a red purple colour;
calyx five-cleft ; fruit an oblong pome, the thicknefs of a+
finger, fmooth. A native of Goa, and of both fides of the
Ganges. 2. A. Carambola, Rumph. 1. c. t. 35. Rheed. 1. c.
t. 43,44. Phil. Tranf. vol. 75. Lour.].c. “ Axille of the
leaves fruit-bearing ; pomes oblong, acute-angled. This isa
tree above the middle fize, with fpreading branches, anda vi
clofe head ; leaves with about four pairs of leaflets, which are
ovate, acuminate, entire, oppofite, the upper ones largeft ;
flowers lateral, On fhort racemes; corolla bell-fhaped, varie~
gated with purple and white ; ftamens always five; pome
the

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the fize of ahen’s egg, with a yellow rind, Dr. Bruce
gives a curious detail of the fenfibility of the petioles and
even branches of this tree. The fruit of both the f{pecies
affords a pleafant acid juice, efpecially the former. The
Bramins and Portuguefe call this tree carambola ; in Mala-
bar it is named tamara-tonga; and in Bengal, camruc, or
camrunga, Both thefe Indian trees have been introduced
into the Kew-garden.

AVERRHOES, or Averrogs, or Abu al Waleed Mo-
hammed Ebn Ahmed Eln Rofhd, in Biography, an eminent
philofopher and phyfician, was born about the middle of
the twelfth century, at Corduba, the chief city of the Sara-
cens in Spain, where his grandfather and father had occu-

ied the pofts of chief prieft and chief magiltrate. ‘The
Fivf care of his education was entrufted with Thophail of
Seville, who inftruéted him in the Iflamitic law ; and after
the manner of the Arabian fchools, in the Mahometan
theology, connectedwiththe Ariftotelian philofophy. Under
Avenzoar he ttudied medicine ; and under [bnu-Saig, the ma-
thematical feiences; and he conneéted himlelf withthe Maho-
metan fe& of the Afharites. Upon his father’s demife, he
was chofen to fucceed him in the chief magiftracy at Cor-
duba. The fame of his talents and erudition having reached
the caliph Jacob Al-Manfor, king of Mauritania, he was
appointed by this prince fupreme magiftrate and prieft of
Morocco and all Mauritania, and allowed to retain his former
honours. Avyerroes accepted the appointment ; and having
provided a fubititute at Corduba, removed to Morocco, and
continued there till he had inftituted, through the kingdom,
judges well fkilled in the Mahometan law, and fettled the
whole plan of adminiftration. He then returned home, and
refumed his offices. This rapid advancement excited the
envy of his rivals at Corduba; and, in order to juttify an
accufation of his having deferted the true Mahometan faith,
they engaged a number of young perfons to requelt his
inftruGtion in philofophy, that they might detect his herefy.
Averroes frankly communicated his theological fentiments,
of which they took minutes forthe ufe of his accufers.
Accordingly, a charge of herefy attefted upon oath, and
figned by one hundred witnefles, was conveyed to Al-Manfor.
he caliph admitted the accufation, and proceeded to
punifh him by an order for the confifeation of his goods,
and by requiring him to refide in thofe precinéts of Corduba
which were inhabited by the Jews. Here he became aa ob-
ject of general obloquy and perfecution ; and he was pelted

y the boys in the {treets, whenever he repaired to perform
his devotions at the mofque of the city. His pupil Maimo-
nides, in order to prevent the neceflity of joining in this
general outcry againft him, left Corduba; and Averroes
himfelf at length finding means to efcape, fled to Fez ;
but here he was foon difcovered, and committed by the
magiftrates to prifon. The king, as foon as he heard of
his flight, convened an aflembly to deliberate upon the
meafures which were proper to be purfued againit this
heretic. Inthe afflembly, a diverfity of opinions prevailed ;
fome recommended death, and others public penance anda re-
cantation of his errors. Al-Manfor approved the fentiments
of thofe who were moft mild and moderate in their judgment ;
and Averroes was conducted, at the time of public prayers,
to the gate of the mofque; and being placed upon the
upper ftep, every one that pafled was allowed to {pit upon
his face. At the clofe of the fervice, he was interrogated
by the judge, accompanied by his attendants, whether he
repented of his herefies. Averroes profeffed his penitence,
and was releafed. During his continuance at Fez he opened
a courle of leGures on the civil law; but finding little
encouragement, he obtained leave of the king to retura to
Corduba, where he experienced all the miferies of poverty
and contempt. The people, however, diflatisied with the

AVE

regent who had fucceeded him, petitioned the king that
their former governor might be reftored. Al-Manfor, un-
willing to aét on his own judgment, called a general affem-
bly, and it was determined, that the penitent heretic fhould
be reftored, by the royal mandate, to all his former honours,
Yn confequence of this fortunate change in his civeumftances,
Averroes removed to Morocco, taught in its fchools, and
{pent there the remainder of his days. According to Leo
Africanus, his death happened in the year of the Hegira
603, A.D. 1206; others fay that he died about the year
1198.

This philofopher has been highly celebrated for his per-
fonal virtues. Such was his temperance, that he partook
only once in the day of the plaineft food. In his appli-
cation he was unremitting and indefatigable ; allowing him-
felf no other recreation in the courfe of the day than the
change of feverer literary occupations for thofe of poetry or
hiftory, and {pending whole nights in ftudy. In his ju-
dicial capacity, he difcharged his duty with great wifdom
and integrity ; and his humanity was fuch, that he could
not pafs fentence of death upon any criminal, but perform-
ed this office by his deputies. In the exercife of forbear-
ance, meeknefs, and feltcommand, he was fignally exem-
plary. When a fervant, employed by an enemy, intruded
upon him in one of his public leétures, and whifpered
fome abufive language, Averroes, with perfe& felf-poffeffion,
turned round to him, and faid, ‘ Well well ;?? and pro-
ceeded with his bufinefs. This fervant waited upon him
the next day to implore his pardon for the infult he had
offered him. ‘ God forgive thee,” faid Averroes, ‘thou
haft publicly fhewn me to be a patient man; and as for
thine injury, it is not worthy of notice.” He then gave
him money, and difmified him with this admonition ; ** what
thou haft done tome, do not to another.’? In the exercife
of his liberality to learned men, Averroes made no dif-
crimination between his friends and his enemies; and for
his conduct in this refpeat, his apology was, that in giving

_to his friends and relations, he merely followed the dictates

of nature; but in giving to his enemies he fulfilled the
obligations of virtue; and he alfo boafted that by this
method he had converted enemies into friends.. Upon the
occafion of burning fome amatory verfes which he had
written in his youth, he remarked, that when he was young,
he. was difobedient to reafon; but now in his old age, he
followed it; and he added this fingular with, that he had
been born an old man: “utinam natus fuiflem fenex.”?
However, when he was requeited to exercife his magiiterial
authority in the fuppreffion of fome licentious poems that
had been publifhed by a learned Jew, and informed that his
own fon had copied fome of the verfes, and that there was
not a man, woman, or child in Corduba, who had not
learnt fome of the fongs of Sahal, he exclaimed, « Can a
fingle hand itop a thoufand mouths ?”?

In philofophy, Averroes was an enthufiaftic admirer of
Ariftotle, and yielded a fuperttitious deference to his au-,
thority ; he even indulged his admiration to fuch an excefs,
that he afcribed to the writings of the Stagirite a degree
of perfection “ which is truly miraculous, and which proves
him to have been rather a divine than a human being.’ —
“The deétrine of Ariftotle,”’ fays he, “is the perfection of
truth, and his underftanding attained the utmoft limit of
human ability ; fo that it might be truly faid of him, that he
was created and given to the world by divine providence,
that we might fee in him how much it is poffible for man to
know.” This extravagance of admiration on the part of
A.verroes is the move furprifing, as he was unacquainted
with the Greek language, and was therefore obliged to pee
rufe the writings of his oracle in wretched Arabic tranfla-
tions, taken immediately from Latin or Syriac verfions.

fg His

AVE

His commentaries, however, though they abound with er-
ror, mifreprefentation, and confafion, have been held in
fuch high cftimation, ever fince the revival of letters, that
Averroes has been ftyled by way of eminence, « The Com-
mientator.”” Many of his writings in this way were fo much
admired by the Jews, that fome of them were tranflated
into Hebrew. Averroes alfo wrote a paraphrafe of Plato’s
Republic; and a treatife in defence of philofophy againit
Al-Gazel, intitled, « Habapala Altabapalah,”” or “De-
ftruGtiones Deftruétionum ;”’ the defign of which was to
confute the metaphyfical opinions maintained againit thofe
philofophers, who affert two uncreated natures.

Though it is evident from the whole tenor of his life, that
Averroes could have little time for the praGtice of phyfic,
whence Bayle, as well as feveral other writers, have fuppofed,
that his knowledge of medicine was merely theoretical, yet
we have the authority of his own words to prove, he was
engaged in the practice alfo, though probably to no great
extent. One obfervation (Friend fays) we find made by
him which does not eccur in any earlier writer, is « that
the fame’ perfon could have the fmall-pox but once.”? His

- principal medical work, the “ Colliget,” or “ Univerfal,”?
written at the command of the Miramamolin of Morocco,
is a compendium cf phylic, collected from the writings of
other authors, with {ome fot very material additions from
his own ftores. He wrote alfo a Commentary on the Can-
tica of Avicenna, which he calls the beft introduétion to
the knowledge of medicine extant. This affords a com-
plete anfwer to thofe who accufe him of having been jealous
of the fame of that celebrated phyfician. Asa proof how-
ever, that he regarded him as a rival, it is alleged that he
avoids the mention of him, and in confuting a doétrine
maintained by Avicenna, he treats it merely as the opinion
of Galen. Befides the works above mentioned, Averroes
wrote, “* De Venenis,” “ De Febribus,’”? «« De Theriaca,”
and ‘* De Simplicibus Medicinis ;”? all of which have been
tranflated into Latin, and publifhed in various forms. Aver-
roes wrote many other treatifes in theology, philofophy, ju-
rifprudence, and medicine. Inthe Efcurial catalogue (t. i.
p- 299-), mention is made of an index of his books, amount-
ing in all to feventy-eight. His commentary on Ariftotle
was publifhed in Latin, at Venice, in folio, in 1495. An
edition of his works was publifhed in ato., at Lyons, in
15373 another in folio, with the famous Latin tranflation,
by Bagolin, at Venice, in 15523; and a third by Mefla, at
Venice, in 1608. Of the MSS. prefeved indifferent libra-
ries and particularly at Vienna, many are either Hebrew
tranflations from the Arabic, or Arabic written in Hebrew
charaéters.

As to the religious opinions of Averrees, he was by pro-
feffion a Mahometan ; but he does not feem to have enter-
tained any great reverence for his prophet. It is related of
him, that he called Chriftianity an impoffible religion, be-
caufe it taught men to eat their god; fimilar to the refle@ion
of Cicero (De Nat. Deor. 1. iii. c16.\, when he confidered,
that the name of Ceres was given to bread, and that of
Bacchus to-wine: “ Ecquem tam amentem effe putas gui
illud, quo vefcatur, Deum credat effe ?” that Judaifm, on
account of its rites and ceremonies, was a religion for chil-
dren ; that Mahometanifm, offering only fenfual rewards,
was the religion of {wine ; and that he exclaimed, « Let my
foul, at death, be among the philofophers.” It is alfo faid,
that he wrote againit the three great law-givers, Mofes,
Chnrift, and Mahomet; and that. he furnifhed materials for
the book “ De tribus Impoftoribus.”? His do@rine con-
cerning the foul is fuppofed, not to have been peculiarly
his own, but to have been afferted by Ariftotle, and to have
been embraced by ‘Theophraftus, Simplicius, and Themif-
tius ; which was this, that intelle@t does not exift individu-

AVE

ally in this or that man, but that there is one intellé& be-
longing to the whole race of human beings, the common
fource of all individval thought, as the fun is the common
fource of light to the world. Similar to this was the doc.
trine of Malebranche, who afcribed the production of ideas
immediately to God, and taught that the human mind pere
ceives God, and fees all thingsinhim. Avverroes, however,
proceeded farther; and he feems to have conceived, that
there was no other caufe of thought in individual men, than
one univerfal intellirence, which, without multiplying itfelf,
is actually united to all the individuals of the fpecies, as a
common foul. This notion, with its obvious coulequences,
as they concern the diftingt exiftence and immortality of the
human foul, obtained fo much credit among philofophers
for feveral centuries, and particularly in Italy, where their
advocates were denominated « Averrhoitts,” that it was
thought neceflary to employ the papal authority for its
fuppreflion. . At prefent, the notions of Ayerroes are ex-
ploded and his writings are forgotten. Dr. Friend (Hit.
Phyfic, p. 118.), anxious to vindicate’ A verroes from the
charge of infidelity, with regard to a future ftate, refers to
two paflages in his works ; in one of which (Phyfic. Difput.
3.) he aflerts, that the foul is not mortal ; and in azot her, |
(Id 4) that it is immortal. Leo. Afric. de Vir. Illuftr.
Arab. Gen, Di&. Brucker’s Philof. by Enfield, vol. ii.
p- 245, &c. Fabr. Bib. Grae. t. xiii. p. 95.282, &e.
Friend’s Hift. of Phyfic, vol. ii. p. 115, &e. Hiller, Bib.
Med. Praét. ~ ; :
AVERRHOISTS, a fe& of peripatetic philofophers,
who appeared in Italy fome time before the reftoration of
learning, and attacked the natural immortality of the foul ;
and who took their denomination from A verrhoes, The
opinion of this fect was condemned by the laft couneil of
the Lateran, under Leo X.
AVERRUNCATION, from averrunco, J prune, in
Agricultyre, the actof cutting or lopping off the fuperfluous
branches of trees. See Prunine. 5 Ae
AVERRUNCL, from averrunco, Zavert, in Antiquity,
an order of deities among the Romans, whofe peculiar office ~
was to avert dangers aid evils. The Greeks called thefe
deities alexicaci, and apopompei. They were Hercules,
Apollo, the Diofeuri, and Jupiter. Sele ft
The Egyptians had alfo their di averrunci, or apotropais
who were pictured in a menacing pofture, and fometimes’
with whips in their hands.—Ifis was a divinity of this kind;
as is fhewn by Kircher. See Oedip. Egypt. tom. iii.
« 487. ws
AVERSA, in Ge-graphy, a town of Italy, in the king-
dom of Naples, and territory‘of Lavora, the fee of a bifhoy id
who is fuffragan to the archbifhop of Naples. ‘This town
was built and fortified A. D. 1029, by count Raioulf, the
firft leader of the Normans, who came into Italy to feek
their fortuses in thé fervice of the Italian princes. The
feat of this town was chofen, ina fertile diftri®, as a cen=
tral {pot to which the Normans ‘might refort, and wher
they might obtain a fixed fettlement. Accordingly, it 2
tracted every year new fwarms of pilgrims aod foldies =
fome urged by neceffity, and others by the hope of eafe
and renown. The outlaws of every province affeciated —
with the fettlers in this place, and were foon affimilated in —
manners and language to the Gallic colony. ‘The fpot was
fituated near the ruins of ArExta, at the junction of two,
highways, that formed an eafy communication wit “every
part of the country, and from its being oppofed t Capua,
and from his averfion to Pandulph, prince of that city,
Rainulf called it Averfa. This town was burnt to. a
ground by king Roger; and many years after, avec -
afimilar fate, by order of Charles of Anjou. Its anei
palace, on the foundation of which a convent has been fince’

; ere: & C rok

AVE

eregted, was frequently the refidence of the fovereign, be-
fore the murder of Audrow of Hungary, hufband to Joan
the firit, who was allaflinated by the inttigation of a brutal
monk, called friar Robert, in the year 1345. It is fituated
ten miles north of Naples. N. lat. 41’ 0. Jt. long. 14° 20.

_AVERSATA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Puarzna,
(Geomeira\, with pale wings; ftreak at the bafe ; baud in
in the middle and dot browa. Linn, Fn. Suec. Inhabits

Europe.
AVER-SILVER, a name formerly given to a cuftom or
rent. Cowel.

AVERSION, compounded of a, from, and vertere, to
turn, denotes abhorrence, or diflike. ‘Some oppofe it to
defire ; others, with lord Kaimes, to affection.. See Anri-
PATHY,.

AVERSIONE wenire, or locare, in Writers of the Civil
Law, feems to denote the felling, or letting things in the
lump, without fixing particular prices for each piece.

AVERSPERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
Carniola, eleven miles north-calt of Cirknitz.

AVERTTI, in AHov/emanfhip, is applied to a regular flep
or. motion enjoined in the leffons. Ta this fenfe they fay, pas
averti, fometimes pas ecout’, and pas d’ecole, which all denote
the fame. The word is mere French, and figuifies advifed.

AVERTO, in Geography, a {mall iflaad in the gulf of
Venice, near the coaft of Friuli. N. lat. 45° 46’. E. long.
13°32’. .

SAVERY, a place where oats, or provender, are kept for
the kiag’s horfes. See Averia.

AVES. See Avis.

Aves, or Birds, Ifland of,.in Geography, an ifland of the
Welt Indies, nearly weft from Dominica, and fouth from the
Virgin iflands ; fo called from the number of birds which

~ breed here, and lay their'eggsin the faad. N. lat. 15° 26'..W.
Jong. 66° 20'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland, not far from the coatt of
‘Terra Firma, fouth-eaft from Bonair ifland. N. lat. 11° 50’.
W. long. 67° 25’. On the north fide it has a good harbour
for careening fhips, and fome weils. It is about four miles
long, and half a mile broad at the eaft end. Within three
miles there is a dangerous reef of rocks, extending from eaft
to north, and then trending to the weit.— Alto, an ifland near
the eaftern coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 50° 5.

AVESA, a river ot Italy, which runs mto the Adriatic,
near Rimiui.

AVESBURY, Robert of, in Biography, an ancient Eng-

dith hiftorian, flourifhed in the fourteenth century. He
was regilter of the archbithop of Canterbury’s court, and
wrote a hiftory of England in his own times, intitled,
« Mirabilia Gelta Magnifici Regis Anglie Domini Edwardi
‘Tertii, &e.”? As this hiftory reaches only to the 30th of
Edward III. A.D. 1356, the author was probably prevented
by death’ from finifhing his plan. He appears to haye taken

reat painsin procuring the moft authentic information ; his
Fas are authenticated by original papers; his dates are ac-

_ curate; and the defe& of his ftyle is compenfated by his
candour and impartiality as an hiftorian. This valuable

_work lay long concealed : till, in the year 1720, the indefa-
tigable antiquary, Thomas Hearne, printed it at Oxford,
from a MS. belonging to fir Thomas Seabright, which had

¥ been formerly in the hands of archbifhop Parker, and two

ether MSS., one in the Harleian library, and the other in
the univerlity library at Cambridge ; all which are thought
to be as old as the time when the author flourifhed. Mr.
; = Fal in the preface to the third volume of his General

iftory of England, cites this hiftorian, and fays, that le
-was a confiderable writer of that age, and very exact in his
account of king Edward’s actions: beyond the fea, as having
_ taken them from feveral original letters of perfons of note.
To Heame’s edition is added an appendix, containing feveral
jak I

“#.U'G

curious pieces in Englifh antiquities, unconnected with the
work itfelf; and particularly, a tranfcript of the love-letters
between Henry VIII. and Anne Bullen, taken from the ori-
ginals kept in the Vatican at Rome, A.D. 1682. Biog. Brit.

AVESNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the flraits of Calais, and chief place of a canton
in the diftri&t of St. Pol, three leagues weft of Arras. The
place contains 1221, and the canton 13,915 inhabitants ; the
territory includes 225 kiliometres, and 35 communes.

AVESNES, a ftrong town of France, in the department
of the North, and principal place of a diftriét. It is fitu-
ated in Hainault, on tie fmall river Hefpre. Its fortifica-
tions were repaired by Vauban; and it was ceded to the
French by the Spaniards in 1659. ‘The place contains 2935,
and the two cantons 18,785 inhabitants ; the whole territory
includes 310 kiliometres; and both cantons 17 communes.
It is diftaat ten learues eaft from Cambray, feven from Va-
Iericiennes, and-forty north-ealt from Paris. N. lat. 50° 7’.
E. long. 3° 48’.

AVEYRON, a department of France,. compreheading
part of the province of Guyenne ; bounded on the north by
the department of Cantal ; on the eaft, by thofe of Loyere
and Gard; onthe fouth, by thofe of Gard, Herault, and
‘Tarn; and on the weft, by thofe of Tarn and Lot. Its
f{uperficies is-about 1,767,424 {fquare acres, or 902,064
heétaries. Its population confifts of about 332,090 perfons ;
and it is divided into five communal diftriét. Its chief city
is Rhodez.

AVEZARAS, ariver of France, in Gafcogny, waters:
the territory of Aire, and difcharges itfelf into the. Adour,
between Grenade and ‘St. Sever.

AVEZZANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Abruzzo Ultra. This town, was
founded in 860, and contains 2700 inhabitants. It is built
on an almoft imperceptible declivity one mile from the lake
of Celano, to which an avenue of poplar leads from the baro-
nial caftle, which is a fquare edifice Hanked with towers, at a)
fmall diftance from the town. ‘

AUFEDO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,.
and province of Abruzzo Ultra, twenty-one miles W.S.W.
of Aguila. : .

AUFENA, or Aurina, in Ancient Geography, Ofena, a
town of Italy, in Samnium, belonging to the Veftini ; fouth-
eaft of Amiternum. ;

AUFENTE, in Geography, a viverof Italy, in the Cam-.
pagna of Rome, has its fource near Sezzu, and. its mouth in
the fea, near Terracina. : r

AUFFAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton in the diftrit of
Dieppe, fix leaeues north of Rouen.

AUFIDENA, in Ancient Geography, Alfidena, a town
of Italy, in Samnium, and the capital of the people called
Caraceni, fituate near Sagrus. The inhabitants were called
Aufidenates. UNE

AUFIDUS, a river of Italy, the moft confiderable in
Apulia. For the juftnefs of the defcription given of it by
Horace, fee Oranro.

AUFINA, or Aurinum. See AuFENA..

AUFNAY, in Geography, a {mall ifland af Swifferland, in
the lake of Zurich, containing two churches.

AUGA, in Ancicnt Geography, atown of Macedonia, in
the Chalcidic territory. Ptolemy. ;

AUGALA, atown of Africa, in Mauritania Czfarienfis,
at fome diftance from the fea. Ptclemy.

AUGALI, a people of Afia, in Sogdiana. Ptolemy.

AUGARA, atown of Afia, in Aria. Ptolemy.

AUGARRAS, in Geozraphy, a people of South America,
in Brafil, inthe province or government of Puerto-Seguro.

AUGE, in Entomology, a Species of Spuinx (Zygena

. Fabr)

AUG

Fabr.) of a black colour, with fanguineous hair on the fides
of the abdomen; wings traafparent, black behind; and the
antennz pettinated. Fabricius. 0/. This is Papilio eugrus,
of Cramer. It is a native of America.

Avces. This f{pecific name Cramer has given to a variety
of Papilio bolina. Linn,

Auce, in Geography, a diftrit of France, in the late
province of Normandy, extending from Falaife and Argen-
ton, as far as the fea, between the rivers Dives, Vie, and
Tongues, formerly giving name to a vifcount. Its pro-
ductions are grain, flax, andapples. The paitures are rich
and fatten the cattle that are brought hither from Poiétou
and Britanny.

AUGES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
in the Peloponnefus, written Avysa:, Augeiz, by Homer,
and fuppofed by Paufanias to be the fame with the {mall
town of Aigiz, fituate on the coaft of Laconia, and at
the diftance of thirty itadia from Githium. It hada tem-

le confecrated to Neptune.

AUGELA, Avcvexa, or AcuiLA, in Geography,
one of the Oafes, or iflands, in the eaftern divifion of that
ocean of fand, called the Great Defert, or Sahara, in Africa.
Tt lies on the weitern part of the defert of Barca, and is
feparated from the kingdom of ‘Tripoli by mount Meys.
Although it is generally fandy and barren, it has fome {pots
fo well watered as to afford plenty of dates; and mount
Meys has excellent pafture. In this territory, befides the town
of Augila, or Augela, from which the canton takes its name,
and which was one of the ftations of the caravans that formerly
carried on the inland trade of Africa, is another, feated at the
foot of that mountain, called Siwah, Siouah, or San-Rey,
which is the laft on that fide that belongs to the government
of Tripoli: Augela lies in N. lat. 30°. and E. long.
Age SB

AUGENIO, Horace, De Monte SanGo, in Ancona,
in Biography, profeflor of medicine, born about the year
1527- He was early initiated into the knowledge of medi-
cine by his father, Lewis Augenio, phyfician to pope
Clement VII. Horace was firft advanced to the chair of
profeffor at Rome, which office he filled five years. He
afterwards gave le€tures with fuccefs at Turin; and in the
year 1592, he was appointed profeffor at Padua; where he
continued to the time of his death in 1603. Hiaaller is dif-
fufe in his account of his works, which however were prin-
cipally controverfial, and not now much noticed. In his
s< Epift. et Confult. Med.’”’ fol. Ven. 1580, he recommends
millepedes, in calculous cafes, by which, he fays, he faw a
boy cured, after he had been condemned to the knife ; he
forbids injecting the bladder in thefe cafes, as frequently
mifchievous. He gave water, in which quickiilver had
been boiled, for the cure of worms in the bowels; and in
diabetes, he gave, he fays, narcotics, with advantage.

His works were collected and publifhed under the title of
s¢Opera Omnia,”’ at Venice, in 1597,—1602,and 1607, in
folio. Histreatifes, publifhed feparately were ** Epitt. Medi-
cinal.”’ tom. 1, 2, 3, fol. ‘De Modo prefervandi a Pefte,”’
lib. iv. 1577, 8vo. “De Medendis Calculofis” &c. 1575, 4to.
«Quod Homini non fit certum nafcendi Tempus,’? lib. ii.
Ven. 1595, 8vo. Haller. Bib. Med. Pra&.

AUGER, Epmuwnn, a French jefuit, was born of poor
parents, in 1530, at Alleman near Sazanne, in the diocefe
of Troyes; and having received the rudiments of education
under an uncle who was a clergyman, was fent by his
brother, a phyfician at Lyons, to Rome, with a recommend-
ation to the celebrated father Le Fevre ; but with a fupply.
of money fo fcanty, that he was obliged to beg alms betore
he arrived to the end of his journey. Le Fevre was dead
before he reached Rome; and he was obliged to hire him-
felf asa domeltic fervant to a jefuit. In this humble fitua-

3

_ MS, has been collated by Wetftein.

AUG

tion his talents and conduct attraéted the notice of his mafter,
who procured for him, as a novice, the means of further
inftruction. In the order of jefuits, to which he was ad=
mitted, he taught rhetoric and poetry, and manifefted

powers of eloquence, His talents recommended him to a
miflion, employed by father Laynez, the general of the
fociety of jefuits, and difpatched to France, in the year 15595
for flopping the progrefs of the reformation. On’ this oc-
cafion he diitinguifhed himfelf by his zeal and fuccefs in the

converfion of heretics ; and he was appointed preacher and —

confeflor to Henry III. His attachment to the king ren-
dered him odious to the catholics who had entered into the
league, and by an order of the general he returned to Rome,
where he was treated as an excommunicated perfon, and
obliged to travel on foot in the midft of winter. In the
year 1591, he died in confequence of the fatigue and yexa-
tion which he endured, in the fixty-firft year of his age.
Such was the clofing fcene of a man who is faid to have
converted 40,000 heretics. The intolerant {pirit of Auger
was fufficiently difplayed in his work, intitled “ Le Peda~
gogue des Armes,” defigned to inftrué a Chriftian prince,
how to undertake, and happily complete a good war, vic-
tor:ous over all the enemies of the itate and the church.
Nouv. Di&. Hiftor.

AvuGER, in Geography, a {mall town of Ireland, in the
county of Tyrone and province of Uliter, which before
the union, returned two members of parliament; but is now
deprived of that privilege. It is diftant feventy-five Irifh
miles north-weft from Dublin.

AUGES, in Afronomy, two points in a planet’s orbit,
otherwife called apfides, See Apsis.

One of the auges is particularly denominated the apogee,
the other perigee.

AVGHANS, in Geography, See Arouans.

AUGHNACLOY, a poft and market town of the
connty of Tyrone in Ireland, feated on the river Blackwater,
at the diitance of 704 Infh miles from Dublin, on the high
road from Londonderry. The linen manufa@ure is carried on
brifkly in its neighbourhood. N. lat. 54° 25’. W. long,
6° 53’. ;

AUGHRIM. See Acuaim.

AUGIAN, a town of Afia, in the province of Ader-
bigan or AIDERBEITZAN.

Avoian MS. Codex Augienfis, in Biblical Hiflory, isa
Greek-Latin MS. of the epiitles of St. Paul, which is how-
ever defective from the beginning to Rom. iii. 8, and the
epiltle to the Hebrews is found only in the Latin verfion.
This MS. is noted F in the fecond part of Wetftein’s N. Ty
It is fuppofed to have been written in the ninth century,
and has taken its title from Augia-Major, the name of a
monattery at Rheinau, to which it belonged at the time of
the council of Bafil. It was purchafed by Bentley in 1718,
for 250 Dutch florins, and is at prefent in the library of
Trinity college’ in Cambridge, where it was depofited in
1787, after the death of the younger Bentley, together with
the other MSS. of the celebrated Dr. Richard Bentley.
The Greek text is written in uncial letters and without
accents; there are intervals between the words, and at the
end of every word there is a dot. The Latin is written in
Anglo-Saxon letters; whence it is inferred that it muft have
been written in the weft of Europe, where that formation
of the Latin letters, vulgarly called Anglo-Saxon, was in
general ufe between the feventh and twelfth centuries. This

Marfh’s Michaelis,
vol, ii. p. 210. vol. ili. p. 662. t

AUGIAS, or Auceus,in Ancient Hiftory and Mythology,

a king of Elis who was one of the Argonauts.
hiftory reports that he had a ftable, which contained a
number of cattle, as fome fay 3000 oxen, and which had
not

‘abulous

sciptawengenrset

AUG

not been cleaned for thirty years, fo that the exhalations
which proceeded from it infected the country; and to
cleanfe it was confidered as a work furpaffing human effort.
Hercules undertook the labour, and engaged to perform
it in one day, on condition that Augias fhould give hima
tenth part of the cattle. Chis work Hercules is faid to
have accomplifhed by making the river Alpheus to pats
through the itable. Augias withheld the promiled recom-
pence; upon which Hercules flew him, and placed his fon
Phileus upon the throne, becaufe he advifed his father to
fulfil his promife. This fable, however, is varioufly related
by different authors. Hence has arifen the ancient proverb
of “cleanting the {tables of Augias,’’ for exprefling a difi-
cult or impracticable enterprife.

Avuoias, in Entomology, a {pecies of Pariuio (Hefperia
Fabr.) The wings are divaricate and fulvous, with an
oblique band, and margin behindblack. Fabricius.—Donov.
Inf. India. Inhabits India.

AUGICOURT, iu Geography, atown of France, inthe
departinent of the Upper Saone, and chief place of a can-
ton in the diftri@ of Juflay, 44 leagues north-welt from
Vefoul.

AUGILES, or Avcitires, in Ancient Geography, a
people of Africa, who inhabited the country by which the
Garamantes were feparated from the Troglodites. Pom-
ponius Mela fays, they were favages, who acknowledged no
other deities befides the manes of their anceitors, whom
they invoked on all interefting occafions. They are faid to
have flept upon the tombs, in order to receive the infpiration
from which they derived the rules of their conduct. It
was a cuftom amongtt their women, to grant the firlt favour
after their marriage to any who folicited it, and who made
them prefents ; and they valued -hemfelves upon the num-
ber of their votaries on this occafion.- In other refpects,
fays P. Mela, they were diltinguifhed by the wifdom
and difcretion.

AUGIT, Sitex Avaires, in Mineralogy, pyroxene of
Hany ; 2 war. of bafaltic hornilende of Kirwan 3 /chorl vol-
canique Daubenton, &c. Volcanite Lametherie.

The colour of this mineral is a very deep olive or pear
green, which at firit may be miltaken for a blackifh green.

It occurs fometimes in rounded fragments; but more
ufually cryitallized. Its varieties of figure are,

i. A fix-fided prifm, of which two oppofite ones are
broader than the ret. The two bafes, which are oblique,
are terminated by wedges more or lefs cbtufe.

2. Var. 1. with the edges that feparate the {mall fides of
the prifm, truncated; or an eight-fided prifm.

3. Two or more cryftals couneéted by their lateral faces,
fo as to form a right or oblique-angled crofs.

The cryftals ave uftally fmall and very fmall, rarely of
middling fize. hey are allo, for the moft part, unbedded.

Externally, when no decompotition has taken place, the
furface of the augit is fmooth and fhining ; but when it
begins to be decompoted, it becomes dull. Internally, it is
fhining or much fhiving with a greafy lultre.

Its fraGture is perfectly ftrait lamellar.
broken into rhomboidal parallelepipeds.

It is traflucid on the edges, but rarely fo throughout.

It is hard, feratches glafs, and gives fire plentifully with
the fteel: it is brittle, and eafily broken. Sp. gr. 3.182—

377°

: The augit is not eafily fufible before the blowpipe, but
in fmall pieces it affords a black enamel, Its analyfis by
Vauquelin atforded

52 — Silex

13.2 Lime

3-33 Alumine
10 =6- Magnefia

It flies when

AUG

14.66 Oxyd of iron-
2 Oxyd of manganefe,
95-19

Lofs - 4.81

3 Tele)
This mineral is found in bafalt, with olivin and hornblende ;
it is alfo met with in certain amygdaloids. It abounds in
Bohemia, and is found befides in Hungary, Tranfylvania,
Tyrol, Heflia, &c. ‘
At refilts decompofition much longer than olivin ; but rot
fo long as bafaltic hornblende. It is at length, however,
reduced to a greenifh yellow argillaceous mais, and not, as
the olivin, toa ferruginous ochre. Brochant, vol. i. Pp. £79.
AUGMENT, in the Greek Grammur, an accident of
certain tenfes ; being either the prefixing of a fyllable, oran
increafe of the quantity of the initial vowels. There are
two kinds of augments.—Temporale, or of a letter ; when a
fhort vowel is changed into a long one; ora diphthong into
another longer one; thus called, becaufe the time of its
pronunciation isnow lengthened: and augmentum [yllabicumy
or of a fyllable, which is, when a letter, viz. s, is added at
the beginning of the word; fo that the number of fyllables
is increafed.
AuvcmeEnTs, in Mathematics.
MENTS.
AUGMENTATION, in a general fenfe, the a& of
augmenting ; that is, of adding or joining fomething to an-
other, to render it larger or more confiderable.
The governors of the bounty of queen Anne, for the
“augmentation of the maintenance of the poor clergy”
(fee First Kruits), by virtue of the feveral acts of parlia-
ment made for that purpofe, are empowered to augment all
livings not exceeding 50]. per annum; and the number of
livings following were certified to be capable of augment-~
ation. °
1071 Livings not exceeding rol. per annum, which
may be augmented (with the hounty alone )
fix times each, purfuant to the prefent rules $ 6426
of the governors, which will make 6426 aug-
mentations.

1467 Livings above to]. and not exceeding 20).
per annum, may be augmented four times each,
which will make 5868 augmentations

|
1126 Livings above 20]. and not exceeding tht

See Fuuxions, and Mo-

5868

annum, may be augmented three tines each,
which will make 3378 augmentations.

1049 Livings above gol. and not exceeding 4ol. per
aanum, may be augmented twice each, which
will make 2098 augmentations.

884 Livings above gol. and not exceeding sol.
| per annum, may be each once augmented, which
will make 884 augmentations.

3378
2098
884

5597 rine

Total number of augmentations, which mutt be

made (by the bounty alone) before the ving 18654.

already certified will exceed 50]. per annum.

Computing the clear amount of the bounty to make 55.

augmentations yearly, it will be 339 years, trom the year
17144 (which was the firft year in which any livings were
augmented), before all the {mall livings above certified can
exceed 5ol. per annum 3 and ifit be computed, that one half
of fuch augmentations may be made in conjunction with
other benefactors (which is very improbable), it will require
226 years before all the livings above certified will exceed;
gol. per annum,

Dr, Warner, in the appendix. to his * Ecclefiaftical Hif-.
tJ tory,”

AUG

tory,’’ publifhed in 1757, obferves, that it will be soo years
before every living can be raifed to Gol. a year by qucen
Anne’s bounty, fuppofing the fame money to be diltributed
as there has been for fome years paft. In the courfe of be-
tween eighty and ninety years, many livings have been aug-
mented by this bounty; nevertheleis, the bounty, affiited
by private benefactions, has been found inadequate to the
end of making a reafonable and competent provifion for the
parochial clergy ina fhort time. In order to accelerate the
beneficial effect of this bounty, it was propofed by the
learned Dr. Watfon, the prefent,bifhop of Landaff, in a
s Letter to his grace the archbifhop of. Canterbury,”
printed in 1783, that a bill fhould be introduced into parlia-
ment, for appropriating, as they become vacant, one-third,
or fome other definite part, of the income of every deanery,
prebend, or canonry, of the churches of Weitminiter, Wind-
for, Chrificherch, Canterbury, Worcetter, Durham, Nor-
wich, Ely, Peterborough, Carlifle, &c. to the fame pur-
pote, mutatis mutandis,-as the firlt-fruits and tenths were
appropriated by the a&t, pafied in the fifth of queen Anne.
This plan, it is fuggefted, would produce a wonderful
change for the better, in 80 or 100 years, in the condition
of the inferior clergy, and it would immediately begin to
operate for their benefit. ‘ If the reduction of deans and
chapters,”” fays this excellent writer, ‘ fhould be looked
upon as a itep towards their annihilation, and fhould, on
that account, be difliked by thofe who think them of ufe
in our ecclefiaftical eftablifhment; there is another method
in which the poor clergy might be, in no great length of
time, well provided for. The clergy at prefent pay into
the exchequer about 14,0001. .a year for firit-fruits and
tenths, according to a valuation of the chorch revenues,
which was made above 250 years ago; the clear revenue,
arifing to the governors of queen Anne’s bounty from this
fource, may be eftimated at near 12,000]. a year. If the
clergy were to pay firlt-fruits and tenths according to a new
valuation of their bertefices, and the fum thence arifing was
applied to the augmentation of {mall livings, every one muft
fee how greatly the operation of what is called queen
Anne’s bounty would be accelerated. See Cuurcnu of

Ingland, Crercy, Curars, LEcelofiaflical REVENUE and

AucmENTATION is alfo ufed for the augment ; i.e. for
the additament, or the thing added. Thus it is faid, fuch
a minifter petitioned the king for an augmentation of falary,
wages, &c.

AUGMENTATION, Court of. See Court, &c.

Avcmentarion, in Heraldry, denotes additional charges
to a coat armour frequently given as particular marks of
honour, and generally borne, either on an efcutcheon, or
a canton.—Such are the arms of Uliter, borne by all the
baronets of England.

AUGON, in Geography, a mountain of Italy, being part
oi the Apennines, on the-coufines of Liguria and Pavefan.

AUGOXAS, a fmall ifland of Africa, on the coaft of
Mozambique.

AUGRE, or Awerg, a carpenter’s or joiner’s inftru-
ment, ferving to bore large round holes.

The augre confifts of a wooden handle, and an iron blade,
terminated at bottom with a fteel bit.

AUGSBURG, or Aussure, ive. Augu/tus-burgh, an-
ciently called dugufla Vindelicorum,in Geography, an imperial
city of Germany, and the capital of Swabia. It is fituated
ina delightful and fertile country, betwixt the rivers’ Lech
and Wertach, neay their confluence. It is not only one of
the moft ancient, but one of the largeft cities in Germany.

. According to Riefbeck (‘Tour through Germany, p. 1FP.)
its circumference is 94 miles, and it contains about 30,000
people ; others fay that the number of inhabitants amounts

fupported by eight pillars with bafes and chapiters of

AUG

to 35,000, and fome reckon them at 40,000. It is environed
with ramparts, walls, and deep ditches; and befides four
large and fix {mall gates, which open and fhut without any
vilible interference, it has a fecret wicket, of curious con-
itruction for admitting both horfe and foot in the night, or
in time of war. ‘The town is fupplied with water from the
river Lech, by means of aqueduéts, and of engines and
towers, which furnifh a fufficient quantity for working feve-
ral mills of different forts, for cleanfing the ftreets, and for
the domettic ufes of the inhabitants. Some of its itreets
are fteep and incommodious; but others are broad and well
paved. This city, fince the earlieft periods, had {mall fub=
terraneous paflages under the ftreets, like our fewers, and
the Roman cloace, for conveying away filth; and the
whole town was paved foon after the year 1415, when a
rich merchant fuggefted the utility of it by caufing afoot-
path to be made before his own houfe. Many of the
houfes are built of wood, and others of ftone, and they ferve
as {pecimens of the architeCture that prevailed at the period
of their conftruction ; and, compared with other houfes built
in German towns, they exhibit the fuperior improvement
and magnificence to which Augfburg had arrived. The more
modern part of this town may be reckoned handfome; many
of its churches are ftately edifices, and adorned with curious
workmanthip and paintings. ‘The town-houfe, completed
after fix years’ labour, in 1620, is a magnificent edifice, and
reckoned little inferior to that of Amfterdam. It is a large
fquare building of ftone, with a marble portico, at the top
of the front within the pediment, is a large fpread eagle,
holding in its talons a feeptre and globe of gilt brafs; the
great portal is formed of a beautiful reddifh marble, over
which is a balcony of the fame colour, fupported by two
pillars of white marble ; over the gate are two large gr

of brafs ; and moft of the rooms are wainicotted, and cieled
with very fine timber. . The faloon is 110 feet long, 58
broad, and 52 high ; its roof is fupported by eight columns
of red marble; the cieling is conitru€ted of polithed afhy
and divided into compartments, enriched with gilded feulp-
tures; it is filled with piétures and ether ornaments ; and

brafs. In the fquare, near the town-houfe, is the fountain
of Auguttus, or a large marble bafon, furrounded with iron
balluftrades, with four brafs itatues as_large as life at the
four corners 3 in the middle is a pedeital, ‘having on its to
the ftatue of Auguitus, and at the foot are four lz
fphinxes difcharging water from their breafts, with four in
fants above them, holding in their arms four dolphins which
pour water out of their mouths, and over thefe infants are -
feftoons and pine-apples of brafs. Near this bafon is a foun-
tain, called that of Hercules, of an hexagonal form, with
feveral brafs figures, and particularly Hercules engaging the
Hydra. Befides the cathedral, which is a large, gloomy,
gothic building, with two fpire fteeples, adorned with paint-
ings, and opening with 2 brais gate, with its fourteen c a-
pels; there are fix Roman catholic parochial churches, a
{plendid college belonging to the Jefuits, five monafteries,
three nunneries, and fix Lutheran parifh churches ; and alfo
a Lutheran gymnafium, which contains a good OA.
The Benediétine abbey is a large Gothic building, the ceil-
ing of which is faid to be the higheft in Germany; itis
adorned with feveral ftatues and a grand altar. “The church ‘3
of St. Croix furpaffes the others in’ its architeéture,
fculpture, gilding, and fine fpire. The Imperial Francifes
academy for arts and f{ciences, was inftituted here in 17 7
It is under the protection of the magiftrates, and its”
pal aim is to produce good mechanics, and te prefer
manufactures of the city. The part of the city that was
ereéted in 1519, by-the noble family of the Fuggers, v
are lords of the adjacent country, andin fome mealure e

¥

nd

eS a a Sere 744.

AUG

ed by them, confifts of 106 houfes, inhabited by the poor
burghers at a low rent ; and fome of whom are maintained by
an annual penfion. The burghers of this city are computed
at 6000. The inhabitants are partly Lutherans, and partly
Catholics. ‘The Jews are excluded from the town; but
they occupy a village at the diitance of about a league, and
pay a tax for the liberty of trading in the day. The afpect
of the inhabitants is very different ; that of the Proteftants
refembling the Swabians ; and the Catholics being like the
Bavarians. The government is ariftocratical ; it is vefted
with 45 perfons, of whom 31 are patricians, 4 fuch as have
married the daughters of patricians, 5 merchants, and 5
of the commonalty ; the council is formed of an equal num-
ber of Lutherans and Roman Catholics. 'The police is
good; and though the town has no territory, it has no
debts. In former times, Augfburg was the great mart for
Indian commodities in the interior parts of that extenfive
country ; its trade was very confiderable ; and we meet with
many examples of fuch large fortunes accumulated by mer-
cantile induitry, as raifed the proprietors of them to high
rank and confideration in the empire. It was celebrated for
its curious artifts, whofe manufactures, particularly in tin and
filver, were much admired. Aug{burg, however, is no longer
what it wasin this refpect. It hasno longer a Fugger and
a Weller in it, to lend the emperor millions. Here are no
merchants who have capitals of more than 20,000 /. ; others,
with {mall capitals, do the bufinefs of brokers and commiffion-
ers; and next to thefe are the engravers, ftatuaries, and
painters. ‘Their productions, like the toys of Nuremberg,
have a general circulation. Augfburg fupplies all Germany
with little pictures for prayer-books: and in various ways,
its trade is {till confiderable, though far from being fo
great as it formerly was. ‘The bifhop takes his name fom
this town, though he refides at Dillengen. His income is
about 20,000/. perannum. He isa prince of the empire; and
he fits and votes in the college of princes, betwixt the bifhops
of Conftance and Hildefheim ; the territory belonging to the
bifhoprick lies between the rivers Lech, Ler, and Danube.

In the diet of the empire, Augfburg was originally
called Vindelicia, and was the capital of the Vindelici;
afterwards it had the name of Augulta Vindelicorum, and
Rhetorum, when it came under the dominion of the Ro-
mans, anda colony was fettled in it by Drusus. Tacitus
(Germ. c. xli.) calls it the moft {plendid city of Rhetia.
From the Romans it was transferred to the Alemanni, the
Goths, and the Franks; under the lait of whom it declined
much; but it recovered again under Charles the Fat. The
emperor Henry III. took it under his protection, but it fuf-
fered much by its contelts with the bifhops, and its condi-
tion became very precarious. From Frederic I. it obtained
feveral privileges ; and in 1275, king Rudolph I. confirmed
and enlarged its imperial rights.

Augfburg has acquired celebrity, not merely on account of
its antiquity and pre-eminence fora long feries of ages, and
for the extent of its commerce in the 14th and 15th centuries,
but from its havingbeen the fcene of feveral confiderable tranf-
actions. In thisplace,acouncilhelding52, coniirmedtheorder
for the celibacy of priefts. In 1518, a diet was held at this
place, for concerting and promoting a general crufade againft
the Turks. Ata diet, attended by the emperor Charles V. in
1530, the creed of the Proteflants called the Auguftan or
Augiburg confeffion, was prefented and publicly read. In
1547, the emperor held a diet in this place for finally com-
pofing the controverlies with regard to religion, which had
long difturbed the empire: and having, at the head of his
Spanifh troops, taken poffeffion of the cathedral and one of
the principal churches, he re-eftablifhed with great pomp
the rites of the Romifh worfhip. Before this diet, he laid

vor. LET,

AUG

the fyftem of doftrine, known afterwards by the name of
the Interim; and in 1548, he made his firft attack upon
this city, on account of the part it took in its oppofition to
this fyltem, iffuing a decree, after he had taken forcible pof-
feffion of the town, by which he abolifhed its form of go-
vernment, diffolved all its corporations and fraternities of its
burgeffes, and nominated a fmall number of perfons, in whom
he vefted the future right of adminiltration, and each of
whom was conftrained to take an oath for obferving the In-
terim. In 1550, a diet was fummoned by the emperor at
this place for further enforeing the obferyation of the Inte-
rim. The diet held here in 1555, fettled the religious
peace of Germany, by an at called the Recess. In
this city an alliance called the league or treaty of Augf-
burg, was concluded in 1686, between the emperor, the
king of Spain, the republic of Holland, the elector Pala-
tine, Bavaria, and the duke of Savoy: the profefled objeét
of which was to reftrain the ambition of the French mo-
narch ; but the real motive, fays M. Anquetil in his «¢ Mo-
tifs des Guerres et des Traités de Paix de la France, &c.
1798,” which led William prince of Orange to effect this
league was, to keep Louis bufy on the continent, while he,
whofe fagacity forefawto what the intemperate folly of James
II. of England would lead, might with more eafe afcend the
Englifh throne in his ftead. ‘The hottilities confequent on
this league commenced in 1688, which was followed by a
continental war, terminated by the peace of Ryfwick in
1699. Although the Proteftants were very powerful at
Augfburg, they were driyen from thence by the Bavarians,
and reftored again by Guftavus Adolphus in 1632; fince
which time they have continued, and fhared the government
with the Catholics. In 1703, the elector of Bavaria be-
fieged the city and took it, and demolifhed its fortifica-
tions; but the battle of Hockftedt reftored its liberty,
which it enjoys under its own magiftrates ; the bifhop hav-
ing no temporal dominion in the city. The chapter is com-
pofed of perfons who can produce proofs of their nobility.
The canons have a right of electing their bifhop, who is a
fovereign, like feveral of the other German bifhops. Augs=
burg is fituated in N. lat. 48° 24’. EF. long. 10° 58’.

AvuGssurG Confeffion. See Aucustan.

AUGST, a village of Swifferland, near the Rhine, for-
merly a-celebrated city called Augufla Rauracorum, whither
Munatius Plancus conducted a Roman colony under the
empire of Auguftus, A. U. C. 740, B.C. 14. It is feated
on the river Eretz, two leagues from Bafle. It was ruined
by Attila. Of its ancient magnificence many monuments
have been difcovered ; fuch as the ruins of an amphitheatre,
of towers, of fubterranean vaults, and alfo medals, and
fravments of ftatues and infcriptions. :

AUGUR, in Antiquity, a minitter of religion among the
Romans, appointed to take auguries or prelages concerning
futurity from birds, beafts, and the appearancesot theheavens,

The word is by fome derived from avis, bird, and garri-
tus, chatiering ; whence the original office of the augurs is
fuppofed to have been to obferve, and take indications
from the noife, calling, finging, chirping, and chattering
of birds. Agreeably to which, augur is commonly diftin-
guifhed from aufpex, as the latter was fuppoled employed
in obferving the flight of birds\—Pezron derives it from the
Celtic au, liver, and gur, man; fo that, according to him,
an augur was properly a perfon who infpected the entrails,
and divined by means of the liver. Qn which principle,
augur would have been the fame with Axuspices.

The augurs conttituted a college or community, which
at firft confifted of three perfons, one being appointed by
Romulus for each tribe ; then of four, when Servius Tul-
lius increafed the tribes to that number; then of nine, four

Uu ef

AUG

of them patricians, and five plebeians, added in the year of
Rome 454, at the folicitation of the tribunes, and ele&ed
from among the common people; laftly, Sylla, in the year
672, increafed the number to fifteen. They were at firft
chofen, like the other priefts, by the comitia curiata, but
their eleGtion afterwards underwent the fame changes with
that of the pontifices.

The eldeit of thefe prefided over the reft, and was
honoured with the title of « Magiiter Collegii.”” Their
office, which terminated only with their death, and of
whidh no crime or forfeiture could deprive them, as it is
comprifed in the augural law mentioned by Cicero (De
Divin\ 1. ii), was to imterpret dreams, oracles, prodigies,
&c. and to tell whether any aGion fhould be fortunate or
prejudicial to particular perfons, or to the whole ftate. Thus
they were the interpreters of the will of the gods with
re{pect to the making of war or peace ; aad all were obliged
to obey them in fo important an article.

They bore an augural ftaff, or wand, called Jituus, as
the enfign of their office and authority. The other badges
of their office were a kind of robe called tradea, and a cap
of a conical fhape like that of the pontifices. No affair of
moment could be refolved on, without firft confulting them;
and their advice, be it what it would, was, by a decree of
the fenate, appointed to be exactly and religioufly obferved.

The office was important and honourable. It was afpired
after by fome of the principal perfons of the Roman itate.
Cato was a member of the college of augurs ; and Cicero
alfo was dignified with this title, and perfectly underitood
the whole art practifed by himfelf and his colleagues.
Although he ridicules the profeffion (De Divin. 1. ii.), and
demonftrates by various proofs the inutility, impotence,
and abfolute impoflibility of the art, and relates a faying
of Cato concerning it, “ that he could not imagine how one
arufpex could look another in the face without laughing ;”
yet, notwithitanding his contempt of its fuperiftitions, he
blamed thofe generals and magiltrates, who on important
occafions had negleéted them; and maintains, that this prac-
tice, though allowed to be fubje@& to many abufes and
frauds, ought to be regarded on account of religion and the
prejudices of the people. Pliny was alfo raifed by Trajan
to the dignity of augur; and through every period of the
Roman itate, this office was the higheft rank in the prieft-
hood to which any fenator could be raifed. Of this
Auguftus was fo well apprized, that by feizing the office of
high prieft on the death of Lepidus in the year of Rome
725, B.C. 29, he, and his fucceffors in the empire, ob-
tamed a controul over all religious matters; and by thus
placing themfelves at the head of all the colleges of priefts,
augurs, and keepers of the Sibylline books and others, they
became the fole arbitrators in all facred as well as profane
concerns. Foran abitraét of the hiftory and office of augurs,
See Aucury.

Avucur, in Lntomology, a fpecics of Cimex, of a rufous
colour, with the antenne, under-wings, and legs black. A
native of the Eaft Indies, and the cape of Good Hope.

AvGur, a fpecies of PHarzna (Nodua), with brown
wings, charaétered withblack. Inhabits Germany. Fabricius.

ALuGuR, a fpecies of Musca that inhabits New Hol-
land. It is cimereous; abdomen blueifh ; fides teftaceous
and diaphanous. Fabricius, &c.

AUGURAL, fomething relating to the Aucurs.

The augural inftruments are reprefented on feveral an-
cient medals. Evelyn on Medals, chap. ii.

AucuraL fupper, cena auguralis, that given by a prieft
on his firft admiffion into the order, called alfo by Varro
adjiciali. De Re Ruftic. lib, iii. cap. 6.

Avucurat books, libri augurales, thofe wherein the dif-

AUG

cipline and rules of augury were laid down, Cie. de Divin,:
lib. 1, cap. 33. Prifeian (1. 708.) fays, that Julius Cefar
compofed augural books.
AUGURALE, the place in a camp where the general
took aufpicia. Thisanfweredto the auguratorium in the city.
Aucurate is alfo ufed, in Seneca, for the enfign or
badge of an augur, as the /ituus. De Tranquil. cap, xi.

AUGURATORIUM, a building on the Palatine

Mount, where public auguries were taken. This is alfo
called auguraculum and arx.

AUGURELLO, Giovanni Auretio, in Biography,
a learned Italian, was born at Rimini about 1441, ftudied

at Padua, and became profeflor of polite literature at Tre-.

vigi, where he had a canonry, and where he died in 1524.
He was addicted to the fludy of alchemy ; and it is faid
that pope Leo X. in return for the dedication of his Latin
poem, intitled ‘* Chryfopeia,” gave him a large empty
purfe, faying, that he knew how to fill it. From this poem,
however, it appears that Augurello was no believer in the
art. He publithed, belides the Chryfopwia, many Latin
poems, odes, elegies, and cantos; fome of which poffefs
elegance and purity. ‘The poems in his own language were
not publithed till 1765. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog. =.

AUGURY, the difcipline of the augurs, or the praétice
of confulting the Gods, and learning their will, by divers
kinds of omens.

The obfervation of auguries is very ancient, as having
been prohibited by Mofes in Leviticus.—The cup put ia
Benjamin’s fack, in Egypt, is faid to have been that ufed
by Joieph for making auguries. §

However this be, augury was undoubtedly a very ancient
fuperftition. Hefiod informs us, that the operations of agri-
culture were regulated by the migration of birds; and it
had probably been in ufe long before his time, for marking
the changes of the feafons. At length the fight of birds
was more particularly obferved; and their different motions
were thought to be of fuch confequeace, that no concern of
importance, either private or public, was undertaken with-
out confulting them. Abfurd as this fuperftition may now
appear, and as it certainly was in the extenfive application
and ufe of it, it feems to have derived its origin from nature.
The appearance and difappearauce of particular birds at
different feafons, would probably fuggeft to thofe who
were ignorant of the places to which they migrated, and
from which they occafionally returned, that they might vifit
the ethereal regions, and there converfe with the gods, and
acquire an inftinét or faculty for foretelling future events.
A fuperttitious people might argue in this manner; and
as birds are found capable of imitating the human yoice,
fome impoftor might have ayailed himfelf of this cireum-
ftance, and deduced prefumptions in favour of the falla-

cious fyftem of augury. An Aa ers writer fuggefts (fee

Stillingfleet’s Calendar of Flora), that this might have been
the caie; and it is alleged, that the inftitution of augury
feems to have been more ancient than that of arufpicy ; for
Homer fupplies us with feveral inftances of the former,
but none of the latter. Upon the whole, it is not impro-
bable that natural augury gave rife to religions augury 5 and
this again, by a tranfition not unnatural, to aruipiey. A
paflage in Ariftophanes furnifhes a hint that led to thefe
obfervations. In his comedy of the birds, he reprefents one
of them as faying, ‘¢ The greateft bleffiag which can happen
to you, mortals, are derived from us; firft, we fhew you
the feafons, {pring, autumn, aid winter; the crane points
out the time for fowing, when fhe flies with her warning
notes into Egypt ; fhe bids the failor hang up his rudder.
and take his reft, and every prudent maa provide himfelf
with winter garments ; the kite appears next, announcing

another

4

AUG

another feafon, when it is time to fhear the fheep; after
that, the {wallow informs you when it is time to put on
fummer clothes: we are to you, adds the Chorus, Ammon,
Dodona, Apollo ; for after confulting us, you undertake
every thing; merchandife, purchafes, marriages, &c.

© Eousy dup Appwr, Azada, Awdwyny Gores Amorrw.??
Now, it feems not improbable, that the fame tranfition
was made in the fpeculations of men which appear in the
words of the poet; and that they were eafily induced to
think that the Unease forefight of birds as to the time of
migration, indicated fomething of a divine nature in them;
againft which opinion, Virgil, as an Epicurean, protelts,
when he fays,

« Hand equidem credo, quia fit divinitas illis ingenium.”
From thefe {peculations ef a conjectural kind we proceed to
obferve, that fome have afcribed the invention of this art
to Prometheus, or Melampus, the fons of Amythaon and
Dorippe. Pliny (1. vii.c. 55.), fays, that the Carians were
the firft obfervers of birds, and that Orpheus firft directed
his attention to other animals. Paufanias (Phocic.) attri-
butes the firft obfervation of the flight of birds to Parnaflus,
who gave his name to mount Parnaflus. Clement of Alex-
andria reports, that the Phrygians were the inventors of
this art. Upon the whole, it feems probable, that this {pe-
cies of divination was tranfmitted from the Chaldzans,
Atfiatics, and perhaps the Egyptians, to the Greeks; from
them to the Hetrurians ; and from the Hetrurians to the
Latins and Romans.

We find five forts of auguries mentioned by the ancients.
1. From the appearances in the heavens, as thunder, light-
ning, and other meteors. 2. From birds, whence they de-
rived the name of Aufpices. Some birds furnifhed them
with obfervations from their chattering or finging, and
others from their flying. The former were called Ofcines,

and the latter Prepetes. For the taking of both thetfe
forts of auguries, the augur went up to ie high place,
took the augural ftaff, bent at one end like a crofier, and
marked out with it the four templa or quarters of the
heavens. ‘Then he turned to the eaft, and in that fitua-
tion, waited for the omen;:which was of no fignification,
unlefs it was confirmed by another of the fame fort. In this
manner Romulus perceived Jupiter’s approbation of his
ele&tion to the crown: having feen lightning that came out
on his left fide and proceeded tohisright. This ceremony,
which was alfo obferved when Numa was called to the crown,
is largely defcribed by Livy, li. c.18. 3. From birds
kept in a coop for that purpofe. The manner of divining
from them was as follows: early in the morning the augur
that was to take the obfervation, after having commanded a
general filence, ordered the coop to be opened, and then
threw in a handful of crumbs or corn. If the chickens did
not eat greedily, fcattered the food about with their wings,
let fall a great deal of it from their mouths to the ground,
or, above all, refufed to eat, the omen was reckoned unlucky,
and fome great mifchief portended ; but if they fed greedily,
and let nore of the food drop out of their mouths, they
obtained all defirable aflurance of happinefs and fuccefs.
This fort of augury was called ¢ripudium, from the ancient
Latin word pavire, to firike, and terra, the earth ; becaufe
the birds, in eating greedily, ttruck the ground with their
beaks. The ftory of P. Claudius the conful is well known
(Val. Max. l.i. c. 4.), who, ready to engage at fea in the
firlt Punic war, and hearing that the chickens would not
come out of their coop, ordered them to be thrown into
the fea, with this jeft, « If they will not eat, let them drink.”
But he was vanquifhed ; not, it will be thought, by the
contempt of this filly and childifh ceremony, but in confe-
quence of his own'rafhnefs. 4. The next fort of augury

?

AUG

was from beatts, viz. wolves, goats, foxes, heifers, affes,
rams, hares, weafels, and mice. The general obfervations
about them were, whether they appeared in a ftrange place,
or croffed the way ; whether they ran to the right or lefi,
&c. 5. The laft fort of divination by auguries was from

* what they called dire, or unufual accidents happening to

any perfon, as tumbling, feeing apparitions, hearing ftrange
voices, perfons f{pilling falt on the table, meeting a wolf, fox,
a hare, &c, Many curious circumftances of Roman fuper-
{tition with refpeét to omens and other things are enume-
rated by Vliny, xxviii. 2.; and among the Greeks, by Paufa-
iias, iv. 13. Cefar, in landing at Adrumetum in Africa,
with his army, happened to fall on his face, which was
reckoned a bad omen ; but he, with great prefence of mind
turned it to his own advantage: for taking hold of the
ground with his right hand, and kiffing it, as if he had fallen
on purpofe, he exclaimed, ‘* Teneo ie, Africa,” “I take
poflefiion of thee, O Africa.’ Dio. xlii. fin. Suet. Jul. 59.

AvGuRY, in its more general fignification, comprifes
all the different kinds of divination; which Varro diltin-
guifhes into four {pecies of augury, according to the four
elements. —Pyromancy, or augury by fire; aéromancy, or
augury by the, air; Aydromancy, or augury by the water ;
and geomancy, or augury by the earth.

The particular branches are alectoromancy, anthropomancy,
belamancy, caloptromancy, capnomancy, gaflromancy, LCOMANCYy
aru/picina, libanomancy, lecanomancy, necromancy, &c. See
each defcribed under its proper article.

AUGUST, Aucusrus, ina general fenfe, fomething
majeftic, venerable, or facred.

The title Auguftus was firft given by the Roman fenate
to Otavius, Jan. 13th. A. U. C. 727. B. C. 27. after his
being confirmed by them in the fovereign power.—It was
conceived as exprefling fomething divine, or elevated above
the pitch of mankind, being derived from the verb augeo, I
increafe, “tanquam fupra hamanam fortem auctus.”? When
fome of the fenators, in concurrence with his own firlt in-
clination, would have given him the name of Romulus, as a
fecond founder of Rome; Munatius Plancus propofed
his being denominated Auguftus, becaufe it denoted a per-
fon or thing confecrated by fome augur, or form of religion,
and nearly allied to the deity. Accordingly, Ovid gives us
this reafon for the appellation in his “ Fatt,” 1. i. v. 609.

« Sancta vocant Auguita patres: Augutta vocantur

Templa, Sacerdotum rite dicata manu.
Hujus et augurium dependet origine verbi,
Et quodcunque fua Jupiter auget ope.”
The fucceffors of OGavius aflumed the fame quality; fo
that thenceforward Emperor and Augu/tus became fynony-
nous, ternas,

The Greeks rendered the name Auguftus by ZEBAETOZ,
and gaye it to all the fucceffors of Auguftus, after the ex-
ample of the Romans.

Auguflus, the title expreflive of the character of peace
and fanétity, which Oavius uniformly afiected, was a
perfonal, and Ce/ar a family diftin@tion, The former,
therefore, fhould naturally have expired with the prince on
whom it was beftowed; and however the latter was diffufed
by adoption and female alliance. Nero was the lait prince
who could allege any hereditary claim to the honours of
the Julian line. But, at the time of his death, the pra€tice
of a century had infeparably conneéted thofe appellations
with the imperial dignity, and they have been preierved by
a long fucceffion of emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks,
and Germans, from the fall of the republic to the prefent
time. A diftin@ion was, however, foon introduced. The
facred title of Auguftus was referved for the monarch,
whilft the name of Czfar was more freely communicated

Uuz2 to

AUG

to his relations; and from the reign of Adrian, at leaft,
was appropriated to the fecond perfon of the ftate, who was
confidered as the prefumptive heir of the empire. Accord-
ingly, the perfon, who was deftined to fucceed to the dignity,
was firit created Cefar, which wasa ftep neceflary to arnve
at that of Auguffus or emperor.—Yet F. Pagi maintains the
reverfe; viz. that it was neceflary to be uguflus previoufly
to the being Cefar; and alleges the inftance of Valenti-
nian [,, who proclaimed his brother Valens dugu/fus before
he was created Ce/zr; but this fingle fact is not fufficient
to invalidate the evideace of common prattice.

The empreffes alfotook the quality of duguffe; and even
fome ladies of the imperial family, who had never been
wives of emperors, but mothers or daughters.

On medals and coins, fome of the ancient kings of France
are alfo found with the appellation Augu/fi: particularly
Childebert, Clothaire, and Clovis; add, that the wife of this
laft, Chrotechilda, is alfo called by Herric, in his book of
the miracles of St. Germain, indifferently either dugufla, or

UeEN.
: Aveusrt, in refpe& of Chronology, denotes the eighth
month of the Julian year.

This was called in the ancient Roman calendar, /extilis,
as being the fixth from March, from which the Romans
began their computation. The emperor Augu/fus changed
the name, and gave it his own ; not that it was the month
in which he was born, which was September, and which was
firft propofed for bearing his name, but becaufe it had been
fortunate to him by feveral viétories which he had gained
in it.

He preferred this month to September for the reafons
mentioned in the deliberations of the fenate, preferved by
Macrobius. The tenor of the’ . is as follows: ‘* As it was
in the month, hitherto called /extilis, that the emperor
Czfar Auguftus took poffeffion of his firft confulfhip; that
he celebrated three triumphs ; that he received the oath of
allegiance of the legions that occupied the janiculum ; that
he reduced Egypt under the power of the Roman people ;
that he put an end to all civil wars; it appears that this
month is and has been a moft happy month to this empire ;
the fenate therefore ordains, that this month fhall henceforth
be called Auguftus.”” This decree of the fenate was ratified
by an order of the people. ©

Our Saxon ancettors called it Weod-monath, that is weed-
month, on account of the plenty of weeds in this feafon.
Spelman.

This month is efteemed one of the richeft in the whole
year, becaufe of the harveft of the feveral forts of grain
which is produced in that feafon. Hence is to be derived
the French proverb, a man has made his Auguft; which
proverb is much ufed among merchants, to figaify that a
man. has been fuccefsful in trade, and got an eltate.

Aveusrisalfo ufed in Middle Age Writers, for a power
or licence of going out of a city in harveit time, to reap,
&c. Du-Cange.

AUGUSTA, in Ancient Geography, aname given fingly,or
jm conneGtion with fome epithets, to feveral towns in honour
of Auguflus the Roman emperor. Thus, 4ugyfa was a town
of Gallia Narbonnenfis, founded by Augultus, with the title
of a colony ; fituate 14 league from the Rhone, and having
a temple of Jupiter, a circus, and an amphitheatre.—Alfo,
atown of Cilicia, feated on mount Taurus, five or fix leagues
north from Adana. Pliny, l.v.c. 27. It became fubjeé&
to Rome in the reign of Auguftus.—Alfo, a town.of Dacia
Ripenfis.—Alfo, atown of Rhetia.—Alfo, a port of Sicily,
nearly north of Syracufe. duguffa Affurica, Afforga, an
ancient town of Spaia, in Afluria.—A. 4u/ciorum, a town
of Aguitania, originally called Climberrum, which name it

1

AUG

afterwards refumed, In the middle age it took the name
of the people 4u/ci, and is now Aucw —A. Bateniorum,
or Baciennorum, an ancient town of Italy, in Liguria; called
alfo A. Vagiennorum.—A. Bracarum, Braga, an ancient
town of Hifpania Citerior, Pliny. —A. Einerita, a town of
Lufitania, on the river Anas, the capital of the province ;
it was a colony of the Emeriti, or of fuch foldiers as had
ferved out their legal time, were men of experience, or had
received marks of favour, founded by Auguftus; adorned
by him with ftately buildings, a long and magnificent
bridge over the Gaudiana, a: d two acqueducts.
called Meripa.—A. ELuphraicfia, a town of Afia, in Comae
gene, on the banks of the Euphrates —A. Gemella, a town
of Beetica, in Spain, in the country of the Turduli.—A.
Magna, a town of Afia, fituate at the confluence of the
Apfar and Phafis. Ptolemy.—/uguflamica, a divifion of
Egypt, which commenced about the time of Theedore IT.
comprehending that part of Lower Egypt, which extends
from the right arm of the Nile to the eait of Delta, to the
frontier of Arabia.—A. Nova, a town of Hifpania Tarra-
gonenfis, on the river Areva, in the country of the Arevaci5
called by Ptolemy Porta Auguffa.—A. Pratoria,atown of
Gallia Cifalpina, at the foot of the Alpes Graiz, in Duria,
fo called ‘becaufe Auguitus fent thither a colony of the
pretorian foldiers; inhabited by the Salaffi: now Aousre.
—A. Rauracorum, a town of Helvetia, now called AuesT.
A. Sueffonum, a town of Gallia Belgica, on the Axona, now
Sorssons.—A. Taurinorum, a town of the Taurini, at the
foot of the Alps, where the Duria Minor falls into the Po,
fo called becaufe Auguftus eitablifhed here a Roman colony $
now Turin.—A. Tiderii, a town upon the Danube, on
the confines of Rhetia and Dorica; now Rarispon.—
A. Treba, a town of the /Equi, near the fprings of
the river Anio in Italy, now Trevi, in Umbria.—A.
Trevirorum, a town of Gallia Belgica, belonging to the
Treviri, a people inhabiting the territory between the
Rhine and the Mofelle, now Treves or Triers.—A.T7ri-
nobantum, a town of the Trinobantes, in the ifle of Albionx
called Augufta from its grandeur ;‘now Lonpox.—A. Va-
giennorum, the feat of a Roman colony, among the moun-
tains, now Vico near Monpovi.—A. Veromanduorum, a
town of Gallia Belgica, now St. Quintin.—A. Valeria,
a town of Hifpania Tarragonenfis, belonging to the Celtibe-
rians. Ptolemy.—A. Vindelicorum, a town of Vindelicia,
now AUGSBURG.

Avcusta, in Geography, a town of Sicily, eighteen
miles by land, and nine by fea, diftant from Syracufe, was built
by the emperor Frederick II. near the ruins of the Greek
city of Megara; and covered a {mall low peninfula, joined to
Sicily on the north fide by a long caufeway, having on each
fide extenfive falt-ponds. This projeCtion forms a very fine
harbour, the largeft and moft eafy of accefs in Sicily, opening
to a fouthern expofure, but fheltered by the points of the
coaft from both wind and fwell, with nine fathoms of water
in almoft every part. A ruinous citadel guards the land
gate ; and three forts, built oa little iflands, defend the en-
trance of the port. The country along the oppofite fhore
is beautifully diverfified in its culture. The order of Malta
has eftablifhed at Augufta magazines of falt meat, bifeuit,
and flour, for the fupply of their fhips that are continually
paffing between the iflands. The town is fcarcely recovered
from the devaftation caufed by the earthquake in 1693,
which deftroyed by the falling of the houfes about one

third of the inhabitauts, fet fire to the powder magazine in ia

the citadel, which blew up, and threw the light-houfe pre-
cipitately into the fea. Siace that time the town has been re-
built on a regular plan, with low houfes to prevent injury
from another fhock if it fhould occur. The number of i

habitants

It is now

a

A'U G

habitants is-reckoned at 9205 by an enumeration. Swine
burne fays its population amouuts to 16,000 perfons. Tra.
vels, vol, 4. p. 116.

Avausta, a county of Virginia, in North America,
lying partly on the eafl and partly on the weit of the
North Trane. a ridge of the Alleghany. The {oil is fer-
tile, and the country contains 10,886 inhabitants, including
1567 flaves. In this diftrict there is a remarkable cafcade,
called the falling fpring,” which is a branch of the James,
where it is called Jackfon’s river, rifling in the mountains
twenty miles fouth-welt from the “ warm or hot {pring,”
in N. lat. 38° 9’, W. long. 80° 6’. At the “ falling {pring”’
the water fails two hundred feet, being fifty feet higher
than the fall of Niagara: and the fheet of water is only
twelve or fifteen feet wide above, and fomewhat wider be-
low.

AucGusra, a town of North America, in the upper di-
frit of Georgia, fituate on a fine plain in Richniond
county, on the fouth-welt bank of the Savannah river,
where it is near five hundred yards broad, at a bend of the
river, 127 miles novth-weit from Savannah, and 934 fouth-
weit from Philadelphia. At the firft fettlement of the co-
lony, generat Oglethorpe ereéted a fort here for protecting
the Indian trade, and holding treaties with the natives. In
1787, it contained 200 houfes. The countryound it has
an excellent foil, which, together with its central fituation
between the upper aid low:r countries, infures its improve-
ment. N. lat. 33° 19. W.long. 80 406’.

AvucGusrTa, a town of Upper Canada,

Avcusra, ariver in the fouth-eafl part of the ifland of
Cuba, in the Welt Iidies, navigable for feveral leagues
from the mouth, in which is Cumberland harbour.

Aucusta, Hifforia, is the hiltory of the Roman empe-
rors from the time of Adrian to Carinus, compofed by fix
Latin writers, Ail. Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Ail, Lam-
pridius, Vulcatius, Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio, and Fla-
vius Vopifcus. They all lived in the reign of Dioclefian,
though fome of them flourifhed under his fucceflors, uear the
end of the third and beginning of the fourth century. They
are rather biographers than hittorians, and take more care to
inform us of the good and bad qualities of the emperors, of
their birth, education, ftature, mien, and even their diet,
and the clothes they wear, than to defcribe their wars, the
Jaws they enacted, and the great revolutions that happened
during their refpectiverreigns. Vopifcus, who was a Syra-
cufan, and who is faid, in the life of Probus, to have imi-
tated Suetonius, according to the general opinion of the
Jearned, far excels the reft, both as to his method and {ftyle ;
neverthelefs he has many imperfections, and is not to be
compared with any of the Latin hiftorians. ‘The other
five betray-great want of judgment in their choice, and of
method in digefting their materials. Of thefe fix writers,
Capitolinus is the moft confufed and injudicious ; whence
fome have fufpeéted that the author of this collection had
blended together the relations of Capitolinus, Spartian, and
fome others. Their ftyle is vulgar and unpolifhed, their
expreffions uncouth, and fometimes hardly intelligible. Vo-
pilcus obferves, that Lampridius and Capitolinus attended
more to truth than to elegance in their narrations. Pollio
acknowledges that his ftyle has nothing of the dignity of
the ancients. Fabr. Bibl. Latin. vol.ii. p. 37, kc. Anc.
Ui. Hitt. vol. xiv. p. 67. The hiftories of thefe writers
were publifhed together, with the notes of ,Cafaubon, Sal-
mafius, and Gruter, in two vols. 8vo. 1671 ; and re-pub-
Iifhed by I. P. Schmidt, in 1771.

AUGUSTALES, or Sodales Aucusta.es, or Fla-
mines AUGUSTALES, were the priefts of Auguitus, appointed

.

AUG

after the deification of that emperor by Tiberius and infli-
tuted by him, to perform the fervice of the new god.
Three of thefe were Drufus, Claudius, and Germanicus 5
and the others, who fupplied the number of twenty-one,
were chofen by lot among the citizens of the firlt families
in Rome. ‘The fame name of Auguftales was alfo applied
to other colleges of prietts, inftituted in honour of the fuc-
ceflors of Auguftus, and who like him were deified. The
appellation is alfo extended to thofe who conducted the firlt
ranks of the army; to the preteéts of Egypt, who were
eftablifhed by Auguftus after the defeat of Antony and
Cleopatra ; to all the officers of the imperial palace ; and to
thofe citizens in the colonies and municipia, who held the
middle rank between the decurions and the people. ‘The
Auguftales of the provinces were probably fet apart for
the worthip of Auguftus in the fame manner with thofe of
Rome,

AUGUSTALIA, in Antiquity, a featt inftituted in ho-
nour of the emperor Auguttus.

This feftival was firft eftablithed in. the year of Rome
735, being the fourth after he had ended all his wars, and
fettled the affairs of Sicily, Greece, Afia, Syria, and the
Parthians. The day whereon he made his entry into Rome,
being the fourth of the ides of October, was appointed to
be kept a feaft, and was called dugu/falis.

AvcustTatta was alfo a name given to the games cele-
brated in honour of the fame prince, on the fourth of the
ides of O&tober.

AUGUSTALIS, or Prefedus Auguftalis, a Roman

magiitrate who was appointed to govern Egypt, with a

power much like that of a proconfulin other provinces,

AUGUSTAN, relating to Augultus or Auguita.

Aucustan Afra. See AcTIAN.

Avucusran,orAuGsBurc Confefion, in Ecclefiaftical Hif-
tory, dexotesacelebrated confeffion of faith, drawn up by Lu-
ther and Melanéthon, on behalf of themfelves and other an-
cient reformers, and prefented in 1530, to the emperor
Charles V. at the diet of Auguita or Augfburg, in the name
of the evangelic body. This confeflion contains twenty-eight
chapters, of which the greateft part is employed, in re-
prefenting, with perfpicuity and truth, the religious opt-
nions of the proteftants, and the reft’ in pointing out the
errors and abufes that occafioned their feparation from the
church of Rome. The ftyle in which it is written is plain,
elegant, grave, and perfpicuous, fuch as becomes the na-
ture of the fubjeét, and does honour to the eloquent pen of
Melan&hon. ‘Che matter of this confeffion was fupplied by
Luther, who, during the diet, refided at Coburg, a town
in the neighbourhood of Augfburg ; and even the form it
received from the acute judgment of his colleagues was au<
thorifed by his counfel andapprobation. The Roman Ca-’
tholics attempted a refutation of this confeffion : this refuta-
tion was read publicly in the affembly ; and the emperor
demanded fubmiffion on the part of the Proteftant members ;
but the Proteftants were not fatiisfied, and requelted a copy
of this reply, that they might/demonftrate at large its in-
fufficiency and weaknefs. Th¢ emperor refifted this requett,
interpofed by his authority to fufpend any further proceed-
ing, and folemly prohibited \the publication of aay new
writings or declarations that {might contribute to lengthen
out thefe religious debates. M elancthon prepared an aniwer,
which was prefented to the ¢mperor, but he refufed to re-
ceive it. This anfwer was {.fterwards enlarged and pubs
lifhed in 1531, with the othdr pieces that related to the
doétriné and difcipline of the Lutheran church, under the
title of « A Defence of th¢ Conteflion of Augfburg,”’ or
‘‘ Apologia Confeffionis Ajguftane.’? In compofing this

5 defencey

i

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defence, Melanéthon’s love of peace and concord feems to
have carried him beyond what he owed to the truth; and
through fervile fear, exceffive charity, or indecifion of
mind, he makes feveral ftrange conceffions to the church of
Rome. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hiit. vol. iv. p. 283. In fome
fubfequent editions of the “ Apologia,”’ the obnoxious
paflages were omitted, aud the phrafeology that had given
jult offence materially altered. See PHILiprists.

AUGUSTATICUM, in Middle Age Writers, denotes
a largefs, or donative, of an emperor to the people or fol-
diery,

AUGUSTENBERG, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and) county of
Schwartzburg ; three miles eaft ot Arnitadt.

AUGUSTENBERG, a town of Denmark, in the duchy
of Slefwick, fix miles eait of Sonderborg.

AUGUSTEUM Marnozg, inthe Natural Hiffory of
the Ancients, a name given to the common green and white
marble fo frequent in ufe with us for tables, &c. ; and called
by our artificers, Egyptian marble.

AUGUSTIN, Axtuony, in Biography, archbitop of
Tarragona, was born at Saragofia, of parents of diftinction,
and itudied in various-univerlities both of Spain and Italy.
At the age of twenty-five, he publifhed a treatife of law,
intitled, *¢ Emendationes et Opiniones Juris Civilis.” He
was fent as nuncio to England by pope Julius III. in 1554 ;
and in 1562, he diitinguifhed himfelf at the council of
Trent. From the year 1574 to 1586, the time of his
death, he pofleffed the arbifhopric of Tarragona, His
liberality to the poor was fuch, that when he died, there
was not found money fufficient to defray the expences of a
funeral fuitable to his rank. Of many writings in law,
which he left, the moit valuable is a treatife “‘ De Emenda-
tiéne Gratiani,”’ firft printed at Tarragona in 1587, and
afterwards publifhed in 1672, by Balzar, 8vo., and efteemed
an elaborate treatife on the canon law. He wrote alfo “¢ An-
tique ColleGtiones Decretalium,” printed at Paris in 1621,
folio, with notes; ‘ Dialogues on Medals,” publifhed at
Tarragona, in 1587; and other treatifes, chiefly on canon
Jaw: with fkill in the law, he united purity of language.
Nouv. Di&. Hit.

Avcustin, z« d by contra&ion Austin, Sr. ufually
ftyled “the Apoftle of the Englith,” was the firft archbifhop
of Canterbury, and hiourifhed about the clofe of the fixth
century. He was originally a monk in the convent of
St. Andrew at Rome, educated under St. Grégory, after-
wards pope Gregory I.; aud about the year 596, deputed
by him on a miffion to Britain, for the converfion of the
Englith Saxons. Whilit :Auguftin, and forty monks, who
were Ins affociates in this woiffton, were purfuing their jour-
ney, they were difcouraged by an apprehenfion of the dangers
which they were likely to encounter; and Auguitin was
fent back from France to Rome, with a petition to be re-
called from this hazardous wndertaking. Gregory, how-
ever, was determined not to abandon his project; he there-
fore encouraged them to proceed, furnifhed them with re-
commendatory letters to the king and queen of France, and
to the bifhop of Arles, and inftructed them to take with
them fome interpreters from the Franks, whofe language
ftill refembled that of the Anglo-Saxons. In the year
597, the miffionaries landed jin the ifle of Thanet ; and
having informed Ethelbert, king of Kent, whofe queen
Bertha was a Chriftian, and who was difpofed to give them
a favourable reception, of their arrival, and of the defign
of their miffion, they were intjoduced into the royal pre-
fence. The king, however, chofe to receive them in the
open air, from a fuperftitious notion that he would be thus

{

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more fecure from the delufive influence of their magical
arts, than within the walls of a houfe. Auguftin, by means
of his interpreters, opened his commiffion: and after fta-
ing to Ethelbert the leading doétrines of Chriftianity, he
allured him to embrace the religion of Chirift by the affur-
ance of an eternal kingdom in heaven. The king, aftera
candid hearing, hefitated in abandoning the re igion of
his anceftors ; but with a liberality which refleéts honour —
upon his memory, and under a due fenfe. of the Kind-in-
tention with which the mifiionaries had undertaken fo lo
a journey, he allowed them to remaiu in the country, an
to ufe their efforts for the converfiou of his fubjeG&s. Ac-
cordingly he afligned for their refidence that part of the
ancient Durovernum, or the modern Caiterbury, which is
now called “ Stable-gate,” and which had been formerly a
kind of oratory or chapel for the royal family, where they
worfhipped and offered iacrifice to their gods. The miffion-
aries entered the city in proceffion, finging an hymn. Their
minifterial labours were at firlt confined to the precinéts of
the city, where the acceffion of new converts was inconfi-
derable ; but as foon as the king himfelf was profelyted and
baptized, they obtained liberty to extend their commifiion
to every part of his dominions; and their fuccels was fo
great that Auguttin is faid to have baptized 10,000 per=
{ons of both fexes in one day, in the river Swale, at the
mouth of the Medway. In the commencement of his mif-
fion, he thought it expedient to refrain from coercive mea-
fures ; and, as Bede informs us (Eccl. Hift. 1. i. ¢. 26.), he
inftruéted Ethelbert, that the jervice of Chrift muit be vo-
luntary, and that no compulfion ought to be ufed in pro-
pagating the gofpel ; nor does it appear that any violence
was ufed in the firft eftablifhment of Chriftianity in England,
befides that of demolifhing idols, and converting gan
temples into Chriftian churches. .
Augutftin, who feems to have been confecrated archbifhe
of Canterbury before his arrival in England, was aétu
by his rapid fuccefs with the ambition of poffefling, under
the fanétion of the pope, the fupreme authority in the
Englith churches. For the purpofe of foliciting this ho-
nour, or that of primate of England, and alfo of obtaia-
ing inftructions with regard to other fubje&ts, which may
now be deemed of very queftionable or trivial importance,
he deputed meffengers to the pope, who {peedily returned
with a full anfwer to the archbifhop’s inquiries. They alfo
brought with them a pall (See Patt), asa badge of archie-_
pifeopal dignity, and various other ecclefiaitical veftments
and utenfils. The pope alfo gave Auguftin dire¢tions for
erecting twelve fees within his province, and particul
for appointing one at York, which, if the country fhon
become Chriftian, he was to form into a province with
twelve fuffragans. Among the counfels communicated b
the pontiff to Auguftus on this occafion, was an admoni-
tion not to be elated with pride on account of the miracles
which he had been enabled to perform in confirmation of
his miniftry, but to confider that this power was given him,
not for his own fake, but for the fake of thofe whofe fal-
vation he was appointed to procure. Auguttin, praniy
fixed his fee at Canterbury, dedicated an ancient church,
formerly built by fome Roman Chriftians, to the honour
of Chrift; and king Ethelbert founded the abbey of St.
Peterand St. Paul, afterwards called St. Auguftin’s, and
fince converted into the archbifhop’s palace. Such was the
attachment of St. Auguitin to the fee of Rome, that he
attempted to bring the Britifh bifhops in Wales under the
authority of the Roman fee. . From the time when the an-
cient Britons, or Welth, were firit infru&ted inthe Chriftian
faith by Faganus and Damianus, who had been fent at the
ae haha requeft

r

a” Se see
aes

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requeft of Lucius, in the fecond century, as miffionaries by
Eleutherius bifhop of Rome, thefe churches had followed
the rules of their firft matters, without regarding the fubfe-
quent alterations preferibed by the church of Rome. But

ope Gregory, by appointing Auguftin metropolitan of the
whole ifland, had claimed jurifdiction over the churches of
Wales; and Augultin was well inclined to fupport the
claim. Two conferences were held on this bufinets ; both
of which were unfuccefsful. At the fecond conference, fe-
ven Britifh bifhops attended, and many monks from the mo-
naftery of Bangor, under the direction of their abbot Dincth.
Difpofed as they were to pay all due refpect to the archie-
pifcopal dignity of Auguttin, they took meafures, previ-
oufly to their meeting, for preventing a termination of their
contefts which would be unfavourable to their intereit. Ac-
cordingly they coufulted a hermit of acknowledged under-
ftanding, and requefted his opinion, whether they fhould
furrender their independence, and their ancient cuftoms and
privileges, to the pretenfions of Auguftin. ‘The hermit,
probably apprized of the difpofition and chara¢ter of the
metropolitan, gave them the following inftrutions: “ Tf
this man follows the example of his maiter, who was meek
and lowly of heart, he is a fervant of God, and you ought
to obey him; if not, his claim is not to be regarded: let
Auguitin and his brethren be firit feated in the place of
meeting ; if upon your entrance, he rife up to falute you,
honour him as a meffenger from God ; if he negleé to thew
you this civility, reject his offers, for he has not taken upon
him the yoke of Chrift.”” When the Britifh bifhops and
monks entered the hall, Auguitin, who had taken the chair,
received them fitting. Upon which, conformably to the
advice ‘of the hermit, they declined complying with the
propofals of the haughty prelate, and diiclaimed all fub-
jection to the fee of Canterbury, and virtually to that of
Rome. Auguitin, meenfed by their conduét, took leave
of the affembly, and denounced upon the Britifh clergy this
menacing fentence: “if you will not accept of peace with
your brethren, receive war from your enemies; if ye will
not preach the way of life to the Englifh, fuffer death from
their hands.”? The event correfponded with the menace :
Ethelfrid, king of Nortaumberland, foon afterwards

marched with a large army to Caerleon, and made a great’

flaughter, in which near 1200 of the monks of Bangor
were put to the fword. The memory of Auguftin has been
loaded with the infamy of having, to {fatiate his revenge,
fulfilled his own prophecy. Bilhop Godwin (De Preful.
Angl. p. 43. ed. 1616.) exclaims, “ Excellent prophet !
who could predi& what he knew fo well how to accom-
plith : and he afferts, upon the authority of an anonymous
manufcript, and of an old French annalift, that Auguttin,
refenting the rejection of his propofal by the Welth bifhops,
ftimulated Ethelbert to tall upon them, as a wolf upon a
flock of fheep, with a large army, borrowed ia part from
Ethelfrid ; and that the b:f:op himfelf joined the army of
Ethelfrid at Chefter, and aflifted him to gain a complete
victory. In oppofition to this teftimony, however, it is
urged by the learned Wharton (Ang. Sacr. t. i. p. 89.), on
the credit of an aucient book cited by William Thorn,
that Auguitin and pope Gregory both died im the fame
year, that is, in the year 604, when it is certain Gregory
died ; whereas the flaughter of the monks happened, ac-
cording to Godwin (ubi fupra), in 605. Bede, who men-
tions this batele (1. ii. c. 2.) adds, that it was fought after
the death of Auguftin; and though this paffage has been
fufpeéted of interpelation, the fufpicion hes been founded
merely on the omiffion of it in Alfred’s Saxon verfion,
though it is found in all the moft ancient manufcripts ; and

AcUNG

on Auguitin’s having figned a charter with Ethelbert, in
605 ; whereas the cuftom of figning written inflruments is
not older than the year 7oo. It is not ealy to decide
with any degree of certainty, whether Auguitin aflifted in
the war againft Wales; but however this be, he cannot
be exculpated from the charge of having entertained fenti-
ments, of revenge againft the Welfh bilhops, and he may
be juttly fuipected of having at leat adviled the hoftility,
which, in the iffue, proved fo fatal to the monks. (See
Cave Hilt. Lit. t.1. p. 549.) Auguitin, after having ap-
pointed Laurence for his fucceffor in the fee of Canterbury,
died, as forte fay;and particularly Wharton, who urges
good reafons fer his opinion, in the year 604, and according
to others, in 608 or 614. The remains of this prelate were
depofited firft in the monaftery, and afterwards in the ca-
thedral of Canterbury. In 1091, fome of them were fe-
cured by an abbot in a fmall urn, guarded by iron and
lead, and hid in a wail, left the precious treafure fhould fail
into the facrilegious hands of the Danes and Normans.
After the lapfe of another century, what yet remained of
the holy fkull was by another abbot ornamented with gold
and precious ftones, and repofited by itfelf; and in the
year 1300, a third:abbot laid what he could find of the holy
relics in a marble tomb adorned with beautiful carved
work, and bearing an infeription of the following jingling
coupict :
« Ad tumulum laudis patris almi ductus amore,
Abbas hune tumulum Thomas ditavit honere.’’

Ass to the miracles afcribed to St. Auftin, they are au-
thenticated merely by lying legends, to which no credit is
due. Befides reftoring a blind man to fight, for the purpofe
of eftablifhing his authority and vindicating his claims in
the firft conterence with the Britifh bifhops, he is faid to
have left the print of his foot on the ftone which received
his firft ftep on his landing in the ifle of Thanet; to have
caufed a fountain of water to {pring up for baptizing ; and
to have called up firft the corple of an excommunicated man
to make confeflion of haying refufed the payment of tythes,
and then that of the prieft who had excommunicated him,
to give him abfolution, in the prefence of the people ; after
which both ofthem returned to their graves !

“ As the apottle of the English, Augultin may deferve
to be remembered with honour, as the immediate agent in
the difperfion of Pagan fupertftition, and the introduction of
a purer fyftem of religion ; but other fuperdlitions, it muft
be confefled, were introduced in the room of thofe which
were removed, and the people, under the dominion ef Chrif-
tian priefts and monks, {till remained in a ftate of mental
vaffalage. The perfonal merit of this miffionary will bear
no comparifon with that cf the firft Chriftian apoftles.
While Paul and his brethren, in their journeys for the pro-
pagation of the gofpel, expofed themfelves to innumerable
perils, without any profpect of temporal advantage, this
apoftle travelled under the protection of princes, enjoyed the
fupport and afiiftance of the civil power, and found his
{piritual labours the dire path to worldly honour and emo-
lument. A pope was his, mafter: a king was firft his
patron, and then his difciple 5 and the fole government of
his new church, with all the advantages of fupremacy in a
well-arranged hierachy, was his recompence. That which
decifively fixesthe reproach of inordinate ambition upon his
character is, that he not only eagerly feized the metropo-
htan dignity in the Englifh church before it was well
formed, but endeavoured to bring the ancient and inde-
pendent Britifh churches under his yoke ; and that, meeting
with more refiftance than he expected from the free {pirit
of the ancient Britons, his haughty temper could not brook

the

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the oppofition, and he at leaft meditated revenge. We can
only judge of the charaéter of this apoftle by his aétions,
imperfectly recorded ; for none of his writings remain,”
Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

AUGUSTINE, Saint, a celebrated Chriftian divine
of the catholic church, the fon of Patritius, a citizen of
mean rank, and Monica, celebrated for her piety, was born
at Tagaite, a fmall town of Africa, in the year 354. His
mother, anxious for his imbibing the principles of the Chrif-
tian religion, placed him among the catechumens ; and dur-
ing a dangerous illnels, he expreffed a defire of being bap-
tiled; but upon his recovery, he poftponed the ceremony,
froma fuperttitious notion that fins committed after baptiim
were more heinous than thofe committed before. By his
father he was fent for claffical learning, much againit his own
inclination, firft to a fchool in the place of his nativity, and
afterwards to Madaura. But he was idle and diffipated ;
and guilty of deceiving his mafters, and of pilfering from
his parents. ‘To the ftudy of Greek he was at this time
partitularly averie ; nor does he feem in mature life to have
made any great proficiency init, as he confeffes that he read
the Platonifts in a Latin verfion. At the age of fixteen,
and in the year 371, he was removed to the {chools of
Carthage; but, in the mean while, notwithftanding the
counfel and remonftrances of his mother, he acquired habits
of incontinence, which were not foon abandoned, and which
he ingenuoufly acknowledges and laments, in a book of
“ Confeffions,”’ written by him at a fubfequent period,
when he became fenfible of his folly. At Carthage he
devoted himfelf to the ftudy of rhetoric and polite litera-
ture ; and {till poffefling fentiments not wholly depraved, he
found great pleafure in perufing the philofophical writings
of Cicero, particularly his Hortenfius, or “ An exhortation
to the ftudy of Philofophy,”’ not now extant. Having been
betimes inftruGted in religion, he occafionally read the ferip-
tures ; but not finding in them that kind of eloquence which
he met with in Pagan writers, he difliked their fimplicity,
and threw them afide. However, during his continuance
at Carthage, he attached himfelf to the Manichees, and
from the nineteenth to the twenty-eighth or twenty-ninth
year of his age, he was a difciple and advocate of this fects
When he was about eighteen, his mother, who was then
become a widow, vifited him at Carthage, and made every
effort in her power for reclaiming him from debauchery and
herefy; and the perfuaded him to return to Tagafte, where
he opened a {chool of grammar and rhetcric. Notwith-
ftanding the reputation he acquired, his mother had ftill
reafon to bewail his condu& 3 and Augutftine himfelf, in his
“ Confeffions,”’ (1. iii.) expreffes, with great tendernefs, his “
fenfe of the prayers which fhe prefented, and the tears which
fhe fhed, on hisaccount. About the clofe of the year 379,
Auguftine remoyed to Carthz’ye, and taught rhetoric in that
city. He was alfo at this time a ftrenuous advocate for the
Manichean fyitem. But his love of pleafure, whatever were
his other engagements, continued to be his predominant
paffion ; and he formed a connection with a miftrefs, by
whom he had a child, and to whom he remained conftant.
Regardlefs of decorum, he named this child «* Adeodatus,””
the gift of God; and he {peaks of him, at the age of fifteen,
as a young perfon of extraordinary talents. Provoked by
the infolence of his fcholars at Carthage, Augulftin re-
moved with his miftrefs and child to Rome, and taught
grammar and rhetoric in that city ; but having reafon to be
diflatisfied with his fituation, he fought a new fettlement ;
and, by the recommendation of Symmachus, prefet of
Rome, he was appointed, in the year 383, profeffor of
rhetoric at Milan. Here he had an opportunity of attend-

AU G
ing the fermons of Ambrofe, bifhop of this city, which led
him to waver between Manicheifm and the Catholic faith.
In this flate of hefitation his mother came to Milan, and
renewed her intreaties that he would forfake the Manichees,
and quit his irregular courfe of life. The intreaties of his
mother were enforced by the conyerfation of two worthy
men, Simplician and Patilian ; and he was thus prepared for
the change which fooa followed, both in his fentiments and
condu&. Whillt he was in a ftate of deliberation and’
fufpence, praying to God for illumination, he heard, as he
fays, or imagined that he heard, a voice like that of a
finging-boy, addrefling him in thefe words, ‘ Tolle, lege ;
tolle, lege ;’? or, ‘Take, read; take, read ;”? and opening
the New Teftament, he turned to this paflage; ** Not in
rioting and drunkennefs, not in chambering and wantonnefs,
&c.”’ Accordingly, he immediately refolved to become a
member of the Catholic church, and entered himfelf among
the catechumens ; and further to teftify the fincerity of his
converfion, he yielded to the perfuafion of his mother, and
determined. to marry. But before he had an opportunity of
executing this purpofe, his charaéter was reproached by an-
other connection of an illicit nature, (Confeff. 1. vi. c. 15.)
At the clofe of the year 387, Auguttine relinguifhed his
profeffion, devoted himfelf to the ftudy of theology, and em-
ployed the interval previous to his baptifm, in explaining the
{criptures, and vindicating the Catholic faith. In compli-
ance with the advice of father Ambrofe, he dedicated him-
felf to the miniftry ; and having difmiffed his new miftrefs,
and abandoned his intended wie, and having received bap-
tifm with his illegitimate fon, and his friend Alypius, on
Eafter-eve, in the year 387, he confecrated the remainder
of his life to religion. In the year 388, his mother died at
Oftia; and Auguftin returned to Africa. Having {pent
three years in his native city, where he exhibited an example
of abftinence and piety, and of diligent application to the
ftudy of the feriptures, he vifited Hippo ; and by the re-
commendation of Valerius, the bifhop, he was elected and
ordained prefbyter in the year 391. Here he founded a re~
ligious fociety, compofed of perfons who were required to
throw their property into a common ftock, and to deyote
themfelves to the exercife of piety. In 395, he was ap-

pointed coadjutor, or joint bifhop with Valerius, to the

church at Hippo. After his advancement to the epifeopal
office, he diftinguifhed himfelf, on various oceafions, by the
ardour of his zeal againft heretics of every denomination ;
and againft the Manichees, Donatifts, and Pelagians, he
waged a perpetual controverfy. From the time of his con-
verfion to that of his death, his manners were, in general,
pure and auftere ; although from one of his confeffions (1. x.
c. 31.) there is reafon to infer, that he was addicted to
hard drinking. His encomiafls have indeed extolled his
moderation and urbanity ; and the following infcription on
his table deferves being recorded :
“ Quifquis amet dictis abfentem rodere vitam,
Hanc menfam indignam noverit effe fibi.”?
« Far from this table be the worthlefs gueft,
Who wounds another’s fame, though but in jeft.””
After a life of varied fortune and mixed chara&er, Au-
guftine died in the year 430, at the age of 76 years ; having
been haraffed, at the clofe of his days, by feeing his country
invaded by the Vandals, and the city of which he was bifhop
befieged. The Vandals, however, who took Hippo, and
burnt it, faved his library, which contained his voluminous
writings, confifting of 232 feparate treatifes on theological
fubjects, befides a complete expofition of the pfalter and the
gofpel, and a copious magazine of epiftles and homilies.
They are collected together in the Benediéte edition,
priated

’ charaéter; and the value of the writings of Augul

AUG

tinted at Paris in 1679, and reprinted at Antwerp in 17003
He fill eleven volumes in folio. This faint is faid to have
written a treatife on mufic, in ix books, which are printed
in the folio edition of his works at Lyons, in 1586. | There
is a MS. treatife of his writing in the Bodleian library at
Oxford, entitled, “ De Mafica;”’ but it is merely a homily
in praife of facred mufic ; nor do his fix books contain any
other rules than thofe of metre and rhythm. His remains
wére carried by the Catholic bifhops of Africa into Sardi-
pia, the place of their exile; and from thence, after an in-
terval of 200 years, they were conveyed by Luitprand, king
of the Lombards, to Pavia, his capital.

In eftimating the talents and learning, the difpofition and
tine, fome
have exalted him far above, and others have degraded him as
much below his juft rank.- Motheim obferves, that his fame
filled the whole Chriftian world; and not without reafon,
as a variety of great and ftriking qualities were united in the
character of that illuftrious man. A fublime genius, an un-
interrupted and zealous purfuit of truth, an indefatigable
application, an invincible patience, a fincere piety, and a
fubtile and lively wit, confpired to eftablifhhis fame upon the
mott lafting foundations. It is, however, certain, that the ac-
curacy and folidity of his judgment were by no means pro-
portionable to the eminent talents now mentioned; and
that, upon many occafions, he was more guided by the vio-
lent impulfe of a warm imagination, than by the cool dic-
tates of reafon and prudence. Hence that ambiguity which
appears in his writings, and which has fometimes rendered
the moft attentive readers uncertain with refpect to his real
fentiments; and hence alfo the juft complaints which many
have made of the contradi@ions that are fo frequent in his
work, and of the levity and precipitation with which he fet
himfelf to write upon a variety of fubjects, before he had ex-
amined them with a fufficient degree of attention and dili-
gence.’’ That he poflefled a ftrong, capacious, argumenta-
tive mind, is generally allowed; but his ftyle, though fome-
times animated by the eloquence of paf_ion, is ufually cloud-
ed by falfe and affected rhetoric. “ It has ({ays one of his
biographers) more argument than oratory, more fluency than
elegance, and more wit than learning; he has a certain fub-
tlety and intricate involution of ideas through long periods,
which require in the reader acute penetration, clofe attention,
and quick recolle&tion. In fine, he is, as Erafmus has ob-
ferved, a writer of obfcurefubtlety, andunpleafant prolixity.”’
And, as many of his fpeculations are in themfelves uninter-
eiling, it is no wonder that his voluminous writings are now
very much, and perhaps unduly, negleéted. At the fame
time it is much to be lamented, that the doétrines of this
father in the church, fhould have led men toadopt a gloomy
fyftem of religion, and to fupport it with all the rigour of
perfecution. Such particularly are thofe charged upon him
by Le Clerc (Letter prefixed ito Supplement to Hammond’s
Paraphrafe), which take away goodnefs and juftice both from
Ged and man; the one reprefenting God as configning men
to eternal torments, for fins which they could not avoid: the
other, ftirring up magiftrates to perfecute thofe who differ
from them in religion. It has alfo been regretted, that no
writings, thofe of Ariftotle excepted, have contributed more
than Auguttine’s, to encourage that fpirit of fubtle difputa-
tion which diflinguifhed the icholaftic age. The learning of

_ Auguftine, and particularly his knowledge of the Greek

language, have been difputed: and hence the importance of
his feripture criticifms has been depreciated. But although
at be allowed that his commentaries chiefly confift of popular
reflections, fpiritual and moral, or allegorical and myttical
perverfions of the literal meaning ; yet the works of this fa-
ther are not wholly deftitute of remarks and critical inter-

“Vou. III.
\

at

AUG

pretations, that are pertinent and judicious. To fuch, after
a detail of extraéts from the writings of Auguftine, the im-
partial and candid Dr. Lardner has referred. With regard to

his knowledge of the Greek language, this excellent writer is
lew

of opinion, that he underftood Greek better than fome
fuppofed; and he has cited feveral paflages, from wh
may be argued, that Auguttine frequently compared his copies
of the Latin verlion with thofe of the Greek original. M. Le
Clerchimfelfallows, that Auguttine does fometimes very hap-
pily explain Greek wor

s; but on {uch occasions he fufpedis,

without fuflicient reafon, that he had the affiftanceof another.
As tothe characterof Auguitine, it muft be acknowledged
that his *¢ Confeffions,”’ whatever claim they may have to the
praife of ingenuity and honefly, mult remain a perpetual me-
morialof diferace. Befides, although this father of thechurch
entertained, in the earlier period of his miniltry, fentiments of
mildnefs and charity towards heretics, he appears at a later
period, and under the influence of paflions inflamed by pole~
mical difputes, theadvocate of intoleranceand perfecution. In
a letter to Vincentius ( Epift. 93.),a Donatift bifhop, written
about the year 408, he affigns feveral reafons for the coercive
exercife of fecular authority againt {chifmatics; and urges
the good effects which the terror of the imperial laws had
produced in the converfion of feveral whole cities. Having
once thought, as he confeffes, that no man ought to be forced,
he at laft yielded to expertence. In another letter of the
fame date, he intreats the proconful of Africa to reftrain-the
Donatitts, but not to punifh them with death; and yet in this
letter, written profefiedly for urging the magiftrate to per-
fecution, Auguitine, with an inconfiftency, the reproach of
which hetoo often incurs, thus liberally concludes (Ep. roo.) ;
“ it isa more troublefome than profitable labour to compel
men to forfake a great evil by force, rather than by inftruc-
tion.” Upon this inconfiftency Voltaire pleafantly remarks
(Treatife on Toleration); ‘ I would fay to the bifhop of
Hippo, as your Reverence has two opinions, you will have
the goodnefs to permit me to abide by the firit, fince I real-
ly think it the beft.?? Although his condué in procuring
the firft law to compel Chriftians to baptize their infants, in
a council at Mela in Numidia, in the year 416, is altogether
indefenfible; and the writer of this article, abhorring every
{pecies of religious copftraint and perfecution, cannot at-
tempt its vindication; yet he cannot adopt the feyere ftri@t-
ures of the fprightly writer that refers to this fact, in their
whole extent and unqualified acrimony. ‘ The name of
Auguftine (fays he) had funk, before this time, below con-
tempt in every free country. He wasacraity irritable man,
often difappointed, and foiled by able opponents; paffion for
power was his ruling difpofition, after his fenfual appetites
had {pent their force in debauchery. ‘Too infigniticant to
obtain diftinGtion in the ftate, he reconnoitred the church, and
felt himfelf excellently qualified to cant out of Solomon’s
fong to unfufpecting Chriftians, efpecially fingle iiters and
monks. A fuperannuated bifhop, to whom he made himfelf
convenient, lifted him into preferment. From that day he
became a mercilefs tyrant, and truckled to the bifhop of Rome
only for the fake of playing Jupiter in Africa. When he ob-
tained the fupport of the emperor, and got his dreams tack-
ed to imperial decrees, he became the feourge of all good men
within his reach, whofe confifeations, banifhments, and death,
with the ruin of their families, lay at his door. He confider-
ed himfelf as an oracle of God, emperors only as officers
whom heaven had appointed to execute his deciees.’” Ro-
binfon’s Hiftory of Baptifm, p. 217. Gen. Dif. Mo-
fheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. i. p. 362. Dupin’s Eccl. Hift. v.
century, vol. ii. p. 125. Lardner’s works, vol. v.c. 117.

p. 81—123. Gibbon’s Hift. vol. vi. p. 22. Gen. Biog.
Aucustine, St. in Geography, a town of America,
Xx the

A‘'U G

the capital of Eaft Florida, is fituated on the fea-coatt, about
86 leagues from the mouth of the gulf of Florida, 180 miles
eaft from St. Mark’s, and 316 fouth-wett from Charleftewn,
in South Carolina. Its figure is oblong, and itis interfected
by four ftreets at right angles. It is well fortified, and has
a church aud monaltery of the order of its name. N, lat.
30°. W. long. 81° 30’.

AuvcGusTineE, Cape Si.; lies on the coaft of Brazil, in the
Atlantic ocean, 300 miles north-eaft from the bay of All-
Souls. §. lat. 8° 30. W.long. 35” 40’. —Alo, a cape of
the Mindanaos iflands in the Eaitern ocean. N. lat. 6> 40’.
E. long. 126° 20’.

AvuGusTINe’s, Sf., a port and river on the coaft of La-
brador, near the {traits of Bellifle, and oppofite to St. John’s
bay in Newfoundland. In the harbour are two fmall iflands,
and about two miles fouth-weft, a chain of little iflands, cail-
ed “ St. Aucuttine’s chain.”? It is about 25 miles from Great
Mecatina ifland. N. lat. 51° 10’. W. long. 58° 50.

AuGustine’s Square, St., a number of {mall iflands on
thp coait of Labrador, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, near its
mouth.

Aucustine’s, Bay, St., isa commodious bay that lies
on the wett fide of Madagafcar ifland, near the fouth entrance
ot the Mofambique channel, between the eaft coaft of Africa
and the weft coait of the ifland. It abounds with fifth, and
furnifhes a plentiful fupply of beef, mutton, goats, and
fowls. S. lat. 23° 35 29”. E. long. 43° 8’.

AUGUSTINS, or Aucustinians, in Lcclefiaftical
_Hiflory, an order of religious; thus called from St. Auguttin,
whofe rule they obferve. The Auguttins, properly alfo eall-
ed Auflin Friers, were originally hermits, whom pope Alex-
ander IV. firft congregated into one body, under their gene-
ral Lanfranc, in 1256. Soon after this inftitution, this order
was brought into England, where they had about 32 houfes
at the time of their fuppreflion. The Auguitins are clothed
in black, and make one of the four orders of mendicants.
From thefe arofe a reform, under the denomination of Bare-
foot Auguflins, or Minorites, or Friers Minor.

There are alfo canons regular of St. Auguitin, who are
clothed in white, excepting their cope, which is black.

At Paris they are known under the denomination of Re/i-
gious of GENEVIEVE; that abbey being the chief of the order,

There are aifo nuns and canonefies, who obferve the rules
of St. Auguftin.

Avucustinians are alfo thofe divines who maintain, on
the authority of St. Auguftin, that grace is effectual from
its nature, abfolutely and morally, and not relatively and

radually. They are divided into rigid, and relaxed.

AUGUSTOBONA, or Aucustomana, in Ancient
Geography, a city of Gaul, belonging to the Senones, called
alfo Civitas Tricaffium ; now Troyes.

AUGUSTOBRIGA, or Aucustosrica,ia city of
Hifpania Tarragonenfis, in the country of the people deno-
minated “ Pelendones;’’ eaft of Numantia, and north-weft
of Bilbilis.

AUGUSTODUNUM, a famous city of Gaul, the ca-
pital of the Adui; now Autun.

AUGUSTOMAGUS, an ancient town of Belgic Gaul,
placed, in the Itinerary of Antonine, between Cefaromagus
and Sueffone; now SENLIs.

AUGUSTONOMETUM, a city of Gaul, the capital
of the Averni; now CLERMONT ea Auvergne.

AUGUSTOPOLIS, an epifcopal town of Arabia.
Alfo, a town of Phrygia Salutaris.

AGUSTORITUM, a town of Gallia Aquitanica, and
capital of the Lemovices ; now Limoces.

AUGUSTOW, in Geography, a town’of Poland, inthe
pelatinate of Bielfk, fifty-fix miles N.N.W. of Bielflc.

AUGUSTULUS, or Romutus Augustus, in Bio«

AUG

graphy, the lat of the Roman emperors in the weft, was the
fon of Orettes, who, having depofed Julius Nepos by means of
the troops in Gaul, of which he was general, and declining *
the imperial rank, advanced him to the throne, in the year
476. Oreftes, however, retainedtheadminiftrationon account
of the youth of his fon ; but in a year after he had attained
the object of his ambition, his tranquillity was interrupted
by Qdoacer, 2 bold barbarian, who put himfelf at the head of
thofe mercenaries that formed a part of the armies of Italy.
Thefe barbarians had made a peremptory demand, that a
third part of the lands of Italy fhould be immediately divided
among them ; and Odoacer aflured his fellow foldiers, that if
they dared to affociate under his command, the might foon
extort the juftice which had been depied to their dutiful pe-
titions. Oreltes was foon compelled by this confederate band
to retire to the itrong city of Pavia, which was befieged,
taken, and pillaged. Odoacer, having put Orettes to death,
proceeded to Ravenna, and feizing the young emperor, Au-
guitulus, he flripped him of his imperial enfigns, and obliged
him to fignify his refignation to the Roman denate. The life
of this inoffenfive youth was {pared by the generous clemen-
cy of Odoacer; who difmifled him, with his whole family,
from the imperial palace, fixed his annual allowance at fix
thoufand pieces of gold, and afligned the caftle of Lucullus,
in Campania, for the place of his exile or retirement. Thus,
in the perfon of a youth, who united the names of the firft
king and firft emperor of Rome, was the Roman empire
finally extinguifhed, A.D. 476, or A.D, 479; about 507
years after the battle of Aétium, when the Roman emper-
ors properly begin; 523 years after the battle of Pharfa-
lia, when the kingdom of italy begins ; and 1229 years from
the foundation of Rome. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. vi. p.
222. -
AUGUSTUM, in Ancient Geography, atown of Africa
Propria. Ptolemy.—Alfo, a place of Gallia Narbonnentfis,
fourteen miles from Labifco, and fixteen miles eaft from
Bergufia, upon the Rhone ; now offe.
AUGUSTURSHUNN, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and Marquifate of
Meitlen, near Radeberg. :
AUGUSTUS, in Biography, a name given firft and by
way of eminence to Octavius Cefar, and afterwards appro-
priated to his fucceffors. (See Aucust.) Catus Julius
Cefar O@avianus, originally called Caius O&avius, wasthe fon
of a fenator of the fame name, who had been pretor of Ma-
cedon, and of Accia, daughter to Julia, the fifter of Julius
Cefar. He was born during the confulate of Cicero and
Caius Antonius, inthe year of Rome 691. B.C. 633 at

*the age of four years he loft his father; and his mother

Accia contracted a fecond marriage with Lucius Marcus
Philippus. The charge of his education was entrufted
by his mother and father-in-law with the bef matters
in Rome; and fuch was his proficiency, that when he
was nine years old, he harangued the people with ex-
traordinary confidence, and before he had quite attained
the age of twelve, he pronounced the funeral oration of his
grandmother Julia. His talents and accomplifhments re-
commended him to Julius Crefar, his great re who at an
early period formed the defign. of adopting him, if he
died without children. Whilit OGavius was at Apollonia,
improving his powers of eloquence under the famous rhetori-
cian, Apollodorus of Pergamus, he received the news of
his uncle’s tragical death, and of hisown adoption. Although
he was difluaded by his father and mother, and other timid
friends, from declaring either his pretenfions or his refent-
ment, he determined to pafs over into Italy without delay, —
and to judge for himfelf what meafures it would be proper
for him to adopt. Accordingly he landed at Lupia, now
La Rocca, a fmall port between Brundufium and Hydcan.

tums

; f :
tum. > Upon his arrival, the garrifon of Brundufium, which
“was very numerous, and which confifted of veteran foldiers,

went out to meet him, and introduced him by a kind of
triumph into the city. Octavius thanked them for their
attachment and refpect ; and having offered a folemn facri-
fice to the gods, declared himfelf Cwfar’s heir, and affumed
the titles of Caius Julius Cefar OGavianus ; avowing himfelf
by the latter of thefe appellations tobe of the Octavian family.
Having fupplied himtelf with money, arms, and provifions,
he purfued his route through Campania, and after paying
a vilit to Cicero in the neighbourhood of Cume, arrived at
Rome, where the party of Antony and Lepidus, which.
under a pretence of avenging Cefar’s death, aimed at efta-
blifhing its own power, had obtained an univerfal fway. As
O@avianus approached the capital, he was met by mott of
the magiltrates, the ofhcers of the army, and the people ;
but Antony declined fhewing him any token of refpect.
As foon as his adoption was publicly ratified in the forum,
and duly regiftered, he waited upon Antony ; and requeited
to have delivered to him, as Cwtar’s chief heir, the money
which he had conveyed from Cwfar’s houfe to his own, that
he might be enabled to difcharge his legacies. Antony’s
behaviour, at-this interview, was haughty and imperious ;
his reply with regard to the money which he demanded, and
of which part had been appropriated to the purpofes of
avarice and ambition, was uniatisfactory ; and his addrefs
clofed with reminding Otavianus, in a ftyle of authority
and menace, that the favourites of the people are, generally
f{peaking, fhort-lived, and that popular affection is more in-
conftant than the waves of the ocean. Odctavianus retired,
difgufted and offended; and apprifed, that the conful with-
held his father’s money and eitate from him in order to
difable him from purchafing the favour of the people, he
fold his own patrimony, and the eftates of his mother and
father-in-law, and with the produce of thefe fales, he paid

art of Czfar’s legacies; and by this at of generofity he
a charmed the populace, that they unanimouily efpoufed
his intereft, and broke out into bitter invectives againtt
Antony, for withholding his father’s eftate. An attempt,
however, was made towards reconciling thefe two com-
petitors for the public favour ; and it was attended with a
partial and temporary fuccefs. But new occafions of variance
occurred; and at length OGtavianus was charged with a
defign of aflaffinating his rival This furnifhed Antony
with a pretence for drawing into Italy a confiderable army.
Odiavianus, alarmed by this hoftile preparation, haftened
into Campania, and having collected 10,000 brave veterans
who had ferved under Cvfar, marched immediately
towards Rome.- But as he had no military title, nor any
magiltraey which ae him a right to command the forces
of the republic, efpecially againit a conful, he thought it

advifable to halt at the temple of Mars, within two miles of
the city, till he obtained the confent of the people for his

entry, which was foon granted him. Antony wasat this
time at Brundufium, and as he was hourly expected with a
confiderable force, it was juftly apprehended that the flames
of a civil war would be inftantly kindled within the
walls of the city. Parties were formed for one and the
other of thefe formidable rivals ; and whilit many of the
fenators were deliberating which fide to take, Cicero, pro-
bably, as it has been faid, more witha view of procuring
for himfelf a bountiful mafter, than for refcuing his country
from tyranny, declared for OGavianus. At his motion,
Antony, who had aétually invaded the province of Cifatpine
Gau!, and laid fiege to Mutina, was declared an enemy to
his country. Two new confuls, viz. Panfa and Hirtius,
who had both ferved under Cefar, and who were the inti-

AUGUSTUS.

mate friends of Cicero, were ordered to raife troops, and to
marcli tothe relief of Decimus Brutus, who was clofely
befieged in Mutina. In two battles that were fought by
the contending armies in the neighbourhood of this town,
both the confuls fell; and Oavianus become commander
in chief of the whole army. Panta, when he was dying of
the wounds which he had ‘received, earneltly advifed Octa-
vianus to compromife his difference with Antony, as the
only means of faving his life and advancing his fortune ;
and the conful’s dying words made a deep impreffion on the
mind of OGavianus. The fenate, conceiving Antony to be
utterly ruined, began to flight Octavianus, of whofe fervices,
as they thought, they fhould have no further oceafion ; and
refufed his demand of a triumph, which they granted to
Decimus Brutus; heaping upon him various honours, and
appointing him commander of all the forces in Cifalpine
Gaul; charging him at the fame time, without even men-
tioning Otavianus, to purfue Antony, and treat him as a
public enemy. Whilft Antony, after experiencing fome
viciflitudes, and after having fled before Brutus and abandoned
Italy, was ready to re-enter itwith the command of twenty-
three legions and above 10,000 horfe, OGtavianus was at
Bononia, where he had been endeavourig, by the interett
of Cicero, to obtain the confulate. But being difappointed
with regard to this objeét of his ambition, he refolved no
longer to defer his reconciliation with Antony. Accord-
ingly, this bufinefs being fettled, anda treaty having been
concluded between them and Lepidus, of which the fenate
was wholly ignorant ; Octavianus being placed at the bead
of an army, for the purpofe of conducting the war, in con-
junétion with Decimus Brutus, againft Antony and Lepidus,
marched towards Rome in order to demand the contulate.
It was now too late to concert or to carry into effect any
meafures of refiftance. Odtayianus was received in the ca-
pital with the loudeft acclamations of the people ; he was
immediately joined by the legions flationed 1m the city; and
he was unanimoutly elected firft conful, though he had not
yet completed his twentieth year, A.U.C. 711. B.C. 43.
Immediately after his promotion to the contulfhip, he pro-
cured the ‘confirmation of his adoption in a general affem-
bly of the people; he caufed the decree againft Antony
and Lepidus to be revoked; and he invited them into
Italy. As they advanced, he went out to meet them ; and
their meetmg took place at, a {mall ifland formed by the
river Rhenus, now Reno, which falls into the Po, after
having watered the territory of Bononia, or Bologna.
Here was planned the famous fyitem of power called the
Triumvirate; which fee.. Having cemeated and dif-
graced their new connection by the deteftable Proscrir-
T1oNn, which was to cut offall their enemies public and pri-
vate, and to fill their treafury by confifcations, and by the
mutual facrilice of fome of their neareft friends and relations,
among whom was Cicrro; they proceeded to Rome, and
filled the city with blood and rapine. Jn fulfilment of one
article of the treaty, fettled on this occalion, Octavianns
and Antony prepared for an expedition againtt Marcus
Brutus and Caflius, who had made themfelves mafters of
moft of the provinces in the Eait. Accordingly they paifed
over into Macedon; and met the republican leaders on the
plains of Philippi, where the conteft was decided by two
battles, the fecond ef which terminated with the death of
Bratus. (See Brutus.) On this occafion, Octavianus, wha
was actuated by an implacable {pirit of revenge againtt the
authors of Cwfar’s death, is chargeable with a degree of
cruelty which fixed an indelible fain upon his reputation.
Before his return to Rome, he found a difficulty, and in-
curred confiderable danger, in the diftribution of the for-
3 xXx2 : feitea

AUGUSTUS.

feited lands among: the foldicrs. He was alfo involved in a

_ civil war by the violence of Fulvia, and of Lucius the
brother of Antony, which was terminated by the furrender
and capitulation of Perufia, On this‘occafion, ORavianus
exercifed the moft inhuman barbarity. See Perusia. Af-
ter the conclufion of this war, a partition was made of the
Roman empire between Antony (fee Antony) and Oda-
vianus: Rome and the weft being affigned to the latter.
‘The next and moit important event that engaged the atten-
tion of the triumvirs, was the war with Sextus Pompey.
Whilft Octavianus was preparing for this war, he was cap-
tivated by the perfonal and mental. charms of | Livia,
then the wife of Claudius Tiberius Nero. In order to
obtain poffeffion of her, he divorced his own wife Scribonia,
and caufed Livia to be divorced from her hufband, though
fhe was at the time far advanced in her pregnancy, and
was, within three months after he married her, delivered of
a fon, who was named Tiberius, and who was afterwards
emperor. ‘The war with Pompey, though at firlt difaftrous,
was foon concluded by a general engagement, in which
Pompey was entirely defeated.

Upon the depofition of Lepidus from his authority as
one of the triumvits, the Roman itate was governed by a
duumvirate ; which was not likely to be of long duration.
Antony, advancing to old age, and yet addiGed to youth-
ful follies, gave Odtavianus advantages, which he had
difcernment to perceive, and of which he availed himfelf
by his political wifdom. Whilit he ingratiated himfelf with
the people by feveral popular aéts, and was invefted with
the dignity of perpetual tribune of the people, which ren-
dered his perfon facred and inviolable, he contributed by
various charges to degrade Antony in the public eftima-
tion. The commencement and termination of the civil
war, in which Antony and O@avianus were engaged, have
‘been already related under the article Antony. It will
be fufficient here to fay, that it was the fuccefs gained by
O@Gavianus, for which he was chiefly indebted to the con-
dué of his admiral A grippa, at the famous battle of AGium,
fought in the year B.C. 31, which made him mafter of
the Roman world. Having followed his rival into Egypt,
and there terminated the war, he remained in the eaft two
years, and fettled all the affairs cf Egypt, Greece, Syria,
‘Afia Minor, and the iflands.

Upon his return to Rome, he triumphed for three fuc-
ceffive days with great {plendor. Having attained the
fummit of his ambition, it now remained with him to deter-
mine under what title, and in what mode, he fhould exercife
the fupreme authority which he had acquired. That he
ever ferioufly intended to furrender the power which he
poffeffed, and to which he had made fuch facrifices, is not
at all probable; and yet it is by no means unlikely that
he fhould have conferred with his confidential friends,
Mecenas and Agrippa, in the manner which hiftorians have
recorded. Agrippa, a man no lefs famous for his probity
than his valour, recommended a general refignation; re-
prefented the inevitable dangers which attend monarchy,
infupportable to a free people and to men educated ina
commonwealth; pourtrayed the examples of Sylla and
Cefar ; and clofed his fpeech with exhorting Odtavianus
to convince the world, by reftoring liberty to his country,
that the only motive for his taking up-arms was to revenge
his father’s death. Mzcenas, a man of great penetration,
and generally efteemed the moft refined politician of his
age, urged that ke had gone too far to recede; that he
could be fafe only on the throne; and that it was abfolutely
neceffary for the welfare and tranquillity of the republic,

that the fovereign power fhould be lodged in one perfon,
3 :

and not divided améng many individuals, whofe ambitious
views would still eccafion a perpetual fucceffion of miferies
to the public. O€avianus thanked them both for their
friendly advice, but avowed his purpofe, a purpofe without
doubt previoufly formed, of adhering to’ the opinion of
Mecenas ; upon which this faze counfellor recommended
his governing others as he would wifh to’be governed bim-
felf, if he had been born to obey and not to commaiid 5
that he might then fecure fucceis in all his undertakings ;
happinefs during his life, and reputation after his Asatte
adding, that if he dreaded the name of king, fo odious in
a commonwealth, he might content himfelf with the title
of “* Cefar? or ‘ Imperator,” and under that appellation,
which was familiar to the Romans, enjoy all the authonty
of a fovereign, Dio. Caffius, 1. iti. p. 464.

Oétavianus, having formed his purpofe, began to amufe
and gratify the people, to adorn the city by public build-
ings, to new-model the fenate by introductg his own parti-
fans, by annulling many unjuit-and fevere laws that had
been enaéted during the triumvirate, and by reforming a
variety of abufes. At length, in his 7th confulate, B.C.
27, in the 36th year of his age, he went to the fenate-
houfe, and in a itudied oration, which difplayed his patriotifm
and difguifed his ambition, he propofed to abdicate his
authority. TThofe who were in the fecret applauded ;
others were greatly embarraffed. But amidft this confufion
of fentiments, the anfwer of the fenate was unanimous and
decifive. They refufed to accept his refignation, and con-
jured him not to defert the republic which he had faved.
After a decent refiftance, the crafty tyrant fubmitted to
the orders of the fenate ; and confented to receive the go-
vernment of the provinces, and the general command of the
Roman armies, under the well-known names of “ Pro-
conful’’ and « Imperator.’ But he would receive it only for
ten years. At the motion of Munatius Plancus, he alfo
affumed the title of Augu/lus. The powers which he united
in himfelf, of which fome, indeed, were not conferred im-
mediately, werethofe of 1. ‘*Imperator,”’ or Emperor,”’ex-
tended to fignify commander-in-chief of all the forces of
the ftate, arbiter of peace and war, and uncontrolled head
of the executive power, as well over the citizens as foldiers:
2. Of « Proconful,” giving him the legal fupremacy in
every province which he might vifit: 3. Of “ Tribune,””
rendering his perfon facred, and conferring upon him the
right of veto on all public proceedings: 4. Of “ Cenfor,”?
or fuperintendent of manners: 5. Of ‘¢ Supreme Pontiff,’
or the head of religion: 6. Of “ Difpenfation” from ob-
ferving the laws, when he fhould think fit to exercife it.
To the preceding privileges of an abfolute prince was added
the venerable and refpeétable character of “* Father of his
Country,”? implying a kind of paternal relation to his

eople. :

‘Aupultts, befides the limitation of ten years which he
annexed to the poffeffion of his authority, flattered the
fenate by fharing with it the government of the provinces,
referving to himfelf thofe which were moft liable to tumults
and feditions, that he might thus have at his command all
the forces of the empire. He alfo contrived to retain an-
cient names, forms, and inftitutions ; and to commit a por-
tion of real authority to the fenate, the people, and officers
of ftate; fo that his government was rather a monarchy
than a defpotifm. :

The firft and chief care of Auguftus, after he had ob-
tained the dignity of abfolute maiter of the empire, was to
fatisfy his foldiers, and attach them more firmly to

intereft. With this view he difperfed them all over a :

in 32 colonies, and thus they might eafily be re-affer

eS

AUGUST Us,

in cafe of any fudden commotion. His land forces confifted
‘of 25 legions, of which eight were on the Rhine, four on the
Daviube, three inSpain,and two in Dalmatia, The othereight
were {ent into Afia and Africa, four being quartered in the
neighbourhood of the Euphrates and in Syria, two in Egypt,
and two in the province of Africa, confifting of the aucient
dominions of Carthage. The whole number of thefe, con-
ftantly maintained by Auguttus, and for fome ages by his
fucceffors, amounted to 170,650 men. In the vicinity of
Rome were always quartered 12 cohorts, about 10,000
men, of which nine were called pretorian cohorts, and the
other three city cohorts. They were eftablifhed to guard the
“emperor’s Bertin} and to maintain the peace of the city.
That the former might be faithful, and vigilant in their
duty for the fafety of the emperor’s perfon, the fenate
ordered their pay to be doubled. Befides thefe numerous
and well.difciplined land forces, Auguitus kept conftantly
at fea two powerful fleets ; one ridiug at anchor near Ra-
venna, in the Upper or Adriatic fea, the other at Mifenum,
in the Lower or Mediterranean fea.

~ Auguitus, having fettled all affairs in the capital, paffed
into Gaul, towards the clofe of the year B.C. 27, witha
defign of proceeding to the reduétion of the Britith iflands ;
‘but on his arrival at Narbonne, he received information
that the Salaflians at the foot of the Alps, and the Canta-
brians and Auttrians in Spain, had fhaken off the Roman
“yoke : he therefore difcontinued his progrefs, and march-
ed in perfon into Spain, for the purpofe of fubduing thofe
‘nations that had revolted. The conqueft of the Salaf-
fians he committed to his generals. In the year B.C.
23, Auguitus married his daughter Julia to his nephew
Marcellus; and in the courfe of the year he was feized with
‘a dangerous diforder, which threatened his lite, of which
he was cured by his phyfician Antonius Mufa, who devi-
ated from the common praCtice in adminiftering cooling po-
tions, and recommending the ufe of the cold bath. His
health was not only reftored, but his conititution was ren-
dered more firm and vigorous than it had ever been be-
fore. When his life was thought to be in danger, he deli-
_yered his ring to Agrippa, thus intimating that he deemed
him to be a proper fucceffor. Marcellus, who was gene-
-rally regarded as his intended fucceffor, was difgufted by
this preference; but the death of this prince, who was
greatly regretted by the Roman people, made way for the
introduction of Agrippa to court, and from this time he
continued the moft confidential friend of Auguitus. At
_this time the adminiftration of the empire was conduéted
with great equity and moderation ; and many initances are
recorded, in which Auguftus exercifed lenity and felf-dé-
nial, and recommended himfelf by the refpet which he
manifelted to the fenate and to the courts of jultice. In the
“year B.C..22, he declined the office of di¢tator and of
-cenfor, which were offered him /by the fenate, and in his
_general conduc he affected to appear no otherwife than as
a private citizen. ‘Uo him, it is faid, the title of * lord”’
and “ matter’? was always an object of deteftation, becaufe
its counterpart was that of a ‘flave ;’’ and to thofe who
behaved to him with difrefpe@, and who libelled him in
their fpeeches or writings, he was fingularly meck and for-
giving. Neverthelefs, mild and equitable as was the govern-
‘ment of Auguftus, feveral confpiracies were formed againft
‘him, during the courfe of his reign ; that of Fannius Cx-
pio and Licinius Murena, which was detected, fo that the
principals were punifhed, gave occafion to two new laws in
‘the adminiftration of criminal juftice ; one of which was,
that accufed perfons might be fued and condemned, though
they did not appear, as if they were prefent; and the other,

‘that judges in eriminal cafes fhould give their opinions ve..
bally, and not by ballot.

Rome being now at peace, Auguftus determined to vilit
the eaftern part of the empire; but as it was neceflary to
inveft fome perfon with authority for keeping the city in
order during his abfeuce, he appoiuted Agrippa for this
purpofe; and in order to annex additional dignity to his
charaéter in the difcharge of the truft that was committed
to him, he gave him in marriage his daughter Julia, the
widow of Marcellus. Such was the refpect with which
Agrippa was treated, and fo mild and yet fo firm was his
adminiltration, that Rome hardly perceived that it was be-
reaved of the authority of Auguitus. In his progrefs
through the eaftern provinces, during the years B.C. 21
and 20, the emperor recovered from Phraates, king of
Parthia, the Roman ftandards and captives that had been
taken from Craffus; he placed Tigranes on the throne of
Armenia; and at Samos, to the inhabitants of which he
granted the liberty and ufe of their own laws, he received
ambaffadors from the remoteft part of India. A philofo-
pher, who aecompanied thefe ambaffadors, attended the
emperor to Athens, and committed himfelf to the flames in
his prefence. Auguftus, after his return, directed his at-
tention to various abufes which needed reform, and to the
enactment of regulations that contributed to the perfection
of government. He reduced the number of fenators from
one thoufand to fix hundred, and fixed at a higher rate the
fortune that was requifite for qualifying a perfon to be
elected of that body ; and that no perfons, who were emi-
nently fit for the office, might be excluded, he made up
their deficiences of fortune by his own liberality. He
alfo introduced fome other regulations for reftraining the
licentioufnefs and depravity of morals that too generally
prevailed ; and particularly fuch as concerned the nuptial
ftate, though rigour in this latter refpeét did not well be-
come the emperor, who was known to have intrigues with
the wives of feveral men of rank, and who had taken great
licence in the privilege of divorce. Auguiftus increafed the
tax on celibacy, and granted privileges and rewards. to
married perfons who had feveral children. See Parran-
Porrean-/aw. Sumptuary laws and regulations refpect-
ing the pnblic fpeétacles, and the fuppreffion of riots and
diforders among the fpectators, alfo occupied his attention.
In the year of Rome 737, B.C. 17, he celebrated the fe-
cular games with extraordinary fplendor. About this time
he alfo adopted his two grandfons Caius and Lucius ; the
children of Agrippa and Julia. Having received from Gaul
many complaints againft the attendants whom he had ap-
pointed to levy the tributes and impofts and’ particularly
again{t Licinius, he vifited that country ; but the principal

‘agereffor, Licinius, contrived to foothe his difpleafure by

giving him a great part of the treafures: which he had
amafled. Upon his return from Gaul, B.C. 13, the death
of Lepidus afforded him an opportunity of affuming the
office of fupreme pontiff; and in the firlt exercife of this
authority, he collected all books of divination and pretended
oracles, of which more than 2000 were committed to the
flames. ‘I'he books of the Sibyls, however, were entrufted
to the cuftody of the priefts.. The death of Agrippa was,
at this time, a very diltrefling event to: Auguitus (fee
Acrippa) ; but it ferved to advance Tiberius in the family
of the emperor, who by-an unwarrantable act of tyranny

“caufed him to be divorced from a wife to whom he was

AffeGtionately attached, and to marry the widowed Julia, of”

whofe irregularities he was well apprifed.
In the profecution of the German war, Drufus diftin.
guifhed himfelf by his fucceffes, and extended his arms oe
ar

AUGUSTUS.

far as the Elbe ; but as he was returning to the banks of
the Rhine, illnefs or accident occafioned his death, B. C..9.
His brother Tiberius alfo reduced the Pannonians and Da-
cians, and completed the work which Drufus had begun.
Thefe events terminated in a general peace through the
whole Roman empire, and the temple of Janus was fhut,
for the third time, in this reign, and remained in this itate
about 12 years. Before this time Auguitus had loft his
beloved fitter OGtavia, who never recovered the death of
her fon Marcellus ; and this aflidive event was fucceeded
‘by the deceafe of his favourite minifter Mecenas, between
whom aad Auguitus a coolnefs had fubfitted, which is faid
to have been owing to the emperor’s intrigues with his wife,
‘Terentia. During this period, however, Auguftus received
many unequivocal teitimonies of the attachment and affec-
tion of the people (Suet. Aug. 57—Go.); and after enjoy-
ing the imperial authority for 20 years, he was unanimoufly
requefted to accept it for 10 years more. . The year 8 B.C.
was rendered memorable by the reformation introduced
by Auguitus into the calendar. (See Bissextive, and
Carenpar.) About the year B.C. 6, the ambition of
the young Czfars, Caius and Lucius, the adopted fons of
Auguitus, began to give him uneafinefs ; and the jealouly
which fubfifted between them and Tiberius induced the lat-
ter to requeit the liberty of retiring to Rhodes, which was
reluctantly granted, and whence he was not allowed to re-
turn for feven years. On occafion of Caius Czfar’s affum-
ing the toga virilis in the year 5 B.C. ; Auguitus accepted
the confulate for the twelfth time; and this year (four years
before the vulgar era), was rendered fingularly illuttrious by
the birth of Jesus Carist. When Lucius Cefar took
the toga virilis in the year 2 B.C. ; Auguitus became con-
ful for the thirteenth and laft time. But this year was em-
bittered to him by the difcovery of the very licentious and
fhameful conduct of his. daughter Julia, which had been for
fome time known to every one but himfelf. After deliber-
ating whether her punifhment fhould be death or exile, he
determined to divorce her from Tiberius, and to banifh her
‘to the ifland of Pandataria on the coait of Campania, where
fhe was allowed merely neceffaries, and whence fhe was never
Yecalled. Of thofe with whom fhe had criminal intercourfe,
fome were exiled, and others put to death.

Auguitus, having loft his two adopted fons; Caius having
died A.D.-3, of a wound which he received in Armenia,
and Lucius at Marfeilles, A.D. 2; had no hopes of per-
petuating any of his own family on the imperial throne.
He therefore recalled Tiberius from Rhodes, and adopted
him fome months after the death of Caius Cefar. He alfo
adopted the laft of his grandchildren Agrippa Pofthumus;
but his untractable difpofition and grof{s manners inducedhim
afterwards to annul his adoption, and to banifh him to the
ifle of Planafia or Pianofa, on the fouth of the ifle of the
Elbe. The emperor likewife obliged Tiberius to adopt
Germanicus, the fon of Drufus.

In the year 4, Auguftus, who was a fifth time continued
as commander in chief of the armies,and in the government of
the provinces in his department, profecuted his labours for
fettling the civil adminiftration of the republic. He again
reviewed the fenate, numbered the inhabitants of Italy,
and eltablifned fome other regulations for the benefit of the
ftate. But of all the occurrences of this year, the moft
glorious for Auguitus was,the pardon of Cima, Pom-
pey’s grandion ;. who was accufed of a confpiracy againtt
his life. Having admitted the criminal into his clofet, he
reminded him of the favours which had been conferred
upon him, and charged him with the ingratitude of his
defign; and then clofed an addrels of two hours with thefe

words: “ Again, Cinna, I give you your life; I {pared
you, though you were my enemy; I now forgive you,
though to that name you have added thofe, of traitor and
parricide. Let us from this day begin to be fincere friends;
let us vie with each other; I, to fupport the good I haye
done ; you, to make a fuitable return: let us try to make -
it a doubt whether I am moft generous, or you moft
grateful.” The emperor named him conful for the next
year; and from this time, Cinna, overcome by the emperor’s
goodnefs, became his faithful and zealous friend ; and when
he died, made Auguftus his fole heir, ‘The clemency of
Auguttus on this oceafion intereiled the people fo much in
his favour, that no confpiracy was ever more attempted
again{t him.

The conduct of Julia, the grand-daughter of Auguftus,
who copied after her mother’s example, offended and griev-
ed him ; and he banifhed her A.D. 9, to the ifle of Trime-
tui, now Tremiti, on the gulf of Venice. The poet Ovid,
who is fuppofed to have participated her guilt, was banifhed
at the fame time, to Tomi in Scythia, on the borders of the
Euxine fea. The two Julias, and Agrippa Poithumus, fad-
ly interrupted the domettic felicity of Auguitus, fo that he
ufed to call them his three cazkers, his three ab/eeffes ; he
never heard their names without a figh, and often applied to
them a verfe of Homer, I]. iii. 40. ;

6 ASS dOcnis F crynn0s Tuer, ayo: s dvorerSat.
i.e. ‘© Would to heaven I had never married, but had
died withont pofterity.” ;

In the following year, A.D. 10, the deitruGtion of Varus
with three entire legions in Germany, in confequence of a
confederacy formed by Arminius, the lofs of the itandards
of the legions, and two of their eagles, and the infolence
and cruelty with which the captives were treated by the con-
queror, were the occafion of great diltrefs and terror at
Rome. Auguiftus, accuftomed to-glory and profperity, la-
mented this humiliating and difaftrous event with the excefs
of forrow. He not only put on mourning, and foffered his
beard and hair to grow, but often exclaimed in an ageny,
«* Return me my legions, Varus.”? As long as he lived, the
day of Varus’s defeat was obferved by him as a day of an-
nual regret and forrow. ‘Tiberius, however, by his military
{kill reitrained the ravages of the Germans, re-eftablifhed
the reputation of the Roman arms, and relieved Rome
amidft its anxiety and fears, Auguitus was highly gratified
by his fuccefs, expreffed his approbation in very shea and
affectionate terms, and raifed him to an equal fhare of the
imperial authority. Upon his return to Rome A.D. 12; he
obtaineda magnificent triumph. ‘Towards the clofe of his life
Auguttus enaéted feveral regulations, which under fucceeding
emperors became the means of extending and vindicating
tyranny and defpotifm. As he was unable to go frequently
to the fenate, he caufed his privy council to be inyelted with .
the authority of the whole body; he alfo weakened the

ower of the people, which his fucceflor aétually annihi-
pea by nominating magiitrates, whom they had been ac-
cuftomed to eleét, and by authoritatively recommending to
the people fuch as he chofe to have employed. He likewife
revived and extended an old law, which was levelled againtt
actions detrimental to the ftate, by enacting, that all authors
of defamatory libels fhould be guilty of high treafon, and
punifhed accordingly. As his health and ftrength declined,
he devolved the principal cares of empire upon Tiberius. —
The accefs of the complaint that terminated in his death
has been, without fnfficient reafon, attributed to poifon, ad-
miniftered by his wife Livia, who was alarmed, on account
of her own fon, by his returning affection to his grandfon, —
Agrippa Pofthumus. But the truth is, that’his diforder

<

AUGUSTUS.

was owing to a weaknefs of the ftomach and bowels; and
he was feifed with it, as he was conducting ‘Tiberius towards
Illyrium, On his return towards Rome, his complaint in-
creafed and obliged him to flop at Nola, where he took to
his bed, and paticutly waited the approach of death. On
the laft day of his life, he called for a mirror; he had his
head dreffed, and fomething to be done which might pre-
vent his cheeks from appearing funk ; and then calling his
friends to his bed-fide, aflkeed them, whether they did not
think he had aéted his part pretty well in the comedy of
human life? and then addreffed them ina Greek verfe, with
which they generally clofed their plays:
/ € Nove xedlory uxt meevles upsis petle yapas xlumnom 2”?
i.e. © Clap your hands, and let all applaud with joy.”
After this kind of comic adieu, he ordered every body to
retire, and died in Livia’s arms; faying, ‘“ Livia, conjugii
noftri memor, vive et vale ;” i.e. Livia, farewell, forget
not a hufband who has loved you tenderly.” His death
happened on the roth of Auguil, A. D. 14, A. U.C. 767,
and in the feventy-fixth year of his age. ‘The duration of
his power, if we reckon from the time of the triumvirate,
of which he took poffeffion the 27th of November, in the
year of Rome 711, B.C. 43, was about 56 years, If we
reckon from the battle of Atium, fought the 2d of Sep-
tember, in the year of Rome 721, B.C. 31, when his fole
poffeflion of the Roman empire properly commences, Au-
guitus will then appear to have enjoyed the fovereign power
about forty-four years. Crevier {tates the true time of his
becoming emperor to have been the 7th of January, in the
year of his feventh confulfhip, which, according to his rec-
koning, was the 725th of Rome, and referring his death to
the 765th. of Rome, he governed as prince and emperor
forty years, feven months, and thirteen days. ‘ All the
relt (he fays) was manifeit ufurpation and tyranny.” Jofe-
phus (Ant. |. xviii. c. 2. §2. De Bell. 1. ii. c.g. §1.),
and others after him, compute the beginning of the reign of
Auguitus from the year in which Czefar was killed, A. U.C.
7to. B.C. 44, and make its duration fifty-feven years, fix
months, and fome odd days. Ptolemy, in his canon, and
St. Clement of Alexandria (Strom. 1.1. t. i. p. 405. ed Pot-
ter.), date the commencement of his reign in the year after
the battle of Actium, A.U.C. 724, and compute its du-
ration to be forty-three years.

Before the funeral of Auguftus, his will was prefented
to the fenate-houfe by the veftal virgins, in whofe cultody
it had been depofited, and read aloud by Polybius, -one of
his freedmen. By this will, made fixteen months before his
death, Tiberius and Livia were appointed his firft heirs, his
grand-children and their children his fecond, and the great
men of Rome his third heirs. Livia was adopted into the
Julian family, and honoured with the title of Auguita. He
bequeathed, as a legacy, forty millions of fefterces (about
5,000,000 livres) to the Roman people; three millions five
huadréd thoufand (437,500 livres) to the tribes, that is an
hundred thoufand (12,500 livres) to each; to each of his
guards a thoufand feiterces (125 livres) ; to each of the fol-
diers appointed to guard the city 500 fefterces (62 livres);
and to each legionary foldier 300 telterces (37 livres). Au-
guftusleftalfo fourmemorials, written by his own hand, which
were produced to the fenate by Drufus. The firft of thefe
contained regulations relating to his obfequies ; the fecond
was a journal of the moft memorable ations of his life,
which he ordered to be engraved on the pillars of brais
which fupported the frontifpiece of his ftately maufoleum ;

"part of which has been preferved in an ancient marble, found
about 200 years ago in the city of Ancyra; the third con-
tained a fummary of the ftrength and income of the empire ;

z

,

and the fourth was a fummary of inftrudtions for the ufe of
Tiberius, and the other governors aud magitrates of the
republic.

‘The funeral of Auguftus was performed with very extra-
ordinary magnificence. After a fhort eulogium by Drufus,
and a funeral oration by Tiberius, fire was fet to the pile in
the Campus Martius, on which his body was laid, and at
this moment an eagle was let loofe from the top of it, to
carry his foul to heaven. His afhes were collected by Livia,
and inclofed in an urn of gold, which the depofited in the
maufoleum erected by Auguitus ina grove between the
Tiber and the Flaminian way. After the funeral, divine
worfhip was decreed to him, with a temple and prietts ; the
houfe in which he was born, that in which he died, and
moft of the houfes in which he had lived, were converted
into fanétuaries. Livia affumed the office of chief pricitefs
to the new deity ; and made a prefent of a million of felterces
to an old pretor, named Numerius Atticus, who {wore that
he faw the foul of Auguilus in its flight to heaven.

The charaéter of Auguitus appears under very different
afpects in the various periods of his life and reign, In the.
outfet of his career of ambition, hewas crafty and diflembling
(Gen. Biog.), violent and fanguinary ; but as he advanced
in years, and after he had attained the object of his views,
he was, in his general conduct, mild, affable, and concili-
ating. In the exercife of that fovereign and abfolute power,
which he acquired by means which none can attempt to juf-
tify, and which he contrived mott effectually to iecure by
apparent moderation and felf-denial, he feems to have been
folicitous for making the people contented and happy ; andi
in nvany ref{pects he was entitled to the character of a wife
and equitable governor. ‘ As a compenfation for liberty,”
fays one of his biographers, “he gave his {ubjets fecurity,,
eafe, profperity, and all the advantages of high civilization,
with as little as poflible of the feverity of reftraint and coer-
cion. He filied Rome and all Italy with improvements of
every kind; made highways, conftruéted harbours, raifed
edifices for ufe and convenience, and could boait that he re--
ceived a capital built of brick, and left one of marble. He
fo encouraged letters, that one of the great ages of excellent:
human productions takes its name from him.”” (See Act.)
Thofe whom he encouraged by his liberality, repaid him.
with an adulation, which was not honourable to themfelves,.
and which made no addition to his reputation. The love of
flattery, however, is not charged upon him as one of his
predominant foibles. In private life he had many eitimable
qualities. Affeétionate to his family and friends, condefcend-
ing and indulgent to his domeftics and dependents, frugal
and fober with regard to every indulgence, one excepted,.
which regarded himfelf; he commanded affeétion and re-
fpe@t. But his difpofition to gallantry and licentioufnefs in:
his conduét towards the female fex, expofed:him to jult.cen-
fure and reproach: nor did the counfel of his friends (fee
ATHENODORUS), nor the wifdom of experience, avail to the
due reftraint of his criminal paffions. Sometimes indeed, it:
has been faid, his intrigues were the refult of that policy
which direfted his general conduct, as they ferved to difeo—
ver fecrets of ftate, and to obtain information concerning:
any plot or fedition that might have been formed by the-
hufbands of thofe wives with whom. he was comne¢ted.. In,
other refpects he paid a high regard to external, decorum 3.
and whatever might have been his fentiments with regard to,
religion in early life, he appears in maturer‘and more ad-
vanced age to have been much inclined to .fuperitition.. He:
took great pains to eftablifh order in every branch of the ad--
miniftration whilft he lived ; and recommended it to his. fucs

ceffors not to extend the limits of an empire that. was al-
ready

AVI

ready too large. ‘ Upon the whole,”’ fays the biographer
above cited, *¢ if not entitled to rank among the ¢greatett
and beft of mankind, he will be ever refpected as one of
thofe fovereigns whofe perfonal qualities had a great in-
ffuence in promoting the happinefs of the people he go-
verned.”’

“A popular hiftorian (fee Gibbon’s Hift. vol. i. p. 114.)
has given the following fketch of the character and hiftory
of Augutitus. ‘The tender refpe&t of Auguitus for a-free
conttitution which he had deftroyed, can only be explained
by an attentive confideration of the charafter of that fubtle
tyrant. A cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a cowardly
difpofition, prompted him, at the age of nineteen, to aflume
the mafk of hypocrify, which he never afterwards laid afide.
With the fame hand, and probably with the fame temper,
he figned the profcription of Cicero, and the pardon of
Cinna. His virtues, and even his vices, were artificial, and
according to the various diétates of his intereft, he was at
firft the enemy, and at laft the father of the Roman world.
When he framed the artful fyftem of the imperial authority,
his moderation was infpired by his fears. He withed to de-
ceive the people by an image of civil liberty, and the armies
by an image of civil government.’? Among the ancients,
the principal writers who have pourtrayed the charaéter and
reign of Auguitus, are Suetonius, Dio Caffius, Velleius
Paterculus, and Tacitus. Julian (Czefars, p. 309.) fays of
him, that as Otavianus advanced to the banquet of the
Czfars, his colour changed like that of the cameleon ; pale
at firft, then red, afterwards black, he at laf affumed the
mild livery of Venus and the graces. Horace, in the intro-
duétion to the firft epiftle of the fecond book, gives the fol-
lowing fober and judicious fummary of the emperor’s cha-
racteriitic merits :

« Cum tot futtineas, et tanta negotia, folus :

Res Italas armis tueris, moribus ornes,
Legibus emendes ; in publica commoda peccem,
Si longo fermone morer tua tempora, Czfar.”’

See alfo Odes v. and xv. Anc. Un. Hilt. vol. xii.
p- I—115. Crevier’s Hiit. Emperors, vol. i. paffim. vol. ii.
p- I—14.

Aucustus, Fort, in Geography, a fmall fortrefs feated on
a plain at the head of Loch Nefs, in Scotland, between the
rivers Tarff and Oich, juft where they difcharge themfelves
into the lake. The fortrefs confifts of four {mall baitions ;
and now exhibits tokens of decay, though a governor con-
ftantly refides in it, and all the regulations of a garrifon are
obferved in it. It was taken by the rebels in 1746, who,
after doing it all the injury in their power, deferted it. Its
diftance from the fea prevents its being of any further fer-
vice, in a tranquil ftate of the country, than that of afford-
ing a retreat for a few invalid officers and foldiers, A {mall
village lies behind the fort, and it fervesas a kind of refting
place in the way to the ifle of Sky, diftant from it about

2 miles. ae

AUGUSTUSBURG, a town of Germany, in Upper
Saxony, and circle of Erzgebirg, feven miles eaft of Chem-
nitz.

AU-GUY-L’AN-NEUF, or AuGILLANNEUF.
Mis.Lerto. '

AUHAFF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
archduchy of Auftria, fix miles fouth-fouth-weit of Ips.

AVIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania ‘Tar-
ragonenfis, in the country of the Vaccxans.—Alfo, a town
of Italy, in the territory of the Veftini. Ptolemy.

AVIANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, belonging to
the ftate of Venice, in the province of Friuli, twenty-eight

miles weft of Udina, and fifteen E. Sz E. of Belluno.

See

AVI

» AVIARY, formed ‘of avis, Lird, a houfe or apartment
kept for the keeping, feeding, and propagating of birds.

AVICENNA, or Asu Ary Hasstin Espn Anput-
van, or Esu Sina, in Biography, the fon of Hali of Bocha-
ra, in Chorafan, a celebrated philofopher and phyfician; bern
about the year of the Hegira 370, A.D. 980, became early
diftinguifhed for his proficiency in literatures He hada rea-
dy genius, and extraordinary memory, fo that at the age of
ten he could repeat the whole Koran by heart. Serfamus,
or Giuzgiani, his difciple, fays, he was matter of Euclid at
the age of fixteen. Havirig completed his ftudies under
Abdallah, a pfivate tutor, who taught him logic and philo-
fophy, and in the fchool of Bagdat, he was made doétor in
medicine, and began to practife at the age of eightees. He
is faid to have difcovered, by the pulfe, the diftemper which
Cabous, nephew to the emperor, laboured under. The itory,
as related by the Arabic writers, is fo like, Friend obferves,
what is told by Appian of the fagacity of Erififtratus, in
difcovering the difeafe of “Antiochus, fon of Seleucus, that
it feems to have been borrowed thence, to raife the charac-
ter of this phyfician. However this may be, Avicenna was
in high repute, and attained to great wealth and honour in
the court of the caliph. During the latter part of his hfe,
after having fpent feveral years in travelling, he refided at
I{pahan, where by his irregularities he fo impaired his con-
ftitution, that it was obferved of him, that he had totally
loft his labour, his pilofophy neither enabling him to go-
vern his paffions, nor his knowledge of medicine to preferve
him from difeafe. THe died of a dyfentery, owing in fome
meafure to his intemperance, at Hainadan, in the year 1056
of the Hegira, A. D. 428, in the 58th year of his age.
The works of Avicenna were numerous, but whatever may
have been faid of his genius and learning, they have contri-
buted little to the improvement of philofophy, being for the
moft part imperfect and ob{cure reprefentations of the doc-
trines of Artiftotle ; they confilt of “« Twenty Books on the
Utility of the Sciences ;”? “The Heads of Logic ;” and
treatifes on metaphyfics and morals. The principal of
them, the Canon, or “ Cahon Medicine,”’ though almoft
entirely borrowed from Galen, Diofcorides, and other
Greek writers, acquired fuch reputation, that it was taught
at all the European colleges, and retained its popularity until
near the middle of the1r7th century. Haller fills feveral pages
of his Bib. Med. Pra&t. and of its Bib. Botan. with the
titles of his books, their different editions, and of the com-
mentators upon them. The earlieft edition was publifhed
at Padua, in folio, 14.73.

« One would naturallyexpeé, Friend fays ( Hitt. of Phyfic,
vol. ii. p. 73-), to find in this author fomething anfwerable to
the fame he acquired, but though I have very often looked
into his writings upon feveral occafions, I could meet with
little or nothing there, but what is taken from Galen, or
what at leait, occurs, with a very fmall variation, in Rhazes,
or Haly Abbas ;”? and Haller fays (Bib. Med. Pra&t. vol. i.
p- 384.) * Mihi, fupra omnem patientiam, loquax, et diffufus
videtur;” and adds, though you fhould {pend whole months
in poring over his works, you would fearce meet a fingle
original obfervation. He had, however, before (Bib. Botan.
vol. i. p. 187.) beftowed fome commendations on his induitry
in inveftigating the properties of plants, and acknowleged
he had enriched that part of medicine, by the introdu@ion
of feveral vegetables unknown to Diofcorides. The works
of this phyfician and philofopher were printed in the original
Arabic, at Rome, in 1503. A Latin tranflation of them
by Gerard of Cremona and others, was publifhed in folio at
Venice, in 1595, and 1658 ; and Vopifcus Fortunatus pub-
lifhed a new tranflation, with notes by various authors, in

folio,

AV!

‘folie, at Louvain, in 1658. The Arabic MSS. of Avicenna,
fays Dr. Ruffell (Hitt. Aleppo, vol. ii, append. p. 19°, are
common enough at Aleppo, and are found in feveral of the
European libraries. Friend’s Hiitory of Phyfic. Hall. Bib.
Med. Pract. et Bib, Botan. Brucker’s Hilt. Phil. by Enf.
vol, ii. p. 241. Fabr. Bibl. Gree. 1. xiii. c. 9.

AVICENNIA, in Botany (called after the famous
oriental phyfician Avicenna). Lin, g. 1237. Schreb. 1063.
Jacq. Amer. 178. t. 112. Juil. 108. Clais, didynamia an-
giofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate. Vitices, Jufl. Gen. Char.
Ca/. perianth five-parted, permanent, leaflets fubovate,
obtufe, concave, erect; increafed by three feales. Cor.
monopetalous; tube bell-fhaped, fhort; border bilabiate ;
upper lip {quare, emarginate, flat ; lower trifid, divifions
ovate, equal, flat. Syam. filaments four, fubulate, erect, the two
front ones rather fhorter, bent back to the upper lip ; anthers
roundifh, twin. Pi//. germ ovate; flyle fubulate, ereé, the
length of the ftamens. Svigmna bifid, acute; the lower divifion
bent down. Per. capfule coriaceous, rhomboidal, compref-
fed, one-celled, two-valved ; feed one, large, the form of the
captule, conitructed of four flefhy folds, germinating.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. five-parted. Cor. two-lipped ;
upper lip {quare. Cap/. coriaceous, rhomboidal, one-feeded.

Species, 1. A, tomentofa, Jacqu. 1. c. Bontia germinans,
Brown Jam. 263. Mangle, Sloane Jam. 2. 66. Ocpata,
Rheed. Mal. 4. t. 45. «* Leaves cordate, ovate, tomentofe
underneath.” This tree is like the mangrove, rifiag about
fixteen feet high. Its trunk is covered with fmooth, whitifh
green bark, and the twigs from. the flem propagate the
tree like thofe of the mangrove. ‘The leaves appear at the
joints of the branckes, on very {mall petioles, oppofite,
{mooth, foft, having a large dark-green rib; flowers many,
at the top of the branches, white, four-petalled. A native
of the Eaft and Welt Indies. 2. A. nitida. Jacqu. Amer.
177-t. 112. f. 1. Pict.t. 169. * Leaves lanceolate, fhining
on both fides.”? Height forty feet ; leaves fharp, entire, op-
pofite, on fhort petioles ; peduncles racemed, a little branch-
ed, terminal; flowers fefile, white, witha brown mark on
the middle fegment of the under lip. A native of Marti-
nico. 3. A. refiaifera. Fort. “ Leaves ovate-lanceolate,
tomentofe underneath.” The leaves of this tree are oppo-
fite, petioled, coriaceous, entire, fharp, fhining above,
and having a yellowifh nap beneath ; peduncles terminating,
fubtrifid, loaded with a head of flowers. A native of New
Zealand. ‘The much efteemed green-coloured gum ufed by
the natives of New Zealand, is fuppofed to be the produce
of this tree.

AVICULA, in Concholozy, a name affigned by Rump-
fius, to that fpecies of Mytilus fince called Mytitus Hi-
runpo. Linn. and Gmel.

AVICULARIA, in £ntomology, a fpecies of ARANEA
or fpider that inhabits South America. The thorax is or-
biculated and convex, with a tranfverfe excavation in the
centre. This is the largett fpecies of its genus known; and
is {uch a formidable creature that it not only attacks infects,

but even fmall birds, dropping from the branches of trees

into their nefts and fucking their blood. The fangs are as

large as the talons of a hawk; body brown; abdomen ob-

3 ak legs with brown rings.

vicuLArra, a fpecies of Hipposca, with obtufe wings
and thorax of one colour, or immaculate. Infefts the body
of birds, and particularly {wallows. Degeer. Donoy. Brit.
Inf. &e. ‘
| AVIDA, afpecies of PHavzna (No&ua), that inhabits
India. .The wings are fhining brown; fligmate fpot, and
band behind ferrnginous ; polierior wings white. Fabricius.
This is of the middle fize, and blackifh.
_ AVIENUS, Rurus Festus, in Biography, a Latin
Vou. Ili,

Cie a

poet, lived towards the clofe of the fourth century, under the
emperors Gratian and Theodofius. His works are tranfla-
tions in Latin verfe of the «¢ Phenomena of Aratus ;’? and
the “ Periegelis of Dionyfius;” a defcription in Lambic
verfe “ Of the maritime coafts;” “ /Efop’s Tables,” in
elegiac verfe ; “ The Allegory of the Sirens ;?? “ The Hif-
tory of Livy,” in lambics ; and the “ Fabies of Virgil,” in
the fame kind of verfe ; and a few other pieces. Some of
the former performances are now extant. The beft edition
is that of Cannegetier, 8vo. 1731. Gen. Biog. ;

AUsEST, in Geography, atown of Bohemia, in the circle
of Chrudim, five miles north of Politza.

AUJESTIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim, five miles weft of Leutmifchl.

AVIGLIANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Otranto, feven miles eaft of
Otranto.

AVIGLIANO, atown of Italy, in the principality of Pied-
mont, and marquifate of Sulfa, fituated on a hill near the
Cottian Alps, in an open and expofed fituation ; the air is
falubrious, and the land about it fertile. The town is forti-
fied and defended by a caftle. It coptains three parith
churches, and feveral religious hotfes; eleven miles weit of
Turin, and twelve E.S.E. of Sufa. N. lat. 44° 40’. E. long.
AVIGNON, a city of France, the capital of one of its
re-united departments, viz. Vauctuse, with the Bouches
du Rhone, formerly the capital of the county of Venaiffin
in Provence, fituate on the eaft fide of the Rhone. Before
the revolution, it belonged to the pope, whofe legate refided
here, and it was the fee of an archbifhop, ereéted im 1475.

In the year 1309, the papal fee was transferred to Avigion
by pope Clement V.; and this city flourifhed about feventy
years, the feat of the Roman pontiff, and the metropolis of
Chriftendom. By Jand, by fea, and by the Rhone, the
pofition of Avignon was on all fides acceflible ; the fouthern
provinces of France are not inferior even to Italy ; new pa-
laces arofe for the accommodation of the pope and cardinals ;
and the arts of luxury were foon attracted by the treafures
ofthe church. They were already poffeffed of the adjacent
territory, the Venaiflin country, a populous and fertile {pots
which had been ceded to the popes, in 1273, by Philip IIT.
king of France ; and the fovereignty of Avignon was after-
wards purchafed from the youth and diftrefs of Jane, the
firft queen of Naples, and countefs of Provence, for the
inadequate price of 80,000 florins. Under the fhadow of
the French monarchy, amidft an obedient people, the popes
enjoyed an honourable and tranquil ftate, to which they had
long been ftrangers: but Italy deplored their abfence ; and
Rome, in folitude and poverty, might repent of the un-
goyernable freedom which had driven from the Vatican the
fucceffor of St. Peter. As the old members of the facred
college died, it was filled with French cardinals, who beheld
Reme and Italy with abhorrence and contempt, and perpe-
tuated a feries of national, and ¢ven provincial popes, at-
tached by indiffoluble ties to their native country. At
length the celebrated Petrarch warmly interefted himfelf in
reftoring the Roman bifhop to his ancient and peculiar dio-
cefe ; and he addreffed his exhortations to five ‘fucceffive
popes, with an eloquence that was infpired by the enthufiafm
of fentiment, and the freedom of language. Avignon,
which had become the fink of vice and corruption, was the
object-of his abhorrence and contempt ; and whilft he al-
lowed that the fucceffor of St. Peter was the bifhop ef the
univerfai church, he was of opinion, that it was not on the
banks of the Rhone, but of the Tiber, that the apoftle had
fixed his everlafling throne. Since the removal of the holy
fee, the facred buildings of the Lateran and the Vatican,

Yy the

,

AVI

their altars and their faints, were left in a flate of poverty
and decay; and Rome was often painted under the image
ofa difconfolate matron. But it was alleged, that the cloud
which hung over the feven hills, would be difpelled by the
prefence of their lawful fovereign; eternal fame, the profpe-
rity of Rome, and the peace of Italy, would be the recom-
pence of the pope who fhould dare to embrace this generous
refolution. Of the five popes to whom Petrarch addreffed
his exhortations, the three firft, John X XII., Benediét XII.,
and Clement VI., were importuned or amufed by the bold-
nefs of the orator; but the memorable change, which had
been attempted by Urban V., between the years 1367 and
1370, was finally accomplithed by Gregory Re AGO.
1377, who did not furvive his return to the Vatican above
fourteen months. His deceafe was followed by the “ Great
weftern f{chifm,’’ which began after the deceale of Gregory
XI., A.D. 1378, by the election of Clement VII. in oppo-
fition to Urban VI., and continued for about forty years,
till the council of Conftance, A.D. 14141418, when the
elevation of Martin V. was the era of the reftoration and
eftablifhment of the popes in the Vatican, During this in-
terval, there were two popes, one refiding at Rome or in
Italy, and the other at Avignon. See ScuisM.

This city is about three miles and two furlongs in cir-
cumference, and is in general irregular and badly built ; but it
is furrounded by walls and turrets with battlements, not un-
like thofe of Rome, and its public edifices are large and
grand, according to the tafte of the fourteenth century. The
church of Notre Dame is ancient, and is one of the bett
adorned inthe city ; the archiepifcopal palace overlooks the
Rhone, the city, and the fields. Thefe buildings, together
with the mint, adorn a large {quare, which is the common
walk of the inhabitants. ‘The chureh-of the Ccleftines is
very magnificent, and is full of fine monuments. The uni-
yerlity has four colleges ; the place in which the Jews have
been accuitomed to live is a diftinct quarter ; and thofe who
pay tribute are forbidden to leave it without yellow hats,
and the women alfo wear fomething yellow about their
heads ; and they are thus diftinguifhed from the Chriftians.
Their number is confiderable, though the diftriét of their re-
fidence is very confined. Near the Rhone is a large rock,
within the circuit of the walls, upon which is a platform,
whence the whole city and the places about it may be feen.
The bridge, about a quarter of a mile in length, that croffed
the Rhone, was demolifhed by an inundation in1699. ‘The
fountain of Vauclufe, which is the fource of the river Sor-
gues that waters the city, and whither Petrarch often re-
tired to indulge his grief and hopelefs love, is fituated ina
winding valley, forming the figure of a horfe-fhoe, about
five miles from Avignon. The fountain is a bafon of water,
feveral hundred feet in circumference, very deep, and clear
as cryftal, but overfhadowed by an incumbent rock. The
water difcharged from this fountain, by a narrow paflage,
forms a cafcade, which is precipitated along a rocky chan-
nel. The rocks, which inveft this romantic f{pot, are worn
by time and the inclemency of the weather, into a thoufand
fantaftic forms. And on one of the pointed extremities, in
a fituation almoft inacceffible, are feen the remains of an an-
cient caftle, projefting over the water, called by the pea-
fants “ Il Chitello di Petrarca:” and they add, that Laura
lived upon the oppofite fide of the river, under the bed of
which was a fubterraneous paflage, by which the two lovers
vifited each other. The refidence of the poet was much
lower down, and nearer to the banks of the Sorgues, as ap-
pears from his account of it, and from his relation of his
contefts with the naiads of the ftream, who during winter
encroached on his {mall adjoining territory : but no remains
ef it are now to be difcovered. Below the bridge is an

AVI

ifland, where the Sorgues joins the Rhone, in which are
feveral houfes of pleafure, The inhabitants of Avignon
were eflimated before the revolution at 30,000, 1000 of
thefe being ecclefiaftics, and fome hundreds Jews. In 1803,
their number was eftimated at 20,171; the north canton
containing 10,208, and the fouth 9,963; the territory of
the former includes 324, and that of the latter 42% kilio-
metres, and they both comprehend one commune. N. lat,
43° 56' 58”. E. long. 4° 48 10”.

Avicnon-Berry, called alfo French Berry, in Botany, is
the fruit of a fhrub, by fome authors called lycium ; growing
plentifully near Avignon, and other parts of France. See
Lycium. :

AVIGNONET, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a
canton in the diftri& of Villefranche, twenty miles fouth-eaft ~
of Touloufe, and four miles fouth-eaft of Villefranche.

AVILA, Gittes Gonzaves, in Biography, a Spaniflt
ecclefiaftic and hiftorian of the feventeenth century, was a
native of Avila, and acquired at Rome, where he fludied, a
great knowledge of facred and civil hiftory. On his return
to Spain, he had an ecclefiaitical benefice at Salamanda ; and
in 1612, he removed to Madrid, and was appointed hiftori-
grapher to the king. He died in 1658, at the age of 80.
rears. His principal works, publifhed in Spanifh, were
“ The Hiftory of the Antiquities of Salamanca,” and
«: The theatre of the Churches of the Indies, &c,’? Nouy.
Did. Hitt.

Avia, in Geography, a city of Spain, in Old Cattile,
feated on the river Adaja, on a large plain furrounded with
mountains and plantations of fruit-trees and vineyards, and
having a manufacture of cloths, that are faid to be equal
to thofe of Segovia. It is fortified by nature and art,
having a wall go75 feet in circuit, with twenty-fix lofty
towers, and ten handfome gates. It has feventeen prin-
cipal ftreets, containing feveral good and itately houfes 5
nine {quares, 2000 houfes, nine parifhes, and as many mo-
nafteries, feven nunneries, two colleges, nine hofpitals,
eighteen chapels, and an annual allowance of 10,000 ducats
for the maintenance of orphans and other poor people,
The univerfity was founded in 1445, confirmed by pope
Gregory XIII. in 1538, and afterwards enlarged ; and its
cathedral has eight dignitaries, twenty canons, and the
fame number of minor canons. N. lat. 40° 35’ W. long.
4° 13!

This city has been rendered famous by the depofi-
tion of Henry IV. A.D. 1465. The indignation of
the Caftilian nobility againit the weak and flagitious admini-
ftration of this prince, led them to combine againft him,
and to exercife the right, which they arrogated as one of the
privileges of their order, of trying and of paffing fentence
on their fovereign. For this purpofe they ereéted a {pacious
theatre in a place without the walls of the town, and having
prepared an image, clad in royal robes, reprefenting the
king, they placed it on a throne, with a crown on its head,
afceptre in its hand, and the fword of juttice by its fide.
The accufation againft the king was then read, and the
fentence of depofition was pronounced in prefence of @
numerous aflembly ; and whilit the feveral charges were de-
livered, they proceeded to tear the crown from the head of
the image, to {natch the {word of juftice from its fide, to
wreft the fceptre from its hand, and, at the clofe of the
whole, to tumble it headlong from the throne. When this
ceremony was finifhed, Don Alfonfo, Henry’s brother, was
proclaimed king of Cattile and Leon in his ftead. Robert-
fon’s Hilt. Ch. V. vol. i. p. 179.

Avita, or Aviles, a town of Spain, in Afturia, near the
bay of Bifcay, nine leagues from Oviedo.

Ayina

i

eS a

AVI

Aviva, acity of South America, in the provinee of Quito,
and goyernment of Quixos, fituate in S. lat. 0° 44’, and about
2° 20’ E. of Quito. It islefs than Archidona, a fmall city
lying in S, lat. one degree and a few minutes, and about
one degree fifty minutes E. of Quito. Like this latter
place, its houfes are of wood covered with ftraw; and as
the whole number of inhabitants in Archidona is reckoned
at 650 or 700, and contifts of Spaniards, Indians, Meftizos,
and Mulattoes, thofe of Avila fcarcely amount to 300 of
both fexes. Like the other it has one prieft; and his eccle-
fiaftical jurifdiction comprehends fix towns; viz. La Con-
eet Loreto, San Salvador, Motte, Cota Pini, and Santa
Rofa.

Aviva Fuente, atown of Spain, in old Cattile, fix leagues
from Segovia.

AVILER, Aucustin-Cuartes D’, in Biography, an
eminent French architet, was born at Paris in 1653, and
from his youth devoted himfelf to the ftudy of architecture.
In his way to Rome, whither he was fent for improvement
by the royal academy, at the age of twenty, he was carried
into flavery by an Algerine corfair, and in this fituation he
manifefted his talents by making a defign for a grand
mofque at Tunis. After fixteen months he was liberated,
and purfued his ftudies at Rome for five years. On bys re-
turn he was placed under Manfart, firft architeét to the
king, and had a principal concern in the conduct of all
public works. His “Courfe of Architeéture’’. was founded
on the werk of Vignola; but by the enlargement of that
writer’s plan, was rendered a complete treatife of the art.
It has been much efteemed: the firft edition was that of
1691, 2 vols. 4to.; and it has fince pafled through feveral
other editions. Being invited to Montpelier, he fuper-
intended the conftruction of a grand triumphal arch to
Louis XIV., was afterwards appointed architect to the
province of Languedoc, and befides other buildings in which
he was employed, he ereéted the archi-epifcopal palace at
Bris He died at Montpelier in 1700. Moreri. Gen.

ioc. :

‘AVINO, in Geography, a town of North America, in
the province of New Gallicia, where the Spaniards have a
filver mine; between Durango and Ellerena.

Avino, La Panea, a town of North America, in the
weitern part of the kingdom of Leon, between two of the
head-branches of the Naflas river.

AVIORA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania,
fixty miles north-eait of Tocat.

AVIOTH, a town of France, in the department of the
Meute, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Stenay,
three miles north of Montmedy.

AVIRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
Palmyrene. Ptolemy.

AVIS Inpicus, in Afronomy. See Arus.

Avis, or Aviz, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Alentejo, giving name to an order of knights ;
three leagues weft of Eftremos. The land furrounding it
is covered with ciftus, which is ufually cut down once in
eight years and burnt, and the ground fown with corn.
N. lat. 38° 40. W. long. 7°.

Avis, in Heraldry, a military order of knighthood, in-
flituted by Alphonfo Henriques king of Portugal, in 1142,
in teftimony of the great fervices done for him at the fiege
of Lifbon, by the nobility led to his affiftance by Don
Ferdinand Rodrigues de Monteyro, whom he appointed
to be their grand mafter. For fome years after they were

called Nouvelle Milice, or the new military ; which appel-

Jation continued until theyear 1166, when they having taken
Evora by furprife, the king conferred on them the goyern-

_ ment of that town, and commanded that they fhould thence-

forth be called Knights of Evora: laftly, the fame king

AVI

having in the year 1181, taken from the Moors a place very
advantageoufly fituated, and called Avis, granted the fame
to the before-mentioned knights, on condition that they
fhould build a fort in that place, and refide therein. The
knights accordingly tran{planted themfelves thither, and from
that time took the denomination of Freres d’ Avis. In theyear
1204, pope Innocent ITI. confirmed this order. ‘The badge
of the order is a crofi flory, enamelled vert, between each angle
a fleur-de-lis or; which they wear pendant to a green
ribbon round the neck ; and the fame badge is embroidered
on the left fhoulder of the robe of ftate, which is of white
fattin.

Avis, Bird. Aves, Birds, among Naturalifls, the fecond
clafs of animals; a race of creatures fufficiently diftinguifhed
from the others in having the body covered with feathers,
two feet and two wings, formed for flight. Birds have the
mandible protracted and naked, and are deititute of external
ears, lips, teeth, ferotum, womb, urinary vetlel or bladder,
epiglottis, corpus callofum, or its fornix (covering of the
two lateral ventricles of the brain, or its arch) and dia-
phragm.—In the Linnzan fyftem, birds are divided into fix
orders ; viz. accipitres, pice, anferes, grallx, galline, aad
pafferes. See OrniTHo.ocy.

Avis, Longa, in Ornithalogy,a name given by Nieremberg
to the hoitlattotl of the Americans, a bird remarkable for its
fwiftnefs in running. ‘The hoitlattotl appears to be the
phafianus mexicanus of Gmelin, and courier pheafant of
Latham.

Avis Nivea, a name under which Nieremberg has de-
feribed an American bird of the fize of athrufh; of a brown
and black colour on the back, and yellow under the belly ;
it imitates the human voice, and is called by the natives
ceoan.

Avis Pennipulchra, the natre of an American bird de-
{cribed by Nieremberg, and called by the Indians guetzaltototl.
It is the fize of a pigeon, and is faid to be all over the body
of the more beautiful colours of the peacock. The fpecies
alluded to is not accurately known ; and Ray has arranged
it with fome others, as doubtful kinds.

Avis Scica, or Hoaéli. See ARpEA Hoacrtt, Gmelin;
and Hoi, Buffon. }

Avis Tropicorum, and avis rabos forcados, the name of a
bird, among old authors, called in Englith the tropic bird ;
and by Gmelin Prarron AETHEREUS.

Avis Venti, “the bird of the wind,” or heathtototl;
ecatototl, f. avis ventialtera, Ray, &c. obfolete names of the
Mercus Encuuratus, or hooded merganfer, of America.

Avis Paradifi, bird cf Paradife. See Parapisea.

Avis Mexicana ‘grandis rubra, Seba. See Loxra Mexi-
CANA,

Avis Lgnota piperini, Gefner. See Emperiza Nivatts.

Avis Americana criftata rubetra, Seba. See Pirra Ru-
BETRA.

Avis Mexicana altera, Seba.
PHALA, &c. &c.

AVISE, in Geography, a town of Piedmont, in the
duchy of Aofta, in the grand Doria, eight miles weft of
Aofta.

AVISO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and country of Lavora, fix miles eaft of Sora.

Aviso, Italian, advifo, chiefly ufedia matters of Com-
merce, denotes advice, piece of intelligence, or advertife~
ment, to notify forne event or matter worthy of know-
ledge.

AVISON, Cuartes, in Biography, organift of New-
caftle, was an ingenious and polifhed man, efteemed and re-
fpected by all who knew him; ard an elegant writer upon
his art. He had vilited Italy early in his youth, and at his
return, having received iniftruGtions from Geminiani, a bias

Yy2 in

See Pina ErytTuroce-

AU'L

in his Compofitions for Violins, and in his Effay on Mufical
Expreffion, towards that matter, is manifelt. Rameau was
likewife his model in harpfichord mufic; and Marcello’s
pfalms were much over-rated by him, in order to depreciate
Handel; whom he cenfured more by implication than open
holtility. We find in his book, which is elegantly written,
and in the prefaces to his mufical compofitions, many pre-
judices, particularly againit German fymphonies; aferibing
to them the corruption and decay of mufic! His com-
politions for the harpfichord, when played by the late lady
Milbanke, and accompanied by Giardini, had a pleafing
effet. They were formed on the plan of Rameau’s con-
certos, as thofe for violins were on the concertos of Ge-
miniani; and there was the fame difference between them m
point of excellence, as is always difcoverable between an
oxiginal production, and an imitation.

His violin concertos were revived, after they became of
age, at the concert of ancient mufic; where 20 years are the
period which renders mufical compofitions venerable. Here
they are fill played in turn with thofe of Corelli, Gemi-
niani, Handel, and San Martini; with thofe productions,
however, they but ul fupport a parallel: they want force,
correCtuefs, and originality, fufficient to be ranked very high
among the works of matters of the firft clafs.

AVITUS, Sexrus Atcimus Ecpicivus, a Chriftian
divine, bithop of Vienne in France, was nephew to Marcus
Mecilius Avitus, emperor of the Weit, and flourifhed at the
beginning of the fixth century. He fucceeded his father Hy-
chius in the fee of Vienne, in the year 4go. He was the
friend of Clovis, the firft Chriftian king of France, and
contributed to his converfion. Asa zealous opponent of
the Arians, he reclaimed Gondebaud, king of the Bur-
gundians, from his connection with this fect, to the
Catholic faith ; he prefided in the council of Epaon in

17, and in that of Lyons in 523, in which year he died.
ee wrote 87 letters on fubjeéts that formed the difputes of
the age in which he lived, fermons, and poems on the Mo-
faic hiftory, and in praife of virginity. His ftyle is faid
to have been harfh, obfcure, and intricate. His works were
publifhed by Sirmond in 8yo. with notes, in 1643. His
poems have been printed feparately at Frankfort, in 1507,
at Paris in 1509, and at Lyons in 1536. Cave Hit. Lit.
vol. i. p. 461. Nouv. Dict. Hilt.

AVIUS, in Entomology, 4 {pecies of Pariiio ( Hefperia,
Fabr.), with entire wings, above and beneath brown, with
two blue ftreaks near the tip. This infeét inhabits India.

AVISE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Marne, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri&t of Epernay, fix leagues fouth of Rheims. The place
contains 1290, and the canton 7671 inhabitants: the ter-
ritory includes 190 }jliometres and 19 communes.

AUK, or Awx, in Ornithology. See Auca.

AUKEB, the Ar-bic name of the great eagle.

AUKLAND, or Bishop Auxkianp, in Geography.
See AuCKLAND.

AUL. See Awn.

AULA, in our Ancient Law Books, fignifies a court
baron.—dula ibidem tenta quarto die duguft, &c.

Aula ecclefie is fometimes ufed for what we now call navis
ecclefie. See Nave.

AULA regia, or regis, a court eftablifhed by William the
Conqueror in his own hall, compofed of the king’s great
officers of ftate, who refided in his palace, and were ufually
attendant on his perfon. Thefe were the lord high
éonftable and lord marefchal, who chiefly prefided in mat-
ters of honour and of arms, determining according to the
law military and the law of nations ; the lord high fteward,
and lord great chamberlain; the fleward of the houfehold;
the lord chancellor, whofe peculiar office it was to keep

Jed teneantur in aliquo certo loco.”?

LU kh

the king’s feal, and examineall fuch writs, grants, and fet-
ters, as were to pafs under that authority ; and the lord.
high treafurer, who was the principal advifer in all matters
relating to the revenue. Thefe high officers were affifted
by certain perfons learned in the laws, who were called the
king’s juiticiars or juftices:; and by the greater barons of
parliament, all of whom had a feat in the “ Aula Regia,”
and formed a kind of court of appeal, or rather of advice,
in matters of great moment and difhteulty. All thefe, in their
feveral departments, tranfacted all fecular bufixefs both crimi-
nal and civil, and likewife the matters of the revenue; and
over all prefided one fpecial magiltrate, called the chief
julliciar, or “ capitalis juiticiarius totus Angle; who
was alfo the principal minifter of flate,.the fecond man in
the kingdom, and by virtue of his office guardian of the
yealm in the king’s abfence. This great officer principally
determined the vait variety of caufes that arofe in his ex-
tenfive jurifdiction; and from the plenitude of his power,
he became obnoxious to the people, and dangerous to the
government which employed him. This formidable tribu-
nal, which received appeals from all the courts of the barons,
and decided in the lait refort on the eftates, honour, and
lives of the barons themfelves; and which, being wholly
compoled of the great officers of the crown, removeable at
the king’s pleafure, and having the king himfelf for pre-
fident, kept the firft nobleman in the kingdom under the
fame control as the meaneft fubje&.

This great univerfal court being bound to follow the
king’s houfehold in all his progrefies and expeditions, the
tr.al eo& common caufes was found very burthenfome to the
fubject; and, therefore, king John, who alfo dreaded the
power of the juiticiar, very readily confented to that article,
which now forms the 11th chapter of Magna Charta, and
enacts, “that communia placita non fequantur curiam regisy
This certain place was
eftablifhed in Weftminfter-Hall, the place where the ‘aula
regis’” originally fat, when the king refided in that
city; and there it hath ever fince continued. ‘The
court being thus rendered fixed and ftationary, the judges
became fo too, and a chief, with other juftices of the Com~
mon Pleas, was thereupon appointed; with jurifdi€tion to
hear and determine all pleas of land, and injuries merely
civil between one fubject and another. The “aula regia’?
being thus {tripped of fo confiderable a branch of its jurif-
diGion, and the power of the chief jufticiar being alfo
confiderably curbed by many articles in the Great Charter,
the authority of both began to decline apace under the
long and troublefome reign of king Henry III. In pur-
fuance of this example, the other feveral offices of the
chief juiticiar were, under Edward I. (who new modelled
the whole frame of our judicial polity), fubdivided and
broken into diftin@ courts of judicature. Blackft. Com.
vol. i. p. 38—40. De Lolme on the Conftitution of Eng-
land, p. 14, &c. See the articles Court of Common Pleas,
of Exchequer, and of Kixg’s Bench, &c. Kc. *

Avta, in Geography. See Avora. |

Auta, in Ancient Geography, a place of Peloponnefus,
in Arcadia, where was a temple dedicated to the god Pan.

AULADIS, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia. Ptolemy.

AULA, a part of Afia, in Cilicia, between Tarfus and
Anchiale. Suidas.

AULAI Manta, the walls of Auleus, a maritime
place of Thrace, upon the Euxine fea, not far from Apol-
lonia, and at fome diftance north from Salmydeffus.

AULANA, a town of Palefline, 30 ftadia diftant from .
Jerufalem. Hegefippus.

AULAS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gard, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Le Vigan, near Le Vigan.

AULAX,

AUL

AULAX, in Botany. See Prorea.
AULCESTER. See Atcesrer.

AULENDORYF, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Swabia, and barony belonging to the fa-
mily of Konigfegg, feated on a hil near the Schus, eight
miles north of Rovetionis. N. lat. 57° 46. E. long.

ak Coir

AULEON Sinus, in Ancient Geography, a gulf of
Thrace, near Byzantium.

AULERCI Brannovices, a people fubjeét to the
ZEdui, who are fuppofed to have inhabited that part of
Gaul, where is now the canton called Briennois, near the
Loire, in the diocefe of Macon.—A. Cenomani, a people
Who inhabited that part of Gaul which now forms the
diocefe of Mans.—A. Zburovices, a people who occupied
the country which is now the diocefe of Evreux: their ca«

ital was Mediolanum.

AULETES, avanen:, in Antiquity, denotes a flute-player.
One of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, father of Cleopatra,
bore the furname or denomination of Juletes.

AULETTA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and province of Principato Citra, four
miles W.S. W. from Cangiano.

AULI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Europe, in

Macedonia, who occupied a town to which they gave their=

name.

AULIC, Autica, an at which a young divme main-
tains in fome foreign univerfities, upon the admiffion of a
new doctor of dvinity. It is fo called from the Latin au/a,
a hail ; it being in the hall of the univerfity that this act is
ufually held.

The perfon who prefides at the difputation, is the fame
that is to take the doétor’s cap.

Auvtic, Aulicus, is alfo an appellation ‘given to-certain

officers of the emperor, who compofe a fuperior court of -

council, which has an univerfal jurifdiction, and without
appeal, over all the fubjects of the empire, in all proceffes
entered therein. .

All caufes relating to points of feudal right or jurifdiétion,
together with fuch as refpect the territories which held of
the empire in Italy, belong properly to the jurifdiétion of
the aulic council. This tribunal was formed upon the
model of the ancient court of the palace inftituted by the
emperors of Germany. It depended not upon the itates
of the empire, but upon the emperor; who has the right
of appointing, at pleafure, all the judges of whom it is com-

ofed. Maximitian, in order to procure fome compenfation
for the diminution of his authority, by the powers vetted in
the imperial chamber, prevailed on the diet A. D. 1512, to

ive its confent to the eftablifhment of the aulic council.
Since that time it has been a great object of policy in the
court of Vienna, to extend the jurifdition, and fupport the
authority of the aulic council, and to circumfcribe and
weaken thofe of the imperial chamber; for which the te-
dious forms and dilatory proceeding of this chamber have
furnifhed the emperor with pretexts. ‘“ Lites Spire,’’ ac-
cording to the witticifm of a German lawyer, “ {pirant, fed
nunguam ex{pirant;’? fuch delays are unavoidable in a court

a compofed of members named by ftates, jealous of each other.

Whereas the judges of the aulic council, depending on one
mafter, and being refponfible to him alone, are more vigo-
rous and decifive. Puffendorf, de Statu Imper. Germ. c. v.
20.
The aulic council is eftablifhed by the emperor, who no-

minates the officers; but the eleGtor of Mentz has a right

of vifiting it.—It is compofed of a prefident, who is a ca-
tholic; a vice-chancellor prefented by the eleGtor cf Mentz;
and of eighteen affeffors, or counfellors, nine whereof are
Proteitants, and nine Romanifts. They are divided into

AUL

two benches, one of which is occupied by the nobles, and
the other by the lawyers.—They hold their affemblies in
the prefence of the emperor; and for that reafon are called
‘¢ jultitium imperatoris,’”? the ‘ emperor’s juftice ;”? and
“ aulic council,” becaufe theirs follows the emperor’s court,
aula, and has its refidence in the place were he is.—This
court. clathes a little with the imperial chamber of Spires ;
as they are preventive of each other; it not being al-
lowed to moye any caufe from the one to the other. Nor
can the emperor himfelf hinder or fufpend the decifions of
either court; much lefs call any caufe before himfelf, which
has been once -before them, without the confent of {tates
oftheempire. Yet, in fome cafes, the fame council forbears
making any peremptory conclufion, without the emperor’s
participation ; and only decrees thus,‘ Fiat votum ad
Cefarem ;”? that is, make a report hereof to the emperor
in his. privy-council.

AULICA, in Latomology, a fpecies of .PHALANA
(Bombyx) that inhabits Europe and Siberia. The anterior.
wings-are greyifh dotted with yellow; pofterior ones fulvous, .
{potted with black. Lin. Fn. Suec.

AULICK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony and bifhopric of Naumberg; fix
miles north of Zeitz.

AULICUS, in Cenchology, a {pecies of Conus, marked
with brown reticulated ves, and interrupted bands of the
fame colour. It is a native of Afia, and may be only a va-
riety of the conus textile, being extremely variable in its
colours and marks. Gmelin mentions feven different kinds,
with references to different figures in the works of Martini,
Knorr, and Seba; the moft remarkable is the fourth variety,
the fhell of which is yellowifh-brown inftead of white, and
marked reticularly with heart-fhaped fpots, difpofed in a
perpendicular direction.

Auticus, in Entomology, a {pecies of CERaAmByYx (Cal-
lidium Fab.) Thorax fmooth and fhining; body opake, black;
wing-cafes {mooth; antennz fhort. Inhabits Europe.

Auvticus,a fpecies of CimEx, that inhabits South Ame-
rica ;:the colouris red and black, varied with a black band
on the-upper wings ; lower wings black with a white line
at the bafe. This is cimex irroratus of 'Thunberg, Nov. Inf.
or at leaft a variety of it.

Avticus, a f{pecies of Cry PTOCEPHALUS (Ciffela) found
in Africa, efpecially at the Cape of Good Hope. It is
black, with a rufous thorax, and azure-blue wing-cafes.
Fabricius.

Auticus,.in Zoology, a{pecies of Cotuser, having
184 abdominal plates, and fixty fub-caudal feales. It is of
a greyifh colour with numeroys linear white bands which
bifureate on the fides; on each fide behind the head is a
triangular white fpot, andthefe almott unite at the nape. The
length of this kind:is about fix inches, and its diameter one
third of an inch.- It inhabits America, and is deemed a
poifonous f{nake.

AULIS, in Ancient Geography, a fea-port town of Bro- -
tia, fituate at the bottom of a {mall gulf, oppoiite to.
Chalcis of Eubcea; and famous for being the place where
the Grecian chiefs refolved upon the deftru€tion of Troy.
The diftri& belonging to it, and called “ Aulide,” lay’
toward Enuripus, in that part which feparated Bceotia from
Eubeea. Diana had a temple in this territory, with a ftatue -
of white marble holding a flambeau in the hand.

AULLENE, in Geography, atown of the ifland of Cor-
fica, four miles north of Tallano.

AULNAGER, in Commerce... See ALNAGER.

AULNAY, or Aunay, in Geography, atown of France,
in the department of the Calvados, ‘and chief place of a can-
tou in the diftri@ of Vire, 44 leagues fouth-weit of Caen,
The place contains 1620 and the canton 12,938 inhabitants: .

the

AUM

the territory includes 1822 kiliometres and 19 communes.
See Aunay.

AULO, a Grecian long meafure. See Measure.

AULOCRENE, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Phrygia, towards the north-eaft of Apamza-Cibotos.

AULON, a valley of Paleftine, extending along the
banks of Jordan, from Libanus to the defert of Pharan.
Scythopolis, Jericho, and Tiberias were fituated in this
valley.— A Ho, a town of Meffenia, upon a river of the fame
name, north of Eleétra.—Alfo, a town and port of the
Macedonian fea, in the country of the Taulantians. Pto-
lemy.—Alfo, a town of Peloponnefus, in Laconia.—Alfo,
another in Arcadia—Another ancient town im the ifle of
Crete.—Alfo, a hill of Italy, near Tarentum, which was
fertile in vines, and faid by Horace not to be inferior to
thofe of Falernum.

AULOS, in Conchology, a name by which feveral of the
ancient writers call the /o/en, or as it is rather improperly
named the razor-/i/h.

AULPS, or Aups, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Var, and chief place of a canton in
the diftriét of Draguignan; 8% leagues W.N.W. of Frejus.
The place contains 2949, and the canton 5585 inhabit-
ants; the territory includes 2524 kiliometres and feven com=
munes.

AULT, a town of France, in the department of the

_ Somme, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of Abbe-
ville, five leagues weft of Abbeville. The place contains
1122, and the canton 10,011 inhabitants 5 the territory in-
cludes 130 kiliometres and 19 communes.

AULUS Getuuvs, or Acettitivs, in Biography, a Ro-
man grammarian and critic, flourifhed at Rome, where he
was born in the fecond century, under the emperors Adrian
and Antonius Pius; and died in the beginning of the reign
of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. He ftudied grammar and
rhetoric at Rome, and philofophy at Athens, where he en-
joyed the fociety of Calvins ‘Taurus, Peregrinus Proteus,
‘erodes Atticus, and other leavyned perfons. Having tra-
velled through Greece, he returned to Rome, devoted
himfelf to the ftudy and praétice of the law, and was ap-
pointed a judge. From the frequent citations of his works
by writers on Roman law, it may be inferred, that he at-
tained to confiderable reputation in his profeffion. His
« No&tes Attica,” or “ Attic Nights,” the only work
extant, and the greateft part of which was written at Athens,
furnifhing an amufing occupation for many long winter
evenings, is a colleétion of incidents, and anecdotes, hifto-
rical and biographical, with critical obfervations and reflec-
tions on various authors and ;topics, originally compiled for
the inftruction ard entertainment of his children, and ren-
dered valuable by many“fragments of ancient authors, that
are not elfewhere to be found. It was edited in folio, at
Rome, in 1469, by Swinheim and Panertz; a fecond edition
wag publifhedin 1472, by Jenfon at Venice; in the fixteenth
century are found the editions of Aldus, Svo. at Venice, in
15153 of Paris, in folio, 1519, 1524, 1536; of Bafil, 8vo.
in 15263; of Paris, 8vo. in £585, with the critical notes of
H. Stephens. Editions of a later date are thofe, in ufum
Delphini, 8vo., 1681; of the Elzevirs at Amfterdam, 1651,
18mo.; at Leyden, cum notis variorum, 1660; by Grono-
tius 4to. in 17063; and at Leipfick, in 2 vols. Svo. by
Coaradus, in 1762. An elegant tranflation cf this amufing,
but frequently obfcure and difficult author, with valuahle
notes was given in Englifh, in 3 vols. 8vo. by Mr. Beloe,
in 1795. Pref. to Beloe’s tranflation. Fabr. Bib. Lat. 1. i.
C. I. t. il. pe Tyee.

AUMA, in Geography, a town of Germany, in Upper
Saxony, and circle of Neuftadt, forty-four miles S.S.W. of
Leipfick, and fix E.S.E. of Neustadt.

AUN

AUMA Wenstncen, a town of Germany, in Upper
Saxony, two miles S. E. of Auma.

AUMALE, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of
Neufchatel, nine leagues 5. E. of Dieppe, and eleven N.E.
of Rouen. The place contains 1715, and the canton 7270
inhabitants: the territory includes 160 kiliometres, and 19
communes. N. lat. 49° 46’. E. long. 1° 38’. ;

AUMONE, orA.tms. See Arms.

AUMONT, in Geography, atown of France, in the de-
partment of Lozere, and chief place of a canton in the dif
tri&t of Marvajols ; five leagues north-weit of Mende. The
place contains 926, and the canton 58go inhabitants; the
territory includes 200 kiliometres and feven communes.

AUN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan,
forty-four leagues S.S.E. of Zareng. :

AUNALASCHKENSIS, in Ornithology, a {pecies of
Oriotvus that inhabits the ifland of Oonalafchka. The
length of this bird is eight inches; it is of a brown colour,
with a {pot under the eyes, and chin white; throat and
breaft ferruginous brown. Gmelin. The beak and legs are
brown.

AUNAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Nievre, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@&
of Chateau-Chinon; nine miles north of Moulins.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Lower Charente,
and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of St. Jean
d’Angely ; eight miles north-eaft of St. Jean d’Angely.
The place contains 1250, and the canton 11,810 inhabit-
ants ; the territory includes 3174 kiliometres, and 26 com-
munes. See AULNAY.

AUNSEL-Weicur, quafi Handfale-Weight, an ancient
mode of weighing by a kind of balance, confifting of {cales
hanging on hooks faitened at each end of a beam or ftaff,
which a man lifts up by his hand or fore-finger, and fo dif-
covers the equality or difference between the weight and the
thing weighed. There being great deceits practifed in
thefe weights, they were prohibited by feveral itatutes; and
the even balance alone commanded. The word is ftill ufed
in fome parts of England, to fignify meat fold by poifing
in the hand, without putting it into the feales. See Srit-
Yarp. ¢

AUNCESTOR, Affe of Mori d’. See Assize.

AUNCESTREL Homacs. See Homace.

AUNE, in Commerce, a long meafure ufed in France
and other countries, of different lengths in different places.
See Ext.

Aung, in Geography, a river of England, which runs into
the fea near Plymouth.

AUNEAU, a town of France, in the department of the
Eure and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diltn&
of Chartres ; four leagues eaft of Chartres.

AUNEUIL, a town of France, in the department of the
Oife, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Beau-
vais; five miles S.S.W. of Beauvais. The place contains
1077, and the canton 9037 inhabitants ; the territory in-
cludes 192+ kiliometres and 18 communes. ;

AUNGERVYLE, Ricuarp, or Richard of Bury, in
Biography, an Englifh bifhop, was born at St. Edmundf-
bury, in Suffolk, in 1281, ftudied at Oxford, and became
a Benedictine monk at Durham. He was tutor to prince
Edward, afterwerds Edward III.; and upon his acceffion
to the throne, he was loaded with honours and preferments.
Ip 1333, he wasconfecrated bifhop of Durham; in 1334,
he was appointed high chancellor; and in 1336, treaiurer
of Englauad. He was himfelf eminently learned, and a
great patron and encourager of learning. Petrarch, with
whom he correfponded, calls him “ virum ardentis ingenii.”? ~
He was a great colleGtor of books, and pofleffed, it is faid,

more

“AKVv 0

more books than allthe bifhops of England together. Not-
with{tanding the expence which he incurred in this way, by
employing perfons to collect books for him abroad, and alfo
binders, illuminators, and writers in his feveral palaces, he
was diltinguifhed by his charity and beneficence. He does
not feem to have contented himfelf inerely with the poffeffion
of a large library ; for he was a diligent {tudent ; and it was
his cuitom for fome of his attendants to read to him at his
meals, and afterwards to difcourfe with his chaplains on the
fubjeéts that occurred, His “ Philobiblos’’ was a curious
treatife, finifhed at Auckland in 1345, when he was fixty-
three years of age, and containing a declaration in praife of
books, with directions Goncerning the prefervation and ufe
of them, It was printed at Spires in 1483 ; at Paris, in
1500; at Oxford, in 1599, 4to. ; and at Leipfick, in 1674,
at the clofe of ** Philologicarum Epiftolarum Centuria una.”
This work is diftributed into twenty chapters; in which,
among other particulars, he afferts, that books are to be
preferred to riches and pleafures; that they are mifufed
only by ignorant people; that the ancients furpaffed the
moderns in hard ftudy ; that learning arrives at perfection
by degrees, and that he had provided for ftudents Greek
and Hebrew grammars in his libraries; that the law and

‘Jaw books are not properly learning ; that grammar is pecu-

liarly ufeful and neceflary ; that poetry alfo is ufeful; but
he makes an apology for admitting poets into his colleGtion,
obferving, “ we have not neglected the fables of the poets.”
Aungervyle founded a noble library at Oxford for the ufe
of ftudents, and appointed five keepers, to whom he granted
yearly falaries. ‘This learned and worthy prelate died at
Auckland, in his diocefe of Durham, April 24, 1345.
Biog. Brit. Wharton’s Hitt. Poet. vol.i. 2d Prel. Diff
p+ 120, 121.

AUNIS, in Geography, a diftri& of France, which, be-
fore the revolution, was reckoned a part of Saintonge, but
is now with Saintonge included in the department of the
Lower Charente ; is bounded on the eaft and fouth by Saint-
onge, on the weit by the ocean, and on the north by Poi-
tou, and comprehends the ifles of Ré and Oleron. It is
watered by the rivers Sevre and Charente, and has feveral
good harbours along the coaft. The foil is fertile, and pro-
duces great quantities of corn and wine ; the f{wampy parts
afford good patturage, and the falt-marfhes yield an excel-
lent falt, which is a confiderable article of commerce.

AUNOT. See Annor.

AUNOY, Mary Caruerine Jumettre De Berne-
viLLE, Counte/s of, in Biography, a diltinguifhed writer of
fiction and romance towards the clofe of the feventeenth
century, was niece of the celebrated Madame Defloges, and
wife of the count D’Aunoy. She wrote with fluency of
ftyle and facility of invention: and her ‘* Contes des Fées’’
or merry tales, and “ Aventures d’Hippolyte Comte de

Duelas,” or adventures of Hippolytus earl Douglas, are

read with pleafure by thofe who merely feek amufement.
Some of her other pieces, uniting hiftory with fable, fuch
as “ Hiftorical Memoirs of the moft remarkable Events in
Europe from 1672 to 1679,” ** Memoirs of the Court of
Spain,” “ Hiftory of John of Bourbon, prince de Caren-
cy,” are lefs valued. She died in 1705. Nouv. Dia.
Hit.

AUNUS, in E£ntomology, a fpecies of Papixio, of a
blue colour with a black border and three fmall tails; black
beneath and ftriped with white. Cramer, Gmelin, &c.

AVOCADO, or Avocaro, Pear, in Botany, a {pecies
oflaurus. See Laurus.

AVOCATORIA, a mandate of the emperor of Ger-
many, directed to fome prince or fubje& of the empire, to

2

AVEO

ftop his unlawful proceedings in any caufe brought by way
of appeal before him. ;

AVOCETTA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Recurvi-
RosTRA that is diftinguifhed from two other birds of the
fame genus, in being variegated only with black and white.
Linn. Gmel. &c.

The length of this bird is from eighteen to twenty inches ;
it has a {mall body, and legs remarkably long 3 irides ha-
zel; crown black ; front of the neck, brealt, back, belly,
and outer part of the wings white; legs blueifh-black ;
beak black ; about three inches and a half in length, and
like the reft of the genus, flender, flexible, turning upwards
towards the end, and terminating in a point.

‘“¢ This bird is common in winter on the eaftern coalts of
England, particularly thofe of Suffolk and Norfolk; and
fometimes on the lakes of Shropfhire. ‘They are found in
great plenty in the breeding feafon, in the fens about Fofl~
dyke Wath in Lincolnthire, and in the fens of Cambridge-
fhire. They feed on worms and infeéts, which they fcoop
out of the mud and fand; and are fometimes obferved to.
wade or {wim, but always clofe to the fhore.

« They lay two eggs, which are about the fize of
thofe of a pigeon. Pennant fays they are white, tinged,
with green, and marked with large black fpots. In the
defcription of them given by Latham it is obferved, they
are of a cinereous grey, whimfically marked with deep
brownith-black patches of irregular fizes and fhapes, befides.
fome under markings of a dufky hue.

The avocet is far more frequent in fome other parts of
Europe than in this country. Albin fays, in Rome and
Venice they are common; and, according to Salerne, they
are fo plentiful on the coafts of Bas Poitou, that the pea-
fants take their eggs by thoufands. They are alfo found
in Ruffia and Siberia, Denmark, Sweden, and other north«
ern countries.’? Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.

This bird is called avofetta f. recurvirofira, by Gefner s
avocette, by Buffon ; krumb/chnabl, by Cramer ; fkerflacka,
Alfit. Linn. Fn. Suec ; the /cooper, by Charlt. ; crooked bill,
by Dale ; and avocet, or avofit, by Englifh writers.

AVOGLI, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Ardirbeitzan, eighteen leagues fouth-eaft of Tau-
ris.

AVOIDANCE, in Law, is applied generally to a be-'
nefice which becomes void of an incumbent, and is oppofed
to plenarty. Avoidances are either in fad, as by the death
of the incumbent; or in /gqw; and may be by ceffion, de-
privation, refignation, &c. See Usurparion.

AVOIRDUPOIS, or Averpurois Weight, a kind of
weight ufed in England; the pound whereof contains fix-
teen ounces. See WeIGHT.

The proportion of a pound avoirdupois to a pound troy
is as 17 to 445 or the avcirdupois pound contains 7o0a
grains, and the troy pound 5760.

All the larger and coarfer commodities are weighed by
avoirdupois weight ; as groceries, cheefe, wool, lead, hops,

qa
AVOISE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Sarte, four leagues from La Fleche.
AVOLA, or Auta, a town of Sicily, in the valley
of Noto, fix miles from Noto, and fixteen from Syracufe.
This city, which formerly ftood on a hill, boafted of being
the ‘“ Hybla Minor,” fo celebrated for its honey; but
the juftice of its claim, in common with many other cities,
cannot be ealily decided. After its deltru@tion by the
earthquake of 1693, the inhabitants rebuilt it more commo-
dioufly in the plain, in a fertile territory, Juxuriant in corn
and fruits, and principally in almonds, a confiderable article

of

A VO

ef commerce. The houfes ftill prove; by being extremely
low, the dread entertained of earthquakes. "The ftreets
are wide and regular.

AVOLTOJO, in Ornithology, a name given by Cetti to
feme birds of the Vuittur genus ; as for example, vnltur
Sujcus is called by that writer avoligjo Griffone ; and vuliur
niger, avoltojo nero.

AVON, or Aron, in the Britifh Language, fignifies a
river generally; but in its prefent application defionates
only a. few of the {treams in Great Britain. The principal
are the Warwick/eire Avon, and the Wilifhire Avon. Vhe
former is fometimes called « The Upper Avon.” It
brings a great influx of waters from the north-eait, rifing on
the borders of Leicetterfhire,: and adds great beauty to
the delightful territory of Warwick cattle, as, it flows ke-
neath the cliff on which thofe lofty towers are fituated.
It then glides through a charming country, to-the cele-
brated fpot of Stvatford-on-Avon, the birth-place of our
immortal Shakfpeare, and the repofitory of his bones.
Hence it traverfes the great level of Worcefterfhire, by
Evetham, having received the leffer Stour at Stratford, and
turning to the fouth at Perththore, meets the Severn at the
flourifhing town of Tewkefbury. Ireland’s picturefque
Views on the Avon.

The Wilthhire or Leaver Avon derives its fource from
various {prings in the north of Wilts, and becomes a
confiderahle river at the ancient town of Malmfbury. In
this part of the country, we are informed by Ethelward, that
it formed a boundary line between the Weft Saxon and

Mercian kingdoms, aud was often Stained with the blood of
murdered foldiers durg the direful warfare between thofe
two

powers. Leaving Malmfbury, it meanders through
a level tra& of fine pafture land to Great Somerford,
Dantfey, and Chippenham, where its ftream becomes ex-
panded by many contributory rivulets. Quitting Chippen-
ham, its windings are numerous, from the hilly nature of the
country through which it flows. Having paffed the cloth-
ing towns of Melkfham and Bradford, it moves flowly
through the gay city of Bath, thence paffes on to Briftol,
and foon afterwards unites its waters with the Severn. It
is navigable for {mall veflels up to Briftol, and fome con-
fiderable barges come up as high as Bath.

The Upper Avon, another Wiltthire river, rifes among
the hills near the centre of that county, and flows fouth-
ward through a number of {mall villages to Amefbury and
Salifbury, where it receives the united ftreams of the Willey
and the Nadder ; and, running through Downton, croffes the
county of Hants, and difcharges itfelf into the Britifh chan-
nel at Chriit-church.

Another von rifes in the north part of Glamorgan-
fhire, and running fouth, falls into the Severn at Aber-
Avon, fouth-weft of Neath.

4ivon, or Avon Vane, a river in Merioncthfhire, rifes
among the high mountains of that county, and after paflin

by the {mall town of Dolgelly, foon difcharges itfelf into the.

Trith fea at the town of Barmouth.—von gives name to
two riversin Scotland. Britton’s Beauties of Wilthhire, vol. th
and Skrines Gener] Account of Rivers. %
von is alfo the name of a river of Nova Scotia,
which difcharges itfelf into the Atlantic ocean, eaft of
Halifax. It is navigable as far as fort Edward for veffels
of 400 tons; and for veflels of 60 tons, two miles
higher. .
- AVORTON, Fr. in Midwifery, an abortive child,
AVOSTOLA, in Geography, a river of Piedmont, which
runs into the Cervo; 2% miles weft of Baronza, in the
Vercellois. e

AUR

AVOWEE, Avvocatvs, in Laz. Avoweeistheperfon
to whom the right of advowfon of any church belongs, fothat
he may prefent to it in his own name; thus called by way
of diftinétion from thofe who fometimes prefent in another
man’s name, as a guardian, who prefents in the name of his
ward; as alfo from thofe who only have the lands to which
an advowion belongs for term of life or years, by iatrufion
or diffeifin. See Apvowee, and Apvocars.

AVOWRY, is where one takes a diltrefs for rent,

or other thing, and the other fues replevin, In which
cafe the taker thall juftify, in his plea, for what caufe he
took it; and if he took it in his own right, he is te thew it,
and fo avow the taking ; which is called hisavowry. If he
took it in the right of another, when he has fhewed the
caufe, he is to make cognizance of the taking, as being a
bailiff or fervant to him in whofe right he did it. See Re-
PLEVIN.

AVOYER, in Leclkefiaflical Antiquity, was originally the
advocate of a monaftery ; and in times of contufion the
avoyers became captains and protectors of convents, to
whom the faid convents gave lands in confideration of their

- proteétion ; but when thefe monafteries erected themfelves

into principalities, the avoyers became noblemen; and the
title was conneéted with great dignity. Thus we find, that
when Otho was cleéted to the empire, A. D. 1209, and his
election was approved by pope Innocent IIT., who inyited
him to Italy to be crowned, he appointed Rodolphus, count
of Hapfburg, prefect, vicar of the empire, and principal
avoyer of all Upper Germany, with power to maintain the
imperial rights, infpeét the finances, levy fubfidies, tributes,
tolls, and taxes, and, ina word, to reprefent the perfon of
the emperor in his abfence. j
AUPILLARTOK, in Geography, an ifland of Green-
land, near Bear ifland, about eight or ten leagues long, and
very high. TThefe two iflands, which are about the fame
form and extent, divide the channel, in which they are
fituated, into two bays.
AU-PIS-ALLER, a French phrafé, fometimes ufed
among Englifh writers, fignifying, at the wer/t.
AUPS, in Geography. See AULPS. ¢
AURA, in Chemifiry, a certain fine and pure fpirit, fup-
pofed to be found in every animal and vegetable bedy, but
fo fubtle as only to be perceptible by fmell and tafte.
This term was much employed by the ancient alchemitts,

and eyen fome of the moft eminent chemifts, but is now dif- _

ufed. It is nearly equivalent to /piritus redor, concerning
which fee the article Aroma. ’
Avra, in Ornith logy, a{pecies of VutTur, of a brownifh
grey colour, with black wings, and white bill. This bird is
deferibed by authors under feveral different names, In
Hernand. Mex. itis called tzopilotl f. aura; by barn, v4
urubu, tzopilotl, or aura; by Ulloa, gallinazo; vultur Brati-
lienfis by Ray; vautour du Brefil by Buffon; Turkey

buzzard by Catefby ; carrion-crow by Sloane ; and carrion —

vulture by Pennant and Latham. Inhabits Brafil,
Avra, among Phy/fiologif's, an airy exhalation or ya-

pour. : 4
The word is derived from the Greek evpa, gale.

AURACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the

circle of Swabia, and county of Waldburg ; nine miles
E.N.E. of Warzach.—Alfo, a river.of Geritany, in Fran-
conia, which runs into the Rednitz; three miles fouth of
Erlang.

AURA, in Mythology, a name given by the Romans to
the nymphs of the air. ‘They are moftly to be found in the
ancient paintings of cielings; where they are reprefented
as light and airy; generally with long robes, and fying

veils,

AUR

veils, of fome lively colour or other, and fluttering about
in the rare and pieatiag elemeut afligned tothem They
are {portive and happy in themfelves, and well-wifhers to
mankind.

AURAGO, in Lnutomology, a fpecies of PHALaNA
(NoGua) that inhabits Auftria. The wings are brownith ;
f{plah at the bafe, and broad band in the middle, yellow.

ybner, Gmel, &c.

AVRAINVILLE, in Geography, a tawn of Trance, in
the department of the Meutre, and chief place of a canton
in the diftrict of Toul; twoleagues north of Toul.

AURAN, a town of Arabia, fixty miles fouth of Da-
mafcus.

AURANA, in Laniomalozy, a {pecies of PHarema
(Toririx ), with brown wings, and two golden-yellow {pots
teach. Frabricius. Donov. Brit. Inf.

Avrana, Laurana, or Brana, in Geography, one of the
moft delightful places of Dalmatia, in the county of Zara,
ona lake ofthe fame name. It had formerly a rich conyent
of Beneditines, whofe revenues were, about the year 1217,
alienated in favour of the knights templars, by Andrew II.
king of Hungary, who inftituted a commanderie in this
ie About this time the place was fortified. The

uburbs are large. It continued for fome time in the hands
of the Turks; but, in 1684, they were difpoffeffed of it.

AVRANCHES, Ansricanrta, or Abrice, or Abrican-
tarum opbidum, a city of France, and principal town of a
diftri& in the department of the Channel, feated on an
@minence near the river See. Before the revolution, it was
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Rouen. Befides the cathe-
dral, which ftands on a hill, terminating, abruptly, it had
three parifh churches, a convent, a college, a public fchool,
and an hofpital. This is a very ancient town, and, before
the county of Bretagne was united to the erown of France,
it was called the “ Boulevard cf France;’? but when the
Bretons made themfelves matters of it, they deftroyed
its fortifications, in 1203. Thefe were rebuilt in the
reign of St. Louis. Here, it is faid, Henry II. of England
reccived abfolution from the pope’s nuncio for the murder

—of St. Thomas a Becket, in 1172 ; and the ftone on which
he kneeled during the ceremony is fill fhewn to ftrangers ;
andon itis engraved a chalice, in commemoration of the event.
The ruins of the caftle aye extenfive, and near it is an extent
of fertile country, abounding in grain and orchards, which
produce the beit cider in this part of France. The place
contains 5413, and the canton 14,146 inhabitants ; the terri-
tory includes 125 kiliometres, and 16 communes. N. lat.
48° 41 18”. W.long. 1° 22’ 38”.

AURANTIA, in Conchology, a {pecies of Votura, of
atapering fkape, and orange colour? the firft four whorls
are fafciated with white ; lip denticulated, and four plaits on
fhe pillar. Gmelin.

AuRanTiA, a fpecies of Patera, the fhell of which is
ovate, folid, citron colour, with brown waves; elevated,
crowded, wrinkled flriz, and white bottom. Native country
unknown. Schrext.n. Litt.

AvrantTtia, a fpecies of Ostrea. The fhell is fubro-
tund, plaited, and firely ftraited longitudinally, with a femi-
circular white band near the hinge. Native country un-
known. Regenf. Conch.

Avaganria,a fpecies of Venus, with anorbicular orange-
coloured thell. This thell is two inches long, and two inches
anda quarter in breadth. Its native country is unknown,

_ Auraria, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Loxta, of an
orange colour ; crown black ; wing and tail-feathers black,
edyed with orange. Gmelin.

he length of this bird is four inches and a half; bill
Vou, ill.

AUR

dufky ; fome of the inner quill-feathers edged with white s
legs pale-red. In the female, the whole of the head and
fore-part of the body are white; the refi dull orange. Ia-
habits the ifle of Bourbon,

AvrantiA, afpecies of Muscicapa, called by Latham
orange-brealled fly-catcher, and gobe-mouche roux a poitrine
orangée de Cayenue by Buffon. he colour is rufous,
tinétured in parts with green; beneath white; breaft
orange ; head and nape greenifh brown ; quill-feathers black,
edged with rufous. Gmelin. Leagth of this kind four
inches acd three quarters; bill fat and broad ; tail rufous ;
legs pale. Dr. Latham iuforms us, in his Gen Orn., that
it frequents the fkirts of woods aid the favannahs ; and
is perhaps a {carce f{pecies, only a fiagle {pecimen of it hav-
ing been brought to Europe.

Avranti4, a fpecies of Motaciira that inhabits the
cape of Ggod Hope. Itjs brown above, beneath oraige ;
chin whit ifh, varied below with black ; larger wing a: d tail-
coverts white ; tail feathers brown, latcral ones tipped with
white. This is the orange-breafied warbler ot Latham.
Length fix inches.

AvrRanTtia, 2 fpecies of Cerruia, called by Latham
the orange-/reajied creeper. Itis green; beneath yclowith,
breaft orange ; wings aud tail black. Length four inches ;
bill black ; legs dufky. Ishabits Surinum, and was hrf
difcovered by Mr. Smeathman.

Avrantia, in Zoology, afpecies of Rana, defcribed by
Dr Shaw, as being of an orange-colour, with very flender
body and limbs. This is a native of South America, and is
of a imaller fize than the European tree-frog ; itinhabitstrees.

AURENTII Cortex, in Pharmacy, orange-peel. The
aurantium Hifpalenfe, or Seville orange, is the ouly one of
this {pecies which is employed-in pharmacy.

The outer yellow. rind of the fruit is a grateful aromatic
bitter, highly efteemed as a ftomachic. It is kept in the
fhops, dried with agentle heat. {t contains a large portion
of aromatic effential oil, which admirably increafes the ftoma-
chic power, and renders it highly grateful to the taite. The
virtue of the orange-peel is readily extracted by proof fpirit ;
and accordingly this is the form in which it is ufually em-
ployed. The London college have ordered a fimple tinc-
ture of this fubftance (din@ura aurartii c.rtices ), in the pro-
portion of three ounces to a quart of proof {pirit. Itis alfo
employed in feveral of the compound Tin&iures, fuch as
Huxham’s tincture of bark, to give an agreeable flavour,
and to add to the. ftomachic virtue. A fyrup of a very
grateful flavour is alfo prepared, by diffolving the requifite
proportion of fugar in a {trong iufufion of the peel. See
Cirrus Auvrantium.

AURANTIUM, in Botany. See Cirrus

Avrantium, in Natural Hiffory, afpecies of Ascip1a,
of a fomewhat globofe fhape, with a fearlet pouch, and co-
vered with rough hardifh dots ; papille terminal, cylindrical,
and rugofe. ‘his kind is deferibed by Pallas; 1t inhabits
the fea about the Kurile iflands, adhering by its bafe te
fhells and {tones ; and is about the fize of an orange,

Avrantium, the fpecific name affigned by Pallas ta
that {pecies of ALconrum, called by Gmelin Ayncurium,

AURANTIUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Cimex
found in China and Java. It is of an orange colour ; head,
anterior margin of the thorax, {pots on the margin of the
abdomen, aud the legs, black. Stoli. Fabr. Donoy Inf.
China, &c.

Avrantius Pifcis, in Ichthyohgy, avame given by Nie-
remberg to a fifh of the coryphacna genus, called the
dorada, and fupppofed to be of the fpecies cgui/lis,
Gmelin ; or perhaps bigpurus. I

Zz AurAans

AUR

Avrantivs, in Ornitaology, a fpecies of Fauco that in-
habits Surinam, the bill and legs of which are lead colour ;
body above dufky brown, with decuffating narrow whitifh
lines; chin with long narrow whitith feathers ; throat and
brealt orange; belly ad tail brown, with interrupted
ftreaks. Gmelin. ‘This bird is about fifteen inches in
Jength ; bill three quarters of an inch long, and whitifh at
the bafe ; on the throat a round white {pot ; lower coverts
ci the tail ferrnginous; tail near the bale lineated with
white ; legs long, flender, with black claws.

A\uRAnNTIUs, a fpecies of Picus or wood-pecker, about
ten inches inlength. It inhabits the cape of Good Hope ;
is of an orange colour above, with the nape, rump, and tail
black. Gmelin. Briflon calls bird picus capitis Bone
Spet; and Latham the orange eo d-pecker.

Avrantivs, a fpeciesof Trocuitus, called by La-
tham the orange-throated humming: bird. It is of a brown
colour, with the head orange: chin and breait yellow ;
wings purple; tail ferruginous. Gmelin. Native place
unknown.

Auvrantius, a fpecies of Turnus, of a blackifh brown
colour, with the chin and abdomen whitilh ; beak and legs
orange. Gmelin. This is the white-chinned thrufh of
Latham ; merula Jamaicenfis of Briffon ; and merle brun de
la Jamaique of Buffon. This kind lives in the woods in
Jamaica. Of this fpecies Gmelin mentions three varieties ;
namely, (£) merula gula fufca (with the chin brown) that
has been difcovered in New Caledonia; (vy) merula nigra
(with the body black), a native of Surinam; and merula
Americana of Briff. and which, as its name implies, is an
inhabitant of America.

AURARIA faun@io, penfio, or praftatio, in Antiquity, a
tax or tribute to be paid in gold. The colleétor of it
was denominated /u/ceptor aurarius, or chry/opodees.

AURAS, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Breflaw, fituate near the Oder; twelve miles north-
weit of Breflaw.

AURASIUS Mons, in Ancient Geography. See Aupus.

AURATA, in Entomalogy, a {pecies of Burestris, of
a large fize, that is found in America. This kind is golden ;
wing-cafes ferrated ; thorax braffy. Fabricius, Olivier, &c.
0b/. The head is grooved ; eyes teftaceous; teeth of the
antenne black ; thorax fmooth.

Avrata, a fpecies of Curysis that inhabits Europe.
It is glabrous and fhining, with a green thorax, and golden
abdomen, with two teeth at the vent. Linn. Fabr. &c.

AvraTa, a fpecies of Muritva that inhabits New
Holland. It is blueifh, with a large golden {pot on the ab-
domen. Fabricius.

Avrarta, a {peciesof Musca found in Europe. This
infect is fhining ; thorax brafly ; abdomen abtufe and golden.
Fabricius, &c.

Avrats, a fpecies of Puarena (Geometra), defcribed
by Linneus asa native of Europe. The wings are yellow,
and without fpots.

Auvrata, a fpecies of Poarana (Gecmetra) that inha-
bits Suricam ; and is figured by Cramer under the name of
phalea aura. The wiegs are fulvous, with a dot and pof-
terior ftreak golden. Fabricius, &c.

fcurata, a fpecies of Vespa, of afinall fize, that is fourd
in Sierra Leona. The colour is black ; abdomen golden
aid polifhed. Fabr. &c.

Auvrata, ia Ichihylogy, a {pecies of Sparus, called
in England the lunated gut-head, and ¢iftinguifhed by
having a lunated golden mark between the eyes. Lin-
neus Muf. Ad. Fr. It inhabits the Mediterranean and
American feas. ; :

AUR

Avurata Bahamenfis, Catefby’s name of the filh called
Jparus chryjops by Gmelin.

Aurara, in Zoolegy, a fpecies of Lacerta found in
the ifland of Jerfey. When living, it is faid to be of a fine
golden colour, but after death its {plendid colour difappears,
It has a round and rather longifh tail ; feales rounded and
glabrous ; fides brownifh. Ginelin. The body is round,
and apparently corpulent, and the ears are concave. This
kind 1s /acerta barbara of Mul. Ad. Fr. :

AURATUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Scarasaus
( Cetonia Fabr.) that inhabits Europe. This infeét is golden,
with a fingle tooth on each fide of the firit fezment ; wing
cafes {potted with white. Fabricius. The colours in this
{pecies are variable. From the vent, it omits a fetid liquor
when handled. Degeer calls it /carabeus /maragdus. :

Avratus, a {pecies of Carasus, of the apterous kind ;
wiug-cafes golden and furrowed ; anteane and legs rufous,
Fabricius. ‘ound in woods in Europe.

Avrartus,a fpecies of Cerambyx thatinhabits America,
It is green, bronzed, with a lateral deprefled tooth on the
thorax ; antenne black, and pofterior thighs blue. Gineliv,

Avuratus, afpecies of Curcurtio, of a green-gold co-
lour ; antenne and dilated tip of the beak black.
of Italy. Scopoli.

Auratus, a fpecies of Evater that inhabits China.
The colour is green-gold ; legs black. Fabricius.

Avratus, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Sparus, that in-
habits the Mediterranean and European feas, and is called
in England the /unated gili-head. It is diftinguifhed by
having a femi-lunar golden fpot between the eyes. Linn.
Muf. Ad. Fr. This kind feeds chiefly on worms and fhell-
fith, the latter of which it grinds with its teeth before it
fwallows them. The back is greenifh, fides rather pale and
gules with gold ; on the upper part of the gills is a black

pot, and beneath that another of purple ; infide of the
mouth fine red ; dorfal fin extending Ee the whole length
of the back ; tail much forked.

Auvratus a fpecies of Cyprinus, well known in
England by the name of gold-fifh, Authors are by no
means agreed on the precife characters by which this fifth
ought to be diftinguifhed ; fome think the trifurcated
tail is a ftriking character of the fpecies ; but this is rather
accidental, for it is fometimes found with a bifurcated
tail; and the telefcope carp cyprinus baphthalmus of Dr.
Shaw, has a trifurcated tail likewife ; the anal fin is fome-
times fingle, and fometimes double ; fo that the Linnzan
definition in the Faun. Suec. is equally liable to obje¢tion.
The fpecific character afligned by Bloch is taken exclufively
from the brilliant, or golden red colour, ty which, as he ob-
ferves, this fith is diftinguifhed from all the other {pecies of
the Carp or Cyprinus genns.

This fifh is, without a ae the moft fuperb creature of
the fiuny tribes at thistime known. It was originally con-
fined to a certain lake, on or near the mountain Tfienking,
at a {mall diftance from the village of Tchanghou im the
province of The-Kiang in China, from wheace it was tranf-
ported to other parts of the empire, and Japan ; and after-
wards brought to Europe. The Chinefe have completely
dometticated this fifh, and they are now generally kept in
ponds, bafons, or veflels of porcelain, as ornaments in the
gardens of the rich; and afford one of the few amufements
the ladies are allowed to enjoy in that country by their jea-
lous hufbands. One writer has obferved that the fifh is no
larger than a pilchard ; but in this he is miftaken, for we
know inftances of its increafing to the fize ofa herring.
The male is faid to be of a bright red colour, from the top
of the head to the middle of the body ; the reft of a nc

go

native *

AUR

old: colour, fuperior to the richchk gilding with that metal ;
i. fomale white, with the tail and half the body emulating
the fineft filver. Du Halde obferves that the red and white
colours are not always the ditinguifhing marks of the male
and female ; but that the female is known by feveral white
{pots which are feen round the orifices that ferve them as
organs of hearing, and the male by having thefe {pots much
brighter. © Grofier, in his defeription of China, lays, great
care is neceffary to preferve them; for they are extremely
delicate, and fenfible of the leait injuries of the air; a loud
noife, fuch as that of thunder or cannons; a itrong fmell ;
a violent fhaking of the veflel ; or even a fingle touch, will
oftentimes deftroy them. ‘Vhefe fith live with little nou-
rifhment ; thofe {mall worms which are engendered in the
water, or the earthy particles that are mixed with it, are
fufficient for their food. The Chinefe, however, take great
care from time to time to throw isto the bafons and refer-
voirs where they are kept, fmall bails of pafte, which they
are very fond of, when diflolved ; they give them alfo lean

ork dried in the fun, and reduced to a fine and delicate
powder, and fometimes fnails; the flime which thete infects
leave at the bottom of the veffel is a great delicacy for
them, and they eagerly feed on it. In winter they are re-
moved from the grounds er open air to a warm chamber,
where they are kept generally in veffels of porcelain. Du-
ring this feafon, they receive no nourifhment ; but however
in the f{pring, when they are carried back to their former ba-
fons or refervoirs, they {port and play with the fame ftrength
and livelinefs as they did in the preceding year. In warm
countries thefe fifh multiply faft, provided care be taken to
colle their fpawn, which floats on the water, and which
they almoft entirely devour. This fpawn is put into a par-
ticular kind of veflel, expofed to the fun, and preferved there
until vivified by the heat; gold fith, however, feldom multi-
ply when they are kept in clofe vafes, becaufe they are then
too much confined. In order to render them fruitful, they
mutt be put into refervoirs of confiderable depth, in fome
places at leaft, and which are conftantly fuppled with frefh
water. At certain times of the year a prodigicus number
of barks may be feen in the great river Yaugtfe-Kiang,
which go thither to purchafe the fpawn of thefe fifth. To-
wards the month of May, the neighbouring inhabitants fhut
up the river in feveral places with mats and hurdles, which
occupy an extent of almoft nine or ten leagues, and they
leave ouly a place in the middle fufficiert for the paflage of
barks. ‘The fpawn of this fifth, which the Chinefe can dif-
tinguifh at firft fight, although a ftranger could perceive no
traces of it in the water, is {topped by thefe hurdles. The
water mixed with fpawn is then drawn up, and after it
has been put into large veilels, it is fold to the merchants,
who tran{port it afterwards to every part of the empire.
This water is fold by meafure, and purchafed by thofe who
are defirous of ftocking their ponds and rivers with gold-fith.
' Notwithftanding the tendernets of this fifh in its native
climate, it is now naturalized in England, France, Holland,
feveral parts of Germany, and other countries of Europe.
‘They are faid to have been firft introduced into Great Britain
about the year 1691, but were not generally known, accord-
ing to Pennant, till 7728, when a great number were brought
ever, and prefented hrit to fir Matthew Dekker, and by him
eiculated round the neighbourhood of London, from
wheice they were diftributed to moft parts of the country.
“Nothing,” fays one wnter, (Enc. Brit.) “can be more
amufi ig than a glafs bowl containing fuch fifhes ; the double
refract‘ons of the glafs and water reprefent them, when
moving, in a fhifting and changeable variety of dimenfions,
fhades, and colours ; while the two mediums affiftegby the

AUR

contayo-convex fhape of the veffel, magnify and diftort them
valtly ; mot to meution that the introduétion of another

fort of fifh in a very fanciful way ; for they caufe a glafs
bowl to be blown with a large hollow {pace within, that
does not communicate with it,
bird oceatfionaliy ;

In this cavity, they pura
fo that you fee a cold-finch or a hunet
hopping as it were in the midit of the water, and the fifhes
{wimming ina circle round it. ‘Che fimple exhibition «
the fithes is agreeable aud pleafant ; but in fo complicated
a way becomes whimfical and unnatural, and liabie to the
objection due to him, gui variare cupit rem prodigaliter unani.”
One circumftance that has been remarked of the fifh, des
ferves particular mention. Jt is faid when young, to be
not unfrequently of a deep black colour, and that after a
time little filvery fpecks begin to appear through the blac! 5
thefe increafing in fize very gradually, till the black extirely
difappears, the whole fifh becomes of a fine and refplendent
filver; from which ‘t at laft changes toa red. Sometimes, how-
ever, it appears of a beautiful golden-red in the firft inftance.
Avratus, in Ornithology, a {pecies of CucuLus, about
feven inches in length, that inhabits the cape of Good Hope.
Buffon calls this bird coucou vert doré et blanc; Fidti Oif., and
in his Pl. Enlum. coucou veri du cap de Bonne Ejperante. The

tail is wedge-fhaped ; body above goldeu-green, beneath
white ; on the head five flreaks ; wing-coverts, fecondary
quill feathers, with thofe of the tail, white at the tips. By
Latham, it is named in Englifh the gilded cuckow.

Avratus, afpecies of Picus or wood-pecker, called by
Bull. picus Caradenfis flriatus ; pic rayé de Canada, ef pic aux
ailes dorées by Bulion ; picus major alis aureis by Kalm;
cuculus auratus, Linn. Syi{t.Nat.X.; and gold-winged wood-
pecker by Catefby and other Enelifn writers. Forfter and
Gmelin defcribe it as being tran{verfely ftreaked with grey
and black ; chin and breaft black ; nape red ; rump white.

The length of this bird is eleven inches; bill an inch
and a half long, black, and rather bent; and contrary to
others of the fame genus, is rounded and ridged only on the
top, with the point fharp. The female differs from the
male in having the crown and neck behind grey brown;
the red of the hind head lefs vivid; greater quill feathers
not {potted on the edges, and being deftitute of the black
ftripe on the throat. It inhabits Virginia, Canada, and
other parts of North America. About New Jerfey, and
New York, it is called by fome hittock or pint, and by others
high-hole ; the two former, from the found of its note, and
the latter from the fituation of its neft. It is almoft con-
tioually on the ground, and is not obferved to climb on the
trees like other birds of the fame genus.

The food of this bird is chiefly infects, and berries of the
red cedar ; it is very fat, and in efteem forthe table. Fortter,
in the Philofophical Tranfactions, informs us that it is a
bird of paflage in the northern parts of America, vifiting
the neighbourhood of Albany fort in April, and leaving it
in September ; that it lays four, five, or fix eggs in halter
trees. and feeds of worms and infeéts. It is called by the
natives outhee-quan-now.

Avuratus, a fpecies of Turpus, the general colour of
which is violet; back and wings golden-green ; band on
the inner margin of the wings, tail, and upper tail-coverts,
blue. Gmelin, This beautiful bird is rather larger than
turdus meru/a, or common black bird, and inhabits the king-
dom of Whidah, in Africa. Buffon calls it /e merle oe
du royaume de juida ; and Latham the gilded thru/h.

Avuratus, a {pecies of Trocuirus, called by Latham
the garnet-throaicd humming-bird. The colour is golden-

Zz2 green ;

>
Seal
A]

ad

green; chin, throat, and breaft golden-red; ‘belly black.
Gmelin.—O#/. Vhere is a variety of this brilliantly coloured
f{pecies, in which the cheeks, nape, and chin are of a polden-
xed; and the head and body of a dark glofly green. The
Jatter is called grenat by Buffon ; and it meafured five inches
a leagth, being half an inch more than the firft mentioned
Kind.—The legs aad bill are black, and in the female, the
chin, throat, and breait are golden-green,

Avuratrus Eques. See Kques.

AURAY, in Geography, 2 fea-port town of France, in
the department and ia the gulf of Morbihan, and chief place
ef a canton in the diftriét of Lorient, at the mouth of a
river of the fame name. The place contains 3210 aud the
canton 12,096 inhabitants: the territory includes 210 kili-
t N. lat. 4.77 48’. W. long. 2 50".

emetres and 6 communes,

AURBACH, atownofGermany, in thecircle of Bavaria,
and Upper Palatinate; thirty miles north-eaft of Nuremberg.

AURBURG, a town and caftle of Germany, in Upper
Bavaria; four miles north of Kuffstein.

AURE, a river of France, which runs into the Eure,
near Anet.

AUREA, in Conchelogy, a {fpecies of Venus of a fubor-
bicular form, golden, inequilateral, with crowded, minute,
tranfverfe ftrie. Lifer, Gmelin. Inhabits Enrope.

AvREA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Lertura, deferibed
by Degeer. The colour is greenifh gold, thorax {pinous;
two black longitudinal ftripes on the wing-cafes; thighs
rufous. About two-thirds of an inch in length.

AwreEA, a fpecies ot Meroe (Afylabris) of a green-gold
colour, with fulvovs wings. Length one-third of an inch.
Degeer. Native country unknown.

Aurea, a fpecies of Crcapa (Cercopis Sec.) of an afh-
colour, gloffed with gold, fhining, aid without {pots. This
is of the middle fize, and inhabits Cayenne.

AuREA, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Parapisea, about
the fize of the turtle-dove. It is crefted ; crown, checks,
end chin violaceous and fhining ; throat, breait, and fpot
en the neck, golden-green. Gmelin. This is Poi/eau, paradis
4 gorge dorée cf Sonnerat ; /iflet ou mancode a fix jilets of
Buffon; and gold-breafted bird of paradife of Latham.

The billis blackith ; irides yellow; plumage very brilliant;
legs blackifh; beneath each wing arife long black feathers,
which fall over the wings, when the bird is at reft ; the webs
of thefe feathers are an like thofe of the oftrich. From the
mutilated ftate m which the fkins of thefe birds are fent to
Europe, thefe feathers are not always obfervable in {pecimens
of this fpecies: Buffon mentions a figure of it publifhed by
M. Marvi, in which even the creft is wanting. This kind
inhabits New Guinea.

Avrea, a fpecies of Loxia that inhabits Benguela. It
is cf a black colour; back golden; wing coverts pale
brown, {potted with black. This bird is the golden-backed
finch of Brown; and gold-backed grofbeak of Latham.
According to the laft author, it is fix inches in length ; bill,
head, and neck, deep black; the feathers rot velvety, as in the
Cape grofbeak ; breaft and belly black ; legs blueifh ; rump
and upper tail-coverts yellow; the latter fringed with a dufky
colour ; and all the tail feathers very pale at the edges.

Avrea Alexandrina, in Pharmacy, a compound opiate
coufeG&tion, much in repute among the ancient phyficians,
but now entirely difufed, like all the other medicines of this
clafs: it was confidered as a powerful alexipharmic, or anti-
dote to poifon. f

AUREG, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Loire, and c’.ief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Moniltrol; three leagues fouth-weft of St. Etienne,
and 14 north of Moniftrol,

AUR
AURELIA jin Fntomalocy,atermemployed by naturalifts,

about the middle of the laft century, to exprefs that iitere
mediate {tate in which all lepidopterous, and moft cther in-
fecis, remain for fome time, between the eaterpillar form and
the period in which they are furnifhed with wings, with
antennz, and other organs appertaining to the perfeét infe@,
Aurelia and chryfalis are fynonymous words, both alludin
to the metallic or golden {plendor of the cafe in which the
creature, during that flate, is contained. This brilliant ap-
pearance, it mutt be obferved however, feems confmed alone
to infects of the papilio or butterfly tribe ; and it is even
peculiar only to certain kinds of thofe; fo that the terms
aurelia and chryfalis are altogether inapplicable, im a general
manner, to infects in that ftate. Amoug entomologifts of
the higher clats, thefe terms have been long fi:.ce ditcarded
in favour of the more expreflive one pupa, which Linnzus
had adopted in their ftead ; a term implying that the infeet,
like an infant, yet remains in its {waddling clothes ; and
nothing can be more applicable than this comparative allu-
fion, while the tender infe@ yet remahis inveloped in the
drapery of its membranaceous covering ; a creature now ex-
pofed to every danger, and yet unable to defend itfelf from
the flighteit harm ; in helpleis infancy it muft wait the more
complete formationof its hmbs,and newacceflion of ftrength,
ere It can burft from thefe, its tran mels of youth, aud ape
pear what nature had ultimately defizned it for—a mature
and perfect creature.—See Enromoxrocy, aud Pura.

The term aurelia is full retained by fome few practical
entomologifts in this country ; or, in other words, by thofe
who amuiethemfelves with colle€ting and breeding infe@s,
without regarding them {cientifically ; and perfons, engaged
in this agreeable purfuit, occafionally denomiuate thatched
Aurclians. The word chryfalis is in more general ufe thau
its precife meaning can jultify ; that of aurelia, as before
remarked, is nearly obfolete. The current denominations
of an infeét in the pupa ftate among the French naturalifts,
are nympha, or nymphe, and chryfalide.

«<The Aurelian’? was likewife the title which Mofes Har-
ris gave to his well-known folio work on Infeéts ; a wretched
plagiarifm from the beautiful etchings of Ammiral, which
had been publithed a fhort time before in Holland ; and in
which Harris, by a fingular good fortune, not only efcaped
detection, hut actually acquired that very celebrity as a de-
lineator of infecis, which attaches an importance to his mee
mory in the prefent day.

AvRELIA, in Natural Hiffory, a {pecies of Param.
cium (vermes infuforia), of an oblong form, plaited longitue
dinally on the anterior part. Mull. Hermann, &c. Hill de-
{cribes it thus: paramecium corpore fubvblongo medium verfus
angufto. It is found in great abundance in ditch water, and
vegetable infufions, about the month of June; it is membra-
naceous ; breadth one-fourth of the length; anterior part
obtufe, hyaline ; pofterior part filled with molecules of vae
rious fizes; longitudinal fold extending from the middle to
the front of the head.

AURELIAN, in Biography, a Roman emperor, was a
native of Sirmium, in Pannonia. His father cult:vated the
lands which a Roman fenator, called Aurelius, poffeffed in
the country where he lived ; and his mother was a prieftefs
of the fun, and pretended to divination. Aurelian was from
his youth diftinguifhed by his ftrength and couiage, and ads
died to military exercifes and atchievements. On this
career he entered betimes ; and, from his warlike paffion and
exploits, he obtained, by way of diftinétion from another
Aurelian, the name of “ Aurelianus manu ad ferrum,’?
or ‘* Aurelian fword in hand ;”? as he was ready on all oc.

cafioné*to draw his fword, and encounter the enemy, He
s

‘
'

A

AURELIAN,

fs faid to have killed with his own hand forty-eight Sar-
matians in one day; and within fome few fucceeding days,
950; fo that he became the fubje& of popular fongs, which
were lung by the youth at the public feltivals. Aurelian
was the aelt Roman who fought againft the Franks, and
fubdued them. As chief commander of the cavalry, to
which office he was advanced from the low ftation of acom-
mon foldier, he was a ftrift obferver of military difcipline,
and punifhed with the utmoft feverity the fmalleit neglect of
duty on the part of his foldiers, and the flighteft injury
done by any of them to the inhabitants of the proviuce
through which he marched. His military talents aud con-
€ud attraGed the peculiar attention of the emperer Velerian,
who appointed hin ilf{peétorand reformer of all the Roman
gamps, gave him the command of Iilyvicum, under Ulpius
Crinitus, a defcendant of the fame family with Trajan, by
whom he was adopted, and whofe daughter he married; and
at length, A.D. 258, created him couful, with a fpecial
order, that, on account of his poverty, the public treafury
fhould defray the expences which that high office incurred,
Under Gallienus we find no mention of him, either becaufe
that emperor had removed him from jealouty of his merit,
or becanfe he himfelf did not chufe to ferve a price fo
indolent and defpicable. Claudius II. upon his advancement
to the empire, duly appreciated the merit of Aurelian, and
was aflilted by him in the defeat of Aureolus. Ina the war
againit the Goths he was emivently diflinguithed ; and this
difcerning emperor on his death-bed recoramended him as
the fitteft perion to be his fuccefflor, Accordingly Aureliaa
was elected to the empire by the legions of [lyricum, in the
year 270; and after the death of Quisntillus, the brother of
Claudius, who clofed a fhort reign of feventeen days by
opening his veins, the cleGion of Aurelian was confirmed
by the fenate, and he was honoured with the t.tle of Au-
uftus. Waving been thus acknowledged and invefted «ith
Fe imperial dignity at Rome, he returned to Pannonia,
which the Goths had threatened with a new invafion. The
Goths before his arrival had paffed the Danube; but, after
an iudecifive battle, which was terminated by the approach
of night, the Barbarians retreated, and re-crofled the river,
and ient deputies to fue for peace, which was granted them
by the emperor, Having withdrawn the Roman troops
from Dacia, and relinguifhed that province to the Goths
and Vandals, he haitened to Italy, to repel an incuriion of
the Aliemanni, and other German tribes. After three fuc-
eeffive victories, the firit near Placentia, a fecond at Fano
near the river Metaurus, and a tiurd in the plains of Pici-
num, now Pavia, he drove thofe Barbarians out of Italy,
and refcued Rome from the calamities which were appre-
headed, and which the city had endeavoured to avert by a
variety of fuperftitious practices, fanétioned by the co:-cur-
reace of the emperor himfelf, with a view of appeafing the
anger of the gods.
_ Aurelian, on his return to the capital, put to death feve-
ral fenators, who were fuipected of haviug been concerned
in confpiracies againft him; and having e.larged the city,
he provided for its future fecurity by ereftiag new walls,
which bore his name, though they were «ot fluifhed till the
reign of Probus. The extent ef thefe walls was mazuified
by popular eftimation to near fifty, but has béea reduced
by accurate admeafurement to about twenty-one, miles.
About this time Aurelian marched into Gaul, which had
been for fome time diftraéted and oppreffed by a rapid fue-
eeffion of ufurpers, and where Tetricvs, who, from being
governor of the peaceful province of Aquitaine, had aflumed
the e.figns cf royalty, and reigned four or five years over
Gaul, Spain, and Britain, “the flave and fovereizn,” fays
2

Gibbon, “ of a licentious army, whom he dreaded, and by
whom he was defpifed.”? The power of Tetricus, however,
was of precarious duration; and he invited Aurclian to haf-
ten his relief. Accordingly, in the fummer of the year
271, Aurelian arrived in Gaul; and Tetricus, in order te
difruife the a&t of treafon by which he was about to refign
the {ceptre of the welt, affected the appearance of a civil
war, and led his forces into the field againft the emperor 5
but he pofted them in the moft difadvantaceous manner, be-
trayed his own counfels to the enemy, and witha few chofer
friends, deferted in the beginning of the action. The rebel
legions, though difordered and difmayed by the unexpected
treachery of their chief, defeuded themfelves with de{pcrate
valour, till they were cut in pieces almoft to a maa, in the
bloody and memorable battle, which was fought near Cha-
Jons, im Champagie. The retreat of the irregular auxili-
aries, Pranks and Batavians, whom the congueror {oon com-
pelled or perfuaded to répafs the Rhine, reftored the ze-
neral tranquillity, and the power of Aurelian was acknow-
ledged from the wall of Autoniaus to the columns of Her-
cul 230
Aurelian, having fecured the perfon and the provinces of
Tetricus, turned his arms, A.D. 272, agaiait Zenobia, the
celebrated queen of Palmyra and the Eait. Upon his ar-
rival in Afia, he advanced at the head of his legions, and
took poffeflion of Ancyra and T'yana; and as he approached
Antioch, it was deferted by the ihabitaats ; but by his fa-
lutary edicts he recalled the fugitives, and granted a gener,
pardon to all, who, from necefiity rather than choice, had
been engaged in the fervice of the Palmyrenian queen. This
unexpected mildaefs of conduG, oa th= pact of the emperor,
conciliated the minds of the Syrians; and as far as the gates
of Emefa, the wifhes of the people feconded the terror of
his arms. Zenobia attempted to check his further progrefs;
but the fate of the ealt was decided in two great battles 5
the firft of which was fought near Antioch, aad the fecond
near Emefa. In both thefe battles, Zencobia animated the
armies by her pretence, but the veteran troops of Aurelian,
whofe valour had been feverely tried in the Alemaunic waz,
prevailed. After the defeat at Emefa, Zenobia found it
impoflible to collect a third army. As far as the frontier of
Egypt, the nations fubje€t to her empire had joined the
ftandard of the conqueror, who detached Probus, the
braveft of his generals, to poffefs himfelf of the Ezyptiaa
provinces. The queen retired within the walls of her capi-
tal, Palmyra; and for fome time refifted, with the iatrepi-
dity aud firmnefs of a heroine, the arms of the emperor, who
invefted the city. But difappoiated of adequate fuccours,
and alarmed by the return of Probus with his viétorious
troops from the conqueit of Egypt, the at length relolved
to fly. She mounted the fleet2t of her dromedaries, acd
had already reached the banks of the Euphrates, about 60
miles from Palmyra, when fhe was overtaken by the purluit
of Aarelian’s light horfe, feized, acd brought back a cap-
tive to the feet of the emperor, A. D. 273. To the counfels
of herfriends fhe imputed the guilt of ner obftinate refitance;
and on their heads, and particularly agzainit the celebrated
Longinus, fhe directed the ve igeance of the cruel Aureliaa.
(See Zenosia.) Soon after her capital furrendered, and was
treated with unexpected lenity. By a warthns terminated,
thofe proviices that had resounced their allegiance fince the
captivity of Valerian, werereftored to the obedience of Rome,
Avureliaa, oa his return from the conquett of the Ealt,
had already croffed the ftraits which divid> Europe from
Afia, when he was fuddenly recalled by the news of the
revolt of the Palmyrenians, who had maffiered the governor
and garrifon, and proclaimed a new emperor, Without {
: momeut’s

AURELIAN.

moment’s deliberation, he turned his face towards Syria,
and foon arrived to execute vengeaice on the revelted city,
which for three days was delivered to the unreftrained rage
acd rapine of the ioldiers. Women, children, and fervants,
were livolved in this dreadful execution, which ought to
have been confined to armed rebellion; and although the
emperor’s principal concern feems to have been directed to
the re-eftablifhment of a temple of the Sun, he diiccvered
fome pity for the remnant of the Palmyrenians, to whom
he granted the permiffion of rebuilding and inhabiting their
city. See Paumyra.

Aurelian, having thus completely reduced Palmyra, and
having alfo fupprefled a rebellion in Egypt, excited by
Virmus, a wealthy merchant, and a friend and ally of
Odenathus and Zenobia, who had taken poffeffion of Alex-
andria, and aflumed the purple, and whom he firft tor-
tured and then put to death; returned to Rome; congratu-
lating the fenate, himfelf, and the people, that in little
lefs than three years he had reftored univerlal peace and order
to the Roman world.

Since the foundation of Rome, no general had more nobly
deferved a triumph than Aurelian; nor was any triumph ever
celebrated with {uperior pride and magnificence. Itisthus de-
fcribed by Gibbou: «The pomp was opened by twenty ele-
phants, four royal tigers, and above two hundred of the moft
curious animals from cvery climate of the North, the Eaft,and
the South. They were followed by 1600 gladiators, devoted
to the cruel amufement of the amphitheatre. The wealth of
A(fia, the arms and enfigns of fo many conquered nations, and
the magnificent plate and wardrobe of the S yrian queen,
were diipofed in exa@ fymmetry or artful diforder. Tle am-
baffadors of the moft remote parts of the earth, of Ethio-
pia, Arabia, Perfia, Batriana, India, and China, all re-
markable by their rich or fingular dreffes, difplayed the
fame and power of the Roman emperor, who expoted like-
wife to the public view the prefents he had received, and par-
ticularly a great number of crowns of gold, the offerings of
grateful cities. The vitories of Aurelian wereattefted by the
Jong train of captives who reluctantly attended his trumph;
Goths, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alemanni, Franks, Gauls,
Syrians, and Egyptians. Each people was diltiaguifhed by
its peculiar infcription; and the title of Amazons was be-
ftowed on ten martial heroines of the Gothic nation, who
had been taken in arms. But every eye, difregarding the
crowd of captives, was fixed on the emperor Tetricus, and
the queen of the Eaft. The former, as well as his fon,
whom he had created Auguftus, was drefled in Gallic
trowfers, a faffron tunic, and a robe of purple. The beau-
teous figure of Zenobia was confined by fetters of gold;
a flave fupported the gold chain which encircled her neck,
and fhe almoft fainted under the intolerable weight of
jewels. She preceded on foot the magnificent chariot, in
which fhe once hoped to enter the gates of Rome. It
was followed by two other chariots, {till more fumptuous,
of Odenathus, and of the Perfian monarch. The triumphal
car of Anrelian (it had formerly been ufed by a Gothic
King) was ¢crawn, on this memorable occafion, either by
four flags or by four elephants. The moft illuftrious of the
fenate, the people, and the army, clofed the folemn pro-
ceffion. Unfeigned joy, wonder, and gratitude, {welled
the acclamations of the multitude; but the fatisfaction of
the fenate was clouded by the appearance of Tetricus ;
nor could they frpprefs a nifing murmur, that the haughty
emperor fhould thus expofe to public ignominy the perfon of
a Roman and a maziftrate.

«« But, however, in the treatment of his unfortunate rivals,
Aurelian might indulge his pride, he behayed towards them

3

with a generous clemency, which was feldom exerciféd by
the ancient conquerors. Princes who, without fuccefs,
had defended their throne or freedom, were frequently
itrangled in prifon, as foon as the triumphal pomp
aicended the Capitol. Thefe ufurpers, whom their defeat
had convicted of the crime of treafon, were permitted to
{pend their lives in affuence and honourable repofe. The
emperor prefeuted Zenobia with an elegant villa at Tibur,
or Tivoli, about tweuty miles from the capital ; the Syrian
queen infeofibly funk into a Roman matron, her daughters
married into noble famihes, and her race was not yet extinét
in the fifth century. ‘Tetricus aiid his fons were re-inftated
in their rank and fortunes. Tney erected on the Celian hill a
magnificeat palace, and as foon as it was finifhed, invited
Aurelian to fupper. On his eatrance, he was agreeably
furprifed with a picture which reprefented their fingular
hiftory, ‘They were delineated offering to the emperor a
civic crown and the fceptre of Gaul, ana agaia receiving at
his hands the ornaments of the fenatorial dignity. ‘The
father was afterwards invelted with the government of Lu-
cania; aud Aurelian, who foon admitted the abdicated
monarch to his friendfhip and converfation, familiarly afked
him, whether it were not more defirable to. adminiiter a pro-
vince of Italy, than to reign beyond the Alps? The fon long
continued a refpectable membcr of the fenate ; nor was there
any one of the Roman nobility more efteemed by Aure-
Lan, as well as by his fucceffors. .

“The feftival was protracted by theatrical reprefentations,
the games of the circus, the hunting of wild beafts, com-
bats of gladiators, aid naval engagements. Liberal dona-
tives were diftributed to the army and people; and feveral
inttitutions, agreeable or beneficial to the city, contributed
to perpetuate the glory of Aurelian. A confiderable por-
tion of his oriental {poils wasconfecrated tothe gods of Rome;
the Capitol, and every other temple, glittered with the
offerings of his oftentatious piety ; and the temple of the
fun alone received above 15,0c0 pounds of gold.”

The arms of Aurelian va..quifhed the foreign and domef-
tic foes of the republic ; aad we are affured, that by hia
falutary rigour, crimes and fa€tions, mifchievous arts and
pernicious connivance, the luxuriant growth of a feeble and
oppreflive government, Were eradicated through the Roman
world. Neverthelefs, a few fhort intervals of peace were
infufficient for the arduous work of reformation; aud even
his attempt to reftore the itegrity of the coi was oppofed
by a formidable infurrectian, which originated with the
workmen of the mint, and terminated by a bloody battle,
in which the emperor loft 7000 of his treops. Of this m-
furreétion, the real caufe was difguifed, aud the refurmation
of the coin furnifhed merely a feigned pretence to a party
already powerful aid difcouiented. The emperor, who was
himfelf a plebcian, and who always expreficd a peculiar
fondnefs for this order, had excited the jealoufy and in-
curred the hatred aud oppofition cf the ferate, the equef-
trian order, and the Praetorian guards; and it was a con-
{piracy of thcfe feveral orders that procured a:ftreagth
capable of contending in battle with the veteran legions of
the Danube. The rebellion, however, was fuppreficd, aid
Aurelian ufed his viiery with usrelenting rigour, The
nobleft families of the capital were involved in the guilt
or fufpicion of this dark confpiracy ; and it was punifhed
with a {pirit of revenge that produced the moft fanguinary
effects. The executioners, fays Calphurnius a contem-
porary poet, were fatigued; the prifons were crowded ; and
the unhappy fenate lamented the death or abfence of its
moft illuftrious members.

Some of the concluding months of Aurelian’s reign were

occupied

AUR

occupied by a vifit to Gaul, where he rebuilt the ancient
city of Genabum, called after his own name “ Aurelia-
num,” now Orleans, and by an expedition againft the bar-
barians who had made an incurfion into Vindelicia, But
the object, which engaged his principal attention, was an
expedition againft Perfia ; in the profecution of which he
advanced as far as the {traits which divide Europe from
Afia, Here a confpiracy was formed againit his life by
ove of his fecretaries, who was accufed of extortion. This
criminal, dreading the effects of the emperor’s difpleafure,
determined to involve fome of the principal officers of the
army in his danger, or at leaft in his fears. With this view
he artfully counterfeited his mafter’s hand, and fhewed them
in a long and bloody lift their own namés devoted to death.
Without fufpecting or examining the fraud, they refolved
to fecure their lives by the murder of the emperor. Oa
his march, between Byzantium and Heraclea, Aurelian was
fuddeuly attacked by the confpirators, and after a fhort
refiftance, fell by the hand of Mucapor, a general whom
he had always loved and trufted. Accordingly he died,
A.D. 275, rogretted by the army, detefted by the fenate,
but univerfally acknowledged as a warlike and fortunate
prince, the ufeful, though fevere, reformer of a degenerate
fate.

As to his general difpofition and character, it has been
obferved by Dioclefian, dune of the molt fagacious of the
Roman princes, that the talents of his predeceflor Aure-
lian were better {uited to the command of an army, than to
the goverument of an empire. His temper was haughty and
yvindi€tive. T'rained from his youth in the exercife of arms,
he transferred the dilcipline of the camp into the civil ad-
miniftration of the laws 3 and his love of juftice often be-
came a blind and furious paffion. Ignorant or impatient of
the refiraints of civil inftitutions, he difdained to hold his
power by any other title than that of the fword, and go-
verned by right of conqueft an empire which he had faved

and fubdued. Aurelian has beea reckoned by feveral
~ Chriltian authors among the perfecutors of the church ; and
it is faid that he not ouly intended perfecution and framed
cruel edicts for this purpofe jult before his death, but did
actually perfecute. His perfecution, however, reckoned by
Auguitine the ninth, was fhort ; ashe died foon after the
publication of his edicts, and before they could reach the
more diftant provinces. Mofheim is of opinion that many
Chriftians did not fuffer at this time ; but confidering Au-
relian’s cruel temper, and how nich he was addicted to the
Gentile fuperititions, he thinks that if he had lived, his
perfecution would have exceeded all the former perfecutions
in feverity.

The hiftorians of this reign are Vopifcus, the ViGors,
Pollio, Zofimus, and Eutropius. Crevier’s Hift. Rom.
Emp. vol. ix. p. 149—186. Gibbon’s Hilt. vol. ii. p. 15—

6. Lardner’s works, vol. vill. p. 172—176. Mofheim’s
Eccl. Hitt. vol. i. p. 153.

AURELIANA, in Botany. Seo Panax.

AURELIOPOLIS, in Ancient G ozrzphy, an epifcc-
pal city of Afia Minor, in Lydia.—Aito, another epiicopal
city of Afia Minor, in Afia properly fo called.

AURELIUS, Amsrosius. See Amsrosius.

Avrerius, Marcus. See ANTONINUS.

Auvrecius Vicror, Sextus, in Biography, a Roman
hiftorian, flourifhed in the 4th century, probably from the
reignof Conitantius to that of Theodetiue; was born of mean
and illiterate parents, perhaps in Africa, and notwithftand-
ing the obfcurity of his origin, was advanced by his talents
to diftinétion. In 361, he was appointed by Julian, prefect
of the fecond Pennonia ; afterwards prefect of Rome ; and

AUR

in 369, conful with Valentinian. The abridement of the
Roma hiltory, intitled “ Libellus de origine Gentis Ro-
masz,’’ and byfome aferibed to Afconius Pedianus, though
it bears the names of Victor and Livius, propoles a hif-
tory of the whole period, trom the uncertain time of Janus
and Saturn to the 12th confulfhip of Conftantius, but
really clofes in the firit year of the city. This treatife was
publithed, together with the works of Dionyfius Halicar-
naflentis, at Frankfort, ia 1586; and witha colleétion of an-
cieat hiftorians, by Gothofred, in 18mo. at Lyons, in 1591.
The biographical treatife under the title “ De Viris [lutiri-
bus Urbis Romz,’’ received by maay as the work of Aure-
lius Victor, commences with Proca ki ig of the Albans, and
terminates with Pompey ; it was publifhed in gto. with
notes, by Machaneus, at Leipfic, in 1516, and with thofe
of Lycolthenes, in folio, at Bafil, in 1563. “The Hiftory
of the Cefars from Auguftus to Co:dtantius,’” the unque{-
tionable production of Victor, was firfl publifhed by Schu-
rerus at Strafburg, in 8vo. in 1505; at Venice, by Aldus, in
1516; by Schottus, at Antwerp, in 1579, in Svo.; and at
Bafil, in folio, in 1546, with Suetonius and other Auguftan
writers. The firlt general edition of all the writings of
Aurelius Viétor was printed at Antwerp, in 8vo. with the
commentary of Schottus, in 1579, by Plantin, and in 1582,
again by Gruter, at Hanau, in the 2d volume of the “ Hif-
torie Auguite Scriptores,’’ in folio, in 1610. An elegant
edition, with heads, “cum notis variorum,’? was printed
in 8vo. in 16713 anotherby Pitifeus,at Utrecht, in 8 vo. 1696 ;
anda third by Artnezius, in gto. at Amfterdam, in 1733.
Aurelius Victor is reckoned an induftrious and faithful
hiftorian ; but his ftyle is much lefs elegant than that of the
earlier writers of the Roman hiftory. Fabr. Bib. Lat. 1. iii.
c.g. t. 2. p. 79. Ke. See Aucusta Hifforia.

Avrexivs, in Entomology, a fpecies of Partrio that
jahabits Lndia. The wings ar brown, black at the tip, and
{potted with white; two eye-fhaped {pots on the potterior
ones beneath. Fabricius, &c.

Auretius, in Geography, a military townthip of New-
York, in Ounandago county, on the Owafco lake, having
the Cayuaga refervation lands on the weft, and Marcellus to
the eait, nine miles eaft of the ferry on the Cayuaga lake. By
the ftate ceafus of 1796, 123 of the inhabitants are electors.

AURELLA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Puarena
(Tinea), wings golden, pofterior ones black, with a {tripe
of filver on the firft pair. A minute infe&t that inhabits
Europe, and feeds on apple-trees.

AURENG-ZEBE, Aurinc-Zene,orAurunc-ZeseE,
denoting ‘ Ornament of the throne,” in Biography, the
great mogil, was the third fon of Shah Jehan, and born
in the year 1618. His difpofition was ferious and thought-
ful; and in order to prevent jealoufy and fufpicion, he
affumed the aufterity of a religious mendicant. Dara, how-
ever, his elder brother, difcovered his real character through
this difguife ; and as he had contrived to gain the efteem
and confidence of his father, Dara ufed to fay~of him,
“<I fear none of all my brothers but this teller of beads.’?
Shah Jehan, who thought it moit prudent and fafe to re-
move all his fons from court, fent Aureng-Zebe to govern
the Deccan, where he made an unfuccefsful attempt againtt
the king of Golconda. Towards the clofe of the year,
1656, Dara, endeavouriag to gaia poffeflion of the empire,
coufined his father Shai Jehan; upon which Aureng-Zebe
begau to make preparations, and with the profefled defign
of fecuring the throne to his brother Morad, who was then
at 7g Se requeited that he would join him with
his forces at Eugene, the capital of the province of
Malvar. In the beginning of the year 1658, he marched

from.

AUR

from Aurungabadia the Deccan,and thetwo brothers joined
at Eugene, near which place they encountered aud defeated
the troops which Dara had feut to oppofe them. They
afterwards marched towards Delili; and in the fields of
Kejouh, near Agra, obtained a complete victory over Dara
and his army ; fo that Dara himfelf fled towards Lahore,
and Aureng-Zebe entered the caftle of Agra. After this
victory he took poffeffion of the throne, July 20, A.D.1658,
and was proclaimed emperor at the town of Bazabad, about
fix miles from Dehli, On the 15th of May 1659, he was
proclaimed a fecond time, and he then iffued a decree, that
for the future the beginning of his reign fhould be dated
from the fir Ramazan, in the year 1069 of the Hegira,
or the 12th of May 1659. For the fecurity of his throne,
he confined his father at Agra; and his brother Morad, in
violation of a folemn oath cf fidelity, he imprifoned iu a
fortrefs near Dehli, where he was afterwards beheaded.
During the civil war which commenced at the time of his
acceflion to the throne, and which was continued til his
power was completely eftablifhed, his brother Sujah was
firlt defeated at a place called Kuvra, in the province of
Bengal, aud compelled to fly ; but being concerued in a
plot for dethroning him, he was put to death, and his whole
family was extirpated. Dara was taken prifoner, and brought
in triumph to Dehli, and fent from thence to Khefrabad, a
place at the diftance of about 118 miles, where he was mur-
dered by Aureng-Zebe’s order, Auguit 28th, 1659. In
1661, Aureng-Zebe confined his own fon Mahommed, and
the fon of Dara, in the caftle of Gualiar, where the former
died, as fome fay, in confequence of confinement, and the lat-
ter was difpatched by flow poifon, Aureng-Zebe, after his
acceflion to the throne, found fome difficulty in perfuading
the chief cadi to acknowledge his fovereignty, becaufe the old
King, Sheh Jehan, was ftill living. But another cadi being ap-

ointed ia his room, the ceremonial of coronation was per-
ormed,and Aureng-Zebe obtained undifputed and peaceable
poffeflion of the throne. The recolleétion, however, of the
erimes by which he had gained the fovereignty, was an oc-
cafion of remorfe; and in order to quiet his mind, he im-
pofed upon himfelf a rigorous penance ; eating only barley
bread, herbs, and fruits, and Grinking nothing but water.
This abftemious diet brought on an illnefs, which endan-
gered his life; and during the agitation which enfued at
court, he had an opportunity of difplaying that refolution
and firmneis of mind for which he was always diftinguifhed.
Although he had depofed his father, his behaviour to him
was {fo ref{pe€tful and fubmiifve, that he at length obtained,
before his death in 1666, his forgivenefs and paternal bleff-
ing. When Aureng-Zebe became emperor, he affumed the
titles of “ Mohy o’din,” i. e. the reviver of religion; and
«« Alumguir,” or the conqueror of the world, of which his
ignorance and vanity led him to believe that he polfefied
three parts in four.

Trom the year 1660 until the year 1678, there prevailed,
through Hindeftan in general, the moft profound peace
that had ever perhaps been known; but Aureng-Zebe dif
dained to have any other boundary on the fouth befides the
ocean. Accordingly, the conqueft of the remote part of the
Deccan employeda very confiderable part of his leifure, dur-
ing the latter part of his reign, when the whole of that region,
torcther with the peninfula, a few mountainous and maccefli-
ble traGs excepted, were cither entirely fubjected, or rendered
tributary to the throne of Dehli, Aureag-Zebe was parti-
cularly induced to fubdue the Deccan, by the determined {pi-
rit and growing power of Sevajee, the founder of the Mah-
ratta {tates who, by luis conquelfts in Vifiapour, appeared un-
der the character. of his rival. Soon after he had quelled by

AUR

his perfonal prefence a rebellion of the Patans beyond the
Indus, in 1678, his perfecution of the Hindoos ftirred up
the Rajpoot tribes in Agimere. This war he alfo under-

took in perfon; but he and his whole army were fhut up*

between the mountains, and the emprefs herfelf was
take: prifoner. She, however, and alfo the emperor,
were permitted to efcape. This difaiter did not difcou-
rage him frcm carrying the war into the Rajpoot country
again, in 16813 when he tock and deftroyed Cheitore, the
famous capital of the Rana, as well as all the objects of
Hindoo worfhip which he found in this place. WNeverthe-
lefs the fpirits of thefe gallant people were {till uafubdaed,
and Aureng-Zebe was under a neceffity of granting thm
peace. In Mr, Orme’s “ Hiftorical Fragments of the Mo-
gul Empire,” we have a letter written by Jefwont Sing,
rajah of Joudypour, to Aureng-Zebe, expoftulating with

him on the unjuft meafures he was purfuing with refpe
to the Hindoos. This letter breathes the moft admiralle
{pirit of philanthropy, and of toleration in matters of reli-
gion, together with the moft determined refolution to op-
pole the meditated attack on the civil and .cligious rights
of the Hindoos. While Aureng-Zebe was engaged in his
contefts with the Rajpoots, confifling of feveral of iba moft
warlike tribes among the Indians, his fon, fultan Mahommed
Akbar, revolted from him, and joined them; but he was
purfued by the emperor to Deccan, from whence he fouad
means for efcaping to Perfia. In the year 1680, upon the
death of Sevajee, the rifing ftate of the Mahrattas devolved
on his fon Sambajee, who was afterwards betrayed into the
hands of Aureng-Zebe, and barbaroufly put to death. Still,
however, the mountainous parts of Baglana were unfubdued;
and although the kingdom of Vifiapour was reduced in
1686, and Golconda in the following year, he found it very
difficult to profecute lis conquefis towards the welt, as we
may infer from his camp’s being fixed on the Kuftnah river,
about 200 miles to the north-eaft of Goa, in 1695. But
we have no regular hiftory of any later period than the 10th
year of Aureng-Zebe, or the year 1670, when Mr. Dow’s
hiftory terminates. It is faid, that Aureng-Zebe was em-
ployed in the Deccan from the year 1678 to the time of his
death, and was atually in the field during the greatet art
of the laft fifteen years of his life. This dereliGtion of his
original empire and capital for nearly thirty years, was’ the
occafion of various diforders. To this circumftance were
owing the fecond rebellion of the Rajpoots in Agimere,
that of the Patans towards the Indus, and alfo that of the
Iats, or Iates, in the province of Agra. Befides the con-
uefts cf Vifiapour, Golconda, and the Carnatic, to the
NTA and thofe in the kingdom of Afam to the north,
Aureng-Zcbe reduced Bengal, and refcued the mouths of
the Ganges from the Portuguefe pirates, who had long in-
fefted them. Under his reign the empire attained its full
meafure of extent. His authority reached from the roth to
the 35th degree of latitude, and nearly as much in longitude;
and his revenus, fays major Rennell, exceeded thirty-two
millions of pounds fterling, in acountry where the products
of the earth are about four times as cheap as in England,
Frafer eftimates the whole revenue of the empire from 21
foubahs, or provinces,,2t 12,071,876,840 dams, which at
320 dams to a pound fterling, amount to. 37,724,615 1.
2s. 6d. Such indeed was the reputation for power and
wealth which Aureng-Zebe acquired, that embaflies were
fent to him from all the neighbouring nations, as well as
from the European powers, who wifhed to obtain commer-
cial advantages in his dominions. But under an apprehene
fion of the defigns of his fons both againit himfelf and
againfl each other, he was obhged to pals moft of his time
»

a a ee se a ee

AUR

in his camp, which formed a kind of moving city. It is
defcribed by the curious traveller Bernier, who followed it
from Dehli to Cafhmir. The guard of cavalry confilted of
35,000 men, that of infantry of 10,000. The number of
horfes, mules, and elephants, was computed at 150,000 ; of
camels and oxen at 50,000 each ; and of perfons between
300,000 and 400,000. Almoft all Dehli followed the court,
whofe magnificence fupported the induitry of its traders and
artifans. ¥
Aureng-Zebe fixed his refidence, when in winter-quarters,
at Ahmednagur in the Deccan ; and here he died, lebruary
2ift, 1707, in the goth year of his age. According to
the dire€tions of his will, he was buried in the cell of a holy
dervife near this city: and as he profeffed great zeal for
, Mahometanifm, the votaries of this religion deem it a me-
ritorious pilgrimage to vifit his tomb, particularly on the
28th of the month Zeccadih, the day on which he died.
In his will, after making this declaration, “I came naked
into the world, and naked I go out of it,’’ he prohibits any
enfigns or royal pomp to accompany his funeral, and any
concern to be manifeited by his fortunate children about a
monument ; and he orders 1000 rupees, about 125 /. to be
diftributed among the poor at his funeral. Aureng-Zebe
forefaw the contefts that would arife between his fons for
the empire ; and it has been afferted that he made a parti-
tion of it among them. His will exprefsly intimates, that
he had made a divifion among his childrea, for preventing
confufion and bloodfhed ; and he fays, that as there were
two imperial feats, Agra and Dehli, whoever fettled in
Agra might have the provinces thereof, Deccan, Malva,
and Guzerat ; and he who refided at Dehli, might have
Cabul and the other provinces. Neverthelefs, two letters,
written by Aureng-Zebe to two of his fons a few days be-
fore his death, cited by major Rennell, indicate no intention
of dividing the empire, but exprefs in doubtful terms his ap-
prehenfion of a civil war. Thefe letters furnifh this ftnk-
ing leffon to frail mortality, that however men may forget
themfelves during the tide of profperity, a day of ¢ recol-
le€tion’ will inevitably come fooner or later. Here we
are prefented with the dying confeffion of an aged monarch,
who made his way to the throne by the murder of his bre-
thren, and the imprifonment of his father, and who, after
being in peaceable poffeffion of it, perfecuted the moft in-
offenfiye part of his fubjects, either through bigotry or hy-
pocrify. Here we behold him in the aé of reigning that,
to obtain poffeffion of which he incurred his guilt ; and pre-
fented to us as a mere iinful man, trembling on the verge of
eternity ; equally deploring the pait, and dreading the fu-
ture. How awful muft his fituation appear to him, when
he fays, ‘wherever [ look, I fee aothiagbut the Divinity.’
Avureng-Zebe left four fons; Mauzum, afterwards em-
peror, under the title of Bahader Shah; Azem, and
Kaum Bukth, who feverally contefted the empire with their
elder brother ; and Akbar, who had rebelled againft his
father, and fled to Perfia. The death of their father was
the fignal of hoftility between Mauzum and Azem; the
former approached from Cabul, and the latter from the
Deccan, and difputed the poffeflion of the whole empire
(for Azem had propofed a partition of it), with armies
of about 300,000 men each. Near Agra it was decided
by a battle, and the death of Azem. Mauzum was pro-
claimed emperor, aad reigned between five and fix years.
In the courte of fifty years afte¢ the death of Aureng-Zebe,
a fucceffion of weak princes and wicked minifters annihi-
lated the extenfive and mighty empire which he had efta-
blifhed. F
Avureng-Zebe pcffeffed many talents which qualified him
Vou. IIL. :

ASU.

for governing a large empire. He was fober, aétive, and
refolute, and though he was not {crupulous as to the means
by which he acquired power, he was generally mild in the
exercife of it; but he allowed his fubordinate governors and
omrahs to opprefs the people with impunity. In the ob-
fervance of the outward ceremonies of ¢ n, he was ri-
gidly exaét; andhis zeal for making profelytes, whatever
were the views in which it originated, led him to adopt
meafures of violence and perfecution. In his drefs, he was
plain; in his mede of living, abftemious; in his ordinary
occupations, when his military enterprifes afforded him in-
tervals of leifure, he condefeended to employ himfelf in
making caps, which he diftributed among the great lords of
his court. The traveller Gemelli Carreri, who faw him in
1695, gives the following defeription of his perfon. He
was of a low ftature, witha large nofe, a white beard, and
olive complexion. He was flender, and ftooping with age,
and fupported himfelf on a ftaff; yet he endorfed petitions
without fpe€tacles, and by his cheerful countenance feemed
pleafed with doing bufiaeis at a public audience.” Frafer’s
Hiftory of Nadir Shah, &c. p. 29—39. Rennell’s Memoir
of a Map of Hindoftan, introd. p. 61.—64. Mod. Una.
Hitt. vol. y. p. 426—442.

AUREOLA, the crown of glory, given by painters and
ftatuaries to faints, martyrs, and confeffors, as a mark of the
victory which they have obtained.

F. Sirmond fays, this cuftom was borrowed from the hea-
thens, who ufed to encompafs the heads of their deities with
fuch rays.

AUREOLARIA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Puars-
NA (Geometra) of a {mall fize, that inhabits Germany.
The wings are deep yellow, with three ftreaks and the mar-
gin brown. Fabricius.

AUREOLUS, Mantus Acitivus, in Biography, a na-
tive of Dacia, wasadvanced from the humble occupation of
a thepherd, by enlifting in the Roman army, to the command
of a body of cavalry, and diftinguifhed himfelf by the fer-
vice he performed to the emperor Gallienus, in a battle
againft the rebel Ingenuus. Whilft he commanded in Iily-
ricum, he defeated Macrianus, who affumed the purple, and
continued to maiitain a partial attachment to Gallienus.
At length, A.D. 268, a confiderable army, ftationed on the
Upper Daaube, invefted witn the imperial purple their leader
Aureolus ; who, difdaining a confined and barren reign over
the mountains of Rhetia, paffed the Alps, occupied Milan,’
threatened Rome, and challenged Gallienus to difpute in the
field the fovereignty of Italy. Defeated by the emperor ia
a battle near Milan, Aureolus retired into the city ; and dur-
ing the fiege, he contrived to form a confpiracy in the be-
fieging army of Gallienus, which terminated in his death.
Upon the acceffion of Claudius I]. Aureolus was compelled
to deliver up the city and himfelf to the diferetion of the:
newemperor. ‘The judgment of the army pronounced him
worthy of death ; and Claudius, after a feeble refiitance,
confented to the execution of the fentence. Crevier’s Hitt.
Emp. vol, ix. p. 77, &c. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. ii. p. 2—7.

Avreotus, in Entomology, a {pecies of ScaraBzus, of
a deprefled and fomewhat angulated fhape, and powdered
with gold: thorax and fhells dotted with black. Inhabits
Dauria. Pallas.

Avreotus Pons, now Ponriroie, in Geography, a
bridge of Italy over the Adda, 13 miles from Bergamo, and
32 from Milan, near which the ufurper Aureolus was de-
feated by the army of the emperor Gallienus. Near this
place, in 1703, the obftinate battle of Caffano was fought
between the French and the Aunttrians.

AURESS, Aurez, or Evres, Jipset, the name givea

3A to

AUR
to the mons Aurafius of the middle age, and the mons Au-
dus of Ptolemy, being a part of the Arvas, extending
fouthward from Conftantina, quite to Biledulgerid. See
Auvonws. ;

AURETTE, a river of France, which runs inte the
Eure, near Bourges.

AUREUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of STAPHYLINUS,
thatinhabits Siam. The head, thorax, and wing-cafes, are
covered with yellowifh or golden down; abdomen black,
fafciated with afh-colour. Fabricius, &c.

Aureus, Mons, in Geography, a mountain of Meefia
Prima, near the Danube.—And alfo, a town of the fame
name at the foot of it on the fame river.— Alf, a mountain
of the northern part of the ifland of Corfica, the ridge of
which runs out to the north-eaft and fouth-eait, and forms
akiad of elbow. The emperor Probus planted vines on
this mountain. Ptolemy.

Aureus, ia Jchtdyologys avery {plendid fpecies of Cu x-
Topon, figured and deicribed by Bloch in his Hiftory of
Fithes, under the title of C. aureus, and la bandouliére do-
rée. This author acquaints us, that he found the drawing
of this fpecies amongit the defigns of father Plumier, and
that it inhabits the Antilles, but of its hiftory he is entirely
ignorant.

The body is of an oval form, golden-yellow colour, and
covered with hard denticulated {cales; the mouth is fmall,
lips ftrong, and jaws furnithed with fetaceous teeth; gill-
cover ofa fingle piece ; lateral line rather arched ; fins yel-
low, green at the end ; pectoral and tail fin rounded, the
others faleated ; in the dorfal fin twelve rays.—It is fpecifi-
cally diftinguithed by being of a golden colour, and having
a {pine near the cheek bone. Gmelin, Bloch, &c.

Avrevs, in Natural Hiffory, a {pecies of Limax, that

inhabits trees in Denmark and Norway, and defcribed by
Mill. as being yellow, and without {pots. This creature is
an inch and a half in length; beneath white ; feelers, and a
line between them, black.
. Aureus, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Orn1oLus in the
Linnzan fyftem, and Paradife bird im that of Latham. A
bird that is fuppofed to inhabit New Guinea. General co-
lour tawny yellow, with the frontlet, chin, edges of the
wings, and tail black.—Oé/. The length of this bird is
eight inches ; bill an inch long, and rather bent ; fhafts of
the tail feathers, and fringe, near the tip yellow. This is
the golden paradife bird of Latham ; le troupiale des Indes
of Briffon; and le rollier de paradis of Buffon.

Aureus, a fpecies of Psirracus, that inhabits Brafil,
and is called by Englifh naturaliits the golden-crowned par-
rakeet. This kind is green, with the cere and orbits blueifh-
filefh colour ; crown golden ; an oblique blue band on the
wing-coverts. Gmelin. Briff. calls it pfittaca Brafilienfis ;
and Buff. perruche couronée d’or.

Aureus, in Zoology, the {pecies of Canis ufually called
the JacxaL; ananimal about the fize of a middling dog,
and fpecifically «diftinguifhed by having a ftrait tail, and
body pale fulvous. Schreber Saeugth.—Gmel. &c. Kemp-
fer calls it lupus aureus ; Valent. vulpes Indi Orientalis ;
Briff. adil; Buffon, chacal, adive ; Vofmaer, chien fauvage
Indien ; and Gmel. and Penn. fchakall,; &c.

This animal inhabits the warmer parts of Afia and A frica,
lurking among the woods and mountainsin the day-time,
and venturing out in fearch of prey only during the night ;
when they dfemble together in herds to the amount of two
or three hundred, and indifcriminately attack and devour the
leffer kinds of animals and birds; and will occafionally eat alfo
certain kinds of vegetables. The voice of the jackal is
deferibed’as peculiarly hideous, confifting of a kind of howl-

AUR

ing and indifting barking ; aud when they hunt in troops,
by their dreadful yellingd asim and put £0 Bets decks aes
lopes, and other timid quadrapeds ; while the lion, inftine-
tively attending to the clamour, is faid to follow till the
jackals have hunted down the prey, and having fatiated
himfelf, leaves only the mangled remains to be devoured b
the jackals. It is for this reafon, Dr. Shaw obferves, that
the jackals is popularly termed the lion’s provider. When
prefled by hunger, jackals have been frequently known to
enter towns, and devour indifcriminately whatever animal
fubftance they can find. They commit ravages among the
eae killfowls, &c. and have been known to attack man-
<ind.
There is great reafon, according to Dr. Shaw, for fup-
pofing this animal to be the real origin of the dog, fince al-
moft all its manners and propeafities are the fame. When
taken young, it is eafily tamed ; attaches itfelf to mankind,
diftinguifhes its mafter, comes on being called by its name,
fhews an attachment to dogs inftead of flying from them,
and has all the other peculiarities of charaéter by which the
dog is diftinguifhed ; amongft others, the important obferv- _
ation of profeflor Guldenftadt, who has given an accurate “
defcription of the jackalin the Peterfburg Traafa@ions,
fhould by no means be omitted, viz. that the jackal and
dog agree in the ftructure of the coecum or fhort in-
— and differ in that refpe€t both from the wolf and the
‘OX.
Dr. Pallas has favovred the world with an accurate de-
{cription of this animal. In external figure, he remarks, the
ee refembles the wolf more than the fox. It is alfo
arger and ftands higher on its legs than the fox. The head
is of a fox-red colour above, mixed with afh-grey hairs
which have each a blackith ring and tip; the upper lip is
white on each fide of the nofe, and the throat is of the fame
eolour ; the whiikers, the long hairs on the chin; and thofe
above the eyes, which are five in number, are black ; the ears-
are fox-red externally, and white internally ; the neck and
back are all over grey-yellow, and both, but efpecially the
latter, are dafhed with a fhade of dufky, owing to the tips
of the long hairs on thofe parts ; the under part of the bo-
dy, and the legs, are of a light reddifh yellow, but the
fhoulders and thighs are externally of a fox-red; the claws are
black ; the thumb claw ftands higher than that of the dog,
and is crooked; the tail is ftraight, {omewhat longer and more
hairy than in the wolf, and is of a greyifh-yellow, more in-
clining te fox-red towards the end; the long hairs have
black tips, and confequently the tip of the tail appears
black; the hair of the jackal is coarfer and ftronger than
that of the wolf, and is longeft on the fhoulders and tail,
where it meafures four inches; on the neck and back it is
fhorter by an inch; between the hairs is fituated a woolly
fur‘of a grey colour; the four middle front teeth are of
a truncated form, or, as if cut off, flat, not perceptibly
notched or indented ; the two exterior larger ones in the
upper jaw are fomewhat larger than the under ; the grinders
are fix on each fide, the firft being the fmalleft, and of a
conical fhape; the next grinders, to the number of two
in the upper, and three in the lower, are gradually larger,
and divided into three points; the fourth of the upper jaw
and the fifth of the under are the largeft, and have two
points ; the remaining ones ftand deeper in the jaw or more
inwards, and are {maller than the preceding ; the tongue has,
on each fide, a border or row of {mall verruce or warts. __
Mr, Pennant deicribes the ufual length of the jackal to
be about two feet and a half; the female rather fmaller than
the male, and with from fix to eight paps. Dr. Pallas
counted in a young jackal three teats on one fide, and four —
on

AUR

on the other, of which the foremoft one was fituated near
the fide of the breaft.

The more we confider the nature and manners of this
animal, fays Dr. Shaw, the more reafon we fhall find to coin-
cide with profeffor Guldenfladt in opinion, that the jackal is
the real origin of the dog (uulefs, indeed, we allow the wild
dops of Africa to be the dog in a ftate of nature). M. Gul-
denitadt very properly obferves, that the natale folum of the
wolf does not feem to fit it for the fuppofed origin of the
dog, fince it is generally confined to the frigid zone 5 its fize
is difo againft the fuppolition; for the natural fize of any
fpecies of animal appears to be between that of the large and
{mall varieties. ‘The fox is {till more unlike the dog, as to
fome particulars in the flruéture of the inteftines; the native
country of the jackal, which is properly Atia Minor, istheland

Swhere we fhould naturally fuppoie the primeyal domeftic
dog to have oiiginated. The jackal, according to M. Gul-
denitact, has a natural propenfity to follow mankind, initead
of flying from him, like the wolf and the fox. The whelp,
he adds, is very readily tamed, and when grown up, aflumes
all the habits of the domeftic dog. That the jackal and dog
readily intermix, appears from various teftimonies, according
to Buffon. M. Guldenttadt cannot confider the recurvate
tail as a {pecific character of the dog, but thinks it may have
originated from cicuration. he general colour. of the
jackals, which this author has feen, is a dirty fulvous,
rather blaclker on the back, and yellowifh-white beneath ;
on each knee in gentral a black patch, and the tip of the
tail of the fame colour.

Aureus, in Antiquity, the Roman gold coin, equivalent
to 25 denarii, or 100 feiterces. Suet. in Oth. c. iv. Tacit.
Hitt. lib. i. Beverin. de Ponder. p. 33, feq.

‘In Modern and Middle Age Writers, it 1s called /olidus,
or folidus aureus. i

The aureus, according to Arbuthnot, generally weighed
double the denarius ; whence it muft have been worth, ac-
cording to the firft proportion of coinage mentioned by
Pliny, 1/. 45. 34d. flerling.—According to the proportion
that now obtaius among us, 1/. os. gd. Plin. lib.xxxiil. c. 3.
Arbuth. tab. 25.—Ainfworth, however, makes the aurei
(denarii) of the higher empire, weigh only five, penny-
weights; and under the lower empire, little more than half
fo much.

The weight of the aureus was gradually diminifhed by the
emperors. ‘Ihe confular aureus weighed at a mean 126 troy
grains, 40 of them being contained in the Roman pound ;
the imperial aureus, being 45 to the pound, weighed 112
grains; and the folidus, being 72 to the pound, weighed 70
grains. Alexandy: Severus coined pieces of one-half and
one-third of the aureus, called femiffes and tremiffes; whence
the aureus came to be called folidus, as being their integer.
Phil. ‘Tranf. vol. Ixi. part ii. art. 42. See Corn, and Dr-
NARIUS.

AURIA, Vincent, in Biography, an Italian hiftorian,
was born at Palermo in 1625, devoted himfelf to the pro-
feffion of the law, and was admitted doctor of laws at Cata-
nia,in 1652. Ele afterwards relinquifhed this employment,
and poffeffing a liberal fortune, dedicated histime toliterature.

_ His works were chiefly Italian, and partly Latin, on fubjects
of hiftory and antiquities. Thofe in higheft eftimation are
« An Hiltory of the Great Men in Sicily,” 4to., Palermo,
1704; and “ An Hiftory of the Viceroys of Sicily,” fol.
Palermo, 1697. Nouv. Dié. Hit. ;

AURICELLA, in Entomology, a {pecies of PHaL ENA
(Tinea) found in France. It is fnowy-white, with tefta-
ceous itreaks on the wings, and a projecting tuft of hairs
on the firft joint of the antenne. ;

A‘U R
AURICH, in Geography, a town of Germany, iu the

circle of Weftphalia, and county of Batt, Friefland, ten miles
north-eailt of !imbden, It is encompafled with forefts that
abourd with game. N. lat. 53° 28’. Ei. long. 6° 50’.

AURICHALCEUS, in Entomology, a fpectes of Sca-
RABEUS, of a brafly-opake colour, wing-cafes pointed and
{petted with white. Fabricius. Inhabits the Ealt-Indies.

Auricuarceus, a {pecies of Cerambyx (Callidivm
Fabr.) of a fmall fize. It is braffy-brown and fhining ;
thorax deprefied ; antenna and legs:black. Degeer. ‘

AURICHALCEUS, a fpecies of Carazus that inbabits
marl It is ef a yellowith colour, and brafly above.
HW. Zool. Dan.

AURICHALCUM. See Oricuarcum.

AURICLE, Avricura, in daatomy, the external ear,
or that part of the ear which is prominent from the heed.
The word is a diminution of auris, ear; for the defeription
of this part, fee Har. 5

Avaricre, is alfo applied, by the Englith anatomifts, to
denote thofe cavities of the heart into which the veins pour
their blood ; but foreign anatomitts call thefe cavities venous
finufes, and apply the word auricle to thofe litt’e procefles
of the general cavity which refemble an animal’s ear in
fhape. See Hearr.

AURICOLLIS, in Orvithology, a {pecies of Mora-
c1bua. Colour above olive, beneath orange ; belly yellow-
ifh; vent whitifh ; greater wing-coverts, aod middie tail-
feathers afh-colour; lateral ones white within, without and
at the tips black. Inhabits Canada. Gmelin.

AURICOMA, in £ntomology, a {pecies of PHatana
(Nodgua), with wings of a greyifh-brown colour; upper
pair marked with black, in ftreaks and characters; legs an-
nulated with white at the tip. Gmel. &c. ;

AURICULA Leports, in Botany. See Buputuan-
MuM, and BupLeuRuUM. j

Avricura Muris. See ARENARIA, CerasTium, Hir-
racium, Myosoris, and SILENE.

Avricuta Urfi. See Arcria, Primura, Doneca-
THEON, and VERBASCUM. :

Auvricuta, in Conchology, a f{peciesof Carpium, witha
white and very pellucid fhell, that is found on the fhores of
Arabia and Egypt. It is heart-fhaped and fub-rhombic ;
ribs twenty-four on each fide ; the grooves very finely cre-
nulated ; beaks remote. Forik. About two inches and
a quarter in length, and one inch and three quarters in
breadth. ‘ ,

Auricuta, a fpecies of Pareria, with a fubrotund -
fhell, radiated with furrows and ftrie; apex recurved 3
internal cavity ear-fhaped, Inhabits the fhores of the.
iflands of Borneo, Santa Cruz, and St. Thomas. This
fhell is fnowy-white, with the crown fometimes encircled
with violet ; fometimes radiated with black ; brown within;
border white or yellow; and the vertex brown. Gmelin,
&e. ei
Avricuta, in Gardening, a well-known beautiful plant.
of the flower kind. This is-confidered in the Linnean
fyitem as a fpecies of primula.. See Primuna.

The variety of this plant are extremely, numerou’, a3
every year produces a great number of flowers, different in
fhape, fize, and colour ; in the leaves alfo there is often great
variety, fo that the experienced florift is frequently capable
of diltinguifhing the particular forts by that means. The
charaéters of a good auricula are, that the ftems of the
flowers be lofty and ftrong ; the footftalks of the fingle
flowers fhort, with the umbels regular and clofe ; the neck
of each flower fhort, and the flowers large, regular, and
{preading, but not inclinable to cup ; the colours very brig at

3A2 ; and

AUR

and well mixed; the eye of the flower large, round, and of a
good white or yellow, with the tube or neck not too wide.
Such flowers as want any of thefe properties are conitantly
rejected by experienced florifts ; and as the varieties every
year increafe from feeds, the bad ones are turned out to
make room for fuch as are good. The proper time for
fowing the feed is commonly about Auguft ; but a month
or two later will anfwer the purpofe. The meit proper foil
for it is a good light, frefh, fandy mould, mixed with very
rotten farm-yard dung, or well rotted dung from the bottom
of old hot-beds. The mauner of propagating thefe flowers,
when thus obtained, is by offsets or flips, taken from the old
roots in April, when the flowers are in fulkblow. As thofe
plants which have ftrong fingle heads always prodiice tie
largeft clufters of flowers, the curious florifts pull off the off-
fets as foon as it can be done with fafety to the plant, in
order to encourage them to Hower ftronger. But in order
to have them to flower in the greateft perfection, they
fhould be preferved from too much wet in winter, and have
free air, and not too much fur, And in the beginning of
February, if the weather be mild, the earth in the auricula
pots fhould be taken off as far as it can be without difturb-
ing the roots, and fuch as is new and frefh laid in its place.
The pots muft then be well covered with mats in the night
to defend them from frofts while the plants are budding.
When the ftalks bein to become long, they fhould be de-
fended from hafty rains, but not kept too much under cover,
as it is apt to draw up the ftalks too long, and make them
weak. ‘They fhould likewife be watered frequently, a little
at a time, care being taken that none of the water falls on
the plant. When the flowers begin to open, the pots
fhould be removed to ftages, formed with fhelves, one above
another, placed under cover, but open to the morning fun,
and fheltered from the mid-day fun. They may remain in

‘this fituation till their fowering is over, aud then be fet out
to have the benefit of the rains and free air, for the ripening
of their feeds, which fhould be carefully preferved and Ipread
on paper to dry before they are put up.

Avricuta, in Natural Hiffory, a Species of Lucer-
warta, of a fhape refembling a flafk, with a round neck ;
the lower part is very large, and encircled with eight tufts
of tentacule or feelers. Fabr. Groen. Mill. calls this {pecies
holothuria lagenam referens tentaculis o¢tonis fafciculatis.
It inhabits the Greenland feas, adheres firmly to the leaves
of the largeft ulve, and rarely moves ; feeds on marine in-
feéts, particularly on onifci, and is about an inch and a half
in length. The body is black or reddifh, and fometimes,
though rarely, chefaut, glofled with gold ; the mouth is
white; the tufts ef tentacule on ‘the body black, with
white tips.

Avricuta Jude, or Jew’s ear, a kind of fungus or
mufhroom, fomewhat refembling, ia figure, a human ear.

It grows oa old elder trees, the tree on which, as fome
pretend, Judas hanged himfeit ; aud hence, they think, the
name is derived.

This fungus fteeped in water, and applied to the eyes, is
faid to free them of inflammatioas ; but its chief ufe is under
the form of a gargle in decoctions, aguinil inflammations of
the throat, or {welling of the tonfils.

AURICULE& <Alwearium. See ALVEARIUM.

Avuricuts, primus, mufeulus, in Anatomy, the name
given by Fallopius to the aftollens auriculam. He alfo calls
the retrahentes auriculam the frcundus mufculus.

AURICULUM Retrabens. See ReTRAHENS.

AURICULAR, fortething that relates to the ears.

Thus we fay, an auricular witoels, auritis toffis, a witne/s
by hearfay.

AUR

Avricurar Confefion, is that made in the ear pri
vately.

AvRIcuLAR Medicines, are fuch as are {uited to the cure
of diftempers of the ear.

AURICULARIA, in Botany. See Hevyoris.

Avricuraria, in Conchology, a {pecies of Herix, or
frefh-water {nail, found in ftagnant waters in Europe, This
fhell is imperforate, cbtufely-ovate, with a fhort and acute
{pire, and capacious aperture. Lin. Faun. Suec, Mill.
Zool. Dan. Donov. Brit. Shells, &c, It isa very thin and
brittle fhell, rather pellucid, and of a horny or whitifh
colour ; length from half an inch to an inch and a quarter,
and eafily known by the very ventricofe appearance of the
firft wkorl.

AvxricuLartis, in Entomology, a {pecies of Forricura,
that is perfectly known in England by the name of common
eur-wig, or éar-piercer, from an opinion generally prevalent
that it creeps into the ears, ard thence into the brain, of
people who madvertently lie down to fleep in fields, gardens,
and other places which thofe creatures inhabit. It is fpeci-
fically diftinguifhed from other infeéts of the fame genus by
having the wing-cafes white, and fourtcen joints in the an-
tenne. Litter calls it fearabeus fubrufus cauda fureata;
and Frifch vermis auricularius.

The ear-wig is a very deftrutive creature, both in ‘the
orchard and flower-garden, and efpecially to wall-fruit, car-
rations, and rofes. In order to prevent the milchief attead-
ing them, it is ufual to ere&t ftands fupporting bafons of
water, or to hang the hollow claws of crabs or lobfters, te~

bacco pipes, &c. on fticks in different parts of the garden,

for them to creep into in the day-time, in order to catch
and deftroy them. Reeds open at both ends, and placed
among the branches of fruit-trees, are alfo a good trap for
them, as they crowd into their open channels, and may be
eafily collected and thrown into atub of water.

‘That the ear-wig or ear-piercer will creep into the eats of
fuch as fleep in the open air, in thofe places where they
inhabit cannct be denied; but thofe who are acquainted
with the anatomy of the head, affert that it 1s impoffible it
can ever enter the brain, becaufe, fay they, there is no open
communication between the ear and the brain, and the jaws
of the infect are too weak to effet one. In France the
fame prejudice prevails againft this ereature, among the
lower orders of people, as in England; and, as with us, it is
called from that circumitance the ear-piercer (perce-oreille).
Its moft formidable weapon, in their opinion, is the pair of
forceps at the extremity of the body, a charaéter peculiar to
the genus, and not to this particular {pecies. * C’eft cette
armure,”’ fafs Degeer, “ qui a fait doi. ¥r a ces infectes le
nom de forficula, et en francois le nom recoutable de perce-
oreille, parce qu’on feft imaginé que cet iniecte s*introdufoit.
daus les oreilles, que de la il pénétroit dans le cerveau &
faifoit périr. Ceux qui fgavant ’anatomie, connoifient Pim-
poffibilité d’une pareille introduction dans Vintérieur du
crane, attendu qu’il n’y a yoint d’ouverture qui y commu-
nique; mais la frayeur de quelqu’un, 4 qui un de ces infegtes
fera par hafard entré dans la conduit de Poreille, aura pu
donner lieu a cette fable, &c.”’

The ufe of the forceps, with which the ear-wig is fur-
nifhed, is to defend icfelf againtt other {mall infeéts, and
when touched it never fails to difplay them in a threatening
pofture, by turning up the extremity of its abdomen. The
larva differs very little from the complete infe&, and runs
with great agility.

AURICULA RIS Abdudor,in Anatomy. SeeABDucToR.

The finger next the little finger is alfo called auri-
cularis, by the Greeks ozizrs, becaute ufed in picking the ear,

AURICU-

EE

oe CU

AUR

' AURICULATA, in Natural Hifory, a {pecies of Vor-
T1ceLa that inhabits the frefh waters of Denmark. Jt is
naked, with two fmall briftles at the tail, Mull. Hitt. Verm,
This kind is pellucid, cylindrical; the aperture dilated into
a {mall ear on each fide.

Avuricurara, a fpecies of Dorts, of a white colour,
with dorfal fafciculate papille of a red colour tipped with
white. This kind inhabits the North feas. Gmelin.

AURICULATED Leaf, ia Botany, is a leaf which
has a lobe on each fide towards the bafe.

AURIENSIS, ia Ancient Geography, an epifcopal city
of Africa, in Mauritania.

AURIFER, in L£ntomology, a {pecies of Curcutto,
with a ferruginous body {potted with gold. Fabricius, Sp.
Inf. Inhabits America, and has the front legs long.

Avrirer, a beautiful {pecies of Burrestis that inha-
bits Cayenne. The wing-cafes are green, with numerous
impreffed golden dots, and each terminating in two teeth ;
legs azure. Fabricius. Oliver.

AURIFLAMMA, in the French Hiffory, properly de-
notes a flag or ftandard, belonging to the abbey of St. Den-
nis, fufpended over the tomb of that faint, which the reli-

ious, on occafion of any war in defence of their lands or
rights, took down, with great ceremony, aad gave to their
protector or advocate, to be borne at the head of their forces.
Du-Cange.

AvrirLamMa is alfo fometimes ufed to denote the chief
flag or ftandard, in any army.

AURIFLUA, in Entomology, a fpecies of PHALENA
(Bombyx), that infefts the apple-trees in Germany, and bears
a ftrong refemblance to phalena chryforrhea. The wings
are white, with a brown rib on the underfide of the anterior
pair; tail bearded and yellow. The larva is hairy, black,
with red lines, and white dotes on the fides ; a protuberance
en the neck, and another near the tail. Gmelin.

AURIGA, in Afronomy, the Waggoner ; a conftellation
of ftars in the northern hemifphere: whofe ftars, in Ptole-
my’s catalogue, at 14; in T'ycho’s, 27; in Hevelius’s, 40;
in the Britannic catalogue, 66. ‘This is one ef the 48 af-
terifms, mentioned by all the ancient aftronomers; and
reprefented by the figure of an old man ina kind of fitting
poiture, with a goat and her kids in his left hand, and a
bridle ia his right. Befides the Hoedi, this conftellation
includes another of the ftars which the ancients diftinguifh-
ed by peculiar names, that is, Capella, the goat Capra, and
Amalthza Capra, which is the bright one near the fhoulder,
and fuppofed to be the mother of the Hoedi, and the
nurfe of Jupiter. ‘The Hoedi, or the two ftars in the arm
of Auriga, were regarded by the aucients as affording
prefages of the weather; and they were fo much dreaded
on account of the ftorms and tempefts that f{cceeded their
rifing, that they are faid to fhut up the navigation of the
faa at this feafon. When the day of their peculiar influence
was paffed, they celebrated a feftival with {ports and games,
under the denomination of ‘¢ Natalis Navigationis.”” Ger-
manicus calls them unfriendly ftars to mariners ; and Virgil
joins them with Arcturus, mentioning their fetting and rifing
as circumftances of the moft important prefaze. To the
fame purpeie all the ancient critics reprefent a part of the
conftellation Auriga, if not the whole of it, as deferving
particular attention, and as much an obje&t of terror as the
blazing Arcturus.

Aurica, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Crxtonon, found
in the Arabian feas. It is whitifh, obliquely fafciated with
brown ; and the fifth ray of the dorfal fin, filiform. Forfk.
Fn. Arab.

The length of this fifh is five inches; form nearly rhom-
bic; whitifh colour tinged with blue: the brown oblique
bands fixteen in number, and difpofed nearly paraliel to

AAU

each other. The fcalea are rhombic ; head banded, above
flat, fcaly, of a reddith white colour, with four tranfverfe
fulvous itripes; iris black ; mouth conic and comprefied ;
Hp rotundated and equal ; polterior margin of the dorfal fia
black ; and fia varied with black aad yellowith-white ;. tail
truncated and fulvous; lateral line beat.

AURIGNAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of.a
canton in the diftrié of St. Gaudens, 33 miles fouth-weft
of Touloufe, and ro north-eaft of St. Gaudens. The piace
contains 1225 and the canton 10,089 inhabitants; the ter-
ritory includes 5924 kiliometres and 23 communes.

AVRIGNY,: Hyracixtru Rosirarp, in Biography, a
French hiftorian, was bora at Caen, in 1675, became a mem-
ber of the fociety of Jefuits in 1691, and died in 1719. His
works, comprifed in four volumes 12mo. printed at Paris in
1725 and in 1757, are “ Memoirs, chronological and dog-
matical, for Ecclefiatical Hiftory, from 1600 to 1716,”
with critical remarks; and ‘ Memoirs for the Univerfal
Hittory of Eurepe,” for the fame period. They are much
valued forvariety of materials, accuracy of dates, and elegance
of ftyle; but are not deemed impartial. Nouv. Dia. Hitt.

AURIGRAPHUS, from eurum, gold, and y2x92, I
write, in Middle Age Writers; a copyitt, or calligrapher,
who wrote in gold letters.

AURILLAC, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of adiftri€t in the department of Cantal, and,
before the revolution, the capital of Lower A uvergne. It
is fituated on the river Jordane, in a fertile valley ; aad the
caftle, which is high, commands the town. The place
contains 10,357 and its two cantons 29,235 inhabitants ;
its whole territory includes 390 kiliometres, and the north
canton 9, and the fouth canton 11 communes. N,. lat. 44°

Gia) tes longs) 2°"

AVRILLE, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a caatonin the d ti
of Angers, one league north of Angers.

AURINIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in.
Etruria.

AURIOL, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Mouths of the Rhone, and chief place of a
canton in the diftriét of Aix, four leagues fouth-eait of Aix,
and four N.N.E. of Marfeilles.

AURIPIGMENT, called alfo Orpiment.. See ARSENIC,
Ores of; {p. 3. var. 2.

AURIS, the ear. See Ear.

Avrrs Dianz, in Conchology, a fpecies of SrromBus,
adopted by Linnaus and Gmelin, after Argenville. The
hip projects into a fharp point ; back muricated 5. tail ereét
and poiated. Linn. Inhabits the fouthern coatts of Africa;
is about three inches long ; thick; feldom of one colour,
but variegated ; on the back are generally three, and fome-
times four, rows of tubercles, with the interftices tranf~
verfely ribbed; and the outer whorl cancellated; mouth
fiefh-colour ; pillar white. Gmelin, &c.

Auris Hirsura, a name given by Rumpfins to the
fhell, fince called murex anus by Linn. and Gmel. and
grimace by Argenville.

Auris Jupzx, a fpecies of Votura, with a contracted
oblong fhell, having a {mooth {pire, and tridentated pillar-
Tip. Linn. Muf. Lud.—Miuill. deferibes it as helix tefta
cylindrica fubgranulata, apertura lanceolata, labro ad axin
tridentato. This fhiell inhabits the fens in India, and re-
fembles voluta auris mide, but is fmalier, and narrower.
The colour is brown, or white with brown waved {pots ;
whorls of fix fpires, the firft and exterior ones very finely
ftriated. Gmelin. ;

Avurrs Matcut, a fpecies of Votvuta, about three
inches in length, and is a native of New Caledonia. The

fhedi

AUR

fhellis fufiform, grasulated, with an ovate aperture ; pillar-
lip cut and much fpread. This 1s called heii: auris malehi
by Mull; verm. fluy. et terr.. Chemnitz figures it, and
two varieties of the fame fpecies, tab. rz1. Conch.

Auris Mipa, a {pecies of Vouruta, found in India,
where it inhabits marlhy woods and fwamps, ard in its
manners refembles an heli The fhell is contraéted, oval-
oblong, {pire rugofe, pillar-lip bidentated. Tis is Helix

tefta fufiformi granulata, apertura lanceolata, labro ad axin |

bidentato of Mull. verm. fluv. et terr.—duris mideof Rump-
fius; and auricula mide of Argenville. Lifter figures due
variety of this fpecies in pl. 577. Conch. and Chemnitz
another, teb. 149. f. 1395, 1396.

The length of this kind is four inches ; it is brown, folid,
rugofe, or ftriated; fpire large; whorls from fix to nine,
each terminating in a granulated band ; the outer ones can-
cellated ; aperture long, and wideft beneath.

Auris Porc, a name fynonymous with Crifta galli, &e.
and given by Argeaville to the ipecies of Mytilus called by
Gmelin, WM. criffa galli.

Avris S1uens, a fpecies of Votutra, about two inches
in lengh; of a ventricoie form, and fhort ; colour browa,
with longitudinal undulated ftriz of a chefnut colour ; aper-
ture ovate, and fpire obtufe. It is {pecifically deferibed
as being an oval, gibbous, unbilicated fhell, with a fingle
thick and flexuous plait on the pillar-lip. Born. Muf.
This is called in England Silenus’s ear-fhell. Its country
is unknown.

Auris Marina, or fea ear-fhell, a vague term for feve-
ral fhells of the Hatroris genus, but chiefly for the fpe-
cies tuberculata, which is common in the Mediterranean,
and is found, though rarely, on the weftern coaits cf Eng-
land. Donov. Brit. Shells, &c.

AURISCALPIUM, a fpecies of Turso, that inhabits
the Mediterranean fea. This hell is white, and very {mocth;
aperture with an advanced flattifh, concave, obtufe lip.
Gmel. &c. This kind is milky-white and fubulate ; whorls
of the {pire feven or eight; aperture dilated, and refembling
an ear-picker; with a margin.

AvriscALpium, an inftrument wherewith to pick and
cleanfe the ear from wax ; and alfo ferving for fome other
operations relating to that part.

The word is compounded of auris, ear, and fcalpo, L
Scratch, or pick. ;

AURISPA, Joun, in Biography, was born in 1369, at
Noto, in Sicily. He ftudied the Greek language at Con-
ftantinople ; and on his return to Italy, brought with him
more than 100 Greek MSS. chiefly of Pagan writers, which
were more eafily obtained than the writings of Chriftians ;
after a fecond vifit to Conitantinople in the train of the
emperor John Palwologus, he taught the Greek and Latin
languages at Bologna, Florence, and Ferrara. He was
fecretary to pope Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V. and en-
joyed benefices in Sicily. After the death of the latter,
who was his patron, he returned to Ferrara, and continued
to teach and write till the time of his death in 1460. He
tranflated fome of the writings of Archimedes, and the com-
mentaries of Hierocles on the golden yerfes of Pythagoras ;
and publifhed poems andletters.. His verhonof Hierocles was
printed at Bafle in 1543. Nouv. Dict. Hit. Gen. Biog.

AURIST, in Medicine and Surgery, one whofe profef-
fion it isto cure difeafes of the ear.

AURITA, in Conchology, a {pecies of Baranus, that
inhabits the North Seas, and is defcribed by Ellis. This hell
is membranaceous, ventricofe, feated on a tube, and eared;
mouth with eight valves, and dentated. Gmelin, &c.—
Ellis call this lepas nuda comofa aurita,

Avaira, a fpecies of Anomia, with a fhell of a fome-
what ovate form, flriated, and flightly eared; beak per-

AUR

forated. Gualt. Inhabits the Teas about’ Norway, and
bears fome affinity to another fpecies of the fame genus,
called by Linn. and Gmel. caput ferpentinis. ;

A.uriva, a fpecies of Mya, that inhabits New Zealand.
The fhell is ovate, comprefled, and clofed ; hinge with two
lateral teeth. Chemnitz. Colour fordid ochraceous.

Avgira, in Entomology, a {pecies of Pimenia, with
the thorax margined, dilated in front ; each fide on the wing-
cafes bicarinated. Inhabits Siberia, aad is entirely of a
black colour. Pallas, &c. 2

Avira, a fpecies of PHarzna (Noéua) that inhabits
Spain. The wings are fhining-brown, with a cinereous
band in the middle ; two denticles of itiff hairs on the head,
and four others en the thorax. Fabricius, &c. -

AvritaA, a fpecies of Cicapa that inhabits Europe.
The thorax is dilated into the form of two-ears; fhield of
the head ipreading, and rounded. Geoffroy calls this cicada
thorace obtufe bicorni. It feeds on the oak and nut trees,
and is entirely of a cinereous colour. Gmel. &c. s

AvuritA, in Natural Hiffory, a {pecies of Mepusa, hav-
ing four cavities beneath. Linn. Fn. Suec. This kind in-
habits the Baltic and other feas; is of an hemifpherical
form; hyaline; from two to four inches in diameter; and
when floating on the fea in funfhine, refle@s a beautiful
{fplendor. The margins are fringed and yellow. Aldro-
vandus cails this urtica /exta. 7

Avaira, in Zoology, a {pecies of Lacerta that inhabits
the faady parts of Siberia about Naryn, and the defert
of Comani. It is defcribed by Pallas as having a tail
of a moderate fize, round, with callous dots on each
fide, dilated into a femiorbicular, foft, feabrous, dentated
creft. This animal is rather larger than /acerta gecko ; the
colour above is cinereous and yellowifh, clouded, and thickiy
fpeckled with brown; beneath whitifh; {pot on the cheit,
and tip of the tail beneath, black. The head is retuie ;
creft of the animal, when alive, turgid with blood ; body
yentricofe and depreffed, and with the legs and tail rou
with acute prominent dots; toes five, each furnifhed with
a claw, and the three middle-moft ones ferrated, the inner
one having a fingle notch, and the others two notches each.
Gmelin, &c.

AURIT&, called alfo Hyxsos, and SHEPHERDs, in
Ancient Hiftory, the denomination of a large body of adyen-
turers who migrated into Egypt at a very early period.-
Ancient and modern writers have not agreed in their con-
jectures concerning thefe enterprifing and fortunate peo-
ple. Manetho fuppofes the Aurite to have been Arabians;-
but the learned Bryant maintains that they were Arkites,
who had been expelled from Babylon by the fons of Shem,
at the fecond di{perfion. Unwilling to remain at home in-
digent and inactive, or unable to refift the shock of fome
powerful foe, they abandoned a region which they could
no longer poflefs in tranquillity, precipitated themfelves into
Egypt, drove the difunited tribes of Ham from the moft
fertile part of their territories at the upper end of the Delta, -
and fettled there. This invafion happened foon after the
Syrians had become formidable by the conquefts of Ninus ;
for we are told that the Auritz fortified the eaitern bor-
ders of their new fettlements towards Arabia and Chaldea.
About this time, as all the ancient hiftorians affert, the Delta
had acquired the confiftence of a morafs. Drained by the
fhepherds, it foon became a temperate and beautiful, as it’
was naturally a fertile, region. For the {pace of two centu-
ries and a half, this bold and enterprifing race kept poffeffion
of Middle and Lower Egypt. In the courfe of this period
they difcovered, we are told, many ufeful arts and inven-
tions, and from time to time fent out colonies in queft of
new fettlements. ‘T'wo hundred and fixty years after their
arrival in Egypt, the pofterity of the original nations, not
6 finding

“a ie

finding fufficient accommodation in Upper Egypt, to which
they had been hitherto confined, or envying the fuccefs of
their fortunate invaders, commenced hoftilities againft them.
After a long, doubtful, and bloody contett, the Aurite
were obliged to retire. They feparated into feveral bodies,
and migrated into Pheenicia, Syria, Greece, and other
regions, carrying their inventions and improvements along
with them, ‘This memorable revolution happened not long
before the defcent of Jacob. Playfair’s Chronology, p. 64.
See Disrexsion of Manxinp, and SHEPHERDS.

AURITINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in the Pentapolis. Ptolemy.

AURITUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Cancer that
inhabits Iceland ; and is diltinguifhed by having a fingle
fpine on both fides of the anterior part of the thorax ;
back grooved, and foftifh, Fab. Gmel. &c.

Avritus, a fpecies of CryprocerHatus, found on
the oak in Saxony. It is black, with a yellow {pot on
both fides of the thorax, and fhanks of the legs yellow.
Fabricius.—0é/. This is chryfomela aurita of Linnzus.
Syit. Nat.

Avritus, in Natural Hiflory, a {pecies of Ecuinus
that inhabits the Perfian feas. The colour is yellowith-
grey, with the upper margin chefnut ; bafe flat; punctured
and marked with radiated ftreaks; anus oblong and fituated
near the mouth. It 1s {pecifically deferibed by Lefke apud
Klein echinod, as having a waved margin, the lower one ro-
tundate, upper one nearly fquare, and twice divided, and
a gaping pore between every two avenues.—Geoorde ftomp-
hart. Phelf. Zee-eg, &c.

Avritus, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Turpus that in-
habits Cayenne, and is called fourmilier @ oreilles blanches by
Buffon ; and white-eared thrufh by Latham. Above, it
is varied with fufons and olive ; bencath white ; crown and
pectoral band reddifh-brown; chin and throat black ; ftreak
behind the eye defcending on the neck, and contifting of
elongated, white, glofly feathers. Gmelin, &c. Length
four inches and three quarters.

_ Auritus, a fpecies of CorymsBus, with a black head,

and ears crefted with a tuft of ferruginous feathers. Linn.
Fn. Suec.
« The length of this fpecies is twelve inches. In Eng-

Jand, they inhabit the fens near Spalding, where they breed ;
they are found in the northern parts of Europe, and in the
temperate parts of Siberia in Iceland. It is faid by Bou-
gainville to be met with in the Falkland Iflands, where it
is.called the diver with /pedacies.

« The neft, like thole of moft other birds in this genus,
is compofed of twigs, roots, and ftalks of aquatic-plants,
and is ufually found floating among the reeds and flags
nearly filled with water. ‘he female lays four or five {mall
white eggs, which are hatched in the neft while it remains
thus immerfed in water.”? Donov. Brit. Birds, &c. C.
auritus, eared grebe.

_ Gefner calls this fpecies merguli genus alterum ; and Buffon
L- petit grébe huppé. Gmelin fpeaks of a variety of this
{pecies colymbus cornutus minor of Briffon ; and colymbus feu
podiceps minor of Will. Orn. Ray, and Albin. °

Auritus, a fpecies of Trocuitus, of a green-gold
colour above, and white beneath ; below the eyes a band
of black ; and in the male two tufts of feathers of a violet
colour on each fide of the head under the ears ; legs downy.
This is mellifuga Cayenenfis of Briff.; and Pot/eau mouche a
oreilles of Buff. Latham defcribes it under the name of
violet-eared humming-bird. There is a variety of this bird
with a purple ftripe below the eyes; near the ears a black
fpot, and beneath it another of blue. This fpecies in-

AUER

habits Cayenne, and is about four inches anda half in
length.

AURIUM Asscissio,in Antiquity, cutting off the ears,
was a punifhment inflicted by the Saxon law on thofe who
robbed churches; and afterwards on every thief; and at
length on diyers other criminals.

AUROBZMUNSTER, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Bavaria, 16 miles fouth of Paffau.

AUROCAPILLA, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Mora-
CILLA, found in St. Domingo, Jamaica, and other iflands
in the American feas. It is olive, beneath white; crown
golden; eye-brows black; breaft {potted with black. Gmelin.
This is ficedula Pennfilvanica auro capilla of Brill. grivelette
de 8. Domingue of Buff. and golden-crowned thrufh of the
Arétic Zoology.

AUROGALLUS, Martruew, in Biography, a gram-
marian of the 16th century, was a native of Bohemia;
and became profeffor of languages in the univerfity of Wit-
temberg. Befides the afliftance he gave to Luther in
tranflating the Bible, he wrote in Latin a: ‘« Compendium
of Hebrew and Chaldean Grammar,’’ printed at Wittem-
berg, in 1525, and at Batil, in. 15393; anda treatife on the
geography of the Holy Land, intitled “ De Hebrzis Ur-
bium, Regionum, Populorum, &c. Nominibus,” printed at
Wittemberg, in 1526, and at Bail, in 1529. 8vo. He died
in 1543. Gen. Did.

AUROIR, in Geography, a town of France, in the:de--
partment of the Cher, 21 leagues north-weft of Sancoins.

AURON, a river of France which runs into the Eure,
near Bourges.

AURONITENS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Caranus
of the apterous kind. The shells are green and rough, with
raifed lines; thighs rufous. Inhabits Saxony. An inter-
mediate fpecies between carabus auratus, and nitens.

AURONZA, in Geography, a town of Italy, belonging
to the ftate of Venice, in the Cadorin, feven miles north of
Pieve di Cadora.

AURORA, in Afronomy, the morning twilight ; or that
faint light which begins to appear in a morning, when the
fun is within eighteen degrees of the horizon.

Avrora, in Conchology, a very rare fpecies of Cyprma,
difcovered on the coaft of Otaheite by Captain Cook. It is
rather ovate ; margin whitifh ; back fine orange, and with--
out fpots. Among colle&ors of exotic fhells, it is known
by the name of cyprea aurora, or morning-dawn cowry.

Avrora, in Entomology, a {pecies of PHarana, in Ab-
bot’s Infeéts of Georgia. The upper wings are yellow;
bafe and margin fpeckled with red. Smith.

Avrora, the fpecific name under which Papitio Car-
DAMINES 1s defcribed by Linn. in Fn. Suee. i. n. 801.

Avrora, a fpecies of Paritio (Dan. Cand.) found in
Siberia. ‘The wings are fulvous; beneath, an ocellar dot
on the anterior wings, and a filvery dot, with a contiguous
one ftill fmaller in the middle of the pofterior pair. Fabricius,
Gmelin, &c.

Avrora,a {pecies of Lampyris ( Pyrochroa Fab. ), given
by Herbft. as a native of Pomerania. It is black ; thorax
red and cancellated ; wing-cafes chefnut, with four elevated
lines, and the intermediate {paces dotted in rows.

Avrora, in Geography, an ifland belonging te the Archi-
pelago of the New Hebrides, in the South Pacific ocean,
difcovered by Bougainville, in 1768. It is about twenty
leagues long, and two broad, and lies nearly north and fouth.
Its eaftern fhore is fteep, but it has a {mall bay on the north-
weit coaft. It abounds with wood and frefh water; and
is inhabited. The vegetation of this ifland is luxuriant.
The middle of it les in'S. lat. 15° 8’. E. long. 168° 17.

AURORA,

AUR

Avrora, in Mythology, the goddefs of the moraing, was,
according to Hefiod, the daughter of Thea and Hyperion,
and filter of Sal and Luna; Sat according to others, the
daughter of Titan and Terra. Under this title the ancients
deified the light which precedes the rifing of the fun above
our hemifphere.. The poets reprefent her as rifing out of
the ocean in a chariot, drawn by two rofe-coloured horfes,
called by Homer, Lampus and Pheton, with rofy fingers
dropping gentle dew. The large veil on her head was
folded backwards, to denote that the brightnefs of day was
already advanced, fo as to difperfe the darknefs of the night.
Virgil defcribes her as afcending in a flame-coloured chariot
with four horfes.

Avrora, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Psirracus that
inhabits Brafil. It is yellow; arm-pits, margins of the
wings, and outer great quill-feathers in the middle, red.
This is pfttacus luteus of Briff. perroquet jaune of Satern.
Orn. amazonc jaune Buffon, and aurora-parrot of Latham.

The length of this bird is twelve inches; bill, cere, legs

and claws white ; eye-brows and irides red ; tail rounded, »

the four exterior feathers red within from the bafe to the
middle. Gmelin.

Avrora, in Zoology, a {pecies of Coruser with 179
abdominal plates, and thirty-feven fubcaudal f{eales. This
is a native of America, and is of a livid colour, with the
back yellow. Gmelin. Dr. Shaw defcribes it as an orange-
coloured f{nake, with yellow dorfal band and abdomen.
Length abgut two feet and a half, and moderately thick
in proportion; head rather large, and covered with very
large {cales ; tail fhort, and tapering to an obtufe point.

Avrora Borealis, or Avrora Septentrionalis, in Phyfio-
logy, the northern dawn or light, fometimes called freamers,
is an extraordinary meteor, or luminous appearance, fhewing
itfelf in the night-time, in the northern part of the heavens:
and moft ufually in frofty weather.

It isufually of a reddifh colour, inclining to yellow, and
fends out frequent corufcations of pale light, which feem to
rife from the horizon in a pyramidal undulating form, and
fhoot, with great velocity, up to the zenith. This light
fometimes appears remarkably red, as it happened Dec. 5,
1737, of which we have very full accounts from divers parts
of Europe, in the Phil. Tranf. N°459. fect. 7. p. 583—606.

The aurora borealis appears frequently in form of an arch;
chiefly in the fpring and autumn; aftera dry year.—The
arch is partly bright, partly dark; but generally tranfparent.
And the matter of which it confifts is alfo found to have
no effect on the rays of light which pafs through it. Dr.
Hamilton obferves, that he could plainly difcera the fmalleft
{peck in the Pleiades through the denfity of thofe clouds
which formed the aurora borealis in 1763, without the
leaft diminution of its fplendor, or increafe of twinkling.
Phil. Effays, Eff. iii. p. 106.

Sometimes it produces an iris—M. Godin judges, that
moft of the extraordinary meteors and appearances in the
fies, related as prodigies by hiftorians, e. gr. battles, and
the like, may be probably enough reduced to the clafs of
aurore boreales. Vide Hilt. Acad. R. Scienc. an. 1762.

405. ’

This kind of meteor, which is more uncommon as we ap-
proach towards the equator, is almoit conftant during the
long winter, and appears with the greateft luftre in the
polar regions.

In the Shetland ifles, the “merry dancers,”’ as the northern
lights are there called, are the conftant attendants of clear
evenings, and afford great relief amidft the gloom of the long
winter nights. They commonly appear at twilight, near the
horizon, of a dun colour, approaching to yellow; they fome-

7

AUR

times continue in that ftate for feveral hours, without any

perceptible motion; and afterwards they break out into

{treams of ftronger light, {fpreading into columns, and alter-

ing flowly into 10,000 different thapes, and varying their

colours from all the tints of yellow to the moft obfcure rnflet.

They often cover the whole hemifphere, and then exhibit the

moft brilliant appearance. ‘Their motions at this time are
moft amazingly quick ; and they aftonifh the fpe@ator with’
the rapid change of their form. They break out in places
where none were feen before, fkimming brifkly along the.
heavens, are fuddenly extinguifhed, and are fucceeded by an
uniform duiky tract. This again is brilliantly illuminated in

the fame manner, and as fuddenly left a dark fpace. In

fome nights, they affume the appearance of large columns,
on one fide of the deepeft yellow, and on the other, gradually
changing till it becomes undiftinguifhed from the fky. They
have generally a {trong tremulous motion from one end to the’
other, and this continues till the whole vanifhes. As for us,

who fee only the extremities of thefe northern phenomena,

we can have but a faint idea of their fplendor and motions.

According to the ftate of the atmofphere, they differ in

colour; and fometimes afluming the colour of blood, they

make a dreadful appearance. The ruftic fages, who obferve

them, become prophetic, and terrify the fpe€tators with

alarms of war, peitilence, and famine: nor, indeed, were

thefe fuperftitious prefages peculiar to the northern iflands :

appearances of a fimilar nature are of ancient date; and-
they were diftinguifhed by the appellations of ‘* phafmata,’””

“trabes,’? and ‘ bolides,””? according to their forms and
colours. In old times they were either more rare, or lefs

frequently noticed: but when they occurred, they were°
fuppofed to portend is events, and the timid imagination

formed of them aerial conflicts.

In the northern latitudes of Sweden and Lapland, the
aurore boreales are not only fingularly beautiful in their ap-
pearance, but afford travellers by their almoft conftant ef-
fulsence a very beautiful light par ae the whole night. In
Hudi{on’s bay, the aurora borealis diffufes a variegated {plen-
dor, which is faid to equal that of the full moon. In the-
north-eaftern parts of Siberia, according to the defcription
of Gmelin (Reife durch Siberien, vol. ii. p. 135.), cited”
and tranflated by Dr. Blagden (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxiv.-
p- 228.) thefe northern lights are obferved to “ begin with
fingle bright pillars, re in the north, and almoft at the
fame time in the north-eait, which gradually increafing com-
prehend a large fpace of the heavens, ruth about from place’
to place with incredible velocity, and finally almoft cover
the whole fy up to the zenith, and produce an appearance
as if a vaft tent was expanded in the heavens, glittering
with gold, rubies, and fapphire. A more beautiful {peCtacle
cannot be painted; but whoever fhould fee fuch a gorthern
light for the firft time, could not behold it without terror.
For however fine the illuminations may be, it is attended,
as I have learned from the relation of many perfons, with
fuch a hifling, cracking, and rufhing noife through the airy
as if the largeft fire-works were playing off. To deferibe-
what they then hear, they make ule of the expreffion “ {po-*
lochi chodjat,” that is, the raging hoft is paffing. The’
hunters, who purfue the white and blue foxes in the con-
fines of the Icy fea, are often overtaken in their courfe b
thefe northern lights. ‘Their dogs are then fo much fright-
ened, that they will not move, but lie obftinately on the
ground till the noife has paffed. Commonly clear and calm
weather follows this kind of northern lights. I have heard
this account, not from one perfon only, but confirmed by
the uniform teftimony of many who have fpent part of
feveral years in thefe very northern regions, aud inhabited ©

different

~

AURORA BOREALIS.

different countries from the Yenifei to the Lena; fo that no
doubt of its truth canremain. This feems indeed to be the
real birth-place of the aurora borealis.” This account of
the noifes attending the aurora borealis, allowing for fome
degree of exaggeration, has been corroborated by other
tellimonies.. A perfon, who refided feven years at Hudfon’s
Bay, confirms M. Gmelin’s relation of the fine appearance
and brilliant colours of the northern lights, and particularly
of their rufhing noife, which he affirms he has frequently
heard, and compares it to the found produced by whirling
round a ftick {wiftly at the end ofa tiring. A fimilar noife
has alfo been heard in Sweden. Mr. Nairne alfo, being in
Northampton, at a time when the northern lights were re-
markably bright, is confident he perceived a hilling or whiz-
zing found. Mr. Belknap, of Dover, in New-Hamphhire,
North America, teftifies to this fact. American Tranf.
vol. ii. p. 196. M. Cavallo fays that the crackling noife is
diftin€tly audible, and that he has heard it more than once.
Elem. of Nat. and Exper. Philof. vol. iii. p. 4.49. See alfo
Muffchenbroek Introd. Philof. vol. ii. p. 1056. § 2495.
Beccaria dell’ EleCtricifmo Artif. et Nat. p. 221.

Similar lights, called aurore auftrales, have been long
fince obferved towards the fouth pole (fee Phil. Tranf.
N° 461. § 23, 24, and 25. and vol. liv. N° 53.); and their
exiftence has been more lately afcertained by Mr. Forfter,
who affures us, that, in his voyage round the world with
eaptain Cook, he obferved them in high fouthern latitudes,
though attended with phenomena fomewhat different from
thofe which are feen here. On Feb. 17, 1773, in fouth lat.
8°, © a beautiful phenomenon (he fays) was obferved dur-
ing the preceding night, which appeared again this and fe-
veral following nights. It confifted of long columns of a
clear white hight, fhooting up from the horizon to the eaft-
ward, almoft to the zenith, and gradually {preading on the
whole fouthern part of the fky. Thefe columns were
fometimes bent fideways at their upper extremities; and
though in moft refpets fimilar to the northern lights (au-
rora borealis) of our hemifphere, yet differed from them in
being always of a whitifh colour, whereas ours affume va-
rious tints, efpecially thofe of a fiery and purple hue.
The fly was generally clear when they appeared, and the
air fharp and cold, the thermometer ftanding at the freez-
ing point.”

The periods of the appearance of thefe northern lights
are very inconftant. In fome years they occur very fre-
quently, and in others they are more rare; and it has been
obferved that they are more common about the time of the
equinoxes than at other feafons of the year.

Dr. Halley (fee Philof. Tranf. N° 347. p. 406. or Abr.
vol. iv. p. 138.) has collected together feveral obfervatigns,
which form a kind of hiftory of this phenomenon, After
having particularly defcribed the various circumftances which
attended that obferved by himfelf and many others in March
1716, and which was fingularly brilliant, he proceeds with
informing us, that the firft account of fimilar phenomena
recorded in the Englifh annals, is that of the appearance
which was noticed Jan. 33, 1560, and called ‘ burning
fpears’”? by the author of a book intitled A Defcription
of Meteors,”’ by W. F. D. D. reprinted at London, in
1654. The next appearance of a like kind, recorded by
Stow, occurred on October 7, 1564. In 1574, as Camden
and Stow inform us, an aurora borealis was feen for two fuc-
ceflive nights, viz. 14th and 15th of November, with ap-
pearances fimilar to thofe obferved in 1716, and which are
now commonly noticed. The fame phenomenon was twice
feen in Brabant in 1575, viz. on the 13th of February and
the 28th of September ; and the circumftances attending it

‘Vou. III.

were deferibed by Cornelius Gemma, who compares them
to {pears, fortified cities, and armies fighting in the air. In
the year 1550, M. Mattlin obferved thefe phafmata, as he
calls them, at Baknang, iu the county of Wirtemberg, in
Germany, no lefs than feven times in the fpace of twelve
months; and again, at feveral different times, in 158i.
On September 2d, 1621, the fame phenomenon was ijecn
over all France 3 and it was particularly deferibed by Gaf-
fendus, in his * Phyfics,”? who gave it the name of aus
rora borealis.”” Another was feen all over Germany, in
N Since that time,

Voy. 1623, and was defcribed by Kepler.
for more than eighty years, we have no account of any
fuch phenomenon either at home or abroad. In 1707, Mr.
Neve obferved one of {mall continuance in Ireland ; and in
the fame year, a fimilar appearance was feen by Romer at,
Copenhagen ; and during an interval of cigitteen months, in
the years 1707 and 1708, this fort of light had been feen
no lefs than five times. Hence it fhould feem, fays Dr.
Halley, that the air, or earth, or both, are not at all times
difpofed to produce this phenomenon, though it is poffible
it may happen in the day time, in bright moon-{hine, or in
cloudy weather, and fo pafs unobferved. Dr. Halley fur-
ther obferves, that the aurora borealis of 1716, which he
deferibed, was vifible from the weft of Ireland to the con-
fines of Ruffia, and to the eaft of Poland; extending at
leaft near 30° of longitude, and from about the 5oth degree of
north latitude, over almott all the north of Europe; and in all
places at the fame time, it exhibited appearances fimilar to
thofe which he obferved at London. He regrets, however,
that he was unable to determine its height for want of con-
temporary obfervations at different places. Father Bofco-
vich has determined the height of an aurora borealis, ob-
ferved on the 16th of December 1737, by the marquis
of Poleni, to have been 825 miles; and Mr. Bergman,
from a mean of thirty computations, makes the average
height of the aurora borealis to be 72 Swedifh, or (fup-
poling a Swedifh mile to be about 64 Englith miles) 468
Englhifh miles. | Euler fuppofes the height to be feveral
thoufands of miles; and Mairan allo afligns to thefe phe-
nomena a very elevated region, the far greater number of
them being, according to him, about 200 leagues above
the furface of the earth. Dr. Blagden, {peaking of the
height of fome fiery meteors (Phil. 'T'ranf. vol. Ixxiy. p.227.),
fays, that “ the aurora borealis appears to occupy as high,
if not a higher region, above the furface of the earth, as
may be judged from the very diltant countries to which
it has been vifible at the fame time ;’’ he adds, that “ the
great accumulation of electric matter feems toie beyond
the verge of our atmofphere, as eftimated by the ceflation
of twilight.”” However the height of thefe meteors, none
of which appear to have afcended fo high as 100 miles,
is trivial, compared with the elevations above aferibed to
the aurora borealis. But as it is difficult to make fuch
obfervations on this phenomenon as are fufficient to afford
a juft eftimate of its altitude, they muft be fubjeét to con-
fiderable variation and to material error. It is not impro-
bable, that the higheft regions of the aurora borealis are
the fame with thofe in which fire-balls move ; more efpe-
cially as Dr. Blagden informs us, that inftances are re-
corded, in which the northern lights have been feen to
join, and form luminous balls, darting about with great
velocity, and even leaving a train behind like the common
fire-balls. This ingenious author, however, conjeéturing
that diftin® regions are allotted to the electrical phenomena
of our atmofphere, afligns the appearance of fire-balls to
that region which hes beyond the limits of our crepufcular
atmofphere ; and a greater elevation aboye the earth to that
3B accumulatios

AURORA BOREALIS,

accumulation of eleftricity in a lighter and lefs condenfed
form, which produces the wonderfully diverfified ftreams and
corufcations of the aurora borealis,

Many attempts have been made to affign the caufe of this
phenomenon. Dr. Halley firit imagined that the watery
vapours, or effluvia, rarefied exceedingly by fubterraneous
fire, and tinged with fulphurcous ftreams, which many na-
turalifts have fuppofed to be the caufe of earthquakes,
might alfo have been the caufe of thisappearance. But this
bypothetis was not fufficient to account forthe immenfe ex-
tent of thefe phenomena oyer the furfuce of the earth, and
tor their being always feen on the north fide of the horizon,
and never to the fouth. Abandoning this hypothefis, he
conceived that the aurora borealis is produced by a kind of
fubtile matter, or magnetic effluvia, freely pervading the
pores of the earth, and which, entering into it near its
fouthern pole, paffes out again with a like force into the
wether at the fame diftance from the northern ; the obliquity
of its direction being proportioned to its diftance from the
pole. This fubtile matter, by becoming fome way or other
more denfe, cr having its velocity increafed, may be capable
of producing a {mall degree of light, after the manner of
effluvia from eleric bodies, which, by a itrong and quick
friGion, emit light in the dark: to which fort of light this
feems to have a great affinity. If Dr. Halley had known,
that an elerical ftroke would give polarity to a needle de-
ftitute of it, and reyerfe the poles of one previoufly endued
with it, he would have been led of courfe to conclude the
eleGric and magnetic efuvia to be the fame, and that the
aurora borealis was this fluid performing its circulation from
one pole of the earth to another; and he would thus have
anticipated the hypethefis of Sign. Beccaria. See Mr. Cotes’s
defeription of this phenomenon, and method of explaining
it, by ftreams emitted from the heterogeneous and ferment-
ing vapours of the atmofphere, in Smith’s Optics, p. 69,
&e. or Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. vi. part ii. f

The celebrated M. de Mairan, im an exprefs treatife on
the aurora borealis, published in 1731, affigns its caufe to
be the Zopracat Jight, which, according to him, is no
other than the fun’s atmofphere ; this light happening, on
fome occafions, to meet the upper parts of our air, on the
fide of the limits where univerfal gravity begins to act more
forcibly towards the earth than towards the fun, falls into
our atmofphere, to a greater or lefs depth, as its {pecific
gravity is greater or lefs, compared with the air through
which it pafles. Although the whole atmofphere of the
earth be involved in the iclar atmofphere, it 1s thrown off
both ways from the equatorial to the polar regions. This
projection is owing partly to the centrifugal force arifing
frorn the diurnal motion of the earth, which, being greatett
at the equator, and decréafing towards the poles, turns afide
fhe zodiacal matter towards each pole ; fo that by his hypo-
thefis he anticipates the difcovery of aurore auttrales; and
partly to the progreffive motion of the earth in its annual
orbit. In this eafe the light fhould dart from the equator
to the poles, and not, as it really does, from the poles to
the equator. Wide Tract. Phyf. & Hitt. del Aurore Boreal,
Suites des Mem. de l’Acad. R. des Scienc. ann. 1731. p. 3,
feq. ‘There is an abitrac&t of Mr, Maivan’s Phylical and
Hiftorical Treatife of the aurora borealis, ia the Phil. Tranf.
N° 423. or Abridg. vol. vill. p. 450.

M. Euler thinks the eaufe of the aurora borealis not
owing to the zodiacal light, as Mr. de Mairan fuppofes ;
but to particles of our atmofphere, driven beyond its hi-
mits by the impulfe of the light of thefun. On this fup-
pofition he endeavours to account for the phenomenon ob-
ferved concerning this light. He fuppofes the zodiacal light,

2

and the tails of comets, to be owing to a fimilar eaufe,
See Tatn of Comets, and Zop1acaL Light,

Ever fince the identity of lightning and of the elettrie
matter has been afcertained, philofophers haye been natue
rally led co feek the explication of aerial meteors in the prine
ciples of electricity ; and there is now no doubt but moft
of them, and efpecially the aurora borealis, are ele€trical
phenomena. efide the more obvious and known appear-
auces woich couititute a refemblance between this meteor
and_the electric matter whereby lightning is produced, it
has been obferved, that the aurora cccafions a very fenfible
fluctuation in the magnetic needle ; that the atmofphere
yields, at the time of its occurrence, a quantity of eleétric
fire ; and that, when it has extended lower than ufual into
the atmofphere, the flafhes have been attended with various
founds of rumbling and hiffing, already mentioned, and at-
tributed by Dr. Blagden bt fepra) to fmall ftreams of
electric matter running off to the earth from the great
mafies, or accumulations, of clectricity, by whieh he fup-
pofes both meteers and the northern lights to be produced.
Befides, the aurora borealis may be partly imitated by means
of artificial ele€tricity. Dr. Hamilton, of Dublin, (Phil.
Eff, eff. iti.) feems to have been the firft perfoa who at-
tempted to diicover any potitive evidence of the ele€trical
quality of the aurora borealis ; but the only proof he pro-
duces is an experiment of Mr. Hawkifbee, by which the
electrical fluid is fhewo to affume appearances refembling
the aurora borealis, when it pafies through a vacuum. He
obferved, that when the air was mott perfc@ly exhaufted, the
ftreams of cle€tric matter were then quite white ; but whena
{mall quantity of air was let in, the light affumed more of
a purple colour. The flafhing of this light, therefore,
from the denfe regions of the atmofphere into fuch as are
more rare, aud the travfitions through mediums of differ-
ent denfities, he confiders as the a of the aurora bore-
alis, and of the different colours it affumes. Mr. Canton,
foon after he had obtained ele€tricity from the clouds, of-
fered a conjeGture, that the aurora borealis is occafioned by
the flafhing of ele¢irie fire from pofitive towards negative
clouds at a great diftance, through the upper part of the
atmofphere where the refiftance is leaft. And he fuppofes,
that the aurora, which happens at the time when the mag-
netic needle is difturbed by the heat of the earth, is the
electricity of the heated air above it; and this appears
chiefly in the northern regions, as the alteration in the heat
of the air in thofe parts will be the greateft ; nor is this hy-
pothefis, he fays, improbable, when it is confidered, that elec
tricity is the known caufe of thunder and lightning; that it
has been extracted from the air at the time of an aurora bore-
alis (fee ConDENSER); that the inhabitants of the northern
countries obferve it to be remarkably ftrong when a fudden
thaw fucceeds fevere cold weather; and that the tourmalin
is known to emit and abforb the electric fluid only by the
increafe or diminution of its heat. Pofitive and negative
eleétricity in the air, with a proper quantity of moifture to
ferve as a conduétor, will, he conceives, account for this and
other meteors fometimes feen ina ferene fky. Mr. Canton af-
terwards contrived to exhibit this meteor by means of the
Torricellian vacuum, ina glafs tube about three feet long, and
fealed hermetically. When one end of the tube is held in the
hand, and the other applied to the conductor, the whole
tube will be illuminated from end to end; and will continue

luminous without interruption for a confiderable time after

it has been removed from the conductor. If, after this, it
be drawn through the hand either way, the light will be
uncommonly intenfe, and without the leaft interruption,
from one hand to the other, even to its whole length. And

though

eR

AURORA BOREALIS.

though a great part of the eleciricity is difcharged by this
operation, it will flafh at intervals, when held only at one
extremity, and kept quite {till; but if it be grafped by the
other hand at the fame time in a different place, {trong
flathes of light will hardly ever fail to dart from one end to
the other, and thefe will continue twenty-four hours and
longer, without any frefh excitation. An arched double
barometer of a confiderable height is an improvement of
this contrivance, for exhibiting the appearance of an aurora
borealis, by means of the electric fire. ‘To Mr. Canton’s
hypothefis it has been objected, that the ele€trical fire would
flath in every direction, according to the pofition of the
clouds, as well as from nerth tc Ruth ; and that upon his
hypothetis, illudtrated by the tourmalin, the aurora borealis
ought to be motl frequent in fummer, when the air is moft
heated, whereas it is found to be the reveife. Sigmior
Beccaria, who purfued his obfervations on atmofpherical
electricity farther than any of his affociates in thefe inquiries,
conjectures that there is a conftant and regular circulation
of the eleric fluid from north to fouth, which may be the
original courfe of magnetifm in general ; and he thinks,
that the aurora borealis may be this eleétric matter perform-
ing its circulation in fuch a ftate of the atmefphere as ren-
ders it vifible, or approaching nearer the earth than ufual.
Again this f{uppofed circulation it has been alleged that
it exght to dart from the horizon towards the zenith in the
northern hemifphere, and from the zenith towards the hori-
zon in the fouthern one; whereas Mr. Forfter, as we have
already mentioned, informs us, that the columns fhot up
from the horizon towards the zenith as weil in the fouthern
hemifphere as in the northern ; fo that if the aurora borealis
is to be regarded as the flafhings of electric matter, its
courfe is plainly direéted from both poles towards the
equator, and not from one pole to the other. Why the
electricity of the atmofphere fhould be conftantly found to
direét its courfe from the poles towards the equator, and
not from the equator to the poles, fuggefts a difficulty
which an anonymous writer (Encycl. Brit.) has attempted
to folve in the following manner.—A fluming three axioms;
viz. that all electric bodies, when confiderably heated,
become conductors of electricity ; that, ¢ converfo, non-
eleGtrics when fubjected to violent degrees of cold,
ought to become electric ; and that cold muft alfo increafe
the electric powers of fuch fubftanees as are already elec-
tric; it is eafy (fays this writer) to deduce from eel prin-
ciples the caufe of the aurora borealis. ‘ The air, all
round the globe, at a cestain height above its furface, is
found to be exceedingly eold, and as far as experiments
have yet determined, exceedingly eleétrical alfo. The in-
ferior parts of the atmofphere between the tropics, are vio-
fently heated during the day-time by the reflection of the
fun’s raysiromthe earth. Such air will therefore be a kind
of conductor, and much‘ more readily part with its electri-
¢ity to the clouds and yapours floating init, than the colder
air towards the north and fouth poles. Hence the prodi-
gious appearances of electricity in thefe regions, fhewing
aitfelf in thunder and. other tempeils of the molt terrible
kind. Immenfe quantities of the eleCtric Auid are thus com-
municated to the earth; and the inferior warm atmofphere
having once exhautted itfelf, mutt neceffarily be recruited
from the upper and colder rezien. This becomes very proba-
ble from what the French mathematicians obferved when on
the top of one of the Andes. They were often involved in
elouds,which, finking downinto the warmcerair, appeared there
to be highly eleétrified, and dicharged themfebre in violent
tempeits of thunder and lightaing ; while in the mean time,
on the top of the mountain, they enjoyed a calm and ferene

fky. In the temperate and frigid zones, the inferior parts
of the atmofphere, never being fo flrongly heated, do not
part with their eleétricity fo eafily as in the torrid zone,
and confequently do not require fuch recruits from the up<
per regions; but notwithftanding the dificrence of heat ob-
ferved in different parts of the earth near the furface, it ia
very probable that at confiderable heights the degrees of
cold are near’y equal all round it. Were there a like equality
in the heat of the under part, there could never he any con-
fiderable lofs of equilibriym in the electricity cf the atmo-
{phere ; but as the hot air of the torrid zone is perpetually
bringing down yaft quantities of ele€tric matter from the
cold air that lies directly above it ; aid as the inferior parts
of the atmofphere lying towards the north and fouth poles
do not conduét inany great degree 5 it thence follows, that
the upper parts of the atmofphere lying-over the torrid
zone will continually require a fupply from the northern
and fouthern regions. This eafily {hews the neceflity of an
ele&tric current in the upper parts of the atmofphere from
each pole towards the equator: and thus we are alfo fur-
nifhed with a reafon why the aurora borealis appears more
frequently in winter than in fummer; namely, beqaufe at
that time the cleéiri¢ power of the inferior atmofphere is
greater on account of the cold than in femmer; and confe-
quently the abundant ele@tricity of the upper regions muft
go almoft wholly off to the equatorial parts, it being impof-
fible for it to get down to the earth: hence alfo the aurora
borealis appears very frequent and bright in the frigid zones,
the degree of cold in the upper and under regions of the
atmofphere being much more nearly equal in thefe parts
than in any other. In fome parts of Siberia particu-
larly, this meteor appears conftantly from OGober to Chrift-
mas, and its corufcations are faid to be very terrifying,
Travellers agree, that here the aurora borealis appears in
greateft perte€tion ; and it is to be remarked, that Siberia
is the coldeft country on earth. In confirmition of this, it
may alfo be obferved, that, from the experiments hitherto
made with the eleétrical kite, the air appears confiderably
more ele¢trical in winter than in fummer, though the clouds
are known to be often moft violently electrified in the fum-
mer-time ; a proof, that the eleétricity naturally belonging
to the air isin fummer much more powerfully drawn off by
the clouds than in the winter, owing to the excefs of heat
in fummer, as already obferved.

“A confiderable difficulty, however, ftill remains frona
the upright polition which the ftreams of the aurora bore-
alis are generally fuppofed to have; whereas, according to
the hypothefis above-mentioned, they ought rather to run
dire&tly from north to fouth. ‘This difficulty occurred to
Dr, Halley ; but he anfwers it by fuppofing his magnetic ef
fluvia to pafs from one pole fo angther in arches of great
circles, arifing to a vaft height above the carth, ard coute-
quently darting from the places whence they arofe almoit
like the radii of a circle ; in which cafe, being fet off in
direction nearly perpendicular to the furface of the earth,
they muft neceflarily appear ere€t to thofe who fee trem
from any part of the furtace, as is demonitrated by mathe-
maticians. It is alfo reafonable to think that they will take
this direGtion rathey thaa any other, on account of their
meeting with leis refiftance in the very high vegions of the
air than in fuch as are lower.

* But the greateft difficulty fill remains: for we have
fuppofed the equilibrium of the atmofphere to be broken in
the day-time, and reftored only in the night; whereas, can-
fidering the immenfe velocity with which the cleric fluid
moves, the equilibrium ought to be reftored in all parta al-
imoft inflantancoufly ; yet the aurora borealis never appears

3B2 except

AURORA BOREALIS.

except in the night, although its brightnefs is fuch as mult
fometimes make it vifible to us did it really exift in the day-
tume.

“Tn anfwer to this it muft be obferved, that though the
paffage of electricity through a good conduétor is inftanta-
neous, yet through a bad conductor it is obferved to take
fome time in pafling. As our atmofphere therefore, unlefs
very violently heated, is but a bad conductor of eleétricity ;
theugh the equilibrium in it is broken, it can by no means
be infiantaneoufly reftored. -Add to -this, that as it is the
ation of the fun which breaks the equilibrium, fo the
fame aétion, extending over half the globe, prevents almoft
any attempt to reftore it till night, when flafhes arife from
various parts of the atmofphere, gradually extending
themfelves with a variety of undulations towards the
equator.”

Tt has been obferved, that the ftreams of the aurora bo-
realis do not always move with rapidity ; but they fometimes
appear for a coniiderable time quite ftationary, and they are
fometimes carried in different direGtions with a flow motion.
In order to account for thefe circumftances, it fhould be
confidered, that weak eleGiric lights have been fometimes
obferved to exhibit the fame appearance at the furface of the
earth, and we may therefore fuppofe them much more capa-
ble of doing fo at great heights above it, where the con-
dudtors are fewer in number, and much more imperfect.
From inttances that might be adduced, we may reafonably
conclude, that {mall portions of our atmofphere may by
various caufes be fo much eleétrified as to fhine, and like-
wife be moved from one place to another, without parting
with the eletricity they have received for a confiderable

i In this manner we may account for the corona, or

time.
circle, which is often formed near the zenith by the aurora
borealis, when any of its parallel ftreams of light that fhoot
upwards, and by the laws of perfpeétive, appear to con-
verge towards a point, are over our heads, and actually come
toa point. As this corona is commonly ftationary for fome
time, it would ferve as a mark by which to determine the
diftance of the object; e. g. let two perfons, one at Lon-
don, and the other at Edinburgh, obferve an aurora bore-
alis ; then by noting the ftars among which the corona was
obferved at each place, its true altitude from the furface of
the earth may-eatily be determined by trigonometry. Al-
‘though the true height of the aurora borealis has.never yet
been determined, there is no fufficient reafon for fuppofing
that it is higher than a meteor, feventy miles above the fur-
face of the earth, which meteor, both by its {plendor and
figure, feems to prove that the air poffefles a confiderable
degree of denfity at that diftance from the earth. Befides,
if its ftreams refemble the paflace of eletric light through
a vacuum, it cannot be hence inferred, that the air isin a
ftate fimilar to the vacuum of an air-pump in thofe places
where the aurora borealis is produced ;. becaufe we have in-
flances of fimilar appearances that are produced in very
denfe air. ‘* The plate of an eleGrophorus is often fo
highly ele€trified, as to throw out flafhes from different parts
as foon as it is lifted up, and by proper management, it
may be always made to emit long and broad flafhes, which
fhall fearcely be felt by the finger; initead of fmall, denfe,
and pungent fparks; fo that, though long flafhes may be
produced in rarefied air, it by no means follows, that the
fame may not alfo be produced in denfer air. As little can we
infer any thing from the colours, for we obferve the electric
{park fometimes white, fometimes blue, and fometimes pur-
ple, in the very fame ftate of the atmofphere, and from
the fame fubftance.”” Mr. Little, the inventor of an air-pump
of a new conitruction, ftating the boundaries of the atmo-

{phere within which the aurora borealis, confidered as an
eleCirical phenomenon, is vifible, conceives that it cannot
appear in air lefs rarefied than near 4000 times, and confe-
quently that its neareit diftance from the earth is about 45
miles, according to Dr. Halley’s table of the air’s refraction
at different ‘altitudes; and that in air rarefied more than
26,000 times, it would not be le!s vifible, and therefore its
greateft diitance is about fifty miles, by the fame table.
He is alfo of opinion, that it is air burnt and exploded
in its paflage, which makes the electric matter vifible, and
that without air, if it could pafs at all, it would not be hu-
minous. Upon the whole he concludes, that the aurora
borealis is confined within our atmofphere. Irifh Tranf.
vol. vic p. 387.

Dr. Frasklin fuppofes, that the eleGtrical fire difcharged
into the polar regions from many leagues of vaporifed air
railed from the ocean between the tropics; accounts for the
aurora borealis ; and that it appears firft, where it is firft
in motion, i. e. in the moft northern part,. and the appear-
ance proceeds fouthward, though the fire really moves north-
ward. Franklin’s Exper. and Obf. 1769, p. 49.- Phil.
Tranf. vol. xlviii. parti. p. 358, part ii. p. 784. Ib. vol. li.
part i. p. 403. Ib. vol. Ixxiil.p.15. Lettere dell’Ellettri-
cifmo, p. 269. ; or Prieftley’s Hift. of Ele&tricity, vol. 1.

Mr. Kirwan (Irifh. Tranf. 1788, p. 70, &c.) fuppofes,
that the rarefaGtion of the atmofphere in the polar regions
proceeds from the aurore borealis and auftralis, and that
thefe are produced by a combuftion of inflammable air,
caufed by eletricity. This inflammable air is generated,
particularly between the tropics, by many natural opera-
tions, fuch as the putrefa€tion of animal and vegetable fub-
ftances, volcanoes, &c.; and being lighter than any other,
occupies of courfe the higheft regions of the atmofphere.
Canteapeutlys this kind of air is chiefly thrown off towards
the poles, and occafions the nerthern lights, which are the
highett of all meteors, though they fometimes extend pretty
low into the atmofpkere. Mr. Kirwan further adds, that
after the appearance of an aurora borealis, the barometer
commonly falls, and that it is generally followed by high
winds, proceeding ufually from the fouth ; all which facts
flrongly prove a rarefaction in the northern regions. To
the fame purpofe, it is obferved by Mr. Winn (Phil.
Tranf. vol. 73.), that the appearance of an aurora borealis
is a certain fign of an hard gale of wind from the fouth or
fouth-weft. This occurred, without fail, in twenty-three
inftances ; and he thinks that the fplendor of meteors will
enable the cbferver to form fome judgment concerning the
enfuing tempeft. If the aurora is bright, the gale will
come on within twenty-four hours, but will be of no ong
duration ; ifthe light is faint aad dull, the gale will be lefs
violent, and longer in coming on, but will laft longer.
His obfervations were made in the Englifh Channel, where
fuch winds are very dangerous; and by attending to the
aurore, he fays, that he often efcaped, when others were
nearly wrecked. Obfervations of this kind would ferve to
leffen the dangers of navigation.

“That the aurora borealis ought to be fucceeded by
winds, may be eafily deduced from the hypothefis above-~
mentioned. If this phenomecon is occafioned by the yatt
quantity of eleCtric matter conveyed to the equatorial parts
of the earth, it is certain that the earth cannot receive any
great quantity of this matter at one place without emitting
it at anether. ‘The electricity, therefore, which is con-
{tantly received at the equator, muft be emitted nearer the
poles, in order to perform its courie ; otherwife there would
not be aconftaxt fupply of it for the common operations of
nature, It is to be obferved, that electrified bodies are

always

;
t

“Se

a

AUR

always furrounded by a blaft of air, which is fent forth from
them in all direétions ; hence, if the ele¢tric matter find a
more ready pallage through one part of the earth than
another, a wind will be found to blow froin that quarter.
If, therefore, one of thefe places happens to be in the At-
lantic ocean, near the coait of France, or in the bay. of
Bifeay, the elettric matter whtch has been received at the
equator during an aurora borealis, will be difcharged there
fome time efter, and coutequently a -wind will blow from
that quarter, which will be trom the fouth-weft to thote
fhips which are in the Buglith channel. Lt cannot be ima-
gined, however, that all the matter can be difcharged irom
one place ; and therefore, according to the different fitua-
tions of thofe electrical vents, winds may blow in different
directions ; and thus the fame aurora borealis may produce
a fouth-welt wind in the English channel, and a north-weit
one in Scotland.”

Avrora Surgens, a phrafe ufed by Aichemifis, to exprefs
the multiplicative virtue of the philofopher’s tlone.

AUROREA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Moracitia,
called by Latham the Daurian warbler. This bird is
fulvous beneath ; crown and upper part of the neck hoary ;
front whitifh; throat black ; back and wings black, with
a white triangular fpot on the latter; tail-feathers fulvous,
‘two middle feathers black. Pallas. ‘Chis bird is the fize of
the red-{tart, and inhabits Siberia to the confines of China;
moft common in the yicinity of the river Selinga, among wil-
lows.

AUROS, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
‘ment of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton in the
diftriGt of Bazas, five miles north-eaft of Bazas. The place
contains 493, and the canton 7,:22 inhabitants: the terri-
tory includes 160 kiliometres and 13 communes.

AUROTA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papirio (Dan.
Cand.) that inhabits the coaft of Coromandel. ‘The wings
are entire and white; margin black, {potted with white ;

ofterior ones yellow beneath. Cramer. ;

AUROTUS, a fpecies of Puatzsn, of the larger kind
of Bombyces, with falcated wings ; above and beneath of the
fame yellowifh colour; witha white band, and tran{parent
lunar {pot in the difk of each. This kind inhabits America,
and was defcribed by Fabricius from a fpecimen in the Mu-
feum of the late Dr. Hunter.

AUROUKX, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-

. partment of the Lozerre, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Langogie, feventeen miles north of Mende.

AURULENTA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Burres-
ris, of a fomewhat oblong or rather narrow form, that in-
habits Carolina. ‘The wing-cafes are fafligiate, bidentated
at the end; and green with a golden margin ; body golden ;
thorax flightly dotted. Fabricius.

AvuRuLENTA, a fpecies of Crcapa (Ranatra Sec.), of
the fize and fhape of cimex obtufa. The head and thorax
are rufous ; wing-cafes brown, cinereousat the tip. A native
of Cayenne. Fabricius.

AvRULENTA, afpecies of Sprex, the head and thorax of
which are covered with golden coloured down ; the abdomen
black, with the margin of the fegments afh-colour, and the
legs rufous. This infect is of the middle fize, and inhabits
China. Fabricius.—O/. Both Fabricius and Gmelin have
evide:.tly deferibed this infect twice, once under the fpecific
name aurulenta, aud afterwards under that of aurata; or at

Jeaft the only difference in the defcription is, that the legs
are not mentioned in the f{pecific charaGer of the latter, but
we are told in the general defeription, that they are of a fer-

aan colour, which approaches pretty nearly to that of

ru . . . ~
-rufous ; and as both kinds are faid to be natives of Afia, the

AU LR

one of China, and the other of India, we have no doubt that
Fabricius has inadvertently defcribed the fame infe& in both
inftances ; and that Gmelin, without inquiry, has implicitly
relied on his authority. See Aurutenta, Fabr. Mant. Inf.
I. p. 274. ne 10. and Fabr. Mant. Inf. 1. p. 276.0. 45.

AURUM, in Natural Hiflory, denotes cold. See Gorn.
The word is chiefly ufed among us as applied to certain
chemical preparations, whereof gold is the bafis, or princi-
pal ingredient.—Such. are the aurui potalile, aurum ful-
minars, &C.

Avrum Fulminans, in Chemifiry. See Gop, Salts of.

Avurum Mofuicum, muficumy, or mufivum. See Tin.

Auxum Potabile, potable gold, a liquid preparation of
this metal formerly much ufed in medicine, but now entirely
obfolete.

The difcovery of an univerfal medicine was a favourite
{peculation of the ancient alchemifts, and they eagerly
indulged the hope of finding it in the precious metal which
alone was the objeét of all their attention. Hence we meet
with a number of vaunted preparations of gold, moft of them
kept fecret, but fome revealed by the inventors, all of which
had a certain reputation for atime, but are now funk into de-
ferved negleé.

Two methods were praétifed for the preparation of this
metal as a medicine; the one was to grind gold leaves to a
moft impalpable powder, by a trituration of feveral days or
even weeks ; the other was to diflolve the metal in its proper
menitruum, the nitro-muriatic acid, and to mix it with ether
or any effential oil, which, by operating a reduétion of the
metal in a very divided ftate, has the power of feparating it
from its acid folvent. As this fact is important in the che-
mical hiftory of this metal, we fhall mention it more particu-
lary under the article Gop.

The potable gold of Helvetius, retained till within thefe
few years in the Paris pharmacopeia, is thus prepared.
“ Diffolve half a dram of pure gold in two ounces of aqua
regia, employing a gentle heat ;. to the folution add one
ounce of oil of rofemary, fhake the mixture, and immediately
the gold will quit the acid, and unite with the effential ol,

iving it a beautiful yellow colour; this is to be decanted
from off the acid which remains at the bottom, and mixed
with fifteen ounces of reétified {pirit of wine, which forms
the potable gold.”

The dofe is from fix to twenty drops.

The powers of this medicine are fuppofed to be in a high
degree cordial, ftimulating, and tonic.

In fuch a preparation as this, when the quantity of gold
in each dofe is fo extremely minute (though fill fuficient to
give it fomewhat of a yellow colour), it requires little dif-
cernment to fee that all the medicinal powers, whatever they
may be, depend altogether on the ethereal oil and the ardent
fpirit with which the gold is united ; and accordingly it is
now entirely rejected in every pharmacopeeia.

A fairer trial, however, has been made of the virtues of
gold in medicine. We read that fome of the crafty alche-
mical empirics had the addrefs to perfuade feveral of theix

“noble patrons that the royal metal was peculiarly well

calculated to cure the difeafes of perfons of exalted rank ;
and under this circumftance this precious metal has been
f{wallowed in larger dofes. Thefe, however, are not the
follies of the prefent day, public credulity being diverted
into other channels.

From all that we know concerning the properties of gold,
it appears, that its inertnefs when taken into the human
body, depends on the eafe with which it is reduced to the
reguline ftate, and when in this ftate, its abfolute infolubi-
lity in any of the animal juices. As the nitro-muriate 4

go

AUS
4@0ld poffelfes the power, in a very high degree, of flaining

-almoit every animal matter, it is probable that it would aét
as a topical ftimulant with equal energy as the lunar cauttic,
or nitrate of filver, but it does not appear that gold would
in any cafe be preferable to the other metals. It is now,
therefore, entirely reje€ted from the Materia Medica.

AvrumM, Protlawaticum, Panadoxum, and Grophicum, in
Mineralogy. See Gorn, Ores of; and Titanium, Ores of.

Avurum, Regine, in Antiquity. See Queen Geld.

AvrumM Coronarium. See Coronary Gold.

Avrum Sophifticum, mimic gold, in Chemifiry, a prepara-
ction made as follows: take fine diftilled verdigris, eight
ounces; crude Alexandrian tutty, four ounces; borax,
twelve ounces ; falt-petre, one ounce anda half; pulverize
and mix them all together, tempering them with oil to the
confiltence of a platter; then put a German crucible into a
wind-furnace, heat it red-hot, and putting your mafs into it,
Jet it be covered, and the furnace filled with coals over the
crucible. When the mafs is melted, let it cool of itfelf,
then break the crucible, and you will find at the bottom a
fine regulus, like gold, weighing about four ounces, which
being malleable, may be wrought into any form.

Avurum Fegetatile, a name given to faffron.

AURUNCL, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in
Latium. They have been often confounded with the Av-
fones ; though Pliny diftinguithes them. They appeared
in a war againit the Romans, in the year of Rome 258;
but were eatirely defeated in 408.

AURUNGABAD, Avurincasap, or AURENGABAD,
in Geography, a modern city of India, owing its rife from a
{mall town to the capital of the province of Dowlatabad, in
the Deccan, to Aureng-Zebe ; from whom alfo it had its
name. When the Deccan became a province of the Mogul
empire, this city became the provincial capital, and continued
to retain its rank after the Nizams became independent of
Delhi ; and until the encroachments of the Poonah Mah-
rattas, of late years, made it an uncomfortable refidence to
the Nizam. It is fituated on a plain, almoft furrounded
with mountains ; it is large and populous ; and was encom-
paffed, by Aureng-Zebe, with walls and baftions. His
palace, in which he refided, was alfo furrounded by walls
and gates of estrance. The country about is fertile, and
produces millet, wheat, and other provifions, but not fuffi-
cient for the immenfe number of its inhabitants, as it is one
of the largeit and moft populous cities of India. N. lat. 19?

5’. E. long. 76° 2! 30".

AURUNGZEBED. See Avrenczesep.

AURUSPI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
in Ethiopia, whofe capital, according to Pliny, was not far
from the Nile.

AURUSULIANA, an epifcopal city of Africa, in
Numidia.

AUSA, in the middle ages called Aufona, a town of
Hifpania Citerior or Tarraconenfis, fouth-weft of the Indi-
eetes, between Gerunda and Mandrefa. The inhabitants
were calied Aufetani and Authetani. It is now Vic or

Vich de Ofona, in Catalonia. N. lat. 41° so’. E. long. 2°.

AUSANA,a village of Belgic Gaul, where the twelfth

legion had its winter quarters.—Alfo, an epifcopal fee of

Africa, in the proconfular province.

AUSANCALT, a town of Italy, in Liburnia.
lemy.

AUSARA, atown of Arabia Felix, in the comitry of
the Sacalites, near the fea. —Alfo, a town in the interior
part of Arabia Felix. Ptolemy.

AUSCHE, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
eircle of Leitmeritz, eight-miles E.N.E. of Leitmeritz,

Pto-

AUS

AUSCHIS&, in Ancient Geography,
in Libya, to the weft of Atbyite,
mons. Herodotus.

AUSCHI, a people of Europe, in that part of Gaul
called Aguitania. Their capital was Climberris, which
afterwards aflumed the name of the people. They occu-

ied the country correfponding to the territory of Auch,
weil of the Tolofates. See Aucu.

AUSCULTARE, in Ancient Cuffems.—Becaufe the
reading of prayers with a graceful tone or accent, makes
fome impreflion on the hearers; there was anciently a per=
fon appointed, in monafteries, to hear the monks read and
fing, who inftruéted them how to perform, before they
were admitted to read or chant publicly in the church, or
before the people.—This was called aufcultare, q. d. to bear,
or liffen.

AUSER, or Ausar, in Ancient Geography, now Serchio,
a {mall river of Italy, in Etruria, which difcharges itfelf into
the fea, about fix miles north of the mouth of the Arnus.

AUSI, a people of Africa, on the fea-coaft of Libya,
encompafling the lake of Tritonis, and feparated by the
river Triton from the Machlyes. Heredotus relates, that
thefe favage people celebrated a feaft in honour of Minerva,
at which the young women feparated into two companies,
and fought againft one another with clubs and ftcnes; thofe
who fell in the combat, or died of their wounds, were deem-
ed not to have been virgins. They paid no refpe@ to mar-
riage, but poffefled their women in common. ‘Their child-
ren were nurfed by their mothers till they were able to
walk ; and they were then introduced to an affembly of the
men, who met every three months, and the man to whom
any child firft fpoke, was acknowledged as its father.

AUSIGDA, a town of Africa, in the Pentapolis, wa-
tered by the river Cimnydhius. An ifland of the fame name
is mentioned by Stephanus.

AUSILINDUM, a place of Africa, in the province of |
Tripoli, on the road from T'acape to the greater Leptis. _

AUSIMUM, or Auximoem, an ancient Roman colony,
inthe Picenum ; now O/mo, or Osmo. ae HD

AUSINZA, a town of Atia, in Perfia Propria. Pte-
lemy. :

'AUSITZ. See Esitx. ;

AUSONA, a town of the Aufones, reckoned among
the moft ancient people of Italy, who occupied that part of
Italy, which extends from the promontory of Circeum to
the ftraits of Sicily ; but they were afterwards reduced te
a more limited territory b2tween the montes Circei and
Maflici. They were extirpated before the time of Pliny.
Virgil reprefents them as a colony of Trojans. :

AUSONIA, a name firft reftriGed to the terri
of the Aufones, and afterwards applied to the whole of
Italy. ;

AUSONIUM Mare, denotes that part of the Medi-
terranean now called the fea of Sicily. It was formerly a
part of the fea called Ionian, extending feuthwards from the
promontory of Japygium to Sicily, which it wafhes on the
eait, as it does the Brutii and Magna Grecia on the fouth
and eait. It is feparated from the Tufcan fea by the ftrait
of Meffina. :

AUSONIUS, Decivs, or Decimus Macnvs, in Bio-
graphy, a Roman poet of the fourth century, was a native
of Bourdeaux, where his father Julins Aufonius was anemic
pent phyfician. Having enjoyed the advantages of an ex-
eellent education, under his grandfather Arborius at Tou-
loufe, and alfo under other eminent profeffors of grammar
and rhetoric, he became himfelf profeffor in cheleieberie.
ments of literature in his native city. Such was his Treputa-

wor,

a people of Africa,
and eait of the Nafa-

~
.

|

he

|

j

AUS

tion, that he was called to court by the emperor Valentinian,
and appointed preceptor to his fon Gratian. By the latter
he was advanced to the office ef pratorian prefect of Gaul
and Italy about the year 376, -and to the confulfhip in 379.
He was much eftvemed by the emperor Theodofius, and as
fome fay, created by him a patrician, ‘The time of his
death is not accurately afcertained ; but he appears to have
been alive in 392, and probably lived to an advanced age.
Amongtt the learned it has been a fubject of difpute, whe-
ther Aufonius was a Chriftian or a Pavan. If he was not
a Chriftian, the poems on Chrittian topics afcribed to him
mutt have been fuppofititious ; and the lafcivioufnefs of feve-
ral of his pieces fuggefts a pre{umption, that he had not
embraced Chriitianity.

His poems manifeft learning and ingenuity ; but they
cannot bear the teit of comparifon with the productions of
the Auguilan age, as they are generally infipid, harfh, and
inelegant, and bear obvious marks of the declining genius
and tafte of the period in which they were written. The
«© Cento Nuptialis’”? is altogether formed cf lines and hemi-
ftichs from Virgil, and the latter part of it is highly cenfura-
ble for its ob{cenity. The epigramsare generally flat and infi-
pid. The bet editions of Aufonius are the “ Variorum’? of
1671, and the * Delphin” of 1730. Gen. Diét. Fabr. Bib.
Lat. t. i. p..87, &c. ;

AUSPEX, in Roman Antiquity, a name originally given
to thofe who were afterwards denominated augurs. In
which fenfe the word is fuppofed to be formed from avis,
bird, and infpicere, to infpe 3 aufpices, q. d. avifpices, OF

~ infpeCtors of birds.

at firft the aufpices were properly thofe who prefaged
future events by infpection of the flight of birds; as the
arulpices prediéted them by the infpection of victims, and
augurs by the finging of the fame birds. “ But Pluterch
informs us (Quit. Rom. 72.), that in procefs of time
thefe diitinétions were difregarded ; and that the name of
Padea was given to thofe who had been originally celled
aufpices.

AUSPICIUM, Auspricy, the fame with Aucury.

_ Servius, indeed, diftinguifhes between au/picy and augury;
making an/picy comprehend the confideration merely of
birds, and of their flight; auvgury, of the notes of birds, and of
all fenfible objects ; he adds, that the former was allowed a
man any where abroad, whereas the latter might only be
performed in his native place. And it is certain, that con-
fuls, generals, and others, who took omens out of Rome,
were properly faid au/picari: neverthelefs, cuitom appears
to have over-ruled this diftin¢tion.

The aufpices were confulted on a variety of occafions,
fo that nothing was done reipecting the public, either at
home or abroad, in peace or war, without this ceremony ;
and at firft in important affairs of a private nature they
were fcrupuloufly regarded. ‘The aufpices were referred to
before any batile; they affifted at marriages (Juvenal,x. 336.1;
and they were confulted on the choice of plebeian aid pa-
trician magiltrates ; and on the firft day of every year, in
order to determine whether the progres of it would behappy
or otherwife. ‘T’o this purpofe Ovid, in his Fafti (1. 167.),
fays:

oF Tempora commifi nafcentia rebus agendis ;
Totus ab aufpicio ne foret annus iners.
«* Quifque fuas artes ob idem delibat agendo,
Nec plus quam folitum teftificatur opus.”
And in cafe of wai he cbferves Trift. ii. 173.) ;
“« Per quem bella geris, cujus nunc corpore pugnas $
Aufpicium cui das grande, deofqne tuos.”’

AUSPITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the

AUS

circle of Brunn, forty-two miles $.S.W. of Olmutz, and
114. 5.E, of Prague,

AUSS5EE, New, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Stiria, forty-eight miles W.N.W. of Judenburg.

AUSSIG, or Aust:, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Leitmeritz, on the Elbe; 10 miles N.W. of Leitmeri:z.

AUST, a very {mall village of England, in the county
of Gloucefter, on the fide of the Severn; whence is a paf-
faxe-boat or ferry to the oppofite fhore in Glouceterfhire,
and thence acrofs the Wye to Chepftow; 12 miles north of
Briftol, and 6 fouth of Chepftow.

AUSTER, in Mytholozy, was like each of the other
winds, one of the fons of Aitraa and Aurora: and it deno-
ted the fouth wind. See Winp,

AUSTERE, ism general applied to a rough aftringent
tafte, united with that of fournels. It is really ynonymous
with acerd. d

AUSTERITY, among Moral Writers, fometimes de-
notes rigour in the inflicting of punifhments. We fay alfo,
aufterity of manners ; the ‘auterities of the monattic life.
The aufterity of the Roman cenfors kept the people in their
duty. The greateit autterity of the Carthufians is perpe-
tual folitude.

AUSTERLITZ, or Stawxkow,in Geography, atown of
Moravia, in the circle of Brunn, which was almott deftroyed
by the Swedes, in the feventeenth century : twelve miles
E.S.E. of Brann, and 112 E.S.E. of Prague.

AUSTIL, or Str. Ausret, is a market and ftannary
town of Cornwall, in England. It is built on the eattern:
fide of a hill, and has greatly increafed during the Taft cen-
tury in the number of its houfes and inhabitants. This
augmentation may be attributed to the profperous tin mines
that are in the immediate vicinity, to the privilege of having
one of the ftannary courts held here, and in confequence of
having a turnpike road carried through the town from
Plymouth to the Jand’send. The church is a large ancient
pile of building dedicated to St. Auftin; and the town is
ornamented with feveral ftatutes in canopied niches. The
feats of the church, and the external walls, are carved’
with various devices emblematical of the cruc'fixien,
The original charter for holding a weekly market was
granted by queen Elizabeth, who direéted that the tolls
fhould be applied to the relief and maintenance of the poor.
The-principal part of the mhabitants are employed in the
mining concerns, in the pilchard fifhery, and: in a {mall
Panitseeore of coarfe woollens. At the weft end cf the
town are three blowing-houfes, where the tin 1s feparated
from the ore by means of fire. This procets was formerly
eff.ted by fmelting-furnaces, but the prefent method feems
to be more economical, and far preferable. The old fimelt-
ing-houfes (fome of which are ftill ufed in cominon), are:
fupplied with coals, and are reverberatory ; but in the-
blowing-houfes, the fire is made with charcoal, aid icnited
by air impelled through cylindrical tubes. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. ii. p.422, &c. See Browine=-
Hovusr, Mines, SrTannary.

AUSTIN, Sr. See AucusrTin.

Austin Friers. See Aucustines, and Hermits.

AUSTRAL, derived from aufler, fouth wind, the fame
with fouthern.

Thus aural figns are the fix laft figns of the zodiac ;. fo
called, becaufe they are on the fouth, fide of the eguinoctial,

Austrat Larth, in Mineralogy. See Terra Syancia
Aupralis.

AUSTRALASIA, in Geography, a name given, about
half a century ago, by the learsed prefident De Broffes
(Hiftoire des Navigations aux. Texres Auftrales, Paris, 1756,

2 vals,

AUS

2 vols. 4to.», to thofe countries that lie to the fouth of Afia,
namely, New Holland, New Guinea, New Zealand, &c. ;
whilft he diftinguifhed the numerous ifles in the Pacific by
the appellation Porynesra. ‘Thefe regions conttitute, by
difecveries already made, about a fifth part of the world,
and include, under the name of * Auftral Lands,” ‘* Sou-
thern Indies,’? and other denominations, New Holland,
New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, New Caledonia,
New Zealand, the Friendlyifles, Society iflands, the Marque-
fas, and eyen the Saadwich iflands in the north. Butas
thefe regions are of wide extent and diftinét nature, con-
fifting of almoi{t a new continent in the fouth of Afia, and
feattered groups of ifles in the Pacific, many of which are
nearer to South America than to Afia, whilft moft of them
are not above twenty degrees to the fouth of the equator,
the denomination of “ Auftrat Lands,’’ has: been thought
to be very objectionable, and that of the “Southern Indies,”
ridiculous. Since, therefore, they cannot well be blended
under one common appellation, De Broffes adopted the
above-mentioned diftribution. Some recent German geo-
graphers have confidered Auftralafin and Polynefia as fynony-
mous terms, in contradiction to the firft inventor of thefe
appellations. This fifth part of the world, as the Germans
call it, would not even then exceed the wide extent of
Afia or America, but it has been thought preferable, for
feveral reafons, to confider Auftralafia and Polynetfia, as
two great and diftin& maritime divilions of the globe. The
name of Auttralatia is the more proper, becaufe it not only
implies a continent, but the reminifcence that this region
fupplies the place of the ideal Terra Auttralis, after which
geographers and navigators have fo long inquired in vain.
Mr. Dalrymple (Introd. to Collect. of Voyages), whofe
judgment in thefe matters cannot be difputed, approves of
the two divifions affigned by De Broffes. But if thefe fhould
be rejected as divifions of the globe, they muit of courfe be
arranged among the ‘ A fiatic iflands ;”” and in this cafe the
zeadlayiat may be ftill retained. The length of Auttralafia
may be computed from 95° of E. longitude to 185°, that
is go° in lat. 30°, or nearly 5000 geographical miles-; while
the breadth, N. lat. 3° to S. lat. 50°, will be 3180 geogra-
phical miles. ‘The weftern boundary of Auttralatia may
be taken in the meridian from the fouth of Sumatra, or
extended to 100°, or even go*, eaft from Greenwich; but
as few or no ifles of confequence have yet been difcovered in
that dire€tion, the ftriét demarcation may be difcovered by
future circumitances. A like obfervation may be applied
to the fouthern boundary of Auftralafia, which, as including
New Zealand, and fome ifles not far diftant, muft be extended
to the fouthern latitude of 50°, or even of 60°, where the
iflands of ice begin to appear. The moft difficult boun-
daries are thofe on the north and eaft. A wide and vacant
channel feems to divide the north-weft part of Notafia, or
New Holland, from the ifles of Sunda, or Sumatran chain?
From the north cape of Van Diemen, E. long. 131° from
Greenwich, a line afcends to the north between the Indian
and Pacific oceans, leaving in the former the ifles of Banda,
Ceram, Myfol, and Gilolo ; while in the Pacific, and belon:-
ing to Auttralafia, are Timorlaut, Waijoo, and other ifles
immediately connected with Papua. ‘his line being ex-
tended in the fame direction about two degrees to the north
of the equator, turns ealt into a wide channel of feparation
between the Carolines, &c..and New Ireland, and otherifles
belonging to Auttralafia,. Bending fouth-eaft, fir Jofeph
3anks’s ifles and the New Hebrides are left in Auttralafia;
while a confiderable interval leaves the Fejee iflands in
Polynefia. Thence a wide and open fea gives the line of
demarcation an ample {weep, about fix or feven degrees, to

i

AUS.

the eatt of New Zealand, when bending S.W. it} oins the.
fouthern boundary.” Bi

“« From thefe indications it will be perceived, that Auftra-
lafia contains the following countries: 1. The central and
chief land of Notafia, or New Holland, with any ifles which.
may be difcovered in the adjacent Indian ocean, twenty
degrees to the W., and between twenty and thirty de-’
grees to the E., including particularly all the large iflands’
that follow. 2. Papua, or New Guinea. 3. New Britain,
and New Ireland, with the Solomon ifles. 4. New Caledonia,
and the New Hebrides. 5. New Zealand. 6. The large
ifland called Van Diemen’s land, recently difcovered to be
feparated from New Holland by a ftrait, or rather channel,
called Bafs’s ftrait.’? See the feveral articles. Pinkerton’s
Mod. Geog. vol. ii. p. 431—464, &c.

AUSTRALASIA, in Entomology, a fpecies of BLaTTA,
very frequently found in fhips that have vifited the iflands in:
the South feas. It is ofa ferruginous colour, with a white
ring on the thorax ; and a little white line at the bafe of the
wing-cafes. Fabricius, &c.

AvuSTRALASI#, one of the New Holland fpecies of
PuHavena, deferibed by Fabricius in his Spec. Inf. The
wings reddifh-orange ; bale of the lower ones beneath fer-
ruginous. Mut. fir J. Banks.

AUSTRALASIZ, a fpecies of Scorpio, defcribed by:
Forfler as a native of the iflandsin the Southern ocean. It
is diftinguithed by having combs with fix teeth, and the
hands, or hand-claws, being fmooth. The body is rather
depreffed ; brown above, paler beneath ; extreme joint of
the tail and legs pale.

AUSTRALASIAN Snake, in Zoology, a trivial name
afigned by Dr. Shaw to a fpecies of Cotuser that is
figured inWhite’s Journal ofa Voyage to New South Wales ;
and which he deferibes as a blackifh-brown f{nake, fpeckled
with yellow, with very narrow fcuta, and abdomen clouded
with brown and yellow. This is a large fnake, meafuring
nine or ten feet, and is rather flender in proportion to its
length. The number of abdominal feuta, and fubcaudal
{cales, from the imperfect manner in which the dried fkins
of this kind have been obferved, has not yet been afcertained.

AUSTRALE, in Conchology, a fpecies of Buccinumy
found in rivers in New Zealand. The fhell-is oblong,
fmooth, thin, fafciated; aperture ovate and entire. Od/.
This appears to be an intermediate fpecies betweeu the Buc=
cinum, Bulla, and Helix genera. Cmelin.

AUSTRALIS Corona, in Afronomy.
Auftralis.

Avstrais Pifcis, is a conttellation of the fouthern he-
mifphere, being one of the forty-eight conftellations men-
tioned by the ancients, not vifible in our latitude. The ftars
in Ptolemy’s catalogue are ‘18 ; and in the Bntannic cata-
logue 24. The ftar Fomahaut, of the firft magnitude, is
in the mouth of this fifh. -

Avstrauis, in Conchalogy, a fpecies of Harioris, ra-
ther exceeding three inches in length, and two inches in
breadth. This fhell is varied with grey, blueifh, and red ;
form ovate, convex, and cancellated ; {pire prominent and
inflated. Found adhering to the rocks upon the coaft of
New Zealand. Within, this kind is very pearly, and finely
giloffed with red and yellow.

Avstratis, a fpecies of Murex that is found in the
South feas. The fhell is ovate, with longitudinal ftrie ;
lip undulated ; whorls of the {pire guttered ; firft whorl
turgid with four plaits ; fecond with three plaits. Gmel.
Spengl. ‘This fhell bears affinity to Murex ftramineus ; is
about an inch and a half in length ; of a ftraw colour, with
a yellow pillar ; and lip pure white, >

See Corona

AUSTRALIS,

a OS

Avstratrs, a fpecies of Venus, of aheart-fhape, white,
and glofly, with brownifh chara¢ters, and entire margin.
Chemn. Conch. A native of the South Seas.

Avustratis, in Entomology, afpecies of Cancer (Sey/-
larus, Fabr.), defcribed by Fabricius from a fpecimen in the
collection of fir Jofeph Banks, that was brought from the
South Seas. The plates of the antenne are {mooth and
rounded. ‘This kind bears fome refemblance to Cancer
Ardus ; but it is of a narrower fhape; the plates of two
joints; thorax unequal, with crenated margin; legs ten;
claws fimple. :

Avusrratis, afpecies of Scorpio that inhabits Africa,
and, according to Degeer and Fabricius, has thirty-two teeth
in the combs, and the hand-claws {mooth.

Austratis, a fpeciesof Musca (Stratiomy,) that in-
habits South America. It is large and glabrous, with black
eyes, and is f{pecifically defcribed as being teltaceous, with a
bidentated fcutel; and the firft ferment of the abdomen
brownifh. Fabricius.

Austratis, a fpeciesof Formica found in New Hol-
and. Itis black, with the thorax unarmed ; and petiole
fcale armed with two {pines. Fabricius.

AvstTrAtis, a {pecies of SpHex that inhabits New Hol-
Jand. The colour is blackifh blue ; thorax lobed, fulvous
in front. Fabr. Gmel, &c.

Avstratis, a {pecies of Myrmeveon that inhabits the
fouth of Europe. The wings are white, with a black {pot
onthe margin; and the body variegated. Fabricius.

Avstratis, a fpecies of LyGzus (Fabr.) that inhabits
Otaheite. It is black; thorax flightly fpinous, with a red
anterior band; fhanks of the pofterior legs membrana-
ceous.

Avusrrattis, a fpeciesof €imex, with the upper-wing
rufous, marked with a waved black ftreak; under-wings
black, with a white dot in the middle. Inhabits New Hol-
land ; and is called by Fabricius /ygeus 2-gutiatus.

Avstratis, a f{peciesor Gryttus that inhabits Am-
fterdam ifland. It is greenifh; thorax rotundate; wings
and wing-cafes equal ; lees anteriorly very {pinous ; is larger,
but bears fome affinity to the Brafilian fpecies /pinipes.

Avstratis, a {peciesof Lampyris that inhabits New
Holland. It is of a yellowish colour, with the head and
wing-cafes brown. Fabricius.

Austratis, a fpecies of CeramByx. (Callidium Fabr.)
On the thorax two white lines; on the wing-cafes four ;
the two middle ones united and abbreviated. Inhabits
New Zealand. Fabricius.

AvsTrauis, a {pecies of CryptocerHatus (Crioceris)
that inhabits New Holland. The colour is rufous; thorax
cylindrical ; and two ftripes of white on the wing-cafes.
Fabricius.

Austratis, a fpecies of Cyrinus, found in the frefh
waters in New Holland. It is flightly ftraited ; greenifh ;
wing-cafes fhort; and furnifhed with a fingle tooth. Fa-
bricius.

Austratis, in Ornithology, a {pecies of ‘Trinca that
inhabits Cayenne, and is about eleven inches in length. It
is grey above, {potted with brown ; beneath reddifh ; belly
and rump whitith ; tail and wings duflcy ; bill and legs black.
Gmelin, &e. The crownis ftraited with brown.

AusTRAtIs, a {pecies of Srerna or Tern, that inhabits
Nativity ifland, in the South Seas. It is grey ; bill and legs
black ; front fordid yellow; quill feathers white; conne¢t-
ing membrane of the feet tawny ; length from feven inches
and a.half to nine inches; and called by Latham the fouth-
ern Tern. :

Vor. Ill. -

AUS

Austrattis, afpeciesof Corvus, about eleven inches
in length, that inhabits Cayenne. It is black above, beneath
cinereous ; bill red; wing-coverts {potted with white ; tail
rounded. Gmelin. This is the Cayenne red-billed crow of
Latham. 0O4/ Gmelin has another bird under the fame
name, corvus auflralis, which he defcribes as being entirely
black ; feathers on the chin lax; quill-feathers brownith-
black. This is the South Sea Raven of Latham, and in-
habits the Friendly Iflands in the South Sea. Length nine-
teen inches.

Avustrauis, afpecies of Psirracus, of a green colour;
crown blue, and creited with long-feathers ; chin and middle
of the abdomen red ; thighs purple. A native of the Sand-
wich iflands, and deferibed by Latham under the name of
the blue-creited parrakeet. The length of this bird is fix
inches and a half; beak orange; front pale-green; two
middle tail feathers green, and yellow at the extremity ; the
others yellowith-edged, and tipped with green ; legs dufky ;
claws black. Gmelin.

Austratis, a fpecies of Farco that inhabits Staten-
land. It is brown; cere yellow; tail black, dotted at the
end with fordid white; fize of the plaintive eagle; voice
lkeahen. Gmelin.

* AUSTRIA, Arcupvucuy oF, in Geography, one of
the principal provinces of Germany, derives its name from
its fituation towards the eatt: Ooft-ryak, or Offerich, figni-
fying in Germa the eaffern kimgdom. This name was ioft-
ened into Auftria by the Italian and French enunciation ;
and this divifion, which may be confidered as partly belong-
ing to ancient Pannonia, arofe after Charlemagne had eita-
blithed the weftern empire; being a remnant of the foye-
reignty of what was called Eaftern France, eftablifhed by
that conqueror. It was alfo ftyled « Marchia Orientalis,”’
the eaftern march, or boundary ; and after the failure of the
Francic line, became a marquifate feudatory to the dukes of
Bavaria, till the emperor Frederic Barbarofla, in 1156, con-
ftituted it a duchy .held immediately of the empire. See
ARCHDUKE.

The archduchy of Auftria is bounded on the north by
Bohemia and Moravia, on the eaft by Hungary, on the
fouth by Stiria, and onthe weft by Bavaria, It is divided
by the river Ens into Upper and Lower Auttria; the capital
of the latter is Vienna, befides which it contains 35 other
cities, and 256 market towns; and that of the former is
Lintz, befides which it has 13 other cities, and 88 market-
towns. The population of this archduchy has been ufually
computed at 1;685,000 perfons ; and more lately by Hoeck,
in his ¢*Statiftical View of the States of Germany,” at
1,820,000.

The Auftrian dominions, or hereditary {lates of the houfe
of Auftria, comprehended, before the late war, befides the

archduchy of Lower Auttria, containing the country on

this fide the river Ens, fometimes called Lower Auttria, and
the country beyond the Ens, denominated Upper Auttria,
and alfo the country called the Inn-Viertel, or the part
taken from Bavaria, of which the capitalis Branau, the fol-
lowing territorities; viz. Interior Auttria, mcluding the
duchies of Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola, Auftrian Friuli,
and Triefte; Upper Auttria, or the Tyrolefe; Anterior
Auftria, compriling the Brifgaw, Auitnan territories in
Swabia, Hohenembs, Fualkenftein, Langenargen, and Tet-
nang; the kingdom of Bohemia; the margraviate of
Moravia; Auftrian Silefia; Auftrian Netherlands, now
in pofleffion of the French ; Lombardy, including the
duchies of Milan and Mantua, now in pofieflion of the
French ; the kingdom of Hungary, and baunate of Temef-

3 ic war 3

A, We TR TA,

wars TMyneum, neuding Dalmatia, Croatia, and Sclavo-
nia; Tranfylvania; the province of Buckoyina, annexed to
the Auftrian territory in 1777; and the provinces of Galli-
cia and Lodomiria, being that part of Poland acquired by
Auftria in the partition of 1772. ‘From the frontiers of
Swiflerland to the utmott limits of Traniylvania, the length
ef the Auftrian dominions may be reckoned at about 760
Britith miles, and the breadth about 520, from the river
Bug, which forms a boundary between Auftria and Pruffian
Poland, to the Save, which divides the Auttrian from the
Turkith foyereignty. ‘The contents may be about 184,000
fquare miles ; and the Boetticher eftimates the inhabitants at
108 toa {quare mile. Since he wrote, the populous region
of the Netherlands has been withdrawn; however the po-
pulation of the Venetian territories is little inferior, T'o-
wards the eaft, the Auitrian dominions border on thofe of
Raffia and Turkey; to the north, on thofe of Pruffia, Up-
per Saxony, Bavaria, from which it is feparated by the river
Tan, and Swabia; and on the utmoft weit are Swiflerland
and the Italian {tates.

The original population of thefe extenfive regions is va-
rious; but chiefly Gothic and Slavonic. The native an-
cient Germans, a Gothic race, from the ruling, the moft in-
dultrious, and mott important part of the inhabitants. The
prefent population of the Auitrian dominions is computed
at more than 20,000,000 ; that of Hungary, Tranfylvania,
and the Buckovina, being eftimated at 4 millions. Some
authors, however, have computed the population of Hun-
gary alone, at 7,000,000; and a late German author (fee
‘Townfon. ch. vy.) has confequently fwelled the general po-
pulation of the Auftrian dominions to 25,0c0,000; anda
modern geographer (fee Pinkerton s Mod. Geog. vol. i.
P- 345-) thinks it reafonable to allow 23,000,000 as a me-
dial computation of the numbers fubject to the Auitrian
feeptre. Of the other chief provinces, Bohemia is fuppofed to
hold 2£ millions; Moravia 14 million; the acquilitionsin
Poland, more than 3 millions; and the archduchy of Auf-
tria, as we have already ftated, 1,635,000. ‘

Hoeck (ubi fupra) has exhibited the hereditary flates o
Auitria, with their refpeCtive population, in three tables ;
from which it appears, that Bohemia contains 2,806,493
perfons; Moravia, 1,256,240; the duchy of Auttrian Si-
fefia, 250,000, Lower Auittria, 1,820,000; Interior Auf-
tria or Stiria, &c. 1,645,000; Superior Auttria, or the
Tyrolefe, 610,000; Anterior Auftria, 293,433 3 Rovereit
and the Voralberg, 77,971; Hungary and_ Illyria,
7,350,000; Tranfylvania, 1,443,364 3 Buckovina, 130,000;
Eailern Gallicia, 2,797,119; and Weltern Galicia,
1,106,178 ; amounting in the whole to 21,585,798 perfons.
The army is computed by Boetticher at 365,455 men, in
136 regiments, of which 46 are German, and only 11
Hungarian. But in the fanguinary conteft with France,
this army has been greatly diminifhed ; and, at prefent, it is
fuppofed not to be equal to that of Pruffia, eftimated at about
200,000; and far lefs than that of Ruffia, which is fuppof-
ed to double this number. The revenue is computed at
more than ten millions flerling ; to which Auftria contri-
butes about three millions; and Hungary a little more than
a million anda half. This revenue ufed to exceed the
expences; but the public debt is now fuppofed to furpafs
40,000,000). iterling, and the recent wars have occafioned
great defalcations. :

Auntria, before the acquifition of Venice, might have been
regarded as an inland power; as the fmall harbour of
‘Triefte bad no commercial importance. Since the Auftrian
dominions. haye acquired their prefent extent.aud power, de-

termined rivalry has fubfifted between them and France,
There are alfo caufes of confirmed jealoufy between Auf.
tria and Pruiffia, and of irreconcileable hatred between the
Auftrians and Turks. As Auttria is alfo jealous of Ruffian
power, it is not eafy to feleét any ftate on the continent
with which it could enter into a itri€t and permanent al-
liance.

The afpe@ of the Auftrian dominions is rather moun-
tainous than level, and prefents in this refpeét a dtrike
ing contrait to that of Ruiha and Pruffie. Of the elevated
chains which diverfify the Auttrian territories, the firlt that
deferves mention is the Rhetian or Tyrolefe Alps, called the
Brenner mountains (fee Anps, and Brenner), amon
which are feveral glaciers; and there are alfo confiderable
hills, which branch from the Swils and Tyrolefe Alps, in
the northern parts of the territory that was formerly Vene-
tian, fuch as mount Baldo, mount Bolea, and the Hugauean
hillsnear Padua. ‘he provinces of Carinthia and Carniola
prefcat many chains of mountains, as that of Lobel, which
feparates thefe countries, and the Julian or Carnie Alps,
now called Birnbaumer Wald, which divide Carinthia from
Italy. The fummits of the Carniolan mountains are cover-
ed with permanent {now ; of thefe, the molt memorable are
the Kalenberg near the river Save, and the Runberg, and
the Karft to the fouth of Idria. Here alfo terminates the
vait chain which proceeds by the north of Dalmatia towards
the Hemus, and is known by many local appellations, as
mount Prominia near Gnin, mount Prolegh, mount Clobu,
&c. &c. but better diitinguifhed by the Dalmatian chain.
The latter mountains are chiefly calcareous. ‘Towards the
north in the fouth of Stiria, there firft occurs the chain of
Bacher; mount Grafan on the eaft of Judenburgh; and
the chief mountain in this province, or thofe of Grimin, ia
its weftern extremity towards Salzburg. On the eait to-
wards Hungary, this country is more plain and fertile. On
the fouth of Auftria is a chain of inconfiderable elevation.
(See Cerius, and Karenzerc.) Upper Auftria, or the
weftern part of this province, contains many confiderable
mountains, the higheft of which isin the maps called Priel,
but the proper name is Greflenberg. Towards the north,
Auttria is divided from Bohemia by a ridge of confiderable
elevation, which paffes to the north-caft of Bavaria. On the
north-weft, Bohemia is parted from Saxony by a chain of
metallic mountains called the Erazgeberg, a word that de-
notes hills containing mines. On the weit of the river Eger,
near its junction with the Elbe, ftands the mountainous
group of Mileffou, fuppofed to be the higheft in the pro-
vince, On the north-eaft the Sudetic chain, which, branch-
ing from the Carpathian, divides Bohemia and Moravia from
Silefia and the Pruffian dominions. The Carpathian moun-
tains, bounding Hungary on the north-eaft, deferve parti-
cular notice. See CARPATHIAN. ;

Of the rivers which pervades the Auftrian dominions, the
principal is the Danune. Next to this in importance is
the Tress; and there are alfo the Savr, the Draye, the
Inn, the Murpa, the Exvse, the Morau, the Anice,
and feveral others of lefs note. The lakes are numerous,
and fome are of contiderable fize. In Auftria Proper, are
the lake Traun, the Abenfee, and others. Carinthia cons-
tains a large central lake not far from Clagenfurt, and Car-
niola another, called the Cirknitz fee. ‘Tyrol has no lake
of any confequence, except a part of Lago di Garda;
but its glaciers are numerous. For the morafles and lakes of
Hungary, fee Huncary. See Nevsipver and Pauivzrr.
In Tranfylvania is the Lefege T'o ; and many fmall lakes
are fituated amidft the Carpathian mountains. pes

2.

SE ae

The foil of the Aufzian dominions is wpon the whole
extremely fertile and productive, in {pite of the neglect of
iuduflry, which has permitted many parts of Hungary, and
of the Polifh provinces,.to pafs into wide forefis and
marfhes. In Auftria Proper, Mr. Martha! obferves ('T'ra-
vels, vol. iii. p. 104.), that oats were little cultivated; the
other products were fuch as thofe of England, particularly
abundance of cabbages and potatoes; but the cultivation
was not neat, {mall waite fpots bein’ left by the plough,
which harboured weeds to the great detriment of the field.
The vineyards and fields of faffron were numerous; cattle

ppeared in abundance; and large herds of fwine, which
fed all the fummer in the woods. At a more recent period
Mr. Coxe (‘Travels in Poland, &c. vol. i. p. 153, &c.) gives
a deplorable picture of the want of cultivation in the fouthern

rovinces of Poland, now fubjeét to Auttria; the country
fase chiefly overfpread with vait tracts of gloomy forelts,
and exhibiting few fymptoms of an inhabited, and {till lefs
of a civilized country, In travelling the high road from
Cracow to Warfaw, in the courfe of 258 miles, he met
with only two carriages and a dozen carts. The country
was equally thin of human habitations; a few wooden
villages fucceeded one another at long intervals, whofe
| miferable appearance correfponded with the wretchednefs
of the furrounding country. The darknefs of the night
during which he travelled for want of decent accommoda-
tion, deprived him of nothing but the fight of indif-
| ferent crops of corn, gloomy forefts, and objects of human
| mifery. ‘he natives were poorer, humbler, and more mifer-
_ able, than any he had obferved in the courfe of his travels;
| wherever he ttopped, they flocked around him in crowds,
and demanded charity with the moft abje&t geftures. The
| whole country is for the mott part fandy or marfhy.
| cording to this defcription, Auftria feems to have made no
Great acquilition in the Polihh provinces,
The domettic animals inthe Auitrian dominions are com-
monly excellent, particularly the cattle. The mineralogy
of thefe territories is the moft various and interefting of
any ia Europe. There is f{cdrcely a province from the
“frontiers of Swifferland to thofe of Turkey, which cannot
boait of its minerals ; and the acquifitions made by the houfe
‘of Auftria in Poland, contain one of the moft remarkable
mines in Europe, the faling excavations of Wilizka. See
Saut, and Wirizka. See alfo Bonemia, and Moravia.
Thie fertile archduchy of Auftria furnifhes few minerals ;
though mines of gold are found near the abbey Gcettwig,
and thofe of alum near Krems; falt-petre, however, is pre-
pared in abundance; and at a little diftance from St. An-
-naberg, near the frontiers of Stiria, a rich mine of filver was
opened in 1754. ‘he fonthern provinces of Stiria, Carin-
thia, and Carniola, afford many important minerals. See
thele articles. The northera parts of Italy, now fubjeé& to
* Auttria, have been remarkable for mineralogy ; but on pafi-
ing into the Tyrol, feveral mines occur of ancient repztation,
fach as that of filver and lead near Lermos; and in the fame
quarter, thofe of Naferiat, in the Verner mountains, about
30 miles north-weft of Infpruck, which are rich in filer,
eopper, lead, and iron; nor is the fouthern resion of
. Treat wholly defitute of mines. But the principal mines

in the Anuftrian dominions are fituated in the eaitern pro-~

-vinees of Huncary and TRANsyLvAnia.
: NiTz, and SHEMNITZ.
| The climate of Anuftria Proper is commonly mild and
_ falubrious, though occafionally expofed to violent winds ;
and the fouthern provinces in general enjoy a delightful
temperature, excepting merely the feyerities of Alpine win-

Seealfo CHEm-

C= *

Aa Sis TA,

ter in the mountainous parts. The more northern regions
of Bohemia and Moravia, with the late acquifitions in Pe-
land, can likewife boaft of the maturity of the grape, and
of gentle and favourable weather. The numerous lakes and
morailes of Hungary, and the prodigious plains refembliag
deferts, are fuppofed to render the air damp ard unwhole-
fome, the cold of the night rivalling the heat of the day ;
but the keen blafts from the Carpathian mountains feem in
fome meafure to remedy thefe evils, the inhabitants being
remarkable for health and vigour.

The manufaétures feem not to have been cultivated
to any great extent in any part of the Auftrian domi-
nious. "Chofe of Vienna are the moft confiderable. (See
Vienna, and alfo Bourmtia.) The commerce of thefe
dominions depends principally on their native opulence;
Altria Proper, and the fouthern provinces, producing
abundance of horfes and cattle, corn, flax, faflron and
Yarious wines, with feveral metals, particularly quick-
filver from the mines of Idria. Bohemia and Moravia are
alfo rich in oxen and fheep, corn, flax, and hemp; in which
they are rivalled by the difmembered provinces cf Poland.
The linen manufactures of Bohemia, according to Hoeck,
amount annually to 16,000,000 florins, befides fome in
wool and in cotton. The woollen manufacture at Lintz em-
ploys 30,000 perfons; and in the whole archduchy of Auftria
there are feven great manufa&tures of cotton cloth, which
Occupy 140,000 individuals, The wide and marfhy plains
of Hungary, afford excellent pafturage for numerous herds
of cattle; and other parts of the fame country produce corn,
rice, the rich wines of Tokay, and tobacco cf an excellent
flavour, with extenfive mines of various metals and minerals,
Upon the whole, the Auftrian territories in general abound
to fuch a degree with the various neceffaries and luxuries
of life, which are found either in the north or fouth of
Enrope, that the imports would feem to be few and incon-
fiderable ; and before the acquifition of Venice, the chief
exports were from the port of Triefte, confitting of quick-
filver and other metals, with wines and other native pro-
ducts. ~ From a table of the exports of Hungary for one
year, given by Dr. Townfon, it appears, that they confited
chiefly of cattle, hogs, fheep, flour, wheat, rye, wool, and
wine, carried to other Auftrian provinces; and only about
one-feventh part fent to foreign countries.

The prevailing religion of the Auftrian dominions is the
Roman Catholic. However, Proteftants of various fe@s are
found in Bohemia and Moravia; nor are Lutherans unknown
at Vienna, though they chiefly abound in Tranfylvania ; and
in Hungary the Proteftants are fuppofed to be equal in
number to the catholics.

The form of government is an hereditary mgnarchy, ap-
proaching to abfolute power. Hungary, indeed, retains
its ancient ftates, or rather an ariftocratical fenate ; bat as
the military force is lodged wholly with the fovereign, no
diftingt kingdom or ftate can with{tand his will. Auftria
alfo has its itates, confifting of four orders, clergy, peers,
knights, and burgeffes: the aflembly for Lower Auftria
being held at Vienna, and that of the Upper at. Lintz.
But thefe local conftitutions can little avail againft the will
of a powerful monarch, fupported by a numerous army,
The laws vary according to the different provinces; aud
almott every flate has its peculiar code, (See Huncary.)
Upon the whole, the laws may be regarded as mild and
falutary ; and the Auftrians in particular are a well regu-
lated and contented people, while the Hungarians are often
diffatisfied, and retain much of their ancient animolity againit
the Germans.

gC2

The

<P ee

Ps

®,

AUG

The hiftory of Auftria~properly fo called, may be con-
-cifely delineated in the following epochs, collected and
detailed by Mr. Pinkerton, in his ‘¢ Modern Geography,”
vol.i. p. 337-

«1. The houfe of Auftria, which, by fucceffive fortunate
marriages fince the fifteenth century, has arifen to fuch a
fummit of power, is well known to have fprang from the
hun.ble counts of Hapfburg. Thofe lords pofleifed a fmall
territory in Swifferland, in the northern corner of the can-
ton of Bern, uear the river Aar, about three miles fouth of
the town of Bruck, and the fame diitance to the north of
Mellingen. On a lofty eminence, crowned with beech,
fiands an ancient tower, the firlt feat of the houfe of Auttria.
Ta the twelfth century Otho is defigned count of Hapfburg,
and even heraldy can {carcely afcend beyond his grandfire
Radebot, brother of Werner, bifhop of Strafburg. In
1273, Rodolph of Hapfourg was called to the imperial
throne, after an inter-reign, during which the German po-
tentates had increafed, and fecured their own power ; and
wifely preferred a nominal fovereign, whofe humble extract,
and {mall poffeffions, could afford no check to their ambition.
Yet Rodolph was at this time lord of the greater part of
Swifferland ; after the extinétion of the powerful houfe of
Zaeringen, and that or the counts of Kyburg, whofe
joint inheritance devolving to Rodolph, became the batis
of his power, and that of his fucceflors. (See Planta’s
Swiff. i. 170.)

« 2. Another emperor of the houfe of Auftria appeared
in Albert, A. D. 1298; from whom the Swifs made their
fignal revolt in 1307. His fon Frederic was obliged to
yield the empire to Louis of Bavaria. (See Arzerrt 1.)

«2, Albert II. duke of Auftria, A. D. 1438, fucceeded
to three crowns, on the death of his father-in-law the em-
peror Sigifmond, thofe of Hungary, and Bohemia, and that
of the empire by unanimons election. This was the epoch of
the lafting grandeur of the houfe of Auftria. Yet his
fucceffors Frederic III. and Maximilian I. were “feeble
princes; and Charles V. firft aftonifhed Europe with a real
difplay of Auftrian power. (See Atnert il.)

« 4. Maximilian having married the heirefs of Burgundy,
the Netherlands became fubject to the houfe of Auttria in

14773 and his fon Philip, in 1496, marrying the heirefs of
Arragon and Caitile, the ample dominions of Spain fell

terwards under the Auftrian fceptre. Charles V. inherited
all thefe domains; but on his refignation, Spain and the
Netherlands pafied to his fon Philip 11. and the former
crown continued in the Aufirian line till the clofe of the
17th century. Aufiria, Bohemia, and Hungary, pafied to
Ferdinand, the brother of Charles V. who was alfo chofen
emperor of Germany.

«5. The noted bigotry of the houfe of Auftria was
not confined to the Spanith branch, for though Maximi-
lian IJ. about 1570, had granted liberty of confcience
even to the Proteftants of Auitria, yet thefe of Bohemia,
and. other parts, were afterwards fo much opprefled, that
the Proteftant princes of Germany called in Guftaf Adolf,
the celebrated Swedifh monarch, to their affiftance, who

fhook the empire to its very foundation. Even France

* fapported the Proteftants, in: the view of weakening the

| Auftrian power; and the war continued till 1648, when
the famous treaty of Weltphalia was figned, which has
ferved as a bafis for other diplomatic tranfactions. (See
WeEsTPHALIA.)

«¢ 6. The war with France was often rekindled during
the long reign of Leopold I. 1658 to 1705 ; and in 1683
the Turks were fo fuccefsful as to lay fiege to Vienna.

af

AUG

7. His fon Jofepk I. joined the-allies againft France,
and fhared in their Sa He married the daughter of
John Frederic, duke of Hanover.

“8. By the death of the emperor Charles VI. on the
2oth of OGober 1740, without male iffue, the houfe of
Autiria became extiné. The elector of Bavaria feized the
kingdom of Bohemia, and was elected emperor in 1742,
but died in 1745.

“© 9. Francis of Lorrain, fon of Leopold duke of Lor-
rain, having married Maria Therefa, daughter of the em-
peror Charles VI. fucceeded to the Auftrian dominions,
which continue to be held by his defcendants. In 1745
he was eleGted emperor, and his fucceffors have enj yed the
imperial crown, as if hereditary. The powerful houfe of
Lorrain is of great antiquity, defeending from Gerard
count of Alface, in the rith century, whofe origin is re-
ferred to a collateral branch of the houfe of Auftria.

“ro. The reign of the emperor Jofeph II. beneficent
but impetuous prince, whofe grand deficns of reformation
were fruitrated by his ignorance of the inveteracy of habits
and prejudices, which muft ever be confidered in a due
eftimate of human affairs. :

«a1. The obdurate and fanguinary conteft with France,
the events of which are known to all.”

For an abridged detail of the hiftory of the other
Auftrian dominions; fee Bouemia, Huncary, Venice,

rc.

AUSTRIACA Syper4,in 4fronomy, a name given by
Maupertuis to the {pots in the fun, as fuppofing them to be
{mall ftars between the fun and us. ‘

Austriaca, in £ntomology, afpecies of Seuex found in
Auitria, and deicribed by Schranck. It is of a black colour,
with a fulphur-coloured band, and two dots of the fame at
the bafe of the abdomen ; legs fulphur-colour, with the
thighs of the poflerior ones thick.

Austriaca, a {peciesof Cicapa (Ranatra Sec.), of a
{mall fize, that inhabits Auftria. It is black, with pale
legs; white at the bafe of the eyes; wings tranfparent, with
three faint bands of black. Schranck, &c. ~-

Austriaca, a fpecies of Buprestis, with brafly, ftri-
ated and bidentated wing-cafes ; head and thorax greenifh 5
abdomen violet. Gmelin. This kind inhabits Tania, is
about the fize of bupreftis ruitica, and is called mordella
gigantea by Scopoli. : ‘

Austriaca, a fpecies of Cicinpeva found in Auftria.
This infect is green, with the breaft and belly golden red ;
wing-cafes with a thin golden margin, and a few white fpots.
Schranck, Beytr.

AUSTRIACUS, a fpecies of Cimex that inhabits
Auftria. This infect is ferruginous, and has the feutel
divided by a black band. Schranck. .

Avusrriacus, afpecies of Curcutio found in Auftria.
It is apterous, cinereous ; wing-cafes lineated with whitifh,
and dotted with black. Fabricius.

Ausrriacus, a fpecies of Scaraszus ( Melolontha)
found in Auitria. This kind is glabrous ; wing-cafes brown,
with an exterior elevated margin, and four fpots on the
feutel. Herbit. &c. It is uncertain whether this is a
diftin& fpecies or a variety only of {carabzus agricola.

Avsrtriacus, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Fatco, na
by Latham the uffrian Lite. Cere and legs rather woolly
and yellow ; body above chefnut; beneath teftaceous, fpot-
ted with brown; tail forked. Inhabits the woods in Ger-
many, and feeds on {mall birds and bats. Gmelin. _

Ausrriacus, in Zoology, afpecies of Coruser that is
found in the environs of Vienna, aud is fo very analogous to

~~ coluber

a

~ Tour.

‘{cenery and fertility of it.

fmountains by which it was watered.
-regions of this diftri€t, there are multitudes of elephants,

AU T

coluber natrix, ‘or common fnake, as to be formerly cone
founded with it. Juaurenti, in his work on the Amphibia,
appears to be the firlt writer who diftinguifhed them ; the
principal difference feems to confift in the perfect fmooth-
nefs of the fcales in auitriacus, while thofe of natrix are
flightly carinated. It is of a blucifh-afh, jaclioing to rufous
on the fides and abdomen, with a double row of alternate
rufous {pots along the back. This kind lives in moift mea-
dows, hedges, and watry places, and is of a fierce difpofi-
tion, but incapable of producing injury, being unprovided
with poifonous fangs. It occalionally varies a little in co-
Gimelin, Shaw, &c.

AUSTRO Arricus, in Meteorology, the fouth-fouth-
weit point, or wind,

AUSTROMANCY, in Myrholosy, properly denotes
foothfaying, or a vain method of predicting futurity, from
obfervations of the winds. ;

AUSUFAL, in Ancient Geography, the name of a place
in Africa, on the road from Carthage to Alexandria, thifty-
four miles from this latter city. Anton. Itin.

AUSUM, atown of Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis.
Ptolemy.

AUTARIATES, a people of Illyria, mentioned by
Arian, in his account of Alexander’s expedition into this
country; and probably the fame with thofe placed by
Strabo in Thrace, to the north of mount Rhodopus.

AUTARIS, a place in Arabia Felix. Pliny.

AUTEFAGE, in Geography, atown of France, in the
department of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a
canton in the diltriGt of Villeneuve d’Agen, nine miles

"N.N. E. of Agen.

AUTENIQUA, an extenfive and beautiful country of
Africa, lying to the eaft of the cape of Good Hope, and partly
inhabited by Dutch coloniits. The term- “ Auteniqua,”’
inthe language of the Hottentots, denotes, ‘ loaded with
honey,” and is ftrictly. applicable to this country, as you
cannot advance a itep in it, proceeding from the Cape,
without feeing innumerable fwarms of bees. Mr. Vaillant,

who vifited this country in 1782, calls it the moft delightful

region in the univerfe. It is interfperfed with hills and
vallies, enamelled meads and beautiful paftures; and it
abounds with {mall rivulets, which contribute both to the
The whole of Auteniqua, from
the chain of mountains which divides it from the race of

‘Hottentots called « Gonaquas,”’ to the fea, is inhabited by
- planters, who rear cattle, make butter, cut dowa timber,
and colle& honey, with ali which they fupply the Cape.

But though they employ wood in commerce, they ufe none
of it for building houfes. Their habitations are wretched
hovels, conftruéted of wicker work, daubed over with clay ;
the fkin of a buffalo, fixed at the four corners to as many
ftakes, ferves them for a bed; and the door, which ferves
alfo for a window, is fhut by a mat. The furniture is mean
and f{eanty, as the dwelling is incommodious. With this
appearance’ of ‘poverty and wretchednefs, the people live
well; they have plenty of game and falt-water fifh, and
vegetables of every kind in their gardens through the
year. For thefe they are indebted to the fertility of the
foil, and the rivulets flowing in various directions from the
In the mountainous

buffaloes, panthers, hyenas, and antelopes of every {pecies,
which are hunted and killed by the natives, partly for food,

and partly with a view to the prefervation of their herds and
‘flocks. The kites and vultures of this country are fingularly
‘fierce and voracious.
~ealled ‘“* Auteniqua,” is a fpacious bay, with fufficient

Beyond the limits of the country

AgOr fl

depth of water for the: largett veffels, and fafe anchoring
ground, known to navigators by the name of the bay of
© Agoa,’’ but called by the colonifts « Blettenberg’s”’
bay, from the name of a governor who vifited it. In ad-
vancing about a league along the coaft, there is a confider-
able river called * Queur-Boom,’? which would afford an
ample fupply of water. The Hottentots, who in fcattered
Kyaals”’ inhabit this delightful country, are defcribed by
Vaillant as a faithful, gentle, and rather timid race. He
affirms, but probably without fufficient evidence, that they
have not any notion of fuperior powers who govern the
world. He alfo fays that, totally free from jealoufy, they
lend their wives to travellers who vilfit them. In Vaillant’s
map, Auteniqua lies between 33° 30’ aad 34° 50! S. lat.
and between 20° and 23° 40’ KE. long.

AUTENOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiov, eighteen miles W.S. W. of Bialacerkiew.

AUTENTUM, in Ancient Ge-graphy, a town of Africa,
in the route from Thene to 'Thevelta, thirty miles from
Suffetula, and twenty-five miles from Amudarfa. Anton.
Itin.

AUTER Droit, in Law, is where pérfons fue or
are fued, in another’s right; as executors, adminiftrators,
secs

Avurer Vie; a perfon who holds an eftate by the life of
another, is ufually called tenant per auter vie. Litt. fect.

6.
AUTERFOITS <Acquit, a plea by acriminal, that he
was heretofore acquitted of the-fame treafon or felony.
For one fhall not be brought in danger of his life, for the
fame offence, more than once. 3 Inft. 213. But by ftat.
3 Hen VII. c. 1. this plea thall be no bar to the profecution
of any appeal. See Acguirrat.

Avrerroirs Aitaint, a plea of former attainder, which
isa good plea in bar, whether it be for the fame or any
other felony, under fome exceptions; fo that this plea is
never good but when a fecond trial would be quite fuperflu-
ous. See ATTAINDER.

Avurerporrs Convid, a plea upon a former conviétion
for the fame identical crime, though no judgment was or
ever will be given; and this is a good plea in bar to an in-
dictment.

AUTERIVE, in Geography, atown of France, in the
department of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a
canton in the diltriét of Muret on the Arriege, fifteen miles
fouth of Touloufe. The place contains 4,000,’ and the
canton 9,171 inhabitants; the territory includes 147£ kilio-
metres, and 11 communes.

AUTHENTIC, fomething of received authority. It
alfo fignifies fomething folemn, and celebrated ; clothed in
all its formalities ; and attelted by proper perfons, to whom
credit has been regularly given,

Biblical writers have differed in opinion about the mean-
ing of the phrafe ‘ Authentic letters,”? ufed by Tertullian,
De Preferip. c. 36. p.245. B. Some by authentic letters
have underitood the originals themfelyes, in the apoftle’s
hand-writing, or that of his amanenfis, and figned at the
conclufion by himfelf. Others are of opinion, that Tertul-
lian means letters in their original language. But Dr.
Lardner, rejecting thefe two interpretations, maintains that
this ancient father means by authentic letters: fuch as were
certain and well attefted. In this fenfe the word authentic
is ufed by Cicero Ad. Attic. 1. x.ep. 9. Accordingly, by
« Authentice litere’’ we are not to underftand “Authentic
letters, or epiftles,’”? but ‘ Scriptures;’? and fo the word
fhould have been rendered. Hence it may be inferred,
agreeably to the argument ufed by Tertullian, that the

{criptures

-original.

AUT

feriptures received by the apoftalica! churches were authen-
tic.; the teitimony given by thofe churches being, according
to this father, an anthenti¢, original, and certain teftimony.
Lardner’s Works, vol. ii. p- 266, &c. f
AUTHENTIC, in Mufic, a term ufed in fpeaking of the
ecclefiattical modes of canto firme, or plain-fong. An au-
tnentic: tone or mede is that, when the o€tave is harmonically
Givided in this proportion, 6.4:3. that is to fay, when the
d

Sith is at the bottom, and the fourth at top, as A. When
D
the otave is divided arithmetically, as 4.3:2, where the
a
ith is above the fourth, as D, then the mode is termed

fy
plagal.

OF the eight ancient ecclefiaftical modes, four are

authentic; namely, the firit, third, fifth, and feventh, ‘The

reit, that is the fecond, fourth, fixth, and eighth, are plagal.
See Moves.

AUTHENTICATING, the punifhing anadultrefs, by
public whipping, and fhutting her up ina convent for two
years; after which, if the hufband be not willing to take
her baek, fhe is thaven, veiled, and fhut up for life. It is fo
called, as being the punifhment prefcribed in the Authentics.
Ti the hu{band die within the two years, fhe feems to have a
right to petition the court for her liberty; at lJeaft, ancther
man, willing to marry her, may petition, and probably ob-

_stain it.

AUTHENTICITY of the Old and New Te/fament.
See Brsvs and Testament.

_ AUTHENTICS, Aurnentica, in the Civil Law,
1s a name giver tothe Novels of Juftinian. See Nover.

The reafon of the denomination is not well known.—
Alciat will have it to have been firft given them by Accur-
fius. The Novels were originally compofed in Greek, and
afterwards tranflated into Latin by the patrician Julian,
who alfo ieduced them into fewer words, and lefs compais.
And in the time of Bulgarius, there was a fecond vertion
made, more exacét and literal, though not quite fo elegant as
the former.

This tranflation, fays the author juft cited, being pre-
ferred by Accurfius, he called it authentica, by way of pre-
ference to that of Julian, 2s being more conformable to the
They are hereby diftinguifhed from fome other
publications of later imperial conititutions, which are not
regarded as of much authority.

AUTHIE, m Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the fea, eight miles north from the mouth of the
Somme, and feparates the department of the ftraits of
‘Calais from the department of the Somme, through almoit
its whole courfe.

AUTHION, a river of France, which runs into the
Loire, two miles fouth of Angers,

AUTHON, a town of France, in the department of the
Eure and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&
of Nogent le Rotrou; fix leagues weft-north-weft of Cha-
teandun. The place contains 1,165, and the canton 10,250
inhabitants: the territory includes 315 kiliometres, and
18 communes. é

AUTHOR, formed of avzo:, ipfe, or rather from the
Latin participle a&us, or augeo, I increafe ; properly denotes
one who created or produced any thing; and is applied,
by way of eminence, to the firft caufe; viz. God. ‘Thus
we fay, the author of nature; author of the univerfe, &c.

The term author is fometimes ufed in the fame fenfe with
inftitutor or inventor. Polydore Virgil has wrote eight
books of the authors.or inventors of things, &c. See In-
WENTION.

A Url

Avurnor, in matters of Literature, denotes 2 perfon who
has wrote or compofed fome book or writing, Accordingly
we fay, the facred authors, anonymous authors, ancient
and modern authors, &c. An ortginal author 1s he who
firft treated of any point or fubje&t; who did not follow
any other perfon, or imitate any model either im the matter
or manner of what he has wrote. :

AUTHORITY, in a general fenfe, denotes a night or
power to command, and make one’s felf obeyed. In this
fenfe we fay, the fupreme or fovereign authority ; abfolute
or defpotic authority ; the royal authority ; the epifcopal
authority; the authority of the church, of a father, &e.
the authority of fcripture, of a creed, confeiiion, or the
like.

AvTuority is alfo ufed for the teftimony of an author
or writing. ;

The word is alfo particularly underftoed of an apoph-
thegm, or fentence of fome great or eminent perfon, quoted
ina difcourfe, either by way of proof, or embellifhment. —

Anihority alfo includes rules, laws, canons, decrees, dee
cifions, &c. alleged in confirmation of a matter in dif
pute. Paflaces quoted from Ariftotle were of great autho-
rity in the fchools: texts of f{eripture are of decifive autho-
rity.

Authorities make a fpecies of arguments called by the-
toricians inartificial or extrinfic arguments. See Arcu-
MENTS. :

For the ufe and effe& of authorities, fee Evipenxce,
Fairs, Preyupice, Prosasitiry, Reason, Reveca-
TION, &c.

Avrnority, in Law, is a power to do fomething,
conveyed by word or writing; as alfo by writ, warrant,
commiffion, letter of attorney, &c.; and fometimes by
law.

Avrnority, or AuTuoritiss,-likewife denote the
treatiies of ancient authors, fuch as Glanvil, Braéton, Brit-
ton, the author of the book Fieta, Hengham, Littleton,
Statham, Brooke, Fitzherbert, Staundiiedes and fome
others of ancient date, which are cited as authority ; and
furnifh evidence that cafee have formerly happened in which
particular points were determined, which are now become
fettled and firft principles. :

One of the lait of thefe methodical writers, in point of

ime, whofe works are of any intrinfic authority in the courts
of juftice, and do not entirely depend on the ftrength of
their quotations from older authors, 1s ir Edward Coke, who
hath written four volumesof Inititutes, as he is pleafed to call
them, though, fays judge Blackitone, they have little of the
inftitutional method to warrant fuch a title.

AUTIRE, in Geography, ariver of France, which run
into the Sevre, a little below Maillerais. os

AUSO Da Fe. See Act of Faith. ;

AUTOCABDALL, in Antiguiiy, an order of muficians,
who wore an ivy crown, or garland.

Scaliger feems to rank them in the number of simi. f

AUTOCEPHALUS, compounded of avic-, ipfe, and
us@xar, caput, head, aperfon who ishis own ruler or niaiter,
and who has no other over him. 2 ,

This denomination was given by the Greeks, to certain
archbifhops, who were exempted from the jurifdiétion ~

of patriarchs.—Such were the archbithop of Cyprus, by a #

eneral decree of the council of Ephefas, which freed him
Bois the jurifdi€tion of the patriarch of Antioch,
There were feveral other bifhops in the Eaft, who were
autocephali; and in the Weit, thofe of Ravenna pretended
to the fame right—The fixth council, canon 39, fays, that
the autocephali have the fame authority with i

ee

4

-imprefied on it the figure of Cybele.
been found in Sagaris a river of- Perfia. Doubtlefs, if any
_fach ftone ever exified, the priefts had got it made to de-

AUT

but this is not to be underftood in the full Jatitude of the
words; but only as intimating, that the autocephali have
the fame authority over their bithops, that patriarchs had
over their archbifhops: in which fenfe, only, they are
equal to patriarchs,

AUTOCHTHONES, from avio:, ip/e, aud wv, terras
an appellation aflumed by fome nations, importing, that
they {prung, or were produced, from the fame foil which
they {till Mabie: In this fenfe, autochthones amounts
to the fame with Anoricines. In this fenfe it was that
the Greeks, and efpecially the Athenians, pretended to be
autochihones, and, as a badge thereof, wore a golden grafs-
hopper woven in their hair, an infect {uppofed to have the
fame origin.

This favourite epithet of the Athenians, which gaye de-
nomination to one of the tribes of Athens, fignifies only,
**people born in the country where they live,” in oppofition
to ftrangers. The common people of Athens perverted
this to fignify people fprung from the earth. See what
Plato makes Socrates fay on this matter, in Menexen, p. 518.
See alfo Ifocr. in Paneg. p. 65. Cicero Orat. pro L. Flacc.
26. Ifocrates fays, that people of fenfe at Athens under-
ftood by this epithet, that Athens was the moft ancient of
the Greek cities, and that it had been built by thofe who,
from time immemorial, had been eftablifhed in the country
known by the name of Attica. See Herod. 1. vii. § 161.
Suid. voc. Avioxbove, tei. p. 389. Hiltory, however, de-
ftroys this laft pretenfion; as few circumftances are better
known than the time of the building of Athens.

AUTOCRATOR, from vio, and xpos, power ; a per-
fon vefted with an abfolute independent power, by which
he is rendered unaccountable to any cther for his ations.

The power of the Athenian generals, or cammanders, was

ufually limited ; fo that, at the expiration of their office,
they were liable to render an account of their admini{tration.
But, on fome extraordinary occafions, they were exempted
from this reftraint, and fent with a full and uacontrolable
authority: in which cafe they were ftyled avioxpeopes.

The fame people alfo applied the name to fome cf their
ambaffadors, who were velted with a full power of deter-
mining matters according to their own difcretion, and refem-

‘bled our plenipotentiaries.

Aurocraror was alfo a title given to the Roman empe-
rors, firit to Julius, and afterwards to his fucceffors, like that

of Cefar, or Auguttus.

AUTODIDACTUS, from avec and dducxw, L teach ;
a perfon feli-taught.

It is ufed in divers fenfes, fometimes to denote a perfon
who received his knowledge immediately from heaven with-
out any help or fludy. In which fenfe the word occurs

‘in Homer, and Clemens Alexandrinus.—Sometimes for hirn

who acquires his knowledge without inftruction, either by
word of mouth, or reading of books. Such were the in-
yentors of fciences and laws.—Sometimes, and that moft
ufually, for him who arrives at learning by the ufe of books
alone, without the affiflance of any mafter,; or inftruction
wivd voce. '

AUTOGLYPHUS Lapis, a ftone, mentioned by Plu-
tarch, and fome other of the ancients, as having naturally
It is faid to have

ceive the people.

AUTOGRAPHOUM, formed of aur®-, and yextn:, feribo,

the very hand writing of any perfon; or the original of a

A UAT

treatife or difcourfe,x—-The word is ufed in oppofition te
a copy.

Autographa, or original MSS. of the New. Teftament,
are the firft copies of each book, which were written either
by the apoftles themfelves or by amanuenfes under their
immediate infpection. St. Paul ufually adopted the latter
inode ; but to prevent the circulation of fpurious epiftles,
he wrote the concluding benedi¢tion with his own hand.
See Rom. xvi. 22. Gal. vi. 13. and 2 Theff. ii. 17, 18.
compared with ch, ii. 2. and 1. Cor. xvi. 21. None ot thefe
original MSS. are now remaining, nor could they have
been preferved, without the interpofition of a miracle,
during the {pace of eighteen centuries. ‘But what benefit
(fays Michaelis, Intred. to the N.T. by Marth, vol.i.p.247~)
fhould we derive from the poffeflion of thefe MSS.; what
inconvenience do we fuftain from their lofs? No critic in
claffical literature inquires after the original of a profane
author, or doubts of the authenticity of Cicero’s Offices, .
becaufe the copy is no longer extant which Cicero wrote
with his own hand. An antiquarian, or collector of ancient
records, will hardly maintain, that the probability of thefe
baoks being genuine, is inferior to the probability that a
record in his poffeflion of the twelfth century is an authentic
document of that period; for though his record is only
Goo years old, and the works of Cicero are thrice as ancient,
we are more expofed to impofition in the former-initance,
as the forgery of antiquities is often praétifed by thofe,
whofe bufinefs and profit are to lead the curious into error.
But fuppofing that the original MSS. of Cicero, Czefar,
Paul, and Peter, were now extant, it would be impoflible to
decide whether they were {purious, or whether they were
aCiually written by the hands of thefe authors. ‘The cafe
is different with refpe&t to perfons who have lived in the
two lait centuries, whofe hand-writing is known, with
which a copy in queftion may be compared and determined:
but we have no criterion, that can be applied to MSS. fo
old as the Chriftian era. Yet admitting that thefe original
writings were extant, that we had pofitive proofs of their
autheaticity, and, what is {till more, that the long period of
feventeen centuries had left the colour of the letters unfaded, ,
ftill they would be no infallible guide in regard to the va-
rious readings.””

Knittel, in his edition of a fragment of Ulphilas, p. 1209.
accounts for the lofs of the original MSS. of the N.T. by
fuppofing that the original gofpels and epiftles, as foon
as the different. communities, for whofe ufe they were
written, had taken a copy, were returned to the authors;
and he fays, that it was the general practice among the
Chrifians of that age, and in fupport of the affertion appeals
to a paflage in Polycarp, and another in Jerom.. But his
arguments, in the epinion of Michaelis, are very unfatisfac-
tory ; and he thinks it reafonable to fuppofe, that the very
fame accidents, which have robbed us of otherancient docu-
ments, have deprived us likewife of thefe originals... From
a paflage of Ignatius, in the eighth chapter of his epiftle
to the Philadelphians, it has been inferred, that fome of
the firft Chriftians appealed to the. original MSS, at that
time extant, and held them in great veneration; for which
they were ridiculed, as the fame paflage is thought to fug-
geit, by the early fathers, and thofe who had the greateit
authority in the church. But the paflage to which
appeal is made, in order to prove the exiltence of the origi-
nal MSS.‘in the time of Ignatius, is found to. relate to a;
different fubje&t. See AuTHENTIC.

The early lofs of the autographa of the N.T. affords »
juft matter of furprife, when we reflect that the ey ,

1S.

AU AT

MSS. of Luther and other eminent men who lived at the
time of the reformation, whofe writings are of much lefs
importance than thofe of the apoitles, are fill fubfilting.
Various caufes may. have contributed to this circumitance,
of which feveral have been alleged in Griefbach’s “Hittoria
Textus Epiftolarum Pauli,” feét. ii. §7, 8. Michaelis has
given the following ‘account of it. he fevcral books of
the N.'T’. were circulated among the Chriftians in nume-
rous copies; ‘thefe were foon collected into a volume,
and farmed the edition in general ufe; and as no difputes
had then arifen on the fubject of various readings, they felt
not the neceffity of preferving in a common archive the
MSS. of the apoitles. The fituation of the Chriftian
churches was at that time extremely different from the pre-
fent: the moft eminent, which were thofe of Rome, and
Corinth, confifted of a number of {mall focieties, that ailem-
bled feparately in private houfes, having no public building
as a common receptacle for the whole community; and
even in thofe private houfes a moderate number only could
meet together, as it wes their cuitom not merely to pray
and to teach, but likewife to celebrate their teaits of love.
The epiftle, which they had received from St. Paul, was not
the property of any one fociety in particular, but belonged
to the community at large, and that which was fent to the
Cerinthians was addrefled to the communities throughout
all Achaia. Each fociety copied the epiitle in its turn, and
befide the general copies many individuals probably took
copies for themfelves, whence the original MS. of the
apoitle, in paffing through fo many hands, where perhaps not
always the greateft care was taken, muft unavoidably have
fuffered. he Chriftian communities in Rome and Corinth
had no common archive, or public library, in which the MS.
of the apoftle might have been afterwards depofited, for
want of which, the original, as foon as a fufficient number
of copies haq been, was forgotten and loft, In other
cities, the number of fingle focieties, among which the
epiftle was divided, was inferior indeed to that in Rome,
Corinth, or Ephefus, but the fame caufes contributed in
each to the lofs of the original epiltle.”’

The fame learned author adds, “the late or early lofs
of the autographa has no. influence on the grounds of our
faith ; for the credibility ef a book, which during the life
of the author has been made known to the world, depends
not on the prefervation of the author’s manufcript. No
reader of the prefent work will enquire after the copy,
which I fend tothe printer, to determine whether the work
itfelf be {fpurious or authentic; nor was it neceflary, for
determining the authenticity of the New Teftament, to
preferve the originals; for each book, during the lives of
the apoitles, was circulated throughout the Chiiftian world,
in numberlefs copies, though they were not collected during
that period into a fingle volume.”” As the autographa of
the N.T. fell fo early into oblivion, it feems reafonable, in
certain cafes, to make ufe of critical conjeGture for fettling
the true reading of difputed paffages in the N T., as well
as in other books. On this fubje&t, fee Michaelis In-
trod. vol. i. §. 2. p. 253, &c.

For the-purpofe of multiplying autographs, or original
copies of the fame writing, feveral machines have been in-
vented. See Writinc Machine. ;

AUTOISON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Saone, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftriét of Vefoul; five leagues fouth of Be-
fancgon.

AUTOL, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, one league
from Calahorra.

AUT.
AUTOLITHOTOMUS, he who cuts himfelf for the’

ftone. See Liruoromy.

Of this we have a very extraordinary inftance given by:
Reifelius, in the Ephemerides of the Academy Nature Cu-<
rioforum, an. 3. obi. 190.

AUTOLALA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Gz-
tulia, in Libya Interior, which tigod betwixt the Subus and
the Salathus, the only two rivers of note, except the Gir
and Niger, that watered.Gztulia. Nothing is now known ~
of this ancient city, but that it gave name to the Autololes;
a powertul tribe of Getulia Proper, that fpread themfelves _
over that part of Tingitania which bordered on the coalt of
the Atlantic ocean. ie

AUTOLYCUS, in Biography, a Greek mathematician
and aitronomer of Pitane, in Alolia, flourifhed about 320
years before Chrift. He was preceptor in mathematics to
Axcefilaus, who was alfo a diiciple of Theophraftus, the
fucceffor of Ariftotle. That he was.an eminent mathema=
tician appears from two of his works that are extant; viz.
a treatife * On the moveable Sphere, ” publifhed by Dafy-
podius in Greek and Latin, 8vo., at Strafburg, in 15785
and in a Latin tranflation in the ** Synopfis Mathematica’?
of Merfennus, publifhed in ato., at Paris, in 1644; and
alfo a treatife On the rifing and fetting of the Stars,”
edited with the former work by Dafypodius Diog. Laert.
Vit. Arcefil. Fabr. Bid. Grec. tom. ii. p. 89. Montucla
Hiit. Mathem. t. i. p. 192.

AUTOMATON, or Automaton, compounded of
a7, ipfe, and power IL am excited or ready, whence
avrona705 fpontaneous; afeif moving engine; or amachine .
which has the principle of motion within itfelf. Such were
Archytas’s fying dove, mentioned by Aulus Gelius, Noé.
At. lib.x.c. 12. (See AzRosration); and regiomonta-
nus’s wooden eagle, which, as hiftorians relate, flew forth
from the city of Nuremberg, met the emperor Maximilian on
hisarrival, June7, 1470, faluted him, and returned; asalfohis
iron fly, which, at afeait, flew out of his hands and taking a
round, returned thither again; and alfo Dr. Hooke’s flying
charict, capable of fupporting itfelf in the air. Hakew. °
Apol. c. x. feét. 1. None of the contemporary writers,
though they often mention Regiomontanus, take any notice
of thofe pieces cf mechanifm that have been afcribed to
him, and it is probable, fays Beckmann (Hit. Invent.

vol. iii. p. 325.) that the whole tale originated from Peter

Ramus (Schol. Mathem. 1. ii. p. 65.), who never was at Nu-
remberg tillthe year 1571. Charles V.., it is faid, after his
abdication, amufed himfelf during the latter period of his
life, with automata of various kinds: ;

Among automata are alfo reckoned all mechanical en-
gines which go by fprings, weights, &c. included within ~
them: fuch are clocks, watches, &c. Vide Bapt. Port.
Mag. Nat. c. 19. Scalig. Subtile. 326.

When clocks were brought to perfeGtion, fome artifts
added to them figures, which, at the time of ftriking, per=
formed certain movements; and as they fucceeded in thefe,
fome of them attempted to conitrué¢t fingle figures, detached
from clocks, which cithe# moved certain limbs, or advanced
forward and ran, In the middle of the fixteenth century,
when Hans Bullman, of Nuremberg, conftruéted figures of
men and women, which moved bacuvanee and forwards by -
clockwork, beat a drum, and played on the lute, according
to mufical time, they exited univerfal aftonifhment. The ~
moit ancient automata, of which we have any record, are
the tripods conftructed by Vulcan (fee Iliad, xviii. 373. -
Philoftrat. Oper. ed. Olearii, p. 117 and 240.), which bein
furnifhed with wheels, advanced forwards to be vfed, ade Lon

f| 7

AUT

Again returned to their places. 'Thefe tripods, which are
meitioned alfo by Aviftotle (Polit. i. 3.) were probably
only a kind of fmall tables, or dumb waiters, with wheels
fo contrived that they could be put in motion, and driven
to a diltance, onthe finalleft impulfe.

Automata that reprefent human figures are called An-
droides. (See Anprorpes, vader which article an account
has been given of feveral figures of this kind.) From a let-
ter addrefled by Thomas Collinfon, efq. to Dr. Hutton,
we learn, that the fecret of the chefs-playing figure exhi-
bited in various places by M. Kempelen (baron Kempell),
was difcovered by a gentleman of rank and talents named
Joleph Freidvick Freyhere, who publifhed, at Drefden, in
1789, a treatife explaining its principles. A well taught
boy, very thin and {mall of his age, fo that he might be
concealed in a drawer almoft immediately under the chefs-
board, agitated the whole machine. M. Droz of La Chaux
de Fonds, in the province of Neufchatel, has alfo executed
fome very curious pieces of mechanifm. One of thefe was
a clock, prefented to the king of Spain, to which pertained,
among other curious contrivances, a fheep that imitated the
bleating of this animal, and a dog, watching a bafket of
fruit, that barked and fnarled when any one offered to take
it away, and a variety of moving humantigures. Mr. Collinfon
informs us, that when he was at Geneva, Droz, the fon
of the former, fhewed him an oval gold fauff-dox, about
44 inches long, 3 broad, and 14 thick, which was double,
with an horizontal partition; one of the partitions contained
fnuff, and inthe other, upon opening the lid, there fprung
up a very finali bird, of green enamelled gold, perching on
a gold ftand. This minute curiofity, being oaly three
quarters of an inch from the beak to the extremity of the
tail, wagged its tail, fhook its wings, opened its bill of
white enamelled gold, and poured forth fuch a clear melo-
dious fong as would have filled a room of twenty or thirty
feet {quare with its harmony. Another automation of Droz’s
was the igure ofa man, about the natural fize, which held
in itshand a metal ftyle; and by touching a {pring that re-
leafed the internal clock-work from its flop, the figure
began to draw ona card of Dutch vellum laid under the ityle.
Having finifhed its drawings on the firft card, the figure
refted. It then proceeded to draw different fubjects on five
or fix other cards, which number limited its delineating
powers. The firlt card exhibited elegant portraits and like-
nefles of the king and queen facing each other; andthe
figure was obferved with the moft furprifing precifion to
lift its pencil, in the tranfition from one point of the draft
to the other; as, e. g. from the forehead to the eye, nole,
aad chin, and from the waving curls of the hair to the ear,
&c. without making the leatt flur.

AUTOMEDON, in Entomolosy, a fpecies of Paritio
( Hiliconius\, with broad angulated wings of a brown colour
above, and livid beneath; an ocellar {pot in the anal angle.
Fabricius, &c. Native place unknown.

AUTONINE, Bernarp, in Biography, a French law-
yer and advocate to the parliament of Bourdeaux, was born
at Agenois, in 1587, and died ‘In 1666. The princi-
pal of the law treatifes which he wrote are in French, « A
Comparifon of the French with the Roman law,” publifhed
in 2 vols. fol. in 1644; and ‘“ A Commentary upon the
Provincial Law, or * La Contume,’ of Bourdeaux,”’ the
beft edition of which is that of Dupin, 1728, fol. with
notes. Healfo wrote in Latin “ Cenfura Gallica in Jus
Civile Romanum,” Paris, 8vo. 1615 ; and he publifhed at
Paris, in 1607, in two volumes, 8vo., an editionof Juve-
nal and Perfius, with ample notes. He has been deemed

Vou. III.

AUT

¢ induftrious rather than a judicious author. Nouv. Dit.
itt.

AUTONNE, in Geography, ariver of France, which
runs into the Oife near Verberie.

AUTONOML, in Ancient Geography, fo called becaufe
they were their own law-givers, a people who inhabited the
meft rocky and barren parts of Thrace, feparated from
Meefia by mount Hemus. In their engagement with Alex-
ander, they behaved with extraordinary valour; but their
whole army wascut in pieces, and their baggage taken, to-
gether with their wives and children. After this defeat,
they fubmittedto the conqueror, who, in order to prevent
their rcvolt during his ablence, took with him into Afia
all the chief men of their nation. ‘hey afterwards ferved
under Perfes againft the Romans; but were allowed to live
according to their own laws till the reign of Vefpafian,
who made their country part of the province of ‘I’hrace.
Thucyd. 1. ii. Arrian, 1. i.

AUTONOMIA, from avr0;, /elf, and vouor, law, a
power of living or being governed by our own Jaws and
magiftrates. ‘he liberty of the cities which lived under
the faith and prote@tion of the Romans, confifted in their
autonomia, i. e. they were allowed to make their own laws,
and elect their own magiftrates, by whom juftice was to be
adminiftered and not by Roman prefidents or judges, as
was done in other places which were not indulged the auto-
nomia.

AUTOPRACTI, from evto:, and wale, TL exaf, in
the Civil Law; thofe indulged this privilege, that they
fhould not be fummoned or compelled to pay taxes or tri-
butes by the collectors, but fhould be left to their own free
will. Du-Cange. ’

Of this number were men of diftinguifhed dignity, and
thofe eminent. for their probity and honour,

AUTOPSY, compounded of auzo-, one’s felf, and obic,
Sight, ocular infpeCtion, or the feeing a thing with one’s
own eyes.

AUTOPYROS, from avroc, and auypec, wheat, in the
Ancient Diet, an epithet given to a {[pecies of bread, wherein
the whole fubftance of the wheat was retained, without re-
trenching any part of the bran.

_ Galen deferibes it otherwile, viz. as bread where only
the coarfer bran was taken out.—Aind thus, it was amedium
between the finett bread, called fimilagineus, and the coarfelt,
called furfuraceus.

This was alfo called autopyrites, and /yncomiflus.

AUTOUR, in Ornithology, the name under which Buf-
fon deferibes the gofhawk, or falco palumbarius of Linneus.

Avrovr, in Natural Hifery, a fort of bark which re-
fembles cinnamon, but is paler and thicker; it is of the co-/
lour of a broken nutmeg, and full of fpangles. It comes
from the Levant, and is an ingredient in the carmine dye.

AUTREAU, James D’, in Biography, a painter anda
‘poet, was born at Paris, in 1656; but being of a fingular
and mifanthropic difpofition, fecluded himfelf from the
world, lived in obfcurity, and died in an hofpital. Asa
painter, though not eminent, he produced fome pieces that
were efteemed. With a view of doing honour to the cha-
raéter of cardinal Fleury, he adopted the device of exhibit-
ing Diogenes with a lanthorn fearching for an horeft man,
and pointing him out in a portrait of the cardinal. Having
nearly attained the age of fixty, he begaa to write for the
{tage ; and the {peices of compofition which he firft adopted,
notwithftanding his contrary difpofition and habits, was
light and humourous comedy. He wrote both for the
Italian and French theatres. His Port a l’Anglois’”? was

3 D his

&.

we

AUT

his firft pisce, and another of his works was the - Amans
Ignorans.”? He alfo compofed fome tragedies and ferious
piece sfor the French theatre; and wrote Lyric compofitions
for the opera. The plots of his pieces are fimple and inar-
tificial; but the dialogue is eafy and natural; and fome of
his fcenes contain genuine comedy. Notwithitanding all his
exertions, Autreau died in extreme poverty, at the hofpital
of the Incurables in Paris, in 1745. His works were col-
lected and publifhed, with a preface, by Peffelier, in four
volumes, 12mo. in 1749. Nouv, Dict. Hittor. -

AUTRECOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton
in the diftri& of Clermont; four miles $.S. E. of Clermont,
and eleven fouth-weft of Verdun.

AUTREY, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton in the diitrict of
Gray ; one league north-wett of Gray. The place contains
1213, and the canton 8,395 inhabitants ; the territory in-
cludes 270 kiliometres and 24 communes.

AUTRICOURT, a town of France, in the department
of the Coté d’Or, and chief place of a canton in the dif-
triG& of Chatillon fur Seiné, eight miles north of Chatillon.

AUTRICUM, in Ancient Geography, now Chartres, a
town of Gaul, the capital of the Carnutes, and called Civitas
Carnotum, and Carnotena. It was feated on an eminence,
and feems to have derived its firft name from the river Jutura.
It was celebrated in Gaul, as the principal refidence of the
Druids, who held their affemblies among the woods in its
vicinity. The name of Carnotum was probably derived
from the Celtic Kar or Ker, denoting a city, and exprefling
its peculiar excellence.

AUTRIGANES, a people of Hifpania Citerior, in Can-
tabria, who dwelt near the foot of the Pyrenées, towards
the fouth-weft. The only town they had on the coait was
Flaviobriga.

AUTRUCHE, in Ornithology.SeeStrurHi10 CameE.us.

AUTRY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton in
the diftri@ of Grandpré; three leagues weit of Varennes.

AUTUMN, the third feafon of the year; being that in
which the harveft and the fruits of the fummer are gathered.
It begins on the day when the fun’s meridian diftance from
the zenith, being on the decreafe, is a mean between the
greateft and the leaft; which in thefe countries is fuppofed
to happen when the fun enters Libra, or about the twenty-
fecond day of September. Its end coincides with the be-
ginning of winter.

Divers nations have computed the year by autumns; the
Englifh Saxons, by winters.—Tacitus tells us, the ancient
Germans were acquainted with all the other feafons of the
year, but had no notion of autumn.

Autumn has always been reputed an unhealthy feafon.
Tertullian calis it “tentator valetudinum;”? and the fativiit
fpeaks of it in the fame light:

« Autumnus Libitine quettus acerbe.”

Autumn is commonly reprefented by painters under the
fieure of a female crowned with vine branches, and bunches
of grapes; naked in that part which re{pects fummer, and
clothed in that which correfponds to winter. Its garment
is covered with flowers, like that of Bacchus

AUTUMNAL, fomething peculiar toautumn. Thus,

Avrumnat Point, is one of the equinoétial points; being
that from which the fun begins to defcend towards the
fouth pole.

Avrumnat Eguinox, is the time when the fun enters the
autumnal point. See Equinox.

AUT

Avurumnat Flowers, See Flower,

Avtumnat Plants, in Gardening, all fuch as attain per=
fection in autumn, either in their growth, or in their flower=
ing, &c. ‘

Avutumnat Sea/on, that period, which, in regard to the
numerous operations to be performed in it, is commonly
confidered to be, from about the beginning or middle of
Augutt to the latter end of November; and in which the
different works of fowing, planting, and propagation, &c,
are moit fuccefsfully accomplifhed; as, for inftanee, the
putting in various forts of efculent plants to ftand the win-
ter for the enfuing {pring and fummer, fuch as cabbages,
cauliflowers, carrots, lettuces, {pinach, onions, &c. in the
more early part; and in the latter, beans, peas, coleworts
and early cabbage plants; likewife cauliflowers, fonie to re-
main under hand and bell glaffes, others in frames, to ftand
till fpring; alfo lettuces on warm borders, and in frames, to
ftand the winter; and celery in {hallow trenches, for {pring
ufe; and the making and fpawning of muthroom-beds, for
winter and f{pring. Different forts of fibrous-rooted flower-
plants are alfo increafed at this feafon, by dividing or part-
ing their roots, particularly in the months of September,
Otober, and November, when the flower-items decay; the
flipped or divided parts moftly flowering the following year :
and from the middle of September to the middle or end of
November, is the time for tranfplanting from one place to
another different kinds of hardy fibrous-rooted perennials,
as directed under their proper genera. Mott forts of
bulbous flower-roots, that were taken up in fummer, are
now planted in order to exhibit an early {pring and fum-
mer bloom, in the following year. The feeds of many
forts of flowers are likewife at this time to be fown,
which do not grow fo freely when fown at other feafons,
as is {hewn under their proper heads. In the latter part
of this feafon it is neceflary to plant cuttings, and make
layers, for the propagation of various trees and shrubs
of the hardy kind. The feeds of many forts of hardy
trees and fhrubs may alfo be fown. Belides thefe, many
other parts of garden culture are particularly neceflary
at this feafon.

AuTuMNAL Signs, are thofe through which the fun paffes
during the feafon of autumn, Libra, Scorpio, and Sagit-
tarius. Ng

AUTUMNALIS, in Ornithology, a fpeices of Psit-
Tacus, called by Briff. pfittacus americanus; crick a téte
bleue by Buff. ; lefler green parrot by Edwards, Av. and au-
tumnal parrot by Latham. It is diflinguifhed by being of
a green colour, with the front and fpot on the quill fea-
thers fcarlet; crown and primary quill feathers blue.
Gmelin.

Of this kintl there are two diftinét varieties ; one with the
front and chin blue, and the other with the head varied with
red and white. The firft is var. (@) pfittacus fronte gulaque
ceruleis of Gmel.; crick a téte bleue of Buff.; blue-faced
green parrot of Edwards; and blue-headed creature of
Bancr. Gujan. The latter is called Cocho in Fernand. Hitt.
Nov. Hifp. ’ Inhabits Guiana.

This f{pecies is about the fize of a pigeon; region of the
eyes blue; primary wing-coverts blue, and red at the bafe;
tail feathers green above, and tipped with yellowifh, outer
one blue at the exterior edge: beneath yellowifh, reddifh at
the bafe, with a green {pot in the middle.

AvutTumNAtis, afpecies of Anas or duck, that inhabits
South America. It is greyifh; wings, tail, and’ belly
black; fpot on the wing tawny and white. Jacquin Beytr.

This is the red-billed whiftling duck of Edwards; anas fiftu- .
_— larie

e ;

AUN

Yaris americana of Briff.; and fiMeur & bec rouge et narines
jaunes of Buffon.

This bird is reprefented to be of a very quarrelfome dif-
pofition, but may be tamed; fits on trees, and meafures in
Jength twenty-one inches. T'he bill is red, black at the
tip; crown, back, and feapulars chefnut; brealt yellowith
ath; legs yellow.

AvutTumnatis, a fpecies of Frincitua, called by La-
tham the autumnal finch. It inhabits Surinam; is of a
greenifh colour, with a ferruginous cap, and yent teitaceous,
Linnens. The tail is even at the end.

AUTUMNUS, in Zatomology, the name given by Am-
miral tothe moth, or phalena, called by Gmelin P. /agaua;
which fee.

AUTUN, in Geography, an ancient city of France, and
chief place of a diftrict in the department of the Saone and
Loire; and, before the revolution, the capital of a diftria
called Autunois, with abifhop’s fee. It is tituated near the
river Arroux, at the foct of three mountains, in which are
three {prings, that fupply the city with water. The city
itielf is fmall, being about 4 of amile in length, and ahout
the fame breadth ; it has now few good buildings, but its
ruins indicate its former magnificence ; and thofe of its
walls in particular, feem, by the firm union of the ftones
that compofe them, asif they had been cut out of the folid
rock. Here are the remains of three ancient temples, one
dedicated to Janus, and another to Diana; and alfo of a
theatre, and a pyramid, the laft probably having been a
tomb. It has alfo two beautiful antique gates ; the fieldin
which it flands is called “ the field of urns,’’ becaufe feveral
urns have been dug in it. Autun was made a Roman colony
by Avguitus, and aiter him called « Auguftodunum ;”
and as early as the reign of Claudius, it ventured of itfelf,
and without affittance, to declare again{t the legions of Gaul.
After a fiege of feven months, they ftormed and plundered
this unfortunate city, already wafled by famine ; nor was
it reftored till the time of Dioclefian. The country from
Chalons to Autun is very rich in vineyards and cornfields,
and prefents, by its lofty hills and {welling outline, a pictu-
refque fcene. ‘The approach to it is by a road which winds
over hills, that is covered with an underwood of broom, and
crowned with a foreft of birch and fir-trees: The cathedral
isa handfome building. The place contains 9,176 and the
canton 15,016 inhabitants: the territory includes 2624 ki-
liometres and 10 communes. N. lat 46% 56 48". E. long.
+ 17’ 44".

AUTURA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gallia
Celtica, now the Lure, which falls into the Seine on the
Touth fide.

AUTZ, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Cour-
land, thirty-fix miles S. S. E. of Goldingen,

AUVE, a town of France, in the department of the
Marne, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of St.
Menehould, thirteen miles E. N. E. of Chalons.

AUVERGNE, a province of France, before the revo-
lution, but now forming the two departments of Puy de
Déme, and Cantal, bounded on the eaft by Forez, on the
north by Bourbonnois, on the weft by Limofin, Quercy,
and La Manche, on the fouth by Rouergue, and the Ce-
vennes. Its extent from fouth to north is about forty
French leagues, and from weft to eaft thirty. It is divided
into Upper and Lower Auvergne. The former is coldand
Tountainous, and yet has excellent paftures, and fupplies
Tmany large cattle; the latter, to which belongs the valley
of Limagne, and by which appellation it has fometimes been
diflinguifhed, is a fertile and pleafant country, abounding
in wine, grain, fruit, and hemp. Auvergne fupplies Lyons

and Paris with fat cattle; a large quantity of cheele is

.*

AUY

made in this province ; and it has feveral manufaGtures. Jt
has mines of filver, iron, lead, and coals. Its principal ri-
vers are the Allier, the Dordogne, and the Alagnon ; Avhich
fee. The capital of the whole province is Clermont.
The bafaltic mountains of this ancient province are famous ;
and have been afcribed by forme eminent naturalifts to vol-
canoes; but as they confit chiefly of bafaltic columns and
elevations, others, among whom may be reckoned the bet
judges, allege that they have no claim to a volcanic origin.
Thofe of Auvergne are too extenfive to have been produced
by a fingle volcano, and it would be too bold a conjecture to
attribute them to a chain of volcanoes. ‘*'T'he northern part
of the chain 1s ftyledthe Puy de Déme, while the fouthern
is called that of Cantal. The Monts d’?Or from the centre
and are the higheft mountains in France. The chief eleya-
tion is that cf the Puy de Sanfi, which rifes about 6,300
feet above the level of the fea, while the Puy de Déme is
about soc, and the Plomb du Cantal, the higheft of that
part, is about 6,200 feet. Near the Puy de Sanfi is PAngo,
that gigantic mountain, and Vcorchade, a fhattered and
wrecked elevation, The Plomb du Cantal is alfo accompa-
nied by bold rivals, as the Puy de Grion, le Col-de-Cabre,
le Puy Mari, and the Violent. ‘This enormous affemblage
of rocks covers an extent of about 120 miles, and according
to the Trench authors, 1s chiefly bafaltic. The Puy de
Sanfi is capped with almoit perpetual fnow, followed in the
defcent by naked rocks and ancient pines; from its fides
iffues, from two fources, the river Dordogne, and many pic~
turefque cafcades devolye amidft bafaltic columns. On the
23d of June, 1727, Pradines, a village on the flope of one
ot thefe mountains, was totally overwhelmed by its fail; the
whole mountain with its bafaltic columns rolling into the
valley. The inhabitants were fortunately engaged in the
celebration of Midfummer eve, round a bonfire at fome dif-
tance. Thefe mountains are in winter expofed to dreadful
{nowy hurricanes, called Acirs, which in a few hours oblite-
rate the ravines, and even the precipices, and defcending te
the paths and fireets, confine the inhabitants to their dwell-
ings, till a communication can be opened with their neigh~
bours, fometimes in the form of an arch under the vatt mafe
of fnow. Wretched the traveller who is thus overtaken:
his path difappears, the precipice cannot be diitinguifhed
from the level; if he ftand he is chilled, and buried if he
proceed: his eye-fight fails amidft the {nowy darknefs ; his
refpiration is impeded; his head becomes giddy ; he falls
and perifhes. In fummer, thunder ftorms are frequent and
terrible, and accompanied with torrents of large hail, which
deftroy the fruits and flocks, which for fix months pafture
on thé mountains, guarded by fhepherds, who have tempo-
rary cabins of turf and reed, ftyled durons.”? Pinkerton’s
Mod. Geog. vol. i. p. 274.

Auvergne, in the revolutions of France, formerly main-
tained a jult pre-eminence among the independent ftates
and cities of Gaul. The brave and numerous inhabit-
ants difplayed a fingular trophy, which was the {word of
Cefar himfelf, which he had loft when he was repulfed
before the walls of Gergovia. As the common offspring
of Troy, they maintained a paternal alliance with the
Romans ; and if each province had imitated the courage
and loyalty of Auvergne, the fall of the weftern empire
might have been prevented or delayed. They firmly main-
tained the fidelity which they had relu€tantly fworn to
the Vifigoths ; but when their braveft nobles had fallen in
the battle of Poittiers, they accepted, without refiftance, a
victorious and catholic fovereign. This eafy and valuable
conguelt was atchieved, and poffeffed by Theodoric, the
eldelt fon of Clovis. Atlength, however, Childebert, the
king of Paris was tempted by the neighbourhood and beauty

22 of

AU W

of Auvergne; and on the falfe report that their lawful
fovereign was flain in Germany, the city and diocefe were
betrayed by the grandfon of Sidosius Apollinaris. Childe-
bert enjoyed this clandeftine viGtory. Theodoric having
promifed to the Franks of Auitrafia the poffeflion of this
rich and produétive country, forteited the allegiance of the
inhabitants, and devoted them to deftruGiion. His troops,
reinforced by the fierceft barbarians cf Germany, f{pread
defolation over the fruitful face of Auvergne, aud two
places only, the ftrong caftle of Meroliac, and the holy
fhrine of St. Julian at Brivas or Brionde, were faved or re-
deemed from their licentious fury. Beforethe Auftrafian army
retreated from Auvergne, Theodoric exacted fome pledges
of the future loyalty of a people, whofe juft hatred could
only be reftrained by their fear. A felect band of noble
youths, the fons of the principal fenators, were delivered to
the conqueror, asthe hoftages of the faith of Childebert and
of their countrymen; and, on the firft rumour of war, or
confpiracy, thefe guiltlefs youths were reduced to a ftate of
fervitude ; and one of them only, whofe name was Attalus,
efcaped by a fingular adventure. See Gibbon’s Hift. vol.
wi. p. 362—369.

AUVERGNIE, a town of Swifferland, one league
fouth of Neufchatel.

AUVERNAS, a very deep-coloured heady wine, made
of black raifins fo called, which comes from Orleans. It is
not fit to drink before it is above a year old; but if kept
two or three years, it becomes excellent.

AUVIGNY, N. Castres v’, in Biography, a French
hiitorian, was born at Hainault in 1712, and in his youth
refided with La Fontaine. But engaging in the military
profeffion, he entered into a company of life-guards, and
was killed in the battle of Dettingen, in 1743. In the
province of literature, he diftinguifhed himfelf by feveral
works, the principal of which was “ ‘The Lives of [luftri-
ous Men of France, from the commencement of the Monar-
chy to the prefent time.”? Of this work, 8 volumes in
12mo. appeared in the author’s life-time ; two pofthumous
volumes were publifhed by his brother ; and the publication
has been fince continued by the abbé Pereau and M.Turpin.
The biographical fketches of Auvigny are written with ani-
mation and elegance, but they approach fo much to fidtion
that they cannot be implicitly relied on as hiftdrical truth.
An abridged hiftory, wntten by Auvigny, and publifhed in
two vols. 12mo. is iatitled “ An Abridgment of the Hif-
tory of France, and of the Roman Hiitory, in queftion and
aniwer.”? In 1735, he publifhed, in five volumes 12mo.
s¢ An Hiftory of the City of Paris ;” but part of the fourth
and the whole of the fifth, were written by M. de la Barre.
The principal of Auvigny’s works of imagination is
«< Memoirs of Madame de Barneveldt.’? Nouv. Did.
Bik.

AUVILLARD, in Geography, atown of France, in the
department of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftri& of Agen; 13 miles fouth-eaft of
Agen, and two fouth of Valence. The place contains
2,007, and the canton 8,767 inhabitants: the territory in-
cludes 122% kiliometres and 11 communes. N. lat. 44° 3’.
Es. long. o° 48'.

AUVILLERS-LES-FORGES, a town of France,
in the department of the Ardennes, and chief place of a
canton in the diftriGt of Rocroi, ten miles W. N. W. of
Mezieres.

AVUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain, in the
territory of the Callaici, whofe courfe lay from eaft to
weft, and which difcharged itfelf into the fea towards the
north.

AUW,, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the arche

AUX

— of Auftria, feated on the Danube; ten miles W.S. We
of Grein.

AUWAWA, in Ichthyolozy.. See Bauistes Krernit.

AUX, in Afronomy. See AucEs.

Some ufe eux to denote the arch of the ecliptic, intercepted
between the firft point of Aries, and the point whereia the
fun, or a planet, is at its greateft length from the earth.
Wolf. Lex. Math. p. 222.

-AUXACIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Scythia, beyond mount Imaus, and to the weft o. Iffedon
Scythia.

AUXENTIUS, in Biography, an Arian divine, wasa
native of Cappadocia, and flourithed in the fourth century.
In the conteft between the Arians and Catholics, he was
advanced by the emperor Conftantius to the fee of Milan.
By Hilary, bifhop of Poiétiers, he was accufed to the em-
peror Valentinian, as an enemy of Chrift, anda blafphemer ;
and in order to filence his enemies, he madea declaration of
his faith, with which the emperor was fatisfied. But the
Catholics proceeded againit him, and a council, which was
held at Rome by pope Damafus, in 368, excommunicated,
him. He was alio condemned by Athanafius, and the pre-
lates of Gaul at the fame time. However, he retained the
fee of Milan to the time of his death in 374, and was fuc-
ceeded by Ambrofe. Cave, H. L. tom. i. p. 214. ~

AUXERRE, in Geography, a city of France, and capi-
tal of the department of the Yonne, feated advantageouily
‘for trade, on the fide of a hill, near the Yonne, which wafhes
its walls. Before the revolution, it was the fee of a bifhop,
and capital of a country called Auxerrois. The epifcopal
palace was one of the moft beautiful in France. The place
contains 12,047, and the canton 16,913 inhabitants; the
territory includes 117% kiliometres, and g communes. N.
lat. 47° 47' 57". E.long. 3° 34 6%: ?

AUXERROIS, a name given before the revolution
toa country of France, in the northern part of Burgundy;
bounded on the eaft and north by Champagne, neiack
by Nivernois, and on the fouth by the reft of Burgundy,
about nine leagues long and five broad. Its capital was
Auxerre. >

AUXESIS, in Mythology, a goddefs worfhipped by the
inhabitants of Egina, and mentioned by Heredotus ‘and
Paufanias. ‘

Auxesis, avinzc, increafe, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby
any thing is magnified toomuch. See AmPLiFICATION,
and IncREMENT. ?

AUXILIARY, any thing that is helping or affifting to
another. For an account of the auxiliary troops of the
Romans, fee ALLIANCE. ; :

Avuxipviary Verls, in Grammar, are fuch as help to af-
certain or limit the fenfe of others; that is, are prefixed to
them to form or denote their moods or tenfes.

Such, in Englith, are have, am, or be ; in Fren
and aveir; in Ltalian, ho, and Jono, uri
am fupplies the want of Passives in our lang Oud

‘Al the modern languages we know of ae af of
iliary verbs. The reafon is, that the verbs thereof ¢
chauige their terminations or endings, as thofe of the Lat
and Greek, to denote the different tenfes or times of being
doing, or fuffering ; nor the different moods or manners
their fuffering, &c.: fo that, to fupply this defe&, recourk
is had to different auxiliary verbs. © aie

Befides the perfect auxiliary verbs, we have feveral defect-

» etre

changiig the terminations, fave the neceffity of changing -
thofe of the verbs to which they are added. Thus, inttea
of ego urs, iu uris, ille urit, Sc. we fay, I do bum, thou
dojt burn, he dots bura, &c. ay

ive ones; as do, will, /ball, may, can, and have ; ging n

*

#

e '

AUZ

The verbs ave, be, will, and do, when they are uncon-
nected with a principal verb, expreffed or underftood, are
not auxiliaries, but principal verbs ; as, we save enough ;
I am grateful; he witls it to be fo; they do as they pleafe ;
and ia this view, they alfo have their auxiliaries ; as, 1 /ba//
Rave enough; 1 will be grateful, &c. Murray’s Lng.
Gram. p. 76.

AUXILIUM, in Law. See Arn.

Avuxitium curiae, fignifies an order of court, for the
fummoning of one party at the fuit of another.

Acxitium ad filium militem faciendum, vel filiam maritan-
dam, was a writ directed to the theriff of every county,

‘where the king or other lord had tenants, to levy of

them reafonable aid, towards the knighting of his eldedt
fon, or the marriage of his eldeft daughter. ‘

AUXIMA, in dacient Geography, a town of Spain,
mentioned by Florus.

AUXIMIS, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis,
Ptolemy.

AUXIMUM, or Auxumum, Osrmo, a town of Italy,
in the Picenum, fouth of Ancona. It wasa Roman colony.

AUXO, in Mythology, the name of one of two graces
worfhipped by the Athenians. See Hecemone.

AUXORS, in Geography, a name given before the late
divifion, to a territory of France, of which Semuren-A.uxois
was the capital.

AUXON, a town of France, in the department of the
Aube, and chief of a canton in the diftrict of Ervy; 44
leagues fouth of Troyes, and 14 north of Ervy.

AUXONNE, a town of France, in the department of
the Cdte d’Or, and chief place of a canton, and feat of a
tribunal, in the diftrict of Dijon, feated in a plain near the
eaft fide of the Saone. It is furrounded by a double wall
built in the 17th century, and has a bridgé of 23 arches
over the Saone, ferving for the paflage of the waters when
the river overflows ; and at the end of the bridge is a caufe-
way of 2250 paces in length; 53 leagues F.S. E. of Di-
jon. The place contains 5282, and the canton 11,306 in-
abienes’ the territory includes 185 kiliometres and 17
communes. N. lat. 47° 11/24". E. long. 5° 23/35”.

AUXY-LA-REUNION, a town of France, in the
department of the {traits of Calais, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of St. Pol, three leagues S. S. E,
of Hefdin. The place contains 2469 aud the canton
13,875 inhabitants ; the territory iacludes 185 kiliometres
and 28 communes.

AUXY, in the French Manufaéures, a name given to that
fort of wool which is {pun in the neighbourhood of Abbe-
ville, by thofe workmen who are called houpiers. It isa
very fine and beautiful wool, which is commonly ufed to
make the finelt ftockings. ~

AUZAGUREL, or Aussacurrt, in Geography, a
town of Africa, in the kingdom of Adel, reckoned by
fome the capital, and fituated on an eminence near the
“Hlawath. See Avex. ;

AUZANCES, a town of France, in the department of

the Creufe, and .chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Avbuffon, feated on a hill, furrounded with ponds; 25
miles E. S. E. of Gueret, and nine fouth of Evaux. The
place contains 1230 and the canton 8449 inhabitants ; the
territory comprehends 165 kiliometres and 12 commmnes.
* AUZARA, Osara, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Syria; or according to Ptolemy, in Arabia.De-
ferta, S. S. E. of Circefium; fituated on the weftern, bank
of the Euphrates. ‘

AUZATA, Auza, or Auzr1s, atown of Libya, built
according to Joferhus, inhis « Antiquities,” by Ithobaal,
kiag of the Tyrans; fituat d, according to Ptolemy, in
the mtcrior of Maunitauia Ca-arieatis, to che ealt of a lake

AWA

from which flowed the new Chinalaph. It was the capital
of the Aufes, who were fituated to the weft of the river
Triton, Tacitus informs us, that it was built in a fmall
plain, furrounded on all fides with barren foretts of immenfe
extent. The ruins of this city were called by the neigh-
bouring Arabs * Sour Gutlan,”’ or the walls of the Aute-
lopes;” a great part of which, flanked at proper diftances
with little {quare towers, is {till remaining.

AUZILS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Aveiron, and chief place of a canton in the
diltriGt of Albin; 15 miles north-weft of Rhodez.

AUZOIR.LE-MARCHE’, atown of France, in the
department of the Loir and Cher, and chief place of a can-
ton in the diltriét of Blois. The place contains g60 and
the canton 7150 inhabitants: the territory includes 315 ki-
liometres and 14 communes.

AUZON, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Loire, and chief place of acanton, in the diftri@ of
Brioude, onthe Allier, fix miles north of Brioude. The
place contains 1256 and the canton 9882 inhabitants: the
territory includes 155 kiliometres and 13 communes.

AUZOUT, Anzian, in Biography, a French mathe-
matician of the 17th century, and one of the firft members
of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, was born at Rouen,
and died in 1693. Some have aferibed to him the honour
of having invented the Micrometer; but he is more juitly
entitled to the praife of having contributed to the improve-
ment of it, in purfuance of the ideas fuggelted by M.
Huygens, and the marquis of Malvafia. (See Micromz-
TER.) Auzout’s treatife on this fubje& was publifhed in
1667, and may be found inthe Memoirs of the Academy
for 1693, tom. vii. Auzout was alfo concerned with M.
Picard in the important difcovery of the method of apply-
ing the telefcope to the quadrant, which has been highly
uleful to aftronomers. It has been faid, particularly by M.
de la Hire, that M. Auzout hada principal part in this dif
covery; but from the defcription given of it by M. Picard,
in his *¢ Figure de la Terre,” the reader cannot hefitate in
pronouncing M. Picard himfelf to have been the original and
fole author. It appears, however, from feveral fragments
of letters in a correfpondence between our ingenious but
unfortunate countryman Mr. Gafcoigne, who was killed in
the battle of Marfton-Moor, and Meffrs. Horrox and Crab-
tree, and which are recorded by Derham, in the Phil. Tranf.
for 1723 (vol. 48. p. 190), that the method of conftrudting
amicrometer, and alfo of applying telefcopic fights to qua-
drants, was known to him before the time of the civil wars.
But as thefe two important difcoveries were not publifhed
even in England, and were not likely to be made known on
the continent at this early period ; it is not improbable that
Auzout and Picard might alfo have a juft claim to the ho-
nour of being original, though not the firftinventors. he
honour of having difcovered the method of applying the
telefcope to aftronomical inftruments ia the year 1663, was
alfo claimed by Dr. Hooke. M. Auzout publifhed « An
Ephemeris of the Comet of 1665 ;’? “ A Letter to the
Abbé Charles on the Obfervations of Campani,”’ in 1665 3
his “ Treatife on the Micrometer,” in 16673 and fome
s¢ Remarks on the Machine of Hooke.” Thefe three lait
pieces were contained in the 6th vol. of the Mempirs of the
Academy. Montucla, Hit Mathem.t ii. p. 569—572.

AW, in Gecgraphy, a towa of Germany, in the county
of Bregentz, 25 miles S. E. of Bregentz.

AWA, a town of Japan, in a province of the fame
name.— Alfo, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak;
28 leagues fouth of Caibin.

AWAIT, in our old Statutes, is ufed to fignify what we
now call waylaying, or lying in wai’, to execute foine mif-
chief. In flat. 13 I. Ii. c. a. itis ordained, that no char-

ter

AWN

fer of pardon fhall be allowed before any juftice, for the
death of any man flain by await, or malice prepeafed,
&e.

AWARD, in Law, the judgment of fome perfon who
is neither afligned by law, nor appointed by the judge, for
endiig a matter in controverfy ; but is choien by the par-
tics themfelves that are at variance. See ARBITRATION.

AWATCHA, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Moracitua,
that inhabits Kamtf{chatka. It is of a brown colour; chia
and breait white, {potted with black; middle of the belly
and lores white ; primary quill-feathers bordered with white ;
tail-feathers orange at the bafe. Ar&. Zool.—Gmelin.

AWATSKA, in Geography. See Avarscua.

AWCHAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan, 50 leagues S. W. of Tauris.

AWE, a river of Scotland, in the Highlands.
Locu-awe.

A-WEIGH, in Sea-Language, the fame as A-trip, when
applied to the anchor.

AWENYDHION, in Britifh Antiquity, a name that
was given to certain perfons in Wales, and derived from
Awen, was, of courfe, expreflive of poetical raptures. Thefe
perfons, when confulted about any thing doubtful, appeared
to be inflamed with a high degree of enthufiafm, and even
to be poffeffed by an invifible fpirit. They were neither
chaity, nor very direct and explicit in their anfwers, or in the
folution of the difficulties that were propofed to them ; but
in the courfe of along and wild circumlocution, th2 required
anfwer or folution would be obtained by means of fome
turn or digreffion in the fpeech, which was thought to
imply or exprefs it. Thefe perfons were at length roufed
from their feeming extacy as fro a deep fleep, and they
were compelled as it were, by violence, to return to their
natural condition, When perfons of this defcription reco-
vered their reafon, after an apparent and temporary aliena-
tion of mind, they did not recolleét any of thofe circumftances
that had occurred, or of the words which they had uttered
during their extacy. If they were, therefore, again con-
fulted about the fame fubje&, they would expreis them-
felves in very different words. The gift, which they pof-
feffed, was conferred upon them, as they imagined, in their
fleep, and the mode of communication feemed, fays Giral-
dus, as if new milk or honey was poured into their mouths ;
to others, as if a written fcroll had been put into their
mouths; and when they awoke, they knew and declared
that they had been endowed with this extraordinary {pirit
of divination. Some gift, refembling that to which the
Awenydhion of Wales pretended, has been long known in
Scotland, under the denomination of Seconp Sight. War-
rington’s Hiit. Wales, p. 102, &c. 4

AWERRI, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capi-
tal of a kingdom of the fame name, about 20 leagues from
Benin to the fouth.

AWHIN-EA, a river of Ireland, which rifes in lake Ea,
in the province of Donegal, and runs into the fea, feven
miles north of Killebegs.

AWK. See Aux.

AWL, or Aut, a fhoemaker’s implement, wherewith
holes are bored in leather, to facilitate the ftitching or few-
ing the fame.—The blade of the awl is ufually a little flat,
and bending; and the point ground to an acute angle.

AWME, or Aume, a Dutch meafure of capacity for
liquids ; containing eight freckans, or twenty verges, or ver-
feels > anfwering to what in England is called a tierce, or
one-tixth of aton of France, or one-feventh of an Englifh
ton. Arbuth. Tab. 33. ;

AWN, Aatsra, in Botany, the needle-tike briftles which

See

AXA

form beards of different forts of grafs or
barley, &c. The word is, in fome diftris, pronounced
4ils. Tt isfometimes ufed to fignify a fharp point termi-+
nating aleaf. See Arista. «

AWNING, on board a fhip, is when a fail, a tarpaulin
or the like, is hung over any part of the fhip, above the
decks, to keep off the fun, ram, or wind. ‘

Awnings are made of canvas. ‘The length of the main
deck awning is fromthe centre of the fore-mait to the cen-
tre of the main-mait; the width correfponds to the breadths
of the thip, taken at the main-malt, forematt, and at the mid-
way between. The length of the quarter deck awning is from
the centre of the main-mait to the centre of the mizen-malt;
and the width anfwers to the breadths of the fhip, at the
main-maft, mizen-matt, and at the midway between. The
length of the poop, or after-awning, is from the centre of
the mizen-maft to the enfign-itaff, about feven feet above
the deck ; and the width is formed agreeably to the breadths
of the fhip, taken at the mizen-mait, the taffarel, and at
the midway between. The canvas is cut to the given breadths
of the awning, allowing about nine ches to hang dowa
on each fide, which is fometimes fcolloped and bound with
green baize, and is fewed together with an inch feam, and
tabled all round with a two or three inch tabling. Half
the diameter of the mafts is cut out in the middie at each
end, and lacing-holes are made acrofs the ends to connect
one awning to another. On the upper part, along the
middle and fides, is fewed a one inch and half or two inch
rope, to which the trucks are fewed at about three quar-
ters of a yard afunder. A thimble is fpliced in each end of
the rope. Sometimes curtains are made to hang te the
fides of the awnings, of the fame length as the awnings.
Their depth is taken from the fides of the awning to the
gunewvales fuppofing the awning to be in its place. The

eams and tablings are the fame as thofe of the awnings,
and lacing-holes are made along the upper tabling of the
curtain, and the fide tabling of the awning. Clerke’s Elem.
and Practice of Rigging, vol. i. p. 140. 230.

In the long-boat they make an awning, by bringing the
fail over the yard and flay, and booming it out with the
boat-hook.

AX, acarpenter’s inftrument, ferving to hew wood.—The
ax differs from the joiner’s hatchet, in that it is much larger,
and heavier, as ferving to hew large ftuff ; and its edge ta-
pering into the middle of its blade.—It is furnifhed with a
long handle or helve, as being to be ufed with both hands,

Ax, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Arriége, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&
of Foix, onthe Arriege; 9 leagues weft of Prades, ‘and 45
S. E. of Tarafcon, The place contains 1500 and the can-
ton 7291 inhabitants ; the territory includes 390 kiliometres
and 14 communes.

Ax. See AxsripGE, and AXMINSTER. ;

Ax, Batile. See CrE.ir. '

AXAMENTA, in Antiquity, a denomination given to.
the veries, or fongs, of the /a/ii, which they fung in honour
of all men. ‘

The word is formed according to fome, from auxare.q. d.
nominare. Others will have the carmina faliaria to have
been denominated axamenta, on account of their being writ-
tenin axidus, or on wooden tables. ;

The axamenta were not compofed, as fome have afferted,
but only fung by the /a/ii. The author of them was
Numa Pompilius; and, as the ftyle might not be altered,
they grew intime fo obfcure, that the /z/ii themfelves did
not underftand them. Varro fays they were feven hundred
years old. Quint. Inft. Or. lib. i. c. 11. ’

3 AXAMENTA, —

‘ain, as wheat,

AXE
Axamenra, or Affe menta, in Ancient Mufic, hymns or
fongs performed wholly with human voices,
AXAS, in Geography, a town of America, in the interior
part of New Albion. N. lat 39° 5’. W. longs 114° 30.

, AXAT, or Azar, a town of France, in the department
of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, ia the diltri@ of
Quillan, on the Aude ; twenty-five miles fouth of Carcaf-
fonne, and five S. S. E. of Quillan.

AXBERG,a town of Sweden, in the province of Nericia.
AXBRIDGE, a town of England, in the county of
Somerfet,, about eight miles north of Wells, and 131
. weft of London. The river Ax divides the bridge from
Over-Weare, and gives the place its appellation. This
town is pleafantly fituated at the fouth-weltern roots of the
dark Mendip hills. It has a corporation confifting of a
mayor, bailiff, eight capital burgefles, and twenty-two
common councilmen; and fent members to parliment, till
excufed at the requeft of the inhabitants, in the reign of
Edward the third. Its market for corn, theep, pigs, &c.

is on Saturday, and two fairs are held here annually for the
fale of cattle and cheefe. _ Its only manufacture is knit-hofe,

in which a great number of families is employed. ‘The
church is particularly noted for its beautiful and uniform
architecture, and for the ftately monuments which it con-
tains. Moft of them are erected to the memory of the
Prowfe family, many of whom were interred within the
walls. This town contains 190 houfes, and 1000 inhabit-
ants. About two miles eaft of Axbridge is the village
_of Chedder which is celebrated for its fine cheefe ; and ex-
traordinary rocks or cliffs. The village is fituated under
Mendip hills, having the flat moors which extend to Glafton-
bury on the fouth fide, and a high ridge of hills on the
‘north. The Chedder cliffs feem to have been the effect
of fome great convulfion of nature, which rent the
hill afunder and formed an opening or chafm completely
through it. This chafm is now appropriated to a road,
which leads from the bottom to the top of the hill, having its
fides formed by the high craggy rocks. The length of
this gap is nearly two miles, ina winding direction. In
many parts the cliffs rife to the height of full 300 feet,
quite perpendicularly, fome terminating in bold pinnacles,
others in irregular fragments like fhattered battlements, and
others impending over head in an awful manner. . Yews pro-
ject out of feveral of the fiflures, forming lofty canopies, and
many of the rocks wear long mantles of ivy, which produce

~ a picturefque appearance, and form a pleafing contraft to
the craggy nakednefs of others. The romantic and grand
appearauce of thefe rocks attraéts the notice of many tra-
vellers. Mendip hills, which are often called the alps of

Somerfetfhire, abound with lead and calamine, and like the

fimilar hills of Derbythire, contain many vatt caverns and

fubterraneous vaults. Various coralloid relics are found in
this limeftone. Several curious plants are alfo obtained
here, among which the following are the moft rare ; dianthus
céfius (Chedder Pink) d. arenarius, and thalidrum minus.

Maton’s Obfervations on the Weltern Counties, and Collin-
fon’s Hiftory of Somerfetthire. ‘

_ AXEL, a ftrongly fortified town of Flanders; it was
_taken from the Spaniards by Maurice, prince of Na‘fau, in

1586 ; nine leagues W. of Antwerp. It is now a town-of

France, in the department of Efcaut, and chief place of a

canton in the diftri& of L’Eclufe. The place contains

1843 and the canton g508 inhabitants; the territory in-
ae 187% kiliometres and 10 communes. N. lat. 51°
15’. E. long. 3° 45’.

AXENS, atown of Germany, in the county of Tyrol;
nine miles S. W. of Infpruck.

“

ing veflels which are fituated in the axille.

AX!

AXHOLM, an ifland of England, in the N.W, part of
Lincolnhhire, formed by the rivers T'rent, Idel and Dan,
about ten miles long and five broad; the lower part is
marfhy ; the middle part fertile, and produces flax in abun
dance. The chief town, or rather village, thinly inhabited,
is called xey.

AXIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in the
country of the Locrian Ozolians.x—Alfo, a town of Italy,
in Etruria; and the inhabitants were called Axiates. \

AXIACA, a town of Sarmatia, to the left of the river
Sagaris, and north of Odeffus (Oczakow).

AXIACES, a river of European Sarmatia, a little
above Dacia; and the people who inhabitated the diftri& ta
the right of this river were called Ayiaci.

AXICA, or Azica, an ancient town of India, on this
fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

AXILLA, in dnaiomy, or Axa, the cavity under the
upper-part of the arm ; commonly called the arm-pit.

The word is a diminutive of axis, q. d. little axis.

Abcefles in the axille are ufually dangerous on account
of the many blood-veflels, lymphatics, nerves, &c. there-
about, which form feveral large plexus.—By the ancient
Jaws, criminals were to be hanged by the axillke if they were
under the age of puberty. ;

Axttxa, in Botany, 1s the fpace comprehended between
the items of plants and their leaves.

Hence we fay, thofe flowers grow in the axillz of the
leaves; 1. e. at the bafe of the leaves or judt within the an-
gles of their pedicles.

AXILLAKY, in Azatomy, fomething that belongs to
the exil/e,. or lies near them.

AxILLARY Artery, a certain portion of the great artery
which fupplies the upper part of the trunk, and upper ex-
tremity. See Artery, Di/lribution of thofe Veffels.

Axitvary Vein, a certam extent of the vein eorrefpond-
ing to the above-mentioued artery. See the account of the
Diftribution of the Veins.

Axitiary Nerves, are branches of the four lower cer~
vical and firft dorfal, which form a plexus in the axillz. See
Nerve, Diffribution of.

Axttrary Glands, the glands belonging to the abforb-
See AzBsorns-
inG Vessets, Diffribution of.

AxitLar¥ Leaves, in Botany. See Lear.

AXIM, in Geography, a {mall diftri& or canton of Africa,
on the Gold Coaft, between cape Apollonia, and Tres
Puntas. The climate is unhealthy, being fo moiit, that,
according to the proverb of the country, it rains eleven
months and twenty-nine days in the year. The maize, on
account of the humidity of the foil, is neither plentiful nor
excellent ; but it praduces a great quantity of rice, which
is exported to all the kingdoms of the Coaft, in exchange
for millet, yams, potatoes, and palm-oil; and it yields allio
water-melons, ananas, bananas, cocoas, orances, two kinds of
lemons, and all forts of fruits and vegetables. Axim alfo
produces great numbers of black cattle, fheep, goats, and
tame pigeons, as well as other fowls. The whole country
is filled with populous villages ; fome on the fea-fide, others
farther up the country; and all of them rich and beautiful.
The intermediate lands are well cultivated, and the foil is fo
fertile as richly to compenfate the labour of the hufbandman :
befides which the natives are wealthy, from a conitant traf-
fic they maintain in gold with the Europeans. The capital
of this diftriét is Axim, or Acnomuene, ftanding under a
Dutch fort, and fereened behind by a thick wood, that
covers the whele declivity of a neighbouring hill. -The
river Axim runs through the town, and the coalt is defended

by

A XI

by 2 number of fimall-pointed rocks, which projeét from
the thore, and render all accefs to it dangerous. The Euro-
pean fettlements are, 1. ‘The Datch fort of St. Anthony,
ffanding on a high rock, which projets into the fea in the
‘form ot a peniniula, and fo env roned by dangerous fhoals
and unperceived rocks, as to be inacceflible to an enemy
except by land, on-which ‘fide it is fortified by a parapet,
draw-bridge, and battery of heavy cannon. The Portussuele
rwere the tirft founders of this Pilon ent ; but they were
driven from it by the Dutch, in 1642. Its form is trian-
gular ; and it has three batteries ; one towards the fea, and
two towards the land. The fituation of the fort is eaft of
the river Axim, called by the Portuguefe Rio Manco,
which is navigable only by canoes; but it is rich in gold
duit, wafhed down by the ftream from the inland countries.
.2. Mount Manfore, three leagues diftant from fort St. An-
thoay; near which is the large and populous town of
Pocxeso. Mount Manfore is well fituated for a fort, being
the firlt point of cape Tres Puntas. Here the Branden-
burghers or Pruffians had one principal faétory, called
FREDERICSBURGH? but it was taken by the Dutch, and
remained in their poffeflion. 3. Cape Tres Puntas, fo
called from its being compofed eer three points or emi-
nences, projecting into the fea; on which are the three vil-
Jages, Akora, Akron, and De Jufiamma or Dicxscove.
See the feveral articles,

The government of Axim is compofed of two bodies of
the natives: the caboceroes, or chief men; aud the manceroes,
or young mea. To the former belongs the cognizaace of
‘ciyil affairss but whatever is of general concern, and may
properly be called national, appertains equally to both mem-
bers of the ftate. The caboceroes are lefs wealthy in gold
and flaves, and of courfe lefs regarded by the people, and
they are often impeached before the bar of the manceroes ;
whereas no manceroe can be tried for crimes of a public
nature, but by his own affembly. In the diftribution of
juftice, there is a great degree of partiality and corruption :
prefents of gold or brandy, conveyed to the caboceroes,
enfure a favourable verdict ; and juftice is frequently delayed
as well as perverted by the influence of bribes. The defend-
ant, in defect of fufficient teftimony on either fide, by wit-
nefles or probable circumftances, clears himfeli by oath : and
the oath of purgation is always preferred to that of accufa-
tion. As to penalties in criminal cafes, murder is punifhed
either by death or a pecuniary mulét. However, the fine
for murdering a flave is very trifling in comparifon to that
exaGted for the life of a free man: and execution feldom
takes place, unlefs the criminal be poor, and unable to an-
fwer the demands of his judge. ‘The only punifhment for
thefts is reftitution, or a fine proportioned to the quality of
the offender: and the creditor may feize on the property
of the debtor to the amount of twice the value of what is
due to him: but the ufual method is to fettle the account by
arbitration, or reftitution of the goods and chattels bought.
Mod. Un. Hitt. voli xii. p 391—401.

AXIMA, in Ancient Geagraphy, atown of Afia, in Per-
fia Proper, or Perfis——Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Alps,
belonging to the Ceutrones. Ptolemy.

AXINALE, Axinaza, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of
the Moriusca tribe (7v/lacea), eltablifhed by Poli, in his
hiftory of the fhells of the two Sicilies. ‘The character is
taken from the form of the animal; the fhell it inhabits be-
Jorgs in the Linnaan arrangement to the Arca genus.

AXINCES, in Ancient Geography, the Bog or A/ou, a
large river which traverfed Sarmatia, feparated the Callipides
a\xiaci, to whom it gave name, and difcharged itfelf into

the Boryithenes.

AXTI

AXINTA, the ancient name of a mountain of Pelopon*
nefus, in Arcadia.

AXINIUM, the name given by Appian to an ancient
city of Spain.

AXINOMANCY, benyeake bs sere”
povlux, divinatio, an ancient fpecies of divination, or a methoi
of foretelling future events by means of an ax or hatchet.

This art was in confiderable repute among the an-
cients; and was performed, according to fome, by laying
an agate-{tone on a red-hot hatchet ; and alfo by fixing a
hatchet on a round flake, fo as tb be exadtly poiied; them
certain formule of devotion were pronounced, and tie
names of fufpected perfons were repeated, and he at whofe
name the hatchet moved was pronounced guilty. 3

AXIOM, Axtoma, from eéios, J am worthy, a felf-cyie
dent truth, or a propofition whofe truth every perfon re-
ceives at firlt ight; and to which the term dignity is applied,
on account of its importance in a prea of pe ty
Thefe axioms are felf-evident truths that are neceflary, and
not limited to time aud place, but mutt be true at all times
and in all places.

Thus, that the whole is greater than a part; that a thing
cannot be and not be at the fame time; and that from no-
thing, nothing can arife, are axioms. s

By axioms, called allo maxims, ave underftood all com-
mon notions of the miad, whofe evidence is fo clear and
forcible, that a man cannot deny them without renounciag
common fenfe and natural reafon.

Self-evident propofitions furnith the firft principles of rea-
foninge ; and it is certain, that if in our refearches we merely
employ fuch principles as thefe, and apply them properly,
we {hall be in no danger in advancing from one difcoyery
to another. For this we may appeal to the writings of ma-
thematicians, which being conducted agreeably to this
ftandard, inconteltibly prove the ftability of human know-
ledge, when it is made to reft on fo fure a foundation,
The propofitions of this kind of fcience have not only flood .
the teft of ages, but they are found to be attended with that
invincible evidence, which conftrains the affent ofall who con-
fider the proofs by means of which they are eftablifhed.

Lord Bacon propofes a new feience, to coniilt of general
axioms, under the denomination of philofaphia prima. Tor
an account of the origin and evidence of thofe truths calied
axioms, as well as of their importance and utility in the
purfuit of knowledge and truth, fee Inrurrion, Princi-
PLES, and CoMMON SENSE. ;

Ax1om is alfo an eftablithed principle in fome art or feience.
Thus, it is an axiom in Phyfcs, that nature does nothing
in vain; that effeéts are proportional to their caufes, &c.
So it is an axiom in Geometry, that things equal to the fame
thing are alfo equal to one another ; that if to equal things

-you add equals, the fums will be equal, &c. It is an axiom

in Optics, that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection, &c. In this fenfe the general laws of motion are
called axioms ; as that all motion is re€tilinear, that aétion
and re-action are equal, &c. See Laws of Motion.

Thefe particular axioms, it may be obferved, do not im-
mediately arife from any firft notions or ideas, but are de-
duced from certain hypothefes; this is particularly obfery-.
able in phyfical matters, wherein, as feveral experiments con~
tribute to make one hypothefis, fo feveral hypothefes con-
tribute to one axiom.

The axioms of Euclid are very general propofitions, and
fo are the axioms of the Newtoniaa philofophy ; but thefe
two kinds of axioms have very different origins. ‘The
former appear true upon a bare contemplation oF our ideas;
whereas the latter are therefult of the moft laborious induction,

6 Lord

os
-

Lord Bacon, therefore, flrenuoufly contends, that they
fhould never be admitted upon conjecture, or even upon tke
authority of the learned ; but, as they are the general prin-
ciples aad gronuds of all learning, they fhould be canvafied
and examined with the moft ferupulous attention, “ ut
axiomatum corrigatur iniquitas, que plerumque in exemplis
yulgatis furdamentum habent,’”? De Augm. Sc. 1. ii. ¢. 2.
* Atque illa ipfa putativa principia ad rationes reddendas

ompellare decrevimus, quoulque plane confant. Dittnb.

Operis,
A. late writer (fee T'atham’s Chart, and Scale of Truth)
Giftinguifhes between axioms ininitive, and /elf-ovident. The
former, he fays, pafs through the firft inlets of knowledge,
and flafy direct conviction on the minds, as external objects
do-on the fenfes, of all mea; iu the formation of the latter,
realon judges by-fincle comparifons, without the aid of a
Ahudduides or middle term ; fo that they have their evidence
an themfelves, and though indudtively framed, they cannot
be fyllogiftically proved. If we admit this diftin@tion, and
its reafonablenefs mutt be allowed, the character of intuitive
axioms will be reftricted to particular truths. See Inpuc-
‘rion, Reasoninc, and Syiiocism.
Axiom, in Rhetoric, is ufed by Hermogenes to denote
grandeur, dignity, and fublimity of ftyle.
AXTOPGLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower
Mejia, according to Ptolemy, fituated near the {pet where
the Danube affutaed the name of Titer; north-eaft of Durof-
torus. It is now a town of Europeaa*Turkey, in Bulgaria,
called Axiopoli. on the right bank of the Danube. N. lat.
45°49’. E.long. 34°.
AXIOS, a form of acclamation, anciently ufed by the
speople in the eleGtion of bifhops. Wheathey were all una-
mimous, they cried cut «f:-, be is worthy, er waFi@, un-
avorthy,
AXIOSIS, in Rhetoric, denotes a third part of an
exordium; fometimes alfo called axcfazs, and containing
fome new propofition move nearly relating to the matter in
shand, than the opus.
‘Thus, in Cicero’s oration pro Milone, the protafis is,
s* Noa poflum non timere, judices, vifa hac nova judicii
forma;”? the ztecxevn, “Nec enim ea corona confeffus
veiter cinGus eft qua folebat ;”? the a£tzciz, “ Sed me recreat
Pompei confilium, cujus fapiente non fuerit, quem fententiis
judicum tradidit, telis militum dedere ;” the bafis, Bact,
* Quamobrem adeile animis, judices, & timorem, fi quem ha-
betis, deponite.” : ‘
AXKIOTHEA, in Biograshy; a female philofopher of
Greece, who lived in the time of Plato. Such was her
thirlt for knowledge, that fhe difguifed herfelf in man’s
. clothes, in erder to attend the LeGiures of that philofopher.
_ Menag. in Diog. Laert. 1. iii.'c. 48.~
|. AXIS properly fignifies a line, or long piece of iron or
wood pafliag through the centre of a fphere, which is move-
_ able upon the fame. In this fenfe we fay, the axis of
_ a {phere or globe; the axis, or axle-tree of a wheel,
ies. Pe
' _ Axts, in natomy, is the fecond vertebra of the neck,
reckoning from the fiull.

It is thus called, becanfe the firft vertebra, with the head,
move thereon, as an axis. See SKELETON.

Axis, Spiral, in Architedure, is the axis of a twifted co-
— Jumn drawn fpirally, in order to trace the cireumvolutions
_ without. See Corumn, Tiffed.
_ Asis of the Ionic capital is a line paffing perpendicularly
thro gh the middle of the eye of ‘the volute.

Axis of the-world, in Aftronomy, is an imaginary right
line, which is conceived to
oy aeeVor. FIT,

pais through the centre of the -

A XI

arth, and to terminate at each end in the furface of the
mundane {phere.

About this line as an axis, the {phere in the Ptolemaic
fyftem, is fuppofed daily to revolve.

This axis is reprefented by the line PQ, Plate 11. Afrom
Jig-18.—T he two extreme points ia the furfaceof the fpherg,
viz. P and Q, are called its poles.

Axis of the earth, is arxight line wpon which the earth
perferms its diurnal rotation from welt to eaft.

Such is the line PQ, fig. 19.—The two extreme points
are alfo:called poles.

The axis of the earth is a part of the axis of the world.—
It always remains parallel to itfelf, and at right angles with
the equator. See Anois, Inctinarion, and Parar-
LELISM.

fuxts of a planet, is aline drawn through its centre, about
which the planet revolves.

The Sun, Earth, Moon, Jupiter, Mars, and Venus, are
known, by obfervation, to move about their feveral axes; and
the like motion is eafily inferred of Mercury, Saturna, and

‘the Georgian planet.

Axrs of the horizon, equator, ecliptic, zodiac, &e. are vight
lines drawn through the centres of thofe circles, perpendicu-
lar to their planes.

Axts, in Botany, a taper column placed in the centre of
fore Howers or katkins, about which the other parts are dif
poted. It is fynonymous with cofumelfa.

Axis, in Geometry.—Axis of rotation or circumyclution,
is an imaginary right line, about which any plane figure is
couceived to revolve, in order to generate a folid.

Thus a fphere is conceived to be formed by the rotation
of a femicincle about its diameter or axis, and a right cone by
that of a right’ angled triangle about its perpendicular leg,
which is here its axis.

Axis is yet more generally ufed for a right line proceed-
ing from'the vertex of a figure to the middle of its bafe.

Axis of acircle or [phere, is a line pafling through the
centre of the circle or iphere, and terminating at each end
in its circumference.

The axis of a circle, &c. is otherwife called its diameter.

Axis of a right ov rGangular cylinder, is properly
that quiefcent right lize, about which the rectangular
parallelogram turns, by whofe revolutioa the cylinder is
formed. ‘

In general, the right line which joins the centres of the
oppotite bafes of cylinders, whether they be right or oblique,
is denominated their axis.

Axis of aright cone, is the right line or fide upon which,
the right-angled triangle forming the cone makes its motion.
Hence it follows, that only a right cone can properly have
an axis ; becaufe an oblique one cannot be generated by an
motion of a plane figure about a right line at reit. But
becaufe the axis of a right cone is a xicht line drawn from
the centre of its bafe to the vertex ; the writers of conics,
by way of analogy, likewife call the like line, drawn frem
the centre of the bafe of an oblique Cone to the vertex, its
axis.

Axis of a conic feGion, is a right line pafling through the
middle of the figure, and bife&ting all the ordinates at right

angles.

Thus if AP (Plate, Conics, fig. 31.) be drawn perpendi-
cularly to FF, fo as to divide the feGtion into two equal
parts, it is called the axis of ihe /2Gion.

Or, the axis of a conic feGiion is a line drawn from the
principal vertex, or vertices, perpendicular to the tangent at
that point.

Axts, tranfver/e, called alfo the firff or principal axis of an

UB OF ellipie,

AXI

ellipfe, is the axis AP, laft defined ; being thus called in con-
tradiltinction to the conjugate or Secondary axis.

Or, in the ellipfe and hyperbola, it is the diameter that
pafles through the two foci, and the two principal vertices of
the ficure.

The tranfverfe axis in the ellipfe is the iongeft ; and in
the hyperbola it cuts the curve in the points Aand P (jig. 32.)
and is the fhorteit diameter.

Axts, conjugate, or fecond axis, of the ellipfe and hyper-
bola, is the diameter pafling through the centre and perpen-
dicular to the tranfverfe axis. Such is the line FF
(fg- 31.) drawn through the centre of the ellipfe C, parailel
to the ordinate MN, and perpendicular to the tranfverfe
axis AP; being terminated at each extreme by the curve.
And fuch, in the hyperbola, is the right line PE (fig-32-)
drawn through the centre parallel to the ordinates MN,
MN, perpendicularly to the tranfverfe axis AP. In the
ellipfe and hyperbola, the conjugate axis is the fhorteit of all
the conjugate diameters. The axis of a parabola is of an
indeterminate length ; that is, is infinite. 'The axis of the
ellipfe is determinate. The parabola has only one axis; the
ellipfe and hyperbola have two.

Axts of a Curve Line, in general, denotes that diameter
which has its ordinates at right angles to it, when that is
poffible. For, as in the conic feCtions, any diameter bifects
all its parallel ordinates, making the two parts of them on
both fides of it equal, and the diameter which is perpendi-
cular to fuch ordinates is an axis ; fo in curves of the fecond
order, if any two parallel lines meet with the curve in three
points, the right line which cuts thefe two parallels fo that the
fumof thetwo parts onone fide of the interfectingline, between
it and the curve, is equal to the third part terminated by the
curve on the other fide, then the faid line wiil in like man-
ner cut all other parallels to the former two lines, fo that
with refpe& to every one of them, the fum of the two parts,
cr ordinates, on one fide, will be equal to the third part,
or ordinate, on the other fide. Such interfeGting line is
then a diameter; and that diameter, whofe parallel ordinates
are at right angles to it, when that is poffible, is an axis.
The cafe is the fame with regard to other cirves of ftill
higher orders. Newton, Enumeratio Linearum Tertii Or-
dinis, § 2. art. 1.

Axis of a Magnet, or Magnetical Axis, is a line paffing
through the middle of a magnet Jengthwife; in fuch man-
ner, as that however the magnet be divided, provided the
divifion be made according to a plane, in which fuch line is
found, the magnet will be cut or feparated into two load-
ftones ; and the extremes of fuch lines are called the poles
of the ftone. See Macner. _ :

Axis, in Mechanics. The axis of a balance is the line
upon which it moves or turns. See BaLance.’

Axts of Ofcillation, is a right line parallel to the horizon,
pafling through the centre, about which a pendulum +i-
brates; and perpendicular to the plane in which it ofcillates.
See Oscinnation, and Penputum.

Axis in Peritrochio, or Wheel and Axle, is one of the fixe
mechanical powers, or fimple machines, contrived chiefly
for the railing of weights to a confiderable height. It con-
filts of a circle, reprefented AB ( Plate 1. Mechanics, fig. 5.)
concentric with the bafe of a cylinder, and moveable toze-
ther with it, about its axis EF. This cylinder is called the
axis; and the circle, the peritrochium; and the radii, or
fpokes, which are fometimes fitted immediately into the
cylinder, without any circle, the JSeytale. Round the axis
winds a rope, or chain, by means of which the weights,
&c. are tobe raifed, upon turning the wheel.

‘The axis in peritrochio takes place in the motion of every

I

AXI

machine, where a circle may be conceived as deferibed about
a fixed axis, conceatric to the plane of a cylinder, about
bi it is ACW i” in crane-wheels, mill-wheels, capftans,
«ce. 5 a gumblet and an augre to bore with ma

ferred to the wheel and mae y aie tee

Axis in Peritrochia, properties of the. 1. Tf the power
applied to the axis peritrochio, in the direGtion AT,
(5 6); being a tangent to the periphery of the wheel, or
perpendicular to the feytala or fpoke, be toa weight W, as
the radius of the axis CE is to the radius of the wheel CA.
or the length of the fpoke ; the power will jut fuftain the
weight, i.e. the weight and the power will be ia equi-
hibrio. PP e-

Dem. The fame power is required to fupport W, what.
ever be the point cf the axis to which it is a: plied, becaufe
the diftance from the correfponding centre of motion is the.
fame, and the wheel and axis may be reduced to a bent
lever ; and confequently there will be an equilibrium, when
P: W:: W’s diftance from the centré of motion, or ra-
dius of the axis, : radius of the wheel. Or, fince the di-
rections of P and W are perpendicular to their refpedtive®
diftances from their centre of motion, they are wholly ef.
ficient ; and P’s velocity is to W?’s velocity, as the peri-~
phery of tke wheel to the periphery of the axis; and con-
fequently, when there is an equilibrium, P + W := perj~
phery of the axis : periphery of the wheel :: radins the
axis: radius of the wheel. :

Tf the thicknefs of the ro e, to which Wis a
be not_inconfiderable, it aie not to be epee tee
when one or more coils or fpires of the rope are folded
about the axis, the diftance of W’s direStion from the cen-
tre of motion is increafed, and becomes equal to the fum of
the femidiameters of the axis and ropes and there is an
equilibrium when P : W :: the whole diftance of W*s
aie from the centre of motion : femidiameter of the
wheel.

2. If a power applied in F, pull down the wheel ac.
cording to the line of direGtion FD, which is oblique to
the radius of the wheel, though parallel to the perpendi-
cular direction; it will have the fame proportion to a power
which aéts according to the perpendicular direétion AL,
which thewhole fine has to the fine of the angle of direc-
tion DFC. For, fince FD is perpendicular to AC, DC -
will be the diflance of the power applied at F from the »
centre of motion; confequently the power at F: Ws: EC
CD; and the power at A: W:s ECs CA; confe-
guently the power at F: power at A::CA:CD, ~ ut
if CA or FC be takem for the whole fine or radius, CD
willbe the fine of the angle DFC; and the power at F will
be to the power at A :: the whole fine is to the fine of the
angle of the direGion DFC, in cafe ofan equilibrium between
the power and weight. ;

Hence, fince the diftance of the power in A is the radius
CA, the angle of direGion DFC being given, the diftance _
DC is eafily found. ’ q

. 3» Powers applied to the wheel in feveral oint: '
K, according to the direétions FD and KI, Lei el ;
perpendicular one AL, are to each’ other as the diftances _
from the centre of motion CD and CI, reci rocally. For Ey
meget’ eefiot he 5 CD; and a power at K
: $3 5 3 coniequently the power at F: power
at K :: ICs: CD. : 4 fe RI

F)

wei
fince the radius AC is
t and correfponds to the power aéti ,
cording to the line of direétion ; the perpendicular power _

fought.

ARTI

will be the fmalleft of all thofe able to fuflain the weight
W, according to the feveral parallel lines of direc-
tion.

. If a power aéting according to the perpendicular AL,
waite the weight W, the fpace paffed through by the power
will be to the {pace pafled through by the weight, as the
weight to the power which is able to {fuftain it.

For in each revolution of the wheel, the power paffes
through its whole periphery; and in the fame time the
weight is raifed through an interval equal to the periphery
of the axis; the {pace of the power therefore is to the {pace
of the weight, as the periphery of the wheel to that of the
axis; but the power is to the weight, as the radius of the
axis to that of the wheel. 'Theretore, &c.

5. A power and a weight being given, to conitruét an
axis in peritrochio, by which the weight fhail be futtained
and raifed by the given power. Let the axis be large enoveh
to fupport the weight without breaking. Then, as the
weight is to the power, fo make the radius of the wheel, or
tha lent of the fpoke, to the radius of the axis.

Hence, if the power be but a finall part of the weight,
the radius of the wheel mutt be vaitly great.—I5. yr. Sup-

ofe the weight 4o50 and the power 50, the radius of the

wheel will be to that of the axisas 81 to 1. But fucha
machine would be of an inconvenient fize; and it may
therefore be provided againft by increaling the number of
the wheels and axes; and making one to turn round ano-
ther by means of teeth or pinions,

To find the effec of a ntimber of wheels and axes, thus
turning one another, multiply together all the radii of the
axes, and all the radii of the wheels, and then it will be, as
the produét of the former is to the produét of the latter, fo
is the power to the weight. Thus, if there-be four wheels

_ and axes, the radius of each axis being one foot, and the radius
of each wheel being three feet; then the continual produét of
all the radii of the wheels is 3 x 3 x 3 x 3, or 81 fect, and that
of the radii of the axis only 1; confequently the effect is as 31
to 1, or the weight may be 81 times the power. On the con-
trary, if it be required to find the diameter of each of four
equal wheels, by which a weight of 4050 Jb. fhall be ba-
lanced by a power of 50 lb. the diameter of each axis being
one foot ; divide 4050 by 50, and the quotient is 815 ex-
tra& the fourth root of 81, or twice the {quare root, and
it will be 3, for the diameter of each of the four wheels

See Wueetts. Seealfo Mecuanicay Powers.

6. If P and W aét in the fame plane, and in the di-
reGtions PD and WD (je. 7 and $.), meeting in D, and
be in equilibrio, they are equivalent to a third force, or
preflure upon the axis at A, whofe direction meets PD and
WD in D (fee Motion) ; and producing PD, WD, thefe
three forces are to each» ther, as the fides DF, DE, and
diagonal DG, of the parallelogram EF; confequently

“Ait P:W:: DF: DE, or drawing AN, AM, perpendi-

cular to WD and FDP refpettively, P: W:: AN:
AM. See Lever.

4. The preflure upon the axis at\A (i. e. Pr): P::

Be Mee net. DEG or PDW): tn. 2EED or

ADW: Pr; W::DG:DE:: 4n. ZDEG or PDW
sfinm ZDGE or ADP; and P: W:: fin. 2ZADW:
fin. ZADP. When the angle PDW is infinitely fmall, or
PD and WD are parallel, the perpendiculars AN, AM, are
to each other as AW: PA. Parkinfon’s Syftem of Me-
chanics, Kc. p. 137.

Axis of a Y ofl, is that quiefcent right line pafling
through the middle thereof, perpendicularly to its bafe, and
equally diftant from its fides.

~AX1S, in Optics. Optic axis; or vifual axis, isa ray pal-

AXI

fing through the centre of the eye; or it is that ray, which,
proceeding through the middle of the luminous cone, falls
perpendicularly on the cryftalline humour, and confequently
pafles through the centre of the eye.

Axis, Common, or Mean, is a right line drawn from the
point of concourfe of the two optic nerves, through the
middle of the right line which joins the extremity of the
{ame optic nerves.

Axis of a Lens, or Gla/s, is a right line paffing along
the axis of that folid, of which the lens is a fegment.

Thus, a {pherical convex lens being a fegment of fome
{phere, the axis of the lens is the fame with the axis of the
{phere; orit isa right line pafling through the centre thereof.
Or, the axis of a glafs is aright line joining the middle
points of the two oppofite iurfaces of the glafs. See
Lens.

Axis of Incidence, in Dioptrics, is a right line drawn
through the point of incidence, perpendicularly to the re-
fraGting furface. See Incipence.

Axis of Refradion, isa right line continued from the
point of incidence or refraétion perpendicularly to the re-
fracting furface, along the farther medium. Or, it is that
made by the incident ray, perpendicularly prolonged on the
fide of the fecond medium. See Rerracrion.

Axis, in Zoology, a ipecies of the Curvus, or Stac
genus, with branched, round, ereét horns, that are bifid at
the fummit; and the body {potted with white. LErxleb.
Mamm, p. 312. Schreber, &c.

The axis, according to Sonnini and others, is an animal
almoft peculiar to the colder parts of Afia; it inhabits the
wooded mountains of the Celebes, Java, and Ceylon, in great
numbers, but it is full more abundant on the banks of the
river Ganges, and for that reafon is not unfrequently called
the Ganges flag. "The axis multiplies fait in the parks and
menagenies of England, France, and other parts of Europe ;
and being a moft graceful animal, is no {mall omament to
the grounds of the nobility and gentry. It is faid to pro-
pagate with the female of the common flag; and it is
equally probable, that the female axis would produce with
the male of the other kind.

This animal was known to the ancients by the name of
axis. Pliny {peaks of it asa native of India, and informs
us likewife that it was confecrated to Bacchus. Its fize is
nearly that of the fallow deer; colour above pale rufous
brown, elegantly {potted with white, beneath white; tail
like that of the fallow deer, and rufous above, and white be-
neath. ‘The axis is eafily tamed ; its {mell is exquifite; and
flefh very good when falted. _

Gmelin, on the authority of Pennant, {peaks of two va-
rieties of this creature; the firll, with a body uniformly of
one colour, with the extremity of the horns trifurcated ;
and the other with horns that are alfo trifurcated, but larger,
and whitifh. Thefe are the middle axis and Spotted axis of
Dr. Shaw ; and are thus noticed in the Gen. Zool. of that
author.—“ Tiddle axis. Whetherthis be a varie ty of the
former (/potted axis), or {pecifially diftinét, does not appear
perfectly clear. It is, according to Mr. Pennant, of a mid-
die fize between the /pa'ted axis and the great axis or fol-
lowing kind. In the colour of its hair, it refembles the
firit fort ; but is never {potted. It, however, is frid to vary
into white, in which fate it is confidered as a great rarity,
It inhabits dry hilly forelts ia Ceyloa, Borneo, Celebes, and
Java, where it is found in very numerous herds. Its flefk
is much efteemed by the natives, and is dried and falted for
ufe.”’—“Great axis. The exiftence of this fpecies, or vari-
ety, is afcertained from a pair of hernsin the Britith Mufeum,
relembling the former kinds in “fhape, but ofa larger fize ;

3 hz they

AX Go

they meafire two fect nine inches in length, are of a whit-
}h colour, and are very ftrong, thick, and rugged. Mr.
Pennant conjectures that they were brought from Ceylon or
Borneo, having been informed by Mr. Loten, who had
long refided in the former of thefe iflands, that a very large
kind of ftag, as tall as a horie, of asreddith colour, and
with trifurcated horns, exifted there as well as at Borneo.
Tn Borneo, they are faid to frequent low marfhy tracts, and
to be cailed by the name of water flags.”

AXIUS, now Varpart, in Ancient Geography, the larg-
eft river in. Macedonia, fprung from two fountains in the
Scardian mouttains, and after a courfe of cighty. miles,
{pread itfelf-into an extenfive lake below the city of Edeffa.
‘There receiving the Erigon, it fell into the bay.of Thefla-
Jonica, almoft oppofite to that city— Allo, a river of Syria.
which pafied Apamea. '

AXBLE-Tree. See Axts.

AXMINSTER, {pelt in old writings Axmystes, in
Geography, is the name of a’ market town in Devonthire,
’ fituated on the great leading road from Lendon to the Weit
of England. It is faid to derive its name from the river
Axe, on which it is feated, and a minfter, founded here by
kine Athelftan, for feven priefts, who were appointed to pray
for the fouls of fome of his army that were flain in a dread-
fal confli& with the Danes. A place in the neighbourhood
is {till called King’s-feld, and another place bears the name
of Kilmington, from Xi/-maen-ten. A caftle was formerly
ftanding in the town; and the market, held on Saturday,
is kept in a place ftill bearing that name. Whatever fize or
charaéter the minfter might originally poffefs, it has been
nearly deftroyed ; and the parifh church, though large, bas
fearcely any appearance of antiquity. A {mall Saxon arch,
with zigzag mouldings and appropriate capitals, is preferved
in the eaft end of the fouth aifle. Axminfter is a healthy,
clean town, pleafantly fitnated on rifing ground, which
flopes on the weftern fide to the river. A confiderable ma-
nufactory of carpets is carried on here, the peculiar make
and charaGter of which have obtained them the name of
Axminiter carpets. They are woven in. one entire piece,
and feveral perfons are employed at the fame time in work-
ing the coloured patterns. ‘‘he manufactory was firf} efta-
blifhed here in 1755, by the grandfather of the prefent pro-
prietor. Since that time the trade has much increafed, and
now above one hundred hands are conitantly employed in
the different proceffes of making a carpet.(See Carrer. ) Be-
fide the perfcns engaged in this manufactory, Axminuiter is
inhabited by feveral others, who carry on the making ef broad
and narf ww cloths, cotton tapes, druggets, leather breeches,
and gloves. Here are two meeting houfes, oné'for Indepen-
ents, and the other for Methodifts; alfo a Roman Catholic
chapel. Axminfter has the advantage of a Sunday {chool,.-
and alfo a freefchool. The neighbourhood is adorned with
feveral refpeCtable and handfome manfions, of which Shute
Houfe and Ford Abbey are the moft contiderable. The firlt
belongs to the De La Pole family, and’the fecond to Fran-
¢is Gwynn, efq. This is a large refpeCtable ftruciure, many
parts of which are the fame as originally belonged to the
ancient abbey. Polwhele’s Hiftory of Devon, vol. ii.
p- 288.; and Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv.

AXOLOTI, ia Lchthyolocy, a fingular fifh found in the
lake of Mexico. It has four feet like the lizard, no fcales,
a matrix like a woman, and the menftrual flux. It has the
tafte of an eel. ;

AXON, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor, in
Caria, formed by the re-union of two {mall ftreams, and

running fouth from the town of Calydna, difcharged itfelf

this city, becaufe it is vertical about the 25th of 4

AXU

into: the north-weft part of the gulf of Glaucus, to the
north-welt of the promontory of Pedalium. | “rus
AXONA,; a river of Belgic Gaul, now the Aisne.
AXUM, in Geography, oace the large and. populous
capital of .Abyflimia, in the province of Tigre, exilted in
a flourifhing ftate fo lately as about the beginning of the 16th
century, but was ruined in that century by the Turkifh
invafien. . It is now a village, or at leait an ineonfiderabley ~
town, exhibiting in its ruins traces of its ancient magnifie
cence and importance. The ancient city offAxum was
built, according to Mr. Bruce, by a coloay. of Cathites,
and-he cites an Abyfiinian tradition, which fays, that it was
built by them early in the daysof Abraham. See Asys-
sinta. As the Abyfiiniaas’ never built any city, and no
ruins of any exift at this day in the whole country, this
traveller conceives, that Axum was the magnificent metro-
polis of the trading people, or Troglodyte Ethiopians,
called Cufhites, who conftructed, in many places, baila
of great ilrength, magnitude, and expence, efpeciaily at
Azab, fuitable to the magnificence and riches of a ftate,
witich >was feoml, this, felt ages the emporium of the
Indian and African trade. As Axum is fituated about
midway between Azab and Meroe, it points out the road
taken by the caravans that carried’ on the intereourfe be-
tween the Ganges and the Mediterranean. The ruins of
Axum are very extenfive; but like thofe of the cities cf
ancient times, they confilt altogether of public buildings.
In one fquare, fuppofed by Mr. Bruce to have been
centre of the town, there are forty obelifks, none of which —
have any hieroglyphics upon them. One of thefe, which
is ftill ftanding, is larger than the reft; and there are two.
of a larger fize that are fallen. They confift in one piecs
of granite; and on the top of that. which is ftan a
there is a patera exceedingly well carved in the Gres tafher
The ftructure of this obelifk, and of the two larger that are.
fallen, is afcribed by Mr. Bruce to Ptolemy rgetes.
Upon the face of the obelifk, there is a great deal of carv=.
ing in the Gothic tafte, fomewhat like metopes, triglyph
and guttz, difpofed rudely and without order; but there
are no characters, or figures. ‘The face of this pyramid, of
which Mr. Bruce has given a geometrical elevation, looks
due fouth; it has been placed with great exa@inefs, and.
has preferved its perpendicular pofition to the prefent time. —
Qn the face, fronting the fouth, is the bites py «| ‘
door, with a lock and bolt, fuch as are ufed at this d y in
Egypt and Paleftine. This obeliflc is fuppofed tine
been ereGted by Ptolemy Euergetes, who’ conquered :
city and the neighbouring kingdom, and who was the:pa- —
tron of Eratofthenes, for the ufe of this aftronomer in
afcertaining the latitude. Its top was firft cut into a nar=
row neck, then fpread out like a fan in a femicircuiar form, :
with a pavement curioufly levelled to receive the ‘fhade, _
and to mark the feparation of the true fhadow from the ~
penymbra as diftin@lly as poffible. The edifice, thus con-
ftruGted, was probably intended for verifying the experi= .
ments of Eratofthenes with a larger radius, and. not fe
obferving the obliquity of the ecliptic at Axum.
though Axum, by its fituation, was a very proper pla '
the fun palling over that city and obelifk twice a-year 5 :
he could not make ufe of the fun’s being twice vertic “to. ‘
April and”
about the zothof Auguft ; and at both thele feafons, the
heavens are fo overcait with clouds, and the rain fo con-
tinual, efpecially at noon, that it muft have been veryex- —
traordinary if Ptolemy had once feen the fun duri
months of his-relidence in this place. Beyond the convent *
of /bba Pantaleon, anda fmall obelifk fituated on arock —
ahove,

dd AXU

above, there is to the: foutharoad cut ina mountain of
red marble, having oa the left a parapet wall about five feet
high, folid, and of the fame materials. In this wall, at
equal diftauces, are hewn folid pedeftals, bearing on their
tops the marks where ftood the coloffal ftatues of Sirius,
the latrater anubis, or dog-ltar. Of thefe pedettals, with
the marks of the {tatues juft mentioned, there are 133 {till
in their places; but there remained only figures of the
dog, which were much mutilated, and evidently in the
Egyptian talte. 'Thefe are compofed of granite ; but fome
of them appeared to Mr. Bruce to haye been metal. There
are alfo pedefials, on which the figures of the fphinx have
been placed. ‘Two magnificent flights of fteps feral hun-
dred feet long, all of granite, exceedingly well fathioned,
and {till in their places, are the only remains of a magni-
ficent temple. In the angle of this platform, where the
temple itood, is the prefent {mall church of Axum, fubiti-
tuted for one dettroyed by Mahomet Gragné in the reign
of king David ILL., and which was probably the remains
of a temple built by Ptolemy Euergetes, if not the work
of more remote times. The church isa mean, fmall build-
ing, and very neglivently kept. Mr. Bruce apprehends,
that fome ancient copy of the 0. T.. was depofited here, pro-
bably that from which the firft verfion was made ; but what-
everit might be, it was deftroyed, together with the church
itfelf, by Mahomet Gragné; though the fuperititious peo-
ple have a tradition that it ftill fubfifts there. Another
relic, preferved in this place, is a picture of Chrift’s head
crowned with thorns, laid to have been painted by St.
Luke, which, upon occafions of fingular importance, is
brought out and carried with the army, efpecially in a
war with Mahometans and Pagans. Within the outer gate
of the church are three {mall fquare inclofures, all of gra-
mte, with {mall oGagon pillars in the angles, apparently
Egyptian; on the top of which were formerly {mall images
off the dog-flar, probably of metal. Upona ftone, in the
middle of one of thefe, the king fits and is crowned, and
this ceremony has always fubfifted fince the days of Pagan-
ifm; and below it, where he places his feet, is a large
oblong flab of free ftone ; bearing the following infcription,
much defaced,
“ TITOAEMAIOY EYEPIETOY BASTAEOY.”’

Adjoming to Axum isa road, formed by large ftones.

, ftanding edgeways, or heaped upon one another, which is
appareatly the remains of an old caufeway, part of the
magnificent works about this city. ,

The prefent town of Axum ftands at the foot of a hill,
and contains about 600 houfes. It is watered by a {mall
ftream, which flows conftantly from a fountain in the narrow
valley, where the rows of obelifks ftand. The fpring is
received into a magnificent bafon, 150 feet {quare, and thence
it is carried, at pleafure, to water the neighbouring gardens,
where there is little fruit, except pomegranates, which are
not yery excellent. In the town are feveral manufactures
of coarfe cotton cloth; and here aifo the beft parchment
is made of goats’ fkins, which is the ordinary employment
of the eee Every kind of vegetation feemed later at

» Axum, and “its vicinity, than at Adowa. N. lat. 14° 6’
36". E. long. 38° 39: Bruce’s Travels, vol. iii, p. 128,

i SCs z
_ AXUNGIA, a kind of fat, the hardeft and drieft of
any in the bodies of animals. ;
' The word is fuppofed to be forthed ab axe rotarum que
unzuniur, from its being ufed as the greafe of wheels.

The Latins: diftingnith fat into pinguedo, and adcps,. or
| feoums which lait, when old, is particularly called axun-
_ gia: but many of our modern writers confound them. PAy-
- ficians make ule of the axungia of the goofe, the deg, the
' 6

;

i: ~e >

AYA

viper, and fome others, which is held by fome te be: of
extraordinary fervice in the drawing and ripening of tu-
mours, &c.

Axuneta of Glafs, called alfo the ga/l, and falt of clas,
is a fcum taken from the top of the matter of -glafs before
it be thoroughly vitrified. It is ufed in cleanling the
teeth, and by farriers for clearing the eyes of horfes.

AXYLON, in dncient Geography, a country of Afia, .

towards Bithynia and Cappadocia. Livy.

AXYRIS, in Botany. Lin. g. to47. Schreb. 1409.
Juff. 86. Gertn. t. 128. Clafs, monecia triandria. Wat.
Order, holoracee.—Airiplices, Jul, Gen. Char. * Male flow-
ers inan ament. Cal. perianth three-parted, {preading, ob-
tufe. Cor. none. Stam. filaments three, capillary, fpread-
ing. Anthersroundifh, “ Female flowers fcattered. Cal.
perianth five-leaved (two-leaved, Sy/f.), concave, obtufe,
converging, permanent ; the two outer leaflets fhorter. Car.
none. Pi. germ roundifh; {tyles two, capillary ; ftigmas
acuminate. Per. none. Calyx, clofely involving the feed
with its three leaflets. Seed one, ovate, comprefled, obtufe.

Eff. Gen. Char. Male. Calyx three parted. Cor. none.
Fem. Cal. two-leaved. Cor. none. Séyles two. Seed one.

Species, 1. A. amaranthoides, fimple {piked axyris. Gmel. -

lib. 3. 21. t. 2. f. 2. and t. 3. “ Leaves, ovate, {tem erect,
{pikes fimple.”? Leaves rough, with ftellate hairs: fruit-
bearing branches, naked at tie bafe ; {pike very {mall, fub-
feffile, quite fimple, terminal. It is obferved by Gmelin,

that the calyx of the female flower 1s two or three-leaved, -

Cultivated by Miller in 1758. 2. A. Aydrida. Gmel. 1. c.
“ Leaves ovate; ftemerect; {pikes conglomerate.”” This
differs from the firft, in the fpike of flowers being on long
peduncles, conglomerate, or direéted the fame way, twifted,
with the fruit-bearing branches crowded clofe to the ftem, and
the leayesmore rough. Pallas fuppofesthis to be only a varie-
ty of the former plant. According to Gmelin, the calyx is
three-leaved, and there is but one ftyle inthe female flower.
3. A. profrata. Gmel.1.c. ‘* Leaves obovate; ftem fub-
divided; flowers headed.’? Stem much branched, fix or
feven inches high; leaves on flalks; flowers at the ends of
the branches, conglomerate, with numerous leaflets among
them.
to Gmelin.
Siberia.

All thefe are annual plants, and natives of

The female calyx as alfo three leaflets according _

Axyris Ceratoides now conftitutes a new genus, under ©

the name Droris ; which fee.

AY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Marne, and chief place of a canton in the diftriét
of Rheims, feated.on the Marne; famous for its good
wines; four leagues fouth of Rheims, and one N. E. of
Epernay. The place contains 2585 and the canton 11,550

inhabitants; the territory includes 180 kiliometres and 20 »

communes. - N. lat.49° 4’. E. long. 2° 15”.

_ Ay, Puro, oneof the Banda iflands, in the Indian fea,
about three leagues in circumference, where the Dutch have
erected a fort.

AYAG, or Kavacuvy, one of the Andreanofskie iflands,
in the Eaftern or Pacifie Ocean, about 150 verlts in cir-
cumferenve, and confifting of feveral high and rocky moun-
tains, the intervals of which are bare heath and moor ground 3
but in the whole ifland, there is not one foreft tree. The
vegetables refemble thofe of Kamtfchatka. It furnifhes
fmall quantities of crow or crake-berries, andthe larger fort
of bilberries ; but of the roots of burnet and all kind of fnake-

weed, fuch abundance as to afford, in cafe df necelfity, a pler- -

tiful provifion for the inhabitants. There is one imall rivulet;
and there are many good bays and anchoring places. The
population cannot be precifely afcertained, as the natives are

continually emigrating from ifland to ifland in their baidars.. .

AYAMONTE,;

AYE

AYAMONTE, a fea-port town of Spain, fituate at
athe mouth of the Guadiana, on the frontiers of Portugal,
with a good haven in the gulf of Cadiz; {mall, but well
fortified, and defended by a caftle on a rock; 3% miles
W.S. W. of Seville. The adjacent vineyards are fruitful,
and the wine excellent. N. lat. 37° 13. W. long. 8° 5’,
See Aimonre.

AYAMS, derived from an Arabic word which fignifies
eye) a name given to a clais of officers in the provinces of
the Ottoman empire, whofe bufinefs it is to watch over the
fafety and the fortune of individuals, and alfo over the good
order and defence of a town; to reftrain the unjuit enter-
prifes of the pachas, and the exaGtions of the military, and
to concur in the juit affeflment ef the taxes.—A ppointed
by the people, thofe who undertake this honourable func-
tion, are generally men reputed the mot virtuous; there are
feveral of them in the great towns, anda fingle perfon fuper-
intends feveral villages in the plains. ‘They receive no other
reward for their trouble and zeal, than the refpeét with which,
they are treated, and the fatisfaction of being ufeful. The
“A yams call to their divan the notables of the town and the
lawyers, in order to difcnfs the more important fubjects, to
digeft the remonftrances that are proper to be made to the
pecha, and to eftablifh the grounds of thofe complaints which
they judge neceffary to be prefented againft him to the
Porte. Olivier’s Trav. in the Ottom. Emp. p. 200.

AYBAR, in Geography, 4 town of Spain, in Navarre,
on the river Arragon 3 one league from Sangueia.

AYBED), a place of Egypt, on the gulf of the Red Sea,
where the merchandifes of Afia were landed.

AYBLENG, a town of ermany, in Upper Bavaria,
twenty-fix miles S. E. of Munich.

AYCHA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of BoleJav :
fixteen miles vorth of Jung-Bantzel.

AYDHAB, a place of Africa, in Egypt, on the coaft
of the Red Sea. N. lat. 21° 53. E. long. 36° 26. See
AIDHAB.

AYE, a town of Norway, in the ifland of Shierney.

Aye-Are, in Zoology, a fingular quadruped difcovered
by Sonnerat, in the ifland of Madagafear; and deferibed
in his voyage to the Eaft Indies (tom. i. p. 137). The
name appears to have no precife meaning ; it is an exclama-
tion of the people in Madagafcar, and which M. Sonnerat
applied to this animal. It is found chiefly, if not exclufively,
on the weitern fide of the ifland.

In fize the creature is equal to a rabbit, meafuring in a
right line from the muzzle to the origin of the tail, fourteen
or fifteen inches, and the tail being rather longer than the
body. The head is formed like that of a fquirrel; the in-
cifive teeth are very contiguous, and fo placed as to refemble
in fome manner, the beak of a parroguet; but the two in
‘the lower jaw are much ftronger than thofe in the upper one.
The ears are naked, large, and rounded at the tip, as in
feveral of the bat tribe. The toes on each foot are five in
number; and the firft or innermoft one, which ferves as a
thumb to the hind feet, has a large and flat nail as in the
makis tribe (macauco, or lemur). A very diftin guifhed cha-
-racter of this animal is the length of the toes on the fore-
feet; the two latt joints of the middle toe above all are very
long, flender, and deititute of hair, and the nails are hooked.
The fur is as coarfe as horfe-hair; and is of a purplifh, or
mufky-brown colour, intermixed twith black and grifeous
afh; upon the head, and back, about the eyes, legs, and
thighs, is a deep Mufk-colour; on the eyelids, and feveral
parts of the bodyand limbs, black however predominates, and
the tail is of this latter colour ; that of the face, throat, and
belly is greyifa white, or flightly tinged with-rufousin fome

ae

AYE

places; it does not carry the tail elevated like a fquirrel,
The female has two teats on the lower part of the belly.

M. Sonnerat, who faw both the male and female, fpeaks
of them as being very flothful and gentle animals; and
which, like the owls, are fearcely able to difcern obje &s in
the day time. They live chiefly under ground, feedi 1g on
worms and infe€ts which they find in the earth, or in crevices
in the trunks of trees, from whence they extra& them with
the greateft facility, by means of their long flender toe
before mentioned. -Thofe which Sonnerat kept alive, were
ferved with rice, and he obferved that they fed themfelves
with the two long toes of their forefeet, in the fame manner
as the Chinefe do with their chop-fticks when eating rice
at their meals.

Sonnini forms a new genus of this animal, under the name
of Cutzromys (or rata main), obferving that it is the only
{pecies of its genus knows. The generic charaGer, accord-
ing to this author, confifts in the toes being very long, and the
thumb of the hinder pair being bent afide, or turning rather
backwards. He cenfures Gmelin for calling it /ciurus Mada-
§Ycarienfis or Madagafcar fquirrel, becaufe a quadruped of
that genus really exiits in Madagafcar.—Gmelin thus fpeci-
fically deferibes his §. Madagafcarienfis ; middle toe of the
fore-feet naked, and very longs thumb nail of the hind-pair
rounded, :

AYEL, Fr. or Avns, in Law, a writ which lies where
the grandfather was feized in his demefne on the he
died, a ftrangerenters the fame day and difpoffeffes the heir,
See Asstse de Mort, 3c.

AYEN, in Geography, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Correze, and chief place of'a canton in the dif-
tri& of Brive; fourteen miles S.S.W. of Uzerches.- The
place contains 935 and the canton 8592 inhabitants; the
territory includes 1374 Kiliometres and 12 co es.

AYENTIA, in Botany, (named in honour duke
D’Ayen, duke and’marechalle de Noailles): Linn. | . 1020,
Schreb. 367. Gertn. 79. Juff. 278. Clafs, ¢ noite I
tandria 3 or, according to Schreber, pentandria monogynia.
Nat. Order of oe te Juff Gen. Char,
Cal. perianth one-leafed, five parted; parts ovate, oblon; +
acute, coloured in the middle, reflex, withering. Cor. five-
leaved, united at the top to the nectary into a flat flar;
claws of the petals capillary, very long, bowed outwardly ;
borders obcordate, refupinate, with clubbed tips tu up-
ward ; ne€tary bell-fhaped, fitting on a cylindric,” ere@
column, fhorter than the calyx; border five-lobed, lobes -
elevated ; above flattith, with a longitudinal furrow, exca-
vated underneath, fharp. Stam. filaments five, very fhort,
inferted mto the margin of the neétary, on the top of the
ribs, between the divifionsof the border, each bent downwards
through a notch at the end of each petal; anthers roundifh,
under the borders of the petals. Pi. germ roundifh, five-
cornered, at the bottom of the nettary ; ftyle cylindric ;
ftigma obtufe, five-lobed. Per. capfule five-grained, roundifh,
muricate, five-celled, ten-valved, elattic. Seeds folitary, rather
oblong, gibbous on one fide, angular on the other. "a

Eff. Gen. Char. Monogynous. Cal. fiveygaved. Pet.
united into a ftar, with long claws ; anthers five, under the
fiar; capf. five-celled. , Ag 3 Ae

Species, 1. A. pufillas {mooth ayenia. Mill. Dia. fig.”
t. 18. ‘ Leaves cordate, fmooth.”? “Stem weak, woody,
from nine inches to a foot high ; leaves alternate, inden
pointed, flalked; flowers at the bafe of the petioles, two,
three, or four, from the fame point, on feparate peduncles ;
corolla purple, tubulous, {preading at the top into five feg-
ments, each terminated by a flender tail. A nativeof Peru. -
Cultivated by Miller, in'1756. ‘Its fowers appear in fuc=
ceflion from July till winter. 2, A. tomentofa. & Leaves

, ovate,

AWtEe

eyate, roundith, tomentofe.”? Leaflets of the caylx lanceo-
late, acute, permanent; corolla without petals, but com-
poted of a one-leafed bell-thaped neétary, with a five-cleft
margin; {tamens on the outfide of the netary, longer than
the caylx, bowed, bent in, and fixed by a bread membra-
nous tip, to the edge of the neétary;- anthers three. A
native of South America. 3. A. magna. Jacque. Amer,
Pi. p. 112. ‘Leaves cordate pubefcent; germ of the
flowers feffile.”? An upright fhrub five feet high; leaves
acuminate, ferrate, alternate, on tomentole footitalks; pe-
duncles fhort, axillary, mottly in fours; three-flowered;
flowers fmall, herbaceous, not gynandrious. A native of
Carthagena and other places of South America. 4. A.
levigata. Swartz. Prod. 97. ‘Leaves ovate, entire, very
fmooth, germ pedicelled, nectary ten-cleft, radiated’? A
native of Jamaica.
Propagation and Culture. Thefe plants are to be pro-
agated by feeds fown on a Aer hee hot-bed, early in the
Pac. and when they have four leaves, they fhould be
tranfplanted in another hot-bed to bring them forward, or
in pots, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner’s bark. They
mutt be fhaded till they have taken new root, and afterwards
have free air admitted to them every day in proportion to
the warmth of the feafon; they allo require frequent water-
ing. In winter they may be preferved in a moderate ftove,
but as they perfect their feeds the firft year, it is not necef-
fary to continue the old plants. See Martyn’s Miller’s

AYENNIS, in Geography, the name of an Indian tribe
of America, in Florida.

AYERBA,a town of Spain, in Arragon, onthe Gallego,
between Saragofa and Jaca. ;

AYERBENGAI, a town of the ifland of Sumatra.

AYERSTOWN., Sce Ayrstown.

AYESHA, in Biography, the favourite wife of Maho-
met, was the daughter of Abubeker, and the only one of
Mahomet’s numerous wives who was a virgin when fhe came
to his bed. With this view, he married her at feven years
of age, and cohabited with her atnine. He had no children
by her; but fo affectionate and conftant was his attachment
to her, that in his lait illnefs he was conveyed to her houfe,
and expired in herarms. Her enemies charged her with
adultery on a particular cccafion; and though the prophet
had on of her infidelity, he thought it moft prudent,
for preierving the dignity of his own charaéter, to produce
a feafonable revelation from heaven, attefting her innocence ;
and he puniihed her accufers as calumniators. After the
death of Mahomet, Ayefha was held in great veneration
by the Muffulmans, denominated “the mother of the faith-
fal,”? and confulted on important occafions. Againit the
caliph Othman fhe conceived, for fome reafon that is not
known, an invincible prejudice, and formed a plot for de-
throning him. When Othman was aflaffinated by another
enemy, fhe vigoroufly oppofed the fucceflion of Ah, becaufe
he had concurred in the accufation of her infidelity. Unit-
ing with her favourites Telha and Zobeir at Mecca, and
under a pretence of avenging the murder of Othman, fhe
marched in a litter borne by avery ftrong camel, at the
head of an army, towards Baffora, and on approaching the
town, after fome ineffeCtual refiftance on the part of the in-
habitants, fhe was met by a deputation fent to know her in-
tentions, whom ihe harangued with great paflion, and in a
loud fhrill voice, in along fpeech. ‘To her fpeech one of
the Arabs replied, «¢O mother of the faithful, the murder
of Othman was a circumftance of lefs moment than thy
leaving home upon this curfed camel. God has beftowed
on thee a veil and a protection; but thou haft rent the veil,

AYE

and {et at nought the protection.’”? After fome conteft, the-
troops of Ayéfha gamed poffeffion of Baffora. But Ali

advanced, and as Ayetha obflinately rejected all pacific

countels, a fierce battle enfued at a place called Horaiba, in
which both ‘['elha and Zobier were flain. The combat

clofed with hamftringing the camel on which Ayefha was

carried, and taking Pei prifoner. After fome mutual re-
proaches between her and Ali, fhe was civilly difmiffed, and

Jent to Medina with an injunction to live peaceably at home,

and to concern herfelf no more in affairs of ftate. This re--
{triGtion fhe afterwards refented by refufing to fuffer Hafan,

the fon of Ali, to be buried near the tomb of the prophet,

which was her property. Having regained fome degree of
influence -n the reign of the caliph Moawiyah, fhe was con-

fulted by him concerning the fucceffion of his fon Yezid.

Soon after, fhe died, in the 58th year of the Hegira, A.D.

677, at the age of 67 years... Mod. Un. Hitt. voli. Her-

delot Bib. Or. p. 75.

AYGULA, in Zoolory, a fpecies of Stm1a, charaterifed
by Linnzus as the long-tailed, beardlefs, grey monkey,
with a rifling longitudinat tuft on the crown; the fina
nigra magnitudinis medice of Edwards; aigrette of Buf-
fon; and egret monkey of Pennant. Linnzus mentions
an animal, apprehended to be a variety, with a roundifh
head, the face lefs black, and the colour of the body lefs
ferruginous. Mr. Pennant deferibes the egret-as having a
long face, and an upright pointed tuft of hair on the top of
the head, hair on the forehead black; colour of the upper
part of the body olivaceous; of the lower, cinereous;.eye=
brows large; beard very fmall; fize of a fmall cat. It is
faid to inhabit India, and” particularly the ifland of Java,
and to be a very {portive and lively {pecies; gamboling on
the trees, and making a continual noife during the night.
M. Cepede furmifes, that the bonneted monkey may per-
haps be a variety of this fpecies. Shaw.

AYGULUS, in Entomology, aipecies of Scarapeusy
that inhabits India. Thorax with four dots; head tuber-
culated; wing-cafes teftaceous; and no fore-tarfi.. Fabricius.

AYLAH. See Arran.

AYLESBURY, in Geography, is a Jarge market and
borough town in Buckinghamfhire, in England; and may be
confidered: the moft confiderable town in the county.. It
confilts of feveral ftreets and lanes, which are irregularly dif-
pofed over an extenfive furface of ground that rifes in tiie
midft of the rich vale of Aylefbury.. Leland deferibes the
town as being principally built with timber when he vifited
it, but fince that time it has been confiderably enlarged and
improved, and moft of the houfes conftruGed with brick.
The improvements originated with fir John Baldwin, who
ereCied fome confiderable buildings, and raifed a caufeway
three miles in length to facilitate the approach to the town
through a read that was often miry and dangerous. This
gentleman, in the time of Henry the eighth, alfo procured
the affizes to be held here which had been before kept at
Buckingham. In confequence of this, a county gaol, and
alfo a handfome county hall, were ereted. About the
year 600, Aylefbury became famous as the burial place of
St. Ofyth, who was born at Quarendon in this neighbour-
hood, and beheaded m Effex by the Pagans. The burial
place of a faint, in the dark ages of fuperttition, caufed it to
be much more frequented by fanétified enthufiafts, and
Aylefbury became highly celebrated from this cireumitance.
Befides, the fifters Editha and Eadburga became poffefled of
the manor, which after the conqueft was given by the king
to fome of his favourites. The fingular tenure, by which it
was now held, ferves to explain the cultoms of the times.
This enjoined the lord of the manor to provide ftraw for the

3 King’s:

AY IL

* king’s bed and chamber, three cels for his afe in winter; and
infummer, ftraw, rufhes, and two green geele, thrice every
year, if he vilited Ayleibury fo'many times. . The church
Js afpacious aud ancient itru€ure, ‘built ia the fhape of a
crofs, with a low tower riling-at the interfection of the nave
and tranlents. It contains a few ancient monumests, and
on the fouth fide is a room appropriated for 2 free-fehool.
The church-yard is large, and diipoted into feveral walks,
which are planted ‘with double rows cf trees. ‘This towh
was made a borough by charter, and empowered to fend
menibers to parliament oa the r4th of January, 1553-4.
The right of voting is vefted in al! the houfholders wno do

“not receivealms, and thefe commonly amount to about 350.
Here are: fix ainual fairs, and a market
at the latter, great numbers of calves aud ducks are fold to
dealers from London, Many people in this town and its
neighbourhood derive fupport from their pecubar flail in
breeding and rearing of ducks. To gratify fathionable lux-
ury they contrive-to prevent the ducks laying till tt

held ca-Saturday :

he
raonths of Otober and November; when by heating and
Stimulating food they are enducetl to drop their eggs; thefe

are collected and put under different hens, which are alfo_

impelled to fit at an unfeafonable time, and often made to
contiaue in the neft for two or three brcods. By this treat-
ment the poor bird is often exhauited, and dies under her
compulfive duty. When the young ducks are hatched,
they are placed near the fire and nurfed with particular care.
By thefe methods, many ducklings are fent to the metropo-
lis at Chrifimas, and have been known to feilat fifteen fhil-
lings and a guinea per couple. The parith of Aylefbury,
including the hamlet of Walton, ocerpies a large {pace of
ground, and comprehends 697 houfes and about 3082 inha-
bitaats, the lower clafs of whom are ufually employed in
making of lace.

The vale of Aylefoury is particularly celebrated among
-agriculturitts, forits richnefs and fertility of foil. It extends
-for many miles eaft and weit, nearly from ‘Tame in Oxford-

fhire to Leighton-Buzzard in Bedfordthire, and is moitly
appropriated to the grazing and fattening of cattle and fheep.
About five miles from Aylefbury, is Eythorpe, a feat of the
Earl of Chefterfield; and at ten miles diftance is Wotton-
under-Bernwood, anancient feat of the Grenville family, and
now occupied by the earl of Temple, Britton and Bray-
ley’s Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i. p. 343, &c.

AYLESFORD, a confiderable village of England, in

-the county of Kent, feated on the northen bank of the
river Medway, over which their is a handfome {tone bridge
of fix arches. It is four miles from Maidttone, and thirty
from London. ‘The ancient name of this place is found to
have been Saiffenaig-habail; but in confequence of a bloody
battle which was fought here between the Britons and Sax-
ons in 455, *the name was changed to Angles-ford, and

that afterwards contra&ted to Aylesford. This battle is .

rendered memorable in the annals of Englifh hiftory, as
being the firft great confli& between the invading Saxons
under Hengilt, andthe haraffed Britons under Gwrtheyra.
Concerning the iffue of this battle our hiftorians are very
contradiétory: fome have deferibed the Britons as_com-
pletely vidtorious ; but the learned Mr. Turner obferves,
-that as Hengift and his fon Efca poffeffed Kent after this
event, we may prefume that the engagement was unfavour-
able to the natives. Inthis fharp battle, Horfa, brother
to Hengift, and Catigern, brother to Vortimer, are faid to
have fought hand to hand, and were both killed on the fpot.
4Dhe former was interred on the ealtern fide of the Medway,
.at_a place which ‘till retains the name of Horlted; and Cati-

gern was buried at a place nearer the fcene of battle, where it

-montmeat is itil exifting at\the place, and confilsof Je.

‘Henry the third, a monattery of ‘Carmélites was founded

-Henry the eighth to fir Thomas Wyat, and hast Ten

‘lith Divine and bifhop, was defcended from an/ancient fam

‘indicate a tendency towards puritaniim, and parti

Ya? al 7y "oe

HY iw
ia Rated a large Cromlech was crcGied'tochis memory, .

large upright ftoaes, ahouteight feet high, with a
on the top, meafuring eleven feemby eight, and twofeerin
thickuefe. Ir is called Kitfeoty-houte. (See Caomps ent)
At the dittance of about two fields are other anes ereGeiaval
fome lying down if a’circular arraagementi Tothe reien

u

at Aylesford, by lord Grey'of Codnor. © It was granted By”

devolved to the earl of Aylesford. ~ Here-is an hofp
fix poor people, each of whom is allowed ten pounds
Hatted’s Hiftory of Kent, vo. edition, “Turnet’s
Hifory of the Anglo-Saxons. ae a tae
AYLETS, or Ssa-Swattows. In Heraldry, they are
often called Cornifo Choughs, and are painted fable? =
and legged gules, > AE Metis ea
AYLMER, or EEvmer, Joun, in Biography,

year.

at Aylmer-hall, in the county of Norfoik, and bora da the
‘in 1521. Being a younger fon, he waseducated at Cam-
bridge under the patronage and at the charge of Hk
Grey, marquis of Dorfet, and afterwards duke of Su ik
who, when his ftudies were finifhed, took him into his houfe,
as preceptor to his children, one of whom was lady Jane
Grey. Under his tuition, this. lady ‘became an e ont
proficient in the Latin and Greek languages, fo that! the.
could not only read them with eafe, but write them t
elegance. Aylmer, as a preacher, zealouflly inculcated the
principles of the reformers; aad having, in confequence of
his preferment to the archdeaconary of Stow, in tlie dio-
cefe of Ligcola, a feat in the convocation, held in’ the
firt year of queen Mary, he refolutely oppofed that return
to popery to which the clergy in general feemed to. be
inclined; and he was one of the fix perfons who offered to-de-
bate sll the controverted points of religion with the mof
learned champions of the Papifts. His zeal for the reforma~
tion rendered him obnoxious to the government, fo that he
found it neceflary to withdraw from the country, meee
he was of a diminutive fize, he made“his efeape by bei ¢
concealed in a pipe of wine which had a falfe bottom, the
wine being drawn from the lower half,-whilit Aylr lay
hid in the upper. During the time of his exile, he refided
firft at Stra(burg, and afterwards at Zurich in Swiflerland,
purfuing his ftudies, and improving himfelf by travelling,
in the courfe of which -he vifited moit of the univerfities
in Italy and Germany. Towards the clofe of his exile,
he wrote an aufwer to John Knox’s book agaiait the go-
vernment of women, intitled, “ The firft- Blaft a, in
monitrous Regiment and Empire of Women.” His pi
was intitled, «An Harborowe for faithful and trewe Sub-
jeds againft the late blowne Blafte, &c.” printed at Strat
urg, 1559. This book was writtea with vi y ai
learning ; but it contained fome paflages which feemed to

in which he exorted the bifhops to content themfelves with
moderate incomes, and with a portion “ prieft-like, and not
prince-like.”? However, when this paflage was afterv
objected to him by his enemies, he vindicated hin
faying, «When I was a child, I poke asa child,
thought like a child, &e.”? After the acceffion of
Elizabeth, Aylmer returned home, and was one of the }
divines appointed to difpute with as many popith bithey
Weltminiter, in the prefence of a great aflembly. “I
he obtained the archdeaconry of Lincoln; and in 1
this dignity, -he fat in the famous fynod held this 3
examining and fettliag the -doétrine and difciplio

Md

ol

AY™M

reformed church. In this ftuation he continued for feveral
years, attending to his duties as a juitice of the peace, and
one of the ecclefiaftical comm ffioners, and entering yery
little into thofe difputes that would have fubjeéted him to
the notice of cither of the two parties by whom he was
dufpected. In 1573, he ec uleAltlfed the degrees of bache-
Torand doétor in divinity, in the wiiverfity of Oxford; and
dn ¥576, he fucceeded his intimate friend and fellow exile in
the fee of London; but he incurred cenfure by commen-
cing, and profecuting for fome yearg, a fuit agaiaft him for
ablapidations. Tudeed, a prudent attention to his own in-
tereit was'a difcriminating feature in the bifhop’s character.
Mn his clerical and epiftopal capacity, he was affiduous in
public preaching, occafionally roufing, as it is faid, the lan-
uid attention of his audience by reciting Hebrew verfes
drom a pocket bible ; and in his efforts for guarding the
church againft the attacks both of papilts and puritans.
Perfons of both thefe defcriptions, and particularly the lat-
ter, were treated by him with a degree of feverity, which
was not only uawarrantable in itfelf, but which iucurred oc-
cafional admonition from the ruling powers. His virulent
-abufe of fome puritan minifters‘ expofed him to the no lefs
acrimonious aflault of their fareaflic writers, fo that he be-
‘came the hero’ of the celebrated Martin Mar-prelate. See
Fuller’s Church Hiftory, b. ix. p.. 223, 224. He was in-
volved in a variety of difputes with refpeét both to the
temporalities of his fee, and his exercife of its fpiritual
junildiction ; fo that his life was far from being tranquil,
though his fpirit was bold and refolyte, and enabled him to
furmount the difficulties with which he had to encounter.
Of his refolution and perfonal courage the two following
inftances are recorded: one was his fubmitting to the ex-
traCtion of a tooth, in order to encourage queen Elizabeth
to undergo the fame operation; and the other was his cud-
‘gelling his fon-in-law for mifcondu& towards k's wife, who
was a favourite daughter. Bifhop Aylmer died at Fulham,
an 1594, at the age of 73 years, and was buried in St.
Paul’s cathedral. He left feven fons and two or three
daughters, to all of whom he left large legacies, which he
was enabled to do by his economy and avarice. The cha-
»raéter of Aylmer defervedly ranks high with refpect to ta-
Tents and learning, but his temper was irritable and violent ;
he was immoderately fond both of power and money; and
he undoubtedly poffeffed an arbitrary and perfecuting fpirit.
Biog. Brit. Andrews’s Hift. of Gr. Brit. vol. i. p. 524.
AYLSHAM, or Avesuam, in Geography, is are{pect-
cable market town in Norfolk, in England, fituated in a flat
and fertile country on the banks of the river Bure. In
4773, an act of parliament was obtained for making this
river navigable hence to Coltifhall in its courfe to Yar-
mouth, a diftance of about ten miles, in which {pace there
are five locks: the undertaking was completed in 1779.
' This town is the capital of the manor of the duchy of Lan-
~ocafter, in confequence of which the duchy court is always
held here. The manor was granted by Edward III. to
the famous John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, who built
-ahandfome church in the town, and dedicated it to St. Mi-
-chael; A free-fchool was founded here in’ 1577, by Ro-
bert Jannys, who was then mayor of Norwich. Aylfham
is about eleven miles from Norwich, and 120 from London.
_ It has two annual fairs, and a weekly market on Tuefday::
this was formerly held on Saturdays, but has been altered to
the former day. Hiftory and Antiquities of Norfolk, 10
vols. 8vo.
B AYMARAES, a jurifdiGtion of South America, in the
_ diocefe of Cufco, about 40 leagues fouth-weft from Cufco.
'This-territory abounds in fugar, cattle, and grain, aadalfo

ain mines of gold and filver, which formerly produced large

eVox. IL

' AYR

quantities of thefe valuable metals; but at prefent few of
them are wrought, the country being too thinly inhabited.

AYMARGUES. See Aimarcuers.

AYMOUTH. Sce Eymourn.

AYNAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot, and chief place of a canton in the diflri& of Vigeac,
twelve miles N. N. W. of-Figeac.

AYOQUANTOTOTL, or Avis Avoouantrororr,
in Ornithology, the name under which the Oriolus Xanthornus
of Gmelin is defcribed by fome old writers. Vide Hern.
Mex. Seba, &c. ;

AYORA, in Geography, a fmall place of Spain, in the

province of Valencia, upon the river Xucar, at the foot of
amountain, one league from the frontiers of New Cattile;
the inhabitants of which are faid to fpeak Caftilian in its

purity.

AYOTECOS, high mountains of America, in Mexico, in
the province of 'Talfeala, towards the coaft of the South Sea.

AYRSHIRE, a county in the fouth-weftern part of
Scotland, bounded on the north by the county of Renfrew,
on the eaft by the fhires of Lanark and Dumfries, on the
fouth by Galloway, and on the weft by the frith of Clyde.
Its extent is about fixty-five miles in length by thirty-fix
in breadth, and it is divided into three great bailliages or
ftewartries, which bear the names of Kyle, Cunningham,
and Carrick. hefe diftriéts are extremely different from
each other in appearance, as Carrick and the interior parts
of Kyle are mountainous, and only fitted for pafture ; while
the coaft of Kyle, and the greater part of Cunningham, pre-
fent a fine, level, cultivated country, interfperfed with nu-
merous towns and villages. Its rivers are the Tweed, the
Ayr, the Efk, the Annan, the Urr, the Gurvan, the Doon,
and the Lugar. This county includes two royal burghs,
Ayr and Irvine, and feveral towns, among which are Beith,
Ballantre, Girvan, Kilmarnock, Kulwilling, Largs, and
Salcoats. Ayrfhire poffefles many valuable feams of coal,
alfo {ome quarries of freeftone, limeftone, ironftone, and feve-
ral rich lodes of lead and copper ore. A few curious {pe-
cimens of agates, porphyries, and calcareous petrifaCtions
are often found in the hills of Carrick ; and a fpecies of
whetitone, known by the name of /yr-/one, is obtained
from this county. ‘’he population of it, as returned to
the houfe of commons in 1800, was 84,306, of which
39,666 were males, and 44,640 females.

AYR, the principal town in the above county, is a royal
borough of confiderable antiquity, and the feat of a jufticiary
court. Jt was nominated a royal borough by William the
Lion, in 1180, and the privileges by charter then granted
are full enjoyed by the town. It is pleafantly feated ona
point of land which projects into the fea, between the influx
of the rivers Doon and Ayr, and the principal ftreet is
broad and ornamented with a row of good houfes on each
fide. Ayr fab been a town of confiderable trade, but the
rifing opulence of Glafeow has attraéted the merchants from
this place. The inconvenient entrance to the harbour proved
detrimental to the commerce of the town, but the inhabit-
ants are carrying on extenfive works to remove all obftruc-
tions at the mouth of the river, and render it more commo-
dious for trading’ veffels ; and two new refleGting light-houfes
are now erecting near the entrance to the harbour. ‘T'he
falmon fifhery of the two rivers furnifhes employ for many
of the inhabitants, and the fand banks of the coalt abound
with all kinds of white fifh. Its population is 5492, and it
has 735 houfes, ;

Ayr, New Town of, is the name of another town, feated on
the north fide of the river Ayr. Tt has baronial jurifdiction,
and a diftin& magiftracy from the other town. ‘This place

feems to have arifenunder the influence of Robert Bruce, who

Bly retired

AZA

retired here upon being attacked with a leprofy, eftablifhed
a lazar-houfe, and conferred confiderable favours on the
town, and the neighbouring village of Prieftwich. Its po-
pulation is 1724.

Ayr, a river of Scotland, rifes in the parifh of Muirkirk,
in the above county, and after a courfe of about eighteen
~ miles due weft, falls into the frith of Clyde, at the town
juft defcribed. Its banks are fteep and romantic in fome
places, but in others it often overflows its fhores, and does
confiderable damage.—Alfo, a river of France, which runs
into the Aifne near Grandpre.

AYRAINES, a town of France, in the department of
the Somme, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of
Amiens, nine miles S. S. E. of Abbeville.

AYRSTOWN, or Averstown, 2 town of America,
in Burlington county, New Jerfey, fituate on the middle
branch of Ancocus creek, fixteen miles from the mouth of
the creek in the Delaware, and thirteen fouth-ealt from
Burlington.

AYRY See Arry.

AYSCUE, Ayscoven, or Asxew, Sir George, in Bio-
graphy, an eminent Englifh admiral of the feventeenth cen-

tury, was defcended from a good family in Lincoinfhire ;

_and entering into the fea-fervice in his youth, acquired the
reputation of an able and experienced officer, and obtained
the honour of knighthood from king Charles I. Adher-
ing, however, to the parliament in the civil war, he was
conitituted admiral of the Inifh feas, where he is faid to
have rendered great fervice to the proteftant intereft, and
to have contributed much to the redu€tion of the whole
ifland. In 1651, he reduced the iflands of Scilly, and
alfo Barbadoes and Virginia, to the obedience of the parlia-
ment; and he afterwards behaved with great honour in the
war with the Dutch. In 1666, whilit he was engaged
with the Dutch fleet, his thip was driven upon the Galloper-
fand; and being furrounded with enemies, and defpainng
of help from friends, he was obliged to furrender. After
this difafter, he went no more to fea; but fpeat the remain~
der of his days in retirement. Biog. Brit.

AYSIAMENTA, or AyziamenTa. See EaAsEmMEnT.

AYSLINGEN, in Geography, a market town of Ger-
many, in a prefecturate of the fame name, in the diocefe of
Augfburg, fituate on the Danube.

AYST, a river of Auftria, in the Blach quarter, on
which is feated the market town of Waldhaufen.

AYTON, or Aiton, a {mall town of Greece, in Liva-
dia, five leagues north of the Dardanelles of Lepanto. This
is thought to be the ancient town of /étolia, called Calydon
Aguile.

AYUD, Auprin, or Hawn, a province of Hindoftan,
containing the moft northern countries belonging to the
Moguls, fuch as Kakares, Bankifh, Nagarkat, Siba, and
others. It is fituated to the northweft of the Ganges, and
watered by rivers which fall into it; fo that, notwithitand-
ing its mountains, it is exceedingly fertile; and its trade
with the countries to the north-eaft renders it very rich.
In this province there are many independent rajahs, and
two remarkable pagodas, one at Nagarkat, dedicated to the
idol Matta, and the other at Kalamak, which is venerated,
becauie the Indians regard it as miraculous, that the water
of the town fhould be very cold, and yet fpring froma rock
that continually throws out flames.

AZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Syria,
feated on an eminence to the weft of one of the branches of
the river Chalus, fouth-weft of Chaonia—Alfo, an ancient
town of the Leffler Armenia, placed by the Antonine Iti-
nerary inthe route from Czfarea to Sangala, 26 miles from
the latter place—Alfo, a name given in the time of Steph.

AZA

Byz. to the town of Gaza.—Alfo, a town of Paleftine, in
the tribe of Ephraim.

AZAB, Ussas, or Sasa, in Geography, a territory on
the Abyfinian coaft of the Arabian gulf, near the itraits of
Babelmandeb, which has been, from time immemorial, the
mart of frankincenfe, myrrh, and balfam. Behind Saba,
upon the Indian ocean, is the ‘* Regio Cinnamonifera,”
where a confiderable quantity of that wild cinnamon grows,
which the Italian druggifts call “canella.”? Azab, or Saba,
was formerly a principal ftation of the caravans, which
traded to Arabia. It lies in N. lat. 13° 5’. E. long. 43°
and though it is not a port, it affords a very tolerable road,
where is very fafe riding, under the fhelter of a low defert
ifland, called “* Crab Ifland,”? with a few rocks at the end
of it. The people, however, fays Mr. Bruce, are Galla,
the moft treacherous and villanous wretches upon the earth.
They are ‘ Shepherds,” who fometimes refort to the coafts
in great numbers, and fometimes traverfe the hinder part of
the hills that run clofe along the fhore, and uccupy milerable
villages compofed of huts, that run nearly in an eaft and
weit direction from Azab to Raheeta, the largeft of all their
villages. At Azab may be had plenty of water, fheep, and
goats, and alfo fome myrrh and incenfe at the proper feafon.
But no confidence is to be had in the people. Thofe of
Mocha, who are abfolutely neceflary to them in their com-
mercial tranfactions, cannot truft them without furety or
hoftages. Near Azab there are large ruins, which feem to
indicate its former magnitude and importance. There is
efpecially an aquedu€, which, in remote times, furnifhed a
very confiderable fupply of water from a fountain in the
mountains, which muft have greatly contributed to the
beauty, health, and pleafure of the place. This is con-
ftruGed with large mafly blocks of marble, brought from
the neighbouring mountains, placed upon oue another with-
out lime or cement, but joined with thick cramps, or bars
of brafs. There is likewife a nuniber of wells, not fix feet
wide, compofed of pieces of marble hewn to parts of a
circle, and joined with fimilar bars of brafs. This circum-
ftance is fomewhat furprifing, as we are informed hy Aga-
tharcides (p. 60), that the Alleans and Caffandrins, in the
fouthern parts of Arabia, juft oppofite to Azab, had among
them gold in fuch plenty, that they would give double the
weight of gold for iron, triple its weight for brafs, and ten
times its weight for filver; and that in digging the earth,
pieces of gold were found as big as olive-ftones, and fome
much larger. However this be, the inhabitantsof the con-
tinent, and of the peniniula of Arabia oppofite to it, agree,
that this was the royal feat of the queen of Saba, famous
in eccleftaftical hiftory for her journey to Jerufalem; that
thefe works belonged to her, and were erected at the place
of her refidence ; and that all the gold, filver, and perfumes
came from her kingdom of Sofala, which was Ophir, and
which reached from thence to Azab, upon the borders of
the Red Sea, along the coait of the Indian ocean. See
ABYSSINIA.

The ruins at Azab, as well as thofe at Axum (See
Axum), appear to be thofe of public buildings, and not
of private dwellings ; and from this circumftance it has been
inferred, that theie were not cities of conftant refidence,
but rather places of refort, where the adventurous traders
and their attendants lived, as ufual, in their tents, but
where their religious rites were celebrated with the tet
folemnity, and in a manner becoming the difpofitions of
men, who ventured in expeditions acrofs the deferts, far
more difficult and dangerous than acrofs the Atlantic ;
whence, we may ali imagine, was derived the great influence,
or a power, of the order of prieits, who perhaps were
the only conftant inhabitants af thefe {pots, which i

wie

AZA

wifhed to be confidered as the favourite abodes of their divi-
nities. It appears, however, from: the beft authorities, that
Merde, Axum, and Azab, were places that had a common
origin, and were moft probably, as we have already ob-
ferved, the principal {lations of the caravans that traded to
Arabia, while Thebes and Ammonium continued the com-
munication toward Carthage. Whether from Azab there
was an intercourfe with the Ethiopians of the more fouthern
parts of Africa, toward cape Gardefan, and the prefent
Zanquebar, is a quettion that deferves particular invefliga-
tion. On this fubject, fee profeflor Heeren’s “ Idéen iiber
die Politik, &c.’’ or “ Ideas on the Policy, Intercourfe,
and Commerce, of the principal Nations of Antiquity.”
Gottingen, 1793. ©

Azap, in the Military Order of the Turks, fignifes a par-
ticular body of the foldiery taken in, or added firft to the
janizarics, but now become a feparate body from them.

The word, in the Oriental languages, fignifies an unmar-
ried perfon, and the original order of thefe was, that they
fhould be fingle men.

The azabs in Egypt have been great rivals tothe jani-
zaries, and fometimes they have got the better. Their in-
ftitution and officers are the fame with thofe of the jani-
zaries ; but with this difference, that from cdo-bafhees they
are made ferbajees, and from that office cajas, and come
into the divan. On the contrary, among the janizaries,
when any one is made a ferbajee, it is laying him afide, and
he is no farther advanced. Pococke’s Egypt.

AZABE-Kasert, from haber, fepulchre, and azab, tor-
ment, denotes a temporary punifhment, which, as the Ma-
hometans fay, the wicked mutt fuffer after death. Their
¢erimes are hereby expiated, and Mahomet opens the gate of
paradife to all who believe in him. ;

AZADARICHTA, in Botany. See Meri.

AZADKAR, in Geography, a large town of Perfia,
called alfo Yuin, and placed by Tavernier in an extenfive
plain, watered by 400 fubterranean canals.

AZAGARIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
European Sarmatia, in the vicinity of the Boryfthenes.
‘Ptolemy.

AZAGRA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Navarre,
on the Ebro; two leagues from Calahorra.

AZAIZY, a poor and inconfiderable tribe of Arabs,
inhabiting a village of Egypt, called Bir Ambar, between
the Nile and the Red Sea, about N. lat. 26°, and E. long.
33°; who fubfift by letting out their cattle for hire to
the caravans that go to Coffeir. The village probably
derived its name Bir Ambar, or the well of {pices, from
its having been formerly a ftation of the caravans from
the Red Sea, loaded with this kind of merchandife from
India. The habitations of the Azaizy are conftructed of
potter’s clay, in one piece, in fhape of a bee-hive: the
largeft not above ten feet high, and the greateft diameter
fix. Bruce’s Trav. vol. i. p. 170.

AZALEA, in Botany, (afx220:, dry ; from its growing
ina dry foil) Lin. g. 212. Schreb.277. Gertn. 63. Juff.
158. Clafs, pentandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. bicornes.—
Rhododendra, Jufl. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth five-parted,
acute, erect, {mall, coloured, permanent. (Cor. monope-
talous, bell-fhaped, femiquinquefid; the fides of the divi-
fions bent in. Stam. filaments five, filiform, inferted into
the receptacle, free; anthers fimple. Pi/?. germ roundifh;
ityle filiform, the length of the corolla, permanent; ftigma
ebtufe. Per. capfule roundifh, five-celled, five-valved.

_ Seeds many, roundiih. 02/. In fome {pecies the corolla is

fannel-fhaped. _
Eff. Gen. Char. Cor. bell-fhaped; ftamina inferted into
the receptacle; capfule five-celled.

.

AZA

Species, 1. A. pontica, Ponticazalea. ¢ Leaves fhining,
lanceolate, fmooth on both fides, racemes terminal.’? This
fpecies much refembles rhododendron ponticum; but its
flowers are yellow, its leaves {maller, ovate and ciliate. A
native of Pontus. 2. A. indica, Indian Azalea. Thunb.
Jap. 84. “ Flowers fub-folitary ; calyxes hairy.” A fhrub
three feet high, with a rough cinereous-brown bark.
Branches fhort, twilted, irregular. Leaves ftiff, villofc,
clofe, ever-green. Flowers cover the whole upper part of
the fhrub, and are of a beautiful brisht red colour, A na-
tive of the Eaft Indies. It is much cultivated in Japan for
the elegance of its flowers, and variety ia their fize and
colours. 3. A. nudiflora, naked-flowered azalea. The va-
rieties are as follow: A. coccinca, deep fearlet azalea, Curt.
Mag. 180. A. rutilans, deep red azalea. “Calyxes minute.”
A. carnea, pale red azalea. “ Tube red at the bafe, calyx
leafy.”” A. alba, early white azalea. “ Calyxes of a mid-
dling length.’? A. bicolor, red and white azalea. * Limb
of the corolla pale; tube red; calyx fmall; branchlets
hairy.’”? A. papilionacea, variegated azalea, “ Corolla red,
the loweft fegment white; calyxes leafy.’? A. partita,
downy azalea. ‘* Corolla pale red, divided to the bafe into
five parts.”? Sp. Char. “ Leaves oyate, corollas hairy, fla-
mens very long.” In its native country this frequently ex-
ceeds fourteen feet in height, but in England, we never fee
it half this height. Several ftems arife from the root.
Leaves oblong, {mooth, alternate, flalked. Peduncles ax-
illary, long, naked, fupporting a clufter of red flowers,
which are tubulous, and {welling at the bafe, like thofe of
the hyacinth, aad contracted at the neck; they are divided
at the top into five unequal fegments, which fpread open.
The filaments and ftyles are much longer than the petais,
and ftand ere€t. A native of North America; and intro-
duced here by Peter Collinfon, efquire, in “1734. 4. A.
vifcofa, vifcid azalea. ‘ Leaves fcabrous at the edge ; co-
rollas with glutinous hairs.”” Its varieties are, A. odorata,
common white azalea. ‘ Branches diffufed; leaves deep
green, fhining.” A. vittata, white-{triped flowered azalea.
‘‘ Corolla white, with pale red keels; ftyles elongated; red
at the end; leaves pale, ovate, oblong.” A. fifia, narrow-
petalled white azalea. ‘* Corolla divided to the very bafe;
leaves deep green, fhining.”? A. floribunda, clufter-flowered
white azalea. “Styles longer than the corolla ; leaves glau-
cous underneath.”? A. glauca, glaucous azalea. ‘“ Corolla
white ; leaves glaucous on both fides, the younger with
{cattered hairs on the upper furface.”? This fhrub rifes with
feveral ftems near four feet high. Leaves {pear-fhaped, nar-
row at the bafe, befet at the edwes with fhort rough teeth,
and ftand in clufters at the ends of the fhoots. Flowers
in clufters at the extremities of the branches, white, with a
mixture of dirty yellow on the outfide ; tube an inch long;
the two upper fegments at the top reflex ; the two fide ones
bent inwards; and the lower one turned downwards. Thefe
flowers have the appearance of thofe of honey-fuckle, and
are as agreeably {cented; they appear in July. ‘This is
nearly allied to the foregoing; but does not flower till after
the leaves are expanded. It is a native of North America,
and was introduced here by P. Collinfon, efquire. 5. A.
lapponica, Lapland azalea. <“* Leaves with excavated dots
fprinkled over them.’? A fhrub fix or feven inches high.
It is to be diftinguifhed from rhododendron dauricum only
by its having five ftamens, whereas that has ten. 6. A.
procumbens, trailing azalea. Flor. Lapp. ed. 2. 60. t.6. Eng.
Bot. vol. 13. Hudf. 88. With. 239. Lightf. 139. Flor.
Pan. t. 9. ‘ Branches procumbent, diffufe; leaves oppolite,
revolute, very fmooth.” Stem woody, much branched;
branches leafy, round, fmooth; leaves oppofite, ftalked,
fpread much, elliptic, obtufe, revolute, entire, fmooth ;* pe-

ghz tiolas

es

AZA

tioles channelled, ciliate; peduncles in pairs; commonly one-
flowered, reddifh, with braétes at the bafe; flowers erect,
of a deep rofe colour, bell-fhaped, regular ; capfule fubro-
tund-ovate, acute, five-celled, margins of the valves inflex.
It grows on moft of the high mountains of Scotland. 7.
A. pun@ata, dotted azalea. Lour. Cochinch. 113. ‘ Leaves
rugged about the edge; flowers dotted, heaped.”? Five
feet high, ereét, branched; leaves lanceolate, entire, {mooth,
alternate ; corolla white ; calyx whitith, dotted with red, as
are alfo the corollas, anthers, and germ. A native of the
woods of Cochinchina. ;

Propagation and Culture. 1, 2. the Pontic and Indian
fpecies have not yet been cultivated in Europe. 3, 4. grow
naturally in fhade, and in moift ground; many of the plants
have been fent of late years from North America to Eng-
land, and preduced beautiful flowers in this country. They
mutt have a moift foil and fhady fituation ; aad can only be
propagated by fhoots from their roots, or by laying down
their branches, for they do not produce feeds here. When
any of them are laid down, it fhould be only the young
fhoots of the fame year, for the old branches will not put
out roots. ‘The beft time for this is at Michaelmas, and if
they are covered with fome old tan, to keep out the froit,
it will be of ufe to them. The autumn is the beft time to
remove the plants, but the ground about the roots fhould
be covered in winter ; a practice neceflary for the old plants
to preferve them in vigour, and caufe them to flower well.
5> 6. are low plants, of little beauty, and will only thrive
on boggy ground upon mountains, See Martyn’s Miller’s

id.

AZAMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
placed by Ptolemy fifteen days journey diftant from Car-
thage bay ; fouth-eaft of Cirta. It is fuppofed to be the

relent Zamora.

AZAMBUJA, in Geography, a {mall town of Portugal,
containing from feven to eight hundred houfes, feated ina
well-cultivated plain on the banks of the Tagus, not far
from Lifbon.

AZAMOGLANS. See AGEMOGLANS.

AZAMOR, in Geography, a {mall fea-port town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Morocco, and province of Du-
quella. It is feated on the river Morbeya, at fome diflance
from its mouth. This town is not adapted to maritime
commerce, becaufe the entrance of the river is dangerous.
It was unfuccefsfully befieged by the Portuguefe in_1508 ;
but taken in 1513 by the duke of Braganza, and abandoned
about the end of the fixteenth century. Ata little diftance
from Azamor, facing a {pacious bay, are the ruins of the
ancient city of Titus, fuppofed by Chenier (Prefent State,
&c. of Morocco, vol. i. p. 37.) to have been one of the
cities founded by order of the fenate of Carthage. Near
the fame place are the ruins of Almedina, a town built by
the Moors. The cape ef Azamor ftretches out to the weit.
See Mazacan. - N. lat. 33° 20’. W. long. 8° 20’.

AZAMORA, in Ancient Geography, a ftrong place of
the Leffer Armenia, in Cataonia. Strabo.

AZANAGHIS, in Geography, a people on the coaft of
Africa, near cape Blanco. They inhabit the adjacent deferts,
and are not far from the Arabs of Hoden. ‘Their food is
Gates, barley, aud the milk of their camels. ‘They acknow-
Icdgze no matter, but the more wealthy among them are
treated with fome tokens of refyett.. Their general cha-
rafter is that of being perfidious and fraudulent; they are
poor and wretched, and live in hordes difperfed in feveral
nlaces along the coatt.

AZANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
Phrygia, to which they were annexed. _ Strabo.

AZANTA, one of the three grand divifions of Arcadia,

AZA

according to Strabo. Steph. Byz. fays, that it contained
feventeen towns.—Alfo, a part of the maritime coaft of
Ethiopia. Pliny.

AZANITIS, a country of Afia Minor, in Phrygia,
in which was the fource of the river Rhyndacus. Strabo.

AZAOTON, or Azoat, a fandy defert of Africa, in
Libya, almoft deftitute of water, and which is traverfed by
the compafs, like the fea. 5

AZAPES. See Asapres.

AZAR, in Ancient Geography, a mountain in Egypt.
Ptolemy.

Azar, in Geography, atown of Arabia, feventy-fix miles
fouth-eait of Amanzinifdin. :

AZARA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia, in Ar-
menia Major, feated on the river Araxes. Strabo.—Alfo, an
ancient town of Afiatic Sarmatia. Ptolemy.—Alfo, a tem-
ple of Diana, in Affyria. Strabo.

AZARABA, a town of Afia, in Sarmatia. Ptolemy.

AZARECAH, or Azaraxires, in Hi/fory, the deno-
mination of a-feét of heretical Muffilmans, fo called from
Nafe Eba al Azarak their founder, who ackuowledged no
power or government, temporal or fpiritual. They confifted
of a combination or affemblage of all who rejected and op-
pofed the Mahometan faith ; they were fworn enemies of
the houfe of Ommiyah; and committed dreadful ravages
in all the Moflem territories through which they pafled.
In the fixty-eighth year of the Hegira, they made an irrup-
tion into Irak, and carried their barbarous excefles to fucha
height, that they murdered all perfons whom they met with,
ripped open women with child, and committed every fpecies
of cruelty that could be invented on people of every de-
{cription, without difcrimination. During this period their
founder died, and was fucceeded by Katri Ebn al Fojat,
under whofe conduct they costiaued their depredations.
Mufab, the governor cf Mouful and Mefopotamia, fent a
body of troops againft them, commanded by Omar Ebn Ab-
dallah Temimi, who completely routed them at Naifabur, in
Chorafan, flew many of them, and purfued the reft as far as
Ifpahan and the province of Kerman. See Manomerans.

AZAREDO, in Geography, a fea-port town of South
America, in the bay of Spirito Santo, on the coaft of Bra-
fil. This is a famous port for fugar. S. lat. 20° 18’
W. long. 40° 10’.

AZARIAH, or Uzz1an, in Biography, one of the kings
of Judah, fucceeded his father Amaziah in the year 809
before Chrift. The early part of his reign, in which he was
pious and virtuous, was profperous and happy; and he ob-
tained great advantages ever the Philiftines, Ammonites,
and Arabians. He was devoted to agriculture, though he
had a ftanding army of 307,500 nien, with large magazines,
well furnifhed with arms both offenfive and defentiye ; he
employed many hufbandmen in the plains, vine-dreffers in
the mountains, and fhepherds in the vallies. Towards the
clofe of his life, and of his reign, which lafted fifty-two
years, he became an idolater, died of a leprofy, and was

‘buried, not in the royal fepulchre, but in an adjacent field.

2 Kings, xv. 2 Chron. xxvi. There are many high-priefts
and others, mentioned in f{cripture, and in the Jewith
hiftory, who bore the name of Azariah.

AZARIAS, a learned Italian rabbi, lived in the fixteenth
century, aad publifhed at Mantua, in 1574, a Hebrew
treatife, entitled, “ Meor en Ajim,” or * The light of the
eyes;”’ in which are difcuffed, with confiderable learning and
knowledge of the Chriftian {criptures, feveyal points of chro-
nology and criticifm. The work contains a Hebrew tranf-

ation of the book of Arifteas on the LXX. Nouv. Di&.

Hittor.
AZAROLUS,orAz4roxe,in Botany. SeeCraTacus.
AZARUM,

A ZE /
. AZARUM, a fmall, dry, blackifh, ftringy, medicinal

root, much ufed in France as a f{pecific for the farcy in
horfes, 'The azarum, called alfo nardus filveftris, grows
in the Levant, Canada, and about Lyons in France. The
firft is reputed the beit. It is given in powder, from the
quantity of an ounce to two.
AZATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Me-
dia. Ptolemy. ‘
AZATHA, a town of Afia, in Armenia Major, Ptol.
AZAY Le Feron, in Geography, a towa of France, in
the department of the Indre, and chief place of a canton in
the diftriG of Chatillon furIndre; 9 milesS.S, E. of Chatillon.
AZAY le Rideau, a town of France, in the department of
the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the
diitri& of Chinon, four leagues fouth-weft of Tours, and four
north-eaft of Chinon. "The place contains 1708 and the

canton 11,244 inhabitants; the territory includes 275 kili-.

ometres and 12 communes,

AZAZEL, in Jewi/h Antiquity. See Scare-Goar.

AZED, in the Materia Medica, a name given by the
Arabian writers to a kind of camphor, which they make the
third in value, placing it after the alcanfuri and abriagi. The
firft of thefe was the fineft of all the kinds of camphor, and
was collected tolerably pure from the tree, as it grew in
Canfur, the place whence it was named. The abriagi was
the fame camphor, rendered yet more pure by fublimation ;
this was a difcovery of one of the kings of that country, and
the camphor was named from him. The third kind, or azed,
was the fame with what we now receive from the Indies,
under the name of crude or rough camphor. The word
azed fignifies only /arge, and was ufed to exprefs the camphor
formed into fuch large cakes, as it is alfo at thistime. Avi-
eenna fays, this camphor was grofs, of a dufky colour, and
much leis bright and pellucid than the other kinds. See
Campuor. :

AZEDARACH, in Botany. See Metra.

AZEKAH, or Azecua, in Ancient Geography, a city of
Judza, ftrong both by fituation and its walls; in the tribe of
Judah, and feated in the fame north-weft corner with Lebna
and Makkedah, in the valley of Terebinth, where David

‘flew Goliath. Jofh. xv. 35. 1 Sam. xvii. r. Eufebius and
St. Jerom inform us, that, in their time, there was a city
of this name between Jerufalem and Eleutheropolis.

~ AZELFOGE, in 4fronomy, a fixed ftar of the fecond
magnitude, in the tail of Cygnus.

AZEM, in Geography. .See Asam, and Assem.

AZARAILLES, a town of France, in the department
of the Meurte, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict of
Luneville, three leagues fouth-eaft of Luneyille.

AZETENE, fometimes called Anzitené, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a country of Afia, in Armenia Major, between the
fources of the Tigris and Euphrates, to.the South of Saphe-
na. Ptolemy.

AZEVEDO, Ienatius, in Biggraphy, a Portuguefe
Jefuit, was bora at Oporto, in 1527, and refigning an ample
fortune of which he was heir to a younger brother, he de-

voted himfelf to religion in the fociety of the Jefuits at
Coimbra. In procefs of time he became a miffionary, and

was deputed as fuch to the Indies and. Brafil, under the title

_of procurator-general for thofe countries. Having given an
account of his firft voyage to the general at Rome, he fet
out on a fecond miffion with a great number of attendants ;
bet whilft the fhip was failing, in 1570, towards the ifland
of Palma, it was taken by corfairs, and all the miflionariés
were put to death. On this account, Azevedo and his
thirty-nine companions have been honoured as martyrs in tlie
church of Rome; and the hiftory of their miffion and martyr-
dom was publifhed by Beauvais, a Jefuit, in 1744. Moreri.

AZI

AZEYTAO, in Geography, a {mall town of Portugal, in
Eftremadura, confifting of 552 houfes, and 2342 inhabitants.
It has a manufactory of cottons, and carries on a confiderable
trade in wiae and oil, for which its fituation, between the two
harbours of Lifbon and St. Ubes, is convenient.

AZIALCOLLAR, a town of Spain, in the country of
Seville, nineteen miles north-weft of Seville,

AZIBINTA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the
Mediterranean. Pliny.

AZILAR, in Geography, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in
the road between Conftaitinople and Tocat.

AZILLE, a town of France, in the department of the
Aude, and cheif place of a canton in the diitri&t of Carcaf-
fonne; thirteen miles E.N.E. of Carcaffonne. N. lat. 43”
15’. E. long. 2° 33’.

AZIMGUR,a town of Hindsftan, in the country of Al-
lahabad ; 108 miles W.N.W. of Patna, and so N. of Bejares.

AZIMUS, or AzimuntTium, in Ancient Geography, a
{mall city of Thrace, on the Illyrian borders. "This city,
fearcely mentioned by geographers, has been diftinguifhed
in the annals of hiftory by the martial fpirit of its youth,
the fill and reputation of the leade s whom they had chofen,
and their dariug exploits againft the innumerable hoft of
the northern barbarians... Inftead of tamely expeCting their
approach, the Azimuntines attacked, in frequent and fuc-
cefsful fallies, the troops of the Huns, refcued from their
hands the fpoil of the captives, and recruited their domeftic
force by the voluntary affociation of fugitives and deferters.
After the treaty of peace between Attila and the eaftern em-
pire, A.D. 446, the Barbarian conqueror ftill menaced the
empire with implacable war, unlefs the Azimuntineswere per-
fuaded, or compelled, to comply with the humiliating condi-
tions which their fovereign had accepted. Theodofius, dif-
daining authority over a fociety of men who fo bravely afferted
their natural independence, the king of the Huns condefcend-
ed to negotiate an exchange with the citizens of Azimus.
They demanded the reititution of fome fhepherds, who, with
their cattle, had been accidentally furprifed. After diligent,
but fruitlefs inquiry, the Huns were obliged to fwear, that
they did not detain any prifoner belonging to the city; be-
fore they could recover two furviving countrymen, whom
the Azimuntines had detained as pledges for the fafety of
their loft companions. Attila was fatisfied, and deceived
by their folemn affeveration, that.the refk of the captives had
been put to the fword ; and that it was their conftant prac-
tice immediately to difmifs the Romans and the deferters,
who had obtained the fecurity of the public faith. If the
race of the Azimuntines, whether this diflimulation on their
part be excufed or condemned by political cafuiits, had been
encouraged and multiplied, the Barbarians would have ceafed
to trample on the majefty of the empire. At a fubfequent
period, in the war of the emperor Maurice againft the A vars,
A.D. 595—602, the Azimuntines manifefied a confider-
able degree of the invincible fpirit of their anceftors. See
Gibbon’s Hift. vel.vi. p. 63, &c. vol. vili.p. 201, &c.

AZIMUTH, in 4fronomy. The azimuth of the fun,
or of a ftar, isan are of the horizon, comprehended between
the meridian of the place, and any vertical circle pafiing
through the fun or flar: and it is equal to the angle at the
zenith formed-by the faid meridian and vertical circle, which
is meafured by the fore-mentioned arc.

The word is pure Arabic, which fignifies the fame thing.
The azimuth is reckoned eaftward in the morning, and
weftward in the afternoon; and it is ufually eftimated from
the fonth, or from the north, as.it-is nearer to the one or to
the other of thofe points. Thus if it be found by abferva-
tion, that the vertical circle which pafles through the zenith
and a ftar interfeéts the horizon juft in the midway between.

the:

AZI1

sthe eaft and the fouth, then the ftar’s azimuth is faid to be
45° eaftward of the fouth. It is the complement of the
eaftern or weftern amplitude to a quadraut.

The azimuth is found trigonometrically, by this propor-
tion; as radius is to the tangent of the latitude, fo is the
tangent of the fun’s altitude to the cofine of the azimuth
from the fouth at the time of the equinox. Otherwife,—
fuppofe the latitude of the place, and the fun’s declination
to be given, and let it be required to find the fun’s alti-
tude and azimuth at Go’clock. E.G. Let London be the
place in N. lat. 51° 32’, and let his declination be 23° 28’,
as it is on the longeft day; then to find his altitude and
azimuth at 6 o’clock in the morning and evening, conftruct
a figure in the following manner. Defcribe the meridian
(Plate Il. Afronomy, fg. 20.), draw the horizon HR, and
prime vertical ZN ; make RP = latitude 51° 32’, N.; draw
the 6 o’clock femicircle PS, the equator EQ, the 23° 287
N. parallel of declination nm, interfecting the 6 o’clock
femicircle PS in ©; and through Z, ©, N, defcribe the
azimuth circle ZON, interfeéting the horizon in A; then
the triangles Z©P and y OA are fupplemental triangles
to one another. In the fpherical triangle Z©P, right-
angled at P, we have

Given the co-lat. ZP = 38° 28’
the co-declin. ©P = 66° 32’
Required the co-altitude Z©
the azimuth 2 @ZP.
Or, in the {pherical triangle ~ AQ, right-angled at A,
Given the lat. Ap@ = 51° 32’
the declin. ~@© = 23° 28’
Required the altitude A®
the co-azimuth yA

To find the altitude AO.
As Radius = a

- - 1.00000

To fin. declin. = 23° 2§' = ~ 9-60012
So fin. lat. = 51° 32" - - _9-89375
Rp Gn: alt= 18° 10% 6 | - _ 9.49387

To find the azimuth AR.

As Radius - - - = — 0.00000
ManCol. Water — aco 2! - - 9-79383
So tang. declin. = 23° 28’ - - 9-63761
To'co, tang. azimuth = 74° 53’ - 9-43144

For the arc AR meafures the 2 RZA, the azimuth.
On the fhorteft day at London the parallel of fouth decli-

nation cuts the 6 o’clock hour-circle below the horizon;
and as the triangles pA® and ya@® are ‘congruous, the
depreilion below the horizon, on the fhorteft day at 6 o’clock,
svill be equal to the altitude at the fame hour on the longeft
day; and the azimuth will alfo be equal, if eftimated
from the fouth. Thus, on the 21ft of June, the fun will
bear N. 74° 53’ E. at 6 o’clock in the morning, and N.
74° 53 W. at 6 in the evening ; but on the 21ft of De-
cember, at the fame hours, it will bear S. 74° 53' E., and
S. 74° 53) W. From this problem, it appears, that as the
declination increafes,. the altitude increafes and the azimuth
Jeffens, and the contrary happens while the declination is
decreafing ; fo that on the days of the equinoxes, when the
fun has no declination, the altitude at 6 o’clock will be
nothing, or the fun will be in the horizon ; and the azimuth
being then go’, the fun will be due eaft in the morning,
and weft in the evening ; that is, on the days of the equi-
noxes, the fun rifes and fets at fix, in the eaft and weit points
ef the horizon.

Again. Given the latitude of a place, the fun’s declina-

A 2-3

tion and altitude; required the hour from noon, and the
fun’s azimuth. E.G. Inthe latitude of 51° 32’ N. the fun’s
altitude was obferved to be 46° 20°, when his declination
was 23° 28’ N.; what was the fun’s azimuth, and the
hour when the obfervation was made ?

Let the primitive clrcle ZRNH (fg. 21.) reprefent the
meridian of London, HR the horizon, and ZN the prime
vertical; make RP = 51° 32’ the height of the pole at
London; draw the axis PS, and the equator EQ; lay off
the declination En, Qm, 23° 28’ N. the altitude Hr," Ry,
46° 20’; and defcribe the parallel of declination mm, and
the parallel of altitude rs, interfeCting one another in ©,
the place of the fun at that time: through Z, ©, N, defcribe
an azimuth circle Z © N, andthrough P, ©, S, deferibe an
hour circle P@S; then the angles ©ZP, © PZ, being mea-
fured, will give the azimuth and hour from noon required ;
or, they may be computed in the following manner.

In the oblique-angled {pherical triangle P@Z,

Given the co-lat. ZP = 38° 28°

the co-alt. or zenith diftance ZQ = 43° 4o’

the co-declin. or polar diftance @P = 66° 32’
Required the azimuth, LZGLPe.
and the hour from noon Z©PZ.

To find the azimnth, or angle OZP,
Here Z©Q = 43° 40’

Ze preeen
@Z—ZP = 5° 12! =D.
PO = 66° 32’
71° 44' | 35° 52"
2) 61° 20' | 30° 40’
Then co-arith. fin. co-lat. = 38° 28/ = 0.20617
co-arith. fin. co-alt. = 43° 4o! - 0.16086
fin. £ fum. co-declin. and D = 35° 52! 9-76782
fin. 4 diff. co-declin. and D = 30° 40’’ 9.70761
The fum of the four logs - = - 19.84246
The 4 fum gives 56> 314’ - - 9.92123

And 59° 314’ doubled gives 113° 3’ for the azimuth fought,
reckoning from the north. ;

To find the hour from noon, or 2 @PZ.

Here P© = 66° 327 :
BZ, ==) 38" 28)
PO—PZ = 28 44=D
CZ = 43° 40
718 44'| 35° 52"
M157 36 |_ 7° 48"
Then co-arith. fin. co-declin. = 66° 32! - 0.03749
co-arith. fin. co-lat. Se eo - 0.20617
fin. 4 fum. co-alt-and D = 35° 52’ - 1.96782
fin. 5 diff. co-alt.and D = 7° 48’ - 9-13263
The fum of the four logs - - - 19.144f1
The 4 fum gives 21° 55’ - - - 9.57206

This 21° 55’ doubled gives 43° 50’ for the meafure
the hour from rieon, which is 2° 55° 20%.
Hence it appears that the obfervation was made cither at

9" yh

of

AZO

9’ 4" 40’ in the morning, or at 2° 55" 20° in the
afternoon.

The azimuth being firft found, the hour from nooa might
have been found by the proportion between oppolite
fides and angles. If the declination aud latitude had been
of contrary names, the fame kind of procefs would have
ferved for finding the things required, except that the fide
©P would have been obtufe; by adding the declination to
go°, inftead of fubftraéting it, as in the cafe of the Jatitude
and declination having like names.

To find the azimuth by the Globe, fee Grane.

Azimut, Maguetical, is an arc of the horizon eolltained
between the azimuth circle of the celeftial objeét, and the
magnetical meridian; or it is the apparent dillance of the ob-
ject from the north or fouth point of the compafs. ‘This is
found by obferving the,obje& with an azimuth compafs,
when it 1s about ten or fifteen degrees high, either in the fore-
nocn orafternoon. See Compass.

Azimutu Compa/s, is aninftvument ufed at fea for find-
ing the fun’s magnetical azimuth.

The defcription and ufe of the azimuth compafs, fee

under Azimuth Compass.

Azimutu Dyal, isa dial whofe ftyle or gnomon is at
right angles to the plane of the horizon.

Azimurus, called alfo Vertical Circles, are great circles
of the {phere interfecting each other im the zenith and na-
dir, and cutting the horizon at right angles. ‘Che horizon
being divided into 360, there are utually reckoned 360
azimuths. The azimuths are reprefented by the rhombs on
common fea-charts; and on the globe thefe circles are re-
prefented by the quadrant of altitude, when {crewed in the
zenith.

On thefe azimuths is reckoned the height of the ftars,
and of the fun, when he is not m the meridian; that is, the
azimuths fhew what diftance thefe are from the horizon.

AZINCOURT, in Geography. See Acincourr.

AZIO, a town of European Turkey, in the province of
Livadia, fixty-four miles north-eait of Lepanto.

AZIRIS, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town of Ar-
menia Minor. Ptol.—Allo, a place of Africa, in Libya,
hii as Herodotus fays, the Cyrenzans elftablifhed them-

elves.

AZIRISTUM, an agreeable place in Armenia Minor,
over againft Thera, furrounded by hills, and watered by a
river. Herodotus.

AZIZUS, in Mythology, derived from the Syrian aziz,
Jorce, an epithet given to Mars, adored at Edefla. Bryant
fays (Anal. Anc. Myth. vol. i. p. 27.), that 4z or ds was
one of the titles of the fun, and that Azizus, formed by a
reduplication of the fame term, denoted the deity of Edeffa
and Syria, and was the fame as Afis and Ifis, made feminine
in Egypt, who was fuppoled to ke the filter of Ofiris, the fun.

AZMAVETH, Azmoru, or Beruesmorn, in An-
cient Geography, a city probably in the tribe of Juda, ad-
jacent to Jerufalem and Anathoth. Nehem. vi. 28. xii. 29.

AZMERE, in Geography. See AGimERE.

AZMON, in Ancient Geography. See AsszMon.

AZNALCACAR, in Geography, a town of Spain; in
the province of Andalufia; feven leagues from Seville.

AZNOTH-TABOR, or Aznorn, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, is placed by Eufebius in the plain, not far from Da-
mafeus. Jofh. xix. 34.

AZOCHIS, a town of Paleftine, in Galilee. It was
fituated near Sephoris, and taken by Ptolemy.—Alfo, an
ancient town of Afia, in Mefopctamia. Pliny.

AZOF, in Geography, a town and fortrefs on the Don,
containing about 38co inhabitants; diftant from St Peterf-
burg 1998, and from Mofco 1268 verfts. Itis well known

8

remedying fo great a defect.

A ZO

that the Don is the T'anais of antiquity. Now, in this
region, many ages ago, {taod a town of the fame name with
the river, which had been built by the Greeks. Chardin
pretends that Azof is fituate fifteen Italian miles inland from
the river ; whereas the old town of T’'anais is only three fuch
miles diftant from the river. What reafons Chardin had for
giving this dlatement, concerning one or the other, it is diffi-
cult to difcover. ‘Though we cannot abfolutely prove that
the town T'anais ftood precifely on the feite of the prefent
Azof, yet itis manifelt that it was in this diftri. The
more ancient a town is, the more likely it is to have under-
gone confiderable and frequent alterations ; and the lefs rea-
fon there is for imagining that it flands exaétly on the old
primitive [pot, of which Rome alone may afford an example.
Concerning T'anais, however, Claudius Ptolemeus affirms it
to have been fituate near the prefent Azof. Vor admitting,
as he does, the Don to be the boundary between Europe and
Afia, he gives tlie town Tanais to the Afiatic divifion. Strabo
hkewife (p. 215. 340. ed. Cafaub.), placing the town on
the fame fide, at the fame time informs-us that it was built
by the Bofporanian Greeks. Greece, in its earlier periods,
was extremely populous; and fome parts of it, from the
nature of their foil, were not produétive enough for the
nourifhment and fupport of their prolific mhabitants. Hence
they were neceffitated to conflruét numerous towns on the
fea-coaft and on feveral iflands, in order to devife means for
The commerce, to which the
fea gave them all neceflary accommodations, furnifhed this
people at the fame time with other means of freeing them-
felves from poverty. or, at one time, particular towns, at
another whole tribes, united to fend colonies to different
places out of Greece. Thefe new fettlers gradually formed
colonies on the fhores of Natolia, Sicily, the inferior parts of
Italy, in France, and feveral other countries; fo that the
commerce of almoft the whole world then known was im-
perceptibly drawn into their hands. Iu like manner they
planted their colonies round the whole coait of the Euxine,
where, on the coafts of the peninfula of the Crimea, ‘Theo-
dofia, Cherfon, Panticapeum, and other towns, became par-
ticularly famous.—At what time the town Tana, or the
prefent Azof, fell into the poffeffion of the Genoefe, is not
now to be afcertained. It may however be furmifed, that
they obtained it from the Polovtzes before the incurfion of
the Tartars, and therefore prior to the year 237, as they
would not have been able to cope with the Tartavian forces.
The Genoefe were ftill in poffeffion of the Crimea, and at
the fame time of Tana or Azof, in 1474, though the Turks
had conquered Conftantinople in the year 1453. In 1637,
Azof was captured from the Turks by the Kozaks; and in
1642; after being reduced to afhes, it was reconquered by
the Turks. On the twenty-eighth of July 1696, it furren-
dered to the arms of tzar Peter the Great ; who in1711, in
confequence of the unfortunate affair at the Pruth, reftored
it to the Turks at the treaty of Bender; from the Turks it
was again captured by the Ruffians, in 1739; but by the
treaty of Belerade they were obliged to raze it to the foun-
dations. It remained in an abandoned {tate during thirty
years. But in the lait war againft the Turks, Catharine IT.
caufed it to be re-edified, and it is now in the beft ftate of de-
fence. Coins of Azof have been found, bearing on them the
name of khan Taktamyfh.

Azof is fituate in the government of Ekatarinoflaf ; which
belonging partly to Little’ Ruffiaand partly to the Zaporo-
gian Kozaks, till the year 1752, when it began to be occu-
pied by colonifts from all nations, was one continued watte
{teppe, entirely void of inhabitants, but has fince proved a
great acquifition to the induftry and trade of the country,
under the name of New Servia, The ecclefiaftical affairs gd

the

AZO

the Ruffians are under the archbifhop of Ekatarinoflaf and
Cherfonefotaurida ; and in his abfence under his’ vicar the
bifhop of Feodotia and Mariupol. The other religious
communions are governed by their own fpiritual prefects.

Azor, Sea of, called by the ancients Palus Meotis, for-

merly by the Ruffians the Putrid fea, and in fome maps
Zabache fea, is a gulf in the Euxine, to which it is joined
by aftrait. tis fituate inthe dominions of Ruffia. Long.
52° to 57° eaft Ferro; lat. 45° 20’ to 47°20 N. It is
about 210 miles ia length, and from 40 to 6o in breadth.
It has fix harbours: Taganrok, Mariupole, and the Httle
fort of Petroffk clofe te the fhore, Azof, Nafuth
and fort St. Dimitrisnear the mouth of the Dona. OF ail
thefe, Taganrok has the greatelt trade in exports 5 being
next to that of Cherfon in the Euxine. Azof at prefent
is not by far of fo much confequence as it formerly was,
Ruffia having now fo many harboprs on the ‘Turkith waters,
and as that arm of the Don, on which Azof lies, is gia-
dually filling with fand from year to year. ‘The other har-
bours are for the moft part of little fignilicance as to foreign
commerce. From Taganrok, in 1793, were exported bar-
iron, tallow and tallow-candles, butter, wheat, and wheat-
meal, linen, peltry, tow and cordage, wax and wax-candles,
fith, caviar, leather, morfh bones and teeth, honey, foap,
faileloth, fheeps wool, &c. to the amount of 428,087 ru-
bles. It is moftly inhabited by Armeniazs, who fled hither
from the Crimea, in 1780; and at prefent contains feveral
excellent manufactories ef filk, cotton, &c. The amount
of the exports from the other ports is not known : proba-
bly itis but {mall. The importation confifts in raw and
wrought filk and cotton, muflins, Vurkith ftuffs and car-
pets, wool and angora goats hair, Greek wines, oil, va-
rious kinds of fruit, tobacco and fuuff, fpiceries, faffron,
opium, medicinal drugs, pearls, precious ftones, gold and
filver, &c. ‘The whole northern coaft of the fea of Azof,
from the Don to Perekop, is laid out in fitheries, to which
occupation thefe diflriéts are extremely favourable. They
fifth with nets that have in tle middle a conical bag, in
which the fifh aflemble ; and one fingle draught, which ge-
nerally lafts only fix hours, yields 60,000 fifh; among
which, however, are found but few flurgeons, fhads, and
other large kinds of fifh, ‘The falted and fmoaked macka-
rel, called by the Turks fkumri, are an important article
of trade in the Crimea, and are frequently fent from Feo-
dofia and Balaklava to Conftantinople, and to all the ma-
ritime towns of Natolia and Romelia. Thefe fish are tranf-
ported in barrels, and a thoufand of them are fold on the
{pot for three and a half or four piaftres. ‘Tooke’s View of
the Ruffian Empire, iii. 72.

AZOGA Surps, in Commerce, are thofe Spanifh fhips
commoaly called the guick/ilver /aips, from their carrying
quickfilver to the Spanifh Weft Indies, in order to extract
the filver out of the mines in Pern and Mexico. But itis-a
great miftake to imagine that thefe fhips are abfolutely laded
with quickfilver only ; for though flri€tly {peaking, they are
to carry no goods unlefs. on the king of Spain’s account,
they are ufually full laden, notwithitanding this regulation,
by reafon that the merchants procure fpecial licences of the
king to load, upon payixg a confideration for fuch licences.

AZONI, derived from the privative « and Zw, zone, or
country, In Mytholocy, a term anciently applied to fuch of
the gods as were not the peculiar divinities of any particular
country or people, but were acknowledged as gods in every
country, and worfhipped by every nation. See Gop.

Thefe azoni were a degree above the vifible and fenfible
gods, which were called zone@/, who inhabited fome parti-
cular part of the world, and never ftirred out of the diftrict
or zone that was afligned them. ‘Such in Egypt were Se-

~

AZO-

rapis, Ofiris, and Bacchus; and in Greece, the Sun, Mars,
the Moon, and Pluto. They were called by the Romans
dii communes. 5
AZOOPHAGUS, from a, Cwor, animal, and Qxyx, vil
eat, in Natural Hiffory, a term ufed by authors to exprefs
fuch infects or animals as feed on herbs, never eating the
flefh of any living creature. -
AZOR, or Azon, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
northern part of Paleftine, tothe fouth of Dan. ;
AZORES, in Geography, called alfo Hftern Iflands, from
their fituatiou, and Terceras from the name of the pnincipal
ifland, are a group of iflands lying inthe Atlantic ecean,
between 26° and 40° N. lat. and 25° and 33° W. long.
Geograpliers have frequently claffed them among the Afn-
can iflands ; but they more properly beloag to Europe, as
they are about 13° diftant from Cape- St. Vincent, in Por
tugal, and about one degree more remote from the African
fhore. LDefides, their latitude conneéts them more naturally
with Europe than with Africa, and they were fit peopled
by Europeans. They are fevenin number, viz. St. Michael,
Sta. Maria, Tercera, Gratiofa, St. George, Pico, and Fayal,
befides the fmaller ones of Flores and Corvo, which lie at a
.confiderable diftance to the weft, but as they all belong to
the government of Portugal, they are all now included under
the fame general appellation, Thefe ifles were all difcovered
by the Portugueie, but the precife period is a fubje& of
difpute. According to the account inferibed on his globe
by the celebrated geocrapher Behaim, or Behem, they were
difcovered in 1431 5 but Murr fays, that they were explored
fuccefiively from 1432 to 1449. It is certain, however,
that they were firft difcovered by the Portuguefe, before the
year 1449; and they are faid to have given them the name
of Azores, from agor, a fists on account of the number
of gofhawks, which were here remarkably tame, there being
neither man nor quadruped to difturb them. In 1466, they
were given by the king of Portugal’ to his fifter the ducheis
of Burgundy. ‘They were colonized by Flemings and Ger-
mans, among whom was Job de Huerter, the father-in-law
of the geographer Behaim, and lord of Moikirchen, being
driven from Flanders by war and famine. Huerter after-
wards refided at Fayal, and appears to have had a grant of
the arms from the duchefs of Burgundy. . Although the
fubfequent hiftory of thefe iflands is rather obfeure, the
Flemifh inhabitants feem always to have acknowledged tlre
king of Portugal. The Azores are difcovered at a great
diftance from the fea, on account of a high mountain called
the Pico, or Peak (fee Pico), of a conical form, refembling
the peak of Teneriffe. They are generally mountainous,
and expofed to earthquakes and eruptions of volcanos, one
of which occured July 9th, 1757, when St. George’s, Pico,
and Fayal, which form a clofer group than the others, be-
ing {carcely five leagues afunder, and Tercera, though at
twicethat diftancefrom St, George’s, werefuddenly difturbed
at the fame inftant, and fhaken to their foundation by terri-
ble convulfions of the earth. The firft thock lafted two
minutes. On this occafion the ocean overflowed, many
perfons loft their lives, and thefe iflands were covered with
ruins. ‘I'he confequence of this dreadful convulfion of na-
ture was the produétion of eighteen little iflands, that rofe
infenfibly from beneath the fea, at the diftance of about ten
yards from the north coaft of St. George’s. ‘They difap~
peared in a few months, as thofe produced by the voleano
of St. Michael -had done before. It was obferved, that
Flores, Corvo, St. Michael, and St. Mary’s, were not at all
aff-éted by this eruption of St. George’s, and that Gratiofa
fuiféred very little. ‘They are fubject alfo to violent winds,
and the fury of the waves, which are frequently very inju-
rious, by overflowing the low grounds, fweeping of wer
cids

7

AZO

fields of grain and folds of cattle, breaking down their
fences, and overwhelming their houfes. Neverthelefs they
produce wheat, wine, fruits, and abundance of wood; and
they have many quadrupeds both wild and tame. One of
che Jateft accounts we have of thefe iflands is that of Mr.
Adanfon, who. vifited them in 1753, on his return from
Senegal; but it is to be regretted, that thefe interefling
iflands, like all the other Portuguefe fettlements, are almott
unknown.

AZORIUM, or Azorus, in Ancient Geography, atown
of Greece, in Pelagonia Tripolitidis, according to Strabo and
Livy. Itwas fituated among the Perrheberians, at the con-
fluence of two rivers which formed the river Curatius.

AZOT, in Agriculinre, a fubftance which is only diftin-
guifhable in its different ftetes of combination with other
matters. Its effects on vegetation, when in the ftate of gas,
are probably not yet fully afcertained. According to the
obfervations of Humboldt and Scopoli, fome forts of plants
when expofedinit foon droop and die, while others, aslichens,
continue to increafe and grow in a perfect manner.

Azort, in Chemifiry, is one of the moft important of
the fubftances hitherto confidered as elementary, exifting
very abundantly in nature, forming the greater part of the
atmofphere, the peculiar and almoit chara¢teriftic ingredient

of animal matter, the bafis of the nitric acid, and one of

the conttituents of the volatile alkali.
Pure or uncombined azot is only known in the form of a
as; it is then fynonymous with the phlogifficated air of
Rohvele and Prieftley, the atmo/phezrical mephitis of Lavoifier,
and the nitrogen gas of Chaptal and fome other French che-
mitts.

It was by experiments on the various fubftances which
alter, corrupt, and deteriorate common air, that the pro-

erties of azotic gas became firft familiar to chemifts. In
all thefe, and in the dire&t eudiometrical experiments, or fuch
as decompofe the air in order to afcertain its purity, it is the
oxygen, together with the carbonic acid, and other cafual
ingredients, which is {ubtraéted by the chemical re-agents ;
whilit the azotic gas alone remains unaltered and unabforbed.
Hence, chemifts had at firft no other knowledge of azot
than as a refidue untouched in chemical operations, and its
properties could only be defcribed by negatives, till the im-
portant difcoveries of the compofition of nitric acid, of am-
monia, and of animal matter, gave a new intereft to azot as
a chemical element.

Azotic gas may be obtained in various methods. In every
eudiometric procefs, as we have juft mentioned, the refidue
is azotic gas of greater or lefs purity. Thus, if phofphorus
be burned in a confined quantity of common air, after the
eombuttion has ceafed, the refidue is azotic gas in confider-
able purity, generally however holding fome of the phof-
phorus in folution.

Another method of obtaining this gas, firft employed by
Scheele, is to moiften a quantity of iron filings and fulphur,
anclofe them in a glafs veffel full of common air inverted
over water, and in a few days by the abforption of all the
oxygen of the air, the azotic gas will be left pure.

Another, and a very fpeedy method of procuring this gas
im great purity, 1s by agitating common air in conta witha
folution of fulphat of iron faturated with nitrous gas.

Thefe methods, with the precautions to be obferved,
will be further noticed under the article EupiomeEtrRy, in
which it will be feen that the proportion of azotic g%s in
the atmofphere is, with little variation, about 73 per cent.

Azotic gas may alfo be readily procured in large quanti-
ties by the decompofition of animal matter by megus of ni-
ric acid. mi ia >

Vou. II,

AZO

If very dilute nitric acid be poured on any animal matter,
particularly mufcular flefh or the coagulum of blood, and a
gentle heat be ufed, azotic gas is given out in great purity.
This experiment is one of a feries of excellent obfervations
on Animat Marrer made by Berthollet, which we have
already noticed under that article. The azot in this inttance
proceeds from the animal matter, and not from the acid.

In the decompofition of Ammonta by the oxymuriatic
acid, and in the reduétion of fome metallic oxyds by this al-
kali, azotic gas is alfo given out in great purity.

Ina fingle inftance, azotic gas may be faid to be mineral,
for a very contiderable quantity of this air rifes up in bub-
bles through the fprings of feveral of the native hot fprings,
fuch as thofe of Bath and Buxton. The nature of the air
thus obtained was firlt obferved by Dr. Priefiley.

Azotic gas is abfolutely incapable of fupporting com-
buftion. When alighted taper is dipped in a jar of this
air, it becomes inftantly extinguifhed without any noife cr
explofion. It is equally deftructive to animal life (whence
its derivation, from «, and Co, depriving of life) ; and the
fatal effe€ts to an animal immerfed in it come on to fpeedily,
that it has been thought by fome to poffefs a pofitively
noxious power independent of the mere abfence of oxygen.

Azotic gas is fomewhat lighter than common air. Its
fpecific gravity, when obtained from common air by iron
filmgs and fulphur, is ftated by Kirwan to be 0.0012, cr
in the proportion of g85 : 1000 compared with atmofpheric
air. Lavoifier makes it only 0.00115, or to common air,
as 941.6 : 1000.

With oxygen, azot forms a variety of combinations.,
That of atmofpheric air has already been mentioned. A
fimple admixture of oxygen with a {mall proportion of azo~
tic gas produces no particular effet, but when the combi-
nation is affifted by the eleGtric {park, a true combuftion of
azot takes place, and the produét is the Nirric Acrp.
This beautiful difcovery we owe to Mr. Cavendith.

When azot and hydrogen are mixed together, both in the
gafeous form, no union appears to take place; but under
different circumftances Ammon1a is produced.

Azotic gas, when heated with Cuarcoat, with SuL-
PHuR, or with Puospuorus, diffolves a {mall portion of ~
thefe fimple fubftances, and holds them in fufpenfion for a
confiderable time.

Very little is known concerning the aétion of azot in its
fimple form upon metailie or faline fubftances ; and in the
{late of gas, it appears to be more inactive and unwilling
to enter into combination than any other fub/tance in na-
ture.

Azot has not hitherto been decompofed, fo that it mutt
be confidered as a chemical element. Several attempts,
however, have been made for this purpofe, but none of them
have proved fatisfatory. The lateft of thefe, which ex-
cited much attention in Germany, was that of Weigleb, a
juftly eminent chemifl, an account of which he publifhed
in Crell’s Annals for 1796. The chief experiment on
which this philofopher grounds his theory of the compolition
of azot is the following : ifan carthen tube of fmall diameter.
(the ftem of a tobacco-pipe for inftance), be heated quite
red-hot, and the fteam of water be fent through the tube
in this ftate without any obvious connection with the exter-
nal air, a confidérable quantity of a gasis generated, which
confilts almoft entirely of azotic gas, mixed with a {mall
quantity ef carbonic acid. Hence, this chemift would infer,
that as nothing but water and heat are prefent, the azotic
gas here produced is formed by the union of the vapour of
water with caloric at a very high temperature. A feeond
experiment is to pafs the vapour of water over the oxyd of

: manganefe,

3G

3

AZO

manganefe, enclofed in an earthen tube, and already heated
for a confiderable time, fo as to expel all the oxygen which it
will yield : in this cafe alfo, there will be avery confiderable
production of azotic gas. A third experiment is to pals
the vapour ef water through heated glafs tubes, of no more
than two lines in diameter, when azotic gas will be equally
produced. The inference of the compofition of azotic gas
derived from thefe experiments, would be very legitimate,
if no caufe of error could be deteéted ; but the focicty of
Dutch chemifts, who have esriched the fcience with fo many
valuable obfervations, on repeating the experiments, fully ex-
plained the reafoa of this fmgular phenomenon, in demon-
firating the permeability of every kind of earthen-ware not
glazed, when expofed to a confiderable heat. Therefore
in thefe experiments, the vapour of water in pafling through
the tube, is found partly to make its way through its pores
into the furrounding coals ; and at the fame time the air cir-
culating through the furnace, partly enters the tube, and is
colle&ed at the further extremity ; and this air being vitiated
by the burning fuel, is principally azotic gas, mixed with a
certain portion of carbonic acid. This permeability of
heated earthen-ware (which had been before obferved by
Dr. Prieftley), fhould always be kept in mind by chemifts;
as many of the moft important experiments of refearch are
performed by the ingenious apparatus of a heated tube.
With regard to the production of azotic gas, when the va-

our of water was fent through a red-hot glais tube, it was
Fully afcertained by the above-mentioned chemiits, that.no
gas of whatever kind appears whilft the tube remains perfe@,
but that the leaft crack or fiffure is fufficient to give admit-
tance to the air of the furnace with as much eafe as the pores
of theearthen tube. Asan additional proof thatthe gasinthefe
inftances came from without, we may add, that on removing
the fire from the earthen tube, and continuing the tranfmil-
fion of the aqueous vapour, fome gas itill continued to be
given out whilft it remained red-hot, and this latter portion
was atmofpheric air, or that which now furrounded the
heated tube.

Several other cireumftances relating to azotic gas, are
conneéted with the theory of PHtocisTon,to which we fhall
further refer the reader. Ann. de Chem. tom. 26 and 29.

. Azor, Gafeous Oxyd of. See Nitrous Oxy. i

AZOTH, among the Ancient Chemifts, fignified the firft
matter of metals; or the mercury of the metal, more par-
ticularly that which they call the mercury of the philofophers,
which they pretend to draw from all forts of metallic
bodies. >

Paracelfus’s azoth, which he boafted of as an univerfal
remedy, is pretended to have beena preparationof gold, filver,
and mercury: a quantity of this he is faid to have always
earried with him in the pommel of his fword.

AZOTUS, Azoru, or Asxupop, in Ancient Geography,
one of the five Philiftine fatrapies, was a celebrated fea-port
of Phenicia, on the Mediterranean, fituate about fourteen
or fifteen miles fouth of Ekron or Accaron, between that
and Afcalon, and about thirty miles diftant from Gaza, to-
wards Joppa. It fell at firft to the lot of Judah, but con-
tinued for a confiderable time in the hands of its ancient
owners, It was in this city that the ark of God triumphed
over the idol Dagon, which fell down and was crufhed be-
fore it (1 Sam. v. 2.) ; and it was to this place that, Philip
was conveyed, after he had baptized the Ethiopian eunuch.
Ads, viii. 40. This place was fortified by the Egyptians
as a barrier againft the Affyrians; and it was fo ftrong, if
we may believe Herodotus, that it fuftained a blockade and
fiege of twenty-nine years, under Pfammetichus, king of
Egypt, about. 631 years before the Chriftian era. . It was

AZU

again re-eftablifhed, but taken, and its fortreffes and towers:

burned, by the Maccabees, in the year 137 B.C. Aftere
wards Gabinius, the Roman prefident of Syria, ordered it
to be rebuilt. Tt was again captured by Vefpafian, in the
Jewifh war, under the reign of Nero, A.D. 67. The ruins
of that once famous city are now called “ Ezdoud ;?? it is
diftinguifhed, fays Volney (Travels in Egypt and Syria,
vol. ii. p. 338.), at prefent by its {corpions, but exhibits no
proofs of its ancient importance. Three leagues from Ez-
doud, is the village of I.!-Majdal, where they {pin the fineft
cottons in Paleitise, which, however, are very coarfe. This
traveller reports, that the whole coatt is daily accumulating
fands, infomuch, that many places which were known ta.
be anciently fea-ports, are now 4 or 500 paces within Jand.
Imperial Geeek medals were ftruck at Azotus, in honour
of Septimius Severus, and of Domitian.

AZPILCUETA, Martin, furnamed Navarre, it
Biography, a Spanith lawyer, efteemed one of the moft learned
lawyers of his time, was born in 1494, at Verafoa near
Pampeluna. He was fucceffively profeflor of jurifprudence
at Touloufe, Salamanca, and Coimbra, and confulted b
perfons from all parts as an oracle of law. When his friend
Bartholomew Caranza, archbifhop of Toledo, was fum-
moned to Rome by the inquifition ona charge of herefy,
Afpilcueta, though eighty years of age, went thither to
plead for him ; and at this advanced age he retained his faculs
ties in their full vigour. Such was his charity to the poor,
that he feldom pafied a beggar without giving him alms 5
and it is faid, that the mule on which he ufually rode
would ftop of its own accord when he faw a beggar. He
died at Rome, in 1586, at the great age of ninety-two:
years. A collection of his works was printed at Lyons, in
6 volumes fol. in 15973 and at Venice, in 1602. Nouv.
Di&.. Hiftor.

AZRAIL, in the Mahometan Theology, the angel of
death, whofe office it is, according to the Mahometans
(who relate many ridiculous ftories concerning this angel),
to feparate the fouls of men from their bodies.

AZTATL, in Ornithology,.a name by which a kind of
white heron is known in Mexico.

AZUA ve ComposTetva, or Azuca, in Geographyy
a fea-port town on the fea-coaft of St. Domingo ; cwelte
leagues S.S.E. of cape Salinas.

AZUAGA, a town of Spain, in the province of Eftres -

madura; three leagues fouth-eaft of Llerana. 4

AZAUIS, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town of
Africa Propria. Ptolemy.

AZUMAR, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Alentejo. ;

AZUN, a valley in that part of the department of the
Upper Pyrenées, formerly called Bigore, in France, diftin-
guifhed by the number of its valuable mines of filver, cops
per, iron, lead, and tin. Thofe that are already known
amount to no fewer than twenty; but lead chiefly abounds,
throughout the whole of this mountainous country.

AZURE, the blue colour of the fky. See Buuz,Crovun,
and Sky.

Azure, in Heraldry, fignifies blue ; in heraldic engrav-
ings it is expreffed by horizontal lines.

Azure. See ULTRAMARINE.

Azure, or SmMatt. See Cosart-

AZUREA, in Entomology, a fpecies of PHRYGANEA,
with black wings, violet behind. Linn. The lower wings
are obliquely violet. It inhabits the north of Europe.

AzuREA, in Zoology, afpecies of Lacerta that inhabits
Africa, and is diftinguifhed by having the tail verticillated,
fhort, with mucronated fcales. Linn. Gmelin fpeaks of

two.

SS eee

|

ees manila gil ee

ee ee

AZYT

two varieties of this creature; one, a native of Africa, is
rather larger than the precéding, and is deferibed under
‘the name of cordylus brajilienfis ; Laur. Amp. : the other has
a deep chefnut coloured {tripe on the fhoulders.

The colour of this {pecies in its natural ftate, Dr. Shaw
imagines to be an elegant pale blue, fafciated on the body
and tail with feveral tranfverfe and fomewhat alternate
bands either of black, or very deepblue. The kind figured
in the Gen. Zool. of that writer to illuftrate the fpecies, ap-
pears to be the fecond variety mentioned by Gmelin, haying
a dark band on the fhoulders. Dr. Shaw obferves that the
head is rather obtufe; the body moderately thick, and
covered as well as the limbs with very {mall {mooth feales ;
and the tail on the contrary, which is of a moderate length,
is very diltin@ly and ftrongly verticillated by rows of large
earinated fcales, the extremities of which project conti-
derably fo as to form fo many fhining points.

AZURENS IS, or Ay URENSIS, in Ancicnt Geography, an
epifcopal fee of Africa, in Numidia.

AZUREUS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Canazus, of
an azure colour, with red legs and antenne. Inhabits
Leipfic. Fabricius.

Azureus, a {pecies of Cimrx, of a middle fize; dull
green colour; and yellowifh mouth and legs. This kind
inhabits Guinea. O2/. The abdomen is yellowifh, with black
dots in the middle.

AZURIN, in Ornithology, a name affigned by Buffon
Hitt. Oif. to the fpecies of Turpvus, fince called {pecifi-
cally cyanurus by Gmelin, which fee.

AZUROUX, a name given by Buffon to the emberiza
caerulea of Gmelin. See Emperniza CeRurea,

AZYGOS, in Anatomy, a vein arifing out of the caya,

‘otherwife called vena fine pari, becaufe fingle, whence its

mame. See Veins, Defcription of the.

AZYMITES, in Lcelefiafical Hiflory, Chrittians who
communicate in bread not leavened or fermented. See
Azymus. Thisappellation is given by Cerularius to thofe
of the Latin church, upon his excommunicating them in the
eleventh century. Du-Cange. The Armenians and Ma-
ronites alfo ule azymus, or unleavened bread, in their
office; on which account fome Greeks call them azy-

* mites.

AZYMUS, compofed of the privative « and Gum, fer-
ment, fomething not fermented, or that is made without lea-
ven.

The term azymus is much ‘ufed in the difputes betwixt
thofe of the Greek and Roman church; the latter of whom
contend that the bread in the mafs ought to be azymus, un-
leavened, in imitation of the pafchal bread of the Jews, and
of our Saviour, who instituted the facrament on the day of

oo
Q

Lsy

AZZ

the paffover; and the former ftrenuoufly maintaining the
contrary, from tradition and the conftant uflage of thechurch.
This difpute was not the occafion of the rupture between
the Greek and Latin churches ; Photius having broken with
the popes 200 years before; though it is urged that before
the time of Photius, A.D. 866, azymus was ufed in the
Romith church; and that it was more generally ufed
through the Welt, for which the authority of Alcuin, who
died in 794, 18 alleged. St.Thomas, in 4 Sent. dift. 2.
q- 11. art. 2. quaeftiune. 3. relates, that during the firft ages
of the church, none but unleavened bread was ufed in the
eucharift, till fuch time as the Ebionites arofe, who held
that all the obfervances preferibed by Mofes were ftill in
force ; upon which both the eaftern and weftern churches
took to the ufe of leavened bread ; and, after the extinction
of that herefy, the weftern church returned to the azy-
mus; the eaftern pertinacioufly adhering to the former
ufage. =

This account is controverted by father Sirmond, ina dif-
fertation on the fubje€t ; wherein he fhews, that the Latins
had contkantly communicated in leavened bread, till the
tenth century, and cardinal Bona, Rerum Liturgic. c. 23.
p- 185. greatly diftrufts what St. Thomas alleges.—In the
council of Florence it was decreed, that the point lay at the
difcretion of the church ; and that either leavened or unlea-
vened bread might be ufed; the weftern church has prefer-
red the latter. i

AZZALUM, in the Ancient Phyfiology, a fpecies of
iron, reputed the moft excellent of all, {uppofed to have
been brought from India, whence it was called Jndicum, but
in reality, according to fome, brought~from China. Plin.
Hitt. Nat. lib. xxxiv. c. 14.

AZZO, Porrius, in Biography, an eminent Italian law-
yer, who held the profefforfhip of jurifprudence at Bologna,
from the year 1190, till his death, which probably happened
not long after 1220, and at thistimethe untverfity was attend-
ed by 10,000 ftudents. Such was his affiduity as a leGturer,
that he faid he never was il! but in the vacations. He was the
author of a “* Summary of the Code and the Inftitutes,’®
which has paffed through feveral editions. Of this work,
Gravina fays, (De Orig. Jur. v.i. p. 93.) that it is fo in-
genious and profound, that although witten in a barbarous
age, we cannot, with all our prefent erudition, be fafely
without it. One of his fcholars colleGted the “ Introduc-
tion to the Code”’ of this author, which has been priated ;
and feveral of his writings remain in manufcript, Nouv.
Did. Hittor.

AZZOGLIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
principality of Mafferano; fix miles N, N. E. of Maiffe-

rang,

B.

B

_.The fecond letter of our alphabet, and of moft
B others.

9 This obfervation fails in the ancient Ivifh alpha-
bet ; where B is the firft, and A the feventeenth ; and in
the Abyflinian, where A is the thirteenth.

B is the firft confonant, and firft mute, and in its pronun-
ciation is fuppofed to refemble the bleating of a fheep ; upon
which account Pierius tells us, in his Hieroglyphics, that the
Egyptians reprefented the found of this letter by the figure
wf that animal.

B is alfo one of thofe letters which the eaftern gramma-
rians call /abial, becaufe the principal organs employed in
its pronunciation are the lips. It has a near affinity with
the other /adials P and V, and is often ufed for P, both-by
the Armenians, and other orientals ; asin Betrus for Petrus,
apfens for abfens, &c.; and by the Romans for V, as in ama-
ait for amavit, berna for verna, &c.; whence arofe that jeft of
Aurelian,on the emperor Bonofus, Non ut vivat naius oft, fed
ut bibat. See V.

The final B was alfo fometimes changed into L in the
ancient languages, as Beelzebul for Beelzebub. Bochart
( Hieroz. p. ii. |. iv. c.g. p. 501.) and Grotius (in Matth. x.
25-), have given inftances of fuch changes.

B and C, or the K of the Greeks, are often fubftituted
for one another. Thus, the Greeks fay, Bop@spuyny for
Kopxopyyry; and the Latins Bufo for Cufo. B and D are
alfo ufed interchangeably, as in Bellum and Duellum. See
Quiné. de Orat. c. 45.

Plutarch obferves that the Macedonians changed © into
B, and pronounced Bilip, Berenice, &c. for Philip, Pherenice,
&c.; and that thofe of Delphos ufed B, inftead of 11; as Ba-
Os for waSe, Bixpov for amxpor, &c. See P.—

The /£olians change the B intoT, as Tas¢aeov for BazOagor.
The modern Greeks call the beta, vita.

The Latins faid /uppono, oppono, for fubpono, obpono, and
pronounced oftinuit, though they wrote oltinuit, as
Quin@ilian has obferved. They alfo ufed B for F or Ph;
thus in an ancient infcription mentioned by Gruter,
OBRENDARIO is ufed for oFFRENDARIO. See F, &c.

B requires an entire clofure and preflure of the lips, and is
ronounced-by forcing them open with a ftrong breath.
his letter alfo, if it pafs through the nofe, becomes an M ;

as appears by thofe who have the noftrils {topped by a cold or
otherwife, when they endeavour to pronounce the letter M ;
for inflance, many men, is by fuch a one founded dany ben.
See M.

With the ancients, B, as a numeral, ftood for 300, as ap-
pears by this verfe ~

« Et B trecentum per fe retinere videtur.”

~ organ or harpfichord, figured for thorough-bafe.

BAA

When a line was crawn above it, B, it ftood for z00e
and with a kind of accent below it, for 200; but among
the Greeks as well as Hebrews, this letter fignified only 2.

B. F. in the preface to the Decrees, or Senatus-confulta
of the old Romans, fignified donum fafum. It is often
found on medals, to mark the epocha or year. }

B, in the chemical alphabet, denotes mercury, according
to Raymond Lully.

B on fome French coins denotes that they were ftruck at
Rouen.

B is alfo ufed as a contra¢tion for Bachelor; as B. A
Bachelor of Arts ; B.L.L. and B.D. bachelor of laws, and
bachelor of divinity.

B, in Mujfic, is a contraGion of B-mi, the third found of
the Guido {cale or gammut. £ is the fecond line in the bafe ;
the third in the treble ; and the note below the tenor or C
clef, on whatever line it is placed. It likewife ftands for
baffo, bafe, in vocal mufic ; and in the inftrumental tenor
part, if C is placed before it in a feore, thus, C. B. it im-
plies col baffo, meaning that the alto viola is to play with, or
rather an oGtave above, the bafe. B.C. in old fonatas,
implies baffo continuo, or a con{tant accompaniment for the
B-fa,
and B-mi, in the {cale of Guido, imply B flat, and B eae

B molle implies B b.

B quadro, Ba

If there are flats at the clef, they ftand in the following

eer
order: BEADG. See Gammut, Frat, SuHarep, and Na-~
TURAL.

BA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Ardrah, on the
Slave caaft. See ArDRAH.

BAADEN. See Bapen.

BAADSTED, Bansrtep, or. Barstrep, or BAsTAp,
a fea-port of Sweden, in South Gothland, with a bay, in
which are feveral {mall ports; ten miles north of Engelholm.
N. lat. 56° 28’. E. long. 12° 40%

BAAL, Bet, or Bevs, denoting Lord, in Ancient My-
thology, a divinity among feveral ancient nations, as the Ca-
naanites, Pheenicians, Sidonians, Carthaginians, Babylo-
nians, Chaldeans, and Affyrians.

The term Baal, which is itfelf an appellative, ferved at
firft to denote the trae God, among thofe who adhered to
the true religion. Accordingly the Phcenicians, bein
originally Canaanites, having once had, as well as the reff
of their kindred, fome notion of the true God, probably
called him Baal, or Lord. But they, as well as other na-
tions, gradually degenerating into idolatry, applied this ap-

2 pellation

BAA

pellation to their refpeétive idols; and thus were introduced
a variety of divinities under the denomination of Baal, called
Baalim, or Baal, with fome epithet annexed to it, as Baal-
Berith, Baal-Gad, Baal-Moloch, Baal-Peor, Baal-Zebub,
&c. Some have fuppofed that the defcendants of Flam tirit
worfhipped the fun under the title of Baal ({ve 2 Kings,
XXil. 5. 11.), and that they afterwards afcribed it to the
patriarch who was the head of their line ; making the fun
only an emblem of his influence or power. It is certain,
however, that when the cuftom prevailed of deifying and
worfhipping thofe who were in any refpect diftinguifhed
amongit mankind, the appellation of Baal was not rettri€ted
tothe fun, but extended to thofe eminent perfons who were
deified, and who became objects of worfhip in different na-
tions. The Pheenicians had feveral divinities of this kind,
who were not intended to reprefent the fun. It is probable
that Baal, Belus, or Bel, the great god of the Carthagi-
nians, and alfo of the Sidonians, Babylonians, and Afiyrians,
who from the teitimony of {cripture appears to have been
delighted with human facrifices, was the Moloch of the
Ammonites, the Chronus of the Greeks, who was the chief
object of adoration in Italy, Crete, Cyprus, aud Rhodes,
and all other countries where divine hoyours were paid him,
and the Saturn of the Latins. In procefs of time, many
other deities, befides the principal ones juft mentioned, were
diftinguifhed by the title of Baal among the Pheonicians,
particularly thofe of Tyre, and of courle among the Car-
thaginians, and other nations. Such were Jupiter, Mars,
Bacchus, and Apollo or the fun.

The term Baal, as we have already obferved, denoted
God or Lord among the orientals; and the Zeus of the
Greeks had the fame meaning. Servius (in /En. i.), who
is followed by Voflius (Theol. Gent. 1. ii. c. 4.), obferves,
that Baal in the Punic language had two fignifications, ei-
ther denoting Saturn, or being equivalent to the Latin deus
or god. Accordingly, if Baal and Zeus, or Jupiter, be words
of the fame import in different languages, we may apply to
the former what Varro, cited by Tertullian, fays of the latter,
that the number of thofe divinities who paffed under this
denomination amounted to 300. Some, however, are of
opinion, that there were originally only two gods of the
Phoenicians, and confequertly of the Carthaginians ; and
that all the other deities were comprehended under two ;
viz. Baal and Afhtaroth, or Belus and Attarte. See Seld.
de Diis Syr. Synt. 2. c. 2.p. 145. Shuckford’s Connett. b. v.

The temples and altars of Baal were generally placed on
eminences; they were places inclofed with walls, wherein
was maintamed a perpetual fire; and fome of them had
ftatues orimages, called in feripture ‘¢ Chamanim.’’ Maun-
drell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerufalem, obferved
fome remains of thefe inclofures in Syria. Baal had his
prophets and his prieits in great numbers; accordingly we
read of 4.50 of them that were fed at the table of Jezebel
only; and they cor ducted the worthip of this deity, by offer-
ing facrifices, by dancing round his altar with violent gefti-
culations and exclamations, by cutting their bodies with
knives and Jancets, and by raving and pretending to pro-
phefy, as if they were poffeffed by fome invifible power,
Several of thefe pra€tices, and particularly that of cutting
the body, were, according to Mede (vol. 1. p. 774), funeral
rites, as appears from Lev. xxi. 5. xix. 28. Deut. xiv. 1.
Jevem. xlvii. 37. xvi. 6.5 and they were retained, fays this
Jearned author, in the funeral worfhip of thofe that were
deified after their death. Hence, and from ether circum-
flances, he infers, that Baal was a demon-god. See Baauim,
Demon, and Ipotatry.

BAALBEC, in Geography. See Bauzec.

BAAL-Biaxirn, in Ancient Mythology, derived from

BAA

baal, fovereign, and berith, covenant; a deity acknowledged
under this title by the Carthaginians and Phenicians in their
alliances.

Jupiter was worfhipped by thefe people under the deno~
mination of Belus or Baal; to him they addreffed their
oaths, and they placed them at the head of their treaties.
Hence fome have not ferupled to affirm, that he was the
Baal-Berith of the Phoenicians (fee Banier, in Mythol.
vol. 1) but Cumberland (fee Sanchoniatho’s Phoen. Hitt.
p- 152.) fuppofes that Baal-Berith was Cronus, or Ham,
worfhipped anciently at Berytus. See Judg. viii. 33. ix. 4.
According to Bryant (Anal. Anc. Mythol. vol. ii. p. 356. )s
the Baal-Berith of the Canaanites was no other than the
Arkite god; with whofe idolatry the Ifraeclites in general
were infected, {oon after they were fettledin the land of Ca-
naan. (See Berytus.) ‘The Greeks, however, had their
Zevecgxsor, Or Jupiter, the witnefs and arbitrator of oaths;
and the Latins their Deus Fidius, or Jupiter Piftius, whom
they gear asthe god of honefly and integrity, and who
prefided at treaties and alliances.

34 AL-Gap, Bacap, or BecAp, an idol of the Syrians,
whofe name was compofed of baa/, lord, and gad, chance qr
fortune; the god of chance or fortune. After the god of
thunder, the god of chance was one of the firft worfhipped
by mankind. See Phil. Tranf. vol. lvi. N° 2. an. 1766.

Baar-Gad, in Ancient Geography, acity of Palettine, at
the foot of mount Hermon, jo called from the deity Baal-
Gad, who was worfhippedin this place. Jofh. xi. 17.

BAAL-Hammon. See Bocar.

BAAL-Hazor, a city of Ephraim, where Abfalom
Kept his flocks. 2 Sam. xii. 23.

BAAL-Hermon, atown of Paleftine, generally placed
north of the tribe of Iffachar. 1 Chron. y. 23.

The temple of Baal-Hermon in mount Libanus (Judgesy
Il. I, 3.), was probably founded, fays Bryant (Anal. Anc.
Myth. vol. ii. p. 163.), by the Cadmians, who formed one
of the Hivite nations in thofe parts.

BAALIM, in Ancient Mythology, inferior deities among
the Pheenicians.

The learned Jofeph Mede (vol. ii. p. 776.) having fug-
gefted that Baal, or in the Chaldee dialect Bel, was the firft
king of Babel after Nimrod, and the firft that was deified
and reputed a god after his,death, apprehends that this gave
occafion for denominating all other dwmons Baalim. Thefe
Baalim, he conceives, were the deified fouls of the dead.
Bryant alfo (vol. ii. p. 529.) is of opinion that the moft
early defection to idolatry confiitted in the worfhip of the
fun, and that of demons, called Baalim. See Damon.

BAAL-Meon, in Ancient Geography, a city of Canaan,
in the tribe of Reuben, taken by the Moabites, and poffefled
by them in the time of Ezekiel. Numb. xxxii. 38. 1 Chron.
y. 8. Ezek. xxv.g. Eufebius and Jerom place it nine miles
from Ei{bus or Efebon, at the foot cf mount Baaru or
Abarim.

BAAL-Pror, or Baau-Puecor, in Mythology, an idol
deity of the Moabites and Midianites, fuppofed by fome to
havebeen Priapus, whofe worfhip was conducted with great’
impurity ; by others to have been Adonis; and by others ta
have been Saturn, adored under this appellation in Arabia.
The learned Mede, fuppofing Peor to be the name of a
mountain in Moab, upon which a temple of Baal was
erected, concludes that Baal-Peor was only another name
of Baal, derived fromthe fituation of his temple ; and to
add no mere, Selden (De Diis 5yris, Syntag. 1.¢. 5.) fug-
gefts that Baal-Peor is Pluto, founding his conjecture on
Pf. cvi. 28. where it is faid, ‘* They joined themfelyes unta
Baal-Peor, and ate the offerings of the dead.”? ‘The facri-
fices to which thefe words refer, fays this author, were

offered,

BAA

offered to appeafe the manes of the dead. But thefe facri-
fices or ofierings of the dead may mean no more than the
facrifices or offerings made to idols, or falfe gods, who are
properly called “'The dead,’ in contradiflin€tion to the
true God, called in feripture “ The living God.”

- BAAL-Perazim, in Ancient Geography, a place of
Paleftine, ia the-valley of Rephaim, not far from Jerufalem,
where David put to flight the Philiftines. 2 Sam. v. 20.

BAAL-Samen, or Baau-Shemaim, according to the
Hebrew mode of expreffion, q. d. the Lord of heaven, in
Alythology, a deity of the Pheenicians, which was probably
the fun, to whom they and the Carthaginians paid divine
honours, addreffing him with their arms extended. Belifama,
or the queen of heaver, was the moon.

BAAL-Tamaa, in Ancient Geography, a place of Judza,
in the tribe of Benjamin, fituate, according to Enfebius, near
Gibeah, where the children of Lfrael engaged the tribe of
Benjamin. Judg. xx. 33.

. BAALTIS, in Mythology, a goddefs among the Pheeni-
cians, chiefly worfhipped at Byblos; fuppofed by fome to
have been the fame with Diana of the Greeks.

BAAL-ZEBUB. See BEELZEBUB.

BAAL-ZEPHON, or Baat-tTsePuon, q. d. the god or
idol of the north, in Mythology, a deity of the ancient Egyp-
‘tians, fo called, according to Dr. Shaw, (Trav. p. 309.) m
contradiftin€&tion, perhaps, to others of the Lower Thebais,
whofe places of worfhip were to the fouth or eaft. But if
Tzephon be derived from HY fo /py out, or obferve, then
Baal-tzephon will probably fignify the “ god of the watch-
tower,”” or “ the guardian god,” fuch as the Hermes or
~ "Terminus of the Romans, the E¢opo: @:0; of the Greeks, &c.
At the temple of this deity, according to the Jerufalem
Targum, Pharaoh, when he was purfuing the Hraelites in
their exodus, offered facrifice, waiting till the next day for
an attack upon Ifrael, whom he believed his god had deli-
yered into his hands; but, in the mean time, they pafled
the Red fea, and efcaped.

. Baau-Zeruon, in Ancient Geography, a place thought by
fome to be acity, oppofite to Pihahiroth, where the Ifraclites
encamped before they pafled the Red fea. It was diftin-
euifhed either by its northern {ituation, pay, fignifying
‘the north, in Exod. xxvi. 20. Jofh. viii. 11. and.in other
places of feripture ; or by fome watch-tower or idol temple
that was ereéted uponit. Dr. Shaw fuppofes, that this piace
was at the eaftern extremity of the mountains of Suez, or
Attackah, the moft confpicuous of thefe deferts ; inafmuch
as it overlooks a great part of the lower Thebais, as well as
the wildernefs that reaches towards, or which rather makes
a part of, the land of the Philiftines. Accordingly Migdol
might lie to the fouth, and Baal-tzephon to the north of
Pihahiroth. For the march of the Ifraelites from the edge
of the wildernefs being towards the fea, or the fouth-eatt,
their encampments betwixt Migdol and the fea, or before
Migdol, could not well have any other fituation. See Exod.
xiv. 2. xiz. 2. 9. Numb. xxxiil. 7. Eufebius reports, from
ancient traditions, that the Ifraelites pafled at Clyfma, the
Kolfoum of the Arabs, both of the terms figmifying de-
ftruétion, which was a very expreflive appellation, if it was
deduced from the deftruétion of the Egyptian army. The
fituation of Kolfoum, it has been faid, is near Suez; and
hence it has been thought, that Baal-zephon was at Suez,
though Pococke, Shaw, and Bruce, place it farther to the
fouth. In fupport of this opinion it has been further alleged,
that the appellation Baal-zephon, the god of the north, im-
plies, that the temple of this deity ftood either on the northern
extremity of. the Red fea itfelf, or on the northern extre-
mity of the gullet called Pihahiroth. ‘ Baal-zephon,”
#ays Bruce (Travels, vol. i, p. 233.) ‘ was probably fome

I

BAB

idol’s temple, which ferved fora fignal-houfe upon the cape
which forms the north entrance of the bay, oppofite to
Jibbel Attakah, where there is ftill a mofque, or faint’s
tomb. It was probably a light-houfe, for the direction of
fhips going to the bottom of the gulf, to prevent miftaking
it for another foul bay, under the high land, where is alfoa
tomb of a faint, called Abou Derage.”” See Pin aurroTH.

BAAL?’s River, and Bay, in Geography, lie in Weit
Greenland, between Bear Sound on thefouth-eaft, and Delit’s
Point on the north-weit, and oppofite to the mouth of Hud-
fon’s Strait.

BAAN, Joun De, in Biography, an eminent portrait-
painter, was born at Haerlem, in 1633, and after receiving
inftructions in the art of painting from his uncle Piemans,
purfued his ftudies with fingular affiduity under Bakker, at
Amiterdam. Having determined to form himfelf upon the
model of Vandyck, his merit was foon univerfally known;
and he was invited by Charles I. to London, where he paint-
ed the portraits of the king, queen, and chief nobility at
court, and was much admired for the elegance of his atti-
tudes, and alfo for his clean, natural, and lively tone of co-
louring. Upon his return to the Hague, he painted a noble
portrait of the duke of. Zell, for which he received a fam
amounting nearly to 5001. The beft of De Baan’s’ per=
formances is the portrait of prince Maurice of Naflau, in
the execution of which he exerted the utmoft efforts of his
pencil. Hediedin 1702. Pilkington.

Baan, Jacob de, the fon of the former,. was born at the
Hague in 1673; and having acquired eminence as a painter
under the infirnétion and by the example of his father, he
came over to England about the age of twenty, among the
attendants of William III., where he was favourably re-
ceived. From England, where he gained by his perform-
ances in portrait-painting diflinguifhed reputation, he tra-
yelled through Tufcany to Rome, and he there devoted
himfelf to the profecution of his ftudies. However, though
he gained a confiderable fum of money by painting feveral
portraits and converfations, during his refidence at Rome,
he fquandered it away by various modes of profufion and
expence. His premature death, at the age of twenty-
feven, A. D. 1700, and the previous incense of hisaffi-
duity, prevented his arriving at that excellence of which his
talents were capable. Pilkington.

BAANITES, in Lcclefiaftical Hiftory, the followers of
Baanes, who adopted and diileminated the Manichean no-
tious in the ninth century, about the year 810.

BAAR, in Geography, a landgraviate of Germany, in the
circle of Swabia, belonging to F'urftenberg, fituate to the eaft
of Brifgau. The fource ee the Danube is in this territory.

BAARAS, Banaras, or Bacuaras, in Botany, an ex-
traordinary kind of root, faidto grow on mount Lebanon, in a
valley called Baaras, whence the name,nearthe city Macheron,

By the account which Jofephus gives of it, it feems to be
afort of vegetable phofphorus, for he reprefents it as of a
flame colour, emitting rays of light in the night, and difap-
pearing by day.

BAARIOU, in Geography, a river of Afia, in Kamt-
{chatka, which runs ina valley between two mountains. -

BAAT, in the language of the Siamefe, anfwering to
ticul in that of the Chinefe, denotes a weight and coin cur-
rent in thofe kingdoms. It weighs about half an ounce. |

BABA, in Biography, a Turcoman impottor, and pre-
tender to prophecy, who appeared among the Mahometans,
inthe city of Amafia in Natolia, in the year of the He-

gira 638, A. D. 1240, and who feduced a great multitude

of followers. One of his difciples, named Haac, publithed
his commiffion, and gained a number of adherents. Baba
and Ifaac concurred in commencing acts of hoftility againit

en, ee

BAB

wl who would not adopt their profeffion of faith, viz.
«© There is but one God, and Baba is his apoltle ;?? and they
put feveral Mahometans and Chriftians, who refitted them,
to death, Atlength, the Malometans and Chriltians unit-
ing together, raifed an army,awhich entirely routed their
followers, deftroyed many of them, and took their two
chiefs captives, who were afterwards beheaded; and thus
their fect was totally annihilated. Herbelot. Bib. Orient.
Sale’s Koran. Introd. p. 187.

Basa, in Geography, a territory in the jurifdiction of
Guayaquil, in South America, extending to the {kirts of
the Cordilleras, or the mountains of Anga Marca, belong-
ing to the jurifdiction of Latacunga. Befides the principal
town of the fame name, at fome diftance from a river of the
fame appellation, there are two other places called San Lo-
renzo and Palenque, far from the capital, and near the Cor-
dilleras, whofe inhabitants are little civilized. The cacao-
trees, which abound in this diltrift, produce fruit twice in
the year.

Basa, or Temi/var, a town of European Turkey, in Bul-

‘garia, 64 miles eaft of Siliftria.

Baza, Cape, a cape of Natolia, in Afia Minor, between
the iflands of Tenedos and Lefbos, and near the gulf of
Adramytti, on the coaft of the Archipelago. N. lat. 39°
33. E. long. 26°22’. It was formerly the promontory
Leos. A imall town of the fame name, fituated to the
eaft of the cape, on a floping ground, has a {mail harbour
for boats ; and is famous in Turkey for the knife and {word
blades which are manufactured there for the ufe of the
orientals. Itis peopled by Turks and Greeks; the adjacent
foil is tolerably good, and furnithes the fame productions as
that of Troas. livier’s Trav. vol. 11. p. 56.

Basa, in Ornithology, the Ruffian name of the Perican.

BABACHOKA, in Geography, one of the Biflagos
iflands.

BABAHOYO, a territory and town of the jurifdiction
of Guayaquil, in South America. The town is the fite of
the grand cuitom-houfe, where account is taken of the va-
rious commodities that are conveyed to or from the Cordil-
leras and adjacent countries. Befides the principal town,
this diftri€tcontains Ujiba, Caracol, Quilea, and Mangaches ;
the two laft border on the Cordilleras, and are at a confider-
able diftance from Ujiba, where the prieft refides during
winter, and whence he removes to Babahoyo in the fummer.
The capital, befides its fettled inhabitants, has always a
great number of traders from other ports. This country,
being level and low, is overflowed by the fwellings of the
rivers Caluma, Ujiba, and Caracol; fo that at Babahoyo
the water rifes to the firft ftory of the houfes; and during
winter it is entirely deferted. In this diftri& cacaos are
abundant. It alfo produces cotton, rice, Guinea pepper,
and a great variety of fruits. It has likewife large droves
of black cattle, horfes, and mules, which, in winter, are
kept in the mountains, and in fummer are removed to the low
lands to feed on the gamalote, a plant fo luxuriant as to cover
the ground, and rifing to the height of two and a half yards.

BABAIN, atownof Perfia, inthe province of Kerman,
ninety miles fouth-eaft of Sergian.

Bazain, avillage or burgh of Egypt, built on the ruins
of an ancient town, about fix miles weft of AcHMOUNAIN.

BAB-BAHA, one of the richeft countries of Abyffinia,
about twelve miles from the river Baha, and near the lake
Tzana. This on the fouth, and Woggora on the north,
are the two granaries that fupply the reft of the kingdom.
It contains a number of {mall villages; in which the queen
and many of her relations have their houfes and poffeffions.
Thefe villages are all furrounded with Kolquall tree:, as
large in the trunk as thofe of the province of Tigré, but

BAB

lefs beautiful, and furnifhed with fewer branches.
Travels, vol. ili. p.504.

BABBI, Grecorio, in Biography, a tenor finger in the
Italianopera, withthe fweeteft, moft dexible, and moft power-
ful voice of its kind, that his country could boaft at the time.
He flourifhed from 1730 to 174.0; never was in England; but
we have feen the principal fongs that were compofed for him,
and converfed with many good jndges that heard him fing
them, and have no doubt but that he was a dignified, fplea-
did, and powerful performer.

BABBIN, in Geography, a town of Pomerania, in the
ifland of Rugen, twelve miles north of Bergen.

BABBINI, Martreo, in Biography, fo named from
being the fcholar or imitator of Babbi, arrived in England
in 1786, at the fame time as Rubinelli. He hadatenor voice
that was {weet, though not powerful, had an elegant and
pleafing ftyle of finging; but it was eafy to imagine that his
voice had been better; and not difficult to difcover, though
his tafte was modern, and many of his riffaramenti refined
and judicious, that his graces were fometimes redundant,
and his manner affeted. His importance was very much
diminithed, when he fung with the Mara ; and after the ar-
rival of Rubinelli, he funk into infignificance.

BABBLING, among Hunters, is when the honnds are
too bufy after they have found a good fcent.

BABEL, Wititam, in Biography, organift of All-
hallows, Bread-ftreet, feems to have been the firft, in this
country at leaft, who thinned, fimplified, and divefted the
mufic of keyed-inftruments of the erouded and complicated
harmony, with which, from the convenience of the clavier,
and paflion for full and elaborate mufic, it had been embar~
raffled from its earlieft cultivation, This author acquired
great celebrity by wire-drawing the favourite fongs of the
opera of Rinaldo, and others of the fame period, into
fhowy and brilliant leffons, which, by mere rapidity of fin-
ger in playing fingle founds, without the affiftance of tafte,
expreffion, harmony, or modulation, enabled the performer
to aftonifh ignorance, and acquire the reputation of a great
player, at a {mall expence. There is no inftrument to fa-
vourable to fuch frothy and unmeaning mufic as the harpfi-
chord. Arpeggios, which lie under the fingers, and running
up and down the feales of eafy keys with velocity, are not
difficult, on an inftrument of which neither the tone nor
tuning depends on the player ; as neither his breath nor bow-
hand is requifite to give exiftence or fweetnefs to its founds.
And Mr. Babel, by avoiding its chief difficulties of full
harmony, and diffimilar motion of the parts, at once grati-
fied idlenefs and vanity. We remember weil, in the early part
of our life, being duped to the glare and glitter of this kind
of tinfel ; this pouffiere dans les yeux, which Mr. Felton con-
tinued, and other dealers in notes, et rien que des notes, till
Jozzi, the fmger, by his neat and elegant manner of exe=
cuting the brilliant, graceful, and pleafing leffons of Alberti,
rendered them the objects of imitation. At length, on
the arrival of the late Mr. Bach, and conitruction of piano-
fortes in this country, the performers on keyed-inftruments
were obliged wholly to change their ground ; and inftead of
furprifing by the /eeming labour and dexterity of execution,
had the real and more ufeful difficulties of tafte, expreflion,
and light and fhade, to encounter. Babel, who was one
of his Majefty George the Firfl’s private mufic, died about:
the year 1722. a

BazeEx, in Ancient Geography, a city and tower built by
Noah’s pofterity in the plain of Shinar, Gen. xi,1—g. Its
precife fituation is not afcertained; nor is it of any great
importance to determine it. It wes within the province of
Shinar, and probably the ancient Babylon was erected on
or near itsruins, (See Suinar, aid Basyion.) Some tra-

vellers.

Bruce's

BAB

vellers, led by a tradition cf the inhabitants, have judged

1

a place ut eight or nine miles to the weit, or north-
-weit of Bagdad, to bethe tower of Babel. This is call-
ed the tower of Nimrod, and is confpicuous at a great
diftance, being infulated in an extenlive plain between
the Euphrates and Tigris, and refembling by its ruins a
fhapelefs mountain more than a tower. Rauwolf fup-
poles he found the mins of Babylon upon the Enu-
phrates, near Felujia, :bout 36 miles to the fouth-weft
of Bagdad; and Della Valle was directed, by another tra-
dition, to feck it about two days journey lower, near an
ancient city called Heila, feated on the fame river. After
all, there is no end of co j €tures; the ruins deicribed by
many authors feeming to be rather the remains of fome
later ftruétures raifed by the Arabs, than thoefe of the
original tower of Babel. The time of this enterprife is
generally allowed to have Leen before the birth of Peleg,
about the year 2247 B.C. in the year of the flocd tor
according to the Hebrew calculation ; in the year 401,
according to the Samaritan ; and, according to the Sep-
tuagint, in 531. The perfons concerned in this under-
taking were, according to the hittory, the pofterity of
“Noah; who journeying from the eaft, found the plain of
Shinar, where they dwelt, and concurred in this enter-
prife. There is no reafon, therefore, for excluding the
family of Shem, as fome have done, from any thare in this
memorable tranfaCtion, Bryant, however, maimtains that
Shem and his pofterity had no concern in it ; and that the
chief agénts were the fons of Chus, or Chuthites ; and that
they were the ancient Tstans, or worfhippers of fire. Anal.
Anc. Myth. vol. iii. p. 31.91. ‘The motives which induced
them all to unite and co-operate in the execution of this de-
fien have been differently afligned. Accordingly, the mean-
ing of the paflage which announces it, has been differently
interpreted. It is as follows; ‘¢ And they faid, go to, let
us build us a city and a tower, whofe top may reach unto
heaven; and let us make us a name, leit we be feattered
abroad upon the face of the whole earth.” Some have fup-
pofed, that they apprehended a fecond deluge, and in order
to fecure for themfelves a refuge in cafe of danger, they
determined to ere€t this lofty building. Others, who ima-
gine, that if this had been their purpofe, they fhould have
feleGted an eminence, and not a plain, for the fite of their
propofed edifice, fuppofe that they engaged in this under-
taking in order to prevent that feparation and difpertion of
which they had been previowlly admonifhed. The fertp-
ture, fay thefe perfons, exprefsly affign the reafon of their
conduét, which was “ to make for themfelves a name,’’ or
eftablifh a memorial of themfelves, ‘leit they fhould be
f{eattered,’’ or, as the words are otherwife rendered, “ be-
fore they fhould be feattered abroad.” Other interpreters
allege, that the word [= yy, Jjoem, fhould be tranflated
“Ca fion,”’ and not ‘a name ;” and they render the paflage
* let us make us a fign, left we be feattered ;”’ and thus
as Perizonius oe Babyl. c. 10. p. 168. c. 11. p. 193.
‘ ©. 12. p. 223.) explains it, the tower was to ferve them
as a beacon, or mark, by the fight of which, or of a fignal
from the top of it, they might avoid flraying in the open
plains with their flocks (tle firft men being thepherds),
and be brought, back again into the city, which they had
built fora place of abode, as they were unwilling to be dif-
perfed. As to the expre Eon “of its top reaching unto
heaven,” it is a Hebrew phrafeology, merely denoting its
great height ; and for this purpofe we read of cities walled
up to heaven. Some, however, have fuppofed, that the
phrafe was intended to denote the ue to which this tower was
to be appropriated, or that it was to be confecrated to the
heavens, or to the worfbip of the fun, moon, and flars, of

Strahan and Prefon,
New-Sucet Square, London,

BAB

the fire and air, and other natural powers, as deities ; and

as it indicated a tendency towards idolatry, the true God
interpofed to preveat a total and irreclaimable defection.
Whatever was the defign with which this edifice was con-
ftructed, Almighty God tkought proper to reftrain the
execution of it (Gen. xi. 6.), by the confufion of language
and difpertion which enfued. See Conrusion of Lan-
guages, and Dispersion of Mankind. From this confufion,
the city and tower were denominated Babel. By altering
in the word Bade/ the fecond eth into a /amed, the paflage
(Gen. xi. 9.) might be thus rendered, ‘ the name of it was
called Ballel, becaufe there the Lord did dal/e/, that is, con=
found the lip of all the earth ;”? or thus, “the name of it
was called confufion, becaufe there did the Lord confound
the lip of all the earth.’ Some have fuppofed, deviating
indeed too far from the literal hiltory (vid. Bocharti Oper.
t.i. p. 36.), that Mofes did not mean any particular tower,
but that he {poke in general of a turreted city, or a city
with turrets on its walls. Such a city, compared with
the caverns ia which the firft men unqueftionably lodged,
might well appear a tower with a heavenly or very elevated
top, like the habitations of the Anakims ; thefe being fur-
mounted with natural rocks or peaks, and that with arti-
ficial elevations. See Gen. xi. 4. Deut. i. 28.

The materials of which this tower were conftruéted were,
as the {cripture informs us (Gen. xi. 3.), burnt bricks in-
flead of ftone, and flime initead of water. According to
an eaftern tradition, three years were employed in making
and burning thefe bricks, and each of them was r3 cubits
long, 10 broad, and 5 thick. The flime was of a pitchy
fubftance, or bitumea, brought from a city in the neighbour-
hood of Babylon, called Is or Hit. Oriental wniters, on
whofe report we can repofe little confidence, pretend that
the city was 313 fathoms in length, and rg1 in breadth ;
that the walls were 5533 fathoms high, and 33 broad; and
that the tower itfelf was no lefs than 10,000 fathoms or
12 miles high. St. Jerome affirms, from the teftimony of
eye-witnefles, wo, as he fays, had examined the re-
mains of the tower, that it was four miles high. But it is
needlefe to recount more of thefe fables. See Banyion.

BABEL-MANDEB, fometimes called Baprir-Man-
pri, in Geography, a narrow {trait at the entrance into the
Red fea, which conneés it with the Indian ocean, lying
between the fouth-weftern coaft of Yemen or Arabia Felix,
and the coaft of Adel in Africa, and formed by the projeét-
ing land of Arabia on the eaft, and that of Abyfiinia on
the weft. N. lat. 12° so’. E. long. 43° 50’. The whole
breadth of this ftrait is about 30 geographical miles; and
within it, about a league from the coaft of Yemen, is the
{mall barren ifland of Perim, fometimes called Babel-mandel,
which has a good port, but is without frefh water. ‘This
ifland is called by Arrian the ile of Diodorus. Near the
African coaft are feveral {mall iflands, and on the continent
is the town of Zeila, which is fubjec&t to the Imam of Ye-
men. Veflels that navigate this ftrait moft commonly pafs
between the ifle of Perim and Arabia, though the paflage
is narrow, on account of the number of {mall iflands on the
African coaft. The currents are ftrong, and the {well high,
fo that it is difficult to pafs without a fair wind; hence
this navigation has been dreaded by the unfkiltul mariners’
of the adjoining countries. Ii ancient times the navigation
of the Arabian gulf, which is even now flow and difficult,
was confidered by nations around it to be fo extremely peril-
ous, that it led them to give fuch names to foverdliol its
promontories, bays, and harbours, as convey a ftriking idea
of the impreffion which the dread of this danger had made
upon their imagination. Accordingly, the entry into the gulf,
they called Babel-mandeb, which fignifies the gate or port

Le

‘i yee ioe
aed By
ae

BAB

of defirufions to a harbour not far diftant, they Bye the
name of Mete, or death ; and an adjacent headland they call-
ed Gardefan, or the cape of burial. Near this ftrait Ptolemy
places a town, which he calls in the Greek Mandaeth,
probably a corruption of Mandeb and the promontory on
the fouth fide of the ftrait, and the city upon it, is Dire,
which means the Hades, or Hell, by Ptolemy called Avpr.
A clufter of iflands met with in the canal, after paffing
Mocha, is called Jibbel Zekir, or the iflands of prayer for the
remembrance of the dead. And in the fame courfe up the
ulf, others are called Sebaat Gzier, praife or glory be to
God, as we may fuppofe, for the return from this dan-
' gerous navigation. Nuiebuhrand Bruce.

Inthe * Periplus of the Erythrzan fea,’’? by Dr Vin-
cent, the ftraits of Babel-mandeb are contracted to 23
miles, and divided into two channels, by the intervention of
Perim and other ifles ; and they open in an eafterly dire¢tion
to Cana or Cape Fartaque on the Arabian fide, and to Aro-
mata or Gardefan, on the coaft of Africa; which two pro-
montories form the proper entrance to the {traits from the
Indian ocean, and are about 250 geographical miles afunder.

BABENHAUSEN, a town of Germany in the circle
of Swabia, to which belongs a lord{hip oi the counts of
Fugger, feated on the Gunz; 26 miles W. S, W. of Augf-
burgh, and 16 S. E. of Ulm, N. lat. 48° 11’. E. long.

) 16".
¥ BABENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Archangel, go miles S. S. W. of Kola.

BABIA, a river of Ruffian Lapland, which runs inte
the White fea, fix miles fouth of Pialitza.

Basia, in Mythology, a goddefs of Syria, worfhipped
particularly at Damas. She was fuppofed to be the god-
defs of youth, and to have been their Venus, who pre-
fided over love and marriage. Selden, de Diis Syris, Syntag.
Ble sCa44

BABIBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Libya interior, on the Weltern coaft, between the rivers
Aradus and Stachir.

BABICA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Minfk, eight miles eaft of Mozyr.

BABIN, Francis, in Biography, a theologian and
‘canonift of France, was born at Angers in 1651, and
elected profeffor-of divinity in the univerlity of his native
city. Here he read le€tures to numerous clafles for 20
years. In 1706, he was appointed by the bifhop of Angers

“one of his grand vicars, and employed to colleét and regu-
late the minutes of the conferences of the diocefe. his
work was publifhed in 28 volumes 12mo, and is much
-efteemed for its method and flyle. In 1697, Babin publith-

_ edin 4to. a work, intitled “A Narrative of what paffed

in the univerfity of Angers, on the fubje& of Janfenifm
‘and Cartefianifm.”” Louis XIV. allowed him a penfion of
2000 livres, and appointed him to feveral lucrative and
honourable offices, which he enjoyed till his death in 1734,
-at the age of 83. He retained his faculties to the laf, and

- was often confulted on ecclefiaftical queftions and cafes of

-confcience. Nouv. Dia. Hitt.

Basin, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the ‘palatinate
pf Lublin; eight miles fouth-weft of Lublin.=Alfo, a
town of Poland, in the palatinate of Braclaw; twenty-eight
miles north-eaft of Braclaw.—Alfo, atown of Poland, in
the palatinate of Belez, thirty-fix miles eaft of Belez.

BABINGTON, Gervase, in Biography, an Englifh
bifhop, was born about the middle of the fixteenth century,
in Nottinghamihire, as fome fay, but according to others,
in Devonfhire, and educated in Trinity college, Cambridge.
Wipe be ee demeftic chaplain to Henry earl of Pembroke,
_ Vou. é

Strahan and Preiton,

a | New-Stieet Square, Londen,

BAB

prefident of the council in the marches of Wales, he is faid
to have affifted lady Mary Sidney, the countefs of Pem-
broke, in her Englifh metrical verfion of the Pfalms of Da-
vid. By the intereft of his patron, he was appointed trea-
furer of the church of Landaff, and in 1591 became bifhop
of that fee, from which he was tranflated firft to Exeter,
and afterwards to Worceller, where he remained for thirteen
years, till the time of his death in 1610. Notwithitanding
his liberality in repairing the cathedral of the diocefe, and
bequeathing to it his library, no monument was ereéted on
his grave. For learning and piety, and as a pathetic and
popular preacher, Dr. Babington has been highly extolled.
He was alfo humble and diligent, and with the exception of
having alienated from the bifhopric of Exeter the rich manor
of Crediton in Devonfhire, he has been deemed unobnoxious
to the charge of avarice. His works, publifhed in 1615 and
1637, contain ‘ Comfortable Notes on the Pentateuch :’’
an “* Expofition of the Creed, Commandments, and Lord’s
Prayer;” a “* Conference between Man’s Frailty and Faith ;”’
and three fermons. They are written in the quaint flile of
the times, and are diftinguifhed by their piety more than by
their literary merit. Biog. Brit.

BABINOVITCHI, in Geography, a diftriét of the go-
vernment of Mohilef, in Ruffia, on the river Lutchoffa,
falling into the Duna, N. lat. 54° 52’. E. long. 30° 54’.

BABIROSA, Barsiaoussa, and Barniroessa. See
Basrrossa.

BABITZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the cir-
cle of Czafiau; five miles W. N. W. of Teutfch Brod.

BABOEUF, a town of France, in the department of the
Oife, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Noyon;
two miles KE. N. E. of Noyon.

BABOLZA, a town of Lower Hungary, in Sclavonia,
between Pofleg and Zigeth, towards the Drave ; fuppofed by
fome to have been the ancient Man/uetinium, or Pons Man-
Suctinus.

BABOON, in Zoology, the name of that tribe of Aprs
(Simia Linn.) which have fhort tails ;—cauda abbreviata :
papiones xuvxePorx veterum, Gmel. Linn. Syft. Nat: ; and
comprehending the {pecies nemettrina, apedia, {phinx, mor-
mon, maimon, and porcaria. ‘The baboons of Dr. Shaw
are fuch of the Simia genus as have very mufcular bodies,
and whofe tails are commonly fhort. Badvoon in the Englifh
language has the fame application as 4abouin in the French,
and of which many accounts have been given by Buffon,
Sonnini, and others. Virey obferves, that the babouins are
a ferocious and very lafcivious kind of ape, found in many
parts of the old world, and efpecially in Africa. Their
muzzle, he remarks, is a little lengthened in the fame man-
ner as that of a dog, and on that account they have fome-
times been called /inges cyanocephales, and alfo magots. They
live on fruits, feeds, roots, leaves, infeéts, &c. like the
other kinds of apes; and are obferved to be a mifchievous
and thievifh race. Ina ftate of captivity they are altogether
untameable, are fond of wine and fpirituous liquors; and
the females it is afferted, have an antipathy to the fair fex,
as the males have againft men. See Simza.

BABOPAS, in Geography, a town in the interior part
of New Albion, eaft of the long range of mountains which
extend northward from the head of the peninfula of Cali-
fornia. N. lat. 37° 45’. W. long. 114° 25’.

BABORA, a town of Poland, inthe palatinate of Lem-
berg; twelve miles fouth of Lemberg.

BABOUCARD,, in Ornithology, the name given by- Buf-
fon to the Senegal variety of Alcedo Ifpida (8 Gmelin), or
common king-fifher; and which Briffon calls Z/pida Senega-

lenfis.
3H BABOUIN

BAB
BAEOUIN «a Museau ps Curen, in Sonnini ‘edit.

Buffon}, in Zeology, the Simia hymadryis, Lint.; and doc-
uced cze, Penr. See Simis Hamapayas.

BABRA, ia Geography, a town of North America, in
the country of New Navarre; 205 miles fouth of Caia
Grand.

BABUCO, a fmall town of Italy, ia the Campagna of
Rome.

BABUL, a town of the Eaft Indies, in an ifland of the
river Ii.dus, fup;ufed by fome to’ be Cambaya, and by
others Patan, itretching out towards the iflands’Formoia
and Lequios.

BABUYANES, a clufter of fix or feven fimall iflands,
about nineteen leagues north of the ifle of Lugon, im the
Pacific ocean; one cf them contains about 500 inhabitants;
and the chief produce is wax, ebony, banaaas, cccoas, aud
plantains.

BALBUYEA, a town of North Amenca, in the province
of Culiacan; 65 miles north-ealt of Culiacan.

BABYLAS, in Biography, a celebrated martyr of the
Chriilian church, was chofen bifhop of the fee of Antioch,
A. D. 238, under the emperor Gordian; and after govern-
ing this church for thirteen years, he either died in prifon,
or was put to death in the perfecution of Decius. Chry-
foftom applauds his courage for refufing admiffion mto the
church to an emperor who had killed the fon of a king,
whom he had received as an hcftage ; and this emperor 1s
fuppofed to have been Philip, who put his colleague, the
young Gordian, to death.

“A

This is faid to have been the
caufe of the bifhop’s death. But there are feveral circum-
ftances that invalidate the truth of this itory. However
this be, the remains of Babylas were tranfported about
one hundred years after his death, by order of the Czfar
Gallus, into the midft of the grove of Daphne, where was
a temple of Apollo ; amagnificent church was erected over
them ; a portion of the facred lands was appropriated ta the
maintenance of the clergy, and the burial of the Chriftians
at Antioch; and the heathen oracle was filenced, as it was
fuppofed by the prefence of the faint’s duft, but more pro-
bably, as Van Dale fuggefts (De Oraculis, p. 392.), by an
apprehenfion of the priefts, that the Chriftians, who daily
yilited the tomb of the martyr, would deteét their impof-
ture. Julian foon after demolifhed this church; and the
Chriftians removed the relics of St. Babylas, with acclama-
tions of triumph, to their former habitation within the
walls of Antioch. On this occafion, Julian exerted his
pride todiffemble his refentment ; but during the night which
-erminated this proceffion, the temple of Daphne was in
flames, the ftatue of Apcllo was confumed, and the wails
of the edifice were left a naked and awful monument of
ruin. The Chriftians of Antioch confidently afferted, that
the powerful interceffion of St. Babylas had pointed the
Jightnings of heaven againft the devoted roof. Julian,
however, could difguife and reitrain his indignation no
longer. Imputing the fire of Daphne to the revenge of the
Chriftians, whom he opprobrioufly denominated Galilzans,
he ordered the doors of the cathedral at Antioch to be fhut,
and its wealth to be confifeated. For the purpofe of difco-
vering the criminals feyeral ecclefiaftics were tortured, and
a prefbyter of the name of Theodoret was beheaded. Eu-
feb. E. H.1 vi. c. 29. c. 39. Julian in Mifopogon, p. 361.
Ammianus Mare. |. xxii.c, 13. Gen. Dié&t. Gibbon’s Hitt,
vol, iv.p. 121, &c,

BABYLON, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the
ancient Babylonia, or Chaldza, fuppofed to have been fitu-
sted in N. lat. 33°. E. long. 42° 46’ 30"; or according to
the obfervations of M. Beauchamp (Mem. Ac. Sc. Paris,

BAB

1787), N. lat. 32° 34’, and E. Jong. 44° 12’ 30”. Thie‘ane
Cieat city, reckoned for many ages one of the wozders of
the world, was fituated on the Euphrates ; and its ruins, of
which few veltiges now remain, are placed by geographicak
writers at a town called Hilla, or Elugo, about fifteew
leagues to the fouth-wett ef Bagdad. It was feated on @
plaia, and furrounded by water; and hence appears the
propriety of the {cripture expreffion (If. xxi. 1.) “the bur=.
cer of the defert of the iea,?? or rather “ of the plain of
the fea;”’ and Lefides, the places about Babylon, as Aby-=
deans informs us from Megatthenes (Eufeb. Prep. Evang.
l. ix. c.41.p. 457-) are faid from the beginning to have been
overwhelmed with waters, and to have been ealled “ the
fea.”? Neverthelefs it is no lefs properly denominated “a
mountain’? (Jer. li. 25.) on account ef the great height of
its walls and towers, its palaces and temples; and accord-
ingly Berofts cited by Jofephus (ubi infra’, fays of fome of
the buildings, that they reiembled mountains. It wat
founded, as fome fay, by Semiramis, and according to others,
by Belus, who is thought by many to be the fame with
Nimrod. But whoever was the firft founder of it, it was
in procefs.of time much improved; and Nebuchadnezzar,
in particular, repaired, enlarged, and beautified it to fuch
a degree, that he may be faid to have built it, accordin
to his own vain-glorious boaft (Dan. iv. 30.) ; *¢ Is not this
great Babylon, that I have built for the houfe of the king-
dom, by the might of my power, and for the honour o
my 1 ajeity?”? Nor is this afferted only in feripture, but it is
likev ife attefted by heathen authors, Megafthenes, Berofus,
and Abydenus, whofe words are quoted by Jofephus (Anz
tig. lL. x. c. ri. § 1.t. i. p. 536. ed. Haverc.) and Eufebius
(Prep. Evangel. 1. ix. c. 41. p. 457. ed Vigeri). By one
means or other Babyton became a city fo great and famous,
that it gave name to a very large empire; and it is deno-
minated by a variety of ju& and appropriate terms in
fcripture, fuch as “* great Babylon”? (Dan. iv. 40.); “the
glory of kingdoms,” and “ the beauty of the Chaldees -
excelleicy”? (if. xiii. 19.); “the golden city”? (If. xiv. 4.°5
«the lady of kingdoms” (If. xlvii. 5.); ‘¢ abundant in
treafures’”? (Jer. li. 13.) ; and “the praife of the whole
earth” (Jer. li. 41.) ‘ .

The moft famous works in and about this ancient city,
as they are enumerated and defcribed by Prideaux from an-
cient authors, were the walls, the temple of Belus, the pa-
lace of Nebuchadnezzar, the hanging gardens, the banks of _
the river, the artificial lake, and the canals. ,

This city was furrounded with walls, which, according to
the account of Herodotus (1. i.), the moftancientauthor who
mentions them, and who himfelf had been at Babylon, were
87 feet thick, 350 feet high, and in compafs 480 furlongs, or
6o miles. Other writers, who differ from Herodotus in fome
particulars, give nearly the fame account of the dimenfions of
the walls. Diodorus Siculus indeed 1. ii.) has yery confider~
ably diminifhed the circumference of thefe walls, and fome-
what reduced their height as ftated by Herodotus, but he has
enlarged their breadth, by faying that fix chariots might
drive upon them abreaft ; whereas the former obferves, that
one chariot only might turn upon them: but then he places
buildings on each fide of the top of thefe walls, which, ac-
cording to him, were only one ftory high; and thus thefe
a writers may be tolerzbly reconciled. As for thofe who
affign fifty cubitsasthe height of thefe walls, they repre-
fet them as they were after the time of Darius Fiptales.
who had caufed them to be beaten down to that level. Gee
ue 1. 16. p. 743. Pliny H.N. 1 vi. c. 26. Philoftrat.

Piece rae

Thefe walls formed an exact fquare, each fide of which

: was

7

ioe! Gn oe eo he 1 oda

ee eee re

‘Gs

swas 120 furtongs or ‘ap miles long, built of large bricks
«<emented together with bitumen, a glutinous flime which
ibves out-of the earth in that country, and ina fhort time
ecomes harder than the brick or itone cemented by it.
Without the walls, the city was encompafled by a large
ditch, filled with water, and lined on both fides with bricks
made of earth dug out of the-fite of the ditch, whofe di-
anenfions are indicated by thofe of the walls. » In the com-
pafs of the walls there were 100 gate*, or 25 in each of the
four fides, all of which were formed of folid brafs, re-
ferred to by the prophet Ifaiah, ch. xlv. 2. Between every
two of thefe gates were three towers, and four more at the
four angles otf this large fquare, and three between cach
angle and the next gate on either fide; and each of thefe
towers was ten feet higher than the walls. This, however,
ds to be underftood merely of thofe parts of the wal's where
towers were neceflary for defence; for as fome parts were
feated on a morafs, and confequently inaccefiible by an ene-
my, there the labour and expence were fpared; and there-
fore the whole number of thefe towers amounted to no more
than 250. From the 25 gates on each fide of this fquare
proceeded 25 ftreets, extending i in ftraight lines to the cor-
refponding gates in the oppofite fides, fo that the number
of the itreets was 50; each of them being about 15 miles
long, and all croffing one another re(peGiiv ely at right an-
gles. Befides thefe there were alfo four half ftre: etas which
were rows of houfes, facing the four inner fides ef the walls.
‘Thefe latter were properly the four fides of the city within
the walls, and each of them was 200 feet broad; the whole
dlreets being about 150 feet in breadth. By this interfeétion
of the so ftreets, the city was divided into 676 {quares,
each of which was four furlongs and a half on each fide,
or two miles and a quarter in compafs. Round thefe fquares
on every fide toward the ftreets ftood the houfes, all of
three or four ftories in height, and beautified with every
kind of ornaments; and the {pace within each of the fquares
‘was vacant, and occupied only by court-yards or gai rdens,
adapted to convenience or pleafure.

A branch of the river Euphrates interfeGted the den run-
sning through the middle of it from north to fouth; and
over the river, in the central part of the city, was abridge,
a. furlong, as fome fay, but according tu ethers, much more,
in length, and thirty, feet eats which bridge was inge-
niowily conftragted, i in order to fupply a defect in the bed
of the river, which was compofed of fand. At the two
ends of this bridge were two palaces; the cld palace on
the eaft fide, and the new one on the weit fide of the river;
the former occupying four of the above-mentioned {quares,
and the latter nine ‘The temple of Belus, which flood
next to the old palace took up pitt of thefe fquares.

The whole city ftood ona large plain, ina fat aud deep
foil; that part or half of it which lay on the eaft fide of
the river was the old city; the other on the weft was added
by Nebuchadnezzar; and both were included within the
Yquare, bounded by the walls already defcribed. The form
ot the whole was ea borrowed from Naneeaite which
was alfo 480 furlongs incompafs, but its form was that of
a parallelogram, whereas that of Babylon was an exact
fquare. Nebuchadnezzar, who had deftroyed that old feat
ot the Affyrian empire, is {uppofed to Wave defigaed that
this new one fhould exceed it in fize and in magnificence.
it appears, however, that it was never wholly inhabited,
though Nebuchadnezzar carried thither a great number of

scaptives out of Judea and cther conquered countries ; nor

was time allowed for its arriving at that population and
glory, which were the ea ae aimed at by Nebuchadnezzar ;
tor Cyrus removing the feat of empire to Shuthan, Baby lon

z BABYLON. -

gradually eh, into utter deeay.) When Alexander cdme to
Babyloz, e learn from Quintus Curtius, that no more
than 8100 i furlongs were then occupied by buildings;
but the whole {pace within the walls contained 14,400 quate
furlongs ; and therefore there muft have been 6300 {quare
furlongs, which, as Curtius informs us, were ploughed and
fown. Nor indeed were the houfes contiguous, but a void
fpace was left on each fide between one houfe and an-
other.

According to the obfervations of major Rennell (Geogra-
Sa Syftem of Herodotus examined and explained, &c.

p: 341.), there feems to be no mode of invalidating she fact
re{pe ting the extent of the fpace inciofed by the walls of
ancient Baby low: ‘nor (fays he) can it be in our idea be re-
duced to lefs thana {quare of about 84 Britifh miles, giving
an area of 72 fquare miles. But that even 72 contiguous
{quare miles fhould have been in any degree covered with
buildings, is on every account too improbable for pelict.
The inhabitants of London, taken.at a ninth part of the whole
population of South Britain (fay abeut 7,000,c00, or for
Loudon 800,000), require for their fupply of provitions and
neceflaries, a proportion of land equal to about 6600 {quare
Bnitith miles, on a fuppofition that they were confined to its
produce alone, and that it was taken as it generally ruus
throughout the kingdom.”’— ‘If there be allowed to Ba-
bylon an area of feventy-two miles, we conceive that it
would then bear a proportion to the {pace which the build-
ings of London occupys taking in all its {uburbs and mem-
bers, whether contigueus or otherwife, and allowing the ma
area of 154 Britifh miles, as g isto 2 nearly. But as rot
of the large Afiatic cities that we have feen or heard of,
fearcely contain within the fame fpace half the number af
inhabitants that European cities do, we muft reckon th
proportion of population that Babylon would have ceed
to that of London, as 9 to 4. Inthis cafe 15,000 fquare
miles of fuch land as the common run of that in EF iglacd
would have been jrequired for the fupport of the peo-
ple of Babylon. Butas the fimpler manner cf liviag among
ie lower claffes of people in Afia requires a lefs quar, ti ty
of land to fupport it a confiderable deduétion may be made,
and inftead of 15,000 fquare miles, we may perhaps fubfi-
tute 12000. Now it will appear that this reduced ium
of fquare miles equals, within one-twelfth part, the whole
area of Lower Mefopotamia; a and even t! he TS tract
properly denominated Babylonia and Chald ca, including all
the arable and patture land, from whence Babylon could
have been conveniently fupplied by the uiland iavigation
was little more than pms the above aggregate, ti ken at
43,000 {quare miles. . And though it be true, that the qua-
lity of the Babylonith lands, in mott places, was fuperior i in
ea to thefe of England ; yet, on the other hand, a
prodigious deduction muit be made for the marfhes and
lakes of Lower Mefopotamia and Chaldea’?? Ii
author oe jure tly, infere, that the houfes cccupied oulysa
part of the valt fpace.inclofed by the walls, and h ® farzilhes
a modera inftanee: ia: the fame. region of a city furrouadyd
by a wall feven miles in pineiitig« aud yet Baiora co:taiis
only from 40 to 50,000 inhabitants ; the wall inclofing date
groves and cora fields. Befides, it fhouid be remembered
that the Euphrates flowed through the centre of Babylon,

ia which part of its courfe it is from 400 to §co feet wide,
T he palace of the Babylonian kings, the temple ef Belus,
and-other public buildings muit aifo have occupied a confi-
derable part “of the ieee ‘within the-walls.

The next object particularly worthy cf a ce in the city
of Babylon, was the temple of Belus. Inthe middle cf
this temple ftood the aacient tower, fuppofed by Bochart

3H2 ( Phaleg.

snee the

BAB YE ON.

(Phaleg. p. 1. 1. i. ¢. 9.) to have been the famous tower of
Babel. This tower was at its bafe a {quare of a furlong
on each fide, or half a mile in compafs, and confifted of
eight towers, as they appeared to be, built one above the
other; the height of each being 75 feet, and that of the
whole 600 feet. The afcent to its top was by ftairs on the
outfide, formed by a floping line from the bottom to the
top eight times round it, fo as to exhibit.the appearance of
eight towers. As thefe compartments or ftories had many
rooms with arched roofs fupported by pillars, they made
parts of the temple, when the tower became confecrated to
idolatrous purpofes. The uppermoft ftory was the moft
facred, and the mof appropriate to the ufes of devotion.
Over the whole of the top of the tower. there was, it is
faid, an obfervatory (Diod. Sic. |. ii.), by the advantage of
which the Babylonians extended their {kill in aftronomy be-

ond other nations. For when Alexander took Babylon,
Calliithenes the philofopher, who accompanied him thither,
found they had aftronomical obfervations for 1903 years
from that time, which carried up the account as high as
the 115th year after the flood, or within 15 years after the
tower of Babel was built, or to the year B.C. 2334. Tull
the time of Nebuchadnezzar, the temple of Belus contained
only this tower, the rooms of which ferved all the occafions
of its idolatrous worfhip. But he enlarged it by erecting
edifices round it in a {quare of two furlongs on every fide,
and a mile in circumference, exceeding the fquare at the
temple of Jerufalem by 1800 feet. The whole of thefe
buildings was encioled by a wall, which is computed to have
been two miles and a half in circumference. In this wall
were feveral gates of folid brafs fuppofed to have been
formed out of the brazen fea, brazen*pillars, and other vef-
fels and ornaments, which Nebuchadnezzar had brought to
Babylon from Jerufalem ; for he is faid to have dedicated in
this temple the fpoils of that expedition. Dan. i. 2. 2 Chron.
xxxvii7. Inthe fame places were feveral images or idols of
maffy gold; one of them which was a flatue of Belus, in an
ere pofture forty feet high, crowning the fummit, and
refting on a pedeftal of fifty feet in height. Ass this is faid
to have weighed 1000 Babylonian talents, it is computed to
have been worth three millions and a half of our money.
According to Diodorus Siculus (ubi fupra), the weight of
the ftatues and decorations amounted to five thoufand and
odd talents in gold, and their value has been eftimated at
above twenty-one millions of our money; and the like fum
is allowed for the treafure, utenfils, and ornaments.

On the eaft fide of the river flood the old palace of the
kings of Babylon, four miles in circuit ; and oppofite to it,
on the other fide of the river, was the new palace built by
Nebuchadnezzar, which was eight miles in circumference.

For an account of the hanging gardens of Babylon, fee
Pensizes Horti. The other works afcribed to Nebu-
chadnezzar, by Berofus and Abydenus, were the banks of
the river, the arti cial canals, and the completion of the
artificial lake, faid to have been funk by Semiramis. ‘The
canals were cut out on the eaft fide of the Euphrates, in
order to convey the waters of the river, when it overflowed

‘its banks, into the Tigris, before they reached Babylon.
The chef of thefe was the NAARMALCHA.

The lake was on the weft of Babylon, and, according
to the loweft computation, 40 miles fquare, 160 in compafs,
and 35 deep as Herodotus fays, and 75 according to
Megaithenes. It was dug to receive the waters of the
river, while the banks were building on each fide of it ; but
the lake, and the canal that led to it, were afterwards pre-
ferved, and found ufeful to prevent inundations, and to ferve
as a referyoir, from which water was occafionally let out by

fluices for improving the land. The banks were conftruéted
of bricks and bitumen, on both fides of the river, to keepit
within its channel, and were extended through and beyond
the city, occupying an interval of twenty miles. Oppofite
to each ftreet, on either fide of the r.ver, was a brazen gate
in the wall, with flairs leading down from it to the rivers
which gates were open in the day, and {hut in the night.
All thefe works are attributed by Berofus, Megafthenes,
and Abydenus, to Nebuchadnezzar; but Herodotus fays,
that the bridge, the banks, and the lake, were the work of a
queen who reigned after him, called Nitocris, who probabl
finifhed what Nebuchadnezzar had begun and left imperfect.
Babylon fubfifted with fingular reputation, and was for a
long tme confidered as one of the wonders of the eaft. At
length Cyrus, having fubdued the {overal nations that inha-
bited the great continent from the Aiyean fea to the
Euphrates, and likewife Syria and Arabia, entered A flyria,
and dire€ted his march towards Babylon. Nabonadius,
Labynitus, or Belfhazzar, who then reigned at Babylon,
hearing that he was advancing to his metropolis, marched
out to give him battle ; but aoe: put to flight, he returned
into the city, where he was clofely befieged by Cyrus. But
the capture of a place fo ftrong, and furnifhed with all kinds.
of provifions for twenty years, was no eafy enterprife. De-
fpairing of fucceeding aginf it by ftorm, he drew round it a
line of circumvalation, with a large and deep ditch, to inter-.
cept its communication with the country. He alfo divided his
army into twelve bodies, each being appointed to guard the
trenches for a month; but the befieged, triumphing in the
height of their walls, and the amplitude of their ftores,
infulted Cyrus from the ramparts, and feemed ta defy all his
efforts. Cyrus, having {pent two years before Babylon
without making any impreflion, adopted the following ‘ttra-
tagem, which proved fuccefsful. Informed that a great.
annual folemnity was to be kept in the city, and that the
Babylonians were accuftomed, on this occafion, to fpend the
whole night in drinking and debauchery, he thought this a
proper time for furprifing them. Accordingly he fent ‘a
{trong detachment to the head of the canal leading to the
great lake, already defcribed, with orders, at an appointed
time, to break down the bank which feparated between the
lake and the canal, and to turn the whole current of the
river into the lake. At the fame time he appointed one
body of troops to oceupy the place where the river entered
into the city, and another to ftation themfelves where it came
out; and he ordered them to march in by the bed of the-
river, which was two ftadia broad, as foon as they fhould
find it fordable. Tov-ards the evening he opened the head
of the trenches on both fides of the river above the city, that
the water might difcharge itfelf into them, and by thefe
means, and the breaking down of the great~dam, the river
was foon drained. Then the two bodies of troops above-
mentioned entered the channel, according to the intru@ions
which they had received; and advancing towards the city,
they found the gates left open, in confequence of the riot
and diforder of the night, and penetrated into the city with-
out oppofition. Meeting at the palace, according to their
previous agreement, they furprifed the guards, and cut
them in pieces. Thofe who were in the palace, opening the
gates to know the caufe of the confufion, made way for the
Perfians to rufh in: and thus they took poffeffion of the
palace and killed the king, who with his fword in his hand
came out to-meet them. The king being killed, and thofe
who were about him being put to flight, the reft fubmitted,
and the Medes and Perfians became mafters of the place ;
B.C. 538. The redu€tion of Babylon put an end to the
Babylonian empire, and finally fulfilled, in the name and re
:

0 ee ee ey

BAB Y'DON,

racter of the conqueror, and in the various circumftances
that attended this event, the prophecies which Ifaiah, Jere-
miah, and Daniel, had uttered again{t this proud metropolis,
However, the tower or temple rood to the time of Xerxes;
butin his return from the Grecian expedition, he firft plun-
dered it of its wealth, then demolifhed the whole, and laid it
in ruins. Alexander, on his return to Babylon from his
Indian expedition, propofed to rebuild it, and to make it the
feat of his empire; Bit his death prevented his accomplifhing
that defign. After the death of Alexander, the city of Ba-
bylon akg to decline apace; and its decay was chiefly
awing to the vicinity af Seleucia, which was built by Seleucus
Nicator, as it is faid to mortify the Babylonians, and peo-
pled with 500,000 perfons drawn from Babylon.

We leara further from a fragment of Diodorus Siculus,
produced by Valefius, and quoted from him by Vitringa
(Comment. in Jefaiam, c. 13. vol. i. p. 421.), thata ee
of Parthia fent many of the Babylonians, under the mo
trivial pretences, into flavery, burnt the forum and fome of
the temples of Babylon, aud demolifhed the beft parts of
the city. This happened about 130 years B. C. Diodorus
Siculus (1. ii.) deferibes the buildings as ruined or deftroyed
in his time (B.C. 44.), and afferts that only a fmall part of
the city was inhabited, but that the greateft part of it within
the walls was tilled. Strabo (1. xvi. p. 1073.) who wrote
not long after Diodorus (B.C. 30.), fays, that part of the
eity was demolifhed by the Perfians, and part of it decayed
by time and the negle&t of the Macedonians, particularly after
the building of Seleucia, and the remova! of the royal court
thither. Strabo applies to Babylon what a comic poet faid
of Megalopolis in Arcadia; “* The great city is now become
a great defert.”” Pliny alfo (H. N. 4. 6. c. 30.) affirms
{A. D. Aes that it was reduced to folitude by the neigh-
bourhood of Seleucia. Paufanias, about A. D. 153, com-
pares Megalopolis to Babylon, and fays (Arcad. c. 33.
p. 668. ed. Kuhnii), thatof Babylon, the greateft city which
the fun ever faw, nothing remained but the walls. Maximus
Tyrius (Diff. 6.) mentions it as lying negleéted and forfaken
and Lucian intimates (E7iox. five Contemplantes), that ina
little time it would be fought for and not be found, like
Nineveh. Conftantine the Great, in an oration preferved by
Enufebius, fays, that he himfelf was upon the fpot, and be-
held the defolate and miferable condition of the city. In
the time of Jerome, about the clofe of the fourth century,
it was converted into a chafe for keeping wild beafts within
the compafs of its walls, for the hunting of the later kings
of Perfia. St. Jerome adds, that, excepting the brick walls,
which after many years are repaired for the inclofing of wild
beafts, the whole {pace within its defolation. Hieron. Com-
ment. in Hai. c. 13. c. 14. vol. iit. p. 111. 115. ed. Benedict.
‘Benjamin of Teudela, who lived in the twelfth century,
afferts (Itin. p. 76.), that aneient Babylon is now laid watte,
‘but that fome ruins are ftill to be feen of Nebuchadnezzar’s
palace, into which men fear to enter on account of the fer-
‘pents and f{corpions that are in the midft of it. Texeira, a
‘Portuguefe, in his defcription of his travels from India to
Italy, cited by Bochart ( Phaleg. 1. 4. c. 15. ),andby Prideaux
* (pt. 1. b. 8., affirms, that of this great and famous city
nothing but a few veftiges remained, and that there was not
“any place in the whole region lefs frequented. Rauwolf, a
‘German traveller, whofe travels have been edited by Ray,
(palled this way, A. D. 1574, and defcribes the ruins of this
‘famous city, which he found in the village of Elugo, not far
‘from Bagdad. He mentions fome piers and arches of the
‘old bridge over the Euphrates, and the ruins of the catftle
‘and tower, which are the habitations of venemous creatures,

“that. are fo dangerous as not to be acceflible with fafety,

except during two months in winter, when thefe animals
never ftir out of their holes. Petrus Vallenfis, or Della
Valle, was at Bagdad in 1616, and vifited the ruins, as
they are heen to be, of ancient Babylon, which he fays,
appear in confufion like a huge mountain, and exhibit a mafs
correfponding in form and fituation to the pyramid called by
Strabo the tower of Belus, and being probably the tower of
Nimrod in Babylon, or Babel, as the place is called. But
befides this large mafs, there are no traces of ruins fufficient
to convince an obferver that fo great a city as Babylon was
ever fituated in that place. ‘Tavernier fays, that at the part-
ing of the Tigris, whichis but a little way from Bagdad,
there is the foundation of a city which may feem to have
been a large league in compafs. Some of the walls, he fays,
are yet ftanding, upon which fix coaches may pafs abrealt.
They are made of burnt brick, ten feet fquare and three
thick. The chronicles of the country reprefent this as the
fite of the ancient Babylon. But this intelligent traveller
adopts the opinion of the Arabs, and conceives the ruins ob-
ferved by himfelf, and alfo by Benjamin the Jew, Rauwolf,
and Della Valle, to be the remains, not of Nebuchadnezzar’s
palace, or of the tower of Babel, but of {ome tower built by
one of their princes, and defigned as a beacon to affemble his
fubjeéts in time of war. Hanway (Trav. vol iv. pt. 3.c. 10.
p- 78.) fays, that the ruins of Babylon, placed about fifteen
leagues to the fouth of Bagdad, are now fo much effaced,
that there are hardly any veitiges of them to point out the
fituation.

Whoever compares thefe accounts, given more in detail by-
the authors above cited, with the predi€tions of the ancient
prophets, will perceive, and beled to acknowledge, how
pun¢tually the ravages of time havecontributed to accomplifh
them. To this purpofe bifhop Newton obferves (Dilfert.
on the Prophecies, vol. vii. p. 285.), that when Babyloa
‘¢ was converted into a chafe for wild beafts to feed and
breed there,’’ then were exactly accomplifhed the words of
the prophets, that “‘ The wild beafts of the defert,’ with the
wild beafts of the iflands, fhould dwell there, and cry in their
defolate houfes.”? One part of the country was overflowed
by the river’s having been turned out of its courfe, and never
reftored ‘again to its former channel, and thence became
boggy and marfhy, fo that it might literally be faid to be
a poffeffion for the bittern, and pools of water.’? Another
part is defcribed as dry and naked, and barren of every
thing, fo that thereby was fulfilled another prophecy, which
feemed in fome meafure to contradict the former, “* Her
cities are a defolation, a dry land anda wildernefs, a land
wherein no man dwelleth, neither doth any fon of man pafs
thereby.’? ‘The place thereabout is reprefented as overrun
with ferpents, {corpions, and all forts of venomous and un-
clean creatures, fo that “their heufes are full of doleful
creatures, and dragons cryin their defolate places; and Ba-
bylon is become heaps, a dwelling for dragons, an aitonifh-
ment and an hifling, without an mhabitant.’? For all thefe-
reafons, ‘neither can the Arabian pitch his tent there, nei-
ther can the fhepherds water the folds there.” And when
we find that modern travellers cannot now certainly difcover
the fpot of ground whereon this renowned city was once
fituated, we may very properly fay, “‘ How is Babylon be-
come a defolation among the nations! Every purpofe of
the Lord hath he performed againft Babylon, to make the
land of Babylon a defolation, without an inhabitant :’’? and
the expreflion is no lefs true than fublime, that ‘* The Lord.
of hofts hath fwept it with the befom of deftruction.??
«“ How wonderful (adds the prelate) are fich predi¢tions
compared with the events, and what a convincing argument
of the truth and divinity of the holy {eriptures! Well
mighs..

BAB

might God allege this as a memorable inftance of his pre-
fcience, and challenge all the falfe gods and their votaries to
produce the like. If xlv. 21. xlvi. ro. And indeed where
can you find a fimilar inftance, but in {cripture, from the
beginning of the world to this day?’ The triumphant ode
upon the fall of Babylon, recited in the fourteenth chapter
of Haiah, merits particular attention, asit is truly admirable
for the fevereft itrokes of irony, as well as for the fublimeft
ftrains of poetry. “ The Greek poet Alceus, who is cele-
brated for his hatred to tyrants, and whofe odes were ani-
mated with the fpirit of liberty no lefs than with the fpirit
of poetry, we may prefume to fay, never wrote any thing
comparable to it.”? Bifhop Lowth, in his excellent lectures
upon the facred poefy of the Hebrews, hath juftly deferibed
it as one of the moft {pirited, moft fublime, and mott perfeét
compofitions of the lyric kind, fuperior to any of the pro-
duCions of Greece or Rome. See his Prxle@. xiii. p. 120,
&e. Prele&t. xxviii. p. 277, &c. Mr. Mafon hath alfo imi-
tated it in an Englifh ode, publifhed with fome other odes,
in 1756.

Banyton, a city of Egypt, which was watered by the
river Trajanus, according to Ptolemy. It was fituated near
the Nile, where Grand Cairo now ftands, or at a finall dif-
tance from it, and had a cattle ftrongly fortified both by
nature and art. Some fay, that it was founded by the Per-
fians when they ravaged Egypt under Cambyfes, (fee Jofe-
phus Antiq.’; and that it was erected in the place where
Latopolis ftood; or according to others, when Semiramis
vifited this country at the head of a formidable army.
Strabo fays (1. xvii.., that it was built by fome Barbarians,
who retired thither by permiflion of their fovereign, and that
in his time the Romans kept in garrifon there one of the
three legions that were ftationed in Egypt. From the
fortrefs of Babylon, the mountain gently floped to the bank
of the Nile;-and 150 flaves were continually employed
there in raifing the water by means of wheels and an aque-
du&. The Perfians, who were worfhippers of the fun, kept
up a perpetual fire in this place, which occalioned its being
called by the Arabs “* The cattle of the lights.” See
Cairo, and Fosrar.

Basyton, in Scripture Hiflory, isa name figuratively
given by the facred writers, particularly by St. Peter, 1. Ep.
ch. v. v. 13. and by the author of the Revelations, ch. xvii.
and xviii. and alfo by the fathers, to Rome; partly on ac-
count of her greatnefs, pride, and oppreffion of God’s people,
and partly for her refemblance of it in idolatry ; that king-
dom fo fully reprefenting the idolatry of the church of
Rome in the defcription given of it in the fixth chapter of
Baruch, that fcarcely any real difference betwixt them can
be obferved. Whitby’s Paraphrafe, vol. 1. p. 661. p. 753.

BABYLONIA, or Cuyatpza, an ancient kingdom of
Afia, was founded by Nimrod, the grandfon of Ham, and
eontinued diftingt aid feparate from that of A ffyria, till
Ninus conquered Babylon, and made it tributary to the
Affyrian empire. (See Assyria.) This country was known,
§n ancient times, by the names of Shinar, and Shinaar,
which appellation it feems to have retained even in the
time of Daniel. The name of Babylon is univerfally fup-
pofed to have been derived from that of the tower of Babel;
and the name of Chaldza arofe from the Chaldzans, or
Chafdim. (Jofeph. Ant. 1. ive. 7.) Thefe two names
fometimes extend to the whole country, being indif-
ferently taken for each other; and fometimes they are
limited to certain parts. By Babylon, or Babylonia, is
gneant the country more immediately in the neighbour-
hood of the city of Babylon; and by Chaldxa, that
which extends fouthward to the Perlian gulf. Chaldsa is

BAB

ufed by the writers of the Old Teftament for the whole
country (Jer. xxiv. 5. xxv. 12. 1. 8. Ezek. xii. 13..5 and
Babylonia, generally {peaking, by profane authors. ( Diodor,
Sic. ]. ii. c. 11, 12. Strabo, |. xvi. fub. init.) It lies between
thirty aad thirty-five degrees of north latitude; and was

bounded, according to Ptolemy, on the north by Mefopo--

tamia, on the eaft by the Tigris, on the weft by Arabia
Deferta, and the fouth by the Perfian gulf and part
of Arabia Felix. In Babylonia, properly io called and
confidered as a diftinG province from Chaldea, were the
following cities; viz. Babylon, the metropolis, (See Basy-
Lon); Vologtia, or Vologefocerta, built on the Euphrates
by Vologefis, king of the Parthians, in the time of Vet-
pafian; Barfita, probably Strabo’s Borfippa, facred te
Diana and Apollo, famous in the time of this geographer
for a woollen manufacture, and for being the habitation of
a certain fe€t of Chaldzans, thence called Borifippeni;
Idiccara, on the Euphrates and the borders of Arabia De-
ferta; Coche, in the ifland Mefene, formed by the Tigris;
Saura; and Pombeditha, of which the fituation is very un-
certain. In ancient times the Babylonian name, extending
far beyond the limits both of Babylonia and Chaldwa, com-
prifed all, or the greater part of the proyinces fubjeét to
the Babylonian empire. See Emprer.

The air of this country was generally temperate and
falubrious; though it was occafionally fubject to extraor-
dinary heat anda peftilential wind. As it feldom rained,
the inhabitaats were under the neceffity of watering their
lands by means of .wheels and engines, and of trenches and
canals, which flowed from the Euphrates to the Tigris.
The foil was rich, the climate was for the moft part excel-
lent, and the inhabitants were induftrious ; and therefore
this country vied, in refpeé of fertility, with any other {pot
on the face of the earth. The fouthern parts of it, between
the rivers, have been compared with the Delta of Egypt,
which it refembles by its natural and artificial iflands, and
by being almoft under the fame parallel of latitude ; and the
other part of it, or Chaldea properly fo called, between
the Euphrates and the mountains of Babylon, as they are
commonly termed, is net much lefs watered by rivers and
canals conducted from the Euphrates, and large referyoirs of
lakes borrowed from the fame river. Hence Herodotus
(J. i. c. 193.), compares this country with Egypt; and he
{ays, that, with regard to the plenty of its productions, it
was reckoned to be equal toa third part of Afia, or of the
Perfian empire ; and that, in the fame year, it yielded 300
fold, but generally 200. Asit waslow, flat, and well wa-
tered, it abounded with willows, and was called * the val-
ley of willows,” as Prideatx Conn. p'.i. b. 1. p. 105.', after
Bochart, corrects the text, If. xv. 7. The palm alfo flourithed
naturally every where, and particularly the date kind, which
afforded bread, wine, and honey ; but the vine, olive, and fig-
tree, did not fucceed here any more thanin Egypt. But as
to grain, it exceeded every other land; the millet and fefame
fhot up to the fize of trees; and the leaves of the barley
and wheat were ufually four fingers broad. ‘The fefame af-
forded oil, inftead of the olive; and the palm yielded wine in-
ftead of the grape. This fertility was owing jn a great mea-
fure to the inundation of the Euphrates and Tigris, in ‘he
months of June, July, and Auguit; the fhaw of the monn-

tains of Armenia melting in thofe months: and to guand

againft injury from thefe 1undations, the inhabitants form
artificial rivers and canals,.by which they diltributed the
waters, and maintained an eafy communication with one
another. For the purpofe of mutual intercourle, and partis
cularly of nayigating the Euphrates, they had boats, of a
round form, conilructed like wicker-baikets, which were
2 covered

a. ee

BAB

cevercd with hides, and guided by two oars or paddles,
They had neither head nor ftern; but being of different
fizes, they ferved for carrying various quantities of their
commodities to Babylon, whence they returned by land, the
rapidity of the ftream not allowing them to return by water.
The government of Babylon, like that of Affyria, was def-
potic, aad the fceptre feems to have been hereditary. Their
poteatates, however, who affumed divine titles, aud who
received divine honours, adminittered their government by
pn varicty of officers, civil and military ; and thefe were
divided into three claffus: the firft had the charge of virgins,
and of their difpofal in marriage, and were to judge in cafes
pf adultery, and fimilar matters ; the fecond took cognizance
of thefts; and the third of all other crimes. The chief
officers of the king’s houfehold were the captain of his guard,
who had the execution of his arbitrary and fanguinary
commands; the prince of the eunuchs, who had the charge
of the educatioa and fubjittence of the youth of the palace ;
and the prime minifter, refembling the Turkith vizier, who
Sat in the king’s gate, as it was called, to hear complaints,
and to pafsjudgment. Befides thefe, there was alfo a malter
of the magicians, whofe province it was to fatisfy the king
on fubjects that refpected the prognoftication of futurity.
Among their laws, which were vague and variable, one of
the beit feems to have been that which refpeéted marriage,
and which was calculated to increafe the number of inha-
bitants; for which, fee Assyria. ‘Their punifhments
were arbitrary, and depended upon the will of a capricious
monarch. Beheading, cutting to pieces, turning the
houfe of the criminal into a dunghill, and burning in a fiery
furnace, were penalties, which were executed by order of
the kings of Babylon. The religion and boatted learning of
the Babylonians were fo blended together, that they are not
eafily feparated: for the Chaldees, properly {fo called, were
not only their priefts, but alfo their learned men; whofe
whole {cjence feems to have been fubfervient to the purpofes
of fuperitition. (See Bextus, and Sanaism.) As the
Babylonians gave rife to all the idolatries and fuperttitions
that prevailed among the neighbouring nations, they are
charged with having introduced the horrible cuftom of fa-
crificing human victims, in order to appeafe or conciliate
their deities. The Babylonians were much addicted to judicial
aftrology ; and afcribed an influence to the {tars and planets,
in the explication of which their chief f{cience confifted.
Atronomy was with them fubfervient to aftrology, and
the former was cultivated in fubordination to the latter.
Indeed, the principal part, if not the whole, of their philo-
fophy and learning, confiited in the application of this fan-
eiful and unfounded feience. However, fome have diftin-
guithed, with juftice, between the Chaldees, and Babylonians,
aferibing to the latter a more accurate and extenfive ac-
.quaintance with the principles of aftronomy, mathematics,
and mechanics, thanthe former. (See CHALD#AN Putto-
sorpuHy.) Of their mufic and poetry we have few certain
records. They are faid to have excelled in architeéture
and feulpture, in the arts of defigning, and of cafting metals,
as the ornaments of their metropolis feem to teftify.. Their
manufactures, particularly of rich embroideries, fumptuous
veftments, magnificent carpets, and fine linen, were famous ;
aad they fent their purple into the eaftern parts as an article
of trafic. Their commerce, efpecially when Babylon was
in the meridian of her glory, muft have been confiderable.
The metropolis was advantageoufly fituated for this pur-
ofe ; being as it were in the midft of the world, and having,
‘by means of the Euphrates and Tigris, an eafy communica-
tion with the weftern and northern parts, and alfo with the
ealtern by means of the Perfian gulf. With regard to their
-aultems, we may mention in particular their mode of treat-

BAB

ing fick perfons, Having no pliyficians, they expofed
them publicly in the moft frequented places, that all who
faw them might offer their advice, if they had, cither
from their own experience or that of others, any knowledge
of their cafe. Their dead they embalmed with honey and
wax, and their manner of mourning refembled that of the
Egyptians. The Babylonians were, in a high degree,
eredulous and fupetfitious ; and much addicted to licentiouf-
nefs and debavciery in their general conduct. In their
drefs, they affected pride and effeminacy. Their under
garment was a linen veit, which hung down to their heels 5
over this they had another of woollen; and their outer
garment was a white mantle or cloak. They fuffered their
hair to grow; adorned their heads with a turban or mitre ;
and anointed their bodies with the oil of fefame. Every
individual wore a ring with a feal on his finger, and bore in
his hand a carved flaff or f{ceptre, the head of which was
adorned with fome figure, as that of au apple, role, lilly,
eagle, or fome fuch emblem. On their feet they wore a
kiud of flippers. The inhabitants of this country were
divided not only into two great tribes, the Babylonians, and
Chaldzans, properly fo called, but into other {fubordinate
fects. Three of thefe are faid to have fed upon nothing but
fifth, which they dried in the fun, and formed into pafte,
thus fupplying the want of bread.

As to the hiitoryof the kingdom of Babylon, diftinguifhed
from the kingdom of A ffyria, the firlt king of this country
mentioned in Ptolemy’s Aitronomical Canon, is Nabonafier,
to whom Pul or Phul bequeathed it, as he did that of Afly-
ria to Tiglath-Pilefer, in the year 747, B.C. The latter
refided at Nineveh; and the former at Babylon. [rom
this period commonly denominated the era of Nabaonaffer,
to the year 625 B.C. when Nabopolaffar began his reign,
nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of the kings of
Babylon; excepting that Affaradinus or ETarhadon, king
of Affyria, the brother and fucceffor of Senacherib, took
pofleffion of the kingdom of Babyloa, B.C. 680; and that
upon his death, thefe kingdoms of Affyria and Babylov
were again feparated, B.C. 668. In the twentieth year
of Nabopolaflar, B.C. 606, Nineveh was taken and deftroyed
by the united armies of Cyaxares and Nabopolaffar, and the
feat of the empire transferred to Babylon. ‘This Nabopo-
Jaffar, fometimes called Nebuchadnezzar, was the father of
the famous Nebuchadnezzar, or Nabocolaffar, whofe hiftory
occurs in the facred writings, and who commenced his reign
in the year 604. B.C. From this period, to the conqneit
of Babylon by Cyrus, in the reign of Nabonadius, Laby-
nitus of Herodotus, and Belfhazzar of Scripture, the fon
of Evil-Merodach by Nitocris, and the grandfon of Nebu-
chadnezzar, in the year 538 B.C. the hiftory of Babylon
prefents nothing worthy of particular notice. For an ac-
count of the conquell of Cyrus, which terminated the
Babylonian empire, and fubjected it to the Perfians, fee
Basyton. From this time, Babylonia was never erected
into a diftinét kingdom, but has fhared the viciflitudes of
the great conquerors who haye at different times appeared
in Afia. It is now frequently the object of contention be-
tween the Turks and Perfians. Anc. Un. Hitt. vol. iii. p. 367
—437- Rollin’s Anc. Hift. vol. it. p. 1—153.

BABYLONIAN, Banytontc,or Banytonisn, Capti-
vity, Empire, Epocha, Gemara, Hour, Talmud, Year, Sco
See the feveral articles.

BABYLONICA Texra, in Antiquity, denote a tick
fort of weavings or hangings, denominated from the city of
Babylon, where the practice of interweaving divers coloure
in their hangings firft obtained. Plin. H. N. lib. viii. c. 48.

Hence alfo Babylonic garments, Babylonic fkins, Baby-
lonic carpets, howfings, &e. ; and Babylonica folana, which

were

BAB

“were coverings laid over couches, &c. painted with gold,
purple, and other colours.

“ Basyztonian, Babylonius, is alfo ufed in fome Ancient
Writers, for an aftrologer, or any thing relating to aftrology.
Hence Babylonia Cura, the art of cafting nativities ; and
numeri Babylonii, the computation of aftrologers. Hor.
hib.i. od. 12.

Basytonics, or Cuarpaics, in Literary Hiflory, a
fragment of the ancient hiftory of the world, ending at 267
years before Chrift ; and compofed by Berofus or a prieft of
Babylon, about the time of Alexander. Stanley Hit.
Phil.

The Babylonics were very confonant with Scripture,
as Jofephus and the ancient Chriftian chronologers affure us ;
whence the author is ufually fuppofed to have confulted
the Jewifh writers. He {peaks of an univerfal deluge, an
ark, &c.; he reckons ten generations between the firft man
and the deluge; and he marks the duration of the feveral
generations by Saroi or periods of 223 lunar months, which
reduced to years, differ but little from the chronology of
Mofes. There now remain only a few imperfect extracts,

referved chiefly by Jofephus and Syncellus. They were
biced by Annius of Viterbo. Fabr. Bib. Gree. tom. xiv.
p- 175. See Berosus, and Cxarpz4n Putrosopny.

BABYRSA, in Ancient Geography, a ttrong place of
Armenia Major, fituate in the mountains, near Artaxates,
where were kept the treafures of Tigranes and Artabazus.

BABYRUSSA, in Zoology, a {pecies of Sus, or hog,
having two tufks growing from the lower part of the front.
This is the horned-hog of Grew; porcus indicus babyrouffa

-diGtus of Ray; and baby-rouffa of Buffon. In the arrange-
ment of the French naturalifts, it belongs to the genus of
eochons and order pachydermes.

The babyrouffa is defcribed by Dr. Shaw, to be nearly of
the fize of acommon hog. but of a fomewhat longer form,
and with more flender hmbs; and to be covered, inftead of
briftles, with fine, thort, and fomewhat woolly hair, of a
deep brown or blackifh colour, interfperfed with a few
briftles on the upper and hinder part of the back. It is alfo
diftinguifhed by the very extraordinary pofition and form of
the upper tufks, which initead of being fituated internally on
the edge of the jaw asin other animals are placed externally,
perforating the fkin of the fnout, and turning upwards to-
wards the forehead; and as the animal advances in age, be-
coming fo extremely long and curved as to touch the fore-
head. Thefe continue their curvature downwards, by which
‘means they muft of neceffity lofe their power as offenfive
weapons, which they probably poflefs in the younger animals ;
the tufks of the lower jaw are formed as in the reft of the
genus, and are alfo long, fharp, and curved; but not of
equal magnitude with thofe of the upper. The upper tufks
are of a fine hard grain, like that of ivory; the eyes are
f{mall; the ears fomewhat ereét, and pointed; the tail rather

- long, flender, and tufted at the end with long hairs.
The babyrouffa is a gregarious animal, and is found in
. large herds in many parts of Java, Amboina, and fome other
Indian iflands, but is faidrnever to be found on the continent
- of India. Their food is entirely of a vegetable nature, and
- they often feed on the leaves of trees. When fleeping, or
refting themfelves in a ftanding pofture, they are faid often
_ to heok or fupport themfelves by placing the upper tufks
acrofs the lower branches of the trees. When purfued, they
will often plunge into a river, or even into the fea, if near,
-and can fwim with great vigour and facility, and to a vait
‘diftance. ‘The voice of the babyrouffa is faid to refemble
that*of the common hog, but it occafionally utters alfo a
‘trong or loud growling note. It is fometimes tamed by the
dmhabitants of the Indian iflands, and the flefh is confidered

BAC

as wholefome food, Vide Shaw Gen. Zool. Erxleben, &e,

Some writers imagine this quadruped to have been men-
tioned by Elian, Pliny, and other ancient writers, It is
thought to be the animal noticed under the name of tetrache-
ros, or four-horned, by the former; and that kind of Indian
boar, defcribed by Pliny as having twovery long bent teeth in
the lower jaw, and two others rifing in front. Aper in India,
Plin. &c. Aper cornutus, Calpurn; aper indicus orientalis
babi raefa dictus, Seba; ftrange hogs, hogs with horns,
Purch. pilgr.; eberhirfch oder hirfcheber, Knorrdelic, &c.

BABYSENGA, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town
of India, on the other fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

BABYTACE, a town of Afia, feated on the northern
bank of the Tigris. Pliny.

BAC, in Navigation, is ufed for a praam or ferry-boat.

Bac, in Brewing. See Back.

BACA, or Batataa, in Ancient Geography, a village of
Paleitine, which ferved as a boundary between the Tyrians
and Galilee,

Baca, in Geography, a town of North America, in New
Navarre, forty-miles north-eaft of Cinaloa.

Baca. See Baza.

BACACUM, or Bacacum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the Nervii, in Gallia Belgica; now Bavay.

BACADUCHI, in Geography, a'‘town of North Ame«
rica, in New Navarre, 240 miles north of Cinaloa.

BACAIM, or Bacam. See Basseen,

BACALA, a town of India, on this fide of the Ganges,
on the eaftern coaft in the kingdom of Arracan.

BACALAL, a lake and {mall country of North Ame
rica, in the peninfula of Yucatan.

BACALAN, a town of Afia, in Tokareftan, one of the
fouthern provinces of Great Bucharia, at a fmall diftance
N. W. from Anderab. N. lat. 36° 12’. E. long. 67° 35’.

BACALEO, Bacariev, Baccotom, or BAccoLaAny
an ifland on the eaft coaft of Newfoundland, about nine
leagues from cape St. Francis, and eight leagues north by
eait from Portugal cove, is about two leagues long, and half
a league broad. This ifland is about a league from the
main, with a fair channel between for any fhips. N. lat. 48°
24’. W. long. 52° 34".

BACAM, a town of North America, in New Navarre,
165 miles north-weft of Cinaloa.

BACANO, a fmall lake of Italy, neara village of the
fame name, in the patrimony of St. Peter, out of which
iffues the {mall river CREMERA.

BACANORA,a town of North America, in New Na-
varre, 230 miles fouth of Cafa Grand.

BACANTIBI, in Ecclefiaftical Antiquity, wandering
clerks, who ftrolled from church to church. Bingham.

The word feems formed by corruption from vacantivi.

BACAPA, in Geography, a town of North Americas
in New Navarre, 120 miles fouth-weft of Cafa Grand.

BACAR. See Banar.

BACARAT, or Baccarat, atown of France, in the
department of the Meurte, and chief place of a canton in
the diftrid of Luneville ; four leagues fouth-eaft of Lune-
ville. The place contains 1315, and the canton 14,759 in-
habitants: the territory includes 315 kiliometres and 31
communes.

BACARDO, a town of Italy, in the flate of Genoa,

three miles N. N. E. of Vintimiglia.

BACASERAY, or Baxrscuisaray, a town in the
peninfula of the Crim-Tartary, where the khans ufually
refided, feventy miles fouth of Precop. It was partly
burned by the Ruffians in 1736. N. lat. 45° 30. E. long.

"35° 10’.

BACAY, a town of India, on the other fide of the
1 Ganges,

Sr

., ae

os aw

—

BAC

Ganges, the capital of a country of the fame name, on the
eaftern bank of the river Ava.

BACBAKIRIL, in Ornithology, the name by which le merle
a plaftron noir de Ceylan of Buffon, is known at the cape
of Good Hope; becaufe its note very clearly exprefles the
fyllables bac-ba-ki-ri. ‘This is the green-pye from Ceylon
of Edwards; Ceylon thruth of Latham; and turdus Zeylonus
of Linneus.

BACCA, Berry, in Botany, denotes fuch fruits as con-
fit of a pericarpium full of juice and feeds, without any
valves. ‘The feeds have no membranous capfule or cover-
ing, but are difpofed promifcuoufly throughout the pulp, as
in folanum, &c., and are generally placed on foot-ftalks at-
tached to receptacles within the pulp, as in ribes, &c. The
berry is faid to be proper when it is a true pericarpium,
formed of a germen; and improper, when it is formed from
other parts of the fruétification, as in morus, rofa, juniperus,
taxus, &c. A large fucculent calyx becomes a berry; in
juniperus the three petals become the umbilicus; in poterium
the berry is formed of the tube of the corolla; in fragaria,
&c. it is formed of the top of the receptacle; in rubus, &c.
it is formed from a feed, which is the receptacle of the berry;
in rufcus, &c. it is inclofed within, and is part of the nec-
tary. The berry is commonly either round or oval; and is
frequently furnifhed with an umbilicus, as in ribes, &c. It
does not naturally open to difperfe the feeds like the cap-
fule; that office being performed by birds and other ani-
mals.

BACCZE Bermudienfes, in the Materia Medica, the
name of the fruit or berries of the /apindus, or foap-berry-tree.

BACCAIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Syria, feated on a plain between the mountains and the river
Orontes. :

BACCALAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Red
fea, on the coaft of Arabia Felix, about 36 geographical
miles N. W. of Loheia. It isinhabited by fifhermen, and has
no water in fummer, which is then brought from Foofht.

BACCALARIA, in Middle Age Writers, denotes a
kind of country farms, confifting of feveral manfes. Du-
Cange.

BaccarartA Dominicaria, or Indominicata, was more par-
ticularly ufed for a farm belonging to the lord, and kept in
his own hands. .

BACCANELLUS, Jonannes, in Biography, a native
of Rheggio, lived in the early part of the fixteenth century.
He was deformed in body, and of a diminutive ftature, but
thefe defects were abundantly compenfated by the powers of
his mind, as Braflavolus teftifies. We have of him the fol-
lowing works, which were much efteemed: “ De confenfu
Medicorum, in curandis morbis,”’ lib 4.5 and * Deconfenfu
Medicorum in cognofcendis fimplicibus Liber,’ Lut. 1554,
Venet. 1555 and 1558, and Lugd. 1572, 12mo. containing
a judicious abridgment of the opinions of the early Greek
writers, on thefe fubjeéts. Linden. Rediv. p.524.

BACCARACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
Lower Palatinate, formerly imperial and free, but now fubjeé
to the elector palatine, whe has contributed to its prof{perity by
allowing the Calvinifts and Lutherans to eftablifh their forms
of worlhip there, under equal privileres with the Roman
Catholics; feated on the left bank of the Rhine, at the foot
of a mountain called Vottfberg. It is famous for its wines;
whence it is fuppofed tohaveitsname corrupted from ‘Bacchi
ara,” the altar of Bacchus. Baccarach was fo completely
pillaged by the troops of Louis XIV. in 1689, that
the French commander was obliged, on the night before
he left the town, to fleep on ftraw, which was ufed next
day for burning it; eight miles north of Deux Ponts, and

Woz. lil.

BAC

twenty-three fouth of Coblentz. N.lat. 50° 2’. E.long.
7° 52'.

Baccaracu /Vine, a name of a particular kind of wine,
by fome efteemed a kind of Rhenifh; but Portzius, who
has written exprefsly on the fubje&t, obferves that it differs
from all the common Rhenifh wine, in colour, odour, taite,
and virtue.

. BACCARUM, in Entomology, a fpecies of Acarus,
found on goofeberries, currants, and other fruit-trees. The
abdomen is dilteuded, red, and dufky on the fides. Linn.
Fn. Suec.

Baccarum, a fpecies of Cimex, of a fomewhat fulvous
colour; margin of the abdomen {potted with brown. De-
geer, Gmelin. Inhabits Europe.

BACCH A, in Antiquity, the priefteffes of Bacchtus, who
celebrated the orgia, or mylteries of that god.

The word was alfo ufed for the ivy crowns and garlands
vo by the priefts of Bacchus, in offering facrifices to

im.

BACCHANALITA, religious feafts in honour of Bac-
chus, celebrated with much folemnity among the ancients,
particularly the Athenians, who even computed their years
by them, till the commencement of Olympiads.

The bacchanalia are fometimes alfo called orgia, derived,
as fome conceive, from the Greek vefn, Jurys; on account of
the madnefs and enthufiafm wherewith the people appeared
to be pofleffed at the time of their celebration.

They were held in autumn, and took their rife, according
to Herodotus, from Egypt, where they were known under
the name of the myfteries of Ifis and Ofiris; whence, ac-
cording to Diodorus, they were brought into Greece by
Melampus; and they afterwards pafled into Italy and Gaul,
sneer’ adopted almoft throughout the whole Pagan
world.

The form and difpofition of the folemnity depended, at
Athens, on the archon, and was at firft exceeding fimple ;
but, by degrees, it became incumbered with a number of
ridiculous ceremonies, and attended with much diffolutenefs
and debauchery; infomuch that the Romans, who grew
afhamed of them, fuppreffed them by a fenatus-confultum
throughout all Italy, A.U.C. 568. B.C. 186. It was
a faying of Plato, recorded by Diogenes Laertius, (1. iii.
Segm. 39.), that to drink to excefs was not allowable, ex-
cept upon the feflival of that god who is the giver of
wine.

‘The women had a great fhare in the folemnity, which is
faid to have been initituted on theiraccount; fora great
number of them attended Bacchus in his expedition to In-
dia, carrying in their hands the ‘Ayr/us, i.e. a little lance, co«
vered with ivy and vine leaves, finging his viGtories and tri-
umphs wherever they went; the ceremony was kept up after
Bacchus’s deification, under the title of Bacchanalia, and the
women were inftalled prieftefles thereof, under that of Bacche
or Bacchantes.

Thefe priefteffes, at the time of the feaft, ran through the
ftreets, and over the mountains, covered with tiger’s fkins,
their hair difhevelled, their thyrfus in one hand, and torches
in the other, howling and fhrieking Evo oaGo:, evo Boxe, or
Iw Iaxxe, or Iw Bane.

Men and women met promifcuoufly at the feaft, all per-
fe€tly naked, except only for the vine-leaves and‘clufters of
grapes, which bound their heads and hips; here they danced
and jumped tumultuoufly, and, with ftrange gefticulations,
fung hymns to Bacchus, till, being weary and giddy, they
tumbled down.

The licentioufnefs of thefe, and of fome other fettivals,
was fo well known, that it was the advice of wife men to

31 married

BAC

married women to abjtain from the feafts of Bacchus, and
Ceres, and the mother of the gods. Hence that faying of
Ariftippus, mentioned by Sextus Empiricus, concerning a
chafte woman, “ That fhe will not be corrupted even at the
Bacchanals;” intimating the great danger of being vitiated
that attended thefe feftivals.

BaccnanatiA, Bacchanals, is alfo a name given to pic-
tures, or baflo-relievos, whereon the feaft is reprefented, con-
fifting chiefly of dancings, nudities, and the like. OF thefe
baffo-relievos, we have feven or eight in the ‘* Monumenti
inediti’’ of Winkelmann, They are alfo exhibited on a fine
vafe of agate, preferved in the abbey of St. Denis, in
France.

There are antique bacchanals {till feen on feveral an-
cient friezes. ‘The bacchanals painted by Poufin are ex-
cellent.

In the Juftinian garden at Rome, there is a marble vafe
of moft precious workmanthip, upon which is a reprefenta-
tion of thele orgies of Bacchus. The vafe, from the beauty
of its fculpture, is fuppofed to be by the hand of Saurus.
The whole pomp of one of thefe proceffions is there admira-
bly reprefented; in which are introduced Bacchus, the
Bacchanals, the Mznades, the players on flutes, matrons
and virgins, with the crotalum or cymbalum, and tympa-
num; fawns and fatyrs, holding in their hands vafes and
cups; priefts leading the viétims deftined for facrifice, fuch as
the boar, the he-goat, and the bull; and, laitly, old Silenus,
drunk, upon his afs, which he is hardly able to guide. Bur-
ney’s Hilt. Muf. yol.i. p. 300.

Some writers call the Romifh Carnavat, the Chriflian
Bacchanalia.

BACCHARIS, in Botany, ploughman’s fpikenard. Lin.
949. Schreb. 1285. Gaertn. t. 166. Juff. 180, Clafs, Syn-
genefia polygamia fuperflua. Nat. Ord. Compofite. Corymbi-
feraJuff. Gen. Char. Ca/. common, cylindric, imbricate ;
fcales linear, acute. Cor. compound, equal; corollules her-
maphrodite and female mixed; proper, to the hermaphrodite,
funnel-form, five-cleft; to the females, fcarcely apparent,
almoft none. S¥am. filaments five, capillary, very {mall; an-
thers cylindric, tubular. Pi/?. germ ovate; ftyle filiform,
the length of the flower; fligma bifid. Per. none. Calyx
unchanged. Seeds, folitary, very fhort, oblong; down fim-
ple. Ree. naked.

Eff. Gen. Char. Ca/. imbricate, cylindric; florets female,
mixed with hermaphrodites; down fimple.. Recep?. naked.
02/. This genus {carcely differs from that of conyza.

Species, 1. B, ivefolia, Peruvian ploughman’s {pikenard.
Eupatorium Africanum, &c. Pluk. Phyt. t. 328. f.2.
‘¢ Leaves lanceolate, longitudinally tooth-ferrate.” Five or
fix feet high. The female florets with a trifid corolla are
very abundant. The hermaphrodites at the difk are few and
five-cleft; fcales of the calyx in a {tate of maturity {pread
very much; florets of the diflk barren, of the ray fertile,
fubulate, fcarcely toothed; recept. conical. A native of
America. Cultivated at the Chelfea garden in 1696. 2. B.
nerifolia, oleander-leaved ploughman’s fpikenard. “ Leaves
lanceolate, ferrate at the upper part with one or two tooth-
lets.” This rifes, with a foft fhrubby ftalk, to the height
of eight or ten feet. Flowers of an herbaceous colour, pro-
duced in {pikes at the extremities of the branches. 3. B.
arborea. ‘* Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, quite entire, naked,
petioled.”” About three feet high, with a trunk the
thicknefs of the human arm. Leaves alternate, acute,
rough; the terminal corymbs panicled. Obferved in
woods on the ifland of Johanna, by Koenig. 4. B. halmi-
folia, fea-purflane-leaved ploughman’s fpikenard, or ground-
fel tree. % Leaves obovate, emarginate-crenate in the up-

BAC

per part.”? Stems fhrubby, fix fect high; leaves many,
like thofe of goofe-foot, but ftiffer, irregularly placed on
the branches; flowers crowded, naked, at the ends of
the twigs, not handfome, fo that it is rather for the foliage
of the plant, which continues green throughout the year,
that it is ufually cultivated. A native of North America.
Cultivated by bittop Compton in 1688. 5. B. Diofcoridis.
«© Leaves broad, lanceolate, toothed, feffile, ftipuled.’?
Shrubby, fix feet high ; leaves alternate, half item-clafping,,
deeply indented at tne bafe, foft; panicles fmall; calyx
fhorter than the flower. It is wrongly named Baccharis of
Diofcorides, fee Supp. Plant. 367. A native of Egypt.
6. B. indica. ‘* Leaves obovate, tooth-letted, petioled.”
Leaves fmooth; branches with raifed flreaks; corymb large,
terminating ; peduncles angular, with fubulate bra€tes; ca-
lyxes cylindric, fmooth. A native ef Ceylon, and the cape
of Good Hope. 7. B. brafiliana. “ Leaves obovate, entire,
{eabrous, fefhile, veined underneath.’? Stem fomewhat an-
gular ; leaves obtufe, almoit quite entire; panicles nearly
naked, with remote alternate flowers; down ferruginous.
Ic differs frém the indica in having fliffer, feffile, and fcarcely
toothed leaves, and its flowers larger, fewer, and more res
mote. A native of Brafil. i
ceolate, ferrate-toothed, corymbs leafy.”? Six or feven feet
high; leaves long, hoary on the under fide, of a difagree-
able {mell when handled; corymbs terminal. A native of
North America. Cultivated here in 1729. 9. B. chinenfiss
Lour. Coch. 494. ‘ Leaves lanceolate, quite entire, tomen-
tofe beneath, italked; peduncles many-flowered, axillary.’
An under-fhrub, three feet high, ere&, fimple, round
leaves alternate, ftalked; flowers yellow,. oblong. A na-
tive of China, near Canton.

Propagation and Culture. Species 1. may be propagated
by cuttings, planted in a fhady border, during any of the
fummer months; or by feeds fown on a common border in
the fpring. If planted in a warm fituation, it will live in
mild winters in the open air; but it is ufually kept in the
green-houfe, and placed out in fummer. It requires much:
water in warm weather. The fecond fpecies is difficult to
propagate, for the cuttings will feldom take root, and it
rarely has fhoots near the ground to lay dowa, fo that in
Holland they lay down the entire head of young plantsy.
flitting the fmaller branches, in the fame manner as is prac--
tifed for carnations, laying them into the ground, and fork-.
ing each down to prevent their rifing: thefe, when duly
watered, will put out roots in one year, when they may be
taken off, and planted in {mall pots filled with: light earth,.
and placed in the fhade till they have taken new root. In.
fummer they ought to be kept in a fheltered fituation, and.
in the green-houfe in winter. The fourth fpecies may bepro-
pagated by cuttings planted in April or May, in a fliady bor
der, and if properly watered they will be fit for tranfplanting:
in the places where they are to remain at Michaelmas. ‘Fhe:
eighth fpecies may be alfo propagated by cuttings, which in:
about two months take root, when. they are to be potted
and kept under a frame during the winter. The others are:
more tender and require the proteCtion of a ftove, but
are little known in this country. See Martyn’s Miller’s:
Dic.

Baccuaris.
NYZA.

Baccnaris was alfo the name of afweet omtment among
the ancients, fo called perhpas from this herb’s being a prin=
cipal ingredient in it.

BACCHAROIDES. See Conyza.

BACCHIL, in Mechanics, a kind of ancient machines, in:
formof goats, ufed by Jupiter in his wars againft the giants.

Rudbeck.

8. B. fetida. * Leaves lan--

See Aruanasia, Curysocoma, Co»

\

a '

‘4

BAC
Rudbeck defcribes two kinds of bacchi, one made like the
battering-ram, wherewith Jupiter demolifhed the enemies’
fortifications; the other contrived to caft fire out of, from
whence the Greeks are conjeCtured to have framed their idea
of chimera. ‘

BACCHIAS, and Antisaccuias, in Ancient Geogra-
ph, the name of two iflands in the Arabic gulf, according
to Pliny. ‘They are called by Ptolemy and Stephanus,
Bacchi and Antibacchi infule.

BACCHIC, fomething relating to the ceremonies of
Bacchus. The celebrated intaglio, called Michael Angclo’s
ring, is a reprefentation of a bacchic featt.

Baccuic Song, is fometimes ufed tor a chan/on a boire, or
compolition to infpire jollity. But, in a more proper fenfe,
it is reftrained to a dithyrambic ode, or hymn.

BACCHICA, in Botany, is fometims ufed for hedera, or
ivy.

BACCHIGLIONE, in Geography, a river of Italy, in
the fate of Venice, which, after watering Vicenza and Pa-
dua, difcharges itfelf into’ the gulf of Venice, near Chi-
Ozza.

BACCHINI, Benenict, in Biography, alearned monk,
was born at Borgo San Donino, in the duchy of Parma, in
the year 1651. At the age of fixteen he entered into the
order of St. Benedict, in the monaftery of Mount Caflin,
and applied to his ftudies fo intenfely as to injure his health.
After having travelled with Arcioni, abbot of the Bene-
dictines at Ferrara, to whom he was fecretary, he refigned
his office, and fettled at Parma. Here he publifhed a lite-
rary journal, manifefting great learning and judgment; but
it excited again{ft him many enemies, who prevailed with the
duke of Parma to banifh him from his territory. Bacchini
then retired to Modena, where he was patronifed by the
duke of Modena, and appointed his hittoriographer and li-
brarian. The materials which he colleé&ed for inveftigating
the genealogy and hiftory of the houfe of Elte, were tranf-
ferred to his fucceflor Muratori, upon his removal to the
abbacy of the Benedictines of Modena. In 1705, he
founded at Modena an academy of ecclefiaftical literature.
His laft preferment was that of profeflor of ecclefiaftical
hiftory in the univerfity of Bologna, where he died, at the
age of feventy, in the year 1721. Bacchini was one of the
moft celebrated {cholars of his age, diltinguifhed by his uni-
verfal learning, refined taite,, theological fill, and ecclefi-
aftical philology ; to all which he added in early life elo-
quence as a preacher; and in more mature years critical acu-
men, and eminent fkill in decyphering mannfcripts. Be-
fides his literary journal, commmenced at Parma in 1686,
and continued to 1690, refumed at Modena from 1692 to
1697, and extant in nine volumes 4to.; he wrote in Italian
the Hiltory of the Benedi&tine Monaltery of Polironi ;”
and in Latin, “ De Siftrorum Figuris ac Differentia,” 4to.
Bononiz, 1691, and reprinted at Utrecht, gto. 1696, with
notes by Tollius; “ De Ecclefiaftice Hierarchie Origini-
bus,” 4to. Modene, 1703; and fome other {mall pieces.
Nouv. Di&. Hiftor. Gen. Biog.

BACCHIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt,
near the lake Meeris. Ptolemy.

BAC€HIUM, an ifland of the /Egean fea, oppofite to
Phocea, at the entrance of the gulf of Smyrna. The tem-
ples and ftatues, with which it was richly adorned, were
ranfacked by the Romans.

BACCHIUS, in the Latin Poctry, a kind of foot, con-
fifting of three fyllables; whereof the firft is fhort, and the
two latter long; as égé/as.

The bacchius is the reverfe of a daétyl, and takes its
name from that of Bacchus, becaufe frequently ufed in the

BAC

hymns compofed in his honour. It was alfo called among
the ancients, enotrius, tripodius, faltans; and by the Greeks,
maernpuSoc.

BACCHIUS SENIOR, in Biography, one of the feven
Greek writers in mufic, colleéted and publifhed with a Latin
tranflation and notes, by Meibomius, in 1652, is fuppofed
to have flourifhed about the time of Ptolemy, that is, in the
fecond century. His ¢ Introduétion to the Art of Mufic,”
is in dialogue; in the courfe of which all the terms ufed in
the ancient Greek mufic are defined, and explained in Greek
charaéters of notation,

Bacchius is the only one of thefe feven ancient mufical
writers, who, like Ptolemy, allows of no more than feven
modes. See Moves. On the fubje& of rhythm, he quotes
Aniftoxenus, Nicomachus, Leophantus, and Didymus ; fo
ae it is certain he wrote fubfequent to all thofe au-
thors.

BACCHUS, in Entomology, a large {pecies of Scara-
B#£US, that inhabits the cape of Good Hope. The hhield
of the head is four-toothed; thorax gibbous, and with the
wing-cafes glabrous. Fabricius.

Baccuus, a fpecies of Curcurio that inhabits Europe.
It is coppery, with the fnout and ends of the feet black.
Fabricius, &ce.

Baccuus, a fpecies of Monocutus, with an orbicular
fhell: antennez extended horizontally ; tail denticulated on
each fide. Miiller entomoftr. Inhabits rivers.

Baccnus, in Mythology, a name fynonymous amon
the Pheenicians with “‘mourning,”? and fuppofed to be de-
rived from the Phenician term bafah, to weep, and given to
feveral deities, or rather to the fame god, acknowledged
under various diftinét epithets and charaéters in the different
countries where he was worfhipped. In Egypt, he was called
Ofiris; in Arabia, Adoneus; in Myfia, Phanaces; in India,
Dionyfius, or Dionufus ; by the Lucanians, Peatheus ; through-
out the Roman dominions, Lider, &c. &c. The reafons
afligned for thefe different appellations, by which the fame
god was diftinguifhed, are ftated by Banier in the fecond
volume of his «* Mythology.” It is natural to fuppofe that
the Greeks and Romans, in their ufual’ manner, beftowed
upon the oe Bacchus whom they worfhipped, the feveral
actions and attributes of the many divinities known by that
name, and by other equivalent denominations in different
countries. Cicero (de Nat. Deor. iii. 23.) mentions five dic
vinities known by the name of Bacchus, and thus adds two
to the three of Diodorus Siculus and Philoftratus Antis
quity, however, has chiefly diftinguifhed two gods, under
the title of Bacchus; that of Egypt, the fon of Ammon,
and the fame with Ofiris; and. that of the Greeks, or of
Thebes in Beeotia, the fon of Jupiter and Semelé. The
Bacchus of Egypt was the Dionyfus of the Arabians, fo
called from the city of Nyfa in Arabia Felix, where he was
brought up, and worfhipped by them in confequence of the
glory he had acquired by leading his army into India. (See
Dionysus.) According to fir Ifaac Newton (Chron. apud
Op. vol. v. p.77—8o.), this great Bacchus, whom the Ara-
bians fo denominated from a word which in their language
fignified “ great,” was the fame with Sefac or Sefoftns,
who became king of Egypt in the reign of Solomon. (1 Kings
xi. 40.) See Sesac, and Sesostris.

All agree (fays this author) that Bacchus was the fame
king of Egypt with Ofiris (fee Osrtris); and he fuppofes
that the Ceelus, or Uranus, or Jupiter Uranius of the Ara-
bians, the other god befides Dionyfus whom they worfhipped,
was the fame king of Egypt with Ammon, the father of
Bacchus, according to the poet:

giz Quamvis

BAC

“ Quamvis ZEthiopum populis, Arabumgne beatis

Gentibus, atque Indis unus fit Jupiter Ammon.”
(See Ammon.) Sir Ifaac Newton adds, that when Ariadne,
the daughter of Minos, was deferted by Thefens in the
ifland Naxos or Dia, and taken up by Glaucus, an Egyp-
tian commander at fea, fhe became the miltrefs of the great
Bacchus, who was at that time returning from India in
triumph ; and by him fhe had two fons, Phlyas and Eume-
don, who were Argonauts. This Bacchus was caught in
bed in Phrygia with Venus, the mother of /Eneas, accord-
ing to Homer (Odyff. 1. viii. v. 292.), juft before he came
over the Hellefpont and invaded Thrace; and he married
Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, according to Hetiod
(Theogon, v.947.); and therefore, by the tellimony of
both Homer and Hefiod, who wrote before the Greeks
and Egyptians corrupted their antiquities, this Bacchus was
one generation older than the Argonauts; and fo being king
of Egypt at the fame time with Sefoftris, they muft be one
and the fame king. They alfo agree in their a€tions: Bac-
chus invaded India and Greece; and after he was routed by
the army of Perfeus, and the war was compofed, the Greek:
did him great honours, and built a temple to him at Argos,
and called it the temple of the Ctefian Bacchus, becaufe, as
Paufanias relates (1. 2. c. 23.), Ariadne was buried in
it.

The diftinctive charaéter of this Indian Bacchus was a
long beard; whence he was denominated ‘* the bearded
Bacchus,” or Kelzrwywv. Some have fuppofed that there
was another Bacchus peculiar to Egypt, and the moft an-
cient of all; and, indeed, Diodorus Siculus feems to war-
rant this opinion, by mentioning three different deities under
this appellation. Accordingly, Bochart (Geog. Sacr. 1. i.
c. 18. apud Oper. t.i. col. 439, &c.) fuggeits, that Bac-
chus was the fame with Nimrod the father of Ninus; and he
fuppofes that the worfhip of this deity originated in A flyria,
and from thence was tranfmitted to the Syrians and Phceni-
cians ; and that it was communicated by the Pheenicians to
the Greeks. Many of his names, attributes, and aétions
bear an obvious allufion to the fcripture hiftory, and are
mott fatisfactorily elucidated by it. Amongft thofe who
have referred the origin of Bacchus, and the worfhip that
was performed in honour of him, to the earlicit antiquity,
and very nearly to the difperfion at Babel, we may mention
the learned Mr. Bryant, who difcovers in the hiftory of the
exploits of this illuftrious perfon, references to the migra-
tion, of the Cuthite colonies, or of the fons of Chus, who,
upon the difperfion, partly betook themfelves eaftward to
the Indus and Ganges, and partly pafled into Egypt. See
Curnires, and Dispersion.

The Theban Bacchus, or Grecian Bacchus, is particularly
diftinguifhed by Diodorus Siculus, 1]. iii. This hiftorian in-
forms us, that Orpheus firft deified the fon of Semelé by
the name of gesting; and that he appointed his ceremonies
in Greece, in order to render the family of Cadmus, the
grandfather of the Grecian Bacchus, illuftrious. Semelé,
it is faid, was ftruck with lightning at the very inftant of
her fon’s birth; and the child was probably denominated
Bacchus, from the grief which this melancholy accident
might have occafioned in the family. Cadmus, with a view
of concealing his daughter’s difhonour, conveyed away his
infant grandion, as it fhould feem, to fome of his relations
in Pheenicia or Egypt. After having been there inftru@ed
in the mytteries of [fis and Ofiris, and initiated in all the
magical or juggling tricks of the Egyptian priefts and hiero-
phants, and having attained the maturity of age, he returned
to Thebes with the traditional retinne of the original deity
ef the fame name, and claimed divine honours ; which, after

¢ “ee
BAC
fome oppofition, were allowed him. 'To this Grecian Bace
chus the actions of Oliris were afcribed, together with a
variety of abfurd and dilpraceful adventures in which his
prototype had no concern. Hence the Theban Bacchus
became a moniter of licentioufnefs and debauchery ; where-
as the Egyptian was of a very contrary character. Of
courfe the myfteries of the former were attended with the
molt fhocking abominations. Sce Baccwanaia.

According to the account of Diodorus Siculus (I. iii.
p. 207.) there was no nation upon earth, neither Grecian
nor foreign, that was not indebted to this deity for fome
mark of his munificence and favour. He taught the peo-
ple to plant the vine, and to preferve the juice of the grape,
and to lay up the fruits of the earth in proper repofitories,
Thofe who poffeffed an harfh and ungenial foil, not adapted
to the cultivation of the vine, were fhewn the art of mak-
ing a drink from barley, not lefs grateful than that which
proceeded from the grape. He adds (]. iv. p. 210), that
the perfon, from whom thefe bleffings were derived, is re-
prefented of the higheft antiquity, and the greateft bene-
factor ever known by mankind. Such is alfo the hiftory
given of Ofiris, under which chara&ter, fays Bryant (Anc.
Myth. vol. ii. p..445.), we are to underftand a people who ~
went forth and performed all that has been mentioned.
Their religion confifted in the worfhip of the fun under
various titles ; accordingly however Dionufus or Bacchus
may be diverfified by various names or titles, all of them,
as this learned writer imagines, with regard to worfhip, re-
late ultimately to the fun. Such was alfo the opinion of
Selden (De Diis Syris, p. 77-) To this worfhip were
added, by the ancient people to whom Bryant refers, di-
vine honours paid to their anceftors, the Baalim of the firft
ages: all which were attended with particular myfterious
rites, in which were commemorated the circumiftances of
the deluge, and the hiftory of the great patriarch by
whom mankind was preferved. Bacchus was efteemed one of
the founders of medicine. ;

Diodorus Siculus further informs us, that it was Bacchus,
the fon of Semelé, who invented farces and theatres, and
who firft eftablifhed a mufic fchool, exempting from all mi-
litary fun&tions fuch muficians as difcovered great abilities
in their art; on which account, fays the fame author, mu-
ficians formed into companies have fince frequently enjoyed
great privileges. ;

Dr. Burney (Hitt. Mufic, vol. i. p. 298.) obferves, that
the dithyrambics, which gave birth to dramatic reprefenta-
tions, are as ancient as the worfhip of, Bacchus in Greece ;
and there is little doubt but that the ceremonies of his.
mytteries gave rife to the pomp and illufions of the theatre.
Many of the moft {plendid exhibitions upon the ftage for
the entertainment of the people at Athens and Rome being
performed upon the feftivals of Bacchus, gave occafion to
the calling all thofe that were employed in them, whether
for finging, dancing, or reciting, ‘ fervants of Bacchus.”
Paufanias, in his Attics (p. 7. ed. Kuhnit), {peaks of a place
at Athens confecrated to Bacchus the finger; thus named,
he fays, for the fame reafon as Apollo is called the chief
and conduétor of the Mufes. Whence it fhould feem, fays
Burney (ubi fupra), “ that Bacchus was regarded by the
Athenians not only as the god of wine, but of /ong; and
it muft be owned, that his followers, in their cups, have been
much inclined to finging ever fince. Indeed we are certain,
that in none of the orgies, proceflions, triumphs, and fefti-
vals, inftituted by the ancients to the honour and memory
of this prince of dons vivans, mufic was forgotten, as may
be ftill gathered from ancient fculpture, where we find not
only that muficians, male and female, regaled him with the

lyre,

ee eee ae

ea ae

ie

Sap Ad ggg note >

BAC

lyre, the flute, and with fong; but that he was accompa-
nied by fawns and fatyrs playing upon timbrels, cymbals,
bagpipes, and horns ; thale Suidas calls his minftrels ; and
Gcrabo. gives them the appellations of Bacchi, Sileni, Sa-
tyri, Bacche, Line, Thy, Mamillones, Naiades, Nymphe,
and Tftyri. Thefe reprefentations have furnifhed fubjects
for the fineft remains of ancient fculpture; and the molt
voluptuous paflages of ancient poetry are defcriptions of
the orgies and feltivals of Bacchus.

Nonnus, an Egyptian of Pentapolis, who lived in the fifth
century, has collected all the fabulous adventures of Bac-
chus, and exhibited them ina beautiful, but irregular, poem,
under the title of “ Dionyliacs.”?” See Dionysiaca, and
Nonnus.

The Grecian Bacchus, the god of wine and fong, is ufu-
ally reprefented under the figure of a jolly beardlels youth,
crowned with ivy (that plant, as it is faid, being reputed an

antidote to the intoxicating effe€ts of wine), and alfo vine-—

leaves; bearing in one hand a {pear or thyrfus, wrapped
with the fame, and in the other, grapes, a cup or a horn
for drinking ; and drawn on a car by tigers and panthers.
He is fometimes exhibited with a mitre on the head, or a
kind of band or fillet raifed in front, and falling back over
the fhoulders, and with his temples ornamented by horns.
Thefe horns originated from the relation he fuftained to the
fun, whofe rays were thus reprefented. On the Greek me-
dals, Bacchus is known by his crown of ivy or vine, his
diadem and horn, with a tiger and fatyrs around him.

Baccuus, in Experimental Philofophy, is the name of a
{mall brafs apparatus (Preumatics, Pl. IX. jig. 73.) feated
on a cafk, with a tube proceeding from the mouth to the
barrel; this is filled with red wine, or coloured water, fo
that being put under a receiver, when the air is exhautted,
the liquor is thrown up into his mouth, by the expanfion
of confined air, and the rofy god feems to be at his ufual
employment ; while he is drinking, his belly expands, which
is effe€ted by a bladder, containing a {mall quantity of air,
concealed under his fhirt.

BACCHYLIDES, in Biography, a celebrated Greek
lyric poet, the nephew of Simonides, was a native of the
ifland of Cecs, and flourifhed in the 82d olympiad, B.C.
452. He is reckoned the laft of the nine lyric poets of
ancient Greece. The purity of his ftyle, the correétnefs
of his manner, and the regular and conneéted beauties of
his work (See Longin. de Sublim. c. 33.), obtained for him
an applaufe of which Pindar might have been jealous.
Thefe two poets divided, for fome time, the favour of king
Hiero, and the fuffrages of his courtiers ; but when the
royal patronage no longer prevented each from taking his
true place, Pindar foared to the flies, and Bacchylides re-
mained on earth. The compofitions of Bacchylides confifted
of hymns, odes, and epigrams, which abounded in moral
fentiment ; fo that the emperor Julian, according to Am-
mianus Marcellinus, was fo much delighted with them,
that he was frequently accuftomed to repeat his verfes.
Horace is faid fometimes to have imitated him in fome of
his picces, particularly in the prophecy of Nereus, which
was fuggefted by the Greek poet’s vaticination of- Caffan-
dra. Some fragments only of Bacchylides now remain.
Anacharfis, vol. vi. p. 342.

BACCHYLUS, a Chriftian divine, was bifhop of Co-
rinth in the fecond century. He is mentioned by Eufebius,
with Polycrates bifhop of Antioch, and others, who had
feft teftimonies of the orthodoxy of their faith in writing.
He afterwards fpeaks of a letter written by Bacchylus,
about the time of celebrating Eafter. Jerom, in his Cata-
logue, fays, that Bacchylus, bifhop of Corinth, who flou-

BAE

rifhed in the time of the emperor Severus, wrote an clegant
book about Eatter, in the name of all the bifhops of Achaia.
His works are loft. Eufeb. H.E. l.v. c. 22, 23. p. 190.
Hieron. de Vir. Iluftr. c. 44. Lardner’s Works, vol. ii.

Pp: 305.

BACCIFEROUS Pranrs, in Botany, are fuch as bear
berries, i. e. fruit, covered with a thin'membrane, wherein -
is contained a pulp, which grows foft and moift when ripe,
and inclofes the feed within its fubftance. The bacciferous
trees Mr. Ray divides into four kinds: 1. Such as bear a
caliculate, or naked berry, the flower and calyx both fall-
ing off together, and leaving’ the berry bare, as the faffa-
fras tree, &c. 2. Such as have a naked monopyrenous
fruit, that is, containing in it only one feed; as the arbutus,
the terebinthus, lentifcus, &c, 3. Such as have a naked,
but a polypyrenous fruit, that is, containing two or more
kernels or feeds within it, as the jafminum, liguftrum, &c.
4. Such as have their fruit compofed of many alcini or
round foft balls, fet clofe together, like a bunch of grapes;
as the uva marina, the rubus vulgaris, rubus Ideus, and
the rubus minor fruétu cceruleo.

BACCINIUM, or Baccina, in Antiquity, a bafon or veffel '
to hold water to wafh the hands. The holding the bafon, or
waiting at the bafon, on the day of the king’s coronation, was
an ancient tenure in ferjeantry. Lib. Rub. Scaccar. f. 1372

BACCICL, or Bacrcr, in Biography. See Gauut.

BACCIO, Fra. Barroromeo, called Bartelemi di S.
Marco, a painter of hiftory and portrait, was born at Sa-
vignane, near Florence, in 1469, and became a dilciple of
Cofimo Rofelli; but derived his principal knowledge in
the art of painting from Leonardo da Vinci. He under-
flood the true principles of defign better than moft matters
of his time, and was alfo a conliderable painter in perfpec-
tive ; {6 that he dire&ted the ftudies of Raphael with regard
to the art of managing and uniting colours, as well as the
rules of perfpeétive. Some years after Raphael left Flo-
rence, Baccio vifited Rome; and by the obfervations he
made on the antiques, and the works of Raphael, he made
great improvement, which was manifeited in his picture of
St. Sebaitian. his piture, which he finifhed after his re-
turn to Florence, was fo well defigned, fo naturally and
beautifully coloured, and had alfo fuch an expreffion of pain
and agony, that it was removed from public view in the
chapel of the convent, becaufe it made too ftrong an imprei-
fion on the imaginations of many women who beheld it.
He was very laborious, and ftudied nature; he defigned the
naked correctly ; his figures had much grace, and his co-
louring was admirable. To him is afcribed the firft inven-
tion of the machine called by the artifts a layman, and at
this day generally ufed. Upon this he placed his draperieg,.
for the purpofe of more accurately obferving their natural
and their more elegant folds. A capital pitture of the Af-
cenfion by Baccio is in the Florentine Collection. He died
in 1517. Pilkington.

BACCIUS, Annrew, a native of Ancona, practifed,
medicine at -Rome, towards the end of the 16th century.
He was phyfician to Cardinal Afcanio Columna, and after-
wards to pope Sixtus the fifth. A man of indefatigable in--
duftry, and of great genius and learning, as his numerous,
publications teftify. ‘lhe principal of them ‘‘ De Thermis,
Lacubus, Fluminibus, et Balneis totius Orbis,” lib. vil. was
firft printed at Venice, 1571; again 1588; then at Rome,
1622; at Padua, 1711, folio. The laft edition is augmented.
with an eighth book, containing analyfes of the different mi- -
neral waters, with obfervations extracted from other writers.
on the fubje&t. We have alfo of this author, treatifes,.
* De Venenis, et de Antidotis,”’ 4to. Rome, 1586; “ De.

Dignitate..

BAC

Dignitate Theriace,” alfo gto. Patavii, 1583 ; “De Na-
turali Vinorum Hittoria, de Vinis Italiz, et ve Conviviis An-
tiquorum,”” fol. Rome, 15963 “ De Gemmis et Lapidibus
pretiofis, de eorum viribus et ufu,’? 12mo. Francf. 1603;
and 1643; with various other works. Haller Bib. Med.
Pra. p.157- .

BACCOFOE, in Botany, the name of a fruit very com-
mon in Guinea. It is like the banana, except that it is
whiter, thicker, and fhorter. The tafte and {mell are hoth
very agreeable , and fome pretend, that on cutting it through
tran{verfely, there is the fizure of a crucifix on each fide of
it. Phil. Tranf. N°108. '

BACH, SesasTian, in Biography. The illuftrious fa-
mily of Bach has produced more great muficians, than any
other fingle family in Germany, or, perhaps, in Europe 3 as
previous to the great eminence to which Sebattian had arri-
ved, early in the lait century, his family, according toWalther,
had diftinguifhed itfelf in the profeffion of mufic, particular-
ly in organ-playing, for four generations. Innumerable are
the ftories itill circulating in Germany, of Sebattian Bach’s
confi@s and triumphs over great competitors, till at length,
like 2 courfer often victorious, his form was fo high, as to
difcourage all competition. He was as fuperior to all or-
gan-players on the continent, as Handel was in England.
The performances and compofitions of thefe two great mufi-
cians, not only furpaffed thofe of all their cotemporanes,
but eftablifhed a ftyle of playing and writing for the organ,
which is ftill refpeéted and imitated by the greateft organiits
in Germany, where men of fuperior abilities have always
abounded, and been celebrated, not only for treating the ma-
nuals, but the pedals of that noble inftrument.

Sebaftian Bach is faid by Marpurg, in his “ Art de la
Fugue,” to have been ‘* many great muficians in one, pro-
found in fcience, fertile in fancy, and in tafte eafy and na-
tural;”? he fhould rather have faid, original and refined, for
to the epithets eafy and natural many are unwilling to af-
fent ; as this truly great man feems by his works for the
organ, to have been conftantly in fearch of what was new
and difficult, without the leaft attention to nature and fa-
cility.

Old Kirkman, the harpfichord maker, ufed to relate the
extraordinary curiofity excited at Salzburg, when Handel and
Sebaftian Bach happened to meet in that city. On their go-
ing together to the cathedral, they found it fo full that they
could fcarcely get to the organ-loft ; and when one of them
opened the organ, it was not poffible for more perfons to
crowd into the church. But fo great was the fame of thefe
performers, that thofe who could not gain admiflion into
the interior of the building, procured ladders, and* placed
them at the windows, in order to gratify their ears with all
the paflages which the full organ could convey to them
through all impediments. :

Of Scbaftian Bach, who was fucceflively cantor, organitt,
and mufic director, at Leipfig, all the mufical writers: of
Germany for thefe laft fixty years, have born teftimony to
the abilities. Quantz in his ‘Art of Playing the Flute,”
written during the life of Bach, fays, that this admirable
mufician had brought organ playing to the higheft degree
of perfe€tion.

The challenge which he received and accepted, from the
celebrated French organift Marchand, at Drefden, is well
known in Germany. Upon the arrival of Marchand in that
city, after he had vanquifhed all the organifts of France and
Italy, he offered to play extempore with any German whom
the king of Poland could prevail upon to enter the lifts
acainft him ; no one at Drefden had the courage to encoun-
ter fo fuccefsful a eo ; but an exprefs being fent to

BAC

Scbaftian Bach, who was at that time a young man, and re.
fiding at Weimar, he came away immediately, and, like ano-
ther David, vanguifhed this Goliah. It mutt not, however,
be corcluded from this defeat, that Marchand was a mean
performer ; if that had been the cafe, the victory over him
would have added nothing to the fame of his competitor.
It was an honour to Pompey that he was conquered b
Cezfar, and to Marchand to be only vanquifhed by Bach.
This was the Bach whom the learned editor of the Latin
Thefaurus, John Matthias Gefner, has celebrated in his
notes on QuinGtilian, i. xii. p. 61. where the ancient cithare-
diits are extolled for the ufe they made of their feet as well
as their hands (perhaps merely to beat time) in their per-
formance. The critic addrefiing himfelf to the thade of
QuinGilian, exclaims ; “you would think but f'ghtly, my
dear Fabius, of all thofe exertions of the citharadiits, if you
could revifit the world, and attend the exhibitions of Bach,
one of my colleagues in the univerfity of Leipfig; who,

when at the great organ, while every finger of both hands —

is engaged at the manuals, his feet are running over the pe-
Gals with a {kill and velocity which feveral of your citharz-
difts with sco tibicinifts could not emulate ; nor is his dex-
terity inferior in dire€ting a band of thirty or forty perfor-
mers, ail employed at once; correcting the time of one b
his nod, of another by his foot, aad of a third by holding
up a threatening finger; giving the right note to one from
the top of his voice, to another from the bottom, and to 4
third from the middle of it; if you could have feen him
amidit the very powerful founds with which he was fur-
rounded, performing a very difficult part himfelf, yet
marking whence proceeded the leaft difcordance, and aid-
ing thofe that erred ; favourer as I am of antiquity, the
exertions of our Bach appear to me to effet what not
many Orpheufes, nor twenty Arions, could atchieve.”—
“ Maximus alioquin antiquitatis fautor, multos unum Or-
pheas et viginti Arionas complexum Bachium meum, et
ii quis illi fimilis fit forte, arbitror.”” Sebaftian Bach died
at Leipfig in 1754.

Bacn, Charles Philip Emanuel, fon of Sebaftian, refided
many years at Berlin, in the fervice of Frederic If. king
of Pruffia: he was afterwards mufic-director at Hamburg,

and long regarded as the greateft compofer and perfor=

mer on keyed inftruments of his time; he was certainly
the founder of the prefent ftyle of compofition for the
piano-forte, as his father and Handel had been for that
of the organ. It was obferved by Abel, that if Sebaf=
tian Bach and his admirable fon Emanuel, initead of being
mufic-directors in commercial cities, had been fortunately
employed to compofe for the ftage and public of great
capitals, fuch as Naples, Paris, or London, and for per-
formers of the firft clafs, they would doubtlefs have fim-
plified their ftyle more to the level of their judges; the
one would have facrificed all unmeaning art and contri-
vance, and the other have been lefs fantaftical and recherché;
and both, by writing in a ftyle more popular, and geners
ally intelligible and pleafing, would have extended their
fame, and been indifputably the greateit muficians of the
eighteenth century.

Emanuel Bach, in his life, written at our requeft by
himfelf, has fome excellent refleGtions on his own ftyle;
which he formed and polifhed by hearing the’ greateft per-
formers, vocal and inftrumental, of his youth, who vilited
his father, or were employed in the theatre at Berlin,
When the critics, fays he, are difpofed to judge impar-
tially, which feldom happens, they are frequently too fe-
vere on works that come under their lath, from not know-

ing the circumftances that gave them birth, or remember-
ng

BAC

ing the author’s original intention. But how feldom are critics
found to poffefs feeling, {cience, probity, and courage; quali-
ties without which no one fhould fet up fora fovereign judge.
Tt is a melancholy truth, that mufical criticifm, which
ought to be uleful to the art, is in Germany a trade, com-
monly carried on by dry, malignant, and ftupid writers,
He then declares that of all his works, thofe for the clavi-
chord or piano-forte are the chief in which he has indulged
his own feelings and ideas, His principal wifh has been to
play and compofe in the moft vocal manner poflible, not-
withitanding the great defect of all keyed inftruments, ex-
cept the organ, in not fullaining their tone. But to make
a harpfichord or piano-forte fing, is not eafily accomplifhed ;
as the ear mult not be tired by too thin a harmony, nor
ftunned by too full an accompaniment. In his opinion,
mufic ought to touch the heart, and he never found that
this could be effected by running, rattling, drumming, or
arpeggios.

If Haydn ever looked up to any great mafter as a mo-
del, it feems to have been C. P. Em. Bach: the bold modu-
Jation, refts, paufes, and free ufe of femitones, and unex-
pected flights of Haydn, remind us frequently of Bach’s
early works more than of any other compofer. But in
writing for violins, he has furpafled his model in facility
and invention; freaks, whim, and even buffoonery, appear
natural to Haydn, which in the works of his imitators
feem downright caprice and affeGtation. JEm. Bach ufed to
be cenfured for his extraneous modulation, crudities, and
difficulties ; but, like the hard words of Dr. Johnfon, to
which the public by degrees became reconciled, every Ger-
man compofer takes the fame liberties now as Bach, and
every Englifh writer ufes Johnfon’s language with impu-
nity. Emanuel Bach died at Hamburg, r788, at near
eighty years of age.

Bacu, John Chriflian, arrived in England 1763, during
the opera regency of the admirable female finger and aftrets,
Colomba Mattei, who had engaged him as compofer of the
ferious opera. He was the youngelt fon of Sebaftian Bach,
and had been a confiderable time in Italy, where he added new
Jaftre to his name and family by his dramatic productions,

and had been appointed by the emprefs queen organift of ©

the Duomo at Milan.

Qn his arrival here, he was extremely mortified to find
that he had no better fingers to write for than Ciardini and
the Cremonini, two performers hardly worthy to be ranked
in the fecond clafs ; and for fome time he totally declined
eompoling for our itage, being unwilling, as a ftranger, to
truft his reputation to fuch performers. But, at length,
having heard the De Amicis fing two or three ferious fongs in
private, it fuggefted to him the idea of giving her the firft
woman’s part in his ferious opera; and having communi-
eated his defign to Mattei the imprefaria, matters were foon
arranged, and the De Amicis, who afterwards held the firft
rank among female fingers in the ferious operas of Naples
aud other great cities of Italy, was now firft taken from the
comic opera, and invelted with the character of principal
woman in the ferious. And during the reft of the feafon,
on Tuefday nights, fhe delighted the town as the reprefen-
tative of Thalia, and on Saturdays as that of Melpo-
mene.

John Chriftian Bach’s firft opera in England, called Ori-
one, 0 fia Diana vendicata, was honoured with the prefence
of their Majefties on the firft night, February the cgth,
1763, and extremely applauded by a very numerous audi-
ence. Every judge of mufic perceived the emanations of
genius throughout the whole performance ; but were chiefly
flruck with the richnefs of the harmony, the ingenious

BAC

texture of the parts, and above all with the new and happy
ufe he had made of wind-inftruments ;_ this being the firft
time that clarinets had obtained admiflion in our opera or-
cheftra. Their Majefties honoured the fecond reprefenta-
tion likewife with ther prefence, and no other ferious opera
was wanting for near three months. Zanazda, however, a
f:cond ferious opera by this compofer, was brought out in
May, which ran more than a month, when the feafon clofed.

The principal fongs of thefe two operas, though excel-
lent, being calculated to difplay the compafs of voice and
delicate and difficult expreffion and execution of De Ami-
cis, were not likely to become common or of much ufe
out of the opera houfe. he reft of the airs were fo indif-
ferently fung, that they were more admired as inftrumental
pieces, than compofitions for the voice. But this excellent
matter foon convinced us that he poffeffed every requifite
for a great mufician, by the fongs he afterwards compoted
in every ityle of good finging ; by his fymphonies, quartets,
and concertos for almolt every fpecies of inftrument, as:
well as by his expreflive and mafterly performance on the
piano-forte. It is with pleafure that we take this oppor-
tunity of doing juftice to the talents and abilities of a man
who improved our tafte both in compofition and perform-
ance. Having very early in life been deprived of the in-
itruétions of his father, the great Sebaitian Bach, he was for
fome time a fcholar of his elder brother, the celebrated
Charles Phil. Emanuel Bach, under whom he became a fine
performer on keyed-inftruments ; but on quitting him and
going to Italy, where his chief ftudy was the compofition
of vocal mulic, he affured us, that during many years he
made little ufe of a harpfichord or piano forte but to com-
pofe for or accompany a voice. When he arrived in Eng-
land, his ftyle of playing was fo much admired, that he re-
covered many of the lofles his hand had fuftained by difufe,
and by being contftantly cramped and crippled with a pen;
but he never was able to reinftate it with force and readinefs:
fufficient for great difficulties; and in general his compofi-
tions for the piano-forte are fuch as ladies can execute with
little trouble ; and the allegros rather refemble bravura fongs
than inftrumental pieces for the difplay of great execution..
On which account, they lofe much of their effeét when
played without the accompaniments, which are admirable,
and fo mafterly and interefting to an audience, that want of
hand, or complication in the harpfichord part is never dii-
covered. :

There are many admirable airs in the operas he compofed
for our ftage that long remained in favour. The richnefs
of the accompaniments perhaps deferve more praife than
the originality of the melodies; which, however, are always
natural, elegant, and in the beit tafte of Italy at the time
he came over. ‘The Neapolitan fchool where he ftudied, is
manifeft in his cantilena, and the feience of his father and
brother in his harmony. ‘The operas of this mafter are the
firft in which Da Capos difappeared, and which, about this
time, began to be generally difcontinued : the fecond part
being incorporated with the firft, to which, after modulate
ing into the fifth of the key, the finger generally returns.

Bach feems to have been the firft compofer who obferved
the law of contra/f, as a principle. Before.his time, contraft
there frequently was, in the works of others; but it feems
to have been accidental. Bach in his fymphonies and other
inftrumental pieces, as well as his fongs, feldom failed,
after a rapid and noify paffage, to introduce one that was
flow and foothing. His fymphonies feem infinitely more
original than either his fongs or harpfichord pieces, of which
the harmony, mixture of wind-inftruments, and general
richnels and varicty of accompaniment, are certainly ni

mot

BAC ’

“moft prominent features. In the fonatas and concertos
which he compofed for his own playing, when his hand
was feeble, or likely to tire, he diverted the attention of
the aud*zence to fome other initrument; and he had Abel,
Fifcher, Cramer, Crofdill, Cervetto,~and other excellent
muficians to write for, and take’ his part, whenever he
wanted fupport.

In 1765, he new fet Metaftafio’s Adriano in Siria, in the
performance of which the rich, powerful, and mellifluous
voice of Manzoli was affigned the principal part. Theex-
peGations of the public the firft night this drama was per-
formed, occafioned fuch a crowd at the King’s theatre as
had been feldom feen there before. It was impoffible for a
third part of the company collected together on this occafion
to obtain places. But whether from heat or inconvenience,
the unreafonablenefs of expectation, the compofer being out
of fancy, or too anxious to pleafe, the opera failed. Every
one feemed to come out of the theatre difappointed, and
the drama was performed but two or three times. This
feemed matter of great triumph to the Italians, who began
to be jealous of the Germanic body of muficians at this
time in the kingdom. The fongs were printed by the elder
Welcker, and many of them fung afterwards at concerts
with great applaufe, and found, as detached airs, excellent,
though they had been unfortunate in their totality.

Soon after his arrival in England, J. C. Bach and his
countryman Abel uniting intereits, opened a fubfcription
for a wecxly concert ; and as their own compofitions were
new and excellent, and the beft performers of all kinds
which our capital could fupply enlifted under their banners,
this ‘concert was better patronifed and longer fupported
than perhaps any one had ever been in this country ; hav-
ing continued for full twenty years with uninterrupted pro-
fperity. Bach had not beenlong in London before he had
the honour of being appointed chamber-mufician and mufic-
matter to her majefty ; and his merit feems to have been
conftantly well underftood and royally patronized at St.
James’s to the end of his life, which he terminated, after a
fhort illnefs, in 1782." And having much more genius than
worldly prudence, he left his widow Mrs. Bach (formerly
the fignora Graff, firft woman at the opera during the run
of Gluck’s Orfeo) in very indigent circumftances ; but her
majefty finding that fhe wifhed to return to her own coun-
try, fettled a penfion upon her to enable her to end her
days there in eafe and comfort.

ACH, in Geography. See BaTua.

BACBA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Fatco figured in
the fifteenth plate of Le Vaillant’s work on the birds of Afri-
ca. It is about the fize of that kind of falcon which we
call the common buzzard; and it naturally belongs to that
tribe of rapacious birds. The prevailing colour is a ve
deep brown, with the lower parts of the body and belly
{potted with white, and a large band of the fame white
colour difpofed tranfverfely upon the tail. On the back of
the head is a tuft of white feathers, with black tips, that
forms a creft; the beak and legs are yellow. The plumage
of the female is varied with whitifh and yellow.

This is a folitary and ferocious creature ; and its chief
haunts are the barren mountainous parts of South America.
It utters a piercing cry, which as it refounds among the
rocks is truly lamentable. The rapidity of this bird in flight
is remarkable ; and its patience when waiting for its prey is
not lefs deferving mention ; it will remain for hours toge-
ther in one poiture, and be during that time fo completely
immoyeable as to be miftaken for a point of the rock on
which it refts ; but the moment a lizard or any other reptile
‘Appears on which it feeds, it darts down upon it with the

I

BAC

greateft velocity. Thefe birds build their nefts in the crag;
hollows of the rock; and the female lays two, or at mo
three, eggs at a time.

BACHAASH, in Geography, a {mall ifland among the
weftern iflands of Scotland, near the north-eaft coait of
North Vit. &

BACHELERYI, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftit of Martignac; four leagues north of Sarlat.

BACHELOR, or Batcuetor, Baccaraurevs, in
Middle Age Writers, was a denomination given to thofe
who had attained to knighthood, but were not rich enough,
or had not a fufficient number of vaflals, to have their ban-.
ner carried before them in battle; or, if they were of the
order of bannerets, were not yet of age to difplay their
own banner, but obliged to march to war under the banner
of another. F

Camden and others define bachelor, a perfon of a middle.
degree between a knight and an efquire, of lefs age and
ftanding than the former, but fuperior to the latter.

Others will have bachelor to have been a common name
for all degrees between a mere gentleman and a baron.—

Thus we find the lord admiral, when he was neither an earl

nor baron, denominated a. bachelor.—‘* Ant it is to weet,
that when the admiral rideth to aflemble a fhippe of war,
or other, for the bufinefs and affairs of the realm, if he
be a bachelor, he fhall take for his ea al fhillings
fterling ; if he be an earl or baron, he fhall take wages after
his eftate and degree.” ‘

Bacuetor was more peculiarly a title given to a young
cavalier, who made his firft campaign, and received the mi-
litary girdle accordingly.

BacuEtor was alfo a denomination given to him who
had overcome another in a tournament, the firft time he
ever engaged.

Bacwetors, Knights, in Heraldry. See Knicuts Ba-
chelors. cs) ¢

Bacue ors is alfo ufed ina college fenfe, to denote a
perfon poffefled of the baccalaureate, which is the firft de-
gree in the liberal arts or fciences.

The degree of bachelor was firft introduced in the thir-
teenth century by pope Gregory IX. but it remains ftill
unknown in Italy. At Oxford, before a perfon is entitled
to the degree of bachelor of arts, he muft have ftudied there
four years ; three years more to become matter of arts ; and
feven more to commence bachelor of divinity. o

At Cambridge, to commence bachelor of arts, he muft have
been admitted near four years, and above three years more
before he commence matter ; and feven more ftill to become
bachelor of -divinity. He may commence bachelor of law
after having itudied it fix years.

At Paris, to pafs bachelor in theology, a perfon muft
have ftudied two years in philofophy and three years in the-
ology, and held two as of examination in the Sorbonne.

Bachelors in the canon law are admitted after two years

ftudy in the fame, and fuftaining an aé& according to the
forms. A bachelor of phyfic muft have itudied two years
in medicine, after having been four years mafter of arts
in the univerfity, and having ftood an examination ; after
which he is invefted with the fur, in order to be licenfed.
In the univerfity of Paris, before the foundation of divi-
nity-profefforfhips, thofe who had ftudied diwinity fix years
were admitted to go through their courfe, whence they
were called daccalarii curfores ; and as there were two courfes,
the fir employed in explaining the Bible, during three fuc- ©
ceflive years; the fecond, in explaining the mafter of the fen-

tences for one year; thefe who were in their Bible courfe

were

BAC

were called beccalarii Biblici ; and thofe arrived at the fen-
tences, baccalarit /ententiarii ; and, laftly, thofe who had
gone through both, were denominated baccalarii formati, or
Sormed bachelors.

At prefent, formed bachelor denotes a perfon who has
taken the degree regularly after the due courte of {tudy and
exercifes, required by the ftatutes ; by way of oppolition to
a current bachelor, who is admitted in the way of grace, or
by diploma.

We allo find mention of bachelors of the church, bacca-
larii ecclefie—Vhe bifhop with his canons and baccalaris,
cum confilio S confenfie onnium canontcorum fuorum &F baccala-
riorum.

There is fearce any word whofe origin is more contro-
verted among the critics than that of bachelor, baccalarius,
or baccalgureus : the two different acceptatic1s of the word
literary and military, above recited, have each of them their
advocates, who affert each to be the primitive fenfe, and
derive the word accordingly.

Among thofe who hold the military bachelor to be the
more ancient, is Cujas, who derives the word from duccel-
farius, a kind of cavalry, anciently in great efteem. Du-
Cange deduces it from baccalaria, a kind of fees, or
farms, conlifting of feveral pieces of ground, each whereof
contained twelve acres, or as much as two oxen would
plough ; the poffeffors of which daccalaria were called ba-
chelors.

Cafeneuve and Altaferra derive bachelor from daculus, or
bacillus, a ftaff, becaufe the young cavaliers exercifed them-
felves in fighting with ftaves. Martinius derives it from
haccalaureus, i. ¢. baccd laured donatus, in allufion to the an-
cient cultom of crowning poets with laurels, baccis lauri ;
as was the cafe with Petrarch at Rome in 1341. Alciat
and Vives are of the fame opinion; nor is this etymology
improbable.

Bacuetors, in the livery companies of London, are
thofe not yet admitted to the livery.

Thefe companies generally confift of a mafter, two war-
dens, the livery, and the bachelors, who are yet but in ex-
pectation of dignity in the company, and have their funGion
only in attendance on the majfter and wardens; they are
alfo called yeomen.

Bacwe cor is alfo a name given in the fix companies of
merchants at Paris to the elders, and fuch as having ferved
the offices, have a right to be called by the matters and war-
dens to be prefent with them, and aflift them in fome of
their fun&tions, particularly in what relates to the chef a’
euvres, or maiter-pieces, of fuch as are candidates for being
admitted matters.

Bacueror is alfo particularly ufed fora man not married,
or who is yet in a ftate of celibacy.

The Roman cenfors frequently impofed fines on old ba-
chelors. Dion. Halicarnaffeus mentions an old conftitution,
by which all perfons of full age were obliged to marry.
But the moft celebrated law of this kind was that made
under Auguttus, called the lex Fulia de maritandis ordinibus,
and by Horace (Carm. Secul. v.5.) lex marita, by which
bachelors were made incapable of legacies of inheritances by
will, unlefs from their near relations. See Parrax-Pop-
pean Law.

The Rabbins maintain, that, by the laws of Mofes, every”
perfon, except fome few, is obliged in confcience to marry
at twenty years of age: this makes one of their 613 pre-
cepts. Hence thofe maxims fo frequent among their ca-
fuifts ; fuch as, that he who does not take the neceffary mea-
fures to leave heirs behind him, is not a man, but ought to
be reputed a homicide. Lycurgus was not more favourable ;
by his laws bachelors are branded with infamy, excluded

Vou. IIL

BAC

from all offices civil and military, and even from the fhews
and public {ports. At certain featts they were forced to
appear, to be expofed to the public derifion, and led naked
round the markct-place. At one of their feafts, the women
led them in this condition to the altars, where they obliged
them to make amende honorable to nature, accompanied with
a number of blows, and lathes with a rod at difcretion.
To complete the affront, they forced them to fing certain
fonzs compofed in their own derifion.

The Chriflian religion is more indulgent to the bachelor-
{tate : the ancient church recommended it as preferable to,
and more perfect than the matrimonial ftate.

Jn the canon law, we find injunctions on bachelors, when
arrived at puberty, either to marry, or turn monk and pro-
fefs chaftity m earneft.

In Great Britain, taxes have been occafionally levied on
bachelors, as by 7 W.IIT. 1695, which impofed a tax on
fuch, after 25 years of age, of 12]. 10s, for a duke, and
1s. for a common perfon; and the taxes laid on others have
been increafed with regard to bachelors, as in the cafe of
the duty on fervants by itat. 25 Geo. II]. c. 43. See Srr-
VANTS.

Bacuwerors, in Geography, a river of South America,
which runs into a bay of the fame name, on the north fide
of the itraits of Magellan. N. lat. 53° 38’. W. long. 73°

2,

BACHER, the name of a chain of Auftrian mountains,
in the fouth of Stiria.

Bacuer’s Tonic Pills, in the Materia Medica. Sce Her~
LEBORE, and Pitts.

BACHIAN, or Barcuian, in Geography, one of the
Molucea iflands, lying fouth fiom Machian, and poffeffed,
fince the year 1610, by the Dutch. ‘This is the largett of
the little Moluccas, and is governed by a fultan, who is
likewife fovereign of Oubi and Ceram, together with Go-
ram. ‘This monarch has a penfion from the Dutch, either
for the deftruétion or fupply of nutmegs ; but he is other-
wife little fubfervient. Bachian rifes into woody hills, and
through the idlenefs or oppreffion of its inhabitants, is fufs
fered to become wild and defert, although by cultivation it
is capable of becoming fertile and produtive, and it was
reprefented as formerly producing the beft cloves in the Mo-
luccas. On the fhores, as in molt of the other ifles of this
archipelago, there are prodigious rocks of coral, of infinite
variety and beauty. Its principal town is Sabongo ; it is
about twelve leagues in circuit, and has a burning moun-
tain. It is fituated nearly under the equinoétial in S. lat.
o° 25’, and B. dong. 125° 57.

BACHINA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Me.
diterranean fea, near Smyrna, according to Pliny ; called
by Livy, Bachium.

BACHMUT, a town of Roffia, in the province of
Ekaterinoflavy, 104 miles W. N. W. of Azof. N. lat. 48°
25’. I. dong. 37° 44”

BACHO, a river of North Wales, which runs into the
Severn near Lanidlos, in Montgomery thire.

BACHOLKZ, or Voncnorscx, a town of Poland,
in the Palatinate of Sandomitz, 20 miles fouth of Rae
dom.

BACHOVIUS, Reiniea, in Biography, a German ci-
vilian, was born at Cologne, in 1544, and refided at Leip-
fic, where he fuffered perfecution on account of his religious
principles, as he profeffed attachment to the doétrines of
Calvin, rather than to thofe of Luther. Compelled not
only to refign his public offices, but to quit Leipfic, he with-
drew into the Palatinate, and found in the ele@or a gene-
rous patron. At Heidelberg, he held feveral honourable
and lucrative pofts till his death in 1614. Ina theological

3K track,

BAC

tra, intitled, “¢ The Catechifm of the Palatinate,’? he cited
the writings of the fathers in defence of Calvinifm. His
fon, of the fame name, was profeffor of civil law in the
univerfity of Heidelberg, which he filled with diftinguifhed
reputation for more than 20 years, till the city was taken by
count Tilly, and the univerfity was diflolved by the elector
Palatine. Upon this event, he quitted Heidelberg ; but
having fuffered many difappointments and vexations on ac-
count of his Proteftant principles, he returned to Heidel-
berg, and having united with the Catholic church, he was
reftored to his office upon the re-eftablifhment of the univer-
fity. His works, befides other law traGs, are * Exercita-
tiones ad partem pofteriorem Chiliados Fabri,” publifhed in
1624, folio; ‘ De Aédtionibus,”? 1626; ‘* De Pignonbus
et Hypothecis,” 1627 ;” Difputationes de variis Juris Ci-
vilis Materiis,” 8vo. Heidelberg, 1604; and “ In Inftitu-
tionum Juris Jultiniani Libros quatuor Commentarii,” 4to.
Francf. 1628, Gen. Di@. Nouv. Dié&. Hilt.

BACHSTELZE, (Weiffe Bachftelfe), in Ornithology,
the name of the Moracitia dia, or white wag-tail, in
Frifch. Hitt. Birds.

BACHU, in Geography. See Baxu.

BACILLARIA, in Natural Hiftory, a genus of Ver-
mes Infuforia in Gmelin’s Syft. Nat. of which only a fingle
fpecies is defcribed, viz. paradoxa. In this genus the body
confilts of ftraw-like cylinders placed parallel to each other,
and frequently changes its direction and arrangement. Mill.
Gmel. &c.

BACILLARIS, a fpecies of Tznra, with the head
rounded, and probofcis pyriform ; joints extremely narrow,
and refembling pieces of ftraw placed on each other. Goéze.
Infefts the inteftines of the mole ; fize of a very fine thread;
neck without joints.

BACILLI, or Bacuts, in the Materia Medica, fuch
compofitions as are made up in a cylindrical figure, like a
ftick ; thus called from the Latin baculus, a flaf. See Lo-
ZENGE.

BACINET, in Ancient Armour.

BACK. See Dorsum.

Bacx Bone. See Spine.

Back, in the Manege, and among Farriers. A horfe’s
back fhould be ftraight, not hollow, which is called /addle-
backed ; horfes of this kind are generally light, and carry
their heads high, but are deficient in ftrength and fervice. A
horfe with a weak back is apt to ftumble.

In the French riding-fchools, to mount a horfe a dos, is
to mount him bare backed, without a faddle.

Back, in Brewing, a large flat kind of tub or veffel,
wherein the wort is put to ftand and cool before boiling.

The ingredients of beer pafs through three kinds of

yeffels,

They are mafhed in one, worked in another, and cooled
in athird, called backs or coolers.

To gauge a Brewer’s Back. Mott backs have their
fides ftraight ; in cafe, however, they be not, but make either
an acute or obtufe angle with the bottom, the true length
and breadth mutt be carefully taken in the middle of every
inch in depth; from whence the area may be found upon
every tenth. For finding the area of the back, this rule
mutt be obferved, to multiply the length by the breadth,
and divide by 282 ; which gives the contents in ale gallons.

To find the true dip of a Bacx. Becaufe backs are not.
placed level, but floping, for conveniency of drawing off
the wort; therefore, were the dip taken in too deep a
place, the fubject would be wronged ; as would the king,
if it were taken in too fhallow a part; to guard againtt
which, as many dips as are thought convenient muit be

taken; thefe being added together, aud divided by the
7

See Bassinet.

BAC

number of dips, will give a mean depth. When thia is
done, trial being made in different parts of the back, until
one is found which anfwers exactly to the mean depth ; let
a mark or notch be made at the fide of the back, to point’
it out as the true dipping place for the future.

The bottom of large backs ovght to be every where
equally and well {upported, to fecure them from warping,
which elfe they will do, more and more as they grow older,
Thofe who make backs and other veffels for brewers,
are denominated dack-mafers ; and the workmanthip confifts.
partly of carpentry and partly of cooperage.

Back, in the D4fillery, a veflel in which liquor is put to
be fermented.

Back, or Dutchman’s Cap, in Geography, one of the
fmall iflands of Scotland, eleven miles fouth-eaft of Coll.

Back, Jron, isa large plate of caft iron, frequently adorned
with figures in low relievo, intended to preferve the ftone-
work of a chimney-back, and to refle& the heat of the fire,

Back a Ship, To, in Sea Language: when the wind ig
crofs, or nearly off fhore, or in the oppofite dire@tion, thips
will always back by the mizen top-fail, aflifted, if neceflary,
by the mzen ftay-fail. If there be no mizen top-fail, the
main top-fail is ufed. In backing, always keep a flight
cable, to wind the fhip, that the anchor may be drawn round.
If the wind be not fufficient for this purpofe, the fhip muft
be hove a-peak.

Back the Anchor, is to carry out a {mall anchor a-head
of the large one, in order to fupport it in bad ground, and
to prevent its loofening or coming home.

Bacx a-fern, in rowing, is to impel the boat with her
ftern foremoft, by means of the oars.

Back of the Poff. See STERn-Poff.

Back ¢he Sails, is to put them in a fituation that will
occafion the fhip to retreat or move a-ftern. This opera-
tion, however, is only performed in aarrow channels, when
a fhip is carried along fideways by the tide or current, and
ftrives to avoid any thing that may interrupt her progrefs,
as fhoals, veffels at anchor, &c. or in the line of battle,
when a hip would put herfelf into a fituation oppofite to
another with which fhe is engaged.

BACKBEROND, or Bacxserenp, in Law Writers,
— a criminal caught carrying off fomething on his

ack.

In this fenfe BraGton ufes it for a gpecies of what the
civilians call manifeft theft, furtum manife/lum.

In the Fore Laws, backberond is one of the four cir-
eumitances, or cafes, wherein a forefter may arreit the body
of an offender againft vert or venifon in the foreft. The
others are flable-flend, dog-draw, and bloody-hand.

BACK-Board, in Maritime Affairs, is of a femicircular
figure, placed tranfverfely in the after-part of a boat, like
the back of a chair, to recline againft while fitting in the

Srern-fbects.

BACKELEYS, in Zoology, a denomination, derived
from backeley, which in the Hottentot language fignifies
war, and given by the Hottentots to thofe oxen which
they train for war and ufe with fuccefs, as the Indians em-
ploy the elephants in their combats. In all their armies
there are confiderable troops of thefe exen, which are
eafily governed, and which are let loofe by the chief, when
@ proper opportunity occurs. They inftantly dart with im-
petuofity on the enemy ; ftriking with their horns, kicking,
and trampling under their feet every thing that oppo

their fury. By running furioufly into the ranks and put-~

ting them into diforder, they prepare an ealy victory for
their maiters. Thefe animals are likewife of great ufe in
guarding the flocks. At the {malleft ignal from the keeper,
they collect and bring back thofe that wander; and they

alfo

BAC

alfo run with great fury upon ftrangers, and ferve to fecure
the flocks and herds again{t the attacks of the bufchies,
or robbers of cattle. Every kraal has at leaft fix of thefe
backeleys, which are chofen from among the fiercett oxen ;
and after they have been duly trained, they diftinguith friends
from enemies, underftand fignals, and obey the voice of
their mafter. 1f a ftranger, and particularly an European,
fhould approach the cattle, without being accompanied by
a Hottentot, his life would be in great danger. Thefe
backeleys would foon run round him at full gallop, and if
not protected by the fhepherds, by fire arms, or by fuddenly
climbing atree, his deftruction would be inevitable. Kolbe,
Voyage and Defcription du cap de Bonne Efperance, cited
by Buffon, vol. vi. p. 184. ed. Smellic.

BACKER, or Bakker, Jaques, in Biography, an hitto-
rical painter was born at Antwerp in 1530, and received
inftruGtion from his father: after the death of his father,
he refided in the houfe of Jacopo Palermo, a pi¢ture-dealer,
who, for the gratification of his own avarice, kept him in-
ceflantly employed, and difpofed of his piétures at Paris,
where they were much admired and fetched a high price ;
whilft the artift himfelf was continued in an obfcure and
depreffed condition. He was diftinguifhed by a clean light
manner of penciling, and a very pleafing tint of colour.
He diedin 1560. Pilkington.

Backer, or Bakker, Facob, a painter of portrait and
hiftory, was born at Harlingen, in 1609, but refided chiefly
at Amfterdam; where he acquired the reputation of an
extraordinary painter, particularly of portraits, which he
executed with itrength, {pirit, and a graceful refemblance.
He was fo remarkable for his expedition, that he is faid to
have painted the half-length portrait of a lady in one day,
though he adorned the figure with rich drapery, and feveral
ornamental jewels. He fucceeded alfo in painting hiftorical
fubjects ; and in this ftyle his piéture of Cimon and Iphi-
genia has been much extolled by connoifleurs. In defign-
ing academy figures, his expreflion was fo jult, and his out-
line fo correét, that he obtained the prize from all his com-
petitors ; and his works are bought up at very high prices
in the Low Countries. His capital pi€ture of the Laft
Judgment, preferved in the church of the Carmelites at
Amfterdam, is well defigned and well coloured. He died
in 1651; or, according to Defcamps, in 1641. Pilkington.

BACKEREEL, called BacquerEetyui, Wittiam, was
born at Antwerp, and was a difciple of Rubens, at the
fame time with Vandyck. At the commencement of the
exercife of their profeflion, Backereel was deemed little, if
at all, inferior to Vandyck ; as appears from the works of the
former in the church of the Auguftin monks at Antwerp,
where thefe two greatartifts painted as competitors ; and each
poffeffing a mode peculiar to himfelf, the fuperiority was
not determined in favour of either. Backereel, by the ex-
ercife of his poetical talents, and particularly by his fatires
againft the Jefuits, incurred the perfecution of this power-
ful fraternity, and by their perfecution, he was compelled to
leave Antwerp, fo that his country was deprived of the
honour which muft have accrued to it from his perform-
ances asa painter. In Italy, and the Low Countries, there
were feven or eight eminent painters, of the name of Backe-
reel. Pilkington.

BACK-Gammon, a game played with dice and tables, to
be learned only by obfervation and practice. This game is
faid to have been invented in Wales, in the period preceding
the conqueft, and to have derived its name from two Welth
words, bach, little, and cammon, battle. Gloff. ad Leges
a a voc. Tawlbwrdd, cited by Henry, vol. iv. p. 404.

VOo

BAG

Back-Heaver, in Agriculture, a machine long uled in
feveral parts of England, particularly in Hampshire, Wilt-
fhire, and Suffex, for winnowing corn. An improved
conttruétion of this machine, illuttrated by a figure, was
propofed by Dr. Hales, in the year 1747, which, he fays,
will not only render it fit for winnowing corn fooner and
better than by any cther means hitherto ufed, but alfo for
clearing it of the {mall corn, feeds, blacks, {mut-balls, &c.
to {uch perfeétion, as to make it proper for feed-corn. See
Hales’s Ufes of Ventilators, partii. p- 24.7, &e.

BACKHUYSEN, Lunoten, in Biography, an eminent
painter of fhips, fea-pieces, and fea-ports, was born at
Embden, in 1631, and after receiving carly inftru@tion from
Albert Wan Everdingen, acquired his principal knowledge
by frequenting the painting-rooms of great matters, and
particularly Henry Drubbels, and obferving their various
methods of touching and colouring. His improvement was
very confiderable, and his drawings were in fuch eftimation,
that feveral of them were purchafed at 100 florins a-piece.
Whilft he was painting, his mind was fo mitch engaged, that
he would not allow his moft intimate friends to have accefs
to him, leaft his ideas fhould be interrupted. He fludied
nature with fingular attention in all her forms; in gales,
calms, ftorms, clouds, rocks, fkies, lights, and fhadows; and
he exprefled every fubje€& with fo fweet a pencil, and fuch
a degree of tran{parence and luftre, ag placed him above all
the artifts of his time in that ftyle, the younger Van-
dervelde excepted. It was his frequent cuftom to go out
to fea in a ftorm, in order te ftore his mind with grand
images, direCily deduced from nature ; and at the moment
of his landing, he flew to his palette, that the traces of
thofe incidents which had occurred might not be obliterated
by delay. Backhuyfen perfe@ly underftood the manage-
ment of the chiaro-feuro: and he was thus able to give
uncommon force and beauty to his objeis. He alfo ftrictly
obferved the truth of perfpeétive, in the diftances of his
veflels, the receding of the grounds on the fhores, and thé
different buildings, which he defcribed in the fea-ports. Hie
works may be eafily diltinguithed by an obfervant eye,
from the freedom and neatnefs of his touch; from the
clearnefs, and natural agitation or quiefcence of the water;
froma peculiar tint in his clouds and fkies ; and alfo from
the exact proportions of his fhips, and the gracefuluefs of
their pofition.

For a picture, exhibiting a multitude of veffels, and a
view of the city at a diftance, he received from the burgoe
mafters of Amfterdam 1300 guilders, and a confiderable
prefent; and this picture was afterwards given to the king
of France, who placed it inthe Louvre. No painter was
ever more honoured by the vifits of kings and princes
than Backhuyfen ; the king of Pruflia was one of their
number; and the Czar Peter the Great took delight in
feeing him at work, and often endeavoured to draw, after
veffels which he had defigned. He was remarkably affidu-
ous ; and yet the number of pictures which he finifhed, and
the exquifite manner in which they are painted, are afto-
nifhing. He died in 1709. Pilkington.

BACKING a Colt, in the Manege, the operation of
breaking him to the faddle, or brmging him to endure a rider.

To back acolt, they ufually take him into ploughed
ground, trot him a while, to rid him of his wantonnefs ;
then having one ftay to his head, and govern the chaffing-
rein, the mafter mounts his back, not fuddenly, but by
degrees, firft making feveral offers, or half-rifings : when he
bears thefe patiently, he mounts in earneft, and fettles in his
place, cherifhing him, &c.

Bacxinc Warrants, in Law, denotes the figning of

aK2 iuch

BAC

fuch as have been iffued bya juftice of the peace in one
county, by a jultice of the peace in another county, which
1s neceflary before they can be executed there. This
practice, which had long prevailed without law, is au-
thorifed by flatutes 23 Geo. IJ. c. 26. and 24 Geo. II.
c.55- Andnow, by ftatute 13 Geo. III]. c. 31. any
warrant for apprehending an Englifh offender, who may
have efeaped into Scotland, and vice ver/é, may be endorfed
and executed by the local magiftrates, and the offender con-
veyed back to that part of the united kingdom, in which
fuch offence was committed.

Back-Nails. See Natt.

Back-Painting, is ufed by fome for the art of patting of
prints and other defigns on glafs.

The art confifts chiefly in laying the print upon a piece
of crown-glafs, of fuch a fize as fits the print. In order to
do this, the print mult be foaked in clean water for forty-
eight hours, if it be on very ftrong, clofe, and hard gum-
med paper; but if on a foft, {fpongy paper, two hours
will fometimes be fufficient. The picture, being well
foaked, muft be laid between four fheets of paper, two
over and two under it, that the moifture may be drawn
out of it. Inftead of foaking the print, it may be rolled
up and boiled for about two hours, more or lefs, according
to the quality of the paper, in water; and this mode
will anfwer the purpofe as well as foaking it. In the mean
while, let the glafs upon which the print is to be laid be
warmed at the fire; then with a hog’s-hair brufh dipped
in melted Strafburg . turpentine, fpread the turpentine
fmoothly and evenly on the glafs. Then lay the print upon
the glafs, rubbing it gently from one end to the other, that
it may lie clofe. With the finger, rub off the paper from
the back fide of the print, till nothing can be feen but the
print, like a thin film left upon the glafs, and fet it afide
to dry. When it is dry, varnifh it over with fome white
tranfparent varnifh, that the print may be feen through
it, which is now fit for painting.

Having prepared a variety of oil colours, which muft be
ground very fine, and tempered very itiff, lay fuch colours
on the tranfparent print as each particular part requires,
the mafter-lines. of the print guiding the pencil; and thus
each colour will appear fair to the eye on the other fide of
the glafs, and look almoft as well as.a painted piece, if it be
done neatly. he fhadows of the print are generally fuf-
ficient for the fhadow of every colour; but if it be detired
to give a fhadow by the pencil, the fhadows fhould be laid
on firft, and the other colours afterward. The chief care
to be ufed in this part of the work, is that of laying the
colours on thick enough, that they may be ftruck plainly
through the glafs.

Bacx-River, in Geography. See Bartimore.

BACKS, among dealers in leather, denote the thicket
and beit tanned hides, ufed chiefly for foles of thoes. See
Burts.

Backs ofa Hip. See Hip.

Back-faf, in Navigation, an inftrument, by the French
called the Engli/h quadrant. \t was invented by captain
Davis, about the year 15903 and is of good ufe in taking
the fun’s altitude at fea. It confilts of three vanes, A, B,
and'C, and of two concentric arches (Plate 1. Navigation,
fig: 2.) 3 the vane at A, called the haorizon-vane; that at
B, the fhade-vane ; and that at C, the fighi-vane. The
leffer arch B (or ED) is of 60 degrees, and that of C (or
FG) of 30 degrees.

o ufe the back. flaf. The thadow-vane B is fet upon the

60 arch, to an even degree of fome latitude, lels by 10 or

15 degrees than you judge the complement of the fun’s al-
2

BAC

titude will be; the horizon vane is put on at A, and the
fight-vane on the 30 arch FG: the obferver’s back being
then turned to the fun (whence the name of back flaff, or
back-quadrant), he lifts up the inftrument, and looks through
the fight-vane, railing or fallmg the quadrant, till the fhadow
of the upper edge of the fhade-vane fall on the upper edge
of the flit of the horizon vane ; and then if he can fee the ©
horizon through the faid flit, the obfervation is well made ;
but if the fea appear inftead of the horizon, the fight vane
muft be moved lower towards F; if the fky appear, it muft
be moved upward towards G, and thus tried till it comes
right : then he obferves how many degrees and minutes are
cut by that edge of the fignt-vane which anfwers to the
fight-hole, and to them adds the degrees cut by the uppen
edge of the fhade-vane: the fum is the fun’s diltance from
the zenith, or the complement of his altitude. To find the
fun’s meridian, or greateft altitude on any day, continue
the obfervation as long as the altitude is found to increafe,
which you: will perceive by the appearance of the fea, in-
itead of the horizon, removing the fight-vane lower; but
when you perceive the fky appear initead of the horizon,
the altitude is diminifhed ; therefore, defift from farther ob-
fervation at that time, and add the degrees upon the 60
arch to the degrees and minutes upon the 30 arch, and the
oe is the zenith diflance, or co-altitude of the fun’s upper.
imb.

And becaufe it is the zenith diftance, or co-altitude of
the upper limb of the fun, and not the centre, that is given
by the quadrant, in obferving by the upper edge of the
fhade-vane, add 16 minutes, the fun’s femidiameter, to that
which is produced by your obfervation, and the fum is the
true zenith diftance of the fun’s centre. If you obferve by
the lower part of the fhadow of the fhade-vane, then the
lower limb of the fun gives the fhadow; and, therefore,
you mutt fubtraét 16 minutes from what the inftrument
gives: but confidering the height of the obferver above the
{urface of the fea, which is commonly between 16 and 2a
feet, you may take 5 or 6 minutes from the 16 minutes,
and make the allowance but of 10 minutes or 12 minutes,
to be added initead of 16 minutes..

Mr. Flamifteed contrived a glats Jens, or double convex,
to be placed in the middle of the fhade-vane, which makes
a {mall bright {pot on the flit of the horizon-vane, inftead
of the fhade ;, which is a great improvement, if the glafs be
truly made; for, by this means, the inftrument may be
ufed in hazy weather, and a much more accurate obferva-
tion made in clear weather than could be by the fhadow.

The theory of this quadrant is very intelligible: for the
line AC being horizontal, the are fGC is equal to the
height of the tun above the horizon ; but this are fGC is
equal to the fum of the ares BE + GC 3 and the are df F
= go° = the altitude and zenith diltance taken together ;
contequently the zenith diftance = the ares fd + CF =
DB + CF.

When the horizon is obfcured by hazy weather, Davis’s
quadrant is of no ufe; and this often occafions diftrefiing
confequences. Means have therefore been fought for to
remedy this defect. Mr. Hadley has recommended and de-
{cribed a fpirit level for this purpofe. Mr. Leigh propofed
to fix a water-level to the quadrant; and he has hkewile
given the defcription and ufe of an apparatus to be added to
this inltrument, confilting of a mercurial level, which he
prefers, with reafon, to a water-level. See Phil. Tranf,
N- 430, &c. or Martyn’s Abr. vol. vil. p. 357, 360, &c.

It has been obferved, that one great objection againft
this initrument is the trouble and time loit in fliding the
fight-vane upward or downward, which fometimes cannot

conveniently

BAC

conveniently be done without taking the quadrant from the
eye, by which an opportunity may be loft for making the
obfervation. But this defeé is eafily removed by having a
long index or ruler fitted to the quadrant ; one end moving
round the centre to which the horizon-vane is fixed, and
having the fight-vane fixed to the other end. By this con-
trivance the fight vane may be readily raifed higher, or low-
ered, by the motion of the index about its centre; and this
may be done without taking the inftrument from the eye.
See Quapranr.

Back-Svays of a Ship, are ropes belonging to the main-
mait and fore-malt, and the malts belonging to them, ferv-
ing to keep them from pitching forwards, or overboard.
See Stays.

Back-Stays, Travelling, are ufed in bad weather to fup-
port the fore ard main-top matts; they fplice into a {pan,
round the top-maft, under the parrel, and let up in the
ehain, with a luff-tackle, to an eye-bolt. They travel up
and down the top-maift occafionally with tricing lines that
fplice into a thimble, on each fide of the {pan, and through
blocksfeized to thetop-matt treftle-trees, and lead into thetop.

Bacx-Worm, a name given by Sport/men to a difeafe very
common among hawks, and called alfo filender ; which fee.
- BACO, in Geography, the capital of Mindoro, one of
the Philippine iflands, where the Alcaide, or governor, re+
fides. Its environs are well watered by fprings proceeding
from mountains covered with farfaparilla. See Minporo.

BACOBA, in Botany, aname by which fome authors
eall the banana tree, or mu/a frudlu breviori. Pifo.

BACOFEN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Boleflaw, five miles N. N. E. from Jung Buntzlav.

BACON, {wine’s flefh, falted, and dried in the chimney.

Writers on this branch of economics give rules for the
hanging, the falting, and curing of bacon, larding with
bacon, &c.
* This appears to be in general an extremely improper and
unwholefome aliment, efpecially for people who do not ufe
great exercife; for thofe who do may almoft cat any thing
without injury. Svine’s flefh, confidered as an aliment, is
none of the beit; and when hardened by falt, and dried by
fmoke, it is rendered more indigeftible, and in confequence
of that, productive of obiltructions in a very great degree.
We may add, that the fat of bacon frequently becomes ran-
eid and acrimonious, and often even excoriates the mouth
and throat.

Bacon-Sward, denotes the thick outer fkin taken off
the lard or fat. Old hiftorians and law writers: fpeak of
the fervice of the bacon, a cultom in the manor of Whiche-
novre in Staffordfhire, and priory of Dunmow in Effex; in
the former of which places, by an ancient grant of the lord,
a flitch of bacon, with half a quarter of wheat, was to be
given to every married couple, who could f{wear, that having
been married a yearanda day, they would never within that
time have once exchanged their mate for any other perfon
on earth, however richer, fairer, or the like. But they were
to bring two of their neighbours to fwear with them, that
they believed they {wore the truth. On this, the lord of
another neighbouring manor, of Rudlow, was to finda horfe
faddled, and a fack to carry the bounty in, with drums
and trumpets, as faras a day’s journey out of the manor: all
the tenants of the manor being fummoned to attend, and
pay fervice to the bacon. Plott’s Hilt. Staff. c.x.

The bacon of Dunmow, firft ereted under Henry III.
was on much the fame footing ; only the tenor of the oath
was, that the parties had never once repented, or wifhed
themfelves unmarried again. Ib. c.x. fe&t.8o.

- Bacon, Robert, in Biography, an Englith divine of the

BAC

thirteenth century, was born about the year 1168, completed
his education at Paris, and returning to Oxford, where he
had commenced his ftudies, read leétures in divinity, and be-
came a famous preacher. In one of his fermons, preached
at Oxford, in 1233, before Henry III., he reproved the king
for his partiality to foreigners, and faithfully informed him,
that this was the principal canfe of the difcontent which
prevailed among his fubjeéts. Such was the impreffion made
by this addrefs, that the king is faid to have difcovered a
difpcfition to liften to the complaints of his nobles. Bacon
was favoured with the friendfhip and patronage of Edmund
Rich, called St. Edmund, archbifhop of Canterbury; and
after his deceafe, in 1240, wrote his life. He was alfo the
author of feveral commentaries, fermons, and leéiures. Some
have fuppofed that he was the brother of the celebrated
Roger Bacon; but as Robert died in 1248, at an advanced
age, and Roger was not born till the year 1214, it is not
probable that they were brothers. Biog. Brit.

Bacon, Roger, acelebrated Englith monk of the Francif-
can order, was born at Ilchefter in Somerfetfhire,.in the year
1214, and at an early age received the rudiments of learning
and {cience at Oxford, where he profecuted his ftudies with
an ardour and fuccefs which fecured to him the patrenage
and friendfhip of the moit eminent men in that univerfity.
In the number of thefe we may reckon Robert Grouthead,
bifhop of Lincoln, to whom he was particularly indebted,
and of whom he fpeaks in terms of high commendation ;
Edmund Rich, archbifhop of Canterbury ; Wilham Shir-
wood, chancellor of Lincoln ; and Richard Fifhacre, who
was a diftinguifhed leGturer in the fciences both at Oxford
and at Paris. Having fpent fome years at Oxford in the
ftudy of the languages, logic, mathematics, and various
branches of philofophy, he removed, according to the cuftom
of that age, to Paris, where he was diftinguifhed both by his
affiduity and improvement, and where, in token of his ac-
knowledged eminence in literature and {cience, he received
the degree of doétor in theology. While he was in France,
or foon after his return to England, in the year 1240, he
took the monattic habit in the order of St. Fraticis, and with
a view of purfuing his ftudies and refearches with the greater
advantage, he fettled at Oxford. Such was the etteem in
which he was generally held, and fo high were the expe¢ta-
tions which his contemporaries entertained of the benefits
that would refult to fcienee from the vigour of his mind and
the affiduity of his application, that he was enabled, by gene-
rous contributions, to collect books, to con{ftrué inftruments,
and to profecute his experiments, during a courfe of twenty
years, at an expence of 2000l., which, confidering the time in
which he lived, was a very large fum. His growing fame,
however, excited envy; and the monks of his own order in-
duttrioufly circulated a report, that he held converfe with
evil fpirits, and praétifed magical arts. His enemies fo far
prevailed, that, under a pretence of dangerous innovations,
tending to dilturb the peace of the church, which Bacon
was attempting to introduce, he was reitrained from read-
ing lectures to the young ftudents in the univerfity ; and at
length fo clofely confined as to be debarred from all inter-
courfe with his friends, and from receiving a neceflary fupply
of food. The prelates and the monks, fays Bacon himielf
(Epift. ad Clem. I1V.), were afraid left his own writings
fhould extend beyond the limits of his convent, and be feen
by any befides themfelves and the pope.. But other circum-
{tances had contributed to excite againft Bacon the {pirit of
perfecution. He had cenfured the clergy, on account both
of their ignorance and immorality ; he was particularly inti-
mate with bifhop Grouthead, who had written a letter of
reproof to pope Innocent LV. and declared to his conf

dential

BAG

dential affociates, that in his judgment the pope was anti-
chrift; and he himfelf had wnitten freely to the pope, con-
cerning the neceffity of a reformation, The efforts of ma-
levolence, whatever might have been the real or pretended
caufes from which they originated, could not deprive this
great man of the efteem and refpeét to which his diftin-
guithed talents and charaCter entitled him. Such was the
high opinion entertained by the cardinal bifhop of Sabina,
who was the pope’s legate in England, of his genius and
merit, that he requefled from him a complete copy of all
his works. As he was reftrained, by the prohibition of his
own fraternity, from communicating any of his works to
any perfon whatever, he at firft declined complying with the
eardinal’s requeft; but as foon as he heard that the cardinal-
legate was raifed to the pontifical dignity, uuder the name
of Clement IV. he fignified to him by letter his readinefs
to perform what his holinefs had defired; and the pope
affured him of proteétion againft any interference of his own
order. Bacon immediately began to collect, arrange, and
improve the pieces he had already written, and having di-

efted them into one volume under the title of ‘ Opus
Majus” (the greater work), he fent it to the pope, in the
year 1267, bya {pecial meffenger, whofe name was John of
Paris, and who was his own favourite difciple. This John
of Paris was a poor boy, of promifing talents, taken by
Bacon under his tuition, in order to try by experience the
efficacy of his peculiar mode of inftruétion; and, as the re-
fult of it, he obferves, ** that there was no room to conceive
any high notions of the perfeétion of human wifdom, when
it was poffible, in a year’s time, to teach a young man all
that, with the utmoft indaftry and application, a zealous
inquirer after knowledge was able either to acquire or to
difcover in the {pace of twenty, oreven forty years.” (See
Opus Majus, p. 29, and Jebb’s Preface.) The pope was
fo gratified with the prefent of this learned work, that it
procured for Bacon extraordinary favour and encouragement
in his ftudies.

With the life of the enlightened and liberal Clement IV.
terminated the tranquillity of this philofopher; for in 1278,
under the pontificate of Nicholas III. and with the fan&tion
of his authority, Jerom de Efculo, or de Afcoli, general of
the Francifcan order, prohibited the reading of his works,
and fentenced him to imprifonment. The pretended caufe
ef this feverity has been fought by fome writers in tracts of
Bacon on necromancy, aftrology, and alchemy; but the
true reafon was moft probably that dread of innovation
which Bacon’s improvements in {cience caufed in the minds of
bigotted or interefted perfons. Bacon continued in prifon for
ten years; but upon the acceffion of Jerom de Efculo to the
papal fee, under the name of Nicholas 1V., he attempted
to conciliate the favour of the pope, by prefenting to him a
treatife “On the Means of avoiding the Infirmities of Old
Age;” but his endeavours feem to have been ineffectual, as
he {till remained in prifon, and was not releafed till about
the latter end of this pontificate, when fome Englith noble-
men interceded in his favour, and obtained for him his li-
berty. Upon his return to Oxford, he wrote, at the requeft
of his friends, “‘« A Compendium of Theology,” of which
acopy is preferved in the Royal library. ‘This work appears,
from internal evidence, to have been written about the year
1291; and as additions were afterwards made to it, it is
hence inferred that the author lived till the year 1292, or
the feventy-eighth year of his age. The learned editor of
his “Opus Majus”’ dates his death in 1294 ; but Anthony
Wood, from two MSS. which he mentions, fixes the time of
it to the rith of June, 1292; and Dr. Freind acquiefces in
this opinion. He is faid to have died in tranquillity, in the

BAC

college of his order, and to have been interred in their
church. Tradition reports, that in order to prevent the
uneatinefs occafioned by his enemies, in the earlier period of
his life, and while he was profecuting his ftudies, and pers
forming his experiments at Brazen-nofe hall at Oxford, he was
obliged to retire from the univerfity into a folitary place,
called to this day ‘ Friar Bacon’s Study :”” and Mr. Hearne
informs us, that he fometimes retired in the fummer to Sun«
ning Well.

When we contemplate the extraordinary powers and ats
tainments of Bacon, and review the important and ufeful
difcoveries that were made by him in various branches of
{cience, and compare them with the period in which he
lived, we fhall not be furprifed that he was diftinguifhed by
the title of “‘ doctor mirabilis,’ or wonderful doGtor; what
ever might be the reafons which induced the monks of his
order thus to difcriminate him. With refpe& to his knows
ledge of the languages, which he thought to be the founda-
tion of all true learning, it appears that he was perfec maf.
ter of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and that he had
ftudied thofe languages with a degree of critical exactnefs
which renders fome of his obfervations in that part of the
“ Opus Majus,”’ which treats on this fubje&, judicious and
inftructive. With various branches of the mathematics he
was well acquainted: and in mechanics his knowledge was
fuch, that, in the judgment of Dr. Freind, “ a greater ge-
nius had not arifen fince the days of Archimedes.”? Ac-
cordingly, in his treatife, intitled, ‘ Epiftola Fratris Roger
Baconis de fecretis Operibus Artis et Nature, et de Nulli-
tate Magie,” he propofes the conftru€tion of wonderful
inftruments, which may be artificially contrived, by which
fuch things (fays he) may be done without the help of magic,
as magic itfelf is incapable of performing. ‘‘ For av
may be fo conftruéted, and oars therein fo difpofed, as to
make more way with one man inher, than another veffeb
fully manned.” « I¢ is poffible (fays he) to make a chariot
which, without any affiftance of animals, fhall move with that
irrefiitible force which is afcribed to thofe feythed chariots
in which the ancients fought.’”? *¢ It is poffible,” adds our
author, ‘to make inftruments for flying, fo that a man ite
ting in the middle thereof, and fteering with a kind of rud-
der, may manage what is contrived to anfwer the end of
wings, fo as to divide and pafs through the air. It is no
lefs poffible to make a machine of a very {mall fize, and yet
capable of raifing or finking the greateft weights, which
may be of infinite ufe on certain occafions, for by the help
of fuch an inftrument, not above three inches high, or lefs,
a man may be able to deliver himfelf and his companions
out of prifon, and to afcend or defcend at pleafure.”’? Hence
it has been inferred that Bacon was acquainted with the per-
petual fcrew. Our author’s knowledge of the fcience of
optics was fo accurate and comprehenfive, that he is juitly
allowed to have underftood the theory and praétice of many
of thofe difcoveries, the application of which has been fo
important and ufeful in more modern times. Befides the
defcriptions of the camera obfcura, and of burning glaffes,
which are found in his writings, we have unqueftionable evi-
dence that he was well acquainted with the properties of
convex and concave lenfes, and with the effects of refrace
tion; and fome have even afcribed to him the honour of
having invented the telefcope. (See thefe feveral articles.)
In geography his refearches were various and extenfive; and
his acquaintance with aftronomy enabled him to difcover the
errors of the calendar, and to propofe the proper method of
correGting them. See CaLenpar.

Although Roger Bacon was in fome inftances mifled by
the vifionary projets of the alchemifts of his age, and

though

BAC

though he indulged chimerical notions of the medicinal
virtues of the aurum potabile, or tinéture of gold, and of a
fecict charm for renewing the native heat of old men, he
was led by his chemical proceffes into an acquaintance with
the properties of bodies, and a variety of difcoveries that
were no lefs important and ufeful than novel and curious.
Such, in particular, was that of the ingredients and effects
of gun-powder, which was for a long time fuppofed to have
been the invention of a much later period. (See Gun-
powper.) Of his medical knowledge we have evidence in
his “‘ Treatife on Old Age,’’ blended with many things
that are ob{cure and fancitul; and though he fo far partook
of the fuperitition of the times as to place fome confidence
in judicial aftrology, he was an enemy to necromancy and
magic. The imputation on his charaéter of his leaning to
magic, was altogether unfounded; and the ftory of his
having conftruéted a brazen head, which propofed and an-
fwered queftions, is as ridiculous as it is groundlefs. The
firft object of this calumny, was his patron Robert Grout-
head or Grofthead, bifhop of Lincoln; and fimilar tales
have been related of pope Sylvefter I]., Albertus Magnus,
and other eminent philofophers; but they gained credit
merely with mean and ignorant perfons. In logic and meta-
phyfics, as well as in philology, and the politer parts of
learning, Bacon was equal, if not fuperior, to moft of his
contemporaries ; “and his treatile on Ethics, or moral philo-
fophy, contains many excellent principles for directing the
judgement, and regulating the conduct. To theology, all

is other ftudies were fubfervient ; and he direéted both his
actions and his writings to the glory of God, and the good
of his fellow-creatures. To the holy {criptures he paid due
deference ; and he enforced the ftudy of them in their ori-
ginal languages, and an affiduous application to the feveral
branches of learning which he thought neceflary for rightly
underftanding and interpreting them. This feems to have
been the object of his laft treatife, which he left as a kind of
teftament-to his order.

As the whole life of friar Bacon was fpent in ftudy and
writing, we need not wonder that his works were very nu-
merous. Bale fpeaks of upwards of fourfcore books writ-
ten by him; and Dr. Jebb has digefted a ftill greater num-
ber, under the diitin@ heads of grammar, mathematics,
phyfics, optics, geography, aftronomy, chronology, che-
miltry, magic, medicine, logic, metaphytics, ethics, theo-
logy, philology, and mifcellany. It feems, however, that
the number fe bee multiplied by means of the different
titles under which various copies of the fame treatife have
been difperfed, and by confidering the titles of diftinct chap-
ters of his work, as the titles of feparate treatifes. Accord-
ingly, eleven of thefe pieces will be found in the work intitled,
« Epiftola Fratris Rogeri Baconis, &c.”’ already mentioned,
publifhed in 4to. at Paris, in 1542; in 8vo. at Bafil, in 1593;
in 8vo. at Hamburgh, in 1608 and 1618. This treatife
abounds with various phyfical faéis and obfervations, and
expofes the futility of the feveral praGtices of necromancy,
charms, divination, and magic. The ‘* Opus Majus,” writ-
ten in the form of an epiitle or addrefs to pope Clement 1V.
1s profeffedly a digeft of the author’s former writings.“ In
this curious and valuable work, Bacon defcribes the impedi-
ments which hinder men from “arriving at true and ufeful
knowledge ; illuftrates, at large, the ulefulnefs of the ftudies
of grammar, mathematics, and perfpective; explains the
nature and value of experiments in philofophy ; and earneftl
exhorts the pontiff whom he addreffes, to give all poffible
encouragement to fcience in general, and particularly to the
ftudy of nature. This work, which affords abundant proofs
ef the author’s fwperior talents, and, confidering the time

BAC

in which he lived, of his wonderful knowledge, long ree
mained buried in obfcurity, and never appeared in print till,
in 1733, Dr. Jebb, from various collated MSS. fent from
the prefs of William Bowyer, a correét and beautiful edition
in folio. Bacon wrote many chemical tra¢ts, moft of which
may be found in * Thefaurus Chemicus,” printed in 8vo.
at Francfort, 1603, 1620; others are in MS. in the univer-
fity library of Leyden. His treatife “ On the Means of
avoiding the Infirmities of Old Age,” in which, befide a
regular courfe of life, he recommends the ufe of certain fe-
cret and extraordinary medicines, was firft printed at Ox-
ford in 1590, and afterwards tranflated into Englifh, with
notes, by Dr. Richard Browne, under the title of “ The
Cure of Old Age, and Prefervation of Youth,”’ 8vo. 1683.
Several tra&ts of friar Bacon, yet unpublifhed, remain in
MS.; a piece, bearing the title of “ Liber Naturalium;?? a
treatife on Chronology, intitled, “* Computus Rogeri Ba-
conis ;”” and the “ Compendium of Theology ;” are to be
feen in the King’s library: and two other works, which the
author called ‘* Opus Minus,” and “ Opus Tertium,”’ re-
main inthe Cotton library ; and other pieces might probably
be found by diligent fearch.””

Although in the prefent advanced ftate of literature and
{cience, we could not expeét to derive much acceffion to
our means of knowledge from the publication and ftudy of
friar Bacon’s works, yet asa difplay of the aftonifhing pow-
ers of the human intelleét, and asa valuable part of the
hiltory of knowledge, they ought to be preferved and known.
The want of a complete edition of his works is the lefs to
be regretted, fince the public have been put into poffeffion
ot his “ Opus Majus,” by Dr. Jebb.

From the brief account that has been given of the talents
and performances of friar Bacon, it will appear, that he
contributed, in a very eminent degree, to illuminate the
dark age in which he lived, and to prepare the way, by
emancipating the mind from the authority of Ariltotle, and
purfuing a plan of experiment and induétion in the profecu-
tion of fcience, for thofe difcoveries and improvements,
which have diftinguifhed a later period. Although allowance
fhould be made for the language of panegyric, which charac-
terizes Bacon as the “ brighteft and and moft univerfal genius
that perhaps the world ever faw ;” he mutt ever be regarded
as a prodigy of learning and fcience, and a very high rank
mutt be affigned to him among thofe who have been inftru-
ments of enlightening and reforming the world. Jebb’s
Pref. to Bacon’s Opus Majus. Cave, H.L. t. ii. p. 325.
Biog. Bnit.

Bacon, Sir Nicholas, an eminent lawyer, and lord keeper
of the great feal in the reizn of queen Elizabeth, was the
defcendant of an ancient and honourable family in the
county of Suffolk, and born in the year 1510 at Chiflehurft
in Kent. He was fent at an early age to Corpus Chrifti or
Bennet college at Cambridge, and finifhed his education by
travelling into Franee. Upon his return, he entered at
Gray’s inn, and diitinguifhed himfelf by the ttudy of the
law. By favour of Henry VIII. he obtained a grant of
feveral manors in Suffolk, when the monaftery of St. Ed-
mond{bury was diflolved ; and was appointed attorney in the
court of records; which office he retained during the reign
of Edward VI. Having, by his prudence and moderation,
efcaped the dangers of the reign of Mary, he was honoured
with knighthood on the acceflion of queen Elizabeth; and
in 1558, he was intrufted with the cuftody of the great feal,
and admitted a member of the privy council. He took an
active part in the adminiitration of this period, and was emi-
nently inftrumental in the fettlement of religion. Tt has
been faid, that he incurred the difpleafure of Elizabeth by

joining

BAC

joining the party that was adverfeto the title of the queen of
Scots; but from “ A Difcourfe upon certain points touch-
ing the inheritance of the crown, conceived by fir Anthony
Brown, and anfwered by fir Nicholas Bacon,” publifhed in
1723, by Nathaniel Boothe, of Gray’s inn, Efq., from the
original MS., it has been inferred, that fir Nicholas Bacon
was a moft Rrenuous afferter of the title of the queen of
Scots, in oppofition to fir Anthony Brown, who had con-
tended for the right of the houfe of Suffolk. However
this be, he was placed by Elizabeth, in 1568, at the head
of the commiffion for hearing the difputes between that un-
fortunate princefs and her rebellious fubjeéts; and in 1571,
he again acted inthe fame capacity. From this time he was
a principal agent in thecounfels of Elizabeth, and by hisinflex-
ible adherence to the Proteftant caufe, fhared the odium of the
Popith faéiion in-common with her other principal minitters.
As a ftatefman, he manifefted great fkill in properly balanc-
ing the different parties, and it is thought that he inftruéted
the queen in this art, which fhe found fo neceffary and ufeful.
In the chancery he diflinguifhed himfelf by a very moderate
ule of power, and by fhewing great refpect to the common
law. His private as well as his public conduét was regulated
with great difcretion, and a moderate ule of the fortune
which he had acquired. His motto was “‘ Mediocria firma,”?
and he was accordingly content to be fafe, but did not with
to be great. In his fet fpeeches he attained the reputation
of uniting two oppofite charaMers, viz. thofe of a witty and
a weighty {peaker. T’hat he was not unduly exalted in his
own opinion, notwithftanding his eminent talents and pre-
ferment, appears from his modeft anfwer to queen Eliza-
beth, when on a vifit to him at Redgrave, fhe told him that
his houle was too little for him: * Not fo, madam,’ re-
plied fir Nicholas, “ but your majefty has made me too
great for my houfe.’? In deference to her majefty’s opi-
nion, he added two wings to it; and he alfo indulged his
talte for building and gardening, at Gorhambury, near St.
Albans, which wasa manor taken from the ancient abbey of
this place. Having retained his office of lord keeper for
more than twenty years, with the reputation of a wife
ftatefman and faithful counfellor, he died, after an illnefs of a
few days, on the twentieth of February 1579, in the fixty-
ninth year of his age. Of his writings there are extant in
MS. feveral difcourfes on topics of law and politics, and
alle a commentary on the twelve minor prophets. Biog.

rit.

Bacon, Francis, baron of Verulam, vifcount of St. Al-
bans, and high chancellor of England in the reign of James I.
the glory and ornament of his age and nation, was the fon
of fir Nicholas Bacon, mentioned in the laf article, by his
fecond wife Anne, the daughter of fir Anthony Cook, tutor
to king Edward VI.; and born in London on the twenty-
fecond of January 1561. In his childhood he manifetted
indications of fingular genius, from which thofe who
converfed with him might have deduced prefages of his
future attainments. In reply to queen Elizabeth, who
afked him how old he was, he inftantly replied, “ Juft two
years younger than your majeity’s happy reign;”’ and her
majefty, condefcending frequently to converfe with him, and
forming a high opinion of the folidity of his fenfe, and the
gravity of his behaviour, ufed pieafantly to call him “ her
young lord keeper.” At the age of thirteen, in the year
1573, he was entered a ftudent in Trinity college, in the
univerfity of Cambridge, where his progrefs under the tuition
of Dr. John Whitgift, afterwards archbifhop of Canterbury,
was rapid and furprifing. Before he had completed his fix-
teenth year, he began to perceive the imperfections of the
Aniftotelian philofophy, which was then the reigning fyftem,

BAC

and probably to form deligns of introducing a more rational
and profitable method of purfuing philofophical refearches.
To this purpofe, we are affured by Dr. Rawley, who was
his chaplain and biographer, and to whom he communicated
feveral particulars relating to the earlier period of his life,
that his objections againit the prevalent philofophy were not
owing to any difrefpe& of Ariftotle himfelf, of whom. he
entertained a very high opinion, but to the inutility of his
philofophy, which was calculated to produce and perpetuate
difputes, rather than to afford any fubftantial benefit to man-
kind; and thefe fentiments of it he retained through life.
In order to perfe&t his education, and to extend his kuow-
ledge of the world, his father fent him to France, and placed
him under the patronage of fir Amias Pawlet, who was then
the queen’s ambaffador at Paris. In this fituation be gained
the efleem and confidence of fir Amias to {uch a degree,
that he was intrufted by him with a commiffion to the queen,
which required both fecrecy and difpatch; and having exe-
cuted this commiffion in a manner highly honourable to him-
felf, and equally fatisfa€tory to the queen and ambaffador,
he returned to Paris, and from thence travelled through
feveral of the provinces, for the purpofe of gaining a more
accurate and extenfive acquaintance with the manners and
cuftoms of the country. The refult of his inquiries
appears in a treatife, intitled ‘* Of the flate of Europe,’
and written when he was no more than nineteen years
of age. The unexpeéted death of his father obliged him
to return fuddenly from France, and to engage in. fome
lucrative profeffion. Accordingly he determined upon the
profeffion of the law, and entered himfelf in the Society of
Gray’s Inn, where by affiduous application he obtained {uch
a degree of reputation, that at the age of twenty-eight years
he was appointed by the queen to the honourable office of
her learned counfel extraordinary in the law. Whilft he
was ftudying at Gray’s Inn, and in the twenty-fixth year of
his age, he formed the plan of that great philofophical work,
afterwards completed, and intitled, the ‘* Inftauration of the
Sciences,” which will not only render his name immortal,
but do honour to his age and country, as long as learning
fhall fourifh. The title of the work which our author com-
pofed at this time, was ‘* Temporis partum maximum,” or
the “ Greateft birth of time;’? with refpeé to which it ap-
pears, from a letter written towards the clofe of his life to
father Fulgentio, a learned Italian, that he lived to regret
the juvenile folly and vain confidence which led him to pre-
fix to it this pompous title. ‘Thefe rudiments of Bacon’s
philofophy have been fuppofed to be loft; but it has been
iuggetted (fee Mallet’s edition of Bacon’s works, Append,
to vol. i. p.17.) that they probably remain under the more
modell title Of the Interpretation of Nature,’’ and that
philofophers’ may ftill have the pleafure of tracing the
fteps by which this great genins advanced from one dil-
covery in fcience to another in forming and eftablifhing his
fy ftem.

From the high rank of a philofopher, in which Bacon ap-
pears with acknowledged pre-eminence, we are obliged to
defcend, in tracing the outlines of his hiftory, to the level
of ordinary men, and to contemplate him as an humiliating
example of human frailty. Reduced by his father’s death to
circumftances which rendered it neceffary for him either to
purfue his philofophical fpeculations in obfcure retirement,
or to become an obfequious dependant on the court; he un-
fortunately chofe the latter alternative. Allied by marriage
to the lord treafurer Burleigh, and to his fori Robert Cecil,
principal fecretary of ftate, he indulged reafonable expecta;
tions of advancement; but his friendfhip for the earl of Effex,
Cecil’s avowed enemy, interpofed an obitacle in the way A

_the city of London.

BAC

his preferment. The intereft of lord Burleigh procured for
him merely the reverfion of the office of regifter to the flar-
chamber, worth about 16001. a year, which he did not ob-
tain for twenty years. In 1594, Cecil reprefented him to
the queen as a man wholly devoted to fpeculation, and pre-
vented his being advanced to the poft of folicitor-general,
which the earl of Effex endeavoured to procure for him; but
as a compenfation for this difappointment, the earl prefented
him with a landed eltate, which was afterwards fold, at lefs
than its value, for r800l. Bacon, however, after this fin-
gular expreflion of friendly attachment on the part of Effex,
proved ungrateful; and m the moment of danger abandoned
his friend and benefactor; pleaded againft him on his trial
for high treafon; produced evidence to his injury from his
letters; and after his execution, vindicated the conduct of
adminiftration, in an appeal to the public, under the title of
66 A Declaration of the Treafons of Robert earl of Effex.’
In this ‘“* Declaration” there occurred fome apparent marks
of tendernefs for the reputation of Effex, which led the queen
to obferve to him, that ‘old love could not eafily be for-

otten;”? but whilft they proved that he was counteracting
is feelings by his condu&, they were infufficient to excul-
pate the bafenefs of his ingratitude. His condué on this
occafion excited againft him fuch general diffatisfaction, that
he found it neceffary to write an elaborate defence under the
title of “* Apology ;”’ but no art or eloquence could avail to
{tile the public indignation. From the queen he received
no additional hionours or emoluments during the remainder of
her reign; and to perfons in power he was an object of jea-
loufy and averfion.

In public concerns, however, he aéted with firmnefs and
dignity. Having been chofen, in 1593, to.reprefent the
county of Middlefex in parliament, he took the popular fide,
though a fervant of the crown, againft her majetty’s mini-
fters; and in the queftion of fubfidies, to which he indeed
affented, he delivered a fpeech, the freedom of which offended
the queen, and prevented his advancement. ‘Towards the
end of her reign he became more fervile in his parliamentary
condu&; for which his only plea was his poverty, and debts
which he had incurred, and for which he had been twice
arrefted.

Upon the acceffion of James I. Bacon was diftinguifhed
by the favour of his new fovereign, and in 1603 received
the honour of knighthood. In the firft parliament of this
reign, he regained his popularity by undertaking the redrefs
of «grievances, arifing from the exaétions of the royal pur-
veyors; and in the conduét of this bufinefs he gave fatisfac-
tion both to the houfe and to the king. From the former
he received a vote of thanks, and from the latter a patent to
be one of the king’s counfel, with a falary of 4ol. a year,
accompanied with a pention from the crown of 6ol. a year,
for fpecial fervices rendered by his brother Anthony Bacon
and himfelf. Notwithftanding the oppofition of Cecil, now
earl of Salifbury, and of fir Edward Coke, attorney-general,
he purfued with fteady perfeverance his plans of advance-
ment; and by promoting the king’s favourite obje& of an
union between the two kingdoms, and by publifhing, in
1605, one of his moft important works ‘* On the advance-
ment of learning,’’ he fo far fucceeded in gaining the favour
of his royal matter, that in 1607 he was appointed to fup-
ply the place of fir John Doddridge, as folicitor-general.
His practice alfo was at this time very extenfive and profit-
able, and he alfo improved his fortune by marriage with the
daughter of Benedict Barnham Efq. a wealthy alderman of
Whilft he difplayed his eminent
talents both in the fenate and in the courts, he was not inat-
tentive to his grand philofophical fpeculations and purfuits.

Vou. Ill.

BAC

Of the outline of his intended work he circulated copies,
under the title of “ Cogitata et vifa,”’ in order to obtain the
animadverfions of the Teamed and in 1610, he publifhed
his treatife, intitled, * Of the Wifdom of the Ancients.’
In 1611, he was appointed one of the judges of the Marfhal-
fea court, and about the fame time became regifter to the
ftar-chamber, granted to him by Elizabeth in reverfion; and
in 1613, he was made attorney-general. In the exercife of
this office he fupported the arbitrary power of government in
fome of the ftate trials; but on various other occafions he
performed his duty with fidelity, and was ative in his exer-

tions for fuppreiling the favage pradlice of duelling.
Notwithitanding the affluence of his circumftances and
income, his prodigality rendered him indigent; and his am-
bition, which led him to afpire after the frft dignity in the
law, concurring with his penury, induced him to feek it by
culpable fervility and artifice. With this view he cultivated
the friendfhip of George Villiers, afterwards duke of Buck-
ingham, the king’s favourite; and having felfifh ends to fe-
cure, this friendfhip on his part degenerated into a mean and
crouching fervility. Apprehending the fpeedy death of the
lord chancellor, he not only petitioned the king for this high
office, but bafely traduced the talents and charaéter of thofe
who were likely to be his competitors, and enforced his appli-
cation by avowing his ready obedience, and his power of in-
fluencing the lower houfe of parliament. His folicitation,
feconded by the intereft of the earl of Buckingham, pre-
vailed; and in March 1617, he was honoured with the feals,
and the title of lord keeper. In the beginning of 1619, he
was created lord high chancellor of England, and baron of
Verulam, which title was exchanged, in the following year,
for that of vifcount of St. Albans. In this year, viz. in
1620, he prefented the world with a work, which he had
been twelve years in completing, his ** Novum Organum,”’
or the fecond part of his grand “ Inftauration of the Sci-
ences.” ‘The high department in the law, which he fought
with fo mueh anxiety, and with fuch facrifices of perfonal
honour, proved in the iffue an occafion of vexation and dif-
grace. By oppofing the propofed treaty of marriage be-
tween Charles prince of Wales, and the infanta of Spain,
he offended the king; and by endeavouring to prevent the
marriage of fir John Villiers, Buckingham’s brother, and fir
Edward Coke’s daughter, he difpleafed the favourite. The
mifunderftanding occafioned by both thefe circumftances foon
fubfided; and whilft he increafed his affiduity in promoting
the private intereit of his royal mafter, he countenanced and
encouraged the rapacity of Buckingham, by affixing the
great feal to patents that were intended to be inftruments of
extortion. At length his conduétin various circumftances,
involving his own pecuniary advantage, became {fo atrocious,
that national juftice demanded an inquiry. The parliament,
fummoned by James at the beginning of the year 1613, for
the purpofe of obtaining legal fupplies, entered on this bufi-
nefs; and as they proceeded, the king encouraged them to
perfevere. ‘* Spare none,” faid he, “‘ where you find juft
caufe to punifh”’ The further they extended their inquiries,
new occafions of complaint prefented themfelves, and thefe
furnifhed materials for a parliamentary accufation. Accord-
ingly, the caufe was transferred to the houfe of lords, and
twenty diftin& charges of corruption and bribery, amounting
to feveral thoufand pounds, were exhibited before the feleét
committee. The chancellor was alarmed, and earneftly fo-
licited the king’s protection. A fhort recefs of parliament
delayed his danger; but this temporary expedient ferved
only to aggravate the evil, and to increafe the public clamour.
Wishing to evade a minute inquiry, the humbled culprit ad-
dreffed a fubmiffive letter to the houfe of lords, and exerted
gL all

BA.G

all his powers of eloquence to induce the peers to content
themfelves with difmifiing him from the high office which he
had difgraced. They intifted, however, on a particular con-
feffion, refpeGting each article of bribery and corruption of
which he was accufed; and the chancellor confefled his guilt
with regard to moft of the twenty-three articles of corrup-
tion which were exhibited againit him, whilft he extenuated
fome of them, and again threw himfelf on the mercy of the
houfe. Upon being afked whether the confeffion which had
been read was written by his own hand, he replied, “ It is
my at, my hand, my heart; I befeech your lordthips to be
merciful to a broken reed.”” The houfe moved his majefty
to fequefter the feals, which was accordingly done; and thea
proceeded to pafs fentence} which was, “That the lord vif-
count St. Albans, lord chancellor of England, fhall undergo

fine and ranfom of 40,0001.; that he fhall be imprifoned in.

the Tower during the king’s pleafure; that he fhall for ever
be incapable of any office or employment in the ftate or com-
monwealth; and that he hall never fit in parliament, or come
within the verge of the court.”” This fentence, fevere as it
may feem, and for which collateral caufes have been alleged,
was the refult of the ftri@ exercife of juftice. Thus de-
graded under a juft fentence, we cannot forbear pitying a
man, who, among other crimes, fuffered his fervants to be-
come the inftruments of his ruin; and who in pafling by
feveral of his retinue, that ftood up to falute him, farcaftic-
ally faid to them; “ Sit down, my mafters; your rife has
been my fall.” :

Thus degraded and banifhed into folitude, reproached by
his own mind as well as by the public cenfure, and depreffed
by a load of debt, he retained the vigour of his faculties to
fuch a degree, that he returned with ardour to his favourite
purfuits, and produced various writings of fingular merit in
hiftory, morals, and philofophy. Through all the viciflitudes
of his life, he kept in view the great objeé of the improve-
ment of f{cience, to which his attention was direGted in the
early period of his youth. From contemplating the exam-
ples of Demofthenes, Cicero, and Seneca, who, like himfeif,
had occupied high ftations, had fallen into delinquency, and
had been banifhed into retirement, he derived confolation;
aud in imitation of them, he determined to devote the remain-
der of his time to philofophy, and writing. He might, indeed,
have adopted the language in which Cicero addreffes philo-
phy: ** Ad te confugimus; a te opem petimus; tibi nos,
ut antea magna ex parte, fic nunc penitus totofque tradimus.””
“To thee I fly; from thee I feek fupport; to thee I devote
myfelf, as formerly in part, fo now entirely and altogether.”
{t is obferved, however, that neither philofophy nor expe-
rience had taught Bacon a leffon of moderation. After his re-
leafe from confinement in the Tower, which was foon granted
him, and the entire remiffion of his fentence gradually ob-
tained, he poffeffed a royal penfion of 12001. a year, in addi-
tion to 6ool. a year, accruing to him from the alienation
office, and 7ool. a year derived from his own eftate; but he
lived with a magnificence and {plendor which had no bounds.
In his way to London, his coach was attended by a number
of attendants on horfeback ; he was met by the prince of
Wales, who’ afked whofe equipage it was, and being told
that it was lord St. Albans, attended by his friends, his
highnefs remarked; ‘ Well, do what we can, this man feorns
to go out Jike a [nnff.” Wit’. fuch prodigality, it is no
wonder that at his death his debts fhould have amounted to
22,000]. Asan initance of his humility, we may cite his
reply to the French ambaffzdor, who upon reading a French
tranflation ef his Effuys, paid him the fulfome compliment
of comparing him to angels; ** If the politenefs of others
campare me to an angel, my gwn infirmities remind me that

BAC

Tam a man:” and of felfcommand we have a fingular dif.
play in his behaviour, when he received information bya
friend that his application for an important favour at court
had proved unfuccefsful; at this time he was dictating to his
chaplain an account of fome experiments in philofophy, and
he calmly faid, ** Be it fo;” and difmiffieg his friend with
thanks for his fervice, he turned to his chaplain, faying;
*¢ Well, Sir, if that bufinefs will not fucceed, let us go on
with this, which is in our power;”” and he continued to dies
tate to him for fome time, without hefitation of fpeech, or
interruption of thought.

Lord Bacon purfued his philofophical refearches to the
laft, in the midft of bodily infirmities, occafioned by intenfe
ftudy, multiplicity of bufinefs, and, above all, by anxiety
and anguith of mind. In the winter of 1625, his health and
{pirits were much impaired; but in the following fpring he
made an excurfion into the country, for the purpofe of mak-
ing experiments on the prefervation of bodies. Having ex-
pofed himfelf imprudently to noxious effluvia, he was fud-
denly feized with painsin his head and {tomach, which made
it neceflary for him to ftop at the earl of Arundel’s houfe at
Highgate. Here he fell fick of a fever, and, after a week’s
ilinefs, expired on the ninth of April 1626, in the fixty-fixth
year of his age. In a letter addreffed to the nobleman in
whofe houfe he expired, he compares himielf to the elder
Pliny, who loft his life by approaching too near to mount
Vefuvius during an irruption. He was buried in the
chapel of St. Michael’s church, within the precinéis of Old
Verulam. Verfes to his memory were written in various
languages by the moifl eminent {cholars of the univerfity of
Cambridge; but the moft honourable memorial of this
great man is found in his immortal writings. f

Before we can duly appretiate the value of lord Bacon’s
philofophical works, we fhould duly covfider the itate of
philofophy, and the method of purfuing icience which pre-
vailed, at the period in whic he lived. The authority of
Ariftotle was abfolute ; his logic, phyfics, and metaphytics,
were the principal guides in all {cholattic difquifitions; and
the {cience that was principally cultivated was fuch as con-
fifted of words and notions, and feemed to exclude the ftudy
of nature. Inftead of inveitigating the properties of bodies
and the laws of motion by which all effe€ts are produced,
this fcience, or philofophy, if it may be fo called, was con-
verfant about logical definitions and diltin@ions, and about
fpeculations that were altogether barren and unprofitable.
This kind of captious philofophy was not only ufelefs, but
a real obftacle to all advances in found learning, human and
divine. Some few perfons, indeed, had before the time of
lord Bacon ventured to diffent from Ariftotle ; and the fields
of nateral knowledge had been cultivated and improved by
friar Bacon, Galileo, Copernicus, and others. But there
was {till wanting one great and comprehenfive plan, that
migbt embrace the almoft infinite varieties of feience, and
guide our, inquiries aright in all. This, lord Bacom firk
conceived in its utmoit extent, to his’ own laiting honour, and
to the general advantage of mankind. ‘To him belongs the
praife of having invented, methodifed, and in a confiderable
degree perfeted, this general plan for the improvement of
natural feience by the only fure method of experiment.
With a mind commanding and comprehenfive, prompt in in=
vention, patient in inquiry, and fubtle in difcrimination, nei+
ther afleling novelty nor idolifing antiquity, he formed and
in a great meafure executed his grand plan, ** The Inftaura-
tion of the Sciences.” This plan oe ee capital
parts. Of thefe, the firf part propofes a general furvey. of
human knowledge, and is executed in the admirable treatife,
intitled, * The Advancement of Learning.’ He fee >

wi

BAC

avith accurately reviewing the ftate of learning as it flood
through all its provinces and divifions; that he might not
lofe himfelf on a fubjeé&t fo valt and of fich variety, he
ranges, according to the three faculties of the foul, memory,
fancy, and underltanding, the feveral fciences and arts un-
der three great claffes, hiftory, poetry, and philofophy. He
obferves and points out defeéts and errors; and then fug-
gefts proper means for fupplying omiffions and rectifying
miftakes. At the end of this treatife he has marked out
in one general chart the feveral tra€ts of fcience that lay
full Bbsledled or unknown.

The /econd, and the molt confiderable part, is the * Novum
Organum,”’ or new method of employing the reafoning fa-
‘culties in the purfuit of truth. Here our author offers to
the world a new and better logic, calculated not to fupfly
arguments for controverfy, but arts for the ufe of mankind ;
not to triumph over an enemy by the fophiltry of difputa-
tion, but to fubdue nature itfelf by experiment and inquiry.
Reje&ting fyllogifm as a mere inftrument of difputation, and
finding no certainty in the hypothetical fyitems of ancient
philoiophy, the author recommends and explains the more
flow but more fatisfa€tory method of induction, which fub-
jects natural objects to the teit of obfervation and experience,
in order to furnifh certain facts as the foundation of general
truths.

The third part is the * Sylva Sylvarum,” or hiftory of na-
ture, which furnifhes materials for a natural and experimental
hiftory ; upon which the organ, or the inftrument, which the
‘author has provided for the inveftigation of nature,may be em-
ployed. The phenomena of the univerfe are ranged in this re-
pofitory under three principal heads, viz. the hiitery of gene-
rations or the produétion of all {pecies, according to the ordi-
nary laws of nature; that of preter-generations, or births deviat-

ing from the ftated rule ; and the hiftory of nature as confined
or affilted, changed or tortured by the art of man. OF fuch
a hiftory the ufe is either to acquire the knowledge of quali-
ties in themfelves, or to ferve for the firft matter of a true
‘and ufeful philofophy. The fats and obfervations that are
here colleéted together are poffibly not always correct ; but
-they are valuable, as they furnifh a pattern of the manner in
which fuch refearches fhould be purfued.

The fourth part, or ** Scala Intellectus,” isa feries of fteps
by which the underftanding might regularly afcend in its
»philofophical inquiries ; and it is evidently intended as a par-
ticular application and illuftration of the author’s method of
philofophifing.

- The fifth part, or “ Anticipationes Philofophiz fecunde,”’
was deligned to contain philofophical hints and fuggettions,
but nothing of this remains befides the title and {cheme.

The fxth, and fublimeft part, was propofed for exhibiting
the univerfal principles of natural knowledge, deduced from
experiments, in a regular and complete fyftem ; but this the
“author defpaired of being himfelf able to accompliih. Hav-
ing laid the foundation of a grand edifice, he left the fuper-
ftruéture to be completed by the united and continued la-
ours of philofophers in future ages.

Among the more popular works of lord Bacon, the prin-
cipal are his “ Hiftory of Henry VII.’’ which, allowing for
fome faults, and particularly for its partiality to Henry, with

, a view of flattering his grandfom James, at whofe defire it
was written, may be juitly admired for vigorous conception
‘and energy of language ; his ‘“¢ Wifdom of the Ancients,”
in which he endeavours, with greater ingenuity than folidity,
‘to unveil the hidden fenfe of the fables of antiquity ; his
Moral Effays,”” containing many jult reflections on fubjeéts,
‘which, in the author’s own phrafeology “come home to
men’s bufinefs and bofoms ;” and his law tra¢ts, {pecches,

BAC

letters, and other mifcellaneous papers, relative to perfonal
or public affairs, and abounding with curious and interelting
matter. Thefe valuable writings, which were gradually col-
leéted, have been repeatedly publifhed on the continent in
Latin. An edition in folio was printed at Francfort in
1665; and another by Arnold at Leipfic, in 1694. They
have paffed feparately and colleGtively through feveral editi-
ons in Englifh ; in 1740, they were publifhed in 4 volumes,
folio ; but the moft complete edition is that printed at
London in 1778, in five volumes, quarto.

The character of lord Bacon feems to be pretty juftly.de-
lineated by Mr. Hume in his Hittory, vol. vi. p.52. He
reprefents him as ‘¢a man univerfally admired for the great-
nefs of his genius, and beloved for the courteoufnefs and hu-
manity of his behaviour. - He was the great ornament of his
age and nation; and nought was wanting to render him the
ornament of human nature itfelf, but that flrength of mind
which might check his intemperate defire of preferment that
could add nothing to-his dignity, aud reftrain his profufe in-
clination to expence that could be requifite neither for his
honour nor entertainment. His want of ceconomy, and his
indulgence to fervants, had involved him in neceffities ;. and,
in order to fupply his prodigality, he had been tempted to
take bribes, and that in a very open manner, from fuitors in
chancery.” ‘If we confider,” fays he, “the variety of
talents difplayed by this man ; as a public fpeaker, a man of
bufinefs, a wit, a courtier, a companion, an author, anda
philofopher, he is juftly the objeét of great admiration.”
He adds; ‘*if we confider him merely as an author and phi-
lofopher, the light in which we view him at prefent, though
very eftimable, he was yet inferior to his cotemporary Gali-
leo, perhaps even to Kepler.” “The national {pirit,”” adds
Hume, “which prevails among the Englifh, and which
forms their great happinefs, is the caufe why they beftow
on all their eminent writers, and on Bacon among the ret,
fuch praifes and acclamations as may often appear partial
and exceffive.”? In anfwer to thefe ftri€tures it has been
juftly obferved (Brit. Biog. vol. iv. p. 154.) that ‘ Galileo
was undoubtedly an illuftrious man, and Kepler an admira-
ble aftronomer ; but though we admit their fuperiority ia
aftronomy, mechanics, and fome particular branches of phy-
fical knowledge, it does by no means follow that either of
them was a greater philofopher than Bacon, ‘The praife of
Bacon is founded not upon his ‘kill in this or that particular
branch of knowledge, but on his great and comprehentive
underftanding, which took in almoft the whole extent of
univerfal feience. And he was fo little indebted to the par-
tiality of his countrymen, that his writings appear, for {ome
time at leaft, to have been more efteemed and admired in
foreign countries than in England.”

Mrs. Macaulay expreffes in very {trong terms her abhorrence
of his character, when fhe fays (vol.i. p.157.), that ‘* phi-
lofophy itfelf was degraded by a conjunction with his mean
foul’ But with refpe@ to the flrength and extent of his
genius, this female writer fays, “ his precious bequeits to
pofterity paint them ftronger than can any other pen.” It
muft however be confeffed, that it was fome difcredit to
Bacon, that he could not perceive the reafonablenefs of
the fyftem of Copernicus; but perhaps he underftood lefs
of aftronomy, and was lefs fenfible of its deficiencies, than
of any other part of fcience and philofophy. With confi-
dence in the merit of his own produGtions, and affuring him-
felf of pofthumous fame, lord Bacon introduces in his laft
will this remarkable paflage :—‘‘ My name and memory I
leave to foreign nations; and to mine own countrymen,
after fome time is paffed over.” Upon the fuperftructure
that has been raifed on the foundation of experimental phi-

3L2 lofophy

BAC

lofophy which he has eftablifhed, this infcription will be
read, fays one of his biographers, by diftant pofterity,
«Bacon, THE FATHER OF ExPERIMENTAL PuiLosopuy.”

Upon the whole, in contemplating the character of Bacon,
exclufively of his inconteftible merit as a philofopher, not-
withftanding all the allowances that are made in his favour,
from the fpirit of the times, from his own peculiar cir-
cumftances, and from other confiderations, yet, when we
call to mind his flavifh fubmiffion in general to the will of
the crown, and efpecially his ingratitude to Effex, and his
corruption as a judge, we are conftrained, though not with-
out great regret, to acquiefce in the juftice of the defeription
given of him by Mr. Pope, (Eff. on Man, ep. iv. v- 277-)

“If parts allure thee, think how Bacon fhin’d,

The wifelt, brighteft, meaneft of mankind.”
Acknowledging the propriety of this reprefentation, we
may infer from it the infinite fuperiority of the purfuits of
intelle& above thofe of ambition. ‘* Had Bacon contented
himfelf with being a philofopher, without afpiring after the
honours of a ftatefman and a courtier, he would have been
a greater and ahappierman.”’ Mallet’s Life of lord Bacon,
prefixed to the edition of his works, 1753. Brucker’s
Hift. Phil. by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 520, &c. Biog. Brit.
Gen. Biog.

Though not a pratical mufician, nor a writer ex profe/fo
onthe mufical art or fcience, yet it is fo manifeft by his
Nat. Hift. cento ii: that he had done mufic the honour
to beftow much meditation on the theory of found, we are
proud to devote to him an article among mufic’s benefactors.

He treats of the philofophy or produétion of found, not
by calculation, but by obfervation and experiments on Nature
herfelf. He does not call oftaves replicates (which is a
Gallicifm), but a recurrency. He thinks (and thinks
rightly), that our not cultivating quarter tones, or enhar-
monic, is from their not being capable of harmony ; and it
feems a proof, among others, that the ancient Greeks had
no harmony, cr mufic in parts.

He fpeaks of fliding from one found to another by
fmall degrees, which are delightful. ‘This we ufed to
think a refinement of late times.

The clavecin oculaire, or ocular harpfichord of Pere
Caftel, was certainly fuggefted to him by the experiment,
N° 3, fecond cent.

The powers of found on the fpirits and affections; that
found depends on motion ; that the inclofure of found
increafes its force; that the tone of voice at the fame
pitch is of a different quality in a room, and in the
open air, and in different rooms, are his difcoveries. He
denies, indeed, what was afterwards proved by the air-pump,
that found cannot be produced in an exhautted receiver.

Sound is carried along a wall better than in open fpace ;
and better on the fmooth furface of a river or piece of water,
than on land.

Dr. Holder, in his Elements of Speech, has but inge-
nioufly extended one of fir Francis Bacon’s experiments.

Derham’s experiments on the panes oe and motion of
found, were pointed out by the zorit experiment of fir
Francis.

The late honourable Daines Barrington’s experiments on
birds, their power of imitation, and of teaching each other,
feem to have fprung from fir Francis’s experiments on the
imitation of found, cent. iil.

Confent of vifibles and invifibles, advances fomewhat
further towards an ocular harpfichord.

The fons harmoniques, which Galiieo and father Merfennus
were obferving about this time, had not efcaped the pene-
trating and active mind of our great philofopher; and

BAC

the acoufficon, or ear-trumpet, is here firft pointed out,
N° 285.

His refleCtion at the end of N® 290, hall clofe this ar-
ticle.

‘We have laboured, as may appear in this difquifition
of founds, diligently ; both becaufe found is one of the moft
hidden portions of nature, and becaufe it is of a virtue that
may be called incorporeal and immateriate ; whereof there
be in nature but few. Befides, we were willing, now.in
thefe our fir centuries, to make a pattern or precedent of
an exact inquifition, and we fhall do the like hereafter on
fome other fubje&ts that require it. For we defire that
men fhould learn and perceive, how fevere a thing the true
difquifition of nature is; and fhould accuftom themfelves
by the light of particulars to enlarge their minds to the am-
plitude of the world, and net reduce the world to the nar-
rownels of their minds.”’

Bacon, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Segeitan; go miles N.N. E. of Zareng.

BACONE, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Tulcany,
28 miles N. E. of Florence.

BACONTHORP, or Bacon, Joun, in Biography, an
Englifh monk of the thirteenth century, was born at Bacon-
thorp, a village in Norfolk, and aflumed the monaftic habit

in the convent of Blackney in the fame county. He received

his education at Oxford and Paris; and in his youth was
attached to the philofophy of Averroes, who taught that
one intelligent principle animates all human beings. Ata
general aflembly of the order of Englifh carmelites held in
London in 1329, he was chofen one of their provincials.
Being invited to Rome about four years afterwards, he
gave offence by allowing, in public difputation, too much
latitude in the marriage of perfons mutually related. But
he afterwards maintained, that in degrees of confanguinity
prohibited by the divine law, the pope has no difpenfing
power. His ftature was {mall ; hut his mind was eminentl
vigorous and aétive.- He was diftinguifhed through life by
the appellation of the “ Refolute Doétor;’? and after his
death he was celebrated both in profe and verfe, as a zealous
defender of the Catholic faith againft Jews, Turks, and
Heretics. Some few of the many books which he wrote
were printed ; among thefe were “* Commentaries, or Quef-
tionsonthefourbooks of Sentences,”’ Milan, 1510, and 16113
and “ A Compendium of the Law of Chrift,’’ Venice, 1527.
He died at London in 1346. Cave, H. L. vol.ii. Ap-
pendix, p.27. Biog. Brit.

BACOPA, in Botany. Lin. gen. Schreb. n. 266. Aubl.
49. Jufl. 313. Clafs, peniandria monogynia. Nat. Ord.
fucculente: portulacee, Juff. Gen.Char. Ca/. perianth one-
leafed, five parted ; two of the parts oblong, concave, acute ;
the two inferior deflex, ovate, acute; the fingle fuperior
one broader, roundifh, undulated. Cor. one-petalled ; tube
fhort, towards the orifice a little enlarged; border five-
parted; parts ovate, oblong, obtufe, equal, fpreading. Stam.
filaments five, inferted into the tube of the corolla; anthers
fagittate. Pi/}. germ ovate, comprefled, below incruited by
the calyx growing to it; ftyle fhort ; ftigma headed. Per.
capfule one-celled. Seeds many, extremely {mall.

Eff. Gen. Char Cor. with a fhort tube, fpreading at the
top. Stam. inferted into the tube of the corolla; ftigma
headed, capf. one-celled.

Species, 1. B. aquatica. Aubl. Guian. 129. t.49. This
plant puts forth feveral cylindric, fucculent, knotty ftems 5
leaves oppofite, item clafping or rather connate, thick,
oblong, concave, fharp, {mooth ; flowers folitary, peduncled,
alternate from the axille; below the calyx there ftands
a pair of fiefhy bractes on the long peduncle ; corolla Bie

t

BAC

It puts forth roots from the knots, both as it runs along the
ground, and as it lies on the furface of the water. A native
of Cayenne, on the borders of rivulets, flowering in Decem-
ber. The inhabitants of the ifland call it herde aux brulures,
on account of its being ufed for curing burns,

BACQUERE, Benenicr, in Biography. Of this writer,
who lived towards the end of the feventeenth century, but of
whofe life no memorials have come to us, we have a much ef-
teemed work, ‘Salvator Senum,”’ publifhed 1672 ; and, if it
is not the fame work, “ Senum Medicus, prefcribens obfer-
vanda, ut fine magna moleftia fencétus protrahatur.”’ Colon.
1673, and 1683, 8vo, Haller Bib. Med. Pract. Morf. Car-
rera fays, that Bacquere was profeffor of theology, and prior

‘of the abbey of Dunes, which Eloy obferves is very proba-

ble, as at the end of the direGtions for the prefervation of
the health of aged perfons, is another work intitled, ‘ Sal-
vator Senus, remedia fuggerans pro Senum falute eterna.”
Eloy. Dittion. Hift. De la Med. v.i. p. 242. ’

BACQUET, Joun, a learned French lawyer, was ad-
vocate to the king, and flourifhed at the clofe of the fixteenth
century. He wrote many excellent law-traéts, which were
publifhed with notes by Ferriere at Lyons, in 2 vols. folio,
in 1744. Hediedin 1597. Nouv. Dict. Hiltor.

BACTISHUA,or Boxr Jesu,Servants of Fefus, a Chrif-
tian family famed in the Eaft for their knowledge of phyfic.

Bactisuua, Georce, the firft of the family of whom
we have any account, who befides his fkillin medicine, was
eminent for his proficiency in the Perfian and Arabian
languages, received his education at Jondifabur, or Nifabur,
the capital of Korafan. Sapores king of the Perfians is
faid to have built this city, A.C. 272, in honour of his
queen, the daughter of the emperor Aurelian, who fent
with her feveral Greek phyficians. Thefe-men, fettling
there, received and propagated the doctrines of Hippocrates,
in the eaft, and hence, Freind conjectures, it happened,
that moft of the celebrated Arabian phyficians, Rhazes,
Haly Abbas, Avicenna, were educated in the more eaftern
parts of Afia. George, being fent for to Bagdad, by
Almanzor, the fecond caliph of the houfe of Abbas, to
relieve him of a complaint of his ftomach, in which he was
fuccefsful, was detained there, and at the defire of the
caliph, tranflated feveral books of phyfic; and when, on
account of his ill health, he defired leave to return to his
country, Almanzor fent him home with great honour,
and a reward of 10,000 aurei. Rhazes and Serapion have
recorded in their works many of the maxims and medicines
of George. The anfwer was remarkable which he made to
Almanzor, who had condefcended to folicit his converfion
from Chriltianity to Mahometanifm, and offered to infure him

~ a place in paradife upon his compliance. ‘* No,” replied the
dofor, “I am very well contented to go wherefoever my
forefathers have gone, be it to heaven or to hell.” Ruffel’s
Aleppo, vol. ii. Append. p. 5.

Gabriel, the fon of George, was in equal eftimation with
the caliph Haroun Al Rafchid, whom he cured of an
apoplexy, by directing him to be blooded, which was per-
formed, though contrary to the opinion of the other phyfi-
cians. Freind annexed to his Hiltory of Phyfic, the life
of Gabriel, tranflated into Latin, from the Arabic of Abi-
Ofbai. The tranflation was performed at the expence of
Dr. Mead. The work is principally remarkable for the
extravagant praifes beftowed on Gabriel, and the account
of the high honours and prodigious wealth heaped by the
caliphs on their phyficians. Freind’s Hiftory of Phytic,
vol.ii. Haller. Bib. Med. Pra&t. Foran account of others
of this family, which in fucceffion fupplied the caliphs with
phyficians for above two centuries; fee Ruflel’s Aleppo
(ubi fupra).

BAC

BACTRIA, or Bacraiana, in Ancient Geography, a
country of Afia, was bounded on the welt by Margiana
and Aria, on the north by the river Oxus, which feparated
it from Sogdiana, on the fouth by the mountains called Pa-
ropamifus, which covered the north of India, and on the
ealt by mountains which feparated it from Afiatic Scythia
and the country of the Maflagete. It comprehended the
prefent provinces of Balk and Gaur, and probably, fays
major Rennell, part of Korafan. It was a large, fruitful,
and well-peopled country, and contained, according to Am-
mianus Marcellinus (1. xxili.), a great number of cities men-
tioned by the ancients ; but the metropolis was Badra, called
alfo Zariafpa, and now Back, from which, or from the ri-
ver Bactrus, the country derived its name. Quintus Curtius
(I. vii. c. 4.) deduces the name both of the city and country
from the river Ba¢trus, which watered the environs of the
capital. Pliny (1. vi. c. 15, 16.) places Baétra on the river
Zariafpe ; and Curtius, on the Bactrus, at the foot of mount
Paropamifus ; but Ptolemy deferibes it as fituated on the
river Dargidus, in the heart of the country, at a great di-
ftance from this mountain, which was the fouthern boun-
dary. The chief rivers of Baétria, with regard to the names
of which there is confiderable confufion, were the Oxus,
the Ochus, the Orgomenes, or as Ptolemy calls it, Dargo-
menes, which, uniting with the Ochus, fell into the Oxus ;
the Zariafpa, or Zariafpes ; the Artemis; and the Dargi-
dus. That part of Baétria, which was watered by the ri-
ver Oxus, is defcribed by the ancients as a very fruitful
country, abounding with paltures, and well ftocked with
cattle of a very: large fize; but the fouthern parts were
fandy deferts, through which travellers journeyed only in
the night, being under a neceflity of guiding themfelves by
the ftars, as if they were at fea, and expofed to the danger
of being buried in the fand. The country was inhabited by
the following nations: the Salatra and Zariafpz ; the Cho-
mari, or Comarians, placed by Ptolemy near the fources of
the Iaxartes, toward the eaftern boundaries of Sogdiana ;
the Comi; the Acinace ; the Tambazz, or T'ambyzi ;. the
Thocarz, or Tochari, who were mountaineers on the decli-
vity which regards Battriana, whence the modern Toka-
reftan ; the Marycei; the Scorde ; the Varni; the Ara-
dix ; the Orfippi; the Amarifpii, and fome others. The
Badtrians in general were reckoned good foldiers, and were
always at war, either among themfelves, or with the neigh-
bouring nations. Herodotus fays they were archers, and
ufed bows made of their country reed or cane, and had
fhort darts. In other refpects they were accoutred, like
the Medes, who wore tiaras, tunics, and breeches, with a
dagger at their girdles. They were enemies to every kind
of luxury. Pliny informs us, that they ufed to expofe
their old people after a certain age, to be devoured by fierce
maftifis, which they kept for that purpofe, and called fe-
pulchral dogs. He adds, that they allowed their daughters
to affociate with any whom they liked, and that incontinence.
was not difreputable even to the women.

The early hiftory of Baétria is, like that of other ancient
nations, involved in confiderable obfcurity and uncertainty...
According to Diodorus, the Baétrian government, in the
earlier ages, was monarchical.. Zoroafteris faid by Eufebius
(in Chron.) to have reigned in Ba@tria, and to have been
contemporary with Nious, who made war upon him, and
fubdued his country.. But Ctefias, followed by Diodorus, .
mentions one Oxyartes, who reigned in Battria, when that
country was reduced by Ninus, and he fays that Zoroafter
was contemporary with Cyrus the Great. But the hiftory
of this Perfian lawgiver is loft in remote antiquity. It has
been afferted by fome writers, that Ninus fubdued all Afia,
except India and Ba¢triana, However this be, all authors

are

BAC

are agreed, that Ba¢tria was fubdued, firft by the Affyrians,
and afterwards by the Perfians under Cyrus the Great.
After the overthrow of the Perfian empire by Alexander
(B.C. 328.), it fell under the power of the Macedonians,
and was held by the fucceffors of Seleucus Nicator, till the
reign of Antiochus Theos, when Theodotus, about the
year B.C. 249, from being governor of that province, be-
came king, and ftrengthened himfelf fo effectually in his
new kingdom, while Antiochus was engaged in a war with
Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, that he could never
afterwards difpoffefs him of his acquifitions. He was fuc-
ceeded by his fon Theodotus, who, ftrengthening himfelf
by an alliance with Arfaces, the founder of the Parthian
monarchy, confiderably enlarged his kingdom. Theodotus,
being vanquifhed by Euthydemus, was expelled the king-
dom ; and Euthydemus was fucceeded by his brother Me-
nander, who extended his conquefts to feveral countries that
were unknown to Alexander the Great. The poffefficns
which Menander had reduced were retained by his nephew
and fucceffor Demetrius, and enlarged by feveral new, acqui

fitions. Having left the kingdom of Baétria in a very flou-
rifhing condition, he was fucceeded by his fon Eucratides,
who invaded India, and made himfelf mafter of all thofe
provinces which had been fubjeéted by Alexander. During
the reigns of thefe fix princes, the commerce of Baétria with
India was very confiderable. The diftrift near the mouth
of the Indus, which Alexander had fubdued, was recovered ;
and military operations were carried on in India, with fuch
fuccefs, that the Bactrian kings,penetrated far into the in-
terior part of the country ; and proud of the conquetts
which they had made, as well as of the extenfive dominions
over which they reigned, fome of them affumed the title of
« Great King,” which diftinguifhed the Perfian monarchs
in the days of their higheft fplendour. _Apollodorus, the
Baétrian hiftorian, aflerts that Eucratides pofleffed one thou-
fand cities. The learned Bayer, in his interefting hiftory,
advances many arguments to prove that the Greeks of Bac-
triana imparted the firft lineaments of fcience to the Hin-
doos. M. Pezron, in his ‘* Antiquities of Nations,” alleges,
that there was a people in the upper regions of Afia, be-
yond Media and mount Imaus, who in the firft ages {pread
themfelves over Baétria and Margiana, and proceeding by
Armenia and Cappadocia, at lait paffed over into Europe.
Thefe people were called Sace. In the mean time, the
Cimmerians, who were of the fame family, went by the
north ; and having made various’ incurfions, at laft fettled
above the Euxine fea, near the Palus Mzotis. The learned
Bryant is of opinion, that this account is not warranted by
fufficient authority on the part of the writers to whom. M.
Pezron appeals. Although {uch people as the Cimmerians
actually exilted upon the Meotis, yet that they came from
Batria, and fought their way through different countries ;
and that they were the brethren of the Scythians ftyled Sa-
ex, and took the upper route, when the others were mak-
ing their inroad below, are circumftances which, fays Bryant
(Anal. Mythol. vol. iii, p.131.), have not the leaft thadow
of evidence. Another writer of our own nation (fee Wife’s
Hift. & Chron. of the Fabulous Ages, p. 119.) fuppofes,
that all fciences centered of old in Baétria, called Bochary,
or * the land of books.”? (See Sacz, and Scyruia.) But
to return from this digreflion : Eueratides, king of Battria,
was treacheroufly murdered by his fon of the fame name,
who ufurped the throne; but he was expelled by the united
forces of the Scythians who attackedit on one fide, and of the
Parthians who attacked it on the other, and was foon after
killed in attempting to recover it. ‘The Greeks, fays Stra-
bo (1. xi. p. 779-), were deprived of Baétria by tribes or
herds of Scythian Nomades, who came from the country

7

BAG

beyond the Taxartes, and were known by the names of Afii,
Pafiani, Tachari, and Sacarauli. This fact coincides with
the relation of the Chinefe hiftorians, cited by M. de Guig-
nes (Mem. de Liter. t.xxv. Mem. p. 19.), and is confirmed
by it. By them we are informed, that about 126 years be-
fore the Chriftian wra, a powerful horde of Tartars, pufhed
from their native feats on the confines of China, and obliged
to move towards the weit by the preflure of a more nume-
rous body that rolled on behind them, paffed the laxartes,
and pouring in upon Baéttria, like an irrefiitible torrent,
overwhelmed that kingdom, and put anend to the dominion
of the Greeks there, after it had been eftablifhed near 130
years. The kings, who reigned in Ba€tria in the times of
the Roman emperors Adrian, Antoninus Pius, and Vale-
rian, were all of Scythian extraCtion; but the Scythians
were in their turn driven out by the Huns, who reigned in
Bactria in the time of Ladiflaus IV. king of Hun-
ary.

B BACTRIANTI, in Geography, a town of Alia, in the
country of Georgia, 60 miles north of Teflis.

BACTRIANUS, in Zoology, a {pecies of CAMELUS,
having two bunches on the back. Linn. This differs very
little in appearance from the common Arabian camel, ex-
cept in being rather larger, and having two bunches on the
back inftead of one. It is an inhabitant of the weftern and
northern parts of India, and alfo of the deferts bordering on
China ; the breeds of this kind are in more efteem for their
f{wiftnefs than the other. In Arabia, we are told, it is chiefly
kept for the ufe of the great, being not a native of that coun-
try, but imported from India, &c. Of this animal, as well as
of the Arabian kind, there are-feveral races or varieties, dif-
fering like thofe of horfes in ftrength, fize, fwiftnefs, and ele-
gance of form. A breed of peculiar fwiftnefs is faid to be
reared in China, where it is diftinguifhed by the expreffive title
of Fong Kyo Fo, or camels with feet of wind. A white va-
riety occurs in fome parts of Siberia; and laitly, a hybrid
or mixed breed is faid to be occafionally obtained between
the Baétrian and the Arabian camel. Shaw, &c.

BACTRIS, in Botany (ao tou Paxrgou, a flaff; canes
being made of the ftems). Lin. gen. Schreb. n. 1693.
Jacqu. Amer. t. 171. Gertn,9. 139. Clafs, monoecia hex-
andria. Nat. Ord. Palms. Generic character ; * Male flow-
ers. ~ Cal. {pathe univerfal, one-leafed; fpadix branched ;
perianth one-leafed, three-parted, {mall; parts lanceolate,
concave, coloured. Cor. one-petalled, three-cleft ; tube
fhort ; clefts ovate, acute, erect. Stam. filaments fix, fub-
ulate, ereét, of the length of the coroila, inferted into the
middle of the tube; anthers oblong, incumbent. * Female
flowers few, in the fame fpadix, intermixed with the male
ones. Cal. {pathe the fame as in the males ; perianth one-
leafed, bell-fhaped, three-toothed, pointed, coloured, very
{mall, permanent. Cor. one-petalled, ere@t, three-toothed,
permanent. Pi/f. germ ovate, large; ftyle very fhort ; ftig-
ma headed, obf{curely three-cleft. Per. drupe coriaceous,
roundifh, fibrous-fucculent, fharp-pointed with the ftyle.
Seed, nut roundifh, depreffed on each fide ; marked on the
fides with three holes; kernel folid.

Eff. Gen. Char. Male. Cal. three-parted. Cor. ones
petalled, three-cleft. Stam. fix. Female. Cal. one-leafed,
three-toothed. Cor. one-petalled, three-toothed; ftigma
obf{curely three-cleft ; drupe coriaceous. .

Species, 1. B. minor. Jacqu. l. c. Ic. fele&. t. 256. B.
minima Gaertn. Fruct. 2. 269.—conf. B. globofa minor.
Fijufd. 1. 22. que Cocos aculeata, Swartz & Hort. Kew
Palma, 7. Brown Jam. 344. Fruit roundifh.”? Root
creeping ; trunk upright, armed with numerous prickles,
about an inch in diameter, feldom more than twelve feet
high. ‘The flowers ufually appear as foon as it has sip

c

BAD

the height of abont four feet; leaves frondofe, few, ftem-
clafping at the bafe, pinnate ; the rib prickly ; the leaflets
esa hints acuminate, fhining, flat, ferrate-prickly ; f{pathes
axillary, folitary, fpreeding, continuing long after the fruit
is ripe; flowers without fcent, very flightly tinged with
yellow ; fruit the colour and fize of a common cherry, con-
taining an acid juice of which the Americans make a fort
of wine. Cancs are made of the ttem; they are dark-co-
loured, thining, jointed, very light, and called by the
French Cannes de Tobago. 2. B. major. Jacqu. l.c. “ Fruit
ovate.” This refembles the former, but grows to the height
of twenty-five feet with a ftem more than two inches in
diameter. Leaves fix feet long ; leaflets nez:ly two feet,
with the marginal prickles brown, and more contpicuous
than thofe in the other fpecies ; fpadix compreded, flat,
reclining ; fruit of the form and fize of an egg, acuminate
with the ftyle, fibrous, fucculent, covered with a dark pur-
ple coriaceous coat, of which the natives make a vinous li-
quor. The nut is large, of a dark colour, ovate-oblong,
with an acuminate trifid apex, and three ob{cure holes, two
above the middle, and the third higher; kernel oblong,
blunt «at both ends, cartilaginous, folid. The fruits are
called Cocorstes, and fold in the market. Both thefe plants
are natives of Carthagena in South America.

Bactris, in Eztomology, a {pecies of Brucuus that
lives in the nuts of the American palms. It is cinereous;
wing-cales rather fmooth; pofterior thighs ovate; fhanks
incurved. Linn. Amoen. Ac. Gmel. &e.

BACTROPERATA, alfo written baGropereta, com-
pounded of Poxrgor, fa, and xnpx, bag, or budget, an ancient
appellation given to philolophers by way of contempt, de-
noting a man with a ftaff and a budget.

BACUACHI, 1 Geography, a town of North America,
in New Navarre, 135 miles fouth of Cafa Grand.

BACULARES, a fe& of Anazsartists, to called, as
holding it unlawful to bear a {word, or any other arms be-
fides a tlaff.

BACULARIUS, in Writers of the Middle Aze, an ec-
clefiaftical apparitor, or verger, who carries a ltalt, daculus,
in his hand, as an enfign of his office.

BACULE, in Fortification, a kind of portcullis, or gate,
made like a pit-fall with a counterpoile, and fupported by
two great flakes. It is ufually made before the corps du

ard advancing near the gate.

BACULI. See Bacitut.

Bacuut, Sandi Pauli, or batoons of St. Paul, a kind of
figured ftones, of the fame fub‘tance with thoie refembling
the briftles of fome American echini, cailed by Dr. Plott
lapides Fudaict.

BACULOMETRY, the art of meafuring acceffible and
inacceffible diftances, by the help of baculi, ftaves or rods.
Schwentet has explained this art in his “* Geometna Pragi-
ca ;” therules ofit are alfo laiddown by Wolfus in his Ele-
ments; Ozanam alfo gives an illuitration of the principles
of baculometry. See Distance; and Loncimerry.

BACULOSUS Ecctesiasticus, in tome Ancient
Laws, is uled for a bifhop or abbot, dignified with the pal-
toral ftaff, or crozier.

BACULUS Divinarorius, or Virgula Divina, a
branch of hazle-tree, of a forked figure, uicd for jthe dif-
covery of mines, fprings, &c. See Vircura Divina.

BADA, in Anctent Geography, atown of Africa, accord-
ing to Ortelius and St. Cypnan.— Alfo a river of Pheenicia,
in the vicinity of the town of Paltos, near which was a
tomb faid to be that of Memnon, fon of Tithonus, and
nephew of Priam, king of Troy. Strabo, 1. xv.

Bava, or Badas, in Zoology. This is the name of the
Ruinoceros among the negroes on the coait of Angola.

BAD

BADACUM, in Ancient Geography, atown of Norica,
fituate near the Danube. Ptolemy.

BADAGIS, in Geography, a town of Koralan, on the
fouthern borders of the ancient defert of Margiaua. N. Jat.
35° 20’. E. long. 59° 28’.

3ADAGSHAN, or Bapaxsuan, an ancient city of
Independent Tartary, in Great Bucharia, feated on the
north fide of the river Amu, or Harrat, not far to the
north of Bnderab in Tokareftan. In the latt century, this
city belonged to the khan of Great Bucharia, or rather of
Samarcand ; and being fecluded in a branch of the Belar
Alps, was ufed as a ftate prifon for rivals or infurgents.
Badakthan was {mall, but well built and populous; and its
inhabitants were enriched by the gold, filver, and rubies
found in its neighbourhood; the grains of gold and filver
abounding in the torrents which defcend from the moun-
tains, when the {now melts in the beginning of fommer.
Several Caravans for Little Bucharia and China pafs by this
city. Ebn Haukal mentions that there were not only mines
of rubies and lazulite near Badakihan ; but that there was
abundance of mufk. It is fituated above 100 miles from
the fource of the Amu, 230 from Balk, and 210 from
Anghien in the province of Samarcand. N. lat. 36° 15’.
E. long. 68° 45’.

_BADAGRY, a town of Africa, in the country of Be-
nin.

BADAJOZ, Pax Avucusra, a confiderable town of
Spain, being the capital of Eftremadura, and a frontier
fortrels towards Portugal. It is feated near the river Gua-
diana, ona gentle rife, which on one fide is covered with
olive-trees, and on the other fide of the river are fome forti-
fied hills. Over the riveris a handfome ftone bridge, built,
as it has been faid, by the Romans, but as the infcription
on it ftates, by Philip II. .The ftreets are'clean, and partly
ftraight, and well-paved ; and there are a few large houfes,
with fome handfome churches and towers. The fortifica-
tions are not very ftrong; but it has fuflained two fieges,
one by the Portuguefe in 1658; and another by the Eng-
lifh and Dutch, aided by the Portuguefe, in 1705. N. lat.
38° 43’. W. long. 6° 19.

BADANATHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ara-
bia Felix, in the country of the Thamudzi. Pliny. :

BADARA, a town of Afia, in Gedrofia.—Alfo, a town
of Afia, in Caramania. “Ptolemy.

BADASKA, in Geography, a town of Siberia, on the
fide of the Angara; 80 miles N.N.W of Tekutfch.

BADATIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Tauric Cherfonefus. Ptolemy.

BADAUSA, atown of Afia, in Mefopotamia. Pto-
lemy. -

BADDAMMY, in Geography, a town of Hindoftan, in
the country of the Vifiapour, eighty miles fouth of Vifia-

our. N. lat. 16° 10/.- E. long. 75° 40’.

BADELONA, Bapatona; or B#tura, an ancient
town of Spain, in Catalonia, feated on the coaft of the Me-
diterrancan, about fix miles north-eait of Barcelona.

BADELU, or Bapizsou, a country of Africa, on the
borders of the river Gambia.

BADELUNDSAHS, a long narrow fandy tra@ of
land in Sweden, in the province of Weftmannland, where
the Danes were totally defeated in 1521.

BADEN, a diftriét or county of Swifferland, lying on
both fides of the river Limmatt, and bounded on the weit
by the river Aar, on the north by the Rhine, and on the
fouth by the Reufs, became a bailliage of the eight ancient
cantons in 1418, when the cauton of Zuric tock poffeflien
of the town and county, and fo continued tili the year

1712. Accivil war breaking out at that time between the
Pro-

BAD

Proteftant and Catholic cantons, Baden was befieged an
taken by the troops of Zuric and Bern; and at the peace
of Arau, it was ceded to thofe two cantons and Glarus,
which, on account of its neutrality, preferved its right of
joint fovereignty. Until 1712, the diet aflémbled at Ba-
den; but was afterwards transferred to Frauenfield. The
three cantons alternately appointed a bailiff, who refided in
the caftle. The inhabitants elected their own magiltrates,
and had their own judicial courts. In civil procéedings, an
appeal lies to the bailiff, and from his decifion to the fyn-
dicate, compofed of the deputies of the three cantons, and
in the laft refort to the three cantons themfelves. In penal
caufes, the criminal court condemns, and the bailiff enjoys
the power of pardoning, or mitigating the fentence. This
bailliage comprehends about 138 {quare geographical miles,
and contains 24,000 perfons. In confequence of the French
revolution, a new divifion took place in 1798 ; the county
of Baden, the free bailliages, and a fmall portion of the
fouth-weftern part of Zuric, were conttituted one of the
18 Swifs departments or cantons, and Baden was its capi-
tal; but according to the conftitution of the 29th of May
1801, Argovie, re-united with Baden and with the upper
part of the Frickthal, was made one of the 17 departments
or cantons of Swifferland; and fix reprefentatives were
appointed to be deputed by it to the diet. The foil of this
diftrié is fertile ; in general it abounds with grain and fruit,
and on the fides of the Limmatt it produces wine. The
mountains yield excellent free-{tone, marble, and iron ore.
The greater number of the inhabitants are Roman Ca-
tholics.

Bapen, the capital of the above diftri& or canton, is
fituated on the fide of the river Limmatt, ina plain flanked
by two hills, between which the river runs. It derived its
name and its origin from the warm baths in its neighbour-
hood, which were famous before the Chriftian era, and are
mentioned by the ancients under the name of Aque and
Therme Helvetice. It was a Roman fortrefs, erected to
curb the Alemanni or Germans, and was rafed when the
Helvetians, who fupported Otho, were routed by Cezcina,
general to Vitellius. Being rebuilt, it was taken by the
Germans; fell afterwards under the dominion of the Franks,
was in the tenth century incorporated in the German em-
pire, and became fucceffively fubje& to the dukes of Ze-
ringen, to the counts of Kyburgh, and to Rhodolph of
Hapfburgh. When his defcendant Frederic, duke of Auf-
tria, was put under the ban of the empire, in 1418, it came
into the poffeffion of the canton of Zuric, which purchafed
it of the emperor Sigifmond, and fubjeéted it to the eight
cantons. (See the preceding article.) Many monuments of
antiquity have been found in this place; fuch as ftatues of
feveral heathen gods, made of alabafter; Roman coins,
formed of bronze, of Auguttus, Vefpafian, Decius, &c.;
and feveral medals of the Roman emperors, of gold, filver,
copper, and bronze. There are two churches in this city ;
one collegiate, and the other a monaftery of capuchins,
near the town-houfe, in which the diet formerly affembled.
Before the caftle, which is the refidence of the bailiff, there
is a ftone-pillar, erected in honour of the emperor T'rajan,
who paved in this country a road eighty-five Italian miles
long. The inhabitants are rigid Roman Catholics, and were
formerly infolent in their behaviour towards the Proteftants.
The baths are feated on each fide of the river, about a
quarter of a league from the city. Adjacent to the {mall
baths is a village, and to the large, a town, feated on a hill
of fteepafcent. The water of the baths is conveyed to inns
and private houfes by means of pipes, -of which there are
about fixty. And in the middle of the towns there are
public baths, fupplied by a {pring in the ftreet, where the

8

BAD

poor may bathe gratis. All the baths are hot, and thev are
ufed for drinking as well as for bathing. They ferve, like
others of a fimilar kind, to give relief in a variety of dif.
cafes. (See Waters, Medicinal.) About a mile from Ba-
den, at a place called Wettingen, where the Limmatt fiows
with the greateft rapidity, there is a beautiful piece of me-
chanifm, which is a wooden bridge, 240 feet long, and ful
pended above twenty feet from the furface of the water. It
was the laft work of Grubenman, the felf-taught archite&,
and exceeds in elegance that of Schaffhaufen. Mr. Coxe
(Trav. Swiff. vol. i. 137.) has given a geometrical elevation
of it. Baden is diftant 14% miles from Zuric. N. lat. 47°
21’. E. long. 8° 12’.

Bapen, a margravate of Germany, in the circle of Swa-
bia, is divided into the upper and lower margravate. The
upper, or the marquifate of Baden-Baden, terminates weft.
ward on the Rhine, though a {mall part of it lies weft of
that river, and is bounded on the north-weft by the lower
margravate of Baden-Durlach, on the eaft by the duchy of
Wurtemberg and the county of Eberitein, and on the fouth
by the Ortenau and the Brifgau. The principal towns are
Raftadt, Baden, Etlingen, Steinbach, and Stolhoffen. The
margrave is a fovereign prince, and has a vote in the college
of princes. The eltablifhed religion is Roman catholic,
The lower margravate, or that of Baden-Durlach, is bound-
ed on the weft by the Rhine, on the fouth by the upper
margravate of Baden, on the eaft by the duchy of Wur-
temberg, and on the north by the bifhopric of Spire. The
principal towns are Carlfruhe, Durlach, Pforzheim, Muhl-
burg, and Emmingen. This prince has two votes in the
college of princes, one for Baden-Durlach, and the other
for the margravate of Stockberg, which belongs to him,
and lies in and along the Brifgau. The reigning family,
and the country in general, profefs Lutheranifm, witha tole-
ration of Proteftants, Catholics, and Jews at Carlfruhe. The
whole margravate of Baden is a populous and fertile country,
abounding with corn, hemp, flax, bees-wax, wood, and
wine. Venifon and wild-fowl are fo plentiful that they are
the common diet of the peafants.
with chefnuts, furnifh excellent bacon. They have free-
ftone for building, marble of various colours, and fome
agate. Manufactures are much encouraged, and the coun-
try is in a flourifhing condition. The territoriés of the
margrave of Baden comprehend 832 fquare miles, and
200,000 inhabitants. The annual revenue is eltimated at
1,200,000 florins; and the military eftablifhment confifts of
3000 men, of whom 300 are cavalry.

Bane, a town of Germany, and capital of the upper
margravate of Baden, is feated on the river Oalbach near
the Rhine, among vineyards. It has a fine caftle, on the
top of a mountain, where the prince often refides during the
fummer. It is famous for its hot baths, whence it derives
its name: diftant four miles fouth from Rafladt. N. lat.
48° 46’. E. long. 9° 24’.

Bapen, a town of Germany, in tke archduchy of Auf-
tria, feated on the river Schwocha, and much frequented on
account of its baths. The town is walled, and has three
churches; twelve miles S.S. W. from Vienna. N. lat. 48°
3’. E. long. 16° 12',

BADENOCH, a diftri& forming the eaftern part of
Invernefs-fhire, in Scotland, extending from eaft to weft
about thirty-three miles, and in the broadeft part twenty-
feven miles from north-eaft to fouth-weft. It is barren and
hilly, and abounds with deer and game.

BADENS, Francis, in Biography, a painter of hiftory
and portraits, was born at Antwerp, in 1571, and acquired
the firft rudiments of the art from his father; and, by vifit-
ing Rome and other parts of Italy, acquired a good tafte

in

Their hogs, being fed:

BAD

in defign, and a very pleafing manner. Upon his return to
his own country, his merit was fo generally acknowledged,
that he was diltinguifhed by the name of the Italian painter.
His touch was light and fpirited, and his colouring warm,
fo that he had the honour of being the firft who introduced
among his countrymen a good tafte for coiouring. The
news of his brother’s affaflination occafioned his death in
1603, which was much regretted by every‘lover of the art.
Pilkington.

BADENSIS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Curcurio,
about the fize of C.cerafi. Itisblack,; legs pitchy. Gme-
lin, Blom. This infe€&t inhabits Germany; the thorax is
rather fmooth and ovate’; wing-cafes obfoletely ftriated;
thizhs clavated.

Bapensts, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Emperrz.a found
in the neighbourhood of Baden. The colour is olive,
ftreaked with blackith, beneath paler; chin orange ; breatt
ftriated with blackifh. Sander Naturf.

BADENUCHI, in Geography, a town of North Ame-
rica, in the province of New Navarre; 125 miles fouth of
Cafa Grand.

BADENWEILER, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Swabia, and margravate of Baden-Baden. N. lat. 47°
55’. E.long. 7° 50’.

BADERA, in Ancient Geography, Bafiege, a place of
Gaul, belonging to the Volfce TeCtofages, in the Narbon-
nenfis prima, on the rout from Touloufe to Narbonne, and
fouth-eaft of the firft of thefe towns.

BADESSUS, atown of Afia, placed by Ptolemy in
Caria.

BADEY, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Korafan; 140 miles north-weft of Herat.

BADGE, in Naval Archite@ure, fignifies a’fort of orna-
ment placed on the outfide of fmall fhips very near the
ftern, containing either a window, for the convenience of
the cabin, or a reprefentation of it. It is commonly deco-
rated with marine figures, martial inftruments, or fuch like
emblems.

Banpce, in Heraldry. See Device.

BADGER, Common, in Zoology, urfus meles of Linn.
and Gmel. See Ursus Metres. The badger’s fkin is of
fome ufe in commerce. Their fat is fold by the druggifts,
as a remedy againft diforders of the kidneys and the {ctatica;
and their hair, for the making pencils for painters and
gilders.

Bancer, from bajulo, I carry, or from the Fr. baggage,
a bundle; whence bagagier, a carrier of goods; a licenfed
hucktter, or perfon privileged to buy corn, or other provi-
fions, and to carry them from one place to another to make
profit of them, without beimg reputed anengroffer. In the
ftatutes he is alfo called a kidder, or lader of corn, 5 & 6
Ed. VI. c.14. 5 El. c.12.—We alfo read of badgers, or
retailérs of falt, g W. III. c.6. If any perfon fhall a& as
a badger without licence, which continues in force one year,
he fhall forfeit five pounds, one moiety to the king, and the
other to the proprietor, 13 Eliz. c.25. § 20.

Bavcer-hunting. See Wuntine.

BADIA, in Conchology, a {pecies of Cyprza, having
an oblong gibbous fhell, above bay-colour, dotted with
brown and white. Gmelin, &c. Its native place is un-
known.

Banta, a fpecief of Hexrx, called by Born helix ungulinas
it is about an inch in height, and rather more than an inch
anda half in length; and of a chefnut colour. The fhellis
umbilicated, fubglobofe, {mooth, deprefled above; aperture
lunar. Gmelin.

Bapra, a fpecies of Patetia, the fhell of which is

Vor. IIT.

BAD

fomewhat convex, brown, bay-colour within; with twelve
larger rays, each furrounded on both fides by: arib; and
{maller rays. The varieties of this kiid are numerous, and
no lefs than fixteen of them are defcribed by Schroet. Ein).
in Conch. n. Litterat. &c. This fhell is ufually about two
inches and three quarters in length; more or lefs flat in dif-
ferent fpecimens, and rarely pellucid; fometimes they are
dotted with green, but flightly ; and in others the upper
{urface is {potted all over with that colour ; thells of this
kind occur in which green or brown is difpofed in rays, or
in rows of dots; fometimes they are pale ath-colour, waved
or {potted with yellow or black, orliver-colour. The crown
is often variegated with rays, and not unfrequently with five
rows of blue dots ;.and a fpatulate liver-coloured or green
{pot in the bottom, furrounded by a fingle or double band,
which is more or lefs pale, and of different colours in dif-
ferent fhells ; the inner furface is ufually either brown, yel-
low, liver-colour, or hoary-grey.

Bapia, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
Betica, fuppofed to be the prefent Bapayoz.

Banta, in Geograpsy, atown of Italy, inthe duchy of
Tufcany, feventeen miles north of Florence.—Alfo, a town
in the fame duchy, fifteen miles weft of Volterra.

BADIAGA, in the Materia Medica, the name of a fort
of fpungy fubftance, common in the fhops ia Mofcow, and
fome other northern kingdoms: ufed for taking away the
livid marks from blows and bruifes, which the powder of it
is faid to do in anight’s time.

We owe the knowledge of this medicine, and its hiftory,
to the accurate Buxbaum. He obferves, that the fubftance is
always found under water, and is of a very fingular and pe-
culiar nature. It fomewhat refembles the alcyoniums, and.
fomewhat the fpunges, but differs greatly from both, in
that it is full of fmall round granules, refembling feeds. _ It
is of a loofe, light, and {pungy ftruture, and is made up
of a number of fibres of an herbaceous matter, and is dry,
rigid, and friable between the fingers. This may ferve as
the generical character of the badiaga, of which this accus
rate obferver has found three different fpecies. Linnzus
makes it a fpecies of {punge.

BADIAN, or Banprana, the feed of the anife-tree, or
of atree refembling it, that grows in China: and fometimes
ufed by the Chinefe, and alfo by the Dutch, to give an aro-
matic tafte'to their tea.

BADIATH, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Libya interior.

BADIGEON, a mixture of plaifter and free-ftone, well
ground together, and fifted; ufed by ftatuaries to fill up the
little holes, and repair the defects in ftones, whereof they
make their ftatues and other work.

The fame term is alfo ufed by joiners, for faw-duft mixed
with ftrong glue, wherewith they fill up the chaps, and
other defects in wood, after it is wrought.

BADILE, Antonio, in Biography, a painter of hitory
and portrait, was bern at Verona in 1480, and by affiduous
application excelled his predeceffors in an acquaintance with
the true principles of his art. He was allowed to bea very
eminent artift; and he had the honour of having for his
difciples, Paolo Veronefe, and Baptifta Zelotti. His co-
louring was admirable ; his carnations beautiful; and his
portraits preferved the perfect refemblance of flefh and real
life. He died in 1560. Pilkington.

BADILETTERS, a name given to a race of horfe-
men refident in the mountains, in the vicinity of Circaffia,
and of the Nogai Tartars, who in fome meatfure retain their
independence,

BADINGEN, in Geography, atown of Germany, in the

3M circle

BAD

circle of Upper Saxony, and old mark of Brandenburg,
feven miles weft of Stendal.

BADJOURA, a large village of Egypt, on the weftern
Bg of the Nile, not far from Furfhout, in N. lat. 26° Bt
16",

BADIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Carmania,
feated on the coaft of the Perfian gulf, near the promon-
tory of Carpella. Nearchus’s Periplus—Alfo, an epifcopal
town of Africa, according to Ortelius, who cites St. Au-
guttin.

Bapis, in Geography, a fortrefs of Livonia, on the fouth
fide of the gulf of Finland, about feven leagues eaft from
Revel, in N. lat. 59°15’. and E. long. 24° 36/.

BADIUS, in Entomology, afpecies of Cerampyx ( Steno-
corus) that inhabits Siberia. It is of a bay colour, with the
thorax and wing-cafes ftriated. Lepech, Ir.

Baptus, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Farco, about thir-
teen inches in length; a native of Ceylon; and defcribed
in Brown’s illuitrations under the name of the drown hawk.
The legs are pale; head and body above brown, beneath
white with yellow lunar fpots; tail pale brown, with four
dufky lines. Gmelia, &c.

BADKIS, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Korafan, thirty-fix miles north of Herat. N. lat.
35° 26’. E. long. 60° 35’.

BADOGI, a town of Ruffia, on the north coaft of lake
Bielo, in the government of Novogorod, £96 miles north-
eaft of Novogorod.

BADOUCE, in Natural Hifory, the Eaft Indian name
of a fruit very common in that part of the world. It is
round, and of the fize of one of our common apples; it is
yellow on the outfide, and white within. It refembles the
mangoujftan, but its pulp is more tranfparent; its tafte is very
agreeable, and has fome refemblance to that of our goofe-
berries.

BADRACHILLUM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
doftan, in the Moodajee Boomfla country, 72 miles N. E. of
Rajamundry, and 50 eaft of Byarem.

BADRAT, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia,
ten miles north of Stephanowze.

BADRINUS, in Ancient Geography, Foffato Grande, a
river of Italy, inthe territory of the Baii.

BADRIS, a town of Africa, in Marmorica. Anton. Itin.

BADUCCA, in Botany. See Carparis.

BADUEL, Cravup, in Biography, a proteftant divine
of the fixteenth century, was a native of Nifmes, and under
the patronage of the queen of Navarre was appointed reétor
of the univerfity in that city. In 1557 he became the
paftor of a church in the neighbourhood of Geneva, and
and taught mathematics and philofophy till his death in
1561. He tranflated into Latin, the fermons and fome
other works, of Calvin, publifhed at Geneva in 1557, Svo.
He alfo wrote * De ratione vite ftudiofe ac literate in
Matrimonio collocande ac degendz,”? 4to. printed at Lyons
in 1544, and tranflated into Latinin 1548; ‘ De Collegio
et Univerfitate Nemaufenfi,” printed at Lyons in 1054;
«« A&a Martyrum noftri Seculi,”? Genev. 1556; and alfo
Latin orations and epiltles. His Latinity is commended ;
and he was much efteemed for his learning and piety. Gen.
Dia.

BADUENN Lucus, or BapuneEenna, in Ancient
Geography, the name of a foreft in Germany, mentioned by
Tacitus. Its fituation is not afcertained. ‘This was the

lace where Civilis formed his confpiracy againft the Romans.

BADULATO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kinedom of Naples, and province of Calabria Ultra, four-
teen miles S, S. E. of Squillace.

BA O

BADY, a river and an adjacent place of Peloponnefus,
in the territory of Elis, mentioned by Paufanias. After a
war which depopulated the country, the women, it is faid,
prefented their fupplications to Minerva, that they might
fupply the wafte by a new progeny in confequence of their
firft intercourfe with their hufbands ; their petitions were
granted ; and they erected a temple in honour of the goddefs,
and hence the name Bady or Badu, Badv, or in the Dorian
diale&t Adv, i. e. pleafant or agreeable.

BALA, the name of a mountain in the ifland of Cepha-
lonia.

B/EBZ. a fmall town of Afia, in Caria. Steph. Byz.

BAEBARZANA, or Basarnana, a town of Afia, in
Avia.

BABRO, the name of a town of Spain, mentioned by
Pliny.

BACKIA, in Botany (named in honour of Dr. Beck
phyfician to the king of Sweden). Linn. g. 491. Schreb.670.
Juff. 321. Clafs, offandria monogynia. Nat. Ord. calycan-
theme. Onagre, Juil. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth one-leafed,
funnel-form, five-toothed, permanent. Cor. petals five,
roundifh, patulous, inferted into the calyx. Stam. filaments
eight, of which fix are equal, two folitary, very fhort, bent
in; anthers fubovate, {mall. Pi. germ roundilh ; ftyle
filiform, fhorter than the corolla; ftigma capitate. Per.
capfule globular, crowned, four-celled, four-valved. Seeds
roundifh, angular on one fide.

Eff. Gen. Char. Ca/. funnel-form, five-toothed. Cor. five-
petalled ; capf. globular, four-celled, crowned.

Species, B. frutefcens. Reich. 2. 200. Ofb. It. 231. t. 1.
This fhrub has the habit of fouthernwood, with wand-like
branches, and oppofite fhort fimple twigs; leaves oppofite,
linear, fharp, {mooth, entire ; flowers axillary, folitary, on
a naked peduncle the length of the flower, much fhorter
than the leaves. A native of China, where it is called
Tiongina.

ZECOLICUM, or Biacoricos, in Ancient Geography,
a mountain of Africa, in the Pentapolis. Ptolemy.

B/ECOR, a place of Spain, in Betica, where Viriates
wintered after having been defeated by Fabius Maximus
#Emilianus. Appian.

B/ZECULA, a town of Hifpasia Tarragonenfis, in the
territory, or at leaft in the vicinity of the Authetani. Pto-
lemy. 3 :

LEDOO, in Geography, a diftrid of Africa, to the
weit of the river Niger, mentioned by Mr. Park in the
narrative of his journey.

BALAMA (Clupea Belama), in Ichthyology, the name
of a fifh found inthe Red Sea, and deferibed by Forfk. Fn.
Arab.—lt is clupea fetiroffris of Gmelin.

BZELON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, north-
weit of Mellaria, upon the iftraits of Gades, which carried
on a confiderable commerce in falt with Tingis, ou the op-

ofite fhore.

BAEN, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Moldavia, fixteen miles miles N. N. W. of Niemecz.

BAENUM, in Ancient Gegraphy, a town of Arabia Felix.
Ptolemy.

BAOBOTRYS, in Botany, (from Besos, fmall, and
Bospus, a raceme, the fructifications being in thin racemes).
Lin. gen. Schreb. 318. Forfter, Gen.i1. Clafs, pentandria
monogynia. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth double; exterior three-
leaved ; leaflets roundifh, concave, fmaller; inferior one=
leafed, bell-fhaped, fhort, five-cleft, growing to the germ;
clefts ovate, permanent, converging after flowering, and
crowning the fruit. Cor. one-petalled, tubular; tube
very fhort; border five cleft, erect; clefts rounded, ery

ort.

BT

fhort. Siam. filaments five, very fhort, ia the middle
of the tube; anthers heart-fhaped. Pi/. geyn glo-
bofe, half-fuperior ; ftyle cylindric, very fhort, permanent ;
fligma obtufe, tuberculated. Per. berry globofe, fomewhat
dry, one-celled, growing to the calyx. Seeds feveral, angu-
lar, affixed to a columnar receptacle in the bottom of the
berry.

Sptcies, deobotrys xemoralis. Forlt. Por. Auft.97. A
native of the ifleof T'anna, in the South feas.

BAONES, in Geography, the name given by Arrian to
an ifJand in the Indian ecean, on the other fide of the river
Indus.

BAER, and Wetsse Barr, in Zoology, the names of
the black bear, and Polar bear, in “ Ridinger’s Animals.”

BUERENBEISSER, the Butt Doc, Ridinger. Canis
moloffis, Gmel.

BAERSIUS, or Vexenstit, Henry, in Biography, a
mathematician, flourifhed in the beginning of the fixteenth
century. He was a printer at Louvain, and the author
of the following curious mathematical treatifes ; * Tabula
perpetua Longitudinum ac Latitudinum Planetarum,” 1528;
** De compolitione et ufu Decretori Planetarum,” 1530;
* De compofitione et ufu Quadrantis,” 1537. Moreri.

BZERSTRAT, a painter of fea-ports, fea-fhores, and
fifh, was an eminent matter, whofe works were much
efteemed, though the place and time of his nativity are
unknown. His pictures are ealily diftinguifhed by a
general brightnefs diflufed through the whole, and particu-
larly in his {kies. His drawing was correé, and his perfpec-
tive true; he copied every object from nature, and was exact
in his reprefentations of fea-ports, fhips of war, and veffels
of a fmaller fize, which he diftributed with judgment, fo as
to produce a very pleafing effect. His pencil is light and
clean, his touch fpirited, aud his colouring always tranf-
parent ; and he generally finifhed his pictures very neatly.
He died in 1687. Pilkington.

BERUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia.
Ptolemy.

BASAMPSA, a town fituated in the Arabian gulf,
fuppofed by fome interpreters to be the fame with the
Beth-Shemefh, or the houfe of the fun, mentioned by

ofhua.

B/ESIPPO, a town of Spain, fituate about twelve miles
from Belon, and at a fomewhat lefs diftance eaftward from
the promontory of Juno. Anton. Itin.

BZTANA, a town of India, on this fide the Ganges,
feated on the river Nanaguna, and faid by Ptolemy to be
the capital and refidence of the Siropolemii.

BATERRA, Beziers, a town, which was a Roman
colony, fituate in Narbonnenfis Prima, a fouthern province
of Gaul, at a fmall diftance north-eaft from Narbo. It
was the {tation of the veterans of the feventh legion, who
built two temples, one dedicated to Auguitus, and another
to his daughter Julia. ‘Tiberius alfo adorned this city ; and
in the fourth century it was one of the moft confiderable in
Gaul. But in the fifth century it was taken by the Vifi-
goths, who demolifhed its fplendid edifices. It was after-
wards re-eftablifhed ; but taken pofleffion of by the Saracens
in 736. In the next year Charles expelled them, and de-
ftroyed the city, fo that they might not be able to re-fortify

It.
| BATHAUTA, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia. Pto-
lemy.

B/ETICA, a province comprehending the fouthern part
of Spain, and correfponding to the prefent Apdalufia and
Grenada. This was one of the three provinces into which
Auguftus divided Spain; the other two being Lufitania

BAT

and Tarraconenfis. It derived its name from the river
Betis, fince called Tarteffus, and now Guadalquivir, oy
the great river; and was bounded on the welt fide by
Liufitania, on the fouth by the Me’iterranean ‘and gulf of
Gades, aud on the north by the Cantabric fea, now the fea
of Bifcay. Its limits towards the north-eaft were flu@uat-
ing, and cannot be eafily afcertained. The Betis divided
this province into two parts; on the one fide of which,
towards the Anas, were fituate the Turdetani, whence the
kingdom was called Turdetania, but it was better known
by the name of Beturia. On the other fide were fituated
the Baftuli, Baftitani, and Conteltani, along the Mediter-
ranean coafts. It was the richeft and the beft known pro-
vince of Spain., 1t was famous for its wool ; and its ferti-
lity was fuch, that its produce, according to Pliny, (1. xviii.
c. 10.), was an hundred fold. It is well known that the
Pheenicians were long ago eftablifhed on’ thefe coafts, and
that the Carthaginians had fettlements in this country.
Polybius {peaks in high terms of the wealth of Betica, and
of the magnificence of the court of one of its fovereigns.
Betica, according to this author, contained 175 cities; of
of which eight w-re colonies, eight municipal, twenty-nine
enjoyed the jus Latu, four were allied, fix free, and 120
flipendiary or fuch as paid taxes. ‘The chief mountains were
Marianus, now Sierra Morena, and Orofpeda being a part
of the prefent Sierra Nevada. The principal rivers were
the Anas and Betis; and the chief towns were Bafti, Acci,
Eliberis, Caftulo, Corduba, Afligi, Hilpalis, and Gades.

BETIS, now Guaparevivir, a river of Spain, in
Betica, which had its fource, according to Pliny, in the
mountains called Saltus Fugienfis; or to the north-eaft of
Orofpeda, purfued its courfe towards the welt, wathing
Coftulo, Corduba, and Hifpalis, and difcharged itfelf by
many outlets or mouths into the fea. The inhabitants of
the country called it Cirtium and Certis, and the Arabs
Ciritus, derived, according to Mariana, from the oriental
term 4iriath, a town, and denoting the river of towns, on
account of the number of thofe which it watered. See
GuADALQUIVIR.

BZETIUM, the name of a town of Macedonia.

B/ETIUS, a river of Arabia Felix.—Alfo, a mountain
of Afia, in Drangiana. Ptolemy. ~

B/ETULO, a town of Spain, belonging to the Laletani,
at a {mall diftance fouth-eaft from Barcino ; now Badelona.

BAETURIA. See Berica.

BZETUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Ariftotle and
ether of the ancient Greeks, to the fith called by fome
Latin writers coftus ; and particularly to one kind fuppofed
to be that deferibed by Linnzus under the name of gobio ;
and called the bul/-head, or miller’s thumb, in England.

BATYLOS, or Berytion, in Antiquity, a kind of
ftones worfhipped among the Greeks, Phrygians, and other
nations of the Eaft ; fuppofed by fome modern naturalifts
to be the fame with our ceraunia, or thunder-ftone.

The priefts of Cybele carried a betylos on their breaft,
reprefenting the mother of the gods.

According to Damaicius, cited by Photius, they had many
of thefe betylia, which were confecrated to different gods,
as Saturn, Jupiter, the fun, &c. Bochart (Chanaan. 1. ii.
c. 2. vol. i. p. 708.) derives the origin of this fuperftitious
practice from the ftone which Jacob ereéted at Bethel.
Whencefoever the practice was deduced, it was very exten-
five and prevalent ; for in the caltern countries no idol was
more common than oblong ftones, which were denominated
by the Greeks xiov:s, pillars. In fome parts of Egypt,
they were planted on both fides of their roads. In the
temple of Heliogabalus, in Syria, there was one which they

3M2 pretended

BAF

pretended to have fallen from heaven : and a black ftone of
this kind was fetched from Phrygia, with great ceremony,
together with the priefts that belonged to it, by a Roman
embaffy, at the head of which was Scipio Nafica. .

BZEZA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province
of Andalufia, and country of Jaen, feated on a high hill
three miles from the river Guadalquivir. It was anciently
the fee ofa bifhop, which was removed to Jaen in 1249, and
a kind of univerfity founded by John d’Avila. It was
taken by the Moors about the end of the fifteenth century.
N. lat. 37° 45’. E. long. 3° 15’.

Beza, a town of South America, the capital of the
government of Quixos, inthe province of Quito, in Peru,
was founded by Gil Ramirez D’Avalos in the year 1559.
Beza, though the firlt built town in this country, has re-
mained very {mall, which is owing to the building of the
two cities of Avila, and Archidona, which became the
chief objets of the attention of the fettlers. But thefe
places have not increafed to the title of cities, which was
given them, when they were founded ; becaufe the country
is much inferior to Quito with regard to its air and ferti-
lity, and the other enjoyments of life. Beza is much de-
clined, and confifts only of eight or nine thatched houfes,
with about twenty inhabitants of all ages; fo that from
being the capital as it once was, it is now annexed to the
pariih of Papallaéta, in which town refides the prieft, who
has alfo under his care another town called Mafpu. This
decay was the unavoidable confequence of the removal of
the governor, who has of late refided. at Archidona. See
Quixos.

BEZILLO, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, three
leagues from Valladolid.

BAFETAS, or Barras, a cloth made entirely of
coarfe white cotton thread, which comes from the Eait
Indies. 'Thofe of Surat are the belt.

BAFFA, or Boro, in Geography, aneat village of Africa,
on the Grain coaft, about a mile eaft of Sanguin ; which
fupplies fhips with ivory and pepper. It is ealily dittin-
guifhed by a long fandy point, furrounded with rocks, that
project into the fea. The language fpoken in this place is
a kind of corrupt Portuguefe, or rather a mixed language.

Barra, Cape, is the fouth-weit point of the ifland of
Cyprus in the Mediterranear, in N. lat. 34° 37’. E. long.
32° 18’. Near this harbour ftood the ancient Paphos,
where was a temple confecrated to Venus (fee Paruos) ;
it is now fucceeded by ruins, a village, a mean caftle, and
equally mean houfes, and a few Greek churches of the fame
defcription ; and the name Paphos is converted into Baffa
or Baflo. In the rocks is found a very fine rock-cryttal,
which is called the Baffa diamond, becanfe it is procured
from the environs of Bafla.

BAFFIN’S Bay, is the largeft gulf or bay of North
America, aad was called from William Baffin, who, accom-
panied by captain Robert Bylot, attempted, in 1616, to
find a paffage through Davis’s tlraits. In a large fenfe it
extends nearly north and north-welt from cape Farewel in
Weft Greenland, as far as Whale found, pafling through
the part of it called Davis’s itraits, and reaches from the

arallel of 60° to that of 80 N. lat. In a more confined
feafe it comprehends from 70° to 80°, being bounded on
the north by the Aric continent or lands approaching
towards the north pole, on the eaft by Greenland, on the
fouth by Davis’s itraits, the ocean, and feveral iflands which
lie between this gulfand Hudfon’s bay, and on the weft by a
part of North America. Baffin feems to have reftricted
this appellation to the fea between 72° and 78° N, lat. and
fays that he traded with the Greenlanders at Horn found,

BAG

in the feventy-third degree, but in the feventy-fourth d

he found no natives, but feveral plains Shoe tent fed
been fet up, from which he concluded, that at certain fea-
fons of the f{ummer people refided there. The fea was full
of feals and unicorn fifh ; and in fir Thomas Smith’s found.

in the feventy-eighth degree, he found the largeft whales. See
Crantz’s Hiit? of Greenland, vol.i, p.16. In our maps
it opens into the Atlantic ocean through Baffin’s and Davis’s
ftraits, between the broken land on the American coaft,
and that weft of New Greenland, and between cape
Chidley on the Labrador coaft and cape Farewel on that
of Weit Greenland ; and on the fouth-weft of Davis’s ftraits
it has a communication with Hudfon’s bay, through a
clufter of iflands. Some maps thew a communication with
Hudfon’s bay, in the 7oth degree of N. lat. and in the 7oth
of W. long. Baffin’s bay is laid down as extending from
46° W. long. to 94°, which allowing only fixteen geogra-
phical miles for the degree, would give a length of 768
geographical miles; and the breadth on the welt fide is
reprefented as little inferior. But the extent and limits
of this fea have not yet been accurately afcertained: nor
has the weft coaft of Greenland been explored beyond N.
lat. 72° or Sanderfon’s Hope, and an old Danifh fettlement
called Opernerig. In the midft of Baffin’s bay many maps
prefent a large tra& called James ifland, which fome have
imagined to be a promontory pafling from Greenland ; or it
is probably a large ifle in the north of Hudfon fea, laid down
from erroneous obfervations. ‘This bay has been fometimes
called Bylot’s bay. ;

Barrin’s Strait is a paflage between James ifland and
the molt eaftern of Cumberland iflands, from the gulf of the
ocean into Baffin’s bay. This, and Davis’s ftrait on the
eaft of James ifland, and Cumberland {rait on the fouth-
weit between the Cumberland iflands, feem to fhew that the
proper boundary of Baffin’s bay does not reach fo far fouth
as to cape Farewel.

BAFING, or Brack, River, a principal branch of the
Senegal river in Africa. Mr. Park, in his-** Travels in the
Interior Diftrids of Africa,” deferibes a fingular bridge
erected by the Iallonkas over this river. It confifts of
two tall trees, which when tied together by the tops, reach
from one fide of the river to the other; the roots refting upon
the rocks, and the tops floating in the water. When afew
trees have been placed in this dire&tion, they are covered
with dry bamboos, fo as to form a floating bridge, with a
floping gangway at each end, where the trees rel upon the
rocks. In the rainy feafon this bridge is carried away by
the fwelling of the river.

BAFWEN Lake lies in that part of Sweden called
Sudermanland; it is extenfive, and contains many iflands.

BAG, in Commerce, a term ufed to fignify different quan-
tities of certain commodities: a bag of almonds, for inftance,
is about 3 cwt. ; of anifeeds, from 3 to 4 cwt.; of pepper,
from 13 to 3 cwt.; of goats-hair, from 2 to 4.cwt.; of cot-
ton-yara, from 23 to 4; cwt. &c. et

Bac, Sacculus, in Medicine and Pharmacy, denotes a kind.
of fomentation, prepared of proper ingredients, inclofed in
a bag, to be applied externally to a part difeafed for prefent
relief. Difpenfatory writers defcribe cordial bags, ufed in
deliquiums ; bags for the fide, for the ftomach, in weak-
nefles of the flomach ; anodyne bags to eafe pain in any
part. Wines and ales are frequently medicated by putting
into them bags full of proper ingredients.

Sweet bags are compofitions of perfumes, feented
powders, and the like, inclofed in bags, to give a fragrancy
to clothes, &c.

Bas, in Farriery. See CHewinc-Batts.

Bac,

BAG

Bac, Or. See Orr.

Bac, Petty. See Perry.

Bacs, Sand. See Sanv.

Baa, or Bory Point, in Geography, is a noted promon-
tory among feamen on the north coaft of Devon, at the
north-weft point of the entrance into Barnftaple bay. N. lat.
51° ro’. W. long. 4° 32/.

BAGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria,
being one of thofe which were re-eltablifhed by the empe-
ror Juflinian, according to Procopius.

Baca, or Boga,a town of Afia, in Pifidia.

BAGADA, a town of Ethiopia, near Egypt. Pliny.—
Alfo, a {mail town of Afia, in Sutiana. Diod. Sic.

BAGADANIA, a large plain of Afia, in Cappadocia,
placed by Strabo between mount Taurus and mount Argea,
about 3000 ftadia more foutherly than the Euxine fea.

BAGADAT, a name by which fome call the carrier
pigeon, the columba tabellaria of Moore. ‘This name is pro-
bably a corruption of the word Bagdat, the name of a city
from whence they are fometimes brought to Europe ; being

‘originally brought thither from Baffora.

AGADUCA Point, in Geography, a head-land of
America, within Penobfeot bay, in the diflri@ of Maine.

BAGAGNANA, in Ancient Gecsraphy, a mountain of
Afia, in Armenia, where they obtained, according to the
ancient phyfician AXtius, the Armenian bole.

BAGAN, in Geography, a town of Servia, twenty miles
north from Nifla.

BAGANZA, a river of Italy, which joins the river
Parma, at the city of Parma.

BAGANZOLA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Parma, four miles north of Parma.—Alfo, another town in
the fame duchy four miles fouth of Parma.

BAGARACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace,
Anton. Itin.

BAGARD, Cuartes, in Biography, born at Nanci, in
Jan. 1696, was early initiated into the pra&tice.of phyfic by
his father Anthony, who had acquired coniiderable reputa-
tion in that art. To the influence our phyfician had with
Staniflaus the firft titular king of Poland, and duke of Lor-
yaine, we are indebted for the botanic garden and the ‘col-
lege of medicine at Nanci, of which he was the firft prefi-
dent. He died of apoplesy in December 1772. Befides
numerous differtations on medical and philofophical fubjeds,
we have the following, by this author: . “ Difcours fur
Vhiftoire dela Theriacque,’”’ publifhed 17555 ‘* Difpenfa-
torium Pharmac. Chymicum,” Paris, 1771, fol.; “¢ Pinax
Materiz Medicinalis,’ &c.1771, 8vo. Difcours fur les
Monitres du Regne Vegetal, Naucy, 1708, 8vo. Eloy.
Didion. Hit. Haller. Biblioth. Botan.

BAGARDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Paropamifus. Ptolemy.

BAGAS A, a town of Africa, in Libya Interior. Pto-
lemy. é

BAGASIS, Baggat, 2 town of Africa, fituated ona
river at the foot and to the eaft of mount Audus.

BAGAT, in Geography, a town of France, one league
weft from Paris.

BAGATHUSA, Carer, lies on the fouth-eaft coaft of
Arabia, fifteen leagues eaft from Shahar. Under the Ice of
this cape there is good anchorage: but the fearages on this
coalt from April to July to fuch ea degree that no fhip can
live in it.

' BAGATINS, or Courrers, a name given to the pi-
‘geon-carriers.

BAGAUDA, or Bacaupz, in Hifory, an ancient

faction of peafants, or malecontents, who ravaged Gaul, and

7

BAG

afflumed the name dagaude, which, according to fome au-
thors, fignified, in the Gallic language, forced rebels ; ac-
cording to others, tibute ; according to others, rolbers ;
which laft fignification others allow the word had, ‘but then
it was only after the time of the dagaude, and doubtlefs took
its rife from them. Du-Cange.

The bagaudz were a ruftic troop of plowmen and fhep-
Nerds, whom the grievous weight of their taxes induced to
take up arms under the reign of Claudius II., about A. D.
269, in order to rid themfelves of a tyranny which feemed
to them worfe than death. Ibritated by oppreffion, they re-
fembled by their ravages the fury of the barbarians, and Jaid
walte the countries which they ought to have cultivated.
At this time their ftrencth muft have been confiderable,
as they laid a fiege of feven months to the city of Autun,
and at length took it by force. Under Aurelian and Pro-
bus no mentjon of them occurs, becaufe it is probable that
the valour and aétivity of thefe warlike princes kept them in
awe. But under the reign of Dioclefian, about the year
286, exafperated by the injuftice, violence, and cruelty of
Carinus, they renewed their revolt, and they were command-
ed by two men, whofe names were /®lianus and Amatwius,
cach of whom had the boldnefs to affume the title of Au-
guftus. Maximian, who was admitted by Dioclefian as a
colleague in the government, A.D. 286, fubdued the ba-
gaude partly by clemency and partly by forces It does not
appear what became of the twojchiefs of the rebels; but
Salvianus informs us, that the name and the faction of the
bagaude were revived in the fifth century. Crevier’s Hift.
Emp. vol. ix. p, 282.

BAGAUZE, is the name which is given, in the An-
tilles iflands, to the fugar-canes after they have pafled
through the mill. They are dried, and ufed for boiling the
fugar.

BAGDAD, in Geography, 2 large and populous city of
Afiatie Turkey, in that divifion of Diarbeck called Ivak-
Arabi, is feated on the eaftern banks of the Tigris, N. lat.
33° 22’. E.long. 44° 21’. It has been erroneoufly fuppofed ~
by feveral geographers to be the old Babylon, though it
be at a diitance from the ruins of this ancient metropolis.
It is computed to beabout 1500. paces in length, 7 or 800
in breadth, and 3000 in circumference. Mr. Jackfon, in his
Journey from India te England’? in 1797, fays, that it
extends three miles along the eaftern bank of the river; and
the length cf the walis from the river being about two miles,
it has the form of an oblong fquare. Its walls are all of
brick, with terraces and large towers at proper diftances, in
form of baitions, and defended by about 60 pieces of cannon.
The caflle is large, and flanked by fome {mall towers with
cannon; and the garrifon ufually confitts of goo foot, 40c0
horfe, and 60 gunners. ‘he number of inhabitants, if we
may credit the accounts of the Arabian writers, was formerly
very confiderable ; but it is now reduced to fifteen or twenty
thoufand,including thofe who live in a f{uburb on the other fide
of the Tigris, at the end of the bridge of boats, which are fe-
parated every night to prevent furprife. But notwithftand-
ing this number of inhabitants, the town has flill many emp-
ty fpaces within its walls, and it is for the moft part but
indifferently built. Many of the public buildings, however,
fuch as the mofques,minarets, and hummums, are conftructed
of hewn ftone, and make a very handfome appearance. Here
is alfo an extenfive bazar, which is well fupplied with a va-
riety of articles. Several of thefe buildings are arched, in
order to guard againft the exceflive heat of thedun; and as
f{corpions, tarantulas, and other noxious infects, are numerous,
perions, in order to ayoid them, in the fummer feafon, fleep
on the tops of their houles. The environsof Bagdad to the

; welt

BAG

weft and north are altogether barren ; to the eaft there are
excellent gardens ; and the oppofite bank of the river fup-
plies a great variety of fruit and vegetables. The city it-
felf, though much reduced in extent, magnificence, and
wealth, as well as population, is now fuppofed to contain
more treafure than any other city of equal fize in the world;
and the immenfe quantity of fpecie and bullion, fays Johnfon
(ubi fupra), found in the coffers of the late Kya, or prime
minilter, amounting to upwards of three millions fterling,
feems to warrant fuch a conjeéiure.

This city, which was for many ages the capital of the
Saracen empire and the ftated refidence of the caliphs, was
founded by Al-Manfor, the fecond of the family of the
Abaflides, in the 145th year of the Hegira, A. D. 762.
The Rawandians having attempted to affaffinate him in the
city of Al Hafhemiyah, he determined to build a new city;
and he feleéted for the fite of it, a fpot, iufficiently diftant
from Cufa, the inhabitants of which were treacherous and
inconttant in their attachment, fecure againft the attacks of
thofe who might with to difpute the caliphate with him, and
fituate in the middle of a tract which would furnifh an ample
fupply of provifions by means of the rivers to which it gave
ealy accefs. Having confulted his aftrologers and engaged
fkilful workmen, he commenced his undertaking. As to
the name by which it was to be diftinguifhed, fome have de-
rived it from the Perfian Baghdod, which fignifies the gift
or prefent of Bagh, pretending that the plain on which it
ftood was given by Choffu, named Anuthirwan, to one of
his wives, and that fhe had there ere&ted 2 chapel or oratory
dedicated to her favourite idol called Bagh. In procefs of
time this chapel became the chofen refidence of a venerable
hermit, who reported to Al-Manfor a tradition that a city
was to be built in this place: but it is needlefs to recite
any further particulars. Others fay, that the verdant plain on
which this city was built, had been the cell of a Chriftian
monk, called Baghdad ; and others fay, that this monk was
called Dad, and that he poffeffed a beautiful and extenfive
garden, whence the place where the city was founded re-
ceived the appellation of Baghdad, or “the garden of
Dad.” The new metropolis was alfo denominated Medinat
Al Salam “the city of peace,” either in allufion to the
name of Jerufalem, or becaufe, at the time when it was
finifhed, all the commotions in the empire were appeafed,
and almoft every nation in Afia had fubmitted, or was be-
come tributary. The firlt city erected by Al-Manfor was
fituated on the weftern bank of the Tigris ; but the Perfians
taking offence at the erection of a city fo near their fron-
tiers, a new city was afterwards built on the eaftern banks
of the river called “*the camp, or fortrefs of Al Mohdi ;”?
and both thefe cities being united, formed the ancient Bag-
dad. The caliph had a fuperb and magnificent palace in
each portion of the new city. Bagdad was ereéted on the
ruins of Seleucia, the remains of which, as well as of Cte-
fiphon, furnifhed the materials; andit feems to have been
divided by the Tigris, as ancient Babylon was by the Eu-
phrates. In the 149th year of the Hegira, A. D: 766, this
famous capital of the Moflem empire was finifhed. It was
of a circular form, inclofed by a double wall, and flanked
with a confiderable number of towers. The caitle, or cita-
del, was in the middle of it, and commanded every part of
the town. Between the eaitern and weftern parts of the
city a bridge was conitructed in order to facilitate a commu-
nication between them. Befides feveral public buildings
erected by the caliph Al Moftanfer Bi’llah, there was a fa-
mous college founded by this prince, which has been extol-
Jed by Abulpharagius, on account of the beauty and elegance
of its flru€ture, the number of ftudents it contained, as well

8

BAG

as the learned men it produced, and the ample revenues fet-
tled upon it, and fuperior in his time to every other houfe
of learning in the known world. Among the itudents there
were 300 who devoted themfelves entirely to the ftudy of
the Mahometan law, according to the decifions of the four
chief {eéts of the Sonnites, each of which feéts had a pro-=
feffor in this college. For feveral ages Bagdad, befides be=
ing the feat of power, abounded more with learned men
than any other place in the Mahometan dominions, except
Mecca and Medina. It was alfo extremely populous, and
contained feveral forts and caftles, capable of making a
tolerable defence, and deriving their refpeGtive names from
their founders. The language fpoken in this city was one
of the moft polite and elegant dialeéts of the Arabic, as there
was a greater concourfe of nobility and learned men, who
excelled in many branches of literature, for feveral ages, in
this city than in almoit any other of the eaft. The city had
alfo a mint, in which were coined a great number of dirhems
and dinars. Bagdad continued to be the feat of the caliphs
of the race of Al Abbas for 500 years; but at length, m the
year of the Hegira 656, A.D. 1258, the conqueft of Iran,
or Perfia, was atchieved by Holagou Khan, the grandfon of
Zingis, the brother and lieutenant of the two fucceflive em-
perors Mangou and Cublai. After a fiege of two months,
it was flormed and facked by the Moguls; and their favage
commander pronounced the death of the caliph Moftafem,
the laft of the temporal fucceflors of Mahomet; and thus
the family of the Abaffides was extinguifhed. The Tartars
or Moguls having plundered and fet it on fire, and maffa-
cred many of the inhabitants, enriched themfelves by its fpoil,
as it was then reckoned one of the moft confiderable cities
in the world; and they retained poffeffion of it till the year
of the Hegira 795, A.D. 1392, when it was taken by Ta-
merlane, for the firft time, from fultan Ahmed, the fon of
Avis, who conveyed his baggage beyond the Tigris, and
abandoned the capital to the conqueror; and it was taken
a fecond time in the year of the Hegira 803, A.D.
1400, from the fame fultan, who had recovered pofs
feffion of it. After this capture, it was reftored by Tamer-
lane to the fultan; but in the year 815, A.D. 1412, the

fultan was finally expelled by the Turcoman Cara Jofef. .

The defcendants and fucceffors of Tamerlane remained
matters of Bagdad till the year of the Hegira 875, A.D.
1470, when they were expelled by Haffan, furnamed Uzun,
or Ufun-Caffan. The princes of this family poffeffed it till
the year of the Hegirag14, A.D. 1508, when Shah Ifmael,
furnamed Sofi, the firft prince of that race which afterwards
reigned in Perfia, made himfelf matter of it. From that time

it was an obje& of conteft in the wars between the Perfians

and the Turks, for 100 years. The Turks took it under
fultan Soliman,*and the Perfians retook it under Shah Abbas
the Great, kiny of Perfia; but being at length befieged by a
formidable army under Amurath ILI. it was furrendered to
him by Shah Sofi, king of Perfia, A. D. 1638; and from this
time it has remained in the poffeffion of the Turks. Her-
belot Bib. Or. p.154. From this difaftrous period the trade
of the place has confiderably decayed, as the fultan rifled all
the rich merchants. However, though it groans at prefent
under the Turkifh yoke, Bagdad is a celebrated emporium
and frontier cf the Ottoman empire, on the fide of Perfia, to
which not only many merchants, but likewife an incredible
number of paffengers, travelling from Natolia, Syria, Palef-
tine, and Egypt, into Perfia, continually refort. Its fitua-
tion on the banks of the Tigris renders it convenient for
trade; but the heat of the climate is fo exceffive, that the
inhabitants are obliged to keep their markets in the night
during the fummer, and to fleep, as we have already faid,

on

BAG

on their terraces. The military government is undera pacha
or bafha, who ufes various defpotic methods to extort money
from the inhabitants, and particularly from the Jews and
Chriftians, who are the principal merchants of the city, and
who have been in a great meafure driven from it by the op-
preffion they have futfered. The civil adminiftration is exer-
cifed bya cadi, who acts as judge, prefident, and mufti, with
a tefterdar or treafurer under him, who colleéts the revenue
of the grand fignior. The pilgrims that vifit Mecca by land
are obliged to pafs through Bagdad, and every one of them
pays a tribute or toll, equivalent to four piallres, to the
bafhaw, which branch of the revenue yields annually a con-
fiderable fum to the grand fignior. "The revenues are com-

uted at 125 lacks of pialters, amounting toabout 1,562, 500l.
feting: but of thefe, not more than one quarter are col-
leéted, by reafon of the indolence of the Turks. As the
bafhaw lives in all the {plendor of a fovereign prince, and
maintains a very large army, he has recourle to great injuftice
and oppreffion, in order to obtain the neceflary f{upply.
The inhabitants of this city are chiefly Perfians, Armenians,
Turks, Arabs, and Jews, and of thefe the laft aét as {chroffs,
or bankers, to the merchants. The Jews, notwithiftanding
the feverity with which they are treated, are induced to live
here from a reverence to the prophet Ezekiel, whofe mau-
foleum they pretend is a day’s journey from the city. Many
of them likewife annually refort hither from other parts to
vifit the prophet’s tomb. Two chapels are allowed for
thofe of the Romifh and Greek perfuafion. In this city
there are feveral beautiful mofques, into which Chriftians are
not fuffered to enter, for fear of their being defiled. The
Mahometan women are very richly drefled, wearing brace-
lets on their arms and jewels in their ears. The Arabian
women wear rings in the partition between’ their noftrils,
which are bored for this purpofe.

The ruins of ancient Babylon are fituated about fifteen
leagues to the fouth of Bagdad. See Basyton.

BAGDEDIN, Manomet, in Biography, an Arabian
mathematician, lived in the tenth century, and is reported
to be the author of feveral treatifes in geometry, among
which is one ‘ On the divifion of fuperticies,’’ tranflated
into Latin by John Dee of London, and by Frederic Com-
mandini of Urbino, who publifhed this treatife at Pefaro in
1570. Some have fuppofed that Bagdedin was merely the
tranflator of this work from Greek into Arabic, and that it
was written by Euclid, or fome other ancient mathematician.
Moreri. ‘

BAGENBON Heap, in Geography, a cape of Ireland,
in the Atlantic ocean, on the coalt of. Wexford. N. lat.
52°9’. W.long. 6°48’. -

BAGGAGE, is particularly ufed, in the Miltary Art,
for the neceffaries, utenfils, apparel, &c. of the officers and
foldiers. The baggage includes alfo women, children,
futtlers, &c.

The baggage is well called by the Roman writers, impedi-
menta, on account of the great trouble and expence attending
it. Unlefs ftriét difcipline be kept, great inconveniences may

arife from it; whence feveral military laws and ordinances

relating to the baggage.

The baggage-waggons, before a march, are appointed a
‘yendezvous, where they are marfhalled by the waggon-matter-
general, according to the rank the feveral regiments bear in
the army. On a march, they are fometimes ordered to
follow the refpe&tive columns of the army, fometimes to
follow the march of the artillery, and fometimes to make a
column of themfelves. The general’s baggage is generally
firft. If the army march from the right, the baggage of
that wing has the van; if from the left, the baggage of the

BAG
left has the van, Each waggon hasa diftinguifhing flag, to

fhew to what regiment it belongs.

Baccace, Packing up the, vafa colligere, was a term
among the Romans, for preparing to go to war, or to be
ready for an expedition.

The formula by which the foldiers declared they were in
readinefs, was va/a conclamare.

The Romans diltinguifhed two kinds of baggage, a greater
and /e/s; the leffer was carried by the foldier on his back,
and called /arcina; confilting of the things moft neceffary to
hfe, and which he could not do without. Hence colligere
Jarcinas, packing up the baggage, is ufed for decamping,
cafira movere. "The greater and heavier was carried on
horfes and vehicles, and called onera. Hence onera vehicu-
lorum, farcine hominum. The baggage-horfes were denomi-
noted /agmentarit equi.

The Roman foldiers in their marches were heavy laden,
infomuch that they were called, by way of jelt, mult, mariani,
and erumne. They had four forts of luggage, which they
never went without, viz. corn, or buccellatum, utenfils, valli,
and arms.—Cicero obferves, that they ufed to carry with
them above half a month’s provifions; and we have in-
ftances in Livy, where they carried provifions for a whole
month. Their utenfils comprehended thofe proper for
gathering fuel, dreffing their meat, and even for fortification,
or intrenchment; and what is more, a chain for binding
captives.

For arms, the foot carried a fpear, fhicld, faw, bafket,
rutrum, hatchet, lorum, falx, &c. Alfo fakes or pales,
valli, for the fudden fortifying a camp; fometimes feven,
or even twelve of thefe pales were carried by each man,
though generally, as Polybius tells us, only three or four.
On the Trajan column we fee foldiers reprefented with this
fardle of corn, utenfils, pales, &c. gathered into a bundle,
and laid on their fhoulders.

Thus inured to labour, they grew ftrong, and able to un-
dergo any fatigue in battle; the greateit part of which never
tired them, or put them out of breath. In after-times, when
difcipline declined, this luggage was thrown on carriages,
and porters’ fhoulders.

The Macedonians were not lefs inured to hardfhip than
the Romans; when Philip firft formed an army, he for-
bid all ufe of carriages; yet with all their load, they
would march in a fummer’s day, twenty miles in military
rank.

BAGGER, Joun, in Biography, a Danith divine, and
bifhop of Copenhagen, was born at Lunden in 1646. After
profecuting his ftudies under the ableft mafters in Germany,
the Netherlands, and England, he fettled in his native place,
and was appointed profeflor of the oriental languages. At
the age of twenty-nine years, he was advanced to the epif-
copal fee of Copenhagen, and difcharged the duties of his
office with diltinguifhed approbation. He revifed the ritual
of public worfhip eftablifhed by Chriftiern IV., and pub-
lifhed feveral learned and eloquent difcourfes in Latin and
Danifh. He died at the early age of forty-feven. A
logical treatife of Bagger, under the title of “ De prin-
cipiis perfe&tivis Syllogiimorum,” was printed in 4to. at Co-
penhagen in 1665. Moreri.

BAGGING of Hops. See Hors.

BAGHYRETTY, in Geography, a-river of India, fup-
poled by major Rennell, to be the true head of the Ganges,
which joins the Alucknundra river, the former proceeding
from the north, and the latter from the north-eaft, at Den-
prag, or the middle Gangoutra, i.e. the fall or cafcade of the
Ganga, or Ganges, at a few miles diftance below Sirinagur;
and then they form the proper Ganges of Hindoftan, which

aftera

BAG

afterwards ifues through mount Sewalick, at Hurdwar, the
lower Gangoutra. Of thefe two ftreams Alucknundra is
the lareeft; and at Sirinagur, feated on its banks, being con-
fined in a channel 100 yards wide, it runs with aftonifning
rapidity, and is crofled by means of rope bridges of fingular
confiru@ion. This river has its fource in the {nowy moun-
tains of Thibet; and it is probably the fame river which
Du-Halde mentions under the name of Manchou. ‘The
Baghyretty river has its fource far more remote; but the
direction of its courfe above the upper Gangoutra is un-
known. According to the information of Mr. Daniel, the
Baghyretty river feparates, at a confiderable diftance below
the Cow’s Mouth, into two branches; the cafternmoft. of
which is faid to be the Alucknundra. But this depends

-

upon a vague report of travellers, which, fays major
Rennell, cannot be depended upon. Rennell’s Memoir,
Pp ants

pha lyf

BAGIA, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Cara-
mania, near which wasa rock confecrated to the fun. Pto-
lemy.

Bacta, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Farfiftan, 120 miles north-eaft of Schiras.

BAGIENNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Armenia Major. Ptolemy.

BAGIEU, Jacaves, in Biography, furgeon to a regiment
of cavalry, in the middle of the laft century, and author of
feveral valuable works on chirurgical fubjeéts, particularly
on the method of treating gun-fhot wounds. He oppofes
the frequent amputation of limbs, fo common in France, and
reduces the cafes, rendering that operation neceffary, toa
very {mall number. He defends experience, as more valu-
able than theory; no courfe of reading, or itudy, being com-
petent to fupply the place of pradtice, the light or know-
ledge obtained from which is often incommunicable. He
commends Amb. Parey’s praétice in gun-fhot wounds, of
firft ufing emollient applications, and then making large
openings for difcharging the confined matter. He does not
admit the efficacy of the Peruvian bark in checking the pro-
grefs of gangrene, which he thinks hasits boundaries affixed
by nature. He is fuppofed, by Portal, to be the author of
« Lettre de M.Chirurgien de Province, a M. Chirurgien
de Paris,”? 8vo. 1740.—Alfo, “Deux Lettres d’un Chirur-
giende’A rmée, Vune fur plufiures chapitres du tr. de la gan-
grene de M. Quefnai, Pautre fur le tr. des armes a feu, de
M. Defportes;” Paris, 1750, 1zmo. “ Nouvelle Lettre de
M. Bagien, &c.”? 1751, 12mo. “ Examen du Plufieurs par-
ties de la Chirurgie, &c.” 2 vol. 1756. Haller Bib.
Chirurg.

BAGISARA, in Ancient Geography, a port of Carmania.
Avrian.

BAGISTANA, a town of Afia, in Upper Media, at
the foot of the mountains in which are the fources of the
river Gyndes; fouth-weft of Ecbatana.

BAGISTANUS, a mountain of Afia, between Baby-
lonia and Media, confecrated to Jupiter. Diod. Sicul.

BAGITAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Segeftan, 110 miles north of Zareng.

BAGIURA, a town of Egypt, twenty-five miles fouth
of Girgé.

BAGLAFECHTE, in Ornithology, the name of Gme-
lin’s /oxia philippina, var. B, in Buffon’s hiltory of birds.

BAGLANA, or Bucuanen, in Geography, a province
of the Mogul empire, in the peninfula of India, encompafled
by Guzerat, Dowlatabad, and Candeifh. It is included
within a ridge of the Gauts, and is exceedingly mountainous,
but contains alfo many fertile and pleafant traéts. Few
countries poflefs greater advantages, with regard to natural

BAG

ftrensth; and thefe are augmented by no fewer than nine
{trong fortreffes, feated on the fummits of rocks, of which
Salheir and Mulheir are accounted impregnable. Accords
ing to Abdul Humecd, Baglana extended from the fea-coaft
near Surat, which was its weftern boundary, to the borders
of Dowlatabad (or Aurungabad) eaitward; being in length
100 common coffes, and in breadth, from Naderbar and

‘Sultanpour on the north, to Nafluck Trimbuck on the fouthy

vo cofles. Shahnawaz, though he agrees with Abdul Hu-
meed, with refpect to the length, allows about 30 for the
breadth; and major Rennell fays, that it certainly is not 70
coffes, and yet muth more than 30, in diftance between'the
affigned limits on the north and fouth. It has owed its indé»
pendence, not merely to its natural ftrength, but to the addrefs
of its rajahs, who courted the princes of the kingdoms of
Guzerat, Dowlatabad, and Candeith, by which it was fur-
rounded. Whenever the conqueit of it was attempted by
any one of thefe princes, the other two armed in its defence,
When the furrounding kingdoms fucceffively fell under the
Mogul power, the rajah, for the firft time, acknowledged a
fuperior, and vifited the court of Acbar. But even then
the Moguls contented themfelves merely with a tribute,
until the rapid progrefs of Aureng-Zebe’s conquelts and
power in the Deccan. Its revenue, previoufly to the
Mogul conqueit, was about 80,cool. Rennell’s Mem.

Pp: 250:

BAGLIONE, Cosranza, in Biography, a mof pleal-
ing finger, and excellent actrefs, in the comic opera at Milan,
in 1770, at the head of a Bolognefe mufical family, of which
fix filters were all fingers, doubling the number of our
Abrams’s, but not the merit. ‘Three of thefe fifters went
afterwards to Paris, ‘* who pleafed there fo much (lays
M. La Borde), as to make us wifh to hear the reft.”? Effai
fur la Mufique.

BAGLIVI, Georce, born, Haller fays, in Ragufa, a
city in Dalmatia, in the year 1668, applied himfelf early to
the ftudy of medicine. After attending the leffons of the
profeflors at Naples and at Padua, at which latter place he
graduated, to improve himfelf further, he travelled over Italy,
and fettling at length at Rome, viz. in 1692, was advanced
to the chair of profeffor of the theory of medicine and of
anatomy, by pope Innocent XII. to whom he dedicated his
firft work, ‘* De Praxi Medica, ad prifeam obfervandi ra-
tionem revocanda;”’ lib.iv. printed in 1696, 8vo.

In this work the author laments the degraded ftate of
medicine in his time, which he attributes to the negle& of
obfervation and experiment, and of the ftudy of the writings
of the ancient Greek phyficians, particularly of Hippocrates,
joined to an inordinate paflion for fpeculative reafoning.
He acknowledges, however, the improvements that had been

made in anatomy and phyfiology, and that the theory of the.

moderns, founded on thefe improvements, far excelled the
hypothetical reafoning of the ancients; and thence conjec-
tures, that when we fhall feduloufly bend our minds to
practical obfervations, we fhall as far excel the ancients in
our knowledge of the true method of treating difeafes, as we

then excelled them in theory.
Examining the queftion, whether theory or praétice con-
duce mott to a knowledge of the method of curing difeafes,
he determines in favour of practice, but recommends both;
“ Quzcumque,”’ he fays (Opera omnia, 4to. p.127.), de
medicina meditatus fueris, pro veris non habeas, nifi prius
ad lydeum praxeos lapidem revocaveris; quod fi repetita
experientia inveneris vera, pro veris femper habeto. De
bono, aut malo vino, judicare non poteris, nifi guftaveris;
perfectus muficus non erit, nifi cecinerit ; nec miles ftrenuus,
nifi bella gefferit.”” Baglivi is accufed of plagiarifm, and
of

BAG

of being himfelf too much addiged to theory; his credulity
is alfo cenfured, for fuffering himfelf to be impofed on by
vagabonds, pretending to labour under various nervous affec-
tions, in confequence of having been bitten by a tarantula,
a fpecies of {pider common in {ome parts of Italy, and that
they could only be cured by certain mufical founds. But
we fhali be difpofed to moderate our cenfure of Baglivi,
when we find our countryman Dr. Mead (who, though born
about the fame time, lived nearly fifty years after him) at-
tempting to account for thefe extraordinary effects of the
bite of the infect, attributing them to the temperature of
the climate, and of the inhabitants of Apulia, where the
fpider is moft frequent, and explaining, on philofophical
principles, the manner in which mutic operates in allaying
the tumult in the conflitution occafiened by the poifon.
Mead feems to’thiok it not-improbable that Pythagoras firtt
introduced this mode of practice, in curing the effects of the
bite of the tarantula. See his Medical Works, 4to. p. 66,
&c. The fame year, viz. 1696, Baglivi publifhed his differ-
tation “ De Anatome, morfu, et effectibus Tarantule ;’’ then
followed his treatife ‘* De Fibra motrice et morbofa.”? In
this work is contained the author’s theory, borrowed from
Pachioni (to whom, however, he fays, Op. Om. p. 258, he
communicated his lucubrations), of the origin of the motion
of the folids; which he attributes, cap.iv. to a confent be-
tween the heart and the dura mater. In 704 he publifhed
at Rome “ De Medicina folidorum ad rectum ftatices ufum
Canones ;”” and in 1705, ‘“ De progreflione Terre motus.”
Thefe, with various other differtations, have been colleG&ed
and publifhed under the title of “ Opera Omnia,” which
has pafled through numerous editions; and though his
theory has long fince given place to others, in their turn to
yield to theories perhaps equally fallible, the work will al-
ways deferve the attention of the medical ftudents, for the
numerous and valuable obfervations with which it abounds.
Baclivi died in the year 1707, aged only 38 years. Haller.
Bib. Med. Pra&. and Bib. Anatom.

BAGNA, in Geography, a town of Servia, twenty miles
north-eaft of Parakin.

BAGNACAVALLO, a town of Italy, in the flate of
the church, and duchy of Ferrara, on the river Seno, forty
miles welt of Ravenna.

BAGNAGAR. See Hypganap.

BAGNALET, a town of France, one league eaft of
Paris.

BAGNARA, a fea-port town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and province of Calabria Ultra, deftroyed by an
earthquake in the year 1783; fourteen miles weit of Oppido.
N. lat. 38° 15’. E.long. 16° 8’.

BAGNAREIA, a town of Italy, in the flate of the
church, and province of Patrimonio, with a bifhop’s fee;
fix miles fouth of Orvieto. N. lat. 42° 36’. E. long. 12°
Io’.

BAGNERES De Luchon, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a
canton in the diftrict of St. Gaudens, near the fource of
the river Garonne, at the foot of the Pyrenees, poffeffing
fome medicinal fprings; feven leagues fouth of St. Gau-
dens.

Bacneres en Bigore, a town of France, and principal
piace of a diftrict in the department of the Higher Pyrenées,
feated on the Adour; celebrated for its baths, which are
much frequented in fpring and autumn, a {mall but neat
town; ten miles fouth of Tarbes. N. lat. 43° 3’. E.long.
epl2!.

BAGNEUX, a town of France, 13 league S.S.W. of
Paris.

Vou. ITI.

BAG

BAGNI, a town of European Turkey, in Romania,
forty miles weft of Filippopolii—Alfo, a town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples, and country of Lavora, eight miles
fouth of Sezza.—Alfo, a town of Eurcpean Turkey, in the
province of Macedonia, on the river Vardar, forty-four miles
N.N.E. of Akrida.

BAGNIALACK, a town of European Turkey, in the
province of Bofnia. N. lat. 44°. E.long. 18° 10’.

BAGNIO, an Italian term fignifying a bah; it is uled
by us for a houle with conveniences for bathing, fweating,
and otherwife cleanfing the body; and fometimes for worfe
purpofes.

Bacwio is alfo become a general name in Turkey for the
prifons where their flaves are inclofed; it being ufual in thofe
prifons to have baths.

BAGNOLENSES, or Bacnotians, in Ecclefaflical
Hiffory, a fe& in the eighth century, who were thought
Manichees, though they denied their errors.— They rejected
the Old Teitament, and part of the New; held the world to
be eternal; and affirmed, that Ged did not create the foul
when he infufed it into the body.

They derive their name from Bagnols, a city in Languedoc,
where they were chicfly found.

BAGNOLS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gard, and chief place of a canton in the
diftrict of Pont St. Efprit, two leagues fouth of Pont
St Efprit.

Bacnots, les Bains, a town of France, in the department
of the Lozerre, and chief place of a canton in the diftriét of
Mende, eight miles eaft of Mende.

BAGNUOLO. a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and Principato Ultra, twelve miles weft of Conza.

BAGOI, among the <ducient Perfians, were the fame
with thofe called by the Latins, /padones, viz. a {pe-
cies of eunuchs, in whom the canal of the penis was fo
contorted by a tight vinculum, that they could not emit
the femen.

BAGORODITZ, in Geography, one of the twelve
diftriéts of the government of Tula, in Ruffia, feated on
the river Upa.

BAGOUS, in Ancient Geography, a name given to a
ridge of mountains which were part of mount Imaus, towards
the fource of the river Indus.

BAGPIPE, a mufical inftrument of the wind kind,
chiefly ufed in country places, efpecially in the North.—It
coniifts of two principal parts; the firft a leather bag,
which is blown up like a foot-ball, by means of a port
vent, or little tube, fitted to it, and ftopped by a valve.

The other part confifts of three pipes or flutes; the firft,
called the great pipe, or drone ; and the fecond, the little one,
which pafles the wind only out at the bottom; the third has
a reed, and is played on by comprefling the bag under the
arm when full, and opening or ftopping the holes, which are
eight, with the fingers. The little pipe is ordinarily a
foot long, that played on thirteen inches, and the port
vent fix.

The bagpipe takes in the compafs of three otaves.

This inftrument was not unknown to the ancients. It
was called by the Greeks acx«vdos; by the Romans tibia
utricularis. "he Italians call it piva, cornumufa; the French
mufette and chalumeau. In the firft edition of the French
Encyclopedie, there is a minute and elaborate defcription of
the inftrument, its conftruétion, feale, &c. By the orna-
ments mentioned, it mult have been admitted into good
company.

The invention of it is derived by fome from Tubal; others
afcribe it to Pan; others to Mercury, to Faunus, to Mar-

3N fyas,

BAH

fyas, and to the young Sicilian fhepherd Daphnis, who firft
compofed paftorals. :

An anonymous French author has publifhed a treatife of
the bagpipe, * Traité de la Mufette,”? with a new method
of learning to play on it without a mafter. Fol. Par.
1672.

Bic pipe the Mizen, in Sea Language, is to lay it aback,
by bringing the fheet to the mizen-fhrouds. 7

BAGRADA, or Bracapa, now Mejerda, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a river of Africa Propria, the fource of which Pto-
lemy fixes in mount Mampfarus, erroneoufly reprefenting
its courfe to have been from north to fouth ; whereas it
flows in a direction from weit to eaft. It is equal, fays Dr.
Shaw (Travels, p. 77), to the Ifis united with the Cherwell,
and continues winding, through its whole courfe, along a
rich and fertile country, with the foil of which it becomes
fo well faturated, that it is of the fame colour with the Nile,
and has the fame property of making encroachments on the
fea. To this circumftance may be afcribed the many changes
which appear to have been made at one time or other in the
channel of it; and to this alfo it is owing that an open
creek of the fea, into which the Mejerda about a century
ago difcharged itfelf, is now circumicribed by the mud,
and become a large navigable pond, the anti-harbour, as
Dr. Shaw calls it, to port Farina. The fituation of Utica
and of Carthage, with refpeét to this river, are materially
altered. (See Cartuace, and Urica.) Bochart (1.1.
c. 24.) deduces the name Bagrada, from 493 or Xm
barakta, 2 pond, agreeably to the defeription of Sihus Ltali-
cus, l.vi.tg4o:— -

« Turbidus arentes lento pede fulcat harenas
Bagrada, non ullo Libycis in finibus amne
Vidus limofas extendere latius undas,

Et ftagnante vado patulos involvere campos.”

BAGRADAS, a river which flowed on the confines of
Perfia and Carmania, and difcharged itfelf into the Perfian
gulf. Ptolemy. ‘ ,

BAGRE, in Jchthyology, a fpecies of Siturus that in-
habits South America. The pofterior dorfal fin is fat or
flefhy ; firft ray of the dorfal and pectoral fin fetaceous ;
beards four. Gmel.

BAG-REEF, in Sea Language, denotes a fourth or
lower reef of fail, fometimes ufed in the royal navy.

BAGSZELAR, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in the province of Bulgaria, 20 miles north-eaft
of Ternova. ‘

BAGUETTE, in Archite@ure, a little round moulding,
lefs than an aftragal ; fometimes carved and enriched with
foliages, pearls, ribbands, laurels, &c. According to M.
Lue Clerc, when the baguette is enriched with ornaments,
it changes its name, and iscalled chaplet ; and unornamented,
it is a bead.

BAHAMA Istanps, in Geography, a name commonly
applied by the Englifh geographers to that clufter of {mall
iflands, reefs, and rocks of fand, which ftretch in a north-
wefterly dire@ion for the fpace of near 300 leagues from
the northern coaft of Hifpaniola to the Bahama itrait, op-
polite to the Florida fhore; or from about 20° to 28° N.
lat. and from about 70° to 80° W. long. This whole
group is called by the Spaniards Lucayos. The ifland of
Bahama, which gives name to the reft, N. lat. 26° 45’. W.
long. 78° 35’, is about 25 leagues diltant from the conti-
nent of Florida; it is about 50 miles long, and fearcely
any where 16 broad. The number of thefe iflands is faid
to be about 500, of which, however, fome are merely rocks.
‘Though their number is confiderable, and fome of them are
of a large fize, our knowledge of them is very imperfect.

BAH
They were firft difcovered by Columbus, A.D.1492; and the

firft land he difcovered was that of Guanahani, on which he

landed to return thanks for his fuccefs, andito ere& a crofs ;
and he denominated the ifland San Salvadore, taking poflef-
fion of it in the name of his Catholic majefty. This ifland, in
the vicinity of Providence ifland, is known to the Englifh
navigators by the name of Cat ifland. Columbus, however,
made no fettlement in thefe iflands. About the year 1629,
it is faid (fee Anderfon’s Comm. vol. ii. p. 37.), the Englith
began to plant on the ifland of Providence, which till then
was uninhabited ; and after the conclufion of peace with
Spain, king Charles I. renewed his grant of this and the
other Bahama iflands. In the year 1666, captain Sayle, an
Englifhman, was forced in his paflage to Carolina, by ftrefs
of weather, to land upon one of thefe iflands; and upon
his return to England, he made fo favourable a report of
them, that fix of the proprietaries of Carolina folicited,
and obtained a grant of them. Captain Sayle, in a fecond
vifit to the ifland of Providence, which was one of them,
difcovered the advantage which England might derive from
it; and he made the government of England fo fenfible of
it, that about the yeat 1672 they fent thither a governor
andacolony. But the fettlement was difturbed by Spanifh
pirates ; and the ifland of Providence, and the other Baha-
mas, were abandoned. The chief town of Providence,
called Naffau, confifted at:this time of 150 houfes. The
ifland afterwards became a neft of pirates, who interrupted

the American navigation ; and on this account, an order.

was iffued by his majefty king George I. on the conclufion
of a peace with Spain in 1721, to fortify and fettle the
ifland, and to diflodge thefe outlaws. The Englifh in the
Bahama iflands have been computed at three or four thou-
fand; half being fettled in Providence, where is the fort
called Naffau ; and a {mall harbour. But the natural bar~
rennefs of the foil, and the narrow length of thefe ifles,
which expofes them to the heat and to the winds, account.
for their comparative infignificance in this grand commer=
cial archipelago. Of their prefent ftate, little fatisfaGtory

information has been obtained even by the lords of the com-'

mittee of council for the affairs of trade and plantations.
To the inquiries of their lordfhips in 1789, as to the extent
of territory in thefe iflands, the quantity of land in culti-
vation, the number of white inhabitants, productions, and
exports, &c. the only anfwer that could be obtained from
the governor was this, * that it was at that time impoffible
to afeertain any of thofe particulars.” It appears, however,
from the teltimony of other perfons, that thefe iflands in
general are rocky and barren; that the only article cultiva-
ted for exportation is cotton, of which the medium export
is 1500 bags of two hundred weight ; that the inhabitants,
who in 1773 confilted of 2052 whites and 2241 blacks,
have been of late years confiderably augmented by emi-
grants from North America; but of their prefent number
no precife account is given. Edwards’s Hitt. of the Weit
Indies, vol.i. p..470.

Bauama Straits, called the gulf of Florida, the narrow
fea between the coaft of America and the Bahama iflands,
about 45 leagues long, and 16 broad.

Banama Bans, Great, a bank of fand extending from
near the ifland of Cuba, N. lat. 22° 20’, tothe Baharna
iflands, N. lat. 26° 15’. The fand which lies to the north
of the ifland Bahama is called Littl Bahama Bauk.

BAHAR, or Barr, in Commerce, a weight ufed at Ter-
nate, Moca, in the Moluccas, Achem, and divers other
parts of the Eaft Indies. There are two kinds, the great,
with which {pice is weighed, equal to 524 1b. 9 0z. avoir-
dupois, The little bahar ferved for the weighing quickfil-

ver,

ee ee

BAH

ver, vermilion, ivory, filk, mufk, and other precious wares,
equal to 437 lb. goz. avoirdupois weight.

Bauar, in Geography, one of the een feubahs, or pro-
yinces, into which Acbar divided Hindoftan proper ; bound-
ed on the eaft by Bengal, on the north by Napaul and Boo-
tan, on the fouth by Orifla, and on the welt by Oude,
Benares, and Allehabad. It has been eftimated at 250 miles
from north to fouth, and at 200 miles from welt to’ eaft.
It produces wheat, rice, peas, &c.; but the principal ar-
ticle of export is faltpetre ; moft of that which is imported
by the Eatt India company being manufaétured within this
province. The capital is Patna. Mr. Frafer, in his “ Life
of Nadir Shah,” ftates the revenues of this province, under
Aureng-Zebe, at 101% lacks of rupees. The greateft part
of Bahar is poffeffed by the Britifh nation; but there are
feveral purgunnahs, or hundreds, on the fouth-weft of Lit-
tle Nagpour, that were formerly clafled as belonging to
Bahar, which are now in the pofleffion of the Mahrattas.

Bauar, a town of Hindoftan, in the province of the
fame name; remarkable for its number of funeral monu-
ments ; 30 miles fouth-eaft of Patna, and 220 north-weit
of Calcutta. N. lat. 25° 14’. E. long. 85° 45’.

Bauar, or Bazen, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman ; 40 miles fouth-eaft of Sirgian.

BAHARITES, derived from the Arabian bahar, or
fea, and denoting maritime, in Hiflory, the denomination of
a clafs of perfonsin Egypt, who having affaffinated Touran
Chah, the laft of the family of the Aioubites, reigned over
Egypt and Syria for 136 years, and had 27 kings. The
Baharites were of Turkifh origin. Nejm Eddin purchafed
them of the Syrian merchants. They were dethroned in
their turn by the Mamalukes or Circaffian flaves, in the
year 784 of the Hegira, A. D. 1382; who formed a new
dynafty which kept pofleffion of Egypt until the conqueft
of Selim, emperor of the Ottomans, in the year 923 of
the Hegira, A. D. 1517.

BAHARNAGASH, a country of Abyffinia, adjoin-
ing to the province of Tigré, and fituate between the river
Attufafpes and the Arabian gulf. Its capital is Dobarwa,
in N. lat. 15° 22". E. long. 39°.

BAHAS, in Geography, a town of Arabia, fixteen miles
N.N.W. of Loheia.

BAHBELGONG,a town of Hindoftan, in the country
of Baglana; 65 miles weit of Aurungabad. N. lat. 20°
45’. E> long. 74° 51’ 30".

BAHT, a province of the ifland of Lucon or Manilla,
one of the Philippine iflands. It produces excellent betel,
which the Spaniards are continually chewing ; and it is the
place where moft of the fhips are built. ‘The province is
about 30 leagues in circuit, and contains about 6000 tribu-
tary natives.

BAHIA, De Topos Los Sancros, a province of
Brafil, in South America, and the richeft in the whole
country ; but the air and climate do not correfpond with
other natural advantages. The province is fo fertile in fu-

r and other articles of commerce, that the Portuguefe re-
ort in great numbers to it, as the feat of affluence, and
alfo of pleafure and grandeur. The capital called St. Sa/va-
dor, or Cividad de Bachia, is populous and magnificent, and
by far the moft gay and opulent cityin Brafil. It ftands in
a bay in S. lat. 12° 11/3 it is naturally flrong, and is alfo
well fortified and defended by a numerous garrifon. See
Att Saints, and St. Sarvapor.

BAHIR, in Literary Hiflory, denotes famous and illu/-
érious, and is particularly ufed for a book of the Jews, treat-
ing of the profound mytteries of the cabbala; being the
moft ancient of the Rabbinical works.

BAH

BAHIRA, or Rie, in Geography, the northern ditiia
of Egypt, extending from the divifion of the Nile to the
eaft and weft branches, on both fides to the Mediterranean.
The principal towns are Alexandria, Rofetta, Damietta,
Menuf, Manfoura, Tineh, Catich, and Foueh.

Banira, among the Ancient Arabs, a name given to one
of the four kinds of camels or fheep, which, for fome rea-
fons of their religion, were turned out at liberty with an ear-
mark, no longer to be ufed for fervice like other cattle.

The bahira, with the /abai, wafita, and hami, were abo-
lifhed by Mahomet as no ordinance of God.

Authors are not agreed as to the characters of the ba-
hira.

BAHRAITCH, in Geography, a town of Hindoftan, in
the province of Oude, 55 miles N.N.E. of Lucknow. N.
lat. 27° 30’. _ E. long..81° 57’.

BAHRDT, Cuarces Freperic, in Biography, a the-
ological and fatirical writer, was born at Bifchofswerda,
Aug. 25th, 1741. Having commenced his education, with-
out much improvement, under private tuition at Leipfic,
where his father lived, he was removed to a public fchool,
and afterwards to the grammar fchool at Pforte. From
hence he returned to Leipfic, where after receiving fome
private inftruétion in the Greek and Latin from Ernetti, he
was entered in the univerfity, and quitting it after two
years, he commenced preacher in the vicinity of Leipfic.
In 1761, he was admitted to the degree of mafter of arts,
and fome years after he was appointed extraordinary p:o-
feffor of facred philofophy. In 1763, he publifhed a work,
intitled, “* The true Chriftian in Solitude;”? and alfo
his ‘* Commentary on Malachi,”” in which he endeavoured
to difplay his talents in biblical. criticifm, and his knowledge
of oriental literature. An intrigue, which rendered him a
father, defeated all his expeétations at Leipfic, and obliged
him to retire to Halle; and he was appointed profeflor of
biblical antiquities at Erfurt. Having no falary, but fup-
plied with money by his father, he found his fituation agree-
able; however he introduced fome remarks of a theological
kind, which were not thought orthodox ; and complaints
were preferred againft him by Schmidt and Vogel, two
clergymen of that city. In order the more fuccefsfully to
repel the accufation of his antagonifts, he purchafed the de-
gree of doétor in theology from the univerfity of Erlangen,
which gave him a right to read public le¢tures in divinity ;
and in 1769, he publifhed in his defence the firft part of
his “* Effay towards a Syftem of the Doétrines contained
in the Bible.’? About this period he alfo publifhed “* The
earneft Wifhes of a dumb Patriot,’? in which he attacked
the weakeft proofs of the fundamental truths of the theolo-
gical fyftem, and endeavoured to raife fufpicions againft
profeffor Schmidt of being a Jefuitical feétarian. His con-
duGt in this refpeét was reprobated by the-faculty of divines
at Wittenberg, and thofe of Gottingen recommended re-
conciliation. In 1770, Bahrdt publifhed at Eifenach his
«¢ Syftem of Moral Theology,’? which was favourably re-
ceived, and he embarked, from a defire of fame and love
of money, in fome other projeéts and ae The
approbation generally beftowed on his critical performances
induced him to undertake an edition of the Old Teftament
fimilar to that announced by Dr. Kennicott ; but neither
his knowledge nor fituation promifed fuccefs, and his inten-
tions were never tulfilled. He afterwards thought of im-
proving his finances by marriage, and efpoufed a young
widow of Mulhaufen with a fortune of 6000 dollars. In
1771, he entered on the office of fourth profeflor of philo-
fophy at Gieffen in Heffe; and here, in the fpace of four
years, he publifhed two * Colleétions of Sermons,” a ** Book

3N2 of

BAH

of Homilies,” his “ Apparatus Criticus Veteris Teftamen-
ti,” A general Theological Repofitory,”? “ Outlines of
an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of the New Teftament,” “ Pro-
pofals for explaining the Doétrines of the Church,” “ A
Critical Examination of Michaelis’s Tranflation of the
Bible,’ and * The pureft Revelation of God,” ie. a
tranflation of the New Teftament with notes. The hete-
rodoxy of his opinions raifed a violent ftorm againft him
at Gieffen ; but he efcaped it by a removal to the office of
direGor of the philanthropinum of Von Salis at Marfchlinz,
in Swifferland, with a falary of 2000 florins. He foon
however changed his fituation, and in 1776 removed to
Durkheim, and eftablifhed a feminary of education at Heide-
fheim. His philanthropinum was opened in 1777, and for
fome time it profpered ; but he involved himfelf in debt,
and being under a neceflity of removing, he determined to
vifit Holland and England for the purpofe of procuring pu-
pils in thofe countries. On his return to Heidefheim with
13 pupils, he was informed that he had been fufpended from
all his employments by a conclufum of the imperial council.
Bahrdt had now no other refource befides that of quitting
the empire, and feeking refuge in Pruffia. Accordingly,
in 1779, he retired with his family to Halle; and had again
recourfe to his pen. Here he publifhed extracts from the
facred {criptures, under the title of «* The Bible in Minia-
ture,”? which was printed in 1780; and he delivered private
le@ures on philofophy, humanity, and rhetoric ; and he alfo
read Jeétures on Tacitus and Juvenal. Upon his firft arrival
at Halle, he acknowledges, in his life, that there were fome
latent {parks of religion in his mind; but that they were
foon totally extinguifhed by his intercourfe with deifts. In
the works, therefore, which he now publifhed, he endea-
voured to teach the doétrine and hiftory of Chrittianity fe-
parate from every thing fupernatural, accommodated to rea-
fon, and agreeable to his own ideas of its original fimplicity.
But his health declining, he was under the neceflity of alter-
ing his mode of life, and he purchafed a vineyard with a
{mall farm attached to it inthe neighbourhood of Halle.
Part of his mantion was fitted up asa tavern and coffee
houfe ; and in this fituation Bahrdt acquitted himfelf as a
landlord and a pleafant companion. But his affection ahd
confidence being directed towards a maid fervant who ma-
naged his houfe, he obliged his wife, by the moft cruel
treatment, to leave him ; and when fhe afterwards returned to
him, fhe became a vidtim to {till greater barbarities.
Bahrdt, whilit he was in England, had been initiated in
mafonry ; and in the year 1781, upon the perufal of Stark’s
book on the mytteries, he adopted the notion that Jefus
Chrift muft have intended, by eftablifhing a fecret fociety,
to preferve and diffufe among mankind truth almoft banifhed
from the world by priefts. This idea he propagated in his
*¢ Accomplifhment of the Plan and Obje& of Jefus,” and
in the third edition of his ** Tranflation of the New Tetta-
ment.” In the year 1784 or 7785, a fociety of twenty-two
united mafons was eftablifhed in Germany, with a view of
improving the arts and feiences, commerce, and above all,
religion, among the common people. Bahrdt became a
member of this fociety, and propofed that it fhould engrofs
the bufinefs of book-felling, partly with a view to gain mo-
ney, and partly for obtaining the complete fovereignty of
the republic of letters in Germany. This plan, however,
not being approved, failed. In 1785 or 1786, he formed
another project, which was that of making himfelf the
founder of an avowed deiftical feét in Pruffia; but it does
not appear that he ever ferioufly attempted it. In 1787, he
exerted himfelf with zeal in fupporting the union, and af-
fembled the members; but aftcr a fecond meeting, he re-
8

BAH

ceived notice to difcontinue thefe affemblies. But his own
activity was unintermitting, and he continued to propagate
his ideas by an epiftolary correfpondence during the whole
of the year 1788. He alfo publifhed feveral works calcu-
lated to promote his views, and relating to the union, fuch
as ‘ Obfervations on the Liberty of the Prefs and its Boun-
daries,’’ and “* Zamoor, or the Man of the Moon,” in which
he delineates free-mafonry in Germany, as corrupted by the
wildett fanaticifm and the darknefs of popery. here alfo
appeared about this time a comedy, called ‘* The Edi& of
Religion,” univerfally afcribed to him, on account of which
he was arrefted, and confined at Halle; and during his im-
prifonment, he wrote ‘ Morality for the People,’? which
has been reprefent: das the beft finifhed and moft valuable of
his works, though he completed it in the courfe of three
weeks. Upon his trial, he was acquitted with regard to
the charge that related to the union, but declared guilty of
having written the comedy, and fentenced to two years im-
prifonment in the fortrefs of Magdeburg, which term was
mitigated by the king to half that period. During his con-
finement, his leifure moments were employed in writing the
** Hiftory of his own Life.”” After his releafe, he returned
to his vineyard, and renewed his barbaritices towards his
wife, who abandoned him, and left him at liberty to take
home his maid-iervant and her children. Here he continued
his former life as landlord and writer. Being attacked bya
diferder in his throat, he recurred to the too liberal ufe of
mercury, and a fever enfuing, he expired on the 23d of
April 1792. His works on morality and religion, befides
thofe already mentioned, were very numerous. His fatiri-
cal pieces, being of a temporary nature, have funk into me=
rited oblivion. The genius of Bahrdt was comprehenfive
and verfatile ; but his principles and his conduét were licen-
tious; and his hiftory exhibits the perverfion of talents,
which properly employed and accompanied with integrity,
might have rendered him refpeétable and ufeful. Gen. Biog.

BAHREIN, Bauurein, or Baurin, a fortified town
of Arabia, fituate on an ifland of the fame name, called
alfo Avan; which fee. The name is extended to a group
of {mall iflands adjacent to one another, the largeft of which
is Bahrein. Bahrein once belonged to the Portuguefe,
When they were driven out of the Perfian gulf, it fell into
the hands of the feheik of Lachfa; but was taken from
him by the Perfians. The imam of Oman then made him-
felf malter of it ; but gave it up again to the Perfian mo-
narch for a {um of money. It afterwards changed its own-
ers ; but in 1765 it reverted into the poffeflion of the {cheik
of Abu Schzhhr, and he was then fole monarch of the
ifland. It is famous for its pearl fifhery. (See Pearu.) N.
lat. 26°. E. long. 49°.

Baurein is an appellation fometimes
vince of Lach/a ; which fee.

BAHK EL ABIAD, or the Waite River, a name
given to the real Nile, near its firlt origin ; the fources of
which in the African Alps of Kumri remain to be explored.

BAHR EL AZREK, Brue River, or Abyfinian
Nile, has its chief {pring in a {mall hillock, fituated in a
marfh, and joins the Bahr el Abiad, or true Nile, about N.
lat. 16°; the latter is tinged, the former is clear. The
Bahr el Azrek was miftaken for the real Nile, by the Portu-
guefe writers, Alvarez, Villez, &c. probably mifled by the
vain glory of the Abyflinians; though it was well known
to the ancients as quite a diftinét river, being the Aftapus
flowing into the Nile from the Coloe Palus, now the lake
of Dembea. Mr. Bruce has adopted the fame miftake ;
and it is faid, that when M. d’Anville fhewed him his mif-
take, he refolved to expunge the White river from his map,

though

given to the pro-

yo

BAI
ugh he acknowledges in his work that it is the largeft
ae The Bahr el Azrck is ftyled Abawi by the Abyf-
finians. The fources of this river were accurately deferibed
in the feventeenth century by Payz, a Portuguefe miffion-
ary, whofe account was publifhed by Kircher and Ifaac
Voffius ; and has been not long ago minutely copied by

Bruce, as Hartman has fhewn by printing the two accounts
in parallel columns.

Pinkerton’s Mod. Geog. vol. il.
Pp: 725- ;

BAHRENBURG, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Weitphalia, and county of Hoya, on the
river Sublingen, fourteen miles S.S.W.of Hoya. ;

_ BAHUS, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Adour, about a league above the Sever.

Banus. See Bouus.

BAJA, in Entomology, @ fpecies of Puatena (Nodua),
of the middle fize, that inhabits Europe. The wings are
ferruginous, with a {mall black dot at the bafe, and a dou-
ble one at the apex. This is produced from a variegated
grey and brown caterpillar, having three dorfal white lines,
and yellowifh fices. Feeds on the deadly mightfhade.
Gwel. Fabr.

Baya, in Ancient Geography. See Bayya. ;

Baja, in Geography, a town of Hungary, ne bteciner
Danube, 50 miles N.N.W. of Peterwaradin. N. lat. 46°

!, E.long. 19° 50’
ett seer town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na-

les, and country of Lavora, eleven miles welt of Naples.
en Barz. ,

BAIABAD, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Caramania, 28 miles fouth-eaft of Kaftamoni.

BAJAD, in Jchthyology. a fpecies of Strurus, having
the poiterior dorfal fin fiefhy or fat; twelve rays in the
anal fin; and beards of the mouth eight. Forfk. Fn. Arab.
Inhabits the Nile; colour glaucous; length one foot or
more. E

BAJADO R, or Bacavore, Cape, in Geography, a cape
on the weit coaft of Africa, in the Atlantic ocean 3 120
leagues diftant from cape Geer. N. lat. 26° 29’. W. long.
14° 36'.—Bajador is allo a cape at the north-weftern extre-
mity of the ifland of Lugon, one of the Philippine
iflands. ‘

BALA, in Ancient Geography, now Bara, an ancient
village of Campania, in Italy, fituate between the promon-
tory of Mifenum and Puteoli, on the Sinus Baianus ; fa-
mous for its hot baths, which ferved the Romans for the
purpofes both of medicine and pleafure. The hot {prings
and medicinal vapours that abounded in the environs of this
place mult, at a very early period, have excited the atten-
tion of valetudinarians, as bathing was the conftant amufe-
ment and refrefhment of the Greeks while in health, and
their remedy when difeafed ; but Baie docs not feem to have
attained a degree of celebrity fuperior to that of other
baths, till the Roman commonwealth began to decline. As
foon as the plunder of a conquered world was transferred
from works of public ufe and ornament to objects of pri-
-vate luxury, the tranfcendent advantages which Baie offered
to Roman voluptuaries, flying from the capital in fearch of
health and pleafure, became an object of peculiar attention.
The variety of its natural baths, the foftnefs of its chmate,
and the beauties of its landfeape, captivated the minds of
thofe whofe paffion for bathing knew no bounds. ‘The ab-
lutions which they might wilh to praGtife at Rome required
an enormous expence in aquedu ‘ts, floves, and attendants ;
but here they found a place, moit delightfully feated, where
waters naturally heated to any degree of neceflary warmth
bubbled {pontaneonlly out of the ground ; and its eafy com-
munication with Rome was alfo a circumitance that recom-

BA J

mended it. Hither the mighty rulers of the empire retired
at firft for a temporary relaxation, after the fatigue of
bloody-campaigns and civil contefts. Their habitations were
{mall and modett ; but increafing luxury foon added palace
to palace, with fuch expedition and fumptuofity, that fpace
was wanting for the vaft demand. Accordingly architects,
fupported by boundlefs wealth, extended their foundations
into the fea, and drove that element back from its ancient
limits, as Horace exprefies it :
“ Marifque Baiis obftrepentis urges
Summovere littora.’’

But the fea has fince recovered much more than it loft.
From being a place of refort for a feafon, Baie grew up to
a permanent city; and its wealthy inhabitants rendered it
as much a miracle of art as it was before of nature. Its
fplendour may be inferred from its innumerable ruins, heaps
of marble, mofaics, ftucco, and other precious fragments of
tafte. It flourithed in full glory to the days of Theodoric
the Goth; but the deftruétion of thefe enchanted palaces
foon followed the irruption of the northern conquerors, who
overturned the Roman fyitem, facked and burnt all before
them, and deftroyed or difperfed the whole race of nobility,
No fooner had opulence withdrawn its {upport, than the un-
bridled fea rufhed back upon its old domain ; moles and but-
trefles were torn afunder and wafhed away ; whole promon-
tories, with the facred towers that once covered their brows,
were undermined and tumbled headlong into the deep, where,
many fect below the furface, pavements of ftreets, founda-
tions of houfes, and maffes of walls, may be difcovered. In-
ternal commotions of the earth contributed alfo mm a great
degree to this general devaftation, Mephitic vapours and
ftagnated waters have converted this favourite feat of health
into the den of peftilence, at leaft during the fummer
heats ; and yet Baiz in its ruined ftate, and {tripped of its
ornaments, {till prefents many beautiful and {triking fubjets
for the pencil of the artift. N.lat.41°6’. E. long. 14°
45’. Swinb. Trav. vol. in, p. 42, &c.

BAJANA, in Conchology, a {pecies of Venus found on
the fhores of Brafil. The colour is ochraceous, varied with
black; and the fhell is fpecifically diftinguifhed by being
fragile, glabrous, and marked tran{verfely with a few tranf-
verfe {lriz. Figured by Bonnani.

BAJANUS Sixus, in Ancient Geography, a bay of Italy
in the kingdom of Naples, fo called from Baie, Portus Bai-
arum of Pliny, which was enlarged by Auguitus, by giving
entrance to the fea into the Lacus Lucrinus, and Averni,
ordering it to be called Portus Fuitus apud Baias.( Suetonius.)
We alfo read in Tacitus of Baianus Lucus, which fome have
interpreted Lucrinus. This gulf is denominated Crater by
Strabo ; and he places it between the cape of Minerva and
that of Mifenum. The modern name is Golfo di Pozzuolo.
From the higheft point that forms the bay, a large caitle
commands the read, where foreign fhips of war ufually nde
at anchor, the harbour of Naples not being fufficiently {pa-
cious for the reception of a fleet; here they enjoy good
fhelter, watering, and vidtualling ; but in fummer, rifk the
health of their crews, on account of the unwholefomnefs of
the air. At the bottom of the bay, and at the foot of the
fteep rocks which ferve as a foundation to the ruins called
« Nero’s houfe,” are fome dark caves of great depth, leading
to the hotteit of all vapour baths. Thefe baths are thirty
in number ; and they are faid to have been adorned with
Greek inferiptions and ftatues denoting, by their expreflions
and attitudes, what particular part of the human frame was
affected and relieved frem its pains by each particular bath.
The fprings at the bottom of the grotto are fo hot as to
boil an egg hard almoit inftantaneoufly. Thefe caverns
{eem to be the fpat where Nature has opened the readieit

acceis

BAJ

accefs to the focus of a velcano, which has been within
the two laft centuries moit outrageous in its operations ; for
to them mutt be attributed the overturning of the adjacent
country, and the total alteration of its furface by the birth
of Monte Nuovo, which now blocks up the valley of Aver-
no. Swinb. Trav. vol. ili. p. 48.

BAJAZET L., in Biography, fultan of the Turks, was
the fon and fucceffor of Amurath I., and denominated * II-
derim,” or lightning, on account of the fiery energy of his
foul, and the rapidity of his deftru€tive march. He fuc-
ceeded Amurath in the year 1389, being then about 44
years of age; and having fecured his authority at home by
the execution of his younger brother, who attempted to ex-
cite a revolt againit him, he profecuted the ambitious de-
figns of his father. During the fourteen years of his reign,
he inceflantly moved, at the head of his armies, from Bour-
fa to Adrianople, from the Danube to the Euphrates; and
though he ftrenuoufly laboured for the propagation of the
law, he invaded, with impartial ambition, the Chriftian and
Mahometan princes of Europe and Afia. Having reduced
to his obedience the northern regions of Anatolia, made
himfelf mafter of Caramania, and impofed a regular form
of fervitude on the Servians and Bulgarians, he paffed the
Danube to feek new enemies and new fubjeéts in the heart
of Moldavia. Whatever yet adhered to the Greek empire
in Thrace, Macedonia, and Thefflaly, acknowledged a
Turkifh mafter, and he was led through the gates of Ther-
mopyle into Greece by an obfequious bifhop. The Turk-
ifh communication between Europe and Afia had been dan-
gerous and doubtful, till he ftationed at Gallipoli a fleet of
gallies to command the Hellefpont, and intercept the Latin
fuccours of Conftantinople. While the monarch indulged
his paffions in a boundlefs range of injuftice and cruelty, he
impofed on his foldiers the moft rigid laws of modefty
and abftinence ; and the harveft was peaceably reaped and
fold within the precinéts of his camp. Having obtained
the title of fultan from the caliphs who ferved in Egypt
under the yoke of the Mamalukes, he was ambitious of de-
ferving this title ; and accordingly he turned his arms againft
the kingdom of Hungary, the principal theatre of the
Turkifh viGtories and defeats. At Nicopolis, near the Da-
nube, he defeated, in 1396, a confederate army of an hun-
dred thoufand Chriftians, headed by Sigifmund, the Hun-
garian king ; moft of whom were flain or driven into the
Danube: and Sigifmund, efcaping to Conftantinople by the
river and Black fea, returned after a long circuit to his ex-
haufted kingdom. Among the captives was a body of
French crufaders, and in this number were John count of
Nevers, the fon of the duke of Burgundy, and fome of the
nobleft lords in France. In the pride of vidtory, Bajazet
threatened that he would befiege Buda, that he would fub-
due the adjacent countries of Germany and Italy, and that
he would feed his horfe with a bufhel of oats on the altar
of St. Peter at Rome. Whilit the military talents of Ba-
jazet, manifefted on this occafion by the {peed and fecrecy
of his march, and alfo by the order and evolutions of the
battle, have been acknowledged even by his enemies, he
has juftly been aceufed of cruelty in the ufe of victory.
The French captives, who furvived the flaughter of the
day (the count of Nevers and twenty-four lords excepted,
who were afterwards ranfomed for two hundred thoufand
ducats) were led before his throne; and as they refufed to
abjure their faith, they were fucceffively beheaded in his
prefence. So abfolute was his authority, that his word, pro-
nounced either by way of mercy or deftru@tion, was trre-
vocable. In the treaty, after the battle of Nicopolis, it
was ftipulated, that the French captives fhould {wear never
to bear arms againit the perfon of their conqueror; but

BAS

this ungencrous reftraint was abolifhed by Bajazet himfelf.
I defpife,’’ faid he to the heir of Burgundy, “ thy oaths
and thy arms. Thou art young, and mayeit be ambitious
of effacing the difgrace or misfortune of thy firft chivalry.
Affemble thy powers, proclaim thy defign, and be affured
that Bajazet will rejoice to meet thee a fecond time in the
field of battle.’? The progrefs of Bajazet, notwithftanding
his threats, was checked by a long and painful fit of the
gout. Before he dire&ted his arms againft the feeble re-
mains of the Eaftern empire, he rendered the emperor, Ma-
nuel Palzologus, tributary, and impofed upon him the hu-
miliating condition of having a Turkith cadi and a mofch ia
his capital. He next threatened and a€tually invefted Con-
ftantinople ; but he was catled away by the menaces of a
more formidable tyrant than himfelf. This was the great
Timour, or Tamerlane, who, in the year 1400. began his
march from Georgia towards Afia Minor. In his firft ex-
pedition; Timour was fatisfied with the fiege and deftru@ion
of Siwas, or Sebaiti, a {trong city on the borders of Ana-
tolia ; and with caufing 4000 Armenians, who formed the
garrifon, to be buried alive for the brave and faithful dif-
charge of their duty. He then turned afide to the invafion
of Syria and Egypt, facked and deftroyed Aleppo and
Damafcus, and took poffeffion of Damafcus. To Bajazet
he offered peace on moderate terms; but the fultan, confid-
ing in his ftrength, employed the interval in colle@ing all

the forces of his empire, and thefe two potentates met on -

the plains that furrounded the city of Angora, in July,
A.D. 1402, to a memorable confli€&, which has immortal-
ized the glory of Timour, and the fhame of Bajazet. Such
was the event of this fevere conteft, in which two very nu-
merous and powerful hofts were engaged, that the Turks
were entirely broken with dreadful flaughter ; and Bajazet,
affi&ed with the gout in his hands and feet, was tranfported
from the field on the fleeteft of his horfes. He was pur-
fued and taken, and at fun-fet brought to the tent of Ti-
movr. Bajazet, by the mild expoftulation of the conqueror,
who, with a foothing pity for his rank and misfortune,
mingled juft reproaches for his pride and obftinacy, was
foftened into humiliation. ‘ Had you vanquifhed,”’ faid
Timour, “ I am not ignorant of the fate which you referved
for myifelf and my troops; but I difdain to retaliate; your
life and honour are fecure, and I fhall exprefs my gratitude
to God by my clemency to man.” The “iron cage,” in
which Bajazet is faid to have been imprifoned by Tamerlane,
fo long and fo often repeated as a moral leffon, is now re-
jected as a fable by the modern writers, who {mile at the
vulgar credulity. It has been fuggefted, indeed, that Ti-
mour might difplay an oftentatious magnificence and libera-
lity, towards Bajazet ; while, with a view to fecurity, he
kept his important prize in a “* moveable apartment guarded
with bars,’ and indulged his own pride in carrying him
about in triumph. “ In the feaft of vi€tory,’’ fays Gibbon,
‘** to which Bajazet was invited, the Mogul emperor placed
a crown on his head, and a {ceptre in his hand, with a fo-
lemn affurance of reitoring him with an increafe of glory
to the throne of his anceftors. But the effet of this pro-
mife was difappointed by the fultan’s untimely death ; amidft ,
the care of the moft f{kilful phyficians, he expired of an apo-
plexy at Akfhehr, the Antioch of Pifidia, about nine
months after his defeat,” A. D. 1403, in the fifteenth year
his reign, and fifty-eighth of his life. ‘ The vi€tor dropped
a tear over his grave; his body, with royal pomp, was con-
veyed to the maufoleum which he had ereéted at Bourfa;
and his fon Moufa, after receiving a rich prefent of gold
and jewels, of horfes and arms, was invelled by a patent: in
red ink with the kingdom of Anatolia.”
The character of Bajazet was that of a defpot .with sao
nt

BAI

lent paffions, but not habitually cruel; a lover of juttice in
the rough fummary way practifed by arbitrary princes ; in-
fatiably ambitious, and much addi¢ted to the ercétion of
pompous edifices for ufe or oftentation. Ane. Un. Hitt.
vol. xv. p.202. Gibbon’s Hilt. vol. xi. p. 321. vol. xii. 17.
28. 30.

Bayazer II., fultan of the Turks, fucceeded his father
Mahomet II. in 1481. After being freed from the compe-
tition of his brother Zizim, or Jem, he engaged, like his
predeceffors, in wars, and made conquefts in Moldavia and
Caramania ;' and he manifefted the ferocity of his own dif-
pofition by putting to death, at an entertainment in his pa-
lace, his famous general Achmet. His war with the fultan
of Egypt terminated in the ruin of the latter power; but
at its commencement Bajazet loft a great number of troops
in an invafion of Syria. He afterwards overran Circaffia,
and carried many of its inhabitants into captivity. On
the expullion of the Moors from Spain, Bajazet, at the
head of the Mahometan religion, was folicited to revenge
their caufe; and he fent a fleet into the Mediterranean,
which defeated the Chriftian navy, and ravaged the coatts.
He afterwards reduced Croatia and Bofnia. In compliance
with the requeft of Sforza, duke of Milan, he declared
war againft the Venetians, and invaded and plundered Fri-
uli. Marching in perfon into the Morea, he took Lepanto,
Moden, and Durazzo; but in 1503, peace took place be-
tween him and the Venetians, who had taken pofleflion of
Cephalonia. Befides thefe foreign wars, Bajazet encounter-
ed many civil commotions, occafioned by the rebellion of
his fon Selim. The iflue of thefe contefts was the refignation
of the crown to his fon, upon which Bajazet, withing to live
in peace and retirement at Demotica, fet out on a journey
thither, attended by a few friends. His progrefs was flow,
and his fon fufpe€ted that he was waiting for fome favour-
able turn in his affairs; and therefore his death, after he had
proceeded to the diftance of about forty miles from Con-
ftantinople, was not without reafon aferibed to poifon admi-
niftered by a Jewifh phyfician, He died in 1512, at the
age of 62, after a reign of 32 years. He was aétive and
vigorous in body and mind, a patron of the learned, him-
felf a proficient in literature, and well verfed in the philo-
fophy of Averrhoes, and a punctual obferver of the rites of
his religion. At the fame time he had the fiercenefs com-
mon to the Ottoman princes, and fhed blood without re-
morfe. He is commendable for his attention to the improve-
ment and decoration of his dominions by many edifices of
grandeur and utility. Mod. Un. Hilt. Gen. Biog.

BAIBACHTA, in Geography, a town of Siberia, on the
river Irtifch, 72 miles N. W.. of Tara.

BAIBAZAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Caramania, 48 miles weft of Angura.

BAIBOUL, a town of Armenia, 45 miles fouth of
Trebizond.

BAICHA, two rivers of Siberia, which run into the
Turuchan ; one 32, and the other 56 miles N.W. of Turu-
chanfk.

BAIDARS, the name of a kind of {mall canoes, ufed
among the natives of the Kurilly iflands, and of the north.
weftern coaft of America. In Sauer’s ‘ Aecount of a geo-
graphical and aftronomical Expedition to the northern Parts
of Ruffia, by Billings, in the Years 1785 to 1794,’ we
have the following account of their conitruction. The keel
is eighteen feet long, four inches thick on the top, and not
three inches deep, or fomewhat lefs, at the bottom. Two
upper frames, one on each fide, about 14 inch fquare, and
fixteen feet long, join to a fharp flat board at the head, and
are about fixteen inches fhorter than the ftern, conneéted by

d

BAT

a thwart which keeps them about twelve inches afunder.
Two fimilar frames are placed near the bottom of the boat,
fix inches below the upper ones, about one inch fquare.
Round ticks, thin, and about fix inches diftant from each
othe, are tied to thefe frames, and project from the fides ;
and for the top thwarts are ufed very ttrong flicks, nearly
as thick as the upper frames, curved, fo as to raife the mid-
dle of the boat about two inches higher than the fides. Of
thefe thwarts or beams there are thirteen; one of them is
placed feven feet from the ftern ; another is twenty inches
nearer the head ; and a hoop is faftened between them, in
which the rower is feated. This is made {trong, and grooved
for faftening an open fkin, which is tied round the body, fo
as to prevent any water from getting into the boat, although
it were funk. The frame is covered with the fkin of the
fea-lion, drawn and fewed over it like a czfe. The whole is
fo extremely light, even when fodden with water, that it
may be carried with eafe in one hand. The head of the boat
is double the lower part, fharp, and the upper part is flat,
refembling the open mouth of a fifth, but thus contrived to
keep the head from finking too deep in the water; anda
{tick is tied from one end to the other, to prevent its entan-
gling with the fea-weeds. They are eafily rowed in a fea,
moderately {mooth, about ten miles in the hour, and they
keep the fea in a frefh gale of wind, The paddles which
they ufe, and which ferve for oars and rudders, are double,
feven or eight feet long, and are cut in the fhape of a peal.
If the baidar runs aground, the favage eafily fets it afloat
again. Thefe baidars are ufed in the fifhery for whales, in
the capture of fea-otters, and for other purpofes.

BAIDSCHEN, in Geography, atown of Pruffia, in the
provmce of Lithuania, on the north fide of the Pifla, four
miles eaft of Gumbinnen.

BAIER, Joun James, in Biography, born at Tena, in
Upper Saxony, in 1677, applied himfelf early to the ftudy
of medicine, and was admitted to the degree of do€tor there
in the year 1700. In 1704, he was made profeffor of phy-
fiology at Altdorf ; and in 1730, prefident of the academy
Nature Curioforum. Befides numerous differtations on va-
rious branches of medicine, he publithed, “ Adagiorum Me-
dicorum Centuria,” Altd. gto. 1718. “ Hiftoria Horti
Medici Altdorfii,” gto. 1727.‘ Orationum Varii Argus
menti Fafciculus,”” gto.1727. ‘ Biographie Profefforum
Medicine quiin Academia Altdorf unquam vixerunt,” gto.
1728. Nurenb. cum Iconibus, Nummis, et Scriptorum
Cenfu. His fon Ferdinand James was in confiderable
efteem as phyfician at Nuremburg, at the time of his death,
which happened in 1735. Haller Bib. Med. Pra@. et Botan.

BAIEU, in Zoology, the name of Cervus Mexicanus
or Mexican ftag, in Bancroft’s Guiana, &c.

BAIF, Joun Antuony, in Biography, wasborn at Venice,
1542, where he probably acquired and cherifhed his paflion
for mufic. He was the natural fon of the French ambaflador
to that republic; had been a fellow ftudent with the poet
Ronfard, and was clofely united to him by friendfhip and kin-
dred arts. Baif, like our fir Philip Sidney, wifhed to intro-
duce the feet and cadence of the dead languages into the
living, and with the like fuccefs. He fet his own verfes to
mufic; not to fuch mufic as might be expected from a man
of letters, or a dilettante, confilting of afingle melody, but
to counterpoint, or mufic in different parts. Of this kind he
publithed, in 1561, twelve hymns, or fpiritual fongs; and,
in 1578, feveral books of fongs, all in four parts, of which
both the words and the mufic were hisown. When men of
learning condefcend to ftudy mufic @ fond, profeffors think
the art highly honoured by their notice; but poets are very
unwilling to return the compliment, and feldom allow me us

ACLAN

eA YT

fician to mount Parnaffus, or fet his foot within the pre-
cinéts of their dominions. Saif, however, was allowed to
be as good a mufician as poct ; and what entitles him to the
more notice here, is the having eftablifhed an academy, or
concert at his houfe, in the fuburbs of Paris, where the per-
formance was frequently honoured with the prefence of
Charles [X. Henry III. and the principal perfonages of the
court.

Merfennus, in Genef. p.1683, has given a particular ac-
count of this eftablifhment, the firft in France of which we
have met with any record. In this academy or concert,
dignified by a royal charter, in which voices, viols, and
flutes were employed (wocibus, fidibus, et fiflulis conflaret), it
was expected to recover the three genera of the Greeks, and
all the miraculous powers of their ancient mufic.

BAIKAL, Lake, or inland fea, in Geography. In the
fleepeft part of the Sayane mountains (the eaftern continu-
ation of the Altay), at the extremity of the chain, where
the country changes to a level plain, feeming itfelf only a
lower mountaia between the lofty {now-capt fummits, lies
a monument of one of the greateft revolutions that the
furface of our earth has ever undergone. A lake, not lefs
remarkable for its internal conftitution than for the {pace
which it occupics, heaves its billows within the cragsy
cliffs of mountains, through which it is to all appearance
impoffible that any ftream can force its way to fupply its
enormous bafon. Nature, in the remoteft periods of anti-
quity, feems here to have opened, by fome tremendous con-
vulfion, an abyfs into which fhe might pour her immenfe
flores of water, and caufe a part of it to flow over the
weltern level.

This lake extends from 52° N. lat. to 55° 41’, in a di-
rection from fouth-weft to north and north-north-ealt. Its
moft common appellation is Baikal, in the maps mare Baikal;
but in the furrounding regions it is generally called the
Sea, without farther addition; or fometimes the Holy fea.
Both thefe denominations are extremely natural in a country
which to a vait diftance round knows no larger mafs of
waters, and in the mouths of people who fo frequently ex-
perience the benefits it beftows and the perils it threatens.
Tt is therefore not at all furprifing that Gmelin’s pilot fhould
have afcribed a fudden ftorm to the anger of the incenfed
deity of the waters, who felt himfelf infulted by the foreign
infidel who called his venerable fea a lake. Safe from the
like danger, we fhall however pay greater refpeét to geogra-

hical juftice, by making ufe of the latter term.

The lake Baikal is 550 verits in length; and in breadth,
where it is the narroweft, 30 verfts. To the north it
widens\ to between 70 and 80 verits. Its depth is very
unequal; proceeding from 20 to 80 and roo fathom (the
fathom at feven foot). In fome places, particularly near the
ifle of Olchon, according to the affirmation of a fifherman,
even a founding-line of 200 fathom would not reach the
bottom. A number of brooks and rivulets pour their
waters into this bafon; on the map in Georgi’s travels, we
count fifty of them; many indecd very inconfiderable,
though feveral others may be deemed large: for example,
the Selenga and the Upper Angara, which purfues a courfe
of more than 700 verits. The lake has only one outlet;
the Lower Angara, which flowsintothe Yenifley. Though
its bed at the part where it comes from the Baikal is two
verfts broad, and has a very rapid current, yet is it not by
far capacious enough for carrying off all the water collected
in that refervoir. Notwithftanding which, the lake never
rifes more than three feet above its ordinary level, even in
the {pring feafon; and therefore it probably may have fome
f{ubterrancous drain. ‘The bottom, at the fhores, confifts of

BAT

gradually rounded rocky fragments, piled on one another; im
the middle, of gravelly fand. The lake is extremely clear,
fo that ia eight fathom water the bottom is diftin@ly feen;
in five or fix fathom the fmallef& objets are difcernible. At
a diftance it appears of a greenifh hue, owing to the verdant
mofs with which the {tony bottom is overgrown. It is purey
and very agreeable to the tafte; but in the month of July it
gets into a fort of fermentation, which is called its flowering,
whence it becomes turbid as if mixed with a fine yellowuh
fand, and lofes its good tafte. More danger is to be appre-
hended when keeping within fhore, than out upon the main 5
for the Baikal is extremely fubjeét to viclent gales and
ftorms, which ftrike and fplit againit the lofty mountains
that furround it. The mariners know of no more than three
winds, which they denominate after the promontories. The
fouth-welt, which is the moft conftant, and the north-eaft, are
innoxious; the north is more formidable, by reafon of its
violence, and on account of the fhallow fhores to the fouth.
But the agitation of the water is out of all proportion to the
wind; fince in a very moderate breeze the lake frequently
rages with great fury, whereas furious winds only jutt increafe
its agitation. ‘There being no racks or banks in the middle,
the waves ulually fwell feven feet high, almoft always quite
to the fhore. Even when the violence of the ftorm has
abated, the turbulence of the water commonly latts for feveral
hours. The internal agitations of the lake are {till more
alarming. With a bright fky, and the furface of the water
as fmooth as a mirror, all at once the veffel is tofled about
with fuch violent fhocks, that the people on board -have
much ado to fave it. In like manner in a particular place a
fingle wave will fuddewly arife, which at the fame {pot is fol-
lowed by feveral others. Thefe curious phenomena are
fuppofed to happen in confequence of the contiguity in which
the lake is fituated below with clefts in the adjacent moun-
tains, the drafts of wind iffuing from which force up the
watcr, though not always perceptible above to the fame
degree.

Thus contiaually reftlefs, it is very comprehenfible that,
notwith{tanding the feverity of the climate, the Baikal is not
frozen over till the month of December or January. Ice-
fields, fometimes of ten verfts in dimenfion, firft form in the
bays, and then unite in places, which, previous to the freez-
ing, are covered with a denfe cloud.. The furface being at
length thoroughly confolidated, frequently prefents one vaft
plain of glafly {moothnefs, though fometimes likewife ex-
tremely rough. Snow, on account of the winds, feldom
adheres to it; and therefore, efpecially to the firft travellers,
it is extremely laborious to the horfes. The furious gufts
of winds at times project the people who run by the fide of
the fledges, to the diltance of feveral fathoms forwards;
whereby they are in imminent danger of being frozen, or of
falling into the chinks of the ice. Thefe chinks become
wider and more frequent as the time of the breaking up
draws on; boards are then laid acrofs them to facilitate the
paflage; and in cafes of neceffity, when the apertures are
become too wide to be remedied in that way, canoes are im
troduced. The ice ufually breaks up in May, and then it
reqnires only a few days for diffolving; in feveral of the
bays, however, it lies the whole fummer through.

The weather is generally inclement in the parts about the
The fummer is fhort, and fearcely ever pailes with- .

Baikal.
out night froits; the winter announces its approach fo early
as Auguit, by falls of fnow. On the fandy coafts, fuch
plants grow as are elfewhere only found on the coldeft
mountains. ‘The caufe of this inclemency of climate is prin-
cipally to be attributed to the elevation of the whole region,

the {nowy fummits and icy clefts of the huge mountains,

and

Pe, a ee

oe a ns

=

ae

Bee

and the want of fufficient proteétion againfl the north
winds.

In the Baikal are numerous iflands; moft of them, how-
ever, very {mall. The largelt is Olchon, in the northern
part, feparated from the main land by a found, in which are
eight iflands of inferior dimenfions. Olchon is 50 vertts in
length, eight or ten broad, and terminates to the north in a
promontory ; the fouth-eaftern part is lower and dettitute cf
forefts; in the fouth-weftern grow pines, poplars, birch, and
willows. The land is fo favourable to the nurture of cattle,
that the fine droves belonging to the inhabitants find patture
all the winter through, without any particular tending.
The population confills of 150 Buret families, many of
whom are owners of between four and five hundred head of
fheep. The natural propenfity to idlenefs in all paftoral
people here finds fo much encouragement, that the Burats
pafs the greater part of the day in caroufing.

Round the coaft are feveral objeéts of confequence to the
naturalift. On the weltern fide, above Olchon, in a very
beautiful country, fkirted by majettic foretts, with a fine
view of the lake, are feveral fprings, moftly cold. Amidtt
thefe is one of hot, water, more remarkable than the reft on
account of its fanative properties. A Ruffian officer belong-
ing to the mines having obtained relief from it in forme dif-
order, reduced it to a conduit, which yields 582 callons
every hour; and it is found to be only neceflary to dig in its
vicinity for coming to hot water. The water is clear, but
has fomewhat of a fetid talte; the vapour fmells like fired
gunpowder, and occafions fneezing; birds are boiled in it in
twelve minutes, fplit fifh in feventeen minutes. No fnow
therefore remains here upon the ground; the lake likewife
continues free from ice; and even the cold fprings, where
they run through the territory of the hot, are tepid. Vhefe
hot fources are ufed for bathing as well as for drinking.
Some years ago a lama performed frequent cures by means
of thefe waters; fince his death, however, the Rufllans are
the only perfons who occafionally refort to them. ,

The Upper Angara flows through the northern margin
nto the lake, after having purfued a courfe of 8co verits,
down feveral precipices, forming ftupendous cataracts, along
a tract of near a hundred miles. Not far from its mouth,
eaitwards, is the Frolika lake, fifteen verits long, and from
one to five verits acrofs, remarkable for its extraordinary
depth, and for a catara& on its way to the Baikal. The
river Frolika, between fifteen and twenty fathoms wide,
forms this cataract by rolling over a fucceflion of rocks, ex-
tending half a verit, and being twenty feet in perpendicular
height. More to the fouth is again a het fource, pellucid,
and in tafte refembling foap-water; in the morning the
effuvia it calts around is enough to make one fick. The
water iffues in a copious ftream, but is turned to no ac-
count.

On the Shamane promontory ftands a curious lufus na-
ture; namely, three rocks adjacent to each other, upwards
of two hundred feet in height above the water’s level.
Their tops refemble human heads, with caps on them. It
may well be imagined that the particular features are not
fmall. Of the middlemoft, which is the biggeit, the nofe is
in length feven feet, in the flit of the meuth two families of
fea-guills are commodioufly lodged; even the ey ebrows are
not wanting; only there ig no trace of au car. The Pun-
gufes revere thefe three rocks, as the fea-god Dianda, with
his two fubordinate deities. He is able to fave any Tun-
gufe from drowning, to caufe a good draught of fithes,
&c.

The peninfula Bargufin, thirty verfts long and fifteen
broad, is thickly wooded, but void of game and fh, conte-

- Vor. Ill.

BAI

spent cannot boaft of a numerous population. Lower
own to the fouth is the Dukhovoi or Vapoury lake, five
verfts long and three broad. Its yellowifh flimy water is of
a naufeous acid tafte; the whole diftri€&t is charged with its
foctid exhalations; yet the water taken in a veffel has no re-
markable odour. It even abounds in pike, perch, and
various other forts of fith, which, however, often in winter,
when the ice remains without apertures, are ftifled in the
putrifying water. Whence it may be, that the horrid ftench
of this region arifes not fo much from the lake itfelf, as from
the prodigious quantity of fifh that lie corrupting on the
fhore.

The moft famous of all the mineral waters on the coafts
of the Baikal is the Turkobad, celebrated fince the com-
mencement of the late century, not yet however employed
according to its merits. It confifts of feven fprings, fome of
hot, others of cold water, which in one place have been col-
le@ed into a refervoir. It is vifited both by Ruffians and
Burets, labouring under diforders, who generally find relief
from it. The former,'on their recovery, ereét croffes; the
Pagans plant young cedars about the fpot, hanging up like-
wife on poles filk and cotton ftuffs, as votive afereis to the
deities; in the fame view they alfo throw money into the
water. Without waiting for any revealed authority from
the Shamanian gods, the Ruffians carefully convey away all
thefe articles; making by that means fometimes a profit of
ten rubles in the year, a capital fum for this part of the
world! A little above the Turka is obtained naphtha,
which the lake cafts afhore in the {pring, hanging to icicles,
or incrufted with ice, in lumps often as big as one’s fift.
This dark brown clammy fubftance, which probably oozes
up from the bottom of the lake, though tolerably vifcous,
may however be kneaded, and is foluble in moderately warm
water. It has rather a fragrant odour, and is ufed in heal-
ing wounds, particularly as a falve for running fores.
Thefe parts abound likewife in various {pecies of alkaline
falts, which have of late been collected for the ufe of the
apothecaries.

Southwards from, the Turka is the mouth of the Selenga,
the largeft river that difembogucs into the Baikal, and
whereon the two cities Udinik and Selengifk are fituate.
In its mouth lic feattered a few iflands. Lower down flands
the monatlery of Pofolfk, which is the landing-place on
coming acrofs the Baikal from Irkutfk. The fouth-weftern
mountainous border of the lake is called Kultuk.

We now proceed to the particularities of animated nature
in this extraordinary lake. Among the aquatic animals, the
prime rank is certainly due to the callionymus, called by the
Ruffians golomyanka, entirely peculiar to the Baikal. He
is from four to fix inches in length, and, excepting his head,
fin, and a flender back-bone, confifts folely of blubber, into
which he immediately diffolves on being expofed to a gentle
heat. None of thefe fifh, however, are caught in nets or
otherwife; it is even extremely rare to fee them alive; it is
only during violent agitations of the water that they are
raifed to the furface and caft afhore, generally either dead or
in a dying ftate. This chiefly happens in femmer, when it
blows a tempelt from the north; though not every year
alike. Shoals of them are often found pled up in heaps on
the fhore, particularly near the mouth of the Selenga: at
times they are fo rarely feen, that the old fifhermen ever
aver that it is only of late years that they have been feen at
all, Whence and how they are thrown wp and ejected
cannot indeed be fatisfactorily afcertained; unlefs it be pro-
bably in confeguence of their ufual haunts being the deepeft
chafins at the bottom of the lake. That thefe may poflibly
be conneéted with the clefts of the mountains, we have

30 already

BAI

already conjeGtured 5 and if this be admitted, it is far from

improbable, that, in heavy gales, the wind furioufly rufhingy

through thefe vents, may lift them from their holes into the
Upper water, where, unaccuftomed to the outward air, they
<annot long furvive this change of place. The fhoals that
are caft afhore are partly devaured by the fea-fowls, and
partly boiled to oil by the inhabitants of the flrand, which
1s faid to be very fine and well tafted; at leaft it muft be fo
to the Chinefe, who buy it in great quantities.

Another particularity, at leaft to the Baikal, are the por-
pufes. As they eMfewhere only live in falt water, and never
travel far up the rivers, it is the more furprifing how they
came into this frefh-water lake, which has no communication
with the fea, nor with any river that contains thefe animals.
Though the firft furmife may fall on the Yeniffey and the
Angara, yet in neither of thofe rivers are any of them, now
at leaft, to be found, and it would be extremely difficult for
them to fhoot the cataraéts on the paflage fram the Yenifley
to the Baikal. Ferhaps in fome great inundation, the
fources of the Lena might have communicated with the
rivers of the Baikal; and on that oceafion the primitive
race of them might have ftrayed hither. They are of the
{fame fpecies with thofe of the Cafpian and the Baltic; ex-
cepting that fearcely any of them are cf varied hues. They
are particularly fond of the ice; and thew themfelves above
water rather in the winter than in the fummer; for which pur-
pofethey blow upof themfelves air-holes in the ice, which they
have the art of keeping conftantly open; and in the {pring drop
their young upon the ice, for whofe accommodation they
make little huts of fmow. The feafon for the chace of them
lafts from the beginning of March to the breaking up of the
ice at the latter end of May; the right of catching them is
farmed out. They are fhot with fire-arms or pierced with
javelins; in both cafes from a concealment behind a fereen
of white linen, which the animals miftake for a piece of ice.
The old ones are made to yield their blubber; but the young
are chiefly fought after becaufe the Chinefe are extremely
partial to their filver grey fkins. In the carrion, the
Burezts fhare with the crews. The annual capture is
eftimated at between 1500 and 2000 of thefe animals.

The oma (falmo migratarius) is a filh of great confe-
quence, in regard to its prodigious numbers, not only to the
Baikal, but to all the country round. His ordinary length
is from fourteen to fixteen inches; feldom extending to two
foot. His fleth is white and tender, and fo delicate that he
dies as foon as taken out of the water, even though imme-
diately thrown in again. In Auguft, the omuls generally
begin to advance in fhoals of various bulk, in order to afeend
the rivers in which they fpawn. In September they return,
but in fo emaciated a condition, that multitudes die upon
the paflage. They do not go up every river; thofe on the
weltern fide not at all, and even not every one on the eaftern
fide of the lake. Tach fifth is wont to go to {pawn in the
place where itfelf received life. They are caught the whole
Jummer long; but moftly at the time of their fhoaling in the
rivers. With fmall nets 2c00 of them are taken ata draught.
hey are thrown together in great heaps upon the fhore;
but ere the fifhermen have time to prepare them, the Tun-
gules, the dogs, and the birds of prey, have devoured a good
part of them. The omuls are falted, oil is obtatned from

them, and even fome caviar, which however will keep only a°

very fhort time. Befides thefe, the Baikal produces many
other forts of fifh; fuch as fturgeon, quabs, carp, perch,
tench, trouts, pike, &c. in great abundance.

One very fingular natural phenomenon of the Baikal we
have referved to the laft, as being probably the original
caufe of the exittence of the lake itfelf; we mean the earth-

B.A\t

quakes that are very frequent in the parts adjacent. They
are moft ufual in the {pring and autimn; generally once,
fometimes twice a year. The fhocks are not violent, laft
a few minutes, and do fearcely any mifchief. At leat the
utmoit injury that attended any one of the fixteen earth.
quakes deferibed by profeffor Georgi, was, that it gently
waked him cut of his fleep, threw down the ftove in the
police-office at Selinginfk, and thook off foie of the croffes
from the tops of the church-fteeples. Nature feemsto have
exhauited herfelf in forming the bed of the Baikal; for it is
highly probable that it was the efe@ of fome tremendous
earthquake, attended by an extraordinary falling-in of the
earth. We are naturally led to this hypotheis by confider-
ing the flate of the circumjacent region, and of the bottom
of the lake. ‘This latter confifting of fragments of demo-
\lifhed rocks, the largeft of which thruft up their tops as
iflands; the coalt around is one amazing congeries of rent,
broken, and fpht rocks, to the height generally of forty
fathoms; fhattered pertions of rocks lift their bare fummits
to the clouds, while the other parts of them lie rooted in
the heart of the earth. On the craggy pinnacles of fome of
the fnow-covered mountains lie broken tops of rocks in the
fhape of bee-hives, which only the powerful hand of nature
could have projected thither; as it was fhe who fenced the
Baikal round with majeltic cliffs, and fixed their bafes in un-
fathomable pits. But when ?—Hittory is filent.— And how?
—The naturalift can only conjeéture; he has recourfe to an
earthquake, and imagines, that here perhaps formerly the
flreams of the Upper Angara flowed, the territory whereof
is now ingulfed by the broad lake. ,

The country round the Baikal forms a part of the govern-
ment of Irkutfk, and belongs chiefly to the province of
Nertfhinfk. Irkutfk lies at the diftance of about 50 miles
weftwards from the Baikal. The inhabitants of the confines
of the lake are Tungufes, Burzts, and Mongoles; the
Ruffians are lefs numerous, becaufe the land adjacent to it is
not favourable to agriculture; though even on the eaftern
fide winter-rye, oats, and barley thrive tolerably well. The
whole of the population on the eaftern fide of the lake, from
Turkal to the Upper Angara, amounted, in 1771, to not
more than 5cco fouls.

Befides the numerous birds of prey that feek their food
in the neighbouring forefts, multitudes of winged guefts are
attracted hither by the exuberant ftores of fifh with which
the lake abounds. Thefe confift of the various tribes of
mews and herns; but more numerous than al! are the gulls,
in fize refembling a full grown duck, but incomparably-
heavier. They come in the month of April, and take their
departure in Oétober. Every thing bears marks of their
devattation; the very trees in which they rooft perifh, partly
by their corrofive dung, and partly in confeqnence of their
biting off the buds. They are faid to confume more than
one half of the omuls that go up the rivers. This may be
thought furprifing after what has been before obferved of
the prodigious quantities of thefe fith; not however fo alto-.
gether incredible, when we are informed that thefe fowls:
hatch about ten young ones at a brood, and are extremely
voracious. Not content with eating their fill, they overload.
themfelves in fuch a manner, that beneath the rocks where.
they neftle, the foxes, ermines, magpies, and crows con=
ftantly find a plentiful banquet. In many places the nefts-
of them are fo numerous, that the people have much ado to
pafs along the rocks. The ifles in the found between Ol-
chon and the main land, being the principal haunt of thefe-
birds, take their name from them. :

The forefts are overrun with quadrupeds. Wolves and
bears roam there in great abundance; but the latter at leaft

are

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BAT

tire by no means formidable. Nothing {cares them fo eafily eand fteep cliffs afcend above the water as iflands; fome

as finging; accordingly the Burets are fo confiderate as
to conypofe particular tunes for them. The louder the vocal

erformer pitches his notes, the fafter the ftupid hearer
Beainpets from him. The Burets hunt them for the fake
Of their flefh. Stags, elks and roe-bucks are very numerous;
rein-deer are far lefs frequent on the northern fhore. The
wild boars are filver grey, and fearce; both perhaps in con-
fequetice of the cold climate. ‘The race of fables is not yet
fo thinned in thefe regions as in fome others; thofe taken
here are efteemed as eminently valuable; fuch efpecially as
range about the Upper Angara, are praifed for the black-
nefs of their fur. Ermines-are fo prolific, that while M.
Georgi was at Irkutfk, a contrat for twenty thoufand fkins
to be delivered at St. Peterfburg might be completed in a
couple of days. Not lefs numerous in winter are the white
hares, of whofe large and ftout ears peliffes are made, each
at one and one and a half rubles. The Tungufes pay their
tribute in {quirrel-fkins; be‘ides thefe, many Ruffian hunters
collect a thoufand fkins in one winter, and yet there is no
perceptible diminution of the animals.

Baixar, Mines of the. Inthe region of the Baikal, 434
verits from Irkutfk, on the Lena, extends a bed of copper
ore, which feems to,reach, for goo verits, to the river Kiren.
The country of the latter river is far more hilly, confifting
partly of lime-ftone, whence feveral mineral fources proceed.
Nor are fpecimens of copper wanting. Tron ores and fer-
ruginous {tones are every where met with in abundance. On
the Lena here and there are fallies of argentiferous glatz
galena, interfperfed with lime-ftone, and at times appears in
lumps of two or three pounds. It was firft explored about
fixty years ago by Meflrs. Make and Kutuzof. They
keep four machines at work at the copper-fletz, near the
_ villages Botova and Shemanova. The ores are green-cop-
per, brown-copper, copper-glafs, fahlertz-ores and malaquite.
‘The gangues are calcareous and fandy.. The narrower the
fangue, the richer it is. The proportion is one fourth to
forty per cent. copper, but fearcely a trace of filver. On
an ayerage one hundred pood of ore yields four pood of
good copper.

- Barxar, Mountains of the. This range of mountains
takes nearly the fame direG&tion with the Baikal lake,
acompanying it on both fides from fouth to north and north-
eaft, runs down to the weft on the right of the Angara,
where it flattens in a moraffe fteppe of prodigious extent:
to the eaft it advances from the origin of the Lena, on both
fides of that river, and here likewife dies away in a widely
extended fleetzridge. In general it is a very craggy high-
pitched mountain, partly confifting of granite, partly of
flint-breccia and lime-itone. In the inferior regions of the
Angara, and the Lena, its fletz-mountain greatly declines,
and frequently produces coal. From the upper Angarian
ridge there runs, as it fhould feem, a branch weftward,
through the region between the Podkamenaia, and the
lower Tungufka, away over the Yenifley, and confifts pro-
bably of mere fleetz-mountains. About the north-eaitern
part of the Baikal, the Upper Angara, the rivers Mama
and Vitim, where lie the famous pits of mufcovy-glafs,
all the mountain is granitic. ‘The mineral contents of thefe
mountains are as yet by far not thoroughly known. The
principal of what has been difcovered in them, are coals,
afphaltus, fulphur-fources, native fulphur, alum, common
falt fources, lapis lazuli, mufcovy-glafs, carnelians, natural
pruffian blue, and fpecimens of copper, iron, and lead.—
Some traéts of mountains about the Baikal, for example,
the Burgundu, and others, are fo high that they are covered
with never-walting fhow. “In the lake itfelf many lofty

whereof confift of folid white quattz.— The mountains are
partly bare, but moftly decked with forefts. The mot
ufual kinds of trees are the pinus fylvettrisand the birch ;
but here are likewife great numbers of larches and cedars.
The principal rivers which hence derive their ftreams, are
the Selenga, the Angara, the Lena, the Vilui, and the
Tungufa. For farther particulars, fee Tooke’s View of
the Ruffian Empire, vol. i. p.137, & feq.

BAIKALENSIS, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Carrio-
NyMus that inhabits the deep parts of the lake Baikal.
It is about nine inches long, foft, flender, and rather com-
prefled ; and has ventral fins; firft dorfal fin very {mall ;
the fecond with cirriferous rays. Pallas, Gmelin, &ce

BAIKALITE, in Mineralogy, avaviety of TRemouité.

BAIKALOVA, in Geography, a town of Siberia, 112
miles S. S. E. of Abakanfk. ’

BAIL, Louts, in Biography, a French divine, born at
Abbeville, flourifhed in the fevententh century, and wrote
feveral voluminous works, among which are “ A Summary
of Councils,” being a continuation of that by father Fr.
Longus de Coriolan, printed in 2 large folio volumes, at
Paris, in’ 16723; and an account of the moft celebrated
preachers in all ages, under the title of « Sapientia foris
prexdicans,”’ or ‘* Wifdom uttering her voice in the ftreets.’”
Nouy. Di&. Hitftor.

Barr, in Law, the fetting at liberty one arrefted or im-
prifoned upon any aétion either civilorcriminal, under furetics
taken for his appearance at a day and place affigned. It is
called dail, becaufe hereby the party confined is dailiz, from
the Greek fxar2y, delivered into the hands of thofe who
bind themfelves for his forthcoming: or from dail, ufed in
the fenfe of a guardian, into whofe hands the party is put
for fecurity fake: ‘and the end of bail is to fatisfy the con-
demnation and cofts, or-render the defendant to prifon,

Manwood diftinguifhes between dail and mainprife thus:
he that is mainprifed is faid to be at large, and to go about
at-his liberty, without ward, till the time of appearance ;
whereas he who ts let to dai/ to two or more men, is always
accounted by law to be in their ward and cuftody for the
time: and they may; if they pleafe, a€tually keep him inprifon.

With refpeé to bail in civil cafes, it is to be obferved,
that there is both common and /pecial bail.

Common bail is that given in actions of {mall prejudice,
or flight proof; in which cafe any nominal fareties ave taken;
as John Doe, and Richard Roe: this being no other than
a form of appearance: whereas /pecial bail is given in cafes
of greater moment, where it is required that the furetics be
fubitantial men, and according to the value of the matter
in quettion.

It has been enaGted that no perfons fhould be held to
{pecial bail in aay aGion brought for lefs than ten pounds.
In order to which it is required by ftat. 13 Car. II. ft. 2.
c. 2. that the true caufe of aétion fhould be expreffed in the
body of the writ or procefs. Alfo no fecurity can be taken
ina greater fum than 40]. This is obferved as to writs
iffued out of the courts of Weitminfter-hall, and extended
to all inferior courts by 19 Geo. III. c. 70.

The method of putting’ in bail to the fheriff, is by enter-
ing into a bond or obligation, with one or more fureties
(not fiGiitious perfons, as in the cafe of common bail, but
real, fubftantial, refponfible bondfmen), which obligation
is called the Lail-Jond. The fheriff, if he pleafes,. may let
the defendant go without any furcties; but that is at his
own peril: for, after once taking him, the fhenff is bound
to keep him fafely, fo as to be forth-coming in court ;
otherwife an action lies againit him for an efcape. But, on

302 the

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the other hand, he is obliged, by ftat. 23 Hen. VI. c. 10._
to take, if it be tendered, a fufficient bail-bond; and by
ftat.12 Geo. I. c. 29. the fheriff fhall take bail for no other
fum than fuch as is {worn to by the plaintiff. and endorfed
on the back of the writ. By rule M. 1654, no attorney
fhall be bail for a defendant in any action, nor his clerk.
Cowper, 228.n. But an attorney may be admitted as
bail in a criminal cafe. No hheriff’s officer, bailiff, or other
perfon concerned in the execution of procefs, fhall be per-
mitted to be bail in any action or fuit depending in K. B.
nor perfons outlawed after judgment, R. M. 14 Geo. II.
Upon the return of the writ, or within four days after, the
defendant muft apsear according to the exigency of the
writ. This appearance is effeéted by putting in and juftifying
bail to the ation ; which is commonly called bail above. If
this be not done, and the bail that were taken by the fheriff
below are ref{ponfible perfons, the plaintiff may take an affign-
ment from the fheriff of the bail-bond (uader the ftatute
4.& 5 Ann. c.16.), and bring an adtion thereupon againit
the fheriff’s bail. But if the bail fo accepted by the fheriff
be infolvent perfons, the plaintiff may proceed againtt the
fheriff himfelf, by calling upon him, firit to return the writ,
if not already done, and afterwards to bring in the body of
the defendant ; and, if the fheriff does not then caufe fuf-
ficient bail to be put in and perfeGted adove, he will himfelf
be refponfible to the plaintiff.

The dail above, or bail to the a@ion, muft be put in, either
in open court, or before one of the judges thereof ; or elle,
ja the country, before a commiffioner appointed for that
purpofe by virtue of.the ftatute 4 W. & M. c. 4. which
mutt be tranfmitted tothe court. Thefe bail, who muft be
at leaft two in number, muft enter into a recognizance in
court or before the judg or commiffioner, in a fum equal
(or in fome cafes double), to that which the plaintiff has
{worn to ; whereby they do jointly and feverally undertake,
that if the defendant be condemned in the ation, he fhall
pay the colts and condemnation, or render himfelf a prifoner,
or that they will pay it for him: which recognizance is
tranfmitted to the court ina flip of parchment entitled a
bail-piece. And if excepted to, the bail muft be perfeced,
that is, they mutt ju/fify themfelves in court, or before the
commiffioner in the country, by fwearing themfelves houfe-
keepers, and each of them to be worth the full fum for
which they are bail, after payment of all their debts. See
SaTisDAT10.

Special bail is required (as of courfe), only upon actions
of debt, or actions on the cafe in trover, or for money due,
where the plaintiff can {wear that the caufe of aGion amounts
to ten pounds: but in actions where the damages are pre-
carious, being to be affeffed ad libitum by a jury, asin a€tions
for words, ejeiment, or trefpafs, it is very feldom poffible
for a plaintiff to fwear to the amount of his caufe of
a@tion ; and therefore no {pecial bail is taken thereon, untefs
by ajudge’s order, or the particular directions of the court,
in fome peculiar fpecies of injuries, as in cafes of mayhem
or atrocious battery ; or upon fuch fpecial circumftances,
as make it abfolutely neceffary that the defendant fhould be
kept within the reach of jultice. Alfo in aétions againit
heirs, executors, and adminiitrators, for debts of the deceafed,
fpecial bail is demandable ; for the action is not fo properly
againtt them in perfon, as againft the effects of the deceafed
in their poffeffion. But fpecial bail is required even of them,
in a@tions for a devaflavit, or waiting the goods of the
deceafed ; that wrong being of their own committing.

In civil cafes every defendant is bailable ; but in criminal
matters it is otherwife. Bail may be taken either in court,
or in fome particular cafes by the sheriff, coroner, or other

BAI

magiftrate; but mof ufually by the pilies of the peace.
Regularly in all offences, either againit the common law or
act of parliament, that are below felony, the offender ought
to be admitted to bail, unlefs it be prohibited by fome
fpecial act of parliament. By the ancient common law
before and fince the conqueft (2 Init. 189. Glanv. 1, xiv.
c.1.), all felonies were bailable, till murder was excepted
by ftatute ; fo that perfons might be admitted to bail before
conviction almoft in every cafe. But the ftatete Weitm. 1.
3 Edward I. c. 15. takes away the power of bailing in
treafon, and in divers inftances of felony. The ftatutes
23 Hen. VI. c.g. and 1 & 2 Ph. & Mar. c. 13. give fur-
ther regulations in this matter ; and upon the whole we may
colle& (2 Inft. 186. 2 Hal. P. C. 129), that no juttice of
the peace can bail, uponan accufation of treafon, of murder,
of manflaughter, if the perfon be clearly the flayer, and not
barely fufpected to be fo, or if any indictment be found
againft him; fuch, as being committed for felony, have
broken pnifon, becaufe it not only carries a prefumption of
guilt, but is alfo fuperadding one felony to another ; perfons
outlawed ; fuch as have abjured the realm; approvers, and
perfons by them aceufed ; perfons taken with the mainour,
or in the fact of felony ; perfons charged with arfon ; and
excommunicated perions, taken by writ de excommunicato ca-
piendo. Others are of a dubious nature, as thieves openly
defamed and known; perfons charged with other felonies,
or manifeft and enormous offences, not being of good fame;
and accefiories to felony, that Jabour under the fame want
of reputation. ‘Thefe feem to be in the difcretion of the
juttices, whether bailable or not. Thofe who mutt be
bailed, on offering fufficient fecurity, are perfons of good
fame, charged with a bare fufpicion of manflaughter, or
other inferior homicide ; fuch perfons, charged with petit
larceny, or any felony, not before fpecified ; or with being
acceflory toany felony. Laitly, it is agreed, that the court
of king’s bench, or any judge thereof in time of vacation,
may buil for any crime whatfoever, be it treafon, murder,
vr any other offence, according to the circumitances of the
cafe; fuch perfons only excepted, who are committed by
either houfe of parliament during the feflion, or fuch as are
committed fer contempts by any of the king’s fuperior
courts of juttice. The refufal, or delay, of bail for any
perfon bailable, is an offence againit the liberty of the fub-
je& in any magillrate, by the common law, as well as by
the ftatute Weitm. 1.3. Edw. I. c.15. and the habeas-corpus
a&t, 31 Car. I]. c.2. And it is exprefsly declared by
ftatute 1 W. & M. it.2. c.1. that exceflive bail ought not
to be required ; though it is left with the courts to deter-
mine, on confidering the circumftances of the cafe, what
bail fhall be called exceffive. On the other hand, if the
magiftrate take infufficient bail, he is liable to be fined, if
the criminal doth not appear. Blacktt. Com. vol.iii. vol. iv.
For feveral circumftances and confiderations with regard to
bail in civil cafes and in criminal matters, fee Jacob’s Law
Di&. by Tomlyns, vol.i. Art. Batl.

Bait above, or Bait to the A@ion, fucceeds the return
of the writ, or the appearance of the perfon bailed. See
Bait.

Bait-Bond, is a bond or obligation entered into by one
or more fureties, upon putting in bail to the fheriff, infur-
ing the defendant’s appearance at the return of the writ.
See Bair,

Bait in Error, expreffes the bail given by a perfon who
brings a writ of error after verdict, or who is plaintiff in error.

Batx-Piece, a fmall {quare flip of parchment, with the
corners cut off at the bottom, on which is the recognizance
of perfons who put in bail. See Bar.

Baits,

“*

BAI

Baits, Clerk of the, is an officer belonging to the court
of king’s bench. He files the bail-pieces taken in that
court, and attends for that purpofe,

BAILACAN, in Geography, a town of Armenia, 181
miles eaft of Erivan.

BAILAN, a town of Syria, ten miles fouth of Alexan-
dretta.

BAILE, or Bice, in the Sea Language.—The feamen
call lading or calling the water by hand out of a boat or
fip’s hold with buckets, cans, or the like, bailing.

When the water is thus dailed out, they fay the Dect is
freed. They allo call thofe hoops that bear up the tilt of
the boat, its dailes.

BAILEMENT, in Law. See Battmenr.

BAILIAGE is ufed for the office of a bailiff, for the
place where he keeps his feat, and for the territory fubject
to his jurifdiction ; which lalt is alfo denominated dailiwich.

Bairrace, Water, is an ancient duty received by the city
of London, for all goods and merchandifes brought into or
carried out of the port. See BaLiiaGe.

BAILIE, in Scots Law, a judge anciently appointed
by the king over fuch lands not ere¢ted into a regality as
happened to fall to the crown by forfeiture or otherwife ;
now abolifhed. It is alfo the name of a magiftrate in royal
boroughs, and of the judge appointed by a baron over lands
erected into a barony.

BAILIES, Witiiam, M.D. in Biography, practifed
medicine at London, and then at Bath, about the middle
of the laft century, but having a difpute with Drs. Oliver
and Lucas, who had the greatett fhare of the bufinefs there,
he foon quitted that city, and went to Pruflia, and was
made phyfician to Frederick the Great, to whom he was
recommended as a perfon of great knowledge and expe-
rience in his profeffion. The king telling him, on_ his
being introduced to him, he mutt certainly have killed a
great number of perfons in the courfe of acquiring his ex-
perience, the phylician is faid to have anfwered, ‘ pas tant
€ue votre majetlé”’—not fo many as your majefty. The
bea mot happened not to difpleafe, and the doétor conti-
nued in fayour with the king to the time of his death.

in 1757, Dr. Bailies pubhifhed an eflay on the Waters of
Bath, with the view probably of making himfelf known
there : allo anarrative of facts, proving a con{piracy between
the Drs. Oliver and Lucas, to exclude him from all conful-
tations at Bath. Gen. Biog. Dict.

_ BAILIFF, ina general fenfe, denotes an officer appointed
for the adminiftration of juitice within a certain diltriG,
called Jatliwick.

The word is alfo written baile, baily, bayly, baylie, and
éaillif, in Latin ballivus.—It is formed from the French
baillif, that is prefedus provincie, of bail, an old word denot-
ing a guardian or governor of a youth, originally derived
from the Latin daju/us, which fignified the fame.

Pafquier maintains, that bailiffs were originally a kind of
commiffioners, or judges delegate, fent into the provinces
to examine whether or no juitice were well diftributed by
the counts, who were then the ordinary judges. Loyfean,
with more probability, refers the origin of bailiffs to the
ufurpation and idlenefs of the great lords, who, having got
the adminiftration of juftice into, their own hands, and being
weary of the burden, turned it over to their deputies, whom
they called bailiffs.

The bailiffs had, at firft, the fuperintendence of arms, of juf-
tice, and of the finances; but abuling their power, they
were by degrees {tripped of it, and the greateft part of their
authority transferred to their lieutenants, who were to be

BA

men of the long robe. In France, they affumed fome
prerogatives, as being reputed the heads of their refpective
diftri¢ts ; in their name juttice was adminiltered, contraéts
and other deeds paffed, and to them was committed the com-
mand of the militia.

From thefe the Englith bailiffs originally took both their
name and their office : for as the French had eight parlia-
ments, which were fupreme courts whence no appeal lay,
within the precinéts of the feveral parliaments or provinces,
and in which juttice was adminiftered by bailiffs, at leatt by
their lieutenants ; fo in England are feveral counties where-
in jultice was and is {till adminiftered by a vifcount or fherff,
who appears likewife to have been called bailiff; and his
diltrict or county, bailiwick or éalliva. In the ftatute of
magna charta, c.28. and 14 Edw. III. c.g. the word
bailiff feems to comprehend as well fheriffs, as bailiffs of
hundreds. Farther, the counties were again fubdivided
into hundreds ; within which it is maniteft, juftice was an-
ciently rendered by officers called bailiffs. And it appears
by Braéton (1.3. tract. 2. c. 34.), that bailiffs of hundreds
might anciently hold plea of appeal and approvers. But
thofe hundred-courts are now fwallowed up by the county-
courts, certain franchifes alone excepted ; and the bailiff’s
name and office grown into fuch contempt, at leaft thefe
bailiffs of hundreds, thaé they are now no more than bare
meflengers, and mandatories within their liberties, to ferve
writs, and fuch mean offices. In other refpeéts, the name
is ftill in good efteem; for the chief magiltrates in divers
towns are cailed bailiffs; and fometimes the perfons to
whom the king’s caitles are committed are called bailiffs ;
as the bailiff of Dover caftle, &e.

Of the ordinary bailiffs, there are feveral forts; viz
bailiffs of liberties, fheriff’s bailiffs, bailiffs of lords of manors ;
bailiffs of hufbandry, &c.

Baixirrs of Liberties, are thofe bailiffs who are appointed
by every lord within his hberty, to execute procefs and per-
form fuch offices therein as the bailiff errant doth at large
in the county ; but bailiffs errant or itinerant, as they were
formerly called, who went up and down the country to
ferve procefs, are now out of ufe.

Bailiffs of liberties and franchifes are to be {worn to take
diftreffes, impanel jurors, make returns by indenture between
them and fherifls, &c., and fhall be punifhed for malicious
diltreffes by fine and treble damages, by ancient ftatutes
12) Ed hit reese ra ds Lait. 1.) 'ci9.n 2okd. DET:
CAG, ii LOCK IVI Nene Go uedeGbdUN IS eo ely Jere
c.4. 11 Hen. VII. c. 15. 24 Hen. VIII. c. 24. 3 Geo. I.
CUTS aL Os

The bailiff of a liberty may make an inquifition and ex-
tent upon an elegit. Cro. Car. 319. "Thefe bailiffs of liber-
ties cannot arreft a man without a warrant from the fheriff
of the county ; and yet the fheriff may not enter the liberty
himfelf, at the fuit of a fubjeét (unlefs it be on a quo minus,
or capias utlagatum), without a claufe in his writ, aon omittes
propter aliquam libertatem, &c. If the fheriff, &e. enters
the liberty without fuch power, the lord of the liberty may
have an aétion againft him; though the execution of the.
writ may ftand good. 1 Vent. 406. 2 Int. 453.

Baivirrs of Sheriffs, are either bailiffs of hundreds, or
fpecial bailiffs. Bailiff; of hundreds are officers appointed
over thofe refpective diftriéts by the fhenffs to colleé fines
therein ; to {ummon juries; to attend the judges and juttices
at the affifes and quarter feffions ; and alfo to execute writs
and procefs in the feveral hundreds. But as thefe are ge-
nerally plain men, and not thoroughly fkilful in this latter
part of their office, that of ferving writs, and making arretts
and executions, it is now ufual to join fpecial bailiffs with

them 3,

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them ; who are generally mean perfons employed by the
therifis on account only of their adroitnefs and dexterity in
hunting and feifing their prey. A bailiff of a liberty’is an
officer which the court takes notice of; but a fheriff’s
bailiff is not an officer of the court, but only the theriff
hhimfelf. Parch. 23 Car. 1. B. R. The arreft of the theriff’s
bailiff is the arreft of the fheriff himfelf, and if any refcous
be made of any perfon arrelted, it fhall be adjudged done
to the fheriff: alfo, if the bailiff permit a prifoner to efcape,
action may be brought againtt the theriffF. Co. Lit. 61. 168.
Sheriffs are anfwerable for the mifdemeanor of their bailiffs,
and are to have remedy againft them. 2 Inft. 19. The lat-
terare therefore ufually bound in an obligation with fureties
for the execution of their office, and thence are called Bound-
bailiffs, which the common people have corrupted into a
much more homely appellation. ;

There are thirty-fix ferjeants at mace in London, who
may be termed bailiffs, and each of them gives fecurity to
the fheriffs. By itat. 14 Ed. III. c.g. theriffs thal ap-
point fuch bailifis for whom they willanfwer ; and by ftat.

1 Hen. V. c. 4. no fheriff’s bailiff fhall be attorney in the
king’s court. R. M. 1654. '

Barzirrs cf Lords of Manors, are thofe that colle& their
rents, and levy their fines and amercements; but fuch a bai-
Uff cannot diftrain for an amercement without a {pecial war-
rant from the lord or his fteward. Cro. Eliz. 698.:, He
cannot give licence to commit a trefpafs, as to cut down
trees, &c., though he may licenfe one to go overland, being
a tre{pafs to the poffeffion only, the profits of which are at
his difpofal. Cro. Jac. 337.377. A bailiff may, by himfelf,
or by command of another, take cattle damage-feafant upon
the land. 1 Danv: Abr. 685. Yet amends cannot be ten-
dered to the bailiff, for he may not accept of amends, nor
deliver the diltrefs when once taken. 5 Rep. 76. Thefe
bailiffs may do any thing for the benefit of their matters ;
and it thall itand good til! the mafter difagrees: but they
can do nothing to the prejudice of their mafters. Lit. Rep.s
70.

: Barriers of Courts-Baron, fummon thefe courts, and ex-
ecute the procefs thereof; they prefent all pound-breaches,
cattle ftrayed, &c.

Bariirrs of Hufbandry, are fich as belong to private per-
fons of good eftates, and have the difpofal of the inferior
fervants, with regard to their labour ; they alfo fell trees,
repair houfes, hedges, &c.; and colle& the profits of the
land for their lord and matter, and they render account to
him yearly, &c. Befides thefe, there are alfo bailiffs of the
fore, for whieh fee Manwood, pt-.t.spann3.

We alfo meet with divers other fpecies and denominations
of bailiffs in thefe and the neizhbouring countries; as pro-
wincial, royal, itinerant, and heritable, bailifs; bailigiz of France,
of the empire, of boroughs, &c. ;

Baiuirr, Provincial, bailivus provincialis, among the
French, was an officer appointed to adminifter juttice ina
certain province or county, with an authority fomewhat
like that of our juftice of affize, inftituted by the dukes
and counts in their feveral territories, after they had pro-
cured the inheritance of them. Thefe aed in the name,
and by authority, not of the King, as jutticiaries, but of
the dukes or counts who appointed them, and whofe depu-
ties they were. Spelman takes them to be the fame with
what, among our Saxon anceftors, were denominated alder-
nien of counties, and graves or reves, which afterwards became
vicecomztes, and fheriffs.

Appeals lay from thefe to the bailiffs of France, dailivi
Francie, who were thofe appointed over the provinces ori-
ginally belonging to the crown.

i

*

BAI

Batires, Royal, Lailivi regii, were thofe over provinces
afterwards annexed to the crown. Somephing like thefe
ftill fubfifts in Scotland, under the title of high or heritable
bailiffs ; as thofe of Cunningham, Carrick, and Kyle; the
firft in the families of the earls of Eglington, the fecond of
the earl of Caffils, the third of the earl of Loudon.

Batters of Boroughs, bailivi burgorum,. were magiftrates
anciently in cities and towns, anfwering, in fome mealfure,
to what of later times was called portgrave, mayor, &c.

Canterbury was a bailiff town five hundred years before it
was made a mayor town. Weltmintter, Southwark, Scar-
borough, &c. are ftill governed by bailiffs. .

Bailiffs differ in this from mayors, that the latter are al-
ways fingle in one place, whereas there were ufually two
bailiffs to a city, as formerly at London, and fometimes
four, as at Norwich.

Batuirr of the Empire, was anciently the vicar or regent
of the empire; as appears from a letter of Henry of Flan-
ders to pope Innocent III. wherein he fays, the -princes,
barons, and knights, have ele@ed me bailiff of the empire ;
bailivus imberii.

Batuirr, Water, is an officer anciently eftablithed in all
port-towns for the fearching of fhips, as appears from 28
Hen. VI. cap. 5. :

There is fuch an officer ftill on foot in the city of Lon-
don, who fupervifes and fearches all fith brought thither;
and gathers the toll arifing from the river of ‘Thames.—-He
attends alfo on the lord mayor in his expeditions by water,
and hath the principal care of marfhalling the guefts at the
table. He alfo arrefts men for debt, or other perfonal or
criminal matters, on the river of Thames, by warrant of his
fuperiors. $

BAIL, Davin, in Biography, a painter of perlpeétive
views, and portraits, was born at Leyden in 1584, learned to
draw and defien under his father, and profecuted his ftudies
under Adrian Verburg, and Cornelius V andervoort, with the
latter of whom he {pent fix years. Bailii copied many capi=
tal paintings of fome great mafters, in the poffeffion of Van-
dervoort, with critical care and obfervation; and particularly
a perfpective view of the infide of a church, originally
painted by Stenwyck, which was fo accurately finifhed, that
Stenwyck himfelf could fearce dittinguifh the original from
the copy. He travelled for improvement through feveral
parts of Italy, and for fome time refided at Rome ; and the
correctnefs of his drawing, and the delicate handling and
finifhing of his piGtures, procured for him every where em-
ployment, admirers, and friends. In the latter part of his
life he difcontinued painting, and only drew portraits on
vellum with a pen, which he heightened with black-lead,
fo as to give them wonderful force and roundnefs. He
died in 1638. Pilkington. ;

BAILIWICK, Battywicr, or Bayuiwiex, the ter.
ritory of a bailiff, or the place within which his jurifdiGion
is terminated. This is not only taken for the county, as it
is frequently called in the writs, but fignifies generally that
liberty which is exempted from the fheriff abeekis county,
over which the lord of the liberty appointeth a bailiff, with
{uch powers within his precin@, as an under-theriff exer
cifeth under the fheriff of the county; fuch as the bailiff
of Weitminfter, &c. Stat. 27 Eliz. c.12. Wood’s Inft.
206,

BAILLEAU L’Eveavs, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, and
chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Chartres, £3 league
north-weft of Chartres. ’

BAILLEE, a town of France, in the department of
the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton in the ee

°

ed Ke eee te

aad

sd cI SR

fn
os

Re oy

BAI

of Chateaugontier, 44 leagues north-eaft of Chateaugon-
tier.

BAILLER, in Law. See Bairment.

BAILLET, Aprian, in Biography, an eminent French
critic, was born in 1649, of obfcure parents, at Neuville, a
village near Beauvais. Having completed his education in
the college of the city, he took holy orders in 1676, but
foon quitted the clerical profeffion, and devoted himfelf en-
tirely to ftudy. . Lamoignon, prefident of the parliament of

Paris, made him hislibrarian, and in this ftation he continued
till his death in 1706. He was a man of indefatigable ap-
lication, and extenfive erudition. As he was always read-
ing or writing, it is no wonder that his acquaintance with
authors was great, and his works numcrous. His principal
performance was “ Jugemens des Savans fur les principaux
| Ouvrages des Auteurs;” it isa valuable colleGtion of facts and
{ obfervations. In the firfk volume he lays down rules for
judging of authors and their produétions; the three fol-
lowing, publifhed in 1685, treat of printers, critics, tran{-
lators, authors of difcoveries, &c.; and the next five on
poets. The work would have been profecuted agree-
ably to a plan prefented by the author to the public in
1694, if he had not been difeouraged by fevere criticifm and
fatire in the Anti-Baillet of Menage, and other pieces. Aban-
doning this defign, he direéted his attention to other fub-
jets ; and he wrote, in 1693, ‘ A treatife on the worfhip
of the Virgin Mary ;’’ another in 1695, “ On the Care of
Souls ;’?? “ The Lives of Saints”in 4 vols. fol., and in
17 vols. 8vo. in 1701; ‘The Life of Defcartes,’’ in 2 vols.
4to. if 1691, and abridged in 12mo., in 1692; ‘ The
Life of Richer, doGtor of the Sorbonne,’? written in 1692,
: and publifhed in i714, “ The life of Godfrey Hermant,
7 do&ter of the Sorbonne,” printed at Amfterdam in
1717, 12m0; ‘“ An Hiltory of Holland, from the truce
of 1609,” where Grotius finifhed, ‘ to the peace of Ni-
meguen,”’ publifhed at Paris, under the name of ‘“ Neuville,””
in 4 vols. 12mo. 1693; ‘ A new and curious Account of
Mutfcovy,”
- and “ An Hiftory of the contefts of pope Boniface VIII.
~ with Philip the Fair, king of France,” publifhed by father
f Long, in. 12mo. 1718. ‘Che “ Jugemens des Savans’? was
revifed and enlarged by M. de la Monnoye, member of the
Frenth academy, and printed at Paris, in 7 vols. 4to. in
) ¥722, and in 17 vols. 12mo. at Amfterdam, in 1725.
. Baillet is often tedious and uninterefting, and culpably
negligent with regard to his ftyle. Gen. Dic.
‘ ~» BAILLEUL, Joun ve, 4bé de Fohnval, was fo famed
* for his fill in reducing luxated jomts, Haller fays, that
his name paffed into a proverb, and an expert bone-fetter
was called a Bailleul. Hal. Bib. Chirurg.

BarLreur, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the North, and chief place of a canton in the di-
ftri&t of Hazenbrouck ; it was formerly fortified, but is now
without defence. It contains about 500 houfes; three
leagues E. S. E. of Caffel, and 43 W.N. W. of Lille. N.
Bee lataao° 35! FE. long.2° 55'.

Bariveut, a town of France, in the department of the

_ Sarte, two leagues from La Fleche.
, BAILLIAGE, in Hifory, the name of a government
. in Swifferland, of which there are two forts: the one con-

Gifting of certain diftri€&s, into which all the ariftocratical

cantons are divided, over which a particular fort of officer,
called a dailif, is appointed by government, to which he is
accountable for his adminiftration: the other fort is com-
pofed of territories belonging to two’or more of them, who
alternately appoint a bailiff. This officer, when not re-
firained by the peculiar privilege of certain diftrifts, has

under the fame name, in r2mo. at Paris, 1698 ;

BAI

the care of the police, and jurifdiction in civil and criminal
caufes in the fame limitation; and enjoys a ftated revenue
arifing in different places from various dutics and taxes.
In cafe of exa&tion or mal-adminiftration, an appeal al
lies from the bailiff to the cantons, to “which the bailliage
belongs; and the place, the time, and the members who
receive the appeal, are regulated with the utmott exactnefs,
Coxe’s Trav. Switz. vol. i. p. 37.

BAILLIE, Rozerr, in Biocraphy, a Prefbyterian divine

of the church of Scotland, was born at Glafsow, in. the

w

city. After he had taken his deerce of matter of arts, he
applied with diligence tothe fludy of divinity ; and having,
in 1622, ! orders from archbifhop Law, he was chofea
a regent of phulofophy in the univerfity of Glafzow. In 1633,
he modeftly declined an offer which was made him of a
church at Edinburgh, and in 1637 refufed to preach a fer-
mon before the aflembly in this city for recommending the
canon and fervice book, then publifhed by authority ; and
{tated in a letter to the archbilhop of Glafgow the reafoxs.
of his refufal. In 1638, he wasa member of the famous
aflembly-at Glafgow, which was a prelude to the civil war,
and it appears, notwithitanding the moderation of his con-
dud, that he was not deficient in his zeal_againft, prelacy
and Arminianifm. He was a member of the following
general affemblies till 1653, the time excepted during which
he attended the Weftminfter affembly. In 1640 he was
fent by the covenanting lords to London, to draw up an
acculation again{t archbithop Laud, for the innovations he
had obtruded upon the church of Scotland. Soon after
his return, in 164.2, hé was appointed one of the profeffors
of divinity at Glafgow ; and his reputation was fuch that
he received invitations before this time from the other three:
univerfities, all of which -he refufed. He retained his.
profefforfhip till the refloration ; but was often interrupted
in the exercife cf it by his refidence in England ; forin 1643
he was chofen one of the commiffioners of the church of
Scotland, to the aflembly of divines at Weftminfter. In
the principles and views of this aflembly he feems to have
entirely concurred ; he returned, however, to his own coun-,
try in. 1646. When Charles II. was proclaimed.in Scotland
after the execution of Charles I., Baillie was ore of the di-
vines appointed by the general aflembly to wait upon his
majefty at the Hague, and in a foeech delivered on that
occafion he expreficd, in the ftronge!t terms, his abhorrence
of the murder of the late king, and in his fentiments with,
regard to this event the Prefbyterian divines of that period,
both at home and abroad, were almolt univerfally agreed-
After the reftoration, Mr. Baillie was appomted, in
1661, principal of the univerfity of Glafzow;, but it is.
faid that a bifhepric was offered him, which he abfolutely
refufed. In the courfe of the year 1662,, his health began
to decline; and during his illnefs he was vilited by the newly
created archbifhop of Glafgow, whom he addreffed in the
following uncourtly language: ‘ Mr. Ancrew (I will not,
call you my lord), king Charles would have made me one
of thefe lords; but I do not find in the New Teftament
that Chrift has any lords in his houfe.’? In July of this
year Mr. Baillie died at the age of fixty-three years. His
character was not more diftinguifhed by his loyalty, than by
his zeal for prefbytery, and his averfion to prelacy; and he:
feems to have been actuated, in a very confiderable degree,.
by the intolerant fpirit of the age in which he lived. In
his letters, he évery where manifefts his diflike of feCtaries;.
and he hardly omits any convenient opportunity of fhewing,
his difapprobation of the doétrine of toleration. He had.
alfo imbibed a confiderable portion of that. enthufiaftical.

fpirit:

LeCeiver

CG

*

BAI

fpirit which was then prevalent, and which protra@ed the
religious fervices to an aftonifhing length. Accordingly,
Mr. Baillic, in one of his letters, written whilft he was at-
tending the Weftminfter aflembly, fpeaks of a devotional
fervice that lafted nine hours. Neverthelefs, he was a man
of confiderable learning and ability; he is faid.to have under-
food twelve or thirteen languages; and Mr. Wodrow, his
biographer, commends his Latin ityle as not unfuitable even
to the Auguftanage. Of his diligence and learning, he left
fufficient evidence in his hiltorical work, intitled, ‘* Opus
Hiftoricum et Chronologicum.”’ His other writings, which
were chiefly on controverfial and temporary fubjeéts, and
which indicated a degree of violence that is faid to have
flowed rather from the inftigation of other perfons than
from his own inclinations, are of inferior value. His * Let-
ters and Journals,’ publifhed at Edinburgh by Robert
Aiken, in 1775, In two volumes 8yvq,, contain an account of
public tranfactions, both in Scotland and England, from
1637 to 1662, and may calt fome hight on the civil and
ecclefiaftical hiftory of that period. Biog. Brit.

BAILLONE,, in Heraldry, is a lion rampant, holding
a batton in his mouth.

BAILLOU, Guittaume De (Dallonius), M.D. a
phyfician of confiderable eminence in the fixteenth century,
was born at Paris in the year 1538. After making great
progrefs in the Greek and Latin languages, and in philofo-
phy, he applied to the ftudy of medicine. In 1570, he was
created doctor; and in the year 1580, dean of the faculty
of medicine at Paris. In his time the difpute between the
furgeons and phyficians at Paris, as to their precedence,
began, in which Ballonius tovk an ative part. It was de-
cided in favour of the phyticians, and the pnivdeges ufurped
by the furgeons annulled. Ballonius was a voluminous
writer; but as his works are now little noticed, we fhall
refer our readers, for titles of the particular treatifes, and
for an account of their contents, to Haller’s Bib. Med. Praét.

BAILLY, Jean-Sytvain, a celebrated altronomer and
writer of France, was born at Paris, on the fifteenth of Sep-
tember 1736, of a family which had produced diltinguifhed
painters for four fucceflive generations. He was bred to the
fame profeffion, but manifefted an early tafte for poetry and
the belles lettres. By an accidental acquaintance with La
Caille, his attention was directed to the fciences, which he
cultivated with affiduity and fuccefs. He calculated the
orbit of the comet of 1759; and in 1763 he publifhed an
ufeful and elaborate compilation, being the reduction of the
obfervations made by La Caille in 1760 and 1761, on the
zodiacal itars. About this time the theory of Jupiter’s
fatellites became a particular obje@ of his inquiries, and in
the competition for this prize queftion of 1764, he had a
formidable rival in La Grange, afterwards known as one of
the firlt mathematicians in Europe. The reiults of his in-
veftigations were collected into a treatife, publithed in 1766,
which alfo contained the firft part of his “ Hittory of Aftro-
nomy.” In 1771, he gave a very curious and important
memoir on the light of the fatellites, ard introduced a de-
gree of accuracy till that time unknown in the obfervations
of their eclipfes; and in the Journal Encyclopedique for
May and July 1773, he addrefied a letter to M. Bernouilli
on fome difcoveries relating to Jupiter’s moons, which he
had contefted. However, the ftudies of M. Bailly were not
confined to the abftraét fciences; but he was no lefs fuccefs-
ful in his cultivation of polite literature. His eloge of Leib-
nitz, publifhed in 1768, gained the prize of the academy of
Berlin; this, and alfo the eloges of Charles V., of Corneille,
of La Caille, of Cook, of Moliere, and of Greffet, printed in
1770, were much admired. In 1775, appeared the firkt
volume of the “ Hiftory of Aftrqnomy,”? which indeed

—

BAT

ftrews the path of {cience with flowers, and in every refpe&
is amott valuable work; abounding with animated defcrip-
tion, luminous narrative, and intereiting detail. His peculiar
ideas concerning the early ftate of Upper Afia, occationed
an ingenious correfpondence and dilcuflion with the veteran
philoiopher Voltaire, the fubftance of which foon appeared in
two volumes, intitled, ‘ Letters on the Origin of Sciences,’’
and “ Letters on the Atlantide of Plato.” If imagination
fhine forth in thefe effays, erudition was no lefs con{picuous
in a great work compofed in the years 1781 and 1782, on
the fables and religious creeds of antiquity; which flill
exilts in manuleript, and the publication of which would ex-
tend the fame of its author, and gratify the learned world.
His opinions on fome points happening to coincide with the
theories of Buffon, he contracted with that celcbrated va-
turalift an intimate friendihip, which was diffolved by Bailly’s
uncourtly oppofition to the election of the abbé Maury into
the academic Frangaife. The other volumes of the * Hit
tory of Altronomy”’ fucceffively appeared, and that capital
work was completed in 1787, by the “ Hiltory of the In-
dian and Orieutal Aftronomy,’’ a production of fingular
acutenefs, refearch, and nice calculation. His * Difcourfes
and Memoirs,”’ which include the eloges before mentioned,
were publifhed in two volumes, in 1796; and his memoirs
communicated to the French academy, as they appear in
Rozier’s index, are as follow: “ Memoir upon the theory
of the comet of 1759;’’ ‘* Memoir upon the epochs of the
moon’s motions, at the end of the laft century; “ Firit,
Second, and Third Memoirs on the theory of Jupiter's
fatellites, 1763;’’ “¢ Memoir on the comet of 1762 ;”’ vol. for
1763; ‘ Aftronomical obfervations made at Noflon, 1764;”
“On the fun’s eclipfe of the firlt of April 1764;’’ © On
the longitude of Polling, 1764;” ‘* Obiervations made at
the Louvre from 1760 to 1764, 1765;” ‘ On the caufe of
the variation of the inclination of the orbit of Jupiter’s
fecond fatellite, 1765;” “On the motion of the Nodes, and
on the variation of the inclination of Jupiter’s fatellites,
1766;” “On the theory of Jupiter’s fatellites, publifhed by M.
Bailly, with tables of their motions, and of thofe of Jupiter,
publifhed by M. Jeaurat, 1766;” ‘ Obfervations on the
oppofition of the fun and Jupiter, 1768;” “On the equa-
tion of Jupiter’s centre, and on fome other elements of the
theory of that planet, 1768;” ‘* On the tranfit of Venus
over the fun, on the third of June 176g; and on the folar
eclipfe, the foerth of June, the fame year 1769.”

Such was the reputation of Bailly, that he was received
as an adjunct in the French academy, on the 29th of
January 1763, and aflociate on the 14th of July 1770. In

771, he was a candidate, under the patronage 6f Buffon,
for the office of fecretary ; but the intereft of Condorcet,
and the influence of D’Alembert, prevailed in favour of
Condorcet. Of the academie Francaife, he was chofen fe-
cretary in 1754; aud he was admitted, in the following year,
into the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres; the
only inftance, fince Fontenelle, of the fame perfon being at
oncea member of all the three academies. In 1784, he was
nominated one of the commiffion to examine and report con-
cerning the animal maguetifm of Mefmer, as practifed by
Deflon. His report was not only decilive with regard to its
obje&, but furnifhes a rule for the inveltigation of fimilar
delufions. It likewife throws light upon the phytical effets
produced by moral caufes ; and thefe are peculiarly intereit-
ing, as caufes of this nature have a political influence
on the general opinions of fociety, and the dettiny of nations.

M. Bailly, with an ardent, and, as it is generally believed,
an honeit mind, engaged in the fupport of that revolution of
France, which at the time convulfed Europe, and which,
with regard to its confequences, has not yet fublided. a

rife,

BAI

yife, asa principal agent in the tranfactions of this event,
was very rapid. On the 26th of April £789, he
was nominated feerctary by the eleGtors of Paris; he was
afterwards appointed deputy to the flates general; then
chofen prefident of the ‘Tiers Etat:”? and when this
chamber was conftituted the vational affembly, he continued
in the chair, During the itrugele between the popular
part of the fubfiting affemblics and the court, Bailly was
the moft forward to affert the popular rights, which at that
time were new in France; and his temerity would probably
have been fatal to himfelf, if he had net been fupported by
Mirabean. Bailly didtated the oath to the members of
the tiers etat, “to refitt tyrants and tyranny, and never to
feparate, until they had obtained a free conttitution.’” After
the capture of the Baftille, on the r4th of July 1789,
he was appointed. by public acclamation mayor of the
city; and in all his feveral fungtions he is faid to have
acted with integrity, courage, and moderation. But in the
midit of revolutions the courfe which he perfued was adapted
to pleafe neither of the coutending parties; and though
he acquired great p-pularity in the various fteps by which
the caufe of the people gained predominance over that of
the court, a circumitance occurred, which gave a turn to
the popular opinion, and which rendered him an object
of inveterate enmity: On the 17th of July 17G0, the
populace having collected tumultuonfly to demand the abo-
lition of monarchy, Bai'ly received orders from the national
affembly to difperfe the mob. Defirous that the exifting
laws ard regulations fhould be refpected, he arrefted certain
deputies who came from fome mihtary infurgents at Nancy ;

he oppofed the rafh proceedings of Marat and Hubert; he:
was member of a ¢lub lefs promifcnous in its admiffion of

members than that of the jacobins; and he exerted himfelf
in endeavouring to perfuade the populace to permit the
royal family to depart to St.Clond. Finally, on an occa-
fion when the multitude affaulted the foldiery in the Champ
de Mars, Bailly ordered the latter to fire, by which ‘about
forty perfons were killed, and more than one hundred
wounded. By thefe concurring circumftances his popu-
larity declined, and at the diffolution of the conttituent
affembly, in the clofe of the year 1791, he refigned his office,
and was fucceeded by Petion. -His health was impaired,
and he retired from the feene of tumult, travelled through
different provinces of Trance in the years 1792 and 17933
and purfued his literary and f{cientific refearches. Dering
this period, he wrote memoirs of the events which he had
witneffed, and in which he had been a principal actor. In-
ftead of -withdrawing from France, which fome of his
friends advifed him to do, he chofe rather to fubmit to the
injultice and ingratitude of his country. At the nod ofa
vulgar tyrant, he was arrefted, fummarily condemned by a
fanguinary tribunal, and, on the 15th cf November 1793,
was delivered over to appeafe the vengeance of an incenfed
and indifcriminating populace. His fufferings were ftudi-
oufly protraéted; circumttances of peculiar ignominy at-
tended his execution; and he was executed rear the fpot
where he gave orders for the military to fire on the people.

“He wore the red fhirt, or badge of confpiracy, and was

placed in a cart, with his hands tied behind him. In his
progrefs to the place of execution, he was mfulted and
abufed; and when he arrived at the fatal fpot, during the
removal of the guillotine, he was forced to defcend from
the cart, and to walk round the field, in order ‘to gratify
more completely the rancour of the mob. But all thefe trials
were endured by him with firmnefs and magnanimity. A
by-ftander, at the time of his afcending the platform, in-
fultingly exclaimed, ‘ Bailly, you tremble;’? to which he
Vox. IIT.

BAI

infantly replied, “ Yes, but not with fear:’? he thook in-
deed on account of the inclemency of the weather. The
chara&ter of Bailly, thus prematurely cut off in the fifty.
feventh year of his age, may be eflimated by his works. In
his perfon he was tail; his deportmert was fedate and grave ;
and he blended firmnefs with ferfbility.’ During his ma.
giflragy, he {pent part of his fortune jn relieving the wants
of the poor; and he retired from office, impoverifhed rather
than enriched: and in the various tranfaétions of his life,
he eftablifhed the charaGter of integrity and difintcreftednefs,
His wife, who was the widow of his intimate friend Ray-
mond Gaye, and whom he married in 1787, furvived him.
He had eight nephews, whom he educated with all the
attention and tendernefs of a father. “With regard to the
motives which actuated his public condué, there feems to
be no difference cf opinion, whatever difecordant fentiments
may be entertained concerning the caufe to which his
talents and life were devoted. Lalande’s Eloge de Bailly.

Bairry, or Baicxrr, <2 la Riviere, phyfician to king’
Henry 1V., was born at Falaife in Normandy, about the mid,
dle of the fixteenth century. He was a ftrenuovs advocate
for the doctrines of Paracelfus; and in 1578 he publifhed his
© Demolerion, feu Aphorifmi cee. continentes fammam
do@rine Paracelficr,” 8vo. Parfis. Jt contains a defence
of his practice, which being flrongly oppofed by the cotem-
porary phyficians, in the following year he gave his “* Re-
{pontio ad quefliones propolitas a Medicis Parfienfibus,” alfo
in 8vo. In £580, he publihed “ De pette tractatus,” Svo.
Voces viri, Haller fays, vix fenfum admittunt. We fhall
emit the titles of his various other writings, which may
be found recited in Haller’s Bib. Med. Pra@. vol. it.
p- 218.

Monf. Carrere fays of this phyfician, that perceiving he
was about to die, he called his fervants to him fingly, and
gave to each of them a portion, firlt of his money, then of
his plate and furniture, bidding them, 2s foon as they had
taken what he had given, to leave the houfe, and fee hira
no more. When the phyficians came to vifit him, they told
him they had found his door open, and the fervants and
the furniture removed and gone, nothing in fa& remaining
but the bed on which he lay. Then the door, taking
leave of his phyficians, faid, fince his baggage was packed
up and gone, it was time that he fhould go alfo. He died
aes fame day, November the 5th, 1605. Eloy Did.

ift.

BAILMENT, from Fr. ail/r, to deliver, in Lac, isa de-
livery of goods in tru‘t, upon a contra exprefled or implied
that the tru‘t fhall be faithfully executed on the part of the
bailee, a perfon to whom they are delivered; and the goods
re-delivered as foon as the time or ufe for which they were
bailed fhall have clapfed or be performed. There are fix
forts of bailments, which devolve a care and obligation on
the party to whom goods are bailed; and which confe-
quently fubjeét him to an ation, if he mifbehave with re-
gard to the truft repofed in him.

1. A bare avd naked bailment, to keep for the ufe of the
bailer, which is called depofitum; and fuch bailee is not
chargeable for a common neglect, but it muft be a grofs one
to make him hable. 2. A delivery of goods which are
ufeful to keep, and they are to be returned again in fpecie,
which is called aecommodatum, or a lending pratis; and in fuch
cafe the borrower is ftrictly bound to keep them; forif he be
guilty of the lealt negle&, he fhall be anfwerable, but he
fhall not be charged where there is no default in him. =,
A delivery of goods for hire, called /ocatio or conduGin ; and
the hirer is to take all imaginable care, and reftore them at
the time: and if he ufe fuch care, he fhali not be bound,

3 P 4. £4

BAT

4. A delivery by way of pledge, called vadium; and in
{uch goods the pawnee has a fpecial property; and if the
goods be the worfe for ufing, the pawnee mutt not ufe
them; otherwife he may ufe them at his peril; as jewels
pawned to a lady, if fhe keep them in a bag, and they are
ftolen, fhe fhall not be charged; but if fhe go with them to
a play, and they are ttolen, fhe fhall be anfwerable. If the
pawnee be at a charge in keeping them, he may ufe them for
his reafonable charge; but if, notwithflanding all his dili-
gence, he lofe the pledge, yet he fhall recover the debt.
But if he lofe it after the money tendered, he fhall be
chargeable, for he is a wrong-doer; after money paid (and
tender and refufal is the fame) it ceafes to be a pledge, and
therefore the pawnor may either bring an aétion of a/fumpfit,
and declare that the defendant promifed to return the goods
upon requeft; or trover, the property being vetted in him by
the tender. 5. A delivery of goods to be carried for a re-
ward. (See Carrier.) 6. A delivery of goods to do fome
aG&t about them (as to carry) without a reward, called by
Braéton mandatum, in Englifh, an adting by commiflion;
and though he get nothing for his pains, yet if there were
any neglect in him, he will be anfwerable, for his having un-
dertaken a truft is a fufficient confideration; but if the goods
be mifufed by a third perfon, in the way, without any
neglect of his, he will not be liable, being to have no
reward.

On this fubje&, fir William Jones’s “ Effay on the Law
of Bailment”’ merits particular attention 5 and the following
analyfis will convey much knowledge in a fhort compafs.
« Definitions. 1+ Bailment, as before at the beginning of
this article. 2, Depo/it isa bailment of goods to be kept for
the bailor without recompence. 3. Mandate isa bailment of
goods, without reward, to be carried from place to place, or
to have fome a& performed about them. 4- Lending for
ufe isa bailment of a thing for a certain time, to be ufed by
the borrower without paying for it. 5. Pledging, is a bail-
ment of goods by a debtor to his creditor, to be kept till
the debt be difcharged. 6. Letting to hire is (1) a bailment
of athing to be ufed by the hirer for a compenfation in
money; or (2) a letting out of wor's and labour to be done,
or care and attention to be beftowed, by the bailee on the
goods bailed, and that for a pecuniary recompence; or (3)
of care and pains in carrying the things delivered from one
place to another, for a {tipulated or implied reward. 7.
Tnnominate bailments are thefe where the compenfation for
the ufe of a thing, or for labour and attention is not pecu-
niary; but either (1) the reciprocal ufe or the gift of fome
other thing; or (2) work and pains reciprocally under-
taken; or (3) the ufe or gift of another thing in confider-
ation of care and labour; and converfely. 8. Ordinary ne-
gle, is the omiffion of that care, which every man of com-
mon prudence, and capable of governing a family, takes of
his own concerns, 9. Gro/s negled, is the want of that care
which every man of common fenfe, how inattentive foever,
takes of his own property. 10. Slight negle@ is the omif-
fion of that diligence which very circum{peé and thought-
ful perfons ufe in fecuring their own goods and chattels.
11. 4 naked contra@ is a contra& made without confidera-
tion or recompence. :

«JJ. The rules which may be confidered as axioms flow-
ing from natural reafon, good morals, and found policy, are
thefe. 1. A bailee who derives no benefit from his under-
taking, is refponfible only for grofs negle&t. 2. A bailce
who alone receives benefit from the bailment, is refponfible
for flight negle&t. 3. When the bailment is beneficial to
both parties, the bailee muft anfwer for ordinary negleét.
4. A {pecial agreement of any bailee to anfwer for more or

BAT

lefs, is in general valid. 5. All bailees are anfwerable for
actual fraud, even though the contrary be flipulated. 6.
No bailee thall be charged for alofs by inevitable accident or
irrefiftible force, except by fpecial agreement. 7. Robbery
by force is confidered as irrefiltible; but a lofs by private
ftealth is prefumptive evidence of ordinary negle&t. 8.
Grofs neglect is a violation of good faith. 9. No action
lies to compel performance of a naked contraé&. 10. A
reparation may be obtained by fuit for every damage occa-
fioned by an injury. 11. The negligence of a fervant, a€ting
by his matter’s exprefs or implied order, is the negligence of
the matter.

“III. From thefe rules the following propofitions are
evidently deducible. 1. A depofitary is refponfible only for
grofs neglect; or, in other words, for a violation of good
faith. 2. A depofitary, whofe character is known to his
depofitor, fhall not anfwer for mere negleét, if he take no
better care of his own goods, and they alfo be fpoiled or
deftroyed. 3. A mandatary to carry is refponfible only for
grofs negle&t, or a breach of good faith. 4. A mandatary
to perform a work is bound to ufe a degree of diligence
adequate to the performance of it. 5. A man cannot be
compelled by action to perform his promife of engaging in
a depofit or mandate; but,—6. A reparation may be ob-
tained by fuit for damage occationed by the non-performance
of a promife to become a depofitary, or a mandatary. 7.
A borrower for ufe is refponfible for flight negligence. &.
A pawnee is anfwerable for ordinary negle@. 9. The hirer
of a thing is anfwerable for ordinary negle&. 10. A worke
man for hire mutt anfwer for ordinary neglegt of the goods
bailed, and mutt apply a degree of {kill equal to his under-
taking. 41. A letter to hire of his care and attention, is re-
fponfible for ordinary negligence. 12. A carrier for hire by
land or by water is an{werable for ordinary neglect.

“IV. Exceptions to the above rules and propofitions.
1. A man who {pontaneoufly and officioufly engages to keep
or to carry the goods of another, though without reward,
muit anfwer for flight neglect. 2. If a man through {trong
perfuafion and with relu¢tance undertake the execution of a
mandate, no more can be required of him than a fair exer-
tion of his ability. 3. All bailees become refponfible for
loffes by cafualty or violence, after their refufal to return the
things bailed; on a lawful demand. 4. A borrower and a
hirer are anfwerable in all events, if they keep the things
borrowed or hired after the ftipulated time, or ufe them
differently from their agreement. 5. A depofitary and a
pawnee are anfwerable in all events if they ufe the things
depofited or pawned. 6. An inn-keeper is chargeable for
the goods of his gueft within his inn, if the guefts be robbed
by the fervants or inmates of the keeper. 7. A common
carrier by land or by water mutt indemnify the owner of the
goods carried, if he be robbed of them.

«V. It is no exception, buta corollary from the rule,
that every bailee is refponfible for alofs by accident or force,
however inevitable or irrefiltible; if it be occafioned by that
degree of negligence for which the nature of his contra
makes him generally anfwerable.” .

The following cafes may ferve to illuftrate the above
principles.

A man leaves a cheft locked up with another to be kept,
and doth not make known to him what is therein; if the
cheft and goods in it are ftolen, the perfon who received
them fhall not be charged for the fame, for he was not trufted
with them. And what is faid as to ftealing is to be under-
ftood of all other inevitable accidents; but it is neceflary
for a man that receives'goods to be kept, to receive them in
a {pecial manner, viz. to be kept as his own, or at the peril

or

BAT

of the owner. 1 Lill. Abr. 193, 194. And vide 1 Rol.
Abr. 338. 2 Show. pl. 166.

If I deliver 100]. to 4. to buy cattle, and he beftows sol.
of it in cattle, and I bring an aétion of debt for all, I fhall
be barred in that aétion for the money beftowed and charges,
&c. but for the reft I fhall recover. Hob. 207.

If one deliver his goods to another perfon, to deliver over
to a ftranger; the deliverer may countermand his power,
and require the goods again; and if the bailee refufe to de-
liver them, he may have an aétion of account for them.
Co. Litt. 286.

If 4. delivers goods to B. to be delivered over to C.
C. hath the property, and C. hath the aétion againit B.
for B. undertakes for the fafe delivery to C. and hath no
property or intereft but in order to that purpofe. 1 Rol.
Abr. 606.: fee 1 Bulft. 68, 69. where it is faid that in
cafe of convertion to his own ufe, the bailee fhall be anfwer-
able to both.

But if the bailment were not on valuable confideration,
the delivery is countermandable; and in that cafe, if /. the
bailor bring trover, he reduces the property again in him-
felf, for the action amounts to a countermand; but if the
delivery was on a valuable confideration, then 4. cannot
have trover, becaufe the property is altered; and in trover
the property muift be proved in the plaintiff. 1 Bulft. 68.;
fee 1 Leon. 30.

And where a man delivers goods to another to be re-deli-
vered to the deliverer at fuch a day, and before that day the
bailee doth fell the goods in market overt; the bailor may
at the day feize and take his goods, for the property is not
altered. Godb. 160.

If A. borrows a horfe to ride to Dover, and he rides out

of his way, and the owner of the horfe mects*him, he cannot
take the horfe from him; for 4. has a fpecial property in
the horfe till the journey is determined; and being in lawful
pofleffion of the horfe, the owner cannot violently feize and
take it away ; for the continuance ‘of all property is to be
taken from the form of the original bargain, which in this
cafe was limited till the appointed journey was finifhed.
Yelv.172. But the owner may have an action on the cafe
again{t the bailee for exceeding the purpcefes of the loan;
for fo far it is a fecret and fallacious abufe of his property;
but no general action of trefpafs, becaufe it is not an open
and violent invafion of it. 1 Rol. Rep. 128.
« As to borrowing a thing perifhable, as corn, wine, or
money, or the like, a man mutt, from the nature of the
thing, have an abfolute property in them; otherwife it
could not fupply the ufes for which it was lent; and
therefore he is obliged to return fomething of the fame
fort, the fame in quantity and quality with what is bor-
rowed, Dr. & Stud. 129.

But if one lend a horfe, &c. he mutt have the fame re-
ftored. Ifa thing lent for ule be ufed to any other end or
purpofe than that for which it was borrowed, the party may
have his aétion on the cafe for it, though the thing be never
the worfe; and if what is borrowed be loft, although it be
not by any negligence of the borrower, as if he be rcbbed of
it; or where the thing is impaired or deltroyed by his ne-
gle, admitting that he put it to no more fervice than that
for which borrowed, he mutt make it good; fo where one
borrows a horfe, and puts him in an old rotten houfe ready
to fall, which falls on and kills him, the borrower muft an-
fwer for the horfe. But if fuch goods borrowed perith by
the a& of God (or rather, as fir William Jones fays, it
ought more reverentially to be termed, by inevitable accident),
in the right ufe of them; as where the borrower puts
the horfe, &c. in a flrong houfe, and it falls and kills

BAI

him, or it dies by difeafe, or by default of the owner, the
borrower fhall not be charged. - 1 Init. 89. 29 Aff. 28.
EEC ESB

If one delivers a ring to another to keep, and he breaks
and converts the fame to his own ufe; or if I deliver my
fheep to another to be kept, and he fuffers them to be
drowned by his negligence; or if the bailee of a horfe, or
goods, &c. kill or fpoil them, in thefe cafes aétion will lie.
5 Rep. 13. 15 E.4. 20d. 12 E.4. 13.

If a man deliver goods to another, the bailee fhall have
a general action of trefpafs againit a ftranger, becaufe he is
anf{werable over to the bailor; for a man ought not to be ©
charged with an injury to another, without being able to
retire to the original caufe of that injury, and in amends
there to do himfelf right. 13 Co. 69. 14H. 4. 28. 25
H.7. 14. See Jacob’s Law Diionary by Tomlins, art.
Bailment. Blackit. Com. vol. ii. p. 396. 451, Xc.

BAILO, or Batio, a name given at Conttantinople te

the ambaflador of Venice refiding at the Portes who alfo

does the office of conful of his nation.

The word is doubtlefs the remains of the word éajulus,
which the modern Greeks and Turks have formed into
bailo. i

The Venetian confuls at Aleppo, Alexandria, Smyrna,
and other parts of the Levant, are alfo denominated
bailo.

BAILY, Natuanter, in Biography, an Englifh writer,
living the latter end of the feventeenth century and begin-
ning of the laft, author of the « DiGionarium Rufticum,’”’
treating of all forts of country affairs, particularly of the
whole art of gardening, 1704, 8vo. London, republifhed,
much improved, 1726. Haller Bib. Bot.

BAILYBOROUGH, in Geography, a market and poft
town of the county of Cavan in Ireland, which, though of very
mean appearance, has an excellent market. The crops in its
vicinity confift of potatoes, flax, and oats, and are very poor.
There is a bleach-green contiguous to the town, and there
arefome {mall farmers in the neighbourhood, who makebutter
for market, which is fent to Newry for exportation. Their
pigs, which form a confiderable article of trade, are fent to
the fame place. ‘This town has been hitherto very much
neglected; but fuch are its advantages of fituation, that if
any encouragement were given, it might be eafily raifed to
a ttate of profperity and confequence. Between this town
and King’s Court is a lake, or rather pool, on the fummit of
a mountain, which is celebrated for its antifcorbutic virtues,
and is much frequented from June to Augult. Many bathe
in the lake; but the mud, which is taken up from the depth
of thirty feet, and rubbed on the affected parts, is deemed
the moit efficacious. This mud is a greafy fhining fub-
ftancelike tar. The lake covers about half a {quare rood in
area, and has a range of lofty hills tothe eaft and weit.
For about fix fect from the furfacethe water is pure and
clear, with fomething of a chalybeate tafte. It is obferved
of it, that the fun or atmofphere has no effect either in im-
perting its genial influence, or in reducing its waters by at-
traction; nor has it ever been frozen, or its temperature
altered in the fevereft winter. Bailyborough is forty-three
Trifh miles north-weft from Dublin. Coote’s Statift. Survey
of Cavan.

BAILYBURG, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Wettmannland.

BAIN, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri& in the department of the Ille and Villaine; 5+
leagues fouth of Rennes. N. lat. 47° 50’. W.long. 1° 47’.

Bain GonGa, ariver of Hindoftan, for the recent know-
ledge of which we are indebted to Col. Camac. It mifex

3 ey peat

B Al

near the fouthern bank of the Nerbuddah, and runs fouth-
ward through the heart of Berar; and after a courfe of
400 miles mixes with the Godavery, within the hills that

‘bound our northern circars; about nisety miles above thie fea.

It is not certain -how far the Bain Gonga is navigable; but
it is mentioned as alarge river in theearly part of its courfe;
and is probably-equal in bulk to the Godavery, when it joins
it. Rennell’s Mem: p. 246.

BAINBRIDGE, Jorn, in Biography, an eminent phy-
fician and altrcnomer, was born at Athby de la Zouch, in
Leicelterthire, in 1582, finifed his education at Emanuel
college in the univerfity of Cambridge, and then retired to
his own country, where for fome years he taught a grammar
{chool, and practifed phyfic. He alfo applied himfelf to the
ftudy of mathematics and aflronomy, to which he had been
devoted from his earlielt years. Upon his removal to Lon-
don, he was admitted a fellow of the college of phyficians.
His ‘ Defeription of the comet’? in 1618, i:troduced him
to an acquaintance with fir Heary Saville, by whom he was
eppointed, in 1619, his frit profeflor of altronomy at Oxford,
where he fettled, having entered himfelf a matter commoner
of Merton college, for fome years. At the age of forty
years he began the fludy of Arabic, with a view of publih-
lag corrcét editions of the ancient atronomers. He died
at Oxford, November the 3d, 1643, in the fixty-fecond
year of his age. His werks that were peblifhed are “ An
Aronomical Delcription of the late comet from November
18th, 1618, to the 16th of December following,” Londen,
1619, 4to.; ‘* Procli {phera ;” and “ Ptolemzi de hypo-
thefibus Planetarum liber fingularis;” to which he added
Prolemy’s ** Canon regnorum,’’ 1620, 4to.; “ Canicularia,”
publithed at Oxford, in 1648, by Mr. Greaves, together with
a demonflration of the heliacal rifing of Sirizs or the dog-ftar
for the parallel of Lower Egypt, written at the requett of
archbifhop Ulher. Several other treatifes were prepared for
the prefs, and left in MS. Biog. Brit. .

BAINDER, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Natolia, forty-four miles caf from
Bol.

BAINDT, a town of Germany, in the circle ef Swabia,
fix miles N.N.E. of Ravenfpurg.

BAINE, a river of England, in Lincolnfhire, which
paffes by HorncaSle, Tatterfal, &c. and joins the Welham
near the laft-mentioned place.

BAINETTA, a town of Picdmort, in the province of
Coni, on the Orobio, fix miles S. E. from Coni, and eight
W.S.W. from Mondovi.

BAINS, a town of France, in the department of the
Vofges, and chief place of a canton in the diftri€t of Dar-
ney 23 leagues weft of Piombieres, and 34 fouth-eaft of
Darney. x.

BAIOCCO, in Commerce, a copper coin in modern
Rome, equivalent toa tenth part of the julio, or a hundredth
part of the ducat. ; } cb ets

The baiocco is worth about nine deniers, French money.

BAJOLE, Care, in Geography, the moit northerly cape
of Minorca ifland, in the Mediterranean, ten leagues from
the moft northerly cape of the ifland of Majorca.

BAIPIA, a town of North America, in New Navarre,
165 miles fouth-welt from Cafa Grand.

BAIRAM, a name given to the great annual fealt of the
Mahometans.

The word is alfo written, by fome authors, more con-
formably to the oriental orthography, dciram. It is originally
Turkith, and fignifies literally, a f:a/-day, or holiday.

The Mahometans have two bairams, the great and the
dutle, which Scaliger, Erpenius, Rycaut, Hyde, Chardin,

BAI

Bohovius, and other Exropean writers,.commonly iater-
chanze, giving the appellation great to that which the Turks
cali ttle, and vice cra.

This feaft commencing with the new moon, the Meho-
metans are very ferupuluxs in cbfervine the time when the
new moon commences; to which purpofe, obfervers. are
fent to the tops of the hich mountains, who, the moment
they {py the appearance cf a new moon, run to the city,
and proclaim nvecledalnk, welcome news 3 asitis the fignal
for heginzaing the fellivity.

The ceremonics are deferibed at large by Rycaut and
Tournefort.

Bairam, the Greater, is properly that held by the pil-
grims at Mecea, commencing on the tenth of Dhu'hhajja,
when the viGtims are flain, and laiting three days. This is
called by the Arabs, id al /orban, id al adha, that is, the
feait of the facrifice, as being celebrated in memory of the
facriice of Abraham, whofe fon God redeemed with a great

visim. By Enropean writers it is called the Lifer bairam,

as being lels taken notice of by the generality of the people,
who are not ftruck with it, becaufe the ceremonies attend-
ing it are performed at Mecca, the only fcene of the folem-
nity.

The Lefer Bairam is called in Arabic Jd al Fetr, that
is, the fealt of breaking the fa, ard begins the firft of
Shawal, immediately fuceceding the faft of Ramadan. This
is called by the vulgar, and by moft others who have
written of the Mahometan affairs, the greater bairam,. be
caufe it is obferved in an extraordinary manner, and laits
for three days at Conftantinople and in other parts of Tur-
key, and for five or fix days in Perfia, during which no
work is done; but prefents pafs from one to another, with
maay other manifcftations of joy. If the day after i
dan fhould prove {> cloudy as to prevent the fight of the
new moon, the bairam is put off to the next day, when it
begins, though the moon be. flill obfeured. Whea they
celebrate this feaft, after numerous ceremonies, or rather
ftrange mimicries, in their mofque, they end it with a
folemn prayer againit the infidels, to root out Chriftian
princes, or to arm them one againit auother, that they may
have an opportusity- to extend the borders of their Jaw.
Sale’s Prel. Dif. p. 150. :

BAIRDSTOWN, or Bearpstown, in Geography, a
flourithing town of America, in Nelfon county, Kentucky,
contaniing 216 inhabitants, feated on the head-waters of
Salt-river, fifty miles S. E. from Louifville, and about the
fame diitance §. W. from Danville,

BAIROUT, as it is pronounced by the Arabs, and as
the modern Greeks pronounce Bx], BerouT, or the ancient
Berytus, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Saide or Acre,
is fituated in 2 plain, which runs out from the foot of mount
Lebanon into the fea, natrowiag to a point about two lea-
gues from the ordinary lise of the fhore, and on the north
fide forms a pretty long road, receiving the river of Nahr-
el-Salib, called alfo Nahr-Bairout. ‘The frequent fioeds
to which this river is fubje@ in winter, have occafioned
the erection of a confiderable bridge ; but thisis in fo ruinous
a ftate as to.be impaffable. The. bottom of the road is
rocky, which chafes the cables, and renders it iafecure.
The town of Bairout, which lies about an hour’s jou
weltward towards the point, belonged till of late tothe Dru-
zes, but Djezzar took it from them, and placed inita Turkith
garrifon. It ftill continues, however, to be the emporium
of the Maronites and the Druzes, where they export their
cottons and their filks, almoft all of which are fent to Cairo.
In return, they receive rice, tobacco, coffee, and {pecie,
which they exchange again for the corn of the Bekaa aoa

e

BAI

the Hauran. This commerce maintains near Gooo perfons.
The dialeA of the inhabitants is the moft corrupt of any in
the country, and is. faid to unite in itfelf the twelve faults
enumerated by the Arabian grammarians. The port of
Bairout, formed like all the others on the coaft by a pier,
is, like them, choaked up with fand and rains. The town
is furrounded by a wall, the foft and fandy ttone of which
may be pierced by a canon-ball, without breaking or crum-
bling : in other refpeGs this wall, and its old towers, are
defencelefs. Baivout is fubje& to two inconveniences,
which will always prevent its becoming a {trong place ; for it
is commanded by a chain of hills to the fouth-eaft, and it is
altogether deftitute of water, which is fetched by the women
at the diltance of half a quarter of a league, and even this is
but indifferent. Djezzar has undertaken to conttrna a
public fountain, as he has done at Acre; but the canal
will foon become ufelefs; In digging, in order to form
refervoirs, fubteraneous ruins have been difeovered, from
which it appears that the modern town is built on the fite
of the ancient Berytus ; and without the walls, towards the
weft, heaps of rubbith and fhafts of columns indicate that
Bairout has formerly been much larger than itis at prefent.
The plain around it is entirely planted with white mul-
berry trees, which are young and flourifhing, and therefore
the filk produced here is of the fineft quality. In defcend-
ing from the mountains, the verdure formed by the tops of
thefe trees in the diftant bottom of the valley exhibits a very
delightful profpe&. The heat, and the warmth of the water,
render Bairout in fummer an inconvenient place of refidence ;
the town, however, is not unhealthy ; more efpecially fince
the emir Fakr-el-din has planted a wood of fir trees about a
league fouthward of the town. Voluey’s Travels in Egypt
and Syria, vol. ii. p.187, &c. See Beryrvs.

BAISE, ariver of France, which runs into the Garonne,
near Aiguillon,

BAIT, Ihite, in Ichthyology, a {mall fith, which is caught
in great plenty, from Auguit 1, to OGober 1, by ftat. 30
Geo. 11. c. 21, in the river Vhames. See Waite Bair.

‘Bait, in fling. Baits makea capital article in angling ;
on the choice whereof much of the fport depends; d:f-
ferent feafons, and different game, having their appropriate
baits. ‘he red, or earth-worm, is good for the {mall fry
moft of the year round; and {maW fh are good baits for
pikes at all tures; fheep’s blood and cheefe ure good bait
in April; the bobs, dried wafps, and bees, are for May ;
brown flies for June ; maggots, hornets, wafps, and bees,
for July ; fnails in Auguit; grafshoppers in September ;
com, bramble-berries, and feeds, at the fall of the leaf;
artificial paftes are for May, June, July, and frogs for
March.

Baits are either natural or artificial.

Bairs, Natural, include all kinds of worms, as the red
worm, maggot, &c. alfo frogs, grafshoppers, hornets, bees,
{nails, roaches, bleak, gudgeon, and loaches, &c.

Thefe baits are to be kept each fort feparate, and fed with
thofe things which they like beit.

The red werm is to be kept in rich black mould, with a
little fennel chopped among it; a little ox or cow dung,
newly made, is alioa veryacceptable thing ‘to them. They
may be kept in a box, with {mall holes in it, or ina bag.
Red worms, and all other forts, {cour qnickly, and grow
very tough and bright, on putting them into a thin elcut,
greafed with frefh butter, or greafe, before they are put into
mols. i

This is the beft of all things to kecp them in; but the
mols mult be firlt very well wafhed, and the water faneezed
out again. As to food, a fpoonful of cream, dropped into

*8

BAI

the mofs once in three or four cays, is better than any thing
elfe. The mofs is to changed every week, and kept ina
cool place.

White large maggots are an excellent bait for many forts
of fifh, and they are to be kept on fheep’s fuet and liver
chopped fmall.

Trogs and grafshoppers ave to he kept in wet mofs, and
lone grafs; and on moiftening this afrefh every evening it
will keep a long time. ‘They are to have their legs and
wings cut off when they are ufed.

Live flies muft be ufed as they are caught ; but wafps,
bees, hornets, and humble-bees, may be preferved dry. The
beft method of drying them, is putting them in an oven
after the bread is drawn. Care mutt be taken that they
not feorched; and when they are taken out they are
to have the heads dipped in fheep’s blood. This is to be
fuffered to dry on, and then they are to be preferved in
a box. ‘They will keep for three or four months. See
ANGLING.

Bairs, Ariificial, are flies of all kinds and fhapes, made of
filk, feathers, and the like. The variety of thefe is very great 5
there being not only different ones for every feafon and
month in the year, but almoft for every fifh. See Axcuine.

‘There are feveral artificial baits, for intoxicating of fowl,
and yet without tainting or hurting the flefh, fo as to make
it unfit to eat.

Barirs, Dead, are paftes of divers forts, made of corn,
cheefe, fruits, wafps, fheep’s blood, boiled beans, &c.

Bair, Ground. See AxGuina.

Barr, Ledger, is that which remains fixed in one certain
place, while the angler may be abfent ; efpecially in fithing
for

Bait, Walking, is that which the angler attends while he
keeps moving from place to place, in queit of the fith.

- Baits of Hemp, denote bundles of that plant, pulled
and tied up, ready for fleeping in water. See Fry-
FisHinc.

BAIT-EL-LAHAM, the ancient Bethlehem, in Geogra=
phy, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Damafcus, is a vil-
lage about two leagues fouth-eatt of Jerufalem, feated on an
eminence in a country full of hills and vallies. The adja-
cent foilis the beft in all thefe diftri@s ; fo that fruits, vines,
olives, and fefamum, fucceed here extremely well ; and no-
thing is wanting but cultivation. They reckon about 600
men in this village capable of occafionally bearing arms ;
and occafions of this kind frequently recur, fometimes i»
refit the pacha, fometimes to make war with the adjoin-
ing villages, and fometimes in confequence of inteltine divi-
fions. OF thefe 600 men, about 100 are Latin Chrittians,
who have a vicar dependent on the great convent at Jeru-
falem.. The whole trade formerly confifted in the manu-
facture of beads ; but not finding a fufficient vent for them,
they have refumed the cultivation of their lands. They
make a white wine, which jullifies the former celebrity of
the wines of Judea, but it has the property of being very
heady. The ncceflity of uniting for their common defence
prevails over their religious differences, and induces the
Chriftians here to live in tolerable harmony with their fel-
low-citizens the Mahometans. Both are of the party of
Yamani, which, with its oppoiite called Kaif, divides the
whole of Paleftine into two fa€uions that are perpetually at
yariance. The courage of thefe peafants has been fre-
quently tried, and renders them formidable through the
whole country. Volney’s Travels, vol. ii. p.323. See
BetrHLrevem.

BAITHOSUS, in Biography, a Jewith teacher, and one
of the founders of the fect of the Sadducees, flourifhed in

jJuceza;

are

ike.

BA J

Judea, in the third century before Chrift. See Anticonus
SocHz£us.
BAITING, or rather Batine, in Falconry, is when a
“hawk flutters with her wings, either from perch or fift, as if
it were flriving to get away.

Baitine alfo denotes the a& of fmaller or weaker beafts
in attacking or harrafling greater and ftronger ones.

In this fenfe we hear of the baiting of bulls and bears
by mattiffs, or bull-dogs with fhort nofes, that they may take
the better hold.

The baiting of this animal makes his flefh tender and more
digeftible. In reality, it difpofes it for putrefaction, fo that,
unlefs taken ia time, baited flefh is foon loft.

Bulls, bears, and alfo horfes, and other animals, were for-
merly trained for this purpofe. ‘This barbarous pra¢tice,
the firft rife of which cannot be fatisfactorily afcertained,
has the fanGtion of high antiquity. Titz-Stephen, who
lived in the reign of Henry IT., and whofe * Defcription of
the City of London” was written in 1174, informs us, that
in the forenoon of every holiday, during the winter feafon,
the young Londonevs were amufed with boars oppofed to
each other in battle; or with bulls and full-grown bears,
baited by dogs. The baiting of horfes was never a general
practice; but affes, which did not fufficiently anfwer the
purpofe of fport, were occafionally treated with the fame
inhumanity. The practice of bull-baiting was much ap-
proved by the nobility in former ages, and was countenanced
even by perfons of the moft exalted rank, without exception
even of females. Erafmus, who vifited England in the
reign of Henry VIII., fays (Adagia, p. 361.), that there
were many herds of bears maintained in this country for the
purpofe of baiting. When queen Mary vifited her fifter
the princefs Elizabeth, during her confinement at Hatfield
houfe, a great exhibition of bear-baiting was prefented, im-
mediately after mafs in the morning, for their amufement.
The fame princefs, foon after her acceffion to the throne,
entertained the foreign ambaffadors with the baiting of bulls
and bears. In the fixteenth century there was a place
built in the form of a theatre, which ferved for baiting of
bulls and bears: they were faitened behind, and then wor-
ried by large Englifh bull-dogs ; but not without mifk to
the dogs from the teeth of the one, and the horns of the
other; and it fometimes happened that they were killed on
the fpot, and frefh ones were {epplicd in the room of thofe
who were deftroyed, wounded, or tired.

When the bull was baited, a collar was put about his
neck, faftened to a thick rope about three, four, or v
yards long, hung to a hook, and fo attached to a ftaKe,
that it might turn round. By means of this rope, the bull
circulated to watch his enemy, which was a malfliff deg
with a fhort nofe. This dog, when properly trained,
would creep upon his belly, that he might, if poffible, feize
the bull by the nofe, which he as caetdile endeavoured to
defend by laying it clofe to the ground, and with his horas
he attempted to tofs the dog. On fome occafions a dog
has been toffed by a bull to the height of thirty or forty
feet, and their fall has proved injurious and even fatal to
them. The men have been alfo frequently tofled as well
the dogs. The barbarous paftime of bull and bear-baiting
is not encouraged by perfons of rank and opulence in the
prefent day, but attempts have been projected for fuppreff-
ing it by legiflative interference: when it is prattifed,
which rarely happens, it is attended only by the loweft and
moft defpicable part of the people, a circumftance which
indicates a general refinement of manners and prevalence of
humanity among the moderns. Houghton’s Colleétions,
Strutt’s Sports, &e.

BA J
Whales are baited by a kind of fith called oriz, or hillers 5

ten or twelve of which will attack a young whale at once,
and not leave him till he is killed. Philofoph. Tranf. N° 287.
p- 265.

BAJULARIA, in Entomslogy, a fpecies of PHarzena
(No@ua) that inhabits Amboyna. The anterior wings are
brown, with two white fpots, and a ftreak of the fame colour;
pofterior ones yellow, with black fpots. Fabricius, Cra-
mer.

BAJULATIO, the office of a Aajulus or bailiff.

BAJULUS, an ancient officer in the court of the Greek
emperors ; whereof there were feveral degrees: as the grand
bajulus, who was preceptor of the emperor, and the imple
bajuli, who were fub-preceptors.

Hence the Italians ufe the word dajulus of a kingdom
in the fame fenfe with proteGtor of a kingdom among
the Englifh. The word is derived from the Latin verb
bajulare, to carry, or bear a thing on the arms, or on the
fhoulders.

Children, and efpecially thofe of condition, had anciently,
befide their nurfe, a woman called gerula, as appears from
feveral paflages of Tertullian ; when weaned, or ready to
be weaned, they had men to carry them about to take care
of them, who were called geruli, and bgyule, a gerende & ba-
julando.

Bayutus is alfo ufed by Latin writers in the feveral other
fenfes wherein bailiff is ufed among us.

Bajutus was alfo the name of a conventual officer in the
ancient monafteries, to whom belonged the charge of gather-
ing and diftributing the money and legacies left for maffes
and obits; whence he was alfo demominated bajulus obituum
novorum.

Bajutus, in Entomology, a {pecies of CeramByx {(Cal-
lidium) that is found in the trunks of trees in the northern
parts of Europe. The thorax is villous, with two tuber-
cles; body brown. Fabricius. This is cerambyx caudatus
of Degeer; and /eptura bajula of Scopoli. Gmelin.—Od/.
a variety of this fpecies (f) is defcribed by Linnzus. Fn.
Suec. i.n. 490. The colour ef which is tettaceous: tho-
rax cinereous, and villous, with two little glabrous lines ;
in the Fabrician mantiffa. Another variety (y) is noticed ;
it is a native of Saxony, and only half the fize of the
former.

BAIUS, Micuact, in Bicgraphy, a profeffor of divini-
ty at Louvain, was born at Melin, in the territory of Aeth,
in the year 1513, and educated in the univerfity of Louvain
where he was eleGted, in 1541, principal of one of the col-
leges; and in 1544, lecturer in philofophy. In 1550 he took
his doétor’s degree, and was appointed profeffor of the holy
fcriptures. Baius and his affociate having adopted the tenets
of Luther, and appealing to the authority of Auguitin,
taught doétrines concerning grace and free-will, contrary to
thofe which had been commonly received in the church of
Rome. ‘The complaint of herefy was excited; Baius was
accufed asa chief inftrument of promoting it; and the doc-
tors of the Sorbonne at Paris pronounced a fentence of cen-
fure. The clamour againft him was circulated; and anum-
ber of propofitions, collected from books publifhed by him
in 1563 and 1564, were tranfmitted in 1567 to pope Pius
IV. ‘The pope iffued a bull condemning thefe propofitions;
but without mentioning the name of theauthor, and adding
a kind of ambiguous claufe, which feemed to intimate, that
fome of the propofitions which he condemned, admitted of
a favourable conftruétion. By thefe meafures of policy,
fuggeited by the experience of the evils that had arifen from
purfuing amore intemperate condué with regard to Luther,
the perlon of Baius was cxempted from the penalties of ex-

com-

4
r

? 9 ee fhe

BAK

communication, and he continued to exercife his funions,
and even to vindicate his doétrines; whilft he folicited the
pope toabfolve the irregularity. About thirteen years after
this tranfaction, complaints againft Baius were renewed ;
and pope Gregory XIIL., at the inftigation of the Jefuits,
confirmed the fentence of Pius TV. Baius quietly acqui-
efced in the papal fentence, and concurred in condemning
the propofitions agreeably to the defign and meaning of the
bull. Baius, notwithflanding the popular odium which he
incurred, retained his office, and received further preferment.
He, and Heflels, his affociate in the profeflorfhip at Louvain,
were the two divines commiffioned to attend the council of
Trent, inthe year 1563. In 1575, he was preferred to the
deanery of St, Peter at Louvain, and elected chancellor of
the univerfity; and, in 1578, was appointed confervator of
its privileges. In 15$9 he died, at the age of feventy-feven
years. Mofheim reprefents him as equally remarkable on
account of the warmth of his piety as the extent of his
learning. In proof of his charitable difpofition it is alleged,
that by his laft will he left his whole eftate tothe poor. His
manners were engaging; and Tolet, one of his adverfaries
of the fraternity of Jefuits, faid of him, ‘ Michacle Baio
nihil doétius, nihil humilius;’? nothing can be more learned,
nothing more humble than Baius. As his works, relating
chiefly to the controverfy concerning grace and free-will, are
not likely to be now much fought after, it is needlefs to
enumerate them. ‘They were printed entire in 4to. at Co-
logne, in 1694. They are written with logical precifion,
and in a neat ityle. Gen. Di&. Moth. Eccl. Hift. vol. iv.
P: 235, 236.

BAIX, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ardeche, two leagues and a half fouth-eait of
Privas.

BAIZE, a town of Germany; in the county of Tyrol,
eight miles fouth of ‘Trent.

Baize, in Commerce. See Bays.

BAKAL, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Ufa, ninety-fix miles W.N. W. of Ufa.

BAKAN, atown of Afia, in the Birman empire, feated
on the river Ava. N. lat. 19° 35’. E. long. 98° o'.

BAKER, Sir Ricuarp, in Biography, an Englifh hif-
torian, was the grandfon of fir John Baker, chancellor of
the exchequer, in the reign of Henry VIII, and born at
Siffingherft in Kent, about the year 1568. He was entered
a commoner at Hart’s hall, ia Oxford, in 1584; and hav-
ing fpent three years in academic ftudies, finifhed his educa-
tion in one of the inns of court, and by travelling, In
1603, he obtained the honour of knighthood ; and in 1620
he was appointed high-fheriff for the county of Oxford.
By involving himfelf in pecuniary embarraffment, in confe-
quence of his marriage, he was obliged to take refuge in
thé Fleet prifon, where, after remaining there feveral years,
he terminated his life in 1645. In thefe circumttances of
confinement and humiliating diftrefs, he obtained relief by
ftudy, and from the influence of religious principles. Befides
other tracts of lefs importance, in the compofition of which
he amufed himfelf, his principal work was the ‘ Chronicle
of the Kings of England from the Time of the Romans’
Government unto the Death of King James,” publifhed in
folio, at London, in 1641, and afterwards continued by
Edward Phillips, a nephew of Milton. ‘This chronicle
continued to be popular for feveral years, and defervedly fo
if the author’s account of it be juft; for he fays, ‘that it
was collected with fo great care and diligence, that if all
other of our chronicles fhould be loft, this only _would be
fufficient to inform pofterity of all paflages memorable or

worthy to be known.’ But of this performance a lefs fa-
42

BAK

vourable opinion has been entertained by others; and the
critical examination of Thomas Blount in his ** Animadver-
fions upon fir Richard Baker’s Chronicle, and its Continua-
tion,” publifhed in r2mo., at Oxford, in 1672, in which
many and profs errors, refpecting dates, names, places, and
facts, were pointed out, greatly depreciated its value in the
public eftimation. Although anew correéted edition, with
a fecond continuation, appeared in 1730, yet Baker’s chro-
nicle remained, after all, a performance ill-con{tructed, in-
judicious, and unworthy of confidence. Of the we ter’s
talte and ftyle the following commendation of his panegyrift,
fir Henry Wotton, will afford an adequate idea: “I much
admire the chara¢ter of your ftyle, which feemeth unto me
to have nota little of the African idea of St. Auttin’s age;
full of {weet raptures, and of refearching conceits; nothing
borrowed, nothing vulgar, and yet all flowing from you,
I know not how, with a certain equal facility.”’ Biog.
Bnit.

Baker, Zhomas, an eminent mathematician, was born at
Ilton in Somerfetfhire, about the year 1625, and was edu-
cated at Oxford. In 1645 he was elected fcholar of Wad-
ham college, took his degree of bachclor of arts in 1647-
and foon afterwards left the univerfity. As vicar of Bifhops-
Nymmet in Devonfhire, he lived in ftudious retirement, and
chiefly applied himfelf to the ftudy of mathematics, in which
he excelled. Of this we have fufficient evidence in his work,
intitled, « The Geometrical Key, cr the Gate of Equations
unlocked,” and publifhed at London in 1684, -4to. in Latin
and Englifh. An account of this book is given in the Phil.
Tranf, vol. xiv. N°157. p.549, 550. (See Centrav Rule.)
To fome mathematical queries, fent to him by the members
of the Royal Society, not long before his death, he returned
an an{wer fo fatisfactory, that they gave him a medal, with
an infcription honourable and refpeétful. He died at Bifhops-
Nymmet, June 5th, 1690, and was buried in his own
church. Biog. Brit.

Baxer, Thomas, a writer and antiquary of eminence, was
born at Lanchefter in the county of Durham, in 1656, and
ftudied at St. John’s college, Cambridge, where he became
a fellow. In 1699 he publifhed, in 8vo., an anonymous
work, intitled, “ RefleGtions upon Learning, wherein is fhewn
the Infufficiency thereof, in its feveral Particulars, in order
to evince the Neceffity and Ufefulnefs of Revelation,”? which
pafled through feveral editions, and was regarded, for many
years, as a ftandard of fine wniting. As to its {tyle, how-
ever, it has been obferved, that, whilft it is allowed to be
perfpicuous and manly, it has no claim to any high degree
of elegance ; and whatever merit the work in general may
be fuppofed to poffefs, it will be juflly queftioned, whether
an author, who beftows cold and partial praife on Bacon,
who in a chapter of metaphyfics omits the mention of Locke,
who {peaks contemptuoufly of the Copernican fyftem, and
who attacked Le Clerc with an unbecoming afperity, was
duly qualified to pafs judgment upon general learning. ‘The
ingenious Dr. Jortin fays of him (Lite of Erafmus, p. 550,
551), “that he was no critic himfelf, and not at all ac-
quainted with the true ttate of claffical books, and particu-
larly of Greek authors.” Baker, though he poffefled real
erudition, and though his remarks are often acute and inge-
nious, has unduly difparaged the writings oPable men, and
the difcoveries of modern fcience. In the progrefs of his
life, he purfued ftudies for which he feems to have been bet-
ter qualified. As a colleGtor of antiquities, and particularly
of fuch as related to the church and univerfity, he excelled.
His talents in this way were employed in collecting materials
for a hiftory of the univerfity of Cambridge; but though he
lived to an advanced age, the hiftory was never a

aker

BAK

Baker was unqueftiona’jy a man of integrity and candeur.
By his confcientiogs refufal to take the oaths required by
ment at the accefion of George I. he loft his fellow-
yut he retained his chambers at St. Jouun’s college,
>was hichly elteemed, and Mr. Prior, the celebrated
:ve the profits of his own fzilowfhip to Baker, in
yply the lofs of income which he uad fuffered.
pondence with men of learning was_extenfive ;
s liberal in his literary communicstions to thofe
whe ¢ licited information ; and lar} op Burnet,

; to bi

Sorhic
arLic H

who was indebted to him fer feveral remarks and corrections
relating to his « Hitory of the Reformation.”
es

Thefe two
lerent from each other with regard

s, maintained amutual fricudfhip
ich were honomable to both.
Baker's private charaéter was amiable, and he was beloved
and refpected by all who knew him. He died at Cam-
bridge, July 2d, 1740, 12 his eighty-fourth year. OF his
extenfive colleGions, he left twenty-three volumes in folio,
written by his own hand, to lord Oxford, aad they now
compole part of the Harleian colleGtion in the Britith me-

eum. He alfo beq: ed. fifteen volumes folio, of a like
kind, to the public library at Cambridge, together with
other MSS. and printed books. Biog. Bnt.

“© Mr. Buker,”’ fays'a late biographer, Horatio Walpole
earl of Orford, “ lived and died in charity with all mankind,
and was perhaps the fole inftance of aman, who bequeathed
his worldly gocds to a Society that ejected him, and to the
minifters of a church in which he had lo% preferment.”
Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the late Thomas
Baker,. &c. by R. Matters, 1794.

Baxer, Henry, an ingenious and diligent naturalif, was
born in London near the clofe of the feventeenth or the be-

‘aning of the eightcerth centery, and apprenticed to a

This employment, if be ever engaged in it

perfons, though very 4
to their party and prix
and a candid itercourt:

a
1s AVR

bookfeiler.
after the expiration of his apprenticefhip, he foon relin-
quifhed ; and having directed particular attention to the
methods which might be practicable and ufeful in the cvre
of ftammering, he engaged in teaching deaf and dumb per-
fons to fpeak ; and in this undertaking he was very fucceff-
ful. He married a daughter of the celebrated Daniel Defoe.
In the earlier period of his life, he indulged a tatte for poe-
try, and publifhed, in 1725 and 1726, “ Original Poems,
ferions and humorous,” in two parts, in which there are
fome tales that refemble in wit, and alfo in licentioufnefs,
thofe of Prior. He was the author likewife of «¢ The Uni-
verfe, a Poem intended to reftrain the Pride of Man,”? fe-
veral times reprinted, and of “ An Invocation to Health,”
reprinted in his ** Original Pocms.”> At a more advanced
period of life, he purfued various branches of fludy and ex-
periment in philofophy and natural hiftory, and devoted him-
felf more efpecially to microfcopical refearches and obferva-
tions. In 1740, he was eleed a fellow of the Antiquarian
and Royal Sccicties; in both which he was a regular at-
terdant. In 1744, the Royal Society honoured him with
fir,Godfrey Copley’s medal in recompence cf his microfco-
pical difcoveries, the cryftallizations and configurations of
faline particles. Among various topics, on which he com-
municated papers to the Royal Society, that have been pub-
lifhed in their TranfaGtions, one was the water-polype (fee
Poryre); and his remarks on this curious animal were en-
larged into a feparate treatife, which pafled through feveral
editions. The moft important and valuable of his obferva-
tions are contained in his two principal works, intitled,
«© The Microfcope made cafy,” and “ Employment for the
Microfcope,” of which many editions have been publifhed.
Mr. Baker was one of the earlicit and moit zealous members

BAK

of the fociety for the encouragement of arts, manufadiures,
and commerce; and by his extenfive correfpondence he was
eminently ufeful in introducing into his own country feveral
valu:tle metheds of culture. To him we are indebted for
the true hiflory of the * Coccus Polonicus,”’ for the '* Al-
pine Strawhery,” and for the “ Rheum, Palmatum.” After
the fir difcoveries in cleCtricity, he was one of the firkk who
announced to the public the apprehended medicinal effets
that might refult from the application of it, and to relate
the experiments of this kind which had been made at Rome
and Bologna. He did not, however, efezpe the ftrictures
of critics, and particularly of Dr. Fill, in his review of the
vorks of the Royal Society. Ip has been faid of him, more*
to the cifhonour of thefe who have throws out this unjult
and invidious reflection than to his difgrace,.that he was a
philofopher in little things; but caviliers of this defeription
feem to forget that the minute productions of nature dilplay
the great firlt caufe as much as the larget; and they, toe
generally efcape the vulgar eye. Mr. Baker, fays one, of
lis biographers, was ‘* an intelligent, upright, benevelent
man, much refpected by thofe who knew him beit. Bis,
friends were the friends of {cience and virtue ; and it willbe.
always remembered by lis cotemporaries, that no one was
more ready than himfelf to affiit thofe with whom he was
converfant, in their variows refearches and endeavours for
the advancement of knowledge and the benefht of fociety.
After a life induftrioufly devoted to thefe great objects, he
died at his apartments in the Strand, Nov. 25th, 1774. The
buik of his fortune was bequeathed to his only grandfon ;_
and he left 1col. to the Royal Society for an anatomical
or chemical lecture. Biog. Brit. { ‘

Baxer’s Centrul Rule, in Mathematics. See CExTRAL
Rule. sot"

Baxer’s Dozen Jfland:, in Geography, a clufter of iflands
near the eaft fide of Hudfon’s bay, about N. lat. 57° 30’.,
and W. long. 81°. to the weft of an opening which goes
to the eaft and north-eait as far as the fouth-eaft end of
Hudfon’s ftraits. :

BAKERSFIELD, a newly-fettled townthip of Ameri-
ca, in Franklin county, Vermont, formerly in Chittenden
county. L

BAKERSTOWN, lies in Cumberland county, and di-.
ftri&t of Maine, containing 1276 inhabitants ; diltant 162
miles north-eait from Bofton. .

BAKEU, or Bacov, a town of European Turkey, in
the province of Moldavia, 60 miles fouth-welt of Jafly.

BAKEWELL, is an ancient market town of England, .
in the county of Derby. In the Saxon chronicle it is called
Badzcanwyllam ; from which circumitance Mr. Bray conjec-
tures that a bath had been ufed in this place previous to the
year 924, at which time Edward the elder ordered a flrongly
fortified town to be built in the vicinity. The parifh of
Bakewell is the mof extenfive in the county ; its length
from north to fouth being more than twenty miles, and its
breadth upwards of eight. Its number of houfes is 299,
and that of inhabitants 1412. In confequence of the ex-
tent of this parifh, it has nine chapels cf eafe befides the
church in the town. The latter, fituated.on an eminence, —
is an ancient amd handfome ftructure, built in the form of |
a crofs, with an o¢tagonal tower in the centre, fupporting a
lofty {pire. The architeéture of this fabric combines a va-
nety of ftyles. The plain Saxon appears in the nave, and
the arch of the weftern doorway is enriched with zi i;
ornaments ; but the other parts are built in that ityle vith
prevailed in the fifteenth century. Here are fome anci :
and curiovs monuments. In the church yard is a Cathole
ftone crofs, whofe fides are ornamented with a i

t

&

BAK

outed reprefentation of the crucifixion in relief, and other
feulptured figures.

The market was formerly held on a Monday, but it is
now kept on Fridays. Near the entrance of the town
from Afhford is a large mill for the carding, roving, doub-
ling, fpinning, and twifting of cotton; in which manufac-
tory from 300 to 350 perfons of both fexes are con{tantly
employed.
Arkwright, who was the founder of the cotton trade in this
neighbourhood, Between the gritftone and limeftone {trata
about Bakewell, is a thick ftratum of fhale, which being of
an argillaceous nature, and retentive of moilture, renders
the palturage extremely good and thriving. Bakewell is 25
miles north of Derby, and 152 miles north-weft from Lon-
don. About three miles eaft of this town is Chat/worth, a
magnificent feat of the duke of Devonfhire. This celebra-
ted manfion was erected by William the firft duke of De-
vonfhire, in the year 1702. It is built in the Ionic order,
with a flat roof, furrounded by a baluftrade. Its form is
nearly a fquare, of about 190 feet, inclofing a fpacious qua-
drangular court, having a fountain in the centre, with the
flatue of Orpheus. ‘The fronts which form the quadrangle,
are decorated with rich {culptural reprefentations of military
trophies. This manfion is fumptuoufly furnifhed, and embel-
lifhed with carved ornaments by the celebrated Gibbons,
with painted walls and ceilings, with portraits, alfo a col-
le&tion of foffils, &c. The unfortunate Mary, queen of
Scots, was doomed to thirteen years’ captivity in the old
manfion at this place. The park is about nine miles in cir-
cumference, and is diverfified with much grand, piturefque,
and beautiful fcenery. The water-works, which about filty
or fixty years ago gave Chatfworth great celebrity, are flill
preferved near the fouth-ealt and fouth fides of the houfe ;
but they attraé little attention in the midit of fuch a variety
of natural beauties.

About two miles fouth of Bakewell is Haddon Hall,
a truly venerable manfion belonging to his grace the duke
of Rutland. he high turrets and embattlements of this
houfe, when beheld at fome diftance, give it the refemblance
of an ancient fortified caftle. It confifts of numerous apart-
ments and offices, which furround two paved quadrangular
courts. The moft ancient part is the tower of the gateway,
which was probably built about the time of Edward the
Third. The gallery was erefted in the time of queen Eli-
zabeth ; but the chapel was raifed in the reign of Henry
the Sixth. Many of the rooms are very fpacious; and the
doors were concealed behind the hangings of arras, which
muft have been always lifted up for perfons to pafs in and
out. Haddon Hall prefents perhaps a more complete {pe-
cimen of the aneient Englifh baronial manfion, than is to
be found in any other houfe in the kingdom. For a parti-
cular defcription of it fee the Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. iii. p. 494.

At a fhort diftance from Bakewell is A/hford, where are

‘Yome confiderable marble works. Thefe ‘were the firft of
the kind eftablifhed in England, and great quantities of black
and grey marble are fawed and polithed. This operation is
performed by machinery, which is kept in motion by water.
One part, called the {weeping mill from its circular motion,
will work upon, and level a fet of marble flabs of eighty fu-
perficial feet. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. in.

Baxewser Breed, an improved fpecies of fheep, which
have been bred by Mr. Bakewell of Difhleigh. See
SHEEP.

BAKHUYSEN. See Bacxnuysen.

BAKTIAN. See Bacuian. :

BAKING, the art of preparing bread, or of reducing
“a of kind, whether fimple or compound, into bread.

ou. IIf.

This mill was ereéted by the late fir Richard.

BAK

The forms of baking among us may be reduced to two ;
the one for unleavened, the other for leavened bread.

be learned are in great doubt about the time when
baking’ firft became a particular profeffion, and bakers were
introduced. It is generally agreed they had their rife in
the Eaft, and pafled from Greece to Italy after the war
with Pyrrhus, about the year of Rome 583. Till which
time every houfewife was her own baker: for the word
piflor, which we find in Roman authors before that time,
fignified a perfon who ground or pounded the grain in a mill
or mortar to prepare it for baking, as Varro obferves. Accord-
ing to Athenzus, the Cappadocians were the moft applauded
bakers, after them the Lydians, then the Pheenicians.

To the foreign bakers brought into Rome, were added a
number of freedmen, who were incorporated into a body, or,
as they called it, a college ; from which neither they nor
their children were allowed to withdraw.—They held their
effects in common, and could not-difpofe of any part of
them. Wach bake-houfe hada fatronus, who had the fuper-
intendency thereof; and thefe patroni eleGied one out of
their number each year, who had the fuperintendence over
the reft, aud the care of the college. Out of the body of
the bakers, every now and then, one was admitted among the
fenators.

To preferve honour and honefty in the college of bakers,
they were exprefsly prohibited all alliance with comedians
and gladiators ; each had’ his fhop or bakehoufe, and they
were diftributed into fourteen regions of the city. They
were excufed from guardianfhips and other offices, which
might divert them from their employment.

By our own ftatutes, bakers are declared not to be handie
crafts. No man for ufing the mytfteries or fciences of bak-
ing, brewing, furveying, or writing, fhall be interpreted a
handicraft. 22 H. VIII. cap. 13.

The bakers of London make the nineteenth company.
They were incorporated about the year 1307, and confift of
a matter, four wardens, thirty affiftants, and one hundred
and forty-nine on the livery, befides the commonalty. See
Company.

The bakers of London are under the jurifdiGtion of the
lord mayor and aldermen. A penalty is inflicted on bakers
felling at a higher price than is fet by the lord mayor ; and
bakers are to fet their marks on their bread. The affize of
bread is rerulated by feveral ftatutes. See Brean.

The manner of baking at Otaheite, and in many iflands
of the South feas, is as follows. They make fire by rub-
bing the end of one piece of dry wood upon the fide of
another, juit as the carpenters whet a chiffel ; they then dig
a pit in the ground, about half a foot deep, and two or
three yards in circumference; they pave the bottom of it
with large pebble ftones, which they lay very {mooth and
even, and then kindle a fire in it with dry leaves and the
hufks of the cocoa-nut. When the ftones are properly
heated, they take out the embers and rake out the afhes
on every fide, then cover the ftones with a layér of green
cocoa-nut tree leaves, and wrap up the animal that is to be
dreffed, in the leaves of the plantain. If it be a {mall hog,
or dog, they wrap them up whole; if large, they {plit
them. When placed in the pit, they cover it with hot em-
bers, and lay upon them bread-fruit and yams wrapped up
in like manner in the leaves of the plantain. Over thefe
they fpread the remainder of the embers, mixing among
them fome of the hot ftones, with more cocoa-nut tree
leaves and then clofe up°all with earth, fo that the heat is
kept in. After a time proportioned to what is dreffing,
the oyen is opened, and the reat taken out, tender, full of
gravy, and, as captain Wallis thought, better in every re-
{pect than when it is dreffed any other way. Having ne

3Q. veffels

BAL

veffels in thefe iflands that could bear the fire, the inhabit-
ants of them had no idea of hot water, or its effeéts, and
therefore always roafted or baked their meat in the manner
above related. Hawkcfworth’s Account of Voyages in the
Southern Hemifphere, vol. i. p. 484.

Baxine is ufed for the expofing a fubftance, inclofed in
acruft, to the fire. See Daessinc of Meats.

Baxino Porcelain. Sce Porcerains.

BAKON, in, Geography, a large foreft of Hungary,
near Vefprin, where Andrew, king of Hungary, in a battle
with his brother, was forfaken by his followers, and trampled
to death by his enemies.

BAKSAISKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffian Tartary, in
the government of Caucafus, on the wef fide of the Ural ;
32 miles north of Gurica. }

BAKTEGAN, the name of a falt lake of Perfia, about
fifty miles eaft of Shiraz, which receives the rivers of Ku-
ren and Bundamir. It is reprefented in the maps as being
about 40 Britifh miles long, and 10 bread.

BAKU, a town of Perfia, in the province of Shirvan,
on the weft coaft of the Cafpian fea, with a harbour. N.
lat. 40° 25’. E.long. 50° 2'.

The bay of Baku is reckoned the fafeft harbour of the
Cafpian, becaufe fhips may lie there at anchor in feven fa-
thom water; yet in fome places the entrance is dangerous
onaccount of fhallows, iflands, and fand-banks. Baku, like
Derbent, is inhabited by Perfians, Tartars, and fome few
Armenian merchants. The principal articles of export by
which the traffic of this place is chiefly fupported, are the
naphtha, and the fine rock-falt, both of which are colleGted
on the eaft fide of the bay. The inhabitants indeed culti-

-¥ate faffron ard cotton, but not with any confiderable ad-
vantage. The trade of Baku is doubtlefs ‘of more confe-
quence than that of Derbent, though in fact but very con-
fined, and is moftly carried on with Shamachy, whence it
gets filk and filk-fluffs. A Ruffian conful ulually refides
here.

BALA, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors for
the mu/a, or plantain tree; called alfo the banana and ficoides,
by others.

Bata, in Ancient Geography, a city of Pentapolis, fo
called becaufe it was /eallowed up, as the word imports,
when Lot quitted it. It is more ufually denominated
Zohar. ;

Bara, in Geography, a town in the county of Mericneth,
in North Wales, confifting-of one ftreet, with a high arti-
ficial mount, apparently the keep of a fortrefs, at the fouth-
eaft end of it. It is fituated on the eaftern extremity of
the fine lake to which it gives a name, and whofe ‘fifth con-
tribute largely towards the fubfiltence of its inhabitants.
The'fairs and markets are confiderable, and abundantly fup-
plied with the produce of the furrounding country, and
with flannels, gloves, ftockings, &c. In the manufadtory
of the latter articles, the imhabitants of the town and of
the neighbouring villages are conftantly employed.“ Knit-
ting,” obferves Mr. Aakin, “is the general leifure work of

both fexes in Wales, efpecially about Bala; and it cannot
fail of giving flrangers a high idea of the induftry of the
people, to fee the men and women going to market with
burdens on their heads, while their hands are employed in
working the fleeces of their own fheep into articles of drefs,
coarfe indeed, but equally warm and ferviceable with the
more coftly and elaborate manufa€tures.”? Bala is in the
parifh of Lilanycil, a village about one mile from the town.
"Phe whole parith includes a population of 2445. Though
endowed with many valuable privileges, Bala cannot boatt
of any particular or elegant ftructures. It is an incorporated
town by prefcription, and the government is velted in two

BAL

bailiffs and a common council; but neither this nor any

other town in the county has ever fent members to _parlia-

ment. The affizes are kept here and at Dolgelly alter-

nately. Its market is on Saturdays, and here are two fairs

annually. It is 36 miles from Holywell, and 203 from

Longa “ The objedt beit worth notice in this neighbour-
ood is—

“ Bara-Pool, or Pimble-mere, or Llyn-tegyd, which is the
largeft lake in Wales. Its length from N. E. to S. W. is
about four miles, and its breadth in the wideft part is 1209
yards. The water, like that of moft rocky lakes, is fo
pure that the moft delicate chemical tefts deteGed fcareely
any perceivable quantity of foreign admixture. The fouth-
wettern extremity, where three mountain torrents fall into
the pool, is the fhallowelt, owing to the great quantity of
earth and ftones which are borne down in flood time from
the country through which they flow: the gradual aggre-
gations have formed feveral banks and low iflands in this end
of the lake, and in confequece obliged it to encroach proy
portionally on the north-eaftern boundary. This tendency
is further increafed by the prevalence of ftrong wefterly
winds, which drive on the fhore a heavier furf than would
be imagined. When thefe two caufes combine, a cireum-
ftance that not unfrequently happens, the waters rife to fuch
an alarming height, as to threaten the town of Bala with.
an inundation, were it not for a dyke that is raifed on the
fhore: the water being thus obftructed pours over the road
at the extremity of the mound, and difcharges itfelf into
the low grounds through which the Dee flows, doing no
fmall damage to the rich and extenfive paitures. The
lake is well ttocked with excellent fifh, of which the red
trout and the gwyniad are efteemed the molt delicious.
Thefe are all caught by angling from the fhore, for fir W.
Wynre, who claims the property of the whole pool, will
not allow any boats to be kept on it.” The fcenery round
this lake is much admired for its diverfified, wooded, and
rocky charatteriftics. Auikin’s Journal of a Tour through
North Wales, &c.

From the bottom of this lake iffues the river Dee, which
is faid to pafs through it without mingling its waters with
thofe of the lake (fee Abyssinia) ; and pafling under a
romantic old bridge, winds gently in a wide and deep ftream
towards Corwen and Llangollen.

Bala is furrounded with mountains, through which various
roads are formed towards Dinafmowthy, towards Llan-
villing over the Berwin, and towards Llanrwit in the vici-
nage of Snowdon.

BALAAM, in Scripture Biography, the fon of Beor or
Bofor, a prophet or diviner, of the city of Pethor on the
Euphrates. He was fent for by Balak, king of the Moab-
ites, to curfe the Ifraelites; but he pronounced upon them
a bleffing. He was killed, together with Balak, in a battle,
in which the Ifraelites defeated the Midianites, about 1450
years before Chrift. Numb. xxii, xxiii, xxiv. Deut. xxiii.
4. 2Pet.ii. 15. Jude,verf. 11. Rom.ii. 14. It has been a fub-
jet of controverfy, whether Baiaam was a true prophet or
a mere diviner, magician, or fortune-teller, ariolus, as he is
called, Numb. xxii. 5. Origen fays, that his whole power
confifted in magic and curfing. Theodoret is of opinion
that Balaam did not confult the Lord, but that he was fu-
pernaturally infpired, and conftrained to fpeak againit his
own inclination. Cyril fays, that he was a magician, an
idolater, and a falfe prophet, who fpoke truth again{t his.
will; and St. Ambrofe compares him to Caiaphas, who pro-
phefied without being aware of the import of what he faid..

Jerom feems to have adopted the opinion of the Hebrews;
which was, that Balaam knew the true God, ereéted
altars to him, and that he was a true prophet, though cor-

rupted.

me oe

B Ads .

rupted by avarice. Numb. xxii. 18. St. Auftin and other
commentators have inclined to this opinion.

Maimonides thinks, that every thing which happened to
Balaam in the way to Balak, was done in a prophetical vi-
fion. The abbot Jerufalem, and his followers, fuppofe Ba-
Jaam to have been an egregious impoftor, who had acquired
the reputation of being a prophet, and made a public traf-
fic of his diyinatory art. With this view he feigns frequent
confultations with God, and delivers his own ideas for di-
vine oracles. He fuppofes that Mofes inferted the hiftory
of Balaam, as an epilode, from Moabite memoirs, for the
purpofe of obviating prefling difficulties on the fuppofition
that Mofes was the original writer. Dr.Geddes, in confor-
mity to the free fentiments which he had adopted with regard
to the pentateuch, declares it to be his opinion that this
hiftory was written, not by Mofes, but by the compiler of
the pentsteuch, from fuch traditional {tories or fcraps of
written Gccuments as he could find. ‘¢ Indeed,’’ he adds,
it has all the air of a legendary tale.”

The ftory of Balaam’s afs has often beenan object of ridicule
among {ceptics and infidels, The abbot Jerufalem thinks that
it, was all a fiction of Balaam, to fave himfelf from oblo-
quy, if he fhould blefs, inftead of curfing,the Ifraelites.
Dr. Jortin (Six Differtations, Diff. v.) fuppofes, that Ba-
laam was a worthipper of the true God, and a prieft and pro-
phet of great reputation ; and that he was fent for by Balak,
from a notion which generally prevailed, that priefts and pro-

hets could fometimes, by prayers and facrifices duly and
fkilfully applied, obtain favours from God, and that their
imprecations were efficacious. He conceives that the pro-
phet had been accuftomed to revelations, and that he ufed
to receive them in vifions, or in creams of the night. With
regard to the intercourfe between Balaam and_his afs, he con-
jeCtures that it was tranfaéted in a trance or vifion. Accord-
ingly, he admits that an angel of the Lord did, indeed, come
to oppofe Balaam in the way, and fuffered himfelf to be feen
by the beaft, but not by the prophet; that the bealt was ter-
rified, and Balaam {mote it, and immediately fell into a trance
or extacy; and in that ftate of vifion, converfed with the beait
_ firft, andthen with theangel. The angel prefented thefe ob-

jeéts to his imagination, as ftrongly as is they had been before
his eyes; fo that this was flill a miraculous or preternatural
operation. Dr. Geddes fays, that to him there appears nothing
ftrange in the ftory of the afs, but the manner of telling it ;
and it ceafes to be wonderful, when we recolle& the oriental
mode of narrating. Balaam is riding on his afs on as yet
a doubtful errand; the afs ftartles at fomething, and turns
afide from the way; thrufts his mafter’s legs again{t a wall,
and at length falls down under him. All this he takes for
a bad omen, and a fign that his journey is not agreeable to
God. God is thence conceived to be angry with him, and
an imaginary dialogue enfues between God and Balaam, as
had before been fuppofed to be held between Balaam and his
afs. Geddes’s Crit. Remarks, vol. i. p. 394.

BALAAMITES, in Leclefiaftical Hiflory, the name of
a fe@ in the firlt age of Chriftianity, of the fame import in
the Hebrew language with Nicolaitans in the Greek. See
Nicovairans.

BALABAG, in Geography, one of the Philippine, or
rather Bornean iflands, between Borneo and Palawa, near
the fouth-weftern point of the latter ifland. N.lat. 7° 50’.
E. long. 117° 30’.

BALABEA, an ifland near the north-weft end of New
Caledonia. “S.lat. 20° 7’. E. long. 164° 22’.

BALABOLA. See Borezoua.

BALACHNA. See Baraxuna.

BALAD, a town of Afia, in the country of Diarbekir,
iwenty miles north-welt of Moful.

BAL

BALADE, the name of a harbour on the north-weft
coaft of New Caledonia ifland, in the South Pacific ocean,
formed by a reef which runs parallel to the coaft, at the
diftance of three leagues, and near the weflern extremity of
the ifland. S. lat. 20° 15’. Evlong. 164° 40’.

BALJENA, What, in Zoology. Whales are a tribe of
cetaceous creatures, which in external appearance, and cer-
tain habits of life, in their native element, the water, feem
to approach fo nearly to the other kinds of the finny race,
that the earlier writers, who were little acquainted with
their hiftory, and perhaps ftill lefs with their internal ftruc-
ture, may be furcly excufed for configning them to the tribe
of fifhes. To fay nothing of their anatomy, the want of
feet, which is an obvious defect in the whale, was one among
other cogent reafons for retaining it with the latter. Our
countrymen, Ray and Willughby, both include the whales
in their fyttems of ichthyolory; Ray, whofe natural ar-
rangement of the animal tribes deferves no common praife,
divides his fifhes into two principal feGtions, one compre-
hending thofe which have/lungs for refpiration, and the
other, thofe which breathe by means of the gills, and are
truly fifhes. The reafons he offers for including the former
with the fifhes are thefe ; becaufe the form of their bodies
agrees with thofe of fifhes; becaufe they are entirely naked,
or covered only with a fmooth fkin; and becaufe they live
entirely in the water, and have all the aétions of fithes.
Notwithftanding this, Linnzus, whofe accuracy of difcri-
mination an enlightened polterity bid fair to honour and
efteem, has referred them to the mammalia tribe of animals;
a reference extremely jut, but the propriety of which will
not appear fo obvious at the firft glance to the curfory ob-
ferver, as to the accurate anatomift, or indefatigable hiftorian
of nature.

The whale, notwithftanding its fith-like external appear=
ance, and refidence in the waters, has no other claim toa
place among fifhes; for its internal anatomy is precifely the
fame as that of the terreftrial animals, and of the quadruped
tribe in particular. Such is the opinion advanced by that
firft of naturalifts, Linneus ; and fuch is the opinion con-
firmed by the remarks of that able anatomift the late Mr.
Hunter. Ina paper prefented on the anatomy of whales,
to the Royal Society of London, a few years ago by the
latter, it is obferved, that this order of animals has nothing
peculiar to fith, except living in the fame element, and being
endowed with the fame powers of progreffive motion, as
thofe fith which are intended to move with a confiderable
velocity, Although inhabitants of the waters, they belong
to the fame clafs as quadrupeds; breathing air, being fur-
nifhed with lungs, and all other parts peculiar to the econo-
my of that clals, and having warm blood. The projecting
part, or tail, contains the power that produces progreffive
motion, and moves the broad termination, the motion of
which is fimilar to that of an oar in feulling a boat; it fuper-
fedes the neceffity of pofterior extremities, and allows of
the proper fhape for fwimming.~ The tail is flattened hori-
zontally, which is contrary to that of fith ; this pofition of
tail giving the direétion to the animal in the progreffive mo-
tion of the body. The two lateral fins, which are analogous
to the anterior extremities in the quadruped, are commonly
fmall, varying however in fize, and feem to ferve as a kind
of oars. ‘Che element in which they live renders fome parts,
which are of importance in other animals, ufelefs to them ;
gives to fome parts a different action, and rerjders others of
lefs account. The larynx, fize of the trachea, and number
of ribs differ exceedingly. The coecum is only found in
fome of them. The teeth in fomeare wanting. The blow-
holes are two in number in many; in others only one.
The bones alone, in many animals, when properly united

§Qz2 inte

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into what is called the fkeleton, give the general fhape and
charaéter of the animal. Thus a quadruped is diltinguifhed
from a bird, and even one quadruped from another; it only
requiring a fkin to be thrown over the fkeleton to make the
fpecies known. But this is not fo decidedly the cafe in this
order of animals, for the fkeleton in them does not give the
true fhape. An immenfe head, a {mall neck, few ribs, and in
many a fhort fternum, and no pelvis, with a long pine, ter-
minating ina point, require more than a fin being laid over
them in order to give the regular and characterillic form of
the animal. The ftru@ture of the bones is fimilar to that of
the bones of quadrupeds; they are compofed of an animal
fubfance, and an earth that is not animal; they are lefs
compaét than thofe of quadrupeds that are fimilar to them.
From thefe and other obfervations we may infer, that the
ftru@ture, formation, arrangement, and union of the bones,
which compofe the forms of parts in this order of animals,
are much upon the fame principle as in quadrupeds. The
fleth and mufcles of this order of animals are red, refembling
thofe of quadrupeds, and perhaps more like thofe of the bull
or horfe than any other animal.

The Linnean definition of the mammalia clafs, having a
heart with two auricles and two ventricles, and the blood
warm and red, applies moft ftrictly to the whale. “The
heart,’ Mr. Hunter fays, ‘ is inclofed in its pericardium,
which is attached by a broad furface to the diaphragm, as
in the human body. It is compofed of four cavities, two
auricles, and two ventricles; it is more flat than in the qna-
druped, and adapted to the fhape of the cheft. The auricles
have more fafciculi, and thefe pafs more acrofs the cavity
from fide to fide, than in many other animals; befides being
very mufcular, they are very elaftic, for being ftretched they
contraét again very confiderably. There is nothing uncom-
mon or particular in the ftru@ure of the ventricles, in the
valves of the ventricles, or in that of the arteries.” In their
amours and mode of producing their young, the whales agree
with other creatures of the mammalia tribe; and like them
they have teats, and fuckle them.

The balena genus is diftingnifhed, according to Linneus,
by having horny laminz in the fuperior jaw inftead of teeth,
and a double refpiratory orifice on the ‘tipper part of the
head. By thefe chara&ers the tre whales may be diftin-
guifhed from the other genera of cetaceous animals, as the
monodon, phyfeter, and delphinus. The hiftory of the
whales will be confidered under the refpeétive f{pecies, of
which Linnzusand Gmelin deferibe the following : Mysti-
ceTus (common whale), Puysaxus (fin-fith), Boors (pike-
headed whale}, Grzsosa(bunched whale), Muscu Lus(round
lipped whale), and Rosrrara (beaked whale). The French
naturalifts diftinguifh two other fpecies; Virey fpeaks of la
baleine Franche, or baleine de Groenland (B. mytticetus
Linn.), le nord caper, or baleine d’Irlande (balena glacialis
Bonn.), le gibbar, or finn-fifch (fin-fifh Eng. and balzena
phyfalus Linn.), la baleine tampon (balena nodofa Bonn.),
la Jubarte (bakena boops L'nn.), le rorqual (balena mufeu-
Ins Linn.), and la baleine a bec (balena roftrata Linn.)

In concluding thefe remarks on the whale tribe, ve cannot
avoid adverting to the Britifh Zoology of Mr. Pennant, in
which thefe and the other cetaceous animals found on our
coalts are admitted under the title of ce:aceous fifhes; he
follows the arrangement propofed by Ray, and feems to ob-
je& chiefly to that of Linneus, becaufe “to have preferved
the chain of beings entire,”’ he fays, Linneus “ fhould have
made the genus of phocz, or feals, and that of trichecus or
manati, immediately precede the whale, thofe being the links
that conneé&t the mammalia or quadrupeds with the fith; for
the feal is, in refpe& to its legs, the moft imperfe&t of the
former elafs, aad inthe manati the hind Jeet coalefce, affum-

i-

BAL

ing the form of a broad horizontal tail.’? Brit. Zool. vol. iit:

M. Bloch excludes the whales, and other cetaceous crea-
tures, except the marfoin or porpoife, from his work on
fifhes; but thefe are included in one of the fmaller editions of
the work, in the “ feventh clafs, les cétacées.”’ Ina prefatory
note we are informed, however, that Linnzus places thefe at
the conclafion of the mammalia, immediately after the hog-
tribe; but as it might be agreeable to give the entire clafsia
which the large{t animals which nature produces are arranged,
the omiffion of Bloch is fupplied from Duhamel, with the af-
fiftance of Anderfon, Bonaterre, Artedi, Ray, and Belon.

BALZENAE, in Natural Hiflory, a fpecies of Ecuin-
ORHYNCHUS, that infefts the inteftines of the whale. Phips.
It. Gmelin.

BALANARIS, in Conchology, a {pecies of Leras, hav-
ing a fubeonic fhell, with fix elevated rugofe four-parted
lobes, and a membranaceous bidentated operculum. Miuill.
Found adhering to the peétoral fins and wrinkles of balena
boops, or pike-headed whale.

BALANARUM, in Entomology, a {pecies of Puaran-
cium (Pycnogonum Fabr.), with two -feelers and an ovate
body. Gmel. This is phalangium littorale of Stroemfundm,;
pediculus ceti, Bafter; pycnogonum littorale Fabr. fn.
Groenl.; and acarus marinus feu polygonopus of Pallas.
Inhabits European feas, lurking under itones. Back red;
fucker advanced, ftraight, obtule at the end, with a round
perforation; feelers about as long as the fucker, and inferted
near its bafe.

BALAGANSKOI, in Geography, a town of Siberia, on
the Angara, 30 miles W.N.W. of Irkutfk. N. lat. 53° 45’.
E. long. ro3° 14’.

BALAGAT, or Batuia-Gaut, a province of the
Deccan, in the Indian peninfula. It isa tra naturally very
ftrong, particularly on the welt fide towards the fea, where
a ftupendous wall of mountains, called the Gauts, rifes
abruptly from the lew country, called the Concan, or
Cockun, fupporting, in the nature of a terrace, a vaft extent
of fertile and populous plains, which are fo much elevated,
as to render the air cool and pleafant- ‘This elevated tra&
is continued not only through the Mahratta territories, but
extends through the peninfula to the fouthern extreme of
Myfore, and is named Balla-Gaut, throughout its whole ex-
tent; meaning literally the Higher or Upper Gauts ; or per-
haps more correctly the countries lying above or below the
Gauts. In the peninfula, it is applied in contradiftin€&tion
to Payen-Gaut, or the Lower Gauts; but in the Deccan, it
appears to be ufed only as a proper name, and not as a cor-
relative; as we have never heard of the Deccan Payen-Gaut.
Rennell’s Mem. Introd. p.127. ,

As a province, it was formerly the largeft of the three
which compofed the northern Deccan, bounded onthe north
by Candifh and Berar; onthe eaft by Tellinga; on the weft
by Baglanaand part of Guzerat; andon the fouth by Vifia-
pore. ‘This province, after it fell into the hands of the Mo-
guls, affumed the name of Dowlatabad, from its former Capi-
tal. Itisa fruitful pleafant country, abounding with cotton
and fugar. Its chief city is Aurungabad.

BALAGUER, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, feated
on the north bank of the river Segra, at the foot of a high
hill. N.lat. 41° 38’. E.long. 0° 48’.

BALAKEF, a diftri& of the government of Saratof, in
Roffia, on the river Khoper.

BALAKHNA, or Baracuna, a town of Ruffia, ina
diftri&t of the fame name, being one of the thirteen diltricts
of Nefhnei Novogorod, on the right fide of the Volga.
The town was built in 1536, and contains 767 timber
houfes, and 1489 inhabitants. It trades to St. Peterfburg:
tranfports and falt, conftructs fifhing-boats. It has one

monatterys

&
é
4
NM
4

BAL

monattery, five brick, and ten timber churches, N, lat. 56°
go’. E. long. 45° 5’.

BALAKLAVA, a fithing town of Crim Tartary, or
Taurida, containing about 200 houfes, and feated ona bay of
the Black or Euxine fea, in N. lat. 44° 35’. E.long 33° 14’.
The bay forms a harbour; which, in the imperial proclama+
tion declaring Theodofia and Eupatoria free ports, is de-
barred from navigation.

b: BALAKZEL, in Ornithohgy, the Turkifh name of the
eron.

BALALAIKA, in Mufc, a mufical inftrument of the
bandour kind, of very ancient Sclavonian origin; it is in
common ufe both with the Ruffians and Tartars; according
to Nicbuhr, it is alfo frequent in Egypt and Arabia. The
body of it is an oblong femicircle, about a {pan in length,
with a neck or finger-board of four fpans. It is played on
with the fingers lke the bandour or guitar; but has only
two wires, one of which gives a monotonous bafs, and by
the other the piece is produced. Under the touch of able
fingers, accompanied by a good voice, it founds agreeably
enough; and therefore it is not unfrequently feen in the
hands of people of fafhion.

BALAMBANGAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Ealtern Pacific ocean, near the northern point of Borneo,
between this ifland and Palawa, remarkable for a fettlement
attempted by the Englifh in 17733 but evacuated either on
account of the unhealthy climate, or of a Dutch invafion,
N. lat. 7° 10’. E.long. 117°.

BALAMBUAN, or Paramsuan, the name ofa diftriG
or territory on the eaft part of the ifland of Java, which
produces pepper, cotton, rice, Indian corn, and fruit in
great gents, and which abounds with paftures that feed a
great number of horfes, antelopes, buffaloes, and oxen. The
capital, which is a ftrong trading town, is of the fame name.
S. lat. 7° 10’. E. long. 115° 30’.

Baramsuan Channel. See Barut.

BALAMIUS, Ferpinanp, in Biography, born in the
ifland of Sicily, about the middle of the fixteenth century,
not lefs celebrated for his accomplifhments in polite litera-
ture, and his {kill in the Greek language, than for his know-
ledge of medicine, was greatly efteemed by pope Leo X.
to whom he was phyfician. He publithed in 1556, at Lyons,
© De cibis.boni et mali fucci,’’ tranflated from the works of
Galen; alfo “Galeni liber de offibus, ad Tyrones;” 8vo. re-

ublifhed at Frankfort, in fol. with obfervations by Gafpar
Pe t.. 1630. The above are inferted in the edition of
Galen’s works, publifhed by the Juntas, 1586, fol. Since
his death the following was printed at Roftoch: ‘“ De op-
tima corporis noftri conftitutione ;””? “ De bona valetudine;”’
“ De hyrudinibus, cucurbitula, &c.” 1636, 8vo. Haller
Bib. Med. Pra&. Eloy Di&. Hitt.

BALAM PULLI, in Botany,a name ufed by fome
authors for the tree whofe fruit is the tamarind of the
fhops.

BALANCE, or Bariance, Libra, in Mechanics, one
of the feven fimple powers, or rather a fpecies of that me
chanical power called the lever, ufed principally for deter-
mining the equality or difference of weights in heavy bo-
dies, and confequently their mafles or quantities of matter.

The balance is of two kinds, viz. the ancient and modern.
The ancient or Roman, called alfo fatera Romana, or ftecl-
yard, confifts of a lever or beam, moveable on a centre, and
fufpended near one of its extremes; on one fide the centre
are applied the bodies to be weighed, and their weight is
eftimated by the divifion marked on the beam, on the other
fide, where a weight moveable along it keeps the balance
in equilibrio. See Sreer-Yaap.

The modern balance, now ordinarily in ufe, confifts of a

BAL:

lever, or beam, fufpended exaCily by the middle ; to the ex.
tremes whereof are hung fcales or bafons.

In each cafe, the beam is called the jugum, and the two
moieties thereof on each fide the axis, the brachia, or arms;
and the handle whereby it is held, trutina; the line on
which the beam turns, or which divides its brachia, is called
the axis; and when contidered with regard to the length of
the brachia, is efteemed but a point, and called the centre of
the balance; and the places where the weights are applied,
the points of fifpenfion, or application. —That {lender part per-
pendicular to the jugum, by which either the equilibrium, or
preponderancy of bodies is indicated, is called the tongue of
the balance.

In the Roman balance, therefore, the weight ufed fora
counterbalance ia the fame, but the points of application are
various; in the common balance, the counterpoife is various,
and the point of application the fame.

‘The principle on which each is founded is the fame, and
may be conceived from what follows.

Barance, Dodiriae of the.—The beam AB (Plate Me-
chanics, fig. 8.) the principal part of the balance, is a lever of
the firft kind, which, initead of refting on a fulcrum at C, its
centre of motion, is fufpended by fomewhat faftened to the
centre C: fo that the mechani{m of the balance depends on
the fame theorem as that of the lever..

Hence, as the known weight is to the unknown, fo is the
diftance of the unknown weight from the centre of motion
to the diftance of the known weight, where the two weights
will counterpoife each other; confequently, the known
weights fhew the quantity of the unknown,

Or thus: the aftion of a weight to move a balance is by
fo much greater, as the point prefled by the weight is more
diftant from the centre of the balance; and that aétion fol-
lows the proportion of the diftance of the faid point from
that centre. "When the balance moves about its centre, the
point B defcribes the arch Bé (fig.9.); whilft the point
A defcribes the arch Aa, which 1s the largeft of the two:
therefore in the motion of the balance, the ation of the
fame weight is different, according to the point to which it
is applied; hence it follows, that the proportion of the fpace
gone through by the point at A is as Aa, and at B as Bé,
but thofe arches are to one another as CA, CB.

Baxancé, Varieties in the Application of the.—If the brachia
of a balance be divided into equal parts, one ounce applied
to the ninth divifion from the centre, will equiponderate with
three ounces at the third; and two ounces at the fixth divi-
fion aét as ftrongly as three at the fourth, &c.

Hence it follows, that the ation of a power to move a ba-
lance is in a ratio compounded of the power itfelf, and its
diftance from the centre; for that diftance is as the fpace
gone through in the motion of the balance.

It may be here obferved, that the weight equally preffes
the point of fufpenfion at whatever height it hangs from it,
and in the fame manner as if it was fixed at the very point:
for the weight at all heights equally ftretches the cord by
which it hangs.

A balance is faid to be in equilibrio, when the actions
of the weights upon the brachia to move the balance are
equal, fo as mutually to deftroy each other. When a ba-
lance is in equilibrio, the weights on each fide are faid
to equiponderate: unequal weights may alfo equiponde-
rate; but then the diftances from the centre muft be re-
ciprocally as the weights. In which cafe, if each weight
be multiplied by its diftance, the products will be equal;
which is the foundation of a fteel-yard, which fee.

Thus in a balance whofe brachia are very unequal, a
fcale hanging at the fhorteft, and the longeft divided in-
to equal parts; if fuch a weight be applicd to it, as z

the

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the firft divifion fhall equiponderate with one ounce in
the feale; and the body to be weighed be put in the
feale, and the above mentioned weight be moved along
the longeft brachium, till the equilibrium be found; the
number of divifions between the body and the centre fhews
the number of ounces that the body weighs, and the
{ubdivifions the parts of an ounce. On the fame princi-
ple alfo is founded the deceitful balance, which cheats by
the inequality of the érachia: for inttance, take two fcales
of unequal weights, in the proportion of g to 10, and
one of them at the tenth divifion of the balance above
defcribed, and another at the ninth divifion, fo that there
may be an equilibrium; if then you take any weights,
which are to one another as g to 10, and put the firit
in the firft feale, and the fecond in the other feale, they
will equiponderate. 3

But it is eafy to difcover the deceit of a falfe balance by
changing the weights that are in equilibrio to the contrary
{cales ; and thus the owner of the balance mutt either con-
fefs the fraud, or add to the commodity fold by means cf
fuch a balance, not only the quantity by which it was defici-
ent, but alfo as much as he intended to gain by the fraud,
and a fraction of that added weight proportional to the ine-
quality of the arms of the balance. In this cafe, the buyer,
inftead of g]b offered to him for 1off his due, will have by
changing the feales, 115 pounds. Tor 9:10 :: 10: 115.

Several weights, hanging at feveral diftances on one fide,
‘may equiponderate with a fingle weight on the other fide :
to do this it is required, that the product of that weight, by
its diftance from the centre, be equal to the fum of tlie pro-
duéts of all the other weights, each being multiplied by its
diftance from the centre.

To demonftrate which, hang three weights of an ounce
each, at the fecond, third, and fifth divifions from the cen-
tre, and they will equiponderate with the weight of one fin-
gle ounce applied to the tenth divifion of the other drachium ;
and the weight of one ounce at the fixth divilion, and
another of three ounces at the fourth divifion will equi-
ponderate with a weight of two ounces on the other fide
at the ninth divifion.

Several weights unequal in number on either fide, may
equiponderate: in this cafe if each of them be multiplied
by its diltance from the centre, the fums of the products
on either fide will be equal; and if thofe fums be equal,
there will be an equilibrium.

To prove which, hang on a weight of two ounces at the
fifth divifion, and two others, each of one ounce, at the fe-
cond and feventh ; and on the other fide hang two weights,
each alfo of one ounce, at the ninth and tenth divifions;
and thefe two will equiponderate with thofe three. A ba-
lance of this kind, the arms of which are equally divided,
has been fometimes called an arithmetical balance ; becaufe
the arithmetical operations of addition, fubtra¢tion, multi-
plication, and the rule of three, may be ealily performed by it,

E. g. To. add the numbers 2, 3, and 7; apply an ounce
weight at the fecond divifion, and another on the fame arm
at the third, and another at thefeventh, then take an ounce
weight, and move it along the other arm, till the beam is in
equilibrio, which will be at the twelfth divifion; fo that
2+3-+-7=12.

To fubtrad 5 from 12; hang an ounce weight at one end
‘of the arm at 12 inches, and another at the other end at 5;
then move a third ounce weight along the arm till the equi-
librium is reftored, and it will be found at the feventh divi-
fion, which gives 12—5=7. ;

To multiply 4 by 3; fufpend a four ounce weight at the
third divifion on one arm, and move an ounce weight on the

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other, till the beam be in equilibrio, and it will mark out
12>=4 .

To divide 12 by 43 fufpend an ounce at the twelfth divi-
fion, and move a four ounce weight on the other arm, till
there is an equilibrium, and it will be found at the quotient
3= 12. s’Gravefande, Phyfices Elem, Math. vol. i. p. 50.

To the juftnefs of a balance it is required, that the points
of fufpenfion be exaétly in the fame iine as the centre
the balance; that they be precifely equidiftant from that
centre on either fide; that the brachia be as long as conve-
niently they may, in relation to their thiclenest and the
weight which they are intended to fupport; that there be
as little friction as poffible in the motion of the beam and
fcales; and laftly, that the centre of gravity of the beam
be placed a little below the centre of motion.

We fhall bere add fome further obfervations, which may
ferve to illuftrate thefe properties of a good balance, and
which deferve attention in the conftruction of this inftrument
for purpofes that require peculiar accuracy. The balance
is properly a lever, whofe axis of motion is formed with an
edge like that of a knife, and the two difhes or {cales at its
extremities are hung upon edges of the fame kind, which
are firft made fharp, and then rounded with a fine hone, or
a piece of buff leather. On the regular form of this
rounded part the excellence of the-inftrument very much
depends. When the lever, or beam of the balance, is
confidered as a mere line, the two outer edges are called
points of fufpenfion, and the inner the fulcrum. The points of
fufpenfion are fuppofed to be at equal diftances from the
fulcrum, and to be preffed with equal weights when loaded.
1. If the fulcrum be placed in the centre of gravity of the
beam, and the three edges be all in the fame right line, the
beam of the balance will have no tendency to one pofition
more than another, but will reft in any pofition in which it
may be placed, whether the fcales be on or off, empty or
loaded. 2. If the centre of gravity of the beam, when le-
vel, be immediately above the fulcrum, it will overfet by the
f{malleft ation; that is, the end which is loweft will defcend;
and it will do this with the greater velocity, in proportion
as the center of gravity is higher, and the points of fufpen-
fion are lefs loaded. 3. But if the center of gravity of the
beam be immediately below the fulcrum, the beam will not
reft in any pofition but when level; and, if difturbed from
that pofition, and then left at liberty, it will vibrate, and at
laft come to reft in an horizontal pofition. Jts vibrations
will be quicker, and its horizontal tendency ftronger, the

lower the centre of gravity, and the lefs the weight upon the ©

points of fufpenfion. 4. If the fulcrum be below the Jine
joining the points of fufpenfion, and thefé be loaded, the
beam will overfet, unlefs prevented by the weight of the
beam tending to produce an horizontal pafition, as in the
third cafe. In this laft cafe fmall weights will equilibrate,
as in the laft cafe; acertain exact weight will reft in any po-
fition of the beam, asin the firft cafe; and all greater weights
will caufe the beam to overfet, asin the fecond cafe. Mo-
ney fcales are often made this way, and will overfet with any
confiderable load. 5. If the fulcrum be above the line
joining the points of fufpention, the beam will come to the
horizontal pofition, unlefs prevented by its own weight, as
in the fecond cafe. If the centre of gravity be nearly in
the fulcrum, all the vibrations of the loaded beam will be
made in times nearly equal, unlefs the weights be very fmall,
when they will be flower. The vibrations of balances are
quicker, and the horizontal tendency ftronger, the higher
the fulcrum. When the fulernm, or centre of motion C,
(fee fg-10.) is in the right line joining the centres of ful-
penfion, it is evident that the equilibrium of equal weights,
e.g. Pand W, will obtain in every pofition; for the perpen-

diculars

BAL

diculars let fall from C upon the direétions will be always
equal to each other. But when C is above or below WP,
an equilibrium of equal weights does not occur, unlefs WP
coincide with the horizontal line AB. In this cafe, the
erpendiculars let fall from C upon the direétions of W and
b, are equal to GB and GA, CG being perpendicular to
AB; but when the balance is in any other pofition WP, the
erpendicular CL is greater than CH, becaufe g L, which
is lefs than CI, is equal to eM, which is greater toan CH.
W will theretore defeend and continue to vibrate till its mo-
tion be deftroyed by friGtion. (See Lever.) . If P and W be
unequal, andC be inthe right line WP, the heavier of them
will defcend till WP be perpendicular to the horizon, or,
if the center of motion be not in WP, till Px CH=W x CI.
It is evident from what has been faid, that the nearer the
centre of gravity of the beam is to the centre of motion,
the nicer will be the balance, and the flower its vibrations :
thus, if aCbe (jig. 11.) be the beam, and C the center of
motion, the difference between the effects of having the
centre of gravity at K, or c, will be the fame as if we
compared the velocities of two pendulums, of the length
CK and Cc, which are in a fubduplicate ratio of their
lengths. The tendency to an horizontal pofition is, there-
fore, increafed by lowering the center of gravity, in which
cafe it will alfo require a greater additional weight to caufe
it to turn or incline to any given angle, and itis confequently
lefs fenfible with a greater load. The fixing of the centre
of motion in a balattce is, therefore, of peculiar importance,
for on this depends the eafe with which it will be affected by
_afmaller weight ; and the readinefs with which it will return
to its horizontal pofition: and it is evident, that the beft
pofition is that in which the centre of motion is a little above
the centre of gravity ; and even in this it fhould be propor-
tioned to the diftance of the weights from the fulcrum, and
the quantity of matter to be weighed, which, io different
beams, can only be attained by the practice and experience
of the maker.

It has already appeared, that if the arms of a balance be
unequal, the weights in equipoife will be unequal in the fame
proportion. But it fhould be obferved, that though the
equality of the arms of a balance is ufeful in the making of
weights by bife€tion, a balance with unequal arms will
weigh as accurately as another with equal arms, provided
the ftandard weight itfelf be firft counterpoifed, then taken
out of the fcale, and the thing to be weighed be put into
the feale, and adjufted againft the counterpoife: or, when
proportional quantities only are confidered, the bodies under
examination may be weighed again{t the weights, taking
care always to put the weights in the fame fcale; for then,
though the bodies may not be really equal to the weights,
yet their proportions to one another will be the fame as if
they had been accurately equal to them. However, it is
indilpenfably neceflary that their relative lengths fhould con-
tinue invariable. For.this purpofe it is neceffary either that
the three edges be all truly parallel, or that the points of
fufpenfion and fupport fhould be always in the fame part of
the edge, which laft requifite is moft eafily obtained.

If a beam be adjufted fo as to have no tendency to any
one pofition, as in cafe 1. above tated, and the fcales be
equally loaded ; then, if a {mall weight be added in one of
the {cales, that balance will turn, and the points of fufpen-
fion will move with an accelerated motion, fimilar to that of
falling bodies, but as much flower in proportion, very near-
ly, as the added weight is lefs than the whole weight borne
by the fulcrum. The ftronger the tendency to an horizontal
pofition in any balance, or the quicker its vibrations (fee
cafes 3. and 5.), the greater additional weight will be re-
quired to caufe it to turn or incline to any given angle. If

BAL

a balance were to turn with the ten thoufandth part of the
weight, it would move at the quickeft 10,000 times flower
than a falling body; that is, the difh containing the weight,
inftead of falling through fixteen feet in a fecond of time,
would fall through only two hundredth part of aninch, and
it would require four feconds to move through one third
part of an inch; confequently, all accurate weighing muft
be flow.

Long beams have been generally recommended ; becaufe
the quantity of motion in a given body varies as its diftance
from the-fuicrum; and, therefore, the greater the diftance,
the more diltinguifhable will be the motion arifing from any
{mall difference between, e.g. Pand W. Long beams are
alfo thought to haye lefs fri€tion; but this has been doubted.
And it has been remarked, that the quicker angular motion,
greater ftrensth, and lefs weight of a fhort balance, are cers
tain advantages. :

The index that is placed perpendicularly to the beam of a
balance, in « ‘der to afcertain its pofition, affects its equili-
brium, except it be in an horizontal fituation ; the momen-
tum of the index being meafured by its weight multiplied
into the diftance of its centre of gravity, from a line per-
pendicular to the horizon But the error that would arife
from hence is corre“ted by continuing the index, or placing
a weight on the oppofite fide of the beam. The feales of
a balance fhould be fufpended in fuch a manner, that in all
pofitions the ftrings of the fcales may be parallel to one an-
other; otherwife the weights, though equal, will not be in
equilibrio.

Very delicate balances are not only ufeful in nice experi-
ments, but they are much more expeditious than others in
common weighing. Ifa pair of {cales, with a certain load,
be barely fenfible to th of a grain, it will require a confi-
derable time to afcertain the weight to that degree of accu-
racy, becaufe the turn muft be obferved feveral times, and
it is very fmall. But if no greater accuracy were required,
and fcales were ufed which would turn with the hundredth
of a grain, a tenth of a grain, more or lefs, would make
fo great a difference in the turn, that it would be feen im-
mediately. A degree of fenfibility may be given to a ba-
lance, that turns with a certain addition, but is not moved
by any fmaller weight, by producing a tremulous motion in
its parts. Thus, if the edge of a blunt faw, a file, orother
fimilar inflrument, be drawn along any part of the cafe or
fupport of a balance, it will produce a jarring, which will
diminifh the fri&ion in the moving parts fo much, that the
turn will be evident with one third or one fourth of the ad-
dition that would elfe have heen required. In this way a
beam which would only turn by the addition of a tenth of a
grain, willturn with the thirtieth or fortieth of a grain.
In order to regulate the horizontal tendency in fome beams,
the fulcrum is placed below the points of fufpenfion, and a
fliding-weight is put upon the ftyle or index, by means of
which the centre of gravity may be raifed or lowered.

Mr. Nicholfon, of whofe obfervations on the properties
of the balance we have availed ourfelves in the preceeding
part of this article, has recommended the following fet of
weights, as proper to accommpany it, when it is applied
to chemical and fimilar purpofes: viz. 1000 grains,
goo g. 800 g. "cog. 600 g. 500g. 400g. 300g. 200g.
100g. 90g. 80g. Jog. Gog. SOg. 408. 30g: 208.
tog. 9g. 8g. 7g. 6g. 5g. 48- 3g- 2g. 1§- xo Es
fs 8 xo 8 vo8: YoS: ros: rok ro8- reS- rs58-
ric 8: ros 8- 1508: té08- ro98- ré0 8+ ros S: reo 8
With thefe the philofopher will always have the fame.
number of weights in his feales as there are figures in the
number exprefling the weights in grains. Mr. Nicholfon

fubjoins an account of fome balances, which have been con-
ftruted

BAL

ftruéted by different perfons for nice experiments. The
firft he mentions is that of Mufchenbroek, which turned
with 3 of a grain, and which weighed to 7.5.5, part of
the whole ; afcertaining fuch weights truly to four places
of figures. In the Philof. Tranf. vol. Ixvi. p. 50. we
have mention of two accurate balances of Mr. Bolton; one
of which would weigh a pound, and turn with , of a
grain, and give the ~,3.,, of the weight ; and the other
weighed } an ounce, and turned with the +3, of a grain,
or the azgam Of the weight. Mr. Read’s balance men-
tioned in p. 511. of the fame volume, turned with lefs than
a penny-weight, and even with four grains, when loaded
with fifty-five pounds, i. e. about 5,355 of the weight, and
which might be relied on to five places of figures. Mr.
Whitehurit’s balance (Ibid. p. 576.) weighs one penny
weight, and is fenfibly affeed with ,,4, of a grain, i. €.
syive part of the weight. | Mr. Nicholfon’s balance, with
1200 grains in each feale, turns with 5‘, of a grain, or
‘exéuo Of the whole. ‘This balance, he fays, will ferve to
determine all weights between 100 grains, and 4000 grains
to four places of figures. Mr. Alchorne’s (mentioned
Ibid. vol. Ixxvii. p. 205) is true to three grains with 1515
an end; and hence the weight is known to —+.. part, or
to four, or barely five places of figures. ‘The balance of
Dr. George Fordyce, made by Mr. Ramfden, mentioned in
Ixxvth volume of the Phil. Tranf. when loaded with four or
five ounces, fhewed a difference of 74,5 of a grain, or
syisss part of the weight. Mr. Magellan’s would bear
ieveral pounds, and fhew ;4, of a grain, with one pound an
end. This is the -,2,5 of the weight and anfwers to five
figures. The Royal Society’s balance, lately made by Mr.
Ramfden, turns on fteel edges upon planes of polifhed
cryftal, and afcertainsa weight to the feven millionth part,
and may be ufed in general practice to determine weights
to five places and better. ‘To which we may add, that the
balance ufed by count Rumford, in his experiments for af-
sertaining the weight afcribed to heat (Phil. ‘Tranf. for
1799. part il.), ferved, as he informs us (p. 187.), to mea-
fure y>s555 of the weight which he examined. Nichol-
fon’s Chemiftry, c. vi. Parkinfon’s Syftem of, Mechanics,
&c. p.134, &c. Defaguliers’s Exp. Phil. vol.i. p. 140, &e.

Mr. Ludlam has contrived a balance of a new conftruc-
tion for the woollen manufaGtures. Their thread is made
into fkains of the fame length; and the finenefs of it is de-
nominated from the number of fkains which go toa pound ;
the coarfeft being about twelve to the pound, and the fineft
near fixty. This machine 1s defigned for weighing the
fkains, in order to determine their refpeétive finenefs. It
refembles the beam of a common pair of fcales; at one end
of it is fixed a weight, called a counterpoife, and at the other
end ahook; in forting, the fkain to be examined is put
upon the hook, and finks down more or lefs, according to
its weight, till the counterpoife, by rifing, balances it: then
the index or cock of the beam, points out on a graduated
arch the number of fkains of that fort which goesto the pound.

A {cale, inftead of the hook, might be ufed for weighing
money, if the arch were properly divided for that purpofe.
See a drawing of this machine and the explanation of the
theory of it, in Phil. Tranf. vol. lx. N°25, p.205.

The bent-lever balance, is a balance (fig. 12.) which aéts
by a fixed weight C, increafing in power as it afcends along
the arc #'G of a circle, and pointing by an index to the
number or divifion of the are which denotes the weight of
any body put into the feale £. With this inftrument, one
conftant weight ferves to weigh all others, by only varying
the pofition.of the arms of the balance, inftead of varying
the places or points of fufpenfion in the arms themfelves.

The following property of the balance was firft fug-

difhes are put into the fcales.

BAL

gefted by Dr. Helfham (fee his Courfe of LeGures in Na-
tural Philofophy, publifhed by Dr. Robinfon, p. 91), com-
municated by him to Dr. Defaguliers (fee his Courfe of
Experimental Philofophy, vol.1. p. 152.), and publifhed in
the Phil. Tranf. for 1729. The property is this, that if
a man ftanding in one fcale and counterpoifed by a weight
in the other, lays his hand to any part of the beam, and
prefles it upwards, he will deftroy the equilibrium and cavfe
the feale in which he itands to preponderate. “Thus, if a
man, whofe weight is equal to W, ftanding in one feale and
in equilibrio with P placed in the other (fiz.8.), prefs the
beam upwards in D with a force equal to 9, the diminution
of /¥’s momentum is equal to Qx FD; and becaufe the
re-action at the feale is equal to Q, the increafe of W’s mo-
mentum is equal to 9x FA, and confequently W will de-
fcend with a force equal to Qx AD. I the preffure’ be
upwards at Z, JV will defcend with a force refultin

from this preflure, equal to 9x EF, and from the re-aétion
with a force equal to 2x FA; and, therefore, the whole
force of defcentis equal to Qx EA. Thus, alfo, if the
preflure be downwards at D, the increafe of /’’s momentum
is equal to Q x FD, and the diminution of its momentum
=Qx FA; and, confequently, W will afcend with a force
equal to 7x DA. If the preflure be downwards at Z, the
diminution of //’s momentum, or the increafe of P’s mo-
mentum, is equal to Q X EF, and a part, Q, of Ws weight
being transferred to £, the diminution of its momentum, on
that account, is equal to Qx FA, and confequently the
whole diminution of 7”’s momentum, or force of P’s afcent
is equal to O x EA. 7

Barance of the Air, is ufed to denote the weight of that
fluid, whereby, according to its known property, it preffes
where it is leait refifted, till it be equally adjufted in all parts.

Barance, Afay, is a nice balance ufed in determining the
exaGt weight of minute bodies. Its ftru€ture is very little
different from that of the common fort ; except that it is
made of the belt ftecl, and fitted for moving with the fmall-
eft weight.

The beam of this balance is fufpended in a fork, the two
legs of which are fteel {prings joined at the top, but kept
together below with a brafs pliant clafp, parallel to one ano-
ther, and at the diftarce of 23 lines. When this clafp is
taken off, and the legs of the fork ftretched out, the axis oF
the beam may be put into two holes at the ends of the legs,
or removed from them. A fharp needle is fixed in the head
of the fork, which ftands perpendicularly, when the fork is
fufpended, and is fo long, as almoft to touch the top of the
tongue of the beam put into the fork when in equilibrio.
This needle is the telt or mark of the equilibrium ; and for
the convenience of obferving it, the legs of the fork are
broader in that place, and have an opening two or three lines
wide. Two fcales made of a thin plate of filver, 14 inch in
diameter, fufpended on three fmall filken itrings, almoft as
Jong as the beam, and tied together at the top with a filver
hook in the form of an S, are hung te the extremities of the
beam ; and to each of thefe fcales belongs a {mall difh of
filver or blued fteel, fomewhat lefs than one inch in diameter,
and both of equal weight ; the bodies to be weighed are put
into thefe difhes, with a pair of pincers, or with a fpoon, or
{mall fhovel, when they are pounded; and then the
The balance is fufpended on
a moveable brafs or copper fupport, confifting of a pedeftal, _
anda pillar fet upon it about twenty inches high, at the top
of which projeéts at right angles, an arm one inch in length:
at the extremity of this arm is a fmall pulley three lines jn
diameter, another at the top of the pillar, and a third near
the bottom of it ; all which pullies move with eafe on their
refpective axes. At the diftance of 13 inch below the

upper

ee

ge ey a ee

we

{
|
*
|

!

:

BALANCE

upper arm, another arm 14 inch long, projects from the pillar
vat right angles, with a hole through it two lines long, anda
uarter of a line broad, and placed perpendicularly below
the pulley of the upper ari, to receive afmall plate 14 inch
long, “i of fuch breadth and thicknefs that it may freely
move up and down, and yet not play too freely in the hole.
At each extremity of the plateis a {mall hook. The whole
of this apparatus is iuclofed in a fmall cafe (fig. 13.), fur
nifhed with glafles, a, a, a, at the top and about it. The
manner of ufing the allay-balance is to pafs a filken flring
ever the three pullies of che fupport and arm ; then the fup-
port is placed in the middle of the {mall cafe, and the other
end of the filk ftring is pafled below through a hole in the
middle of the lower part of the frame, containing the win-
dow in the fore part of the cafe, and fattened to a {mall
weight of a cubic form. The fork of the balance is fuf-
ended on the inferior hook of the plate. By moving
Brckwares and forwards the weight faflened to the itring,
jlaced upon the top of the drawer projecting beyond the
emai of the cafe, the balance within is either raifed or
lowered. The bodies to be weighed, and the weichts
themfelyes, being put into the difhes; the difhes are put
into the fcales, through the fide-windows, which mult be
opened for that purpofe. When any thing is added or
taken away, by means either of the pincers, or of the fmall
thovel, or {poon, the balance is let down that the feales
may reft upon the bottom of the cafe; and before it is lift-
ed up agail the windows mult be fhut, efpecially if the air
is not perfectly ftill. The flat pieces of glafs, often placed
under the feales of an affay-balance, feem, by their electri-
cal power, capable of attracting, and of thus caufing the
lighter feale to preponderate where the whole matter weigh-
ed is fo very fmali. See Phil. Tranf. N° 480. p. 245.
The electricity of a flat furface about three inches {quare
has been known to hold down one feale, when there was
a weight of about 200 grains in the other.

Bavance, in Affronomy. See Linea.

Barance, in orolocy, is that part of a clock or watch,
which by its motion regulates and determines the beats.—
The circular part of it is called the rim, and its fpindle the
verge ; there belong to it alfo two pallets or nuts, which
play in the fangs of the crown-wheel; in pocket-watches,
that ftrong ftud, in which the lower pivot of the verge
plays, and in the middle of which one pivot of the crown-
wheel runs, is called the potence : the wrought piece which
coyers the balance, and in which the upper pivot of the ba-
lance plays, is the cock; the {mall {pring in the new pocket-
watches 1s called the Recutaror.

It appears from the teltimony of hiftorical accounts, as
as well as other evidences, that the balance was univerfally
adopted in the conitruction of the firlt clocks and watches ;
nor was it till the year 1657, that Mr. Huygens united pen-
dulums with clock-work. (See Penpurum.) In watches
of early conftruction, the balance vibrated merely by the
impulfes of the wheels, without any other control or regula-
tion: the motion communicated to the balance by one
impulfe continued till it was deftroyed, partly by fric-
tion, and partly by a fucceeding impulle in the oppolite di-
reGtion ; and therefore the vibrations mu{t, of-courfe, have
been very uniteady and irregular. Thefe imperfections were
in agreat meafure remedied by Dr. Hooke’s ingenious in-
vention of applying a {piral {pring to the balance, the action
of which on the balance of a watch is fimilar to that of gva-

- vity on a pendulum; each kind of force having the eifec&
of correcting the irregularities of impulfe and _refittance
which otherwife difturb the ifochronifm of the vibrations.

> ¥n clogks and watches, the reel meafure of time is the ba-

_ Vou. UI.

lance, and allthe other work ferves merely to continue the
motion of the balance, and to indicate the time as meafured
by its vibrations. ‘Che regularity of a time-keeper will
therefore depend on that of the time in which the balance
vibrates ; and the inveftigation of this time of vibration,
from the feyeral data or conditions on which it depends, is
an important object in this part of mechanical feience. » See
EscarpEmMent, Crock, Time-KEEPERS, and WaTCHES.

That the balances of watches, when manufaétured of
fteel, as they-generally -are, might be in a {mall degree mag-
netic, and that this property might have fome influence in
difturbing their vibrations, fome have fufpected, and others
haye denied ; but Mr ‘Varley has lately, (fee Philof. Magaz.
vol. r. p. 18.), pointed out a fource of error. which has been
hitherto little, if at all, appreheaded: and this is the polarity
of the balance, or tendency of a particular point to the north;
and of an oppolite point to the fouth, fo ftrong as to be
fufficient materially to alter the rate of going of the machine,
when put in different pofitions. If this caule of error had
been known, the ufe of {teel-balances would have been laid
afide long ago, particularly where accurate performance is
indifpenfable, as in time-pieces for aftronomical and nautical
purpofes, Mr. Varley having afcertained the fa€t, and
knowing the pafition of the poles, proceeded to examine
the effects produced by this caufe upon the watch’s rate
of going. Having put on the pendulum fpring, and re-
placed the balance in the watch, he laid the watch with
the dial upwards, that is, with the plane of the balance
horizontally, and in fuch a polfition that the balance when
atits place of reft fhould have its marked fide towards the
north, in this fituation it gained 5’ 35” in 24 hours. He
then changed its pofition, fo that the marked fide of the
balance when at reit fhould be towards the fouth, and in
24 hours it loft 6’ 48 ; producing, by its change of po-
fition only, a difference of r2 23° mits rate. This dif-
ference muft be {till further ‘augmented or diminifhed as
the wearer might happen to carry in his wailtcoat pock-
et, a key, a knife, or any other article made of fteel. Subs
{lituting in the room of the fteel-balance, one made of gold,
he found that the watch’s rate of going was as uniform as
that of any watch on the like conttruétion.

Barance, Hydroftatical, in Hydraulics, is an inftrument
for determining the {pecitic gravities of bodies, See Hy-
DROSTATICAL, and Speciric Gravity.

Barance of Forces, in Mechanics.
Moron.

Bavance, in the Accounts of Merehants, is, when the
debtor and creditor fides of any diftinét account are equal.
In fuch cafe the account is faid to be balanced.

Balance of a merchant, ar trader’s books, is a branch
of the art of accountantfhip. In the method of keep-
ing the books of traders, according to that excellent art
of charge and difcharge by double entry, fuch books, if
correctly kept, will always be fit for a general balance. For
fuch is the excellency of that method, that the books of
themfelves mutt neceffarily balance on the whole, though
not in every diftin@ account throughout the ledger. See
Boox-Krerine. ;

Bavance, among Painters, See Equiviprium.

Barance of the Conflitution, in Political Oeconamy,. de-
notes the fecurity which each part of the legilature pol
fefles in the exercife of the powers affigned ta it from
the encroachment of the other parts. ‘The political equi-
librium fignified by this phrafe, confifts in two contrivan-
ces, viz. 2 balance of power, and a balance of interef?.. By
the former is meant, that-there is no power pofleiledspy
one part of the legiflature, the abule or exceis of which

3 $

See Compounp

BALANCE,

is not checked by fome antagonift power, refiding in ano-
ther part. Thus the power of the two houfes of parlia-
ment -to frame laws’is checked by the king’s negative ;
on the other hand the arbitrary application of this nega-
tive is checked by the privilege that parliament poffeffes
of -refuling rupees of money to the exigencies of the
king’s adminiitration. The conititutional maxim, “ that
the king can do no wrong,” is balanced by another maxim
not lefs conftitutional, “ that the illegal commands of
the king, do not juitify thofe who afflift, or concur, in
carrying them into execution ;” and by a fecond rule,
fubfidiary to this, “ that the aéts of the crown acquire
not any. legal force, until authenticated by the fubfcrip-
tion of fome of its great officers.” The power of the
crown to direct the military force of the kingdom is ba-
lanced by the annual neceffity of reforting to parliament
for the maintenance and government of that force. The
power of the king to declare war is checked by the
privilege of the houfe of commons to grant or withhold
fupplies by which the war muft be carried on. The
king’s choice of minifters is controlled by the obligation
he is under of appointing thofe men to offices in the
ftate, who are found capable of managing the affairs of
his government with the two houfes of parliament. By
the dalance of intereff, which accompanies and gives effica-
cy to the dalance of power, is meant this, that the refpect-
ive intereits of the three flates of the empire are fo dif-
pofed and adjufted, th:t whichever of the three hall at-
tempt any encroachment, the other two will unite in
refitting it. If the king fhall endeavour to extend his
authority by contra&ting the power and privileges of the
commons, the houfe of lords would fee their own dignity
endangered by every advance which the crown made to
independency, upon the refolutions of parliament. The
admiffion of arbitrary power is no lefs formidable to the
grandeur of the ariftocracy than it is fatal to the liberty
of the ‘republic ; that is, it would reduce the nobility
from the hereditary fhare they poffefs in the national
councils, in which their real greatnefs confifls, to being a
part of the empty pageantry of a defpotic court. On
the other hand, 1f the houfe of commons fhould intrench
upon the -diftin& province, or ufurp the eftablifed prero-

ative of the crown, ‘the lords would receive an inftant alarm
eon every new ftretch of popular power. In every conteft
in which the king maybe engaged with the reprefentative
body, in defence of his eftablifhed fhare of authority, he
will find a fure ally in ‘the colleGtive pewer of the nobi-
lity. If the nobles fhould attempt to revive the’ fuperi-
orities exercifed by their anceftors under the feudal con-
ftitution, the king and the people would alike remember
how the one had been infulted, and the other enflaved by
that barbarous tyranny. Paley’s Principles of Philofophy,
vol. i. p. 208—213.

Batance of Power, in the Political Syfem, originates
from, and is maintained by, the alliances of different na-
tions, as their circumftances and intereft may require. See
this fubje& ‘ftated and difeuffed more at large under the
article Power.

Bauance of Trade, denotes an equality between the
value of commodities bought of foreigners, and the va-
lue of the native produ@ions tranfported into other na-
tions. ,

The balance of trade with any foréign nation is faid to
be againft or in favour of ghe country fimply as it tends to
carry money out, or to bring it in; that is, according as
th@* price of the imports exceeds or falls fhort of the price
ef the exports: fo invariably is the increafe or diminution

of the fpecie of a country regarded as a teft of the public:
advantage or detriment, whicit arifes from any branch of its
commerce. According to Dr. Smith (Wealth of Nations,
vol. iis p. 212.), there is’ no certain criterion by which we
can determine on which fide what is called the balance be-
tween any two countries lies, er which exports to the
greatelt value. The two criterions to which an appeal
has been ufually made on fuch occafions are, the cuftom-honfe
books, and the courfe of exchange. The cuitom-books,
fays this writer, are now generally acknowledged to be a
very uncertain criterion, on account of the inaccuracy of
the valuation at which the greater part of goods is rated in
them; and the courfe of exchange is, perhaps, almoit
equally precarious.

Bavance of Annual Produce and Con umption, is that
which, accordmg to Dr. Smith (ubi fupra, p. 250.), necei-
farily occations the profperity or decay of every aation, as
it happens to be either favourable or unfavourable. If the
exchangeable value of the annual produce exceeds that of
the annual confumption, the capital of the fociety muft
annually increafe in proportion to the excefs. The fociety
in this cafe lives withia its revenue, and what is annual!
faved out of its revenue is naturally added to its Bes |
and employed fo as to inereafe {till farther the annual pro-
duce. On the contrary, if the exchangeable value of the
annual preduce fall fhort of the annual confumption, the
capital of the fociety muft annually decay in proportion to
this deficiency. The expence of the fociety in this cafe
exceeds its revenue, and necefjarily encroaches upon its
capital. Its capital mutt, therefore, neceflarily decay, and
together with it, the exchangeable value of the annual pro-
duce of its induitry. The balance of produce and confump-
tion is entirely different from that which is called the balance
of trade. It might take place in a nation which had no fo-
reign trade, but which was entirely feparated from all the
world. It may take place in the whole globe of the earth,
of which the wealth, population, and improvement may be
either gradually iacreating, or gradually decaying. This
balance may be coxitantly in favour of a nation, though the
balance of trade fhould be generally againit it. A nation
may import to a greater value than it exports for half a
century, perhaps, together; the gold and filver which
come into it during all this time may be immediately fent
out of it; its circulating coin may gradually decay, dif-
ferent forts of paper money being fubitituted in its place
and even the debts too which it contra@s in the principal
nations with which it deals may be gradually increafing ;
and yet its real wealth, the exchangeable value of the annual
produce of its lands and labour, may, during the fame period,
have been increafing ina much greater proportion. Sec on
this fubject more largely under the articles Commerce, and
TRADE.

Bavance, fo, in Sea Language, fignifies to contra& a
fail into a narrow compafs, ina iftorm, by retrenching, or,
folding up a part of it in one corner. To this purpofe
ferves the balance-reef, which is a reef-baad that crofles the
fail diagonally. See Rzeer. coh

Barance of the Boom Main-/ail, is performed after all its
reefs are taken in, by rolling up a fimilar portion of the
hindmott, or aftmoft lower corner called the c/ue, aad faften-
ing it ftrongly to the boom, fecuring it from being fretted
by the cord that faftens it. See Boom. ;

Barance of the Mizen,is thus performed ;the mizen-yard
is lowered a little, a {mall portion of the {ail is rolled u at
the peek,, or upper corner, and faftened to the yard, 4 5
one-fifth inward from the outer end, or yard-arm, towards.

the maft. See Mizen. .
‘Batances
oe

A

oe a at

JBAASL

Barancr-Fi/h, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name of the
JSgualus zygena of Linneus and Gmelia. It is alfo called
by fome the Lammer-fib, or hammer-headed foark, from the
very fingular form of the head ; and its {pecilic character is
taken exclufively from that particular; head very broad,
tranfverfely, and hammer-fhaped. Salvian calls it /ide//a
ciambetta ; and Belon lidella, balifia, cagnolu, &c. See Zy-
GENASQUALUS.

BALANCERS, or Poizers, in Entomology, a term
fynonymous with the French word balanciers, and halteres
of Linneus; denoting thofe little filamentous bodies which
terminate in a round, truncated, or oval capitulum, or knob ;
and of which one is placed on each fide of all the dipterous,
vor two-winged infects, immediately under a {mall {caie or
arch, below the wing. In different genera thefe vary
a little inrefpect of fituation, and are alfo of larger or fmaller
fize in proportion to the other parts of the infect in different
kinds.

The ufe of thefe organs is by no means obvious. Some
imagine that they beat the little arch or feale, beneath
which they are fituated, in the motion of flying, and thereby
oceafion that humming or buzzing noife, which every one
mutt have obferved the houfe-fly, flefh-fly, and other very
common two-winged infects to emit in fight. The cicada,
we well know, make a like noife by means of fomewhat
fimilar organs under the lamellz, but whether the noife
which the dipterous infects make is occafioned in this
manner or not, we fhall not prefume to fay. Olivier thinks
it is not, becaufe it appears from certain experiments, that
when any of theie infects are deprived of the halteres, and
are permitted to refume their flight, the fame buzzing found
is heard without the flightelt variation. ‘The more general
Opinion is, that they are defigned to facilitate the motion
of the creature in the air, by equipoifing, or preferving the
true equilibrium, juft as a flick, made heavy at each end, is
held by rope-dancers to preferve their balance, and hence
thefe organs have been called the balancers. This is moft
probably the real ufe of the halteres, notwithftanding that
their diminutive fize is fome objection to fuch opinion,
for when thefe are accidentally injured, the motion of the
creature becomes very irregular, and it evidently appears
unable to direct its courfe with the fame facility as before ;
either fuffering great pain, or being deprived of the means
it previoufly pofleffed.

BALANCIER, a machine ufed in the ftriking of coins,
medals, counters, and the like. See Cotnace.

BALANES, in Ancient Geography, 2 town feated on
the coaft of Syria, between the towns of Gabala and Anta-
radus ; convenient for commerce, and furnished with grain
and fruits in abundance. Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy
place it in Syria, properly fo called; to the north of the
river Eleutherus, which feparated Syria from Phoenicia.

~ Under the reign of Theodofius the younger, this town was

comprifed in the province called Syria fecunda: but after-
wards belonging to a new province which the emperor Jutti-
nian formed under the name of Theodoriade.

BALANITES, in Natural Hi/tory, a name given by the
ancients to a ftone, feeming to have been of the femipel-
lucid gems. They deferibe two f{pecies of it ; the one of
which was yellow, and the other green, but each having
weins of a flame colour. Their defcriptions are too fhort
for us to be able to afcertain what ftones, among thofe
known at this time, they meant.

Some think the Jalanites to have been the /apis Judaicusy
on account of its acorn-like figure and fize. Plin. Nat.
Hill. lib. xgsvii. cap. 10. ed. Hardouin.

BAL
BALANOIDES, in Conchology, a fpecies of Lepas,

with a conic truncated {fmooth fhell, and obtufe operculum.
Linn. Fn. Suec.—Donov. &e. This is da/anus parvus
vilyaris of Petiver ; and a variety of it with a long tubular
{talk is defcribed by Da Cofta, Pennant, and Donov.
Brit. Shells.

BALANTE, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Ce-
lebes, in the country of Bancala. :

BALANUS, in Conchology, the name of a genus of
multivalve fhells, in the works of feveral writers on the
teftacea, as Petiver, Gefner, Da Cofta, &c. The thells of
this kind are comprehended by Linnezus and Gmelin in the
genus Lrpas, which fee.

Bavanus, a fpecies of Lrpas, with a conic fulcated
fhell, and fharp-pointed operculum. Vound adhering to
rocks, ftones, fhells, &c. in the greateft plenty in all the
European feas. Lina. Fn. Suec.—Donov. Brit. Shells,
&e.

Baranus, Bxrx00, or GLANsS,-is fometimes ufed by dna-
tomifis for the nut of the yard. Sometimes alfo the clitoris
is fo called. }

Baanus is alfo fometimes ufed for a fuppofitory.

Baranus Myrepsica, in Pharmacy, the Brn-nut,
which fee.

Baranus, in Geography, the name ofa port in Italy, in .
Lucania.

BALARA, in Ancient Geography, a commercial city,
feated on the ealt of the Indian ocean, between the mouth -
of tue Indus and that of the Euphrates. Philoftratns.

BALARUG, in Geography, atown of France, celebrated
for its mineral fprings, in the departmeut of the Herault,
four leagues from Montpellier.

Bararuc, Waters of. Thefe are hot fprings of fome
celebrity, enployed both internally, and efpecially as baths.
From the defcription and analyfis of Le Roy(in the Memoires
de Academie des Sciences for 1772), they appear to con-
tain a {mall portion of fea falt, fome fixed air, and fome de=
liquefcent falts, but no iron nor fulphur. They are lim-
pid, and faltifh to the tafte. Their temperature when frefh
1s about 128° Fahr.; but they are cooled down to about
115 before they are ufed.

BALASCHEV. See Baraxer.

BALASORE, a fea-port town of Hindooftan, in the
country of Orifia, and a place of confiderable trade, feated
on the river Gongahar, about twenty miles from its mouth
inthe bay of Bengal. Ships generally take pilots here to
conduét them up the Ganges. It is about 101 geographi-
cal miles S.W. from Calcutta. N. lat. 21°20’. E. long.
875) 1430"

Aimee ry Bavias, or Barats, in Mineralogy. See

UBY.

BALATAM, in Geography, avoleanic mouatain in the
ifland of Sumatra.

BALATITI, inOrnithology, a name given by the people
of the Philippine iflands to a kind of bird, by the flight of
which they divine the event of things. What bird this is
has not been afcertained.

BALAUSTINA, in Conchology,a fpecies of TELLINA,
having the fhell dilated, orbicular, and one valve furnifhed
with lateral teeth. Inhabits the Mediteranean fea. Colour
whitifh, with obfclete rufous rays. Size of a lupine feed.

BALAUSTIUM Furores, Balau/tines, the:flowers of
punica granatum, or pomegranate tree. Thefe are large rofe-
like flowers of a deep red colour, fet “in long, bell-thaped
cups, and are brought from the fouthern parts of Europe.
They are mildly altringent, as indeed is the whole of the

3R2 pome-

iB AL

pomegranate, and will ftrikea black with folations of iron,
-They have liltle or no fmell, and readily yield their aftrin-
gent virtue to watery or fpirituous menitrua, An extract
was formerly prepared from the balauttines, and it entered
into fome of the officinal powders, It is now almot,
if not entirely, difuied.

BALAYAN, in Geography, a diftri& or province in the
ifland of Manila or Lucon, with a town of the fame name.
It lies near the city of Manila, and extends along the coatt
oa the eaft fide of the ifland, is inhabited by about 2500
tributary Indians, and abounds in cotton, rice, and palm-
trees.

BALBASTRE, Craupe, in Biography, an eminent
organift at Paris, and a {pirited compofer, of the old fchool,
for keyed-initruments. | He was born at Dijon, 1729, aud
was a favourite difciple of Rameau, and organift of Notre-
Dame and S. Roch. He was a zealous cultivator of his
art, and fuggefted to harpfichord and piano-forte makers
many improvements.

BALBASTRO, in Geography, an epifcopal town of
Spain, in Arragon, feated on the Vero, near its conflux with
the Cinca, with a diocefe extending over 170 partfhes, forty-
feven miles N.W. of Barcelona, and forty E.N.E. of
Saragofla. N. lat. 41° 50°. E. long. 0° 20’.

BALBEC, Baavsec, or Barseck, a famous city of
Syria, in the pachalic of Saide, celebrated by the Greeks
and Latins under the name of Heliopolis, or the city of the
fun’; defcribed by the Arabians as the wonder of Syna,
and denoting by its prefent Arabic name Balbec, i. e. the
vake of Baal, its conneCtion with the worfhip of the fun,
of which Baal, the chief idol deity of the country, was an
appropriate denomination. It is pleafantly fituated near
the north-eaft extremity: of the valley of Bocat, or Bekaa,
at the foot of mount Anti-Libanus, on the laft rifing
ground where the mountain terminates in the plain: it is
awell watered by the Litane, rifing from Anti-Libanus, and
the Barbouni from the foot of Libanus, and abounds in
gardens. It is of afquare figure, extending as Maundreil
conjectured (Journey from Aleppo to Jeruialem, p. 135.%,
about two furlongs on each fide; and its houfes are of the
meanett ftructure, being fuch as are ufually feen in Turkith
villages. Its diftance from Damafcus is about fifty miles
to the north-weit, and about thirty miles from the neareit
fea-coaft, which is the fituation of the ancient Byblus.
N. lat. 34°. EE. long. 36° 45°.

« As we arrive from the fouth (fays Volney, Travels in
Egypt and Syria, vol. ii. p. 232, &c.) we difcover the
city at the diftance of only a league and a half, behind
a hedge of trees, over the verdant tops of which appears a
white edging of domes and minarets. After an hour’s
journey we reach thefe trees, which are very fine walnuts ;
and foon after, croffing fome ill-cultivated gardens, by
winding paths arrive at the entrance of the city. We
there perceive a ruined wall, flanked with fquare towers,
which afcends the declivity to the right, and traces the pre-
cinéts of the ancient city. This wall, which is only ten or
twelve feet hich, permits us to have a view of thofe void
fpaces, and heaps of ruins which are the invariable appen-
dage of every Turkith city ; but what principally attracts
our attention, is a large edifice on the left, which, by its
Jofty walls, and rich columns, manifeitly appears to be one
of thofe temples which antiquity has lett for our admiration.
'Thefe ruins, which are fome of the moit beautiful and beft
preferved of any in Afia, merit a particular defcription.

. To give a juft idea of them, we muit fuppofe ourfelves
aefcending from the interior of the town. After having

BAL :

croffed the rubbith and huts with which it is filled, we arrive
at a vacant place, which appears to have been a f{quare;

there, in front towards the weft, we perceive a grand ruin, .

which conhits of two pavilions ornamented with pilaiters,
joined at their bottom angle by a wall 162 feet in length,
This front commands the epen country from a fort of ter-
race, on the edge of which we diftinguifh, with difficulty,
the bafes of twelve columns, which formerly extended from
one pavilion to the other, and formed a portico. The
principal gate is obftructed by heaps cf ftones ; but that
obftacle furmounted, we enter an empty fpaee, which is an
hexagonal court of 180 feet diameter. This court-is itrewed
with broken calumns, mutilated capitals, and the remains
of pilatters, entablatures, and cornices ; around is a row af
ruined edifices, which difplay all the oraaments of the
richeft architecture. At the end of this court, oppofite the
weit, is aa outlet, which formerly was a gate through
which we perceive a {till more extenfive range of ruins,
whofe magnificence ftrongly excites curtofity. To have
a full profpeét of thefe, we muit afcend a flope, up which
were the iteps to this gate, and we then arrive at the en-
trance of a fquare court, much more {pacious than the for-
mer. The cye is firit attraéted by the end of this court,
where ffx enormous and majeflic columns render the fcene
altonifhingly grand and picturefque. Anather objeét not
lefs interefting, is a fecond range of columns to the left
which appear to have been part of the periltyle of a temples,
but before we pafs thither, we cannot refufe particular atten-
tion to the edifices, which enclofe this court on each fide,
They form a fort of gallery which contains various chambers,
feven of which may be reckoned in each of the principal
wings: viz. two in a femicircle, and five in an oblong {quare.
The bottom of thefe apartments ftill retains pediments of
nichesand tabernacles, the fupporters of which are deftroyed.
On the fide of the court they are open, and prefent only
four and fix columns, totally deitroyed. It is not eafy to
conceive the ufe of thefe apartments; but this does not di-

minifh our admiration at the beauty of their pi afters, and the.

richnefs of the frieze of the entablature. Neither is it pof-
fible to avoid remarking the fingular effet which refults
from the mixture of the garlands, the large foliage of the ca=
pitals, and the feulpture of wild plants with which they are
every where ornamented. In trayerfing the length of the
court, we find in the middle a little fquare eiplanade, where
was 2 pavilion, of which nothing remains but the foundation.
At length we arrive at the-foot of the fix columns; and then
firft conceive all the boldnefs of their elevation, and the
richnefs of their workmanfhip. Their fhaits are twenty-one
feet eight inches in circumference, and fifty-eight high ; fo
that the total height, including the entablature, is from fe-
venty-one to feventy-two feet. The fight of this fuperb ruin,.
thus folitary and unaccompanied, at firft itrikes us with
aitonifhment ; but on a more attentive examination, we dif-
cover a feries of foundations, which mark an oblong fquare
of 268 feet in length, and 146 wide; and which, it feems
probable, was the periftyle of a grand temple, the primary
purpofe of this whole ftructure. It prefented to the great
court, that is to the eaft, a front of ten.columns, with nine-
teen on each fide, which, with the other fix, make in all fifty-
four. ‘Fhe ground on which it ftood was an oblong fquare,
on a level with this court, but narrower than it, fo that there
was only a terrace of twenty-feven feet wide round the
colonnade. The efplanade this produces, fronts the open
country, toward the wef, by a floping wall of about thirt

feet. “This defcent, as you approach the. city, becomes lefs
fteep, fo that the. foundation of the pavilion is on a level

wi

BAL

with the termination of the hill, whence it is evident that the
whole ground of the courts has been artificially raifed. Such
was the former {ate of this edifice; but the fouthern fide
of the grand temple was afterwards blocked up to build a
{maller one, the periftyle and wall of which ave ttill remain-
ing. ‘Chis temple, ficuated fome feet lower than the other,
prefents a fide of thirteen columns, by eight in froat (in all
thirty-four), which are likewife of the Corinthian order ;
their fhafts are fifteen feet eight inches in circumference,
and forty-four in height. The building they furround is an
oblong {quare, the front of which, facing the eait, is out of
the line of the left wing of the great court. T'o reach it
you mutt crofs trunks of columns, heaps of ftone, and a
ruinous wall by which it is now hid. After fuymounting
thefe obftacles, you arrive at the gate, where you may fur-
-vey the inclofure which was once the habitation of a god ;
but inftead of the awful fcene of a proftrate people, and
facrifices offering by a multitude of prictts, the fly, which
is open from the falling in of the roof, only lets in light to
fhew a chaos of ruins, covered with duft and weeds. The
walls, formerly enriched with all the ornaments of the Go-
-rinthian order, now prefent nothing but pediments of niches,
and tabernacles of which almott all the fupporters are fallen
to the ground. Between thefe niches is a range of fluted
-pilafters, whofe capitals fupport a broken entablature ; but
what remains of it, difplays a rich frieze of foliage refting on
the heads of fatyrs, horfes, bulls, &c. Over this entabla-
ture was the ancient roof, which was fifty-feven feet wide,
and tio in length. ‘The walls which fupported it are
thirty-one feet high, and without a window. It is impof-
fible to form any idea of the ornaments of this roof, except
from the fragments lying on the ground; but it could not
have been richer than the gallery of the periityle: the
principal remaining parts contain tablets in the form of
lozenges, on which are reprefented Jupiter feated on his
eagle; Leda carefled by the fwan; Diana with her bow
and crefcent, aud feveral butts which feem to be figures of
emperors and emprefles. It would lead us too far, to en-
ter more minutely into the defeription of this aftonifhing
edifice. The lovers of the arts will find it defcribed with
the greateft truth and accuracy in a work publifhed at
London in 1757, under the title of « Ruins of Balbec.”
This work, compiled by Mr. Robert Wood, the world
owes to the attention and liberality of Mr. Dawkins, who,
in 1751, vilited Balbec and Palmyra. It is impoffible to
add any thing to the fidelity of their defeription.

Several changes, however, have taken place fince their
journey : for example, they found nine large columns
ftanding ; and, in 1784, there were but fix. Vhey reckoned
nine and twenty at the lefler temple, but there now re-
main but twenty ; the others have been overthrown by the
-earthquake of 1759. It has likewife fo fhaken the walls
of the lefler temple, that the ftone of the foffit of the gate
has flid between the two adjoining ones, and defcended
eight inches; by which means the body of the bird,
fculptured on that ftone, is fufpended, detached from its
wings, and the two garlands, which hung from its beak and
terminated in two genil. Nature alone has not effected
this devaftation ; the Turks have had their fhare in the
deftru€tion of the columns. Their motive is to procure the
jron cramps, which ferve to join the feveral blocks of which
each column is compofed. ‘Thefe cramps anfwer fo well
the end intended, that feveral of the columns are not even
difjointed by their fall; one, among others, as Mr. Wood
oblerves, has penetrated a {tone of.the temple wall without
giving way. Nothing can furpafs the workmanfhip of
‘thefe columns; they are joined without.any cement, yet

BAL

there is nat room for the blade of a knife between their in=
terltices. After fo many ages, they in general {till retain
their original whitenefs. But, what is {till more aftontfhing
is, the enormous ftones which compofe the floping wall,
To the wett, the fecond layer is formed of ttones which are
from twenty-cight to thirty-five,fect long, by about nine
1 height. Oxer this layer, at the north-weft angle, ther
are three ftones, which alone occupy a fpace of 175 feet
and one half; viz. the firft, fifty-eight feet feven inches ;
the fecond, fifty-eight feet eleven; and the third, exactly
fifty-eiaht feet; and each of thefe are twelve feet thick.
Thefe ftones are of a white granite, with large fhining flakes,
like gypfes; there is a quarry of this kind of ftoue under
the whole city, and in the adjacent mountain, which is open
in feveral places, and, among others, on the right, as we
approach the.city. ‘There ts itill lying there a ftone, hewn
on three fides, which is fixty-nine feet two inches long,
twelve feet ten inches broad, and thirteen feet three in thick-
nefs. By what means could the ancients move thefe enor-
mous mafles? This is doubtlefs a problem in mechanics
curious to refolve. The inhabitants of Balbec have a very
commodious manner of explaining it, by fuppofing thefe
edifices to have been conftructed by Djenoun, or Genii,
who obeyed the orders of king Solomon ; adding, that the
motive of fuch immenfe works was to conceal, in fubterra-
neous caverns, va{t treafures, which {till remain there. To
difcover thefe, many have defcended into the vaults which
range under the whole edifice; but the inutility of their
refearches, added to the oppreffions and extortions of the
governors, who have made their fuppofed difcoveries a pre-
text, have at length difheartened them; but they imagine
the Kuropeans will be more fuccefsful; nor would it be
poffible to perfuade them, but what we are poffeffed of the
magic art of deftroying Talifmans. It is in vain to oppofe
reafon to ignorance and prejudice: and it would be no lefs
ridiculous to attempt to prove to them that Solomon never
was acquainted with the Corinthian order, which was only
in ufe under the Roman emperors. The tradition which
afcribes the buildings at Balbec, and alfo at Palmyra, to
Solomon, and on which the inhabitants of the country con-
fidently rely, is founded on an opinion generally prevalent,
of his wifdom and love of pleafure, with both which the
magnificence, beauty, and difpofition, of thefe buildings
perfectly agree; and on the mention of T’admor in the
wildernefs, and the tower of Lebanon looking towards
Damafcus,’? which are faid in the Old Teltament to have
been built by his direétion. Some have fuppofed that
thefe are the ruins of a temple of the fun, built by the
Pheenicians, becaufe it is certain that the fun was worfhip-
ped at this place when the Phoenicians were in their mott
flourifhing ftate. Others have thought that thefe build-
ings were ereGied by the Greeks, who fucceeded the Pha-
nicians in the poffeflion of this country, becaufe they are of
the Corinthian and lonie order; but as they are not men-
tioned from the time of Alexander’s conqueil to that of
Pompey, there is great reafon to fuppofe that they are of
later date..

When we confider the extraordinary magnificence of the
temple of Balbec, we cannet but be attonifhed at the filence-
of the Greek and Roman authors.. Mr. Wood, who has
carefully examined all the ancient writers, has found no
mention of it, except in a fragment of John of Antioch,
furnamed Malala, who attributes the building of this edifice
to Antoninus Pius. He fays that this emperor ‘ built a
great temple to Jupiter at Heliopolis, near Libanus, in
Pheenicia, which was one of the wonders of the world.’?
This’ is the only hiftosical authority that has yet been dif-

covered.

BAL

covered relating to this fubject. As thefe buildings feem
to have been erected between the time of Pompey and Cara-
calla, it is very probable that they were the work of Anto-
ninus Pius. The infcriptions which remain corroborate
this opinion, which perfectly accounts for the conflant ufe
of the Corinthian order, fince that order was not in general
ufe before the third age of Rome; but we ought by no
means to allege as an additional proof, the bud {culptured
over the gate, for if his crooked beak, large claws, and the
caduceus he bears, give him the appearance of an eagle, the
tuft of feathers on his head, like that of certain pigeons,
proves that he is not the Roman eagle: befides that the
fame bird is found in the temple of Palmyra, and is therefore
evidently an oriental eagle, confecrated to the fun, who was
the divinity adored in both thefe temples. His worthip
exifted at Balbec, in the moft remote antiquity. His ilatue,
which refembled that of Ofiris, had been brought thither
from the Heliopolis of Egypt, andthe ceremonies with which
he was worfhipped there have been deferined by Macrobius,
in his curious work, intitled, ** Saturnalia.”? Nir. Weod
fuppofes, with reafon, that the name of Baibec, which m
Syriac fignifies City of Baal, or of the Sun, originated m this
worfhip. The Greeks, by naming it Heliopolis, have in this
inftance, only given a literal tranflation of the oriental word,
a practice to which they have not always adhered. We are

ignorant of the ftate of this city in remote antiquity; but it °

is to be prefumed that its fituation, on the road from Tyre
to Palmyra, gave it fome part.of the commerce of thofe
opulent capitals. Under the Romass, Heliopolis was con-
ftituted a colony by Julius Cefar, and in the time of Auguf-
tus, it is mentioned as a garrifoa town, for it received part
of the veterans of the fifth and eighth legions; and there is
fill remaining, on the wall of the fouthern gate on the
right, as we enter, an infeription which proves the truth of
this, the words Kenturta Prima, in Greek characters, being
very legible. One hundred and forty years after, Antoninus
built there the prefent temple, initead of the ancient one,
which was doubtleis falling into ruins; but Chriltianity having
gained the afcendancy under Conilantine, the modern temple
was negleGed, and afterwards converted into a church, a
wall-of which is now remaining, that hid the fanctuary of
the idols. It continued thus until the invafion‘of the Arabs,
when it is probable they envied the Chriftians fo beautiful a
building. The church being lefs frequented, fell to decay ;
wars fucceeded; and it was converted into a place of defence;
battlements were built on the wall which furrounded it, on
the pavilions, and at the angles, which full fubiitt ; and
from that time, the temple, expofed to the ravages of war,
fell rapidly to ruin.

The ftate of the city is not lefs deplorable: the wretched
government of the Emirs of the houfe of Harfoufhe had
already greatly impaired it; and the earthquake of 1759
completed its deftruction. The wars of the Emir Youfef,
and Djezzar, have rendered it {till more deferted and ruinous:
of 5000 inhabitants, at which number they were eftimated
in 1751, not 1200 are now remaining, and all thefe poor,
without induftry or commerce, and cultivating nothing but
a little cotton, fome maize, and water-melons.

BALBI, Joun, in Biography, a learned Dominican
monk of the thirteenth century, was born: at Genea, and
hence called ‘ Balbi Januenfis ;”? and: diftinguifhed as the
author of a gramm¢tical work, intitled ‘*Catholicon,’’ fi-
nifhed in 1286, and entitled to attention principally from its
having been one of the firft'printed books. It was printed
in folio at Mentz, in 1460; and this edition is become very
{carce.

BALBIAN, Justus, of Aloft, in) Flanders, ftudied

e
BAL
at Padua, where he» was admitted doétor’ in mediéine,
whieh he practifed with confiderable reputation, towards
the latter end of the fixteenth century, at Gouda. He
openly profeffed the Calviniftic religion, in which faith
he died ia 1616, and was buried in the principal church of
that city, with the following infcription on his tomb;
Singulos dies, fingulas vitas puta,
Jutti a Balbian, [fepulchrum +
Flandri Aloftani, Philo-Chymici, ejufque heredum
Ille heri, ego hodie, tu cras.
Obiit anno 1616,
In 1539, he publithed « De Lapide Philofophico Traftatus
Septem,”’ Lugd. Bat. 8vo. It is acollection of the works
moit efteemed among the adepts at that time, among whom
our author mutt be claffed. The year following he pub-
lifhed at Venice, ‘* Nova Ratio Praxeos Medice,’? Haller.
Bib. Med. P. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.

BALBINUS, Decrmus Cozxrvs, a Roman emperor,
was a defcendant of a noble family, founded by Cornelius
Balbus ‘Cheophanes, originally of Cadiz in Spain, who was
the friend and hiftoriographer of Pompey, and admitted
into the freedom of the city under his patronage. Balbi-
nus was diftinguiihed both as a poet and an orator; and as
a magiftrate he had governed feveral provinces with repu-
tation. His fortune was affluent ; and his mansers liberal
and affable. After the defeat and death of the two Gor-
dians, on the 3d of July, A.D. 237, Balbiaus was elected
emperor by the fenate in conjunctioa with Maximus. Their
election was fcon fucceeded by a tumult at Rome, oceafi-
oned by a licentious multitude : who neither loved the rigid
Maximus, nor fufliciently feared the mild and humane Bal-
binus; and who, furrounding the temple of Jupiter, ce-
manded, that, beiides the two emperors chofen by the
fenate, a third fhould be added of the family of the Gor-
dians, as a juit return of gratitude to thofe princes who
had facrificed their lives for the republic. Accordingly,
Maximus and Balbinus being driven back into the capitol,
a boy, thirteen years of age, the grandfon of the elder,
and nephew of the younger Gordian, was) prefented to
them, and invefted with the title and ornaments of Cefar.
The tumult was appeafed by this eafy condefcenfion ; and
the two emperors, as foon as they had been peaceably ac-
knowledged in Rome, prepared to defend Italy againit the
common enemy. Maximus marched againft Maximin, who
was then laying feige to Aquileia; but ‘this tyrant having
been abandoned by his guards, and aflaffinated in his tent,
Maximus returned in triumph to Rome, and was received
with cordial congratulations, not only by his colleague and
young Gordian, but by the fenate and the eaeaes who
perfuaded themfelves that a golden age would fuceeed an
age of iron. The conduét of the two emperors corre-
{ponded with thefe expectations. The rigour of the one
was tempered by the clemency of the other; the oppref-
five taxes impofed by Maximin were repealed or moderated,

difcipline was revived, and many falutary laws were enaéted.

“ What reward,’’ faid Maximus, ‘‘ may we expeét for deli
vering Rome froma moniter??? To which queftion Balbi-
nus: replied, “the love of the fenate, of the people, and
of all mankind.” Alas!’’ rejoined his more penetrating
colleeguey “ Alas! I dread the hatred of the foldiers, and
the fatal effets of their refentment.’? His apprehenfions
were juttified by the event. . At length jealoufies broke out
between ‘the two emperors, and they were thus prevented
from uniting in any vigorous meafures of defence —
their common enemies of the Praetorian. camp. . Thefe
fierce troops, proceeding to/an open revolt; feized-on beth
the emperors, itripped them) of thea

them

eT ee

=f

fj
BAL

them ignominioufly through the ftreets of Rome, and ‘ter-
| Breed the tragedy by inhumanly maffacring them. Thus
they both fell after a reign of little more than a year, July
r5th, A.D. 238. Crevier’s Hitt. Emp. vol. vill. p. 382.
&c. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. i.,p. 290—305
BALBOA, Vasco Nucnez De, a famous Spanith ad-
-_-veaturer, was a native of Caltile, aud one of thofe who
| formed a fettlement in Hifpaniola. In 1510, he com-
manded a feeble colony, eftablifhed at Santa Maria al Anti-
qua, or the ancient, fo called becaufe it was the firlt fettle-
ment on the fouthern continent of America, Anxious for
being invefted with a legal title to the fupreme command, he
_ difpatched one of his officers to Spain, ia order to folicit a
royal commiflion ; and’ with a view of more effectually re-
~ eommending himfelf to the patronage which he was endea-
) vouring to obtain, he made frequent inroads into the adja-
-_ cent country, fubdued feveral of the caziques, and collected
' aconfiderable quantity of gold, which abounded more ia
| that part of the continent thaa in the iflands. In one of
_ his expeditions he met with a young cazique, who exprefled
: his aftonifhment at the high value which was fet upon the
;

gold, which the Spaniards were weighing and diltributing c
* Why do you quarrel,” faid he, uch a trifle? If
you are fo paffionately fond of gold, as to abandon your
own country, aad to difturb the tranquillity of diftant na-
tions for its fake, I will conduét you to a region where the
metal, which feems to be the chief object of your admiration
and defire, is fo common that the meaneft utenfils are
formed of it.”? Tranfported with the intelligence, Balboa
_ eagerly inquired where this happy country lay, and how
they might arrive at it. The cazique informed them, that

. at the diftance of fix funs, or fix days journey to the fouth,
they would difcover another ocean, near which-this wealthy

} kingdom was fituated ; bur if they intended to attack it,
a they muft affemble forces far fuperior in number and ftrength
| to thofe which now attended them. This was the firit in-
formation which the Spaniards received concerning the great
fouthera continent known afterwards by the name of Peru.
Balboa diligently prepared for the enterprife; and poffefling
talents for conducting fo hazardous and almoit defperate an
undertaking as that of marching acrofs the ifthmus of Da-
rien, he arranged his troops, amounting upon a mutter to
only 190 men, who were hardy veterans, that had been in-
ured to the climate of America, and who were ready to
follow him through every danger. A thoufand Indians at-
tended them to carry their provifions; and to complete their
warlike array, they took with them feveral of thofe fierce
dogs which were no lefs formidable than deftru@tive to their
naked enemies. On the 1f of September, A. D. 1513, he
fet out oa this expedition; and having cohtiaued their pro-
grefs for 25 days through woods and mountains, aad amidft
contending enemies, he at length reached the top of a moun-
tain from which he was able to difcover the ocean, which
was the objeé: of their wifhes. On viewing this glorious
le, which no European eye had ever before beheld,

he fell on his knees, and returned thanks to heaven with
uplifted hands for conducting him toa difcovery fo beneficial
to his country, and fo honourable to himfelf. His follow-
ers united with him in expreffions of wonder, exultation,
and. gratitude. Purfuing ‘their courfe, they at leagth are
rived at the fhore of the ocean; when Balboa, advancing

_ 4nto the waves with his fword and buckler, took poffeiion
of it in the name of the king his mafter, and vowed to de-
fend it with thefe arms againft all his enemies. The part

of the great Pacific, or Southern ocean, which Balboa firlt
difcovered, {till retains the name of the gulf of St. Michael,
~ which he gave to it, and is nr saath eaft-of Panama.

“about

|

ae ee ee

om

BAL

Here he obtained a fupply of provifions; and partly by force
and partly by free gift, he enriched himfelf with a confiderable
quaatity of gold aud of pearls. He alfo received information
that there was a mighty and opulent kingdom fizuated far tou
wards the fouth-ealt, where the inhabitants had tame ani+
mals, meaning the Llamas afterwards found in Peru, to
carry their burdens. His followers were exhantted by fa-
tigue and difeafe ; and he therefore determined to lead them
back, inftead of attempting to take poffeffion of this conns
try, to their fettlement at Santa Maria in Darien; and,
after an abfence of four months, he returned to jt with
greater glory and more treafure than the Spaniards had hi-
therto acquired ih any of their expeditions againit the New
World. Balboa haitened to tranfmit information of his jm=
portant diicovery to Spain, and to folicit a reinforcement of
1000 men for the conqueit of the opulent country, of which
he had received fo favourable an accoant. Ferdinand, the:
king of Spain, deterniined to avail himfelf of the intelligence
which Balboa had communicated ; but regardlefs of hig
merit, he appointed Pedrarias Davila to fuperfede him in.
the goverament of Darien. e alfo provided him with «
well equipped fleet and 1206 foldiers
a great aumber of voluntary adventur Upon their arri-
val at Darien, they found Balboa, whofe fame had reached.
Spain, and of whofe opulence they had formed {uch highs
ideas, clad in a caayas jacket, with coarfe hempen fandals,
and employed in thatching his own tent with reeds. Balboa,
however, received them with digaity ; and treated Pedra-
rias with the deference due to his charafter. Pedrarias ap-
pointed a judicial inquiry to be made into Balboa’s conduc,
and impofed upon him a confiderable fine. At length re-
fentment on the part of one, and the envy of the other, pro-
duced diffenfions which were very detrimental to the colony.
Pedrarias loft many of his men by ficknefs, and this diftrefs
was further augmented by an extreme {earcity of provifions:
and the new governor incenfed the natives by rapacious pro-
ceedings, which defolated the whole country from the gulf
of Darien to the lake of Nicaragua. Balboa fent violent
remonitrances to Spain againit the imprudent government of
Pedrarias, which hadruined a happy aad flouztihiug colony ;
and Pedrarias recriminated by accufing him of having de-
ceived the king, by maguifying his own exploits, as well as
by a falfe reprefentation of the opulence and value of the
country. Ferdinand, fenfible of his own imprudence in
having fuperfeded Balboa, appointed him Adelantado or
licutenant-governor of the countries upon the South fea,
with very extentive privileges and authority; and he enjoined
Pedzarias to avail himfelf of Balboa’s counfel ia all his ope~
rations. After fome time Pedrarias and Balboa were appa-
rently reconciled ; aud by way: of cementing the union be-
tiveen them, the former agreed to give his daughterin mar-
viage to the latter. This happened in 1515. Jealoufly ftill
rankled in the breait of the governor; and when Baiboa had
with much labour fisithed four fmall brigantines, and pro-.
vided 300 chofen men, in order to fail towards Peru, Pedra-
rias defired him to poftpone the voyage ; and having foli-
cited an interview, ordered: him to be arreited, and then to
be tried on az accufation of difloyalty tothe king, and cf
an intention to revolt again{t the gevernor. He was found
guilty, and fentence of death was pronounced ; and thouch
the judges who paffed it, feconded by the whole colony,
warmly interceded for his pardon, the governor continued
inexorable ;.and the Spaniards beheld, with aftonifhment.
and forrow, the public execution of a man whom they uni-
yerfally deemed more capable than any who had’Gorne com-.
mand in America, of forming and accomplifhing great de-
figns. Upon his premature deathin 1517, at the age of

who were joined by

42>

BAL

42, the éxpedition, which he had planned, was relinguithed.
Balboa was diflinguifhed among his countrymen by a variety
of important and ufeful qualities, adapted to the {tation he
occupied, and the fervices in which he engaged. Befides
bravery, which he poffefled in an eminent degree, he was
prudent in conduct, generous, affable, aad pofleffed of thole
popular talents, which, in the moft defperate undertakings,
infpire confidence and fecure attachment. Robertfon’s Hitt.
Amer. vol. i, p. 276—301.

BALBRIGGEN, in Geography, a {mall port town of
Ireland, in the county of Dublin. It hasa fafe harbour with
a pier, within which fhips of 200 tons burden may lay their
broadiides, and unload onthe quay. ‘Phe bafe of the pier
is 18 feet thick, and on the outfide is a confiderable
rampart of large fragments of rock, fuak to defend the
pier againft the waves. At this town there once was an
extenfive cotton manufactory ; but it has lately declined fo
much, that the proprietors are now converting one of their
principal cotton mills into a florr mill. Many of the inha-
pitants derive a fubfiftence from fifhing, in which nine wher-
ries are employed. On the fhore near the town is a flate
rock, which is a good quarry for blocks of fufficient tize
for making ton flates, It is dittant from Dublin 154 Irith
miles. N. lat. 53° 36’ W- long. 6° 13’.

BALBUL, in Ornithology, afpecies of Anas, or duck,
having a black beak, and {pot of the wing above obliquely
green, beneath obliquely black. Forfle. Fn. Arab. :

BALBURA, tu Ancient Geography, atownof Aita Minor,
in Cabellia, a country of Caria, fituated in the vicinity of
Cibyra Major. When the pretor Murena extended the
principality of Cibyra, Balbura was annexed to Lycia.

BALBUS, a mountain of Africa, between the town of
Clupea, the territory of Carthage, Numidia, and the fea.
Hither Matiniffa retired, aiter having been defeated by Sy-
phax, king of Numidia.

BALBUSARDUS,in Ornithology. See BALD-BUZZARD.

BALCASH, Tenets, or Parxati, in Gezgraphy, a
lake of Independent Tartary, in the country of the Kal=
muks, fubject to China, is about 140 Britith miles in length
by half that breadth; being the largett Jake in Afia, next
to the feas of Aral and Baikal.

BALCDUTHA, a fettlement in the eaftern part of
Kentucky, in America, on the weft fide of Big Sandy
river.

BALCH, ariver of Germany, which runs into the Rhine
at Cologn. :

BALCHIKANSKOI, a town of Siberia, 140 miles
fouth-weit of Doroninfk. :

BALCHUYSEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
ef Weltphalia, and duchy of Juliers, nme miles weft of
Cologn.

* BALCONY, from the French dalcon, in Architedure, a
kind of open gallery without the walls of buildings, con-
trived chiefly for the convenience of looking around, feeing
proceffions, cavaleades, and the like.

_ Where there is but one, it is ufually in the middle of the
front of the edifice, and level with the firft floor: fome-
times they are made of wood, fometimes of caft iron ; the
former furrounded with a rail or baluftrade, the latter
wrought in various figures in demi-relicvo. Some are alfo
made of bar iron, fafhioned in crail-work, or flourifhes of
divers fancies.

Batcony, ina fhip, denotes a gallery cither covered or
@pen; made abaft, either for ornament or convenience of the
eaptain’s cabin. : : 5

BALDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Betica, in the country of the Turduli. Ptolemy.

BAL
BALDACANIFER, corruptly alfo written Jalcanifer,

denotes a itandard-bearer ; chiefly in the ancient order of
knights Templars. ;

BALDACHIN, or BarpAgutn, in Archite@ure, a
building in form of a canopy, fupported with columns, and >
ferving as a crown or Covering to an altar. .

The word comes from the Italian ba/dacchino, which fig-
nifes the fame.

Bavvacuin, or Baldakin, or Baldckin, popularly Bau-
dekin, in Middle Age Writers, denotes a rich kind of cloth
made of gold warp and filk woof, varioufly figured.’ It
took the denomination from its being formerly brought into
thefe countries from Baldacio, or Babylon,

BALD-BUZZARD, in Ornithology, the name under
which Farco Haliaétos is defcribed by Willughby and other
Englifh naturalifts. It is alio called dalbuzard by Buffon.

BALD-EAGLE, tn Geography, or Warrior Mountains,
lie about 200 miles W. of Philadelphia, in the county of
Bedford, in Pennfylvania, and form the weitern boundary of
Bald-eagle valley.

Bavp-raGte isalfoa river which runs a north-eaft courfe
forty-four miles, and falls into the weftern branch of the
Susquehanna river. The water of Huron river, which
falls into the lake Erie, is called Bald-eagle creek. _

Baup-racie Valley, or Sinking-Spring Falley, lies upon
the frontiers of Bedford county in Pennfylvania, about
200 miles weit of Philadelphia. On the eaft it has a chain

of high rugged mountains, called the ‘Canoe ridge ;”” and
on the weit, the’ Bald-eagle,”” or Warrior mountains. It

is a pleafant vale of lime-ftone bottom, about five miles wide ;
and its vicinity abounds with lead-ore. In 1779, it con-
tained about 60 or 70 families that lived in log-houfes, and
formed in feven or-cight years feveral valuable -plantations,
Among the curiofities of this place is that called the *Swal-
lows,” which abforb feveral of the largeft ftreams of the
valley, and after conveying them feveral miles under ground,
return them again upon the furface. Thefe fubterraneous

affages have given occafion to the name of ‘ Sinking-
Spting Valley.’ Of thefe the moft remarkable is called
the “Arch Springs,’ which run clofe upon the road from
the ‘town to the fort; being a deep hollow formed in the
lime-ftone rock, about thirty feet wide, covered with a
ftony arch, and giving paflage to a fine ftream of water.
The fubterraneous river enters the mouth of a fpacious
cave, whofe exterior aperture is fufficient to admit a fhal-
lop with her fails full fpread ; and in the midft of this cave,
from eighteen to twenty fect wide, are timber, bodies and
branches of trees, &c. which being lodged up to the roof
of the paflage, fhew that the water rifes to the top during
frefhes. The cave, extending about forty yards, widens
into a large kind of room, at the bottom of which is a vor-
tex, where the water forms a whirlpool, and abforbs pieces
of floating timber, which are initantly conveyed out of
fight. From the top of the Bald-eagle mountains there is
a fine profpect of thofe of the Alleghany, ftretching along
till they feem to meet the clouds. Much flate is found
here; and there .are ftong figns of pit-coal.

BALDEGG, a lake of Swifferland, four miles long
and one wide; nine miles S.S.W. of Bremgarten.

BALDENAU, atown of Germany, in the circle of
the Lower Rhine, and bifhopric of Treves: 36 miles S.S.W.
of Coblentz.

BALDERIC, in Biography, a French hiftorian, a na-
tive of Orleans, lived in the 12th century, and was bifhop ’
of Dole in Britanny. He affifted at the council of Cler-
mont, held on occafion of the holy war, and wrate a hiftory
of that war in four books, containing an accouat of the

I events

5 BALE

events of that fanatical expedition from its commencement
to the year 1099, when Jerufalem was taken by Godfrey
of Bouillon. This work may be found in ‘ Getta Dei per
Francos a Bongaro,”’ folio, 1511. He alfo wrote “ Poems,”’

referved in the fourth volume of Du Chefne’s collection of
French hiftorians. Nouv. Dict. Hiftor.

BALDERN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Swabia, and county of Ottingen, one mile S.S.E.
of Zobing.

BALD-HEAD, a cape of the north-weft coaft of Ame-
rica, and on the weft coalt of Norton found. N. lat, 64°
43’. E. long. 198° 18’.

Bald-head is alfo the fouthernmoft of two heads on the
ealt coaft of Newfoundland, between Fermowes harbour on
the S.S.W. and fort Agua on the N.N.E.

Baldhead \ies alfo at the mouth of Cape Fear river in
North Carolina, and being at the fouth-weft end of Smith’s
ifland, forms with Oak ifland the main entrance into the
river.

Bald-head makes alfo the fouth-weft part of what is called
Wells bay, in the diftri@ of Maine.

BALDI, Bernarpino, in Diography, a learned Italian,
was born at Urbino, in 1553. Such was his ardour in the
profecution of knowledge, that he facrificed both his meals
and his fleep to the attainment of it. Having ftudied ma-
thematics under Commandino in the place of his nativity,
he purfued his ftudies in the univerfity of Padua; where in
his twentieth year, he was diftinguifhed by his literary appli-
cation and proficiency. Such was his acquaintance with
the Greek language, that he tranflated the Phenomena of
Avyatus into Italian verfe, and other Greek writers into La-
tin; and he pofleffed fuch a talent for acquiring the know-
ledge of languages, that he learned twelve of them, fe-
veral of which were oriental. When he left Padua, he be-
came mathematician to Ferrante Gonzaga II. duke of Gu-
aftalla; and in 1586, he was created abbot of Guaftalla,
which church he governed for many years with great repu-
tation. At Rome, where he {pent part of his time, he ob-
tained the title of apoftolical prothonotary. Towards the
latter part of his life, he refigned the church of Guattalla,
and retiring to Urbino, devated himfelf entirely to his ftu-
dies. He died in that city in 1617, at the age of 64 years.
Baldi obtained as high a rank among the Italian poets as he
poffeffed among the fcholars and mathematicians. In paf-
toral poetry, his “‘Celeo,” or ‘ Orto,” is thought to be
excelled by few works in the language ; and his blank verfe
is much elteemed. In mathematics and mechanics his la-
bours were numerous. He tranflated into Italian the Greek
work of Hero of Alexandria, ** On Automata, or felf-mov-
ing Machines ;’? and into Latin, the fame author’s treatife,
*© On warlike Machines.’”? He alfo wrote *“ Exercitations
on the Mechanics of Ariftctle,” and pwblifhed two Latin
works relative to Vitruvius, the one containing an explana-
tion of all the terms ufed by him, and the other inquiring
into the meaning of his ‘ Scamilli impares.”? A pofthu-
mous work, intitled, ‘ Cronica de’ Mathematici,”’ being a

" - compendium of a larger one on the lives of mathematicians,

was printed in 1707. Many other monuments of his genius
and indultry, which obtained reputation in their time, are
now configned to oblivion. Nouv. Dict, Hiltor. Gen. Biog.
Barpi, we Usarnis, a celebrated lawyer, was born at
Perugia in 1349, and carefully educated by his father Fran-
cis Ubaldi, a learned phyfician. After having fludied law
at Perugia under Bartoli, he became a preceptor, and ac-
quired high reputation in moft of the univerlities of Italy.
He was the rival of his mafter Bartoli, and contradicted
many of his opinions. ‘The duke, John Galeazzo, was his
Vor. iil.

BAL

Seicrous patton; and he was liberally rewarded by pope
tban VI. for pleading his caufe againft Clement. Hav-
ing retained the full vigour of his faculties and his diftin-
guifhed reputation as an oracle of jurifprudence till the
year 1400, when he had attained the age of 76, he died
at Pavia, in confequence of the bite of a dog, with which
he was playing. His numerous treatifes of law, publifhed
in three volumes folio, manifeft deep knowledge and excel-
lent talents ; but they are written too much in the barbarous
{tyle of the age. His reputation was fo great, that his fa-
mily after his death affumed the name of Baldefchi inftead
of that of Ubaldi. Nouv. Dict. Hittor.

BALDINGER, ErnestrusGorrrriep, amedical writ-
er, of whom we have no memorial, but that, in 1764, he pub-
lifhed at Berlin ‘ Introductio in Notitiam Scriptorum Me-
dicine Militaris,’’ 8vo. a valuable work, in which, befides
the titles of the books, the author has given a critical ac-
count of their contents. Haller. Bib. Med. Pract.

BALDINI, Joun Antuony, Count, was born at Pla-
centia, July 7, 1654, finifhed his fludies at Bologna and
at Rome, and then travelled into Franee and Poland. -In
1698, he went to Spain, and continued there nine years as
ambaflador from the duke of Parma. On his return to
Parma, he was again difpatched to German courts, and at
laft to England, whence he was fent to attend the congrefs at
Utrecht. His figure was handfome, and his manners en-
gaging; and the greater part of his time was devoted to
the ftudy of natural philofophy, mathematics, and more
efpecially civil and ecclefiaftical hiftory. In England, he
was elected fellow of the Royal Society ; and in Spain, he
collected many rare gems, with a view of having them en-
graved ; but in the progrefs of this work he was interrupted
by his public occupations and travels. At Amfterdam, he
enriched his cabinet of curiofities with many Indian and
Chinefe fubje&ts; and he purchafed, at a great expence,
all the lexicons, atlaffes, and books of travels he could
procure that related to the Eaftern countries. The editor
of the ‘* Atlas Hiftorique,” in 5 vols. publifhed at Am-
fterdam in £719, was much indebted to Baldini’s collec-
tion ; and the difcourfe annexed to thefe maps was origi-
nally written in Italian by Baldini. On the 23d of Febru-
ary 1725, Baldini died, in confequence of a itroke of the
apoplexy. Gen. Biog.

BALDINUCCI, Puizir, was born at Florence in
16243; and diftinguithed himfelf by his knowledge of the
arts of defign, and his refearches concerning the lives of
their profeflors. His great undertaking was a general hif-
tory of the moft eminent painters from Cimabue to his own,
time, comprehended in fix volumes, and divided into centu-
nies. A new edition of this whole work was publifhed at
Florence in 1731, and it has been fince reprinted at Flo-
rence and at ‘Turin, with copious notes and additions, by Sig.
Ingegnere Piacenza. Baldinucci likewife publifhed « A
Vocabulary of Defign,” in confequence of which he was
admitted into the Academy della Crufca. His work, in-
titled, “The Commencement and Progrefs of the Art of
Engraving on Copper,” Florence, 1686, 4to. abounds with
curious mformation. He alfo publifhed feveral f{maller
works; one of which drew upon him a furious and unjuft
attack from Cinelli. He died in 1696, at the age of 72
years. Nonv. Did. Hittor.

BALDINUS, Bernarp, an Jtalian phyfician, who
flourifhed about the middle of the fixteenth century, taught
medicine at the univerlity of Padua, and afterwards at Mi-
lan, where he died in the year 1600. In 1562, he pub-
hfbed at Venice, “* Problemata excerpta ¢x Conymentariis
Galeni in Hippocratem,” 8vo.

35

BALDINUS,

BAIL,

Barpinvs, Baccius, another Italian phyfician of the
fame age, publifhed, at Florence, “ In Librum Hippocratis,
de Aquis, Aere, et Locis, Cornmentaria ;” ‘ Tractatus de
as 1586, 4to. Haller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Dit.

ift.

BALDIVIA, or Vatprvia, in Geography, the name of
a government in the kingdom of Chili, in South America.
It was formerly fubje& to the viceroy of Lima, but is now
annexed to the jurifdittion of the prefident of Chili. Bal-
divia, or Valdivia, is alfo the name of a port town, fituated
on the north-eaft fide of a bay of the fame name, in S. lat.
40° 5’. W. long. 80° 5’. The town was built by the Spa-
nifh general Baldivia, about the year 1551; in 1559, the
people of Chili chafed the Spaniards from this fettlement,
burned the town, and put the inhabitants to the {word.
Near this place are many gold mines, and therefore the Spa-
niards have fortified it, regarding it as the key to the South
feas ; and the fortifications are {upportéd by the whites of
Peru and Chili, who are banifhed hither for their crimes.
In 1643, it was taken poffeffion of by the Dutch; but they
were compelled to abandon it, and to leave all their cannon,
confifting of 30 or 40 pieces, their baggage, and their ttores,
On receiving intelligence that fuccours were tranf{mitted from
Peru. Valdivia receives from the treafury of Lima an an-
nual fupply of 70,000 dollars ; 30,000 in fpecie, the value
of 30,000 in clothes for the foldiers, and 10,000 in fpecie
which is paid to the king’s foldiers at Santiago, in order to
purchafe flour and other neceflaries for the garrifon at Val-
divia. Thefe remittances are conveyed in fhips which fail
from Valparaifo. ‘The bay has a natrow entrance, and is
fpacious within ; it is well fecured from winds by point Ga-
lera and Bonifacio, which is remarkable for its high land
juft on the north of the bay. The rivers of Baldivia and
Guyaquil are the largeft on this coaft ; but neither of them
can carry a fhip of burden fix leagues within land.

BALDMONIE, an old English name for gentian, the
root of which is ufed in medicine; fome alfo have called the
meum, or {pignel, by this name.

BALD-MOUNTAIN, in Geography, a noted promon-
tory in the gulf of St. Lawrence, in North America, being
a mark on the main, about 30 leagues from the neareil or
north-weft point of Anticoiti ifland.

BALDNESS, Catvirtes, a falling of the hair, efpe-
cially that of the finciput.

It differs from alopecia, area, ophiafis, and tinea, as thefe
all arife from fome vice in the nutritious humour; éa/dne/s,
from the defe& of it. But the diflisGion is not always
obferved by modern phyficians.

When the eyelids fhed their hair, it is called a fprilcfis.
Among the caufes of baldnefs, immoderate venery is re-
puted one of the chicf: old age ufually brings it on of
courfe. Some will have the proximate canfe of baldnefs to
be the drynefs of the brain, and its thinking from the cra-
nium ; it-having been obferved, that in bald perfons there
is always a vacuity or empty fpace between the fkuil and
the brain. -

Buffon fays, that the crown of the head, and the {pace
immediately above the temples, are the parts which firil be-
come bald; but that the hair below the temples, and on
the inferior part of the back of the head, feldom falls off.
He adds, baldnefs is peculiar to man: women, in the moft
advanced age, though their hair becomes white, are feldom
affeGted with baldnefs. Children and eunuchs are not
more fubjeét to it than women. It is alleged by Ariito-
tle, that no man becomes bald before having intercourfe
with women, except fuch as have been bald from their
birth. ‘The ancient writers upbraid the inhabitants of the

BAL

iflands of the Archipelago with the epithet ‘ bald-heads ;”
and affert, that theie iflanders are ali brought into the world
with this defe@. Buff. Nat. Hift. by Smellie, vol. ii. p. 442.

Calvus, bald pate, was a frequent term of reproach
among the Romans ; among whom this defect was in great
diferedit. Hence divers.arts to conceal it, as falfe hair, and a
galericulus, contrived on purpofe. The later Romans, how-
ever, feemed to have been reconciled to baldnefs; for we
find among them a kind of officers or fervants, called g/a-
Bratores, or glabrarii, whofe bufinefs was to take off the
hair from all parts, even from the head. In an ancient in-
{cription, there is mention of one Diophantus, T1. c#sA4-
RIS. ORNATOR. GLABR. that is, ornator glabrarius. See
ALOPECIA.

BALDO, Mount, in Geography, a part of the Alps,
in the Auftrian territories, lying on the eaft of the lake
Guida, and feparating the country of Tyrol from that of
Verona, about 30 miles in circumference. ;

BALDOCK, Ratru ps, in Biography, an-Englifh di-
vine of the fourteenth century, was educated at Oxford, ap-
pointed bifhop of London in 1304, chofen in 1307 lord
chancellor of England, and in 1313 died at Stepney. His
hiftory of the Britifh affairs, intitled, “* Hiftoria Anglica,’”
feen by Leland, is now loft. Biog. Brit. 3

Barpock, in Geography, is a neat and pleafant market
town of Hertfordfhire, in England. It is feated between
hills on that great Roman road which bore the name of
Ickling-way, or Icknield-ftreet. This town has been confi-
derably improved of late years by the ereCtion of many re-
{pectable houfes ; and being on a great travelling road, it
has a conftant fucceffion of new company. Here area
good market on Thurfday, and five annual fairs; the for
mer is plentifully fupplied with barley ; and a great quanti-
ty of malt is made in this town. ‘ Baldock dates its origin
and the foundation of its church to an earl of Pembroke,
who granted two hundred acres of wafte land, in the reign
of king Stephen, for that purpofe. This was conferred on
the knights Templars, who dediéated the church to the Vir-
gin Mary, and named the town Balbec, from the name of
their former place of refidence in Syria. The knights hof-
pitalers of St. John, and thofe of Jerufalem, alfo erected
buildings at the eaft end of the town, in the parifh of
Clothall. On the hills in the vicinity are four ancient en-
campments. Here is an alms-houfe founded by William
Winn, in 1621, for twelve poor widows, who are alfo pro-

‘vided with a {mall legacy of forty fhillings annually by the

will of the fame worthy founder. According to the returns
publifhed by authority of the houfe of commons, this town
has 231 houfes, and 1283 inhabitants; of whom 648 are
males, and 635 are females.

BALDOVINI, Francisco, in Biography, an. Italian
poet, was bora at Florence, in 1634. His firft ftudies were
devoted to the law, for which profeffion his father intended
him ; but after the death of his parents, he furrendered hin-
felf wholly to the enchantments of poetry and mutic. On
viliting Rome, he obtained, through the intereft of his un-
cle cardinal Flavio Chigi, the place of fecretary to cardinal
Jacopo Filippo, and at the age of 40, entered into holy
orders. In 1676, he obtained the living of St. Leonardo
d’Artimino; and in 1694, Cofmo III. grand-duke of Tuf-
cany, conferred on him the priorfhip of Orbatello, which
he changed, in 1699, for that of Santa Felicita. In the
difcharge of his new funétions, he gave equal fatisfaction
to the court, the religious orders, and his parifhioners, by
his exemplary piety, and his rigid attention to the duties of
his ftation, to which the amiablenefs of his manners, his
knowledge of the world, and his proficiency in learning,

rendered

.

BAL

rendered him perfe&tly adequate. He lived in profperity
and health till his 82d year, and died in 1716. He ex-
celled in that fpecies of fimple, ruftic, and pleafant poetry,
which is neither heroic nor burlefque, and which perhaps
no poetry in our language refembles more than Gay’s paf-
torals. His “‘ Il Lamento de Cecco da Varlungo,” or
«© Cecco’s Complaint,” is a playful poem, written in the

provincial dialect of Tufcany, and publifhed firft at Florence

in 1694, by Barto Commei; and afterwards, in 1755, with
the author’s life by Domenico Manni, and curious notes by
Marini. The poem was tranflated into Englifh by John
Hunter, efq. in 1800, London, Svo. See the Tranflator’s
Preface.
BALDUS, or as he wrote his name, Banus, SEBASTIAN,
a native of Genoa, who flourifhed in the middle of the fe-
venteenth century, was one of the earlieft writers on the
roperties of the Peruvian bark, and the mott ftrenuous af-
bani of its value. It appears that he paffed the latter part
of his life at Rome, where he was patronized by the cardi-
nal De Lugo, himfelf an admirer of that celebrated medi-
eine, and who procured a parcel of it to be imported from
Spain into Italy, in 1649. Baldus learned from Bolli,
a Genoefe merchant, that the tree producing the bark,
of which he gives a defeription, grows at Quito, a Spanifh
province in South America; and that its power in curing

intermittents became firft known to the Spaniards, from its

being fuccefsfully adminiftered to the countefs of Cinchon,
the wife of the governor. He is very diffufe in his account
of the qualities of the bark, and of the moft efficacious
mode of adiminiftering it ; and gives numerous examples of
the cures performed by it, not only in intermittents, but in
continued fevers likewife. His works, which are all con-
troverfial, are: “ Sanguis expiatus, feu de Sanguine inca-
lefcente,” Genue, 1643; ‘ Cortex Peruvianus redivivus,
contra Plempium,”’ Gen. 1656, 12mo.3; ‘* Anaftafis Corti-
cis Peruv. feu Chine Defenfio contra Ventilationes J. Jaco-
bi Chifiet, et gemitus V. F. Plempii,” Genuez, 1663, qto.;
© Necelfitas Phiebotomiz in Exanthematibus,” Gen. 1663,
4to. Haller. Bib. Med. Pra&. Eloy. Diet. Hitt.

Bauvus, Baldus, M. D., a native of Florence, flourifhed
about the middle of the feventeenth century. After acquir-
ing confiderable reputation in his own country, he removed to
Rome, where he was foon advanced to be phyfician to pope
Innocent the tenth, and archiater; but died a few months
after being elevated to that po. He pubdlifhed, in 1631,
s¢ Przle&tio de Contagione peltifera,”’ 4to.; and in 1637,
© Difquifitio ad textum fecundum Hippocratis, de Aere,
Aquis, et Locis, accedit, de-Calculorum Caufis; Ague Ti-
beris Bonitate ; Queftio de majori nunc quam preterito Se-
culo, calenloforum in urbe frequentia,” 4to. Hall Bib. Med.
Pra&. Eloy. Did. Hit.

Bauovs, in Entomology, a fpecies of Paririo, with very
entire brown wings; on the anterior ones above and -be-
neath, an ocellar{pot, with a double pupil; on the pofte-
rior ones, four ocellar {pets above and fix beneath. Fabri-
cius. Inhabits India. Donov. Inf. Ind.

BALDWIN I. in Biography, emperor of Conflantinople,
was born in 1172, and fucceeded his father as count of Flan-
ders and Hainault. Ia the fourth crufade, which commenced
A.D. 1198, he affumed the crofs at Bruges, together with
his brother Henty, and the principal knights and citizens of
the rich and induftrious province of Flanders, and diftin-
guifhed himfelf fo much in the wars which preceded the
capture of Conftantinople, that after this event he was
chofen emperor of the eaft, A.D.1204. But the Greeks
foon revolted again{t this foreign empire; and formed an
alliance with John, or Calo-John, the revolted chief of the

BAL

Bulgarians and Walachians. Baldwin, in fis attempt to
recover Adrianople, from which the French and Venetians
had been expelled, was drawn into an ambufcade by the
feigned flight of the enemy, and taken prifoner, A.D. 1205.
He foon after died in prifon; but the time and manner of
his death are not known. Some fay, that after a confine-
ment of fixteen months, he was crueily murdered by an am-
putation of his hands and feet, and by expofing his bleeding
trunk to birds of prey. Whe Flemings for a long time be-
lieved that he was alive ; and about twenty years after his
death, found a hermit in a wood of the Netherlands, who
was acknowledged as the true Baidwin, the emperor of
Conitantinople, and lawful fovereign of Fianders. But the
French court dete€ted the impoftor, and he was punithed
with anignominious death. Baldwin, who was efteemed for
his private virtues, and for his military and princely quali-
ties, was fucceeded in the empire by his brother Henry; and
in his county of Flanders by his daughter Joan or Jane, who
has been accufed, by fome grave hiftorians, of facrificing to
her ambition the life of an unfortunate father. Gibbon’s
Hitt. vol. xi. p. 1g0—262.

Batnwin II. emperor of Conftantinople, was the fon of
the emperor Peter of Courtenay ; and in his eleventh year,
fucceeded his brother Robert, A.D. 1228. On account of
his youth, John of Brienne, the veteran king of Jerufalem,
was appointed to be regent, and invefted for his life with
the title and prerogatives of emperor, on the fole condition
that Baldwin fhould marry his fecond daughter, and fucceed,
at a mature age, to the throne of Conftantinople. The
royal youth was fent to vifit the weftern courts, and to ob-
tain fome fupplies of men and money, for the relief of the
finking empire. He thrice repeated thefe mendicant vifits,
in which he feemed to prolong his ftay, and poftpone his
return. Of the twenty-five years of his reign, a greater
number was {pent abroad than at home; and inno place did
the emperor deem himfelf Iefs free and fecure than in his
native country and his capital. In his firft vifit to England
he was ftopped at Dover, and checked by a fevere repri-
mand for prefuming, without leave, to enter an independent
kingdom. After fome delay, he was permitted to proceed,
and after a reception of cold civility, thankfully departed
with a prefent of 700 marks. From the avarice of Rome
he could only obtain the proclamation of a crufade, and a
treafure of indulgences. By various humiliating and ruinous
expedients, he at length returned to Romania, with an army
of 30,000 foldiers, and obtained fome partial and temporary
fuccefs. But his poverty and weakneis admitted of no effec-
tual relief; and by the fale of facred relics, fuch as the
crown of thorns which had been placed on the head of
Chrift, a portion of the true crofs, the baby-linen of the fon
of God, the lance, the fpunge, and the chains of his paffion,
the rod of Mofes, and part of the fcnll of John the Baptift,
he could only raife a treafure of very limited extent, and of
fhort duration. His kingdom was foon reduced to the
limits of Conftantinople ; and in 4261, this city was taken
from him by Michael Paleolegus. Baldwin, with fome of
the principal families, embarked on board the Venetian
gallies, and fteered firft for the ifle of Eubcea, and after-
wards for Italy, where the royal fugitive was entertained
by the pope and ‘Sicilian king with a mixture of contempt
and pity. Having confumed thirteen years in foliciting the
Catholic powers to join in his reftoration, without fuccefs,
he died in 1273, and his fon Philip became the heir of an
ideal empire ; and by Catherine, the daughter of Philip, it
was transferred, in confequence of-her marriage, to Charles
of Valois, the brother of Philip the fair, king of France.
Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. x1. 273—287.

352 Baupwin,

BAL

Ba.tpwiy, archbifhop of Canterbury, was bor of obfeure
parents at Exeter, where he received the rudiments of a
claffical education, and taught fchool; and afterwards he
took orders, and was preferred to the archdeaconry of his
native place. But changing his courfe of advancement, he
affumed the monattic habit im the Ciltercian order, asd rofe
through the abbacy of his monaftery to the epifcopal fee of
Worcefter, and from thence, in 1184, to the metropolitan
fee of Canterbury.
itruction in this lait ftage of his preferment; and therefore,
in order to counteract their intereit and power, he formed a
plan for eftablifhing a church and monaftery at Hackington
near Canterbury, for the reception of fecular pricits; but
the monks, by their intereft with the pope, difconcerted the
defign. Under the next pope the project was refumed, and
Baldwin purchafed a manor at Lambeth, where, upon the
{pot where the archbifhop’s palace now itands, he began to
build his college, with the materials colleéted at Hacking-
ton; but he did not live to complete his defign. In 1189,
he performed the ceremony of coronation for Richard I. at
Weitminfter; and upon the tranflation of the bifhop of Lin-
coln to the fee of York, he took occafion to eftablifh the pre-
eminence of the archbifhop of Canterbury, by forbidding
any Englifh bifhop to receive confecration from any other
hands than thofe of this metropolitan. Archbifhop Bald-
win took a part in the crufade for the recovery of the holy
land, and when Richard I. condu&ted an army into Paleitine,
this prelate appeared in his train; and by his private contri-
butions and pious exhortations encouraged the enthufiaftic
adventurers to perfevere. At the fiege of Acre or Piole-
mais, or, as {ome relate, at Tyre, the bifhop was feized with
a violent diforder, which terminated in his death, A.D.
1191, or A.D. 1193. During his. illnefs, he direG&ted his
executor, the bifhop of Salifbury, to diitribute, at his dif-
cretion, all his effe€ts among the foldiers. He was diitin-
guifhed by his humanity and generofity; but the mildnefs
of his temper betrayed him into remiffnefs in his paitoral
offices; fo that a letter was addrefled to him by pope
Urban 11]. with this fuperfcription; ‘* Urban, bifhop, fer-
vant of the fervants of God, to Baldwin, a moitt zealous
monk, a fervent abbot, a lukewarm bifhop, and a negligent
archbifhop.””? Baldwin wrote feveral tracts, chiefly theolo-
gical, which were collected and publifhed by father Tiffier,
and which may be found in the fifth volume of the “ Bib-
liotheca Ciftercienfis.”” Caye, H. L. voli ii. p.250. Biog.
Brit.

Batpwin’s Phofphorus, in Medicine, a phofphorefcent
fubftance, formed by calcining the nitrat of lime in a low red
heat. See ProspHorus, Baldwin's.

BALE, Joun, in Latin Baleus, in Biography, an Englifh
Givine and hiftorian, was bern at Cove, near Dunwich, in
Suffolk, in the year 1495. rom the monattery of Car-
melites at Norwich, where he was entered at the age of
twelve years, he was fent to Jefus college in Cambridge.
Bale, probably Wluminated by lord Wentworth, and partly
conceiving a diflike to celibacy, abandoned the church of
Rome in which he was educated, and became a zealous
proteftant. ‘The acrimony and viyulence with which his
writings againft popery were tin@ured, expofed him toa
variety of fevere perfecution ; and after the death of lord
Cromwell, whofe protetion he enjoyed in early life, he was
under a neceflity of feeking an afylum in. the Netherlands.
Upon the aeceffion of Edward VI. he returned to Engiand,
and, diftinguifhed by his zeal for the reformation, he was
firft prefented to the living of Bifhop’s Stoke in the county of
Southampton, and afterwards obtained, by nomination from
the crown, the bifhoprick of Offory in Ireland; and in 1553,

oa

From the monks he met with fome ob- -

BAL
confecrated by the archbifhop of Dublin. In this fituation, by

his attachment to the do@trines of the reformation, he was fub-
jet to conttant terror, and his life was frequently ia danger.
On occafion of one tumult, five of his domeltics were iadlied
in his prefence, and he efeaped by the feafonable proteGtion
of an armed force. Of his alarms and troubles in Ireland,
he has given a particular account in his ** Vocacyon of John
Bale to the Bifhopricke of Offory in Irelande, his Perfecu-
tions in the fame, and final Deliverance ;”’ printed im black
letter, folio, 1553. In making his efeape, after temporary
concealment in Dublin, the trading veffel in which he was
conveyed away was taken by a Dutch man of war, and he
was ftripped by the captain of all his money and effects.
Being driven by ftrefs of weather on the coaft of Cornwall,
the bifhop was feized on fufpicion of treafon, in confequence
of the accufation of a pilot, who wifhed to fhare his money ;
and a fimilar charge was brought againft him at Doyer,
whither he was conveyed in the fame fhip. Being removed
as a prifoner to Holland, he was under a neceflity of pur-
chafing his liberty by a large ranfom; and after his libera-
tion he removed from Holland to Bafil in Swifferland, and
remained abroad till the end of queen Mary’s reign. Upon
the acceffion of Elizabeth, he returned to England; and
fearful of encountering the difficulties and hazards of his
Irifh fee, he retired to a prebendal ftall in the church of
Canterbury, to which he was preferred in 1560; and here he
died in November 1563, in the fixty-eighth year of his age.
Before his converfion from popery, Bale compofed many
{criptural interludes, founded upon incidents recorded in the
New Teftament; fuch as the life of St. John the Baptift,
Chrift in his twelfth year, baptifm, and temptation, the re-
furreétion of Lazarus, the council of the high-priefts, Simon
the leper, the Lord’s fupper, and his wafhing the feet of his
difciples, Chrift’s burial and refurreGtion, the paffion of
Chrilt, &c. His comedy of the three laws of nature,
Mofes, and Chrift, printed by Nicholas Bamburgh in 1538,
was fo popular, that it was reprinted by Colwell in 1562.
In his ‘* Vocacyon to the Bifhopricke of Offory,” he in-
forms us, that his comedy of ‘* John the Baptift,’”? and his
tragedy of ‘* God’s promifes to men,” written in 1538,
and firft printed by Charlewood in 1577, 4to., were acted
by the youths upon a Sunday, at the market-crofs of Kil-
kenny. But the fafhion of adting myfteries feems to have
expired with this writer. He fays that he wrote a book
of hymns, and another of jefts and tales, and that he tranf-
lated the tragedy of Pammachius, probably the fame that
was acted at Chrift’s college in Cambridge in 1544, and
afterwards laid before the privy council as a libel on the re-
formation. After he renounced popery, the produétions of
his pen, both in Latin and Englifh, were very numerous.
Mott of his Englifh writings in profe were pointed againft
popery; and two of his pamphlets againfl the papifts, all of
whom he confidered as monks, are intitled the ‘* Mafs of
the Gluttons,’’ and the * Alcoran of the Prelates.”? Next
to expofing the impoftures of popery, literary hiftory was
his favourite purfuit. His ‘* Chronicle concerning fir John
Oldcaftle,”? was reprinted in 1729. The only work of
bifhop Bale, which has given him diftin@tion among authors,
is his ‘* Scriptorum I]luftrizm Majoris Britanniz Catalogus,”
or, “ An account of the lives of eminent writers of Great
Britain,” commencing from Japhet one of the fons of
Noah, and brought down through a feries of 3618 years,
to the year of the Chriflian era 1557, the. period at which
the author was an exile in Germany. This work is com-
piled from various authors, and chiefly from the labours of
the eminent antiquary, John Leland. The bitternefs of his
inveCtives againft popery and papifts gave great offence ta

Roman

BAL

Roman catholic writers; and he has been charged with
difingenuity and credulity by feveral refpectable critics ;
among whom we may reckon Wharton and Nicolfon.
Granger (Biog. Hilt, vol.i. p.139, 8vo.) allows, that the
intemperate zeal of this prelate often carried him beyond
the bounds of decency aud candour in his accounts of the
apifts; neverthelefs, his fufferings may furnifh fome apo-
bey for his acrimony, and many things which he relates,
though before defignedly concealed or ingenioufly gloffed
over by Roman catholic writers, might probably be true.
His biographical work, with confiderable allowances for the
ftrong bias of party zeal, may be read with advantage.
Baleus de Scipfo, apud Script. Wharton, Pref. to Anglia
Sacra, and Hit. of Englifh Poetry, vol. iti. p.79. Nicol-
fon’s Eng. Hitt. Library, p.156. Biog. Brit.

Baca, in Commerce, a term denoting a quantity of mer-
chandife wrapped or packed up in cloth, and corded round
very tight, after having been well fecured with hay or
ftraw, to keep it from breaking, or to preferve it from the
weather. Moft of the merchandife, capable of this kind of
package, that is fent to fairs, or intended for exportation,
ought to be in bales; and too much care cannot be taken
in packing them, to fecure them from damage. To fell

oods in the bale is to fell them in the lump, on fhewing a
Rsciren, without. unpacking or taking off the cordage.
Thus it is the Eaft India company fell their bale-goods.

Bave-Goods, in the La? India Trade,the bulky goods, as
falt-petre, pepper, red-earth, tea, &c. The bale goods
ftand oppofed to piece goods.

Baves of Camiet,at Smyrna, are called tables, on account
of their flat {quare figure.

A bale of cotton yarn is from three to four hundred
weight; of raw filk, is from one to four . hundred; of
lockram or dowlas, either'three, three and a half, or four
pieces, &c. 4
_ Bate of Paper, denotes a certain number of reams packed
together in a bundle.

‘There are bales of more and fewer reams. Thofe fent from
Marfeilles to Conftantinople ufually contain twelve reams.
A bale or ballon of crown paper manufactured in fome parts
of Provence, confifts of fourteen reams, and is fold in the
Levant for Venice paper. he

Bate of Dice, denotes a little packet or paper, containing
fome dozens of dice for playing with.

Bare, in Geography. See Basve.

BALEARES Insutz, or Balearic [flands, in Ancient
Geography, the name by which the two iflands of Majorca
and Minorca, and fome. others in the Mediterranean fea,
were formerly diftinguifhed. ‘They derived their name from
that of the inhabitants, who were denominated Baleares,
as fome have fuppofed from Barruy, to throw, becaufe they
were excellent flingers. Bochart (Geog. Sacr. apud, Op. t.1.
col. 634.) deduces the appellation, as well as the people,
from a Punic or Pheenician origin; and he fays, citing the
authorities of Polybius, Strabo, and Stephanus, that the
name is formed of the two words FR4!-Sy 9, bal-jareh, denot-
ipg a mafler of throwing, and thus he adds, the terms—E59¥
*4y5, baale chitfim, Gen. xlix. 23. fignify /Rilful archers.
The Greeks called thefe iflands Gymnafe, either as Livy or

_ Diodorus fuggeft, becaufe in fummer the inhabitants were
yujvat, naked, or rather, as Hefychius obferves, becaufe they
went to battle armed only witha fling. M. Gebelin inti-
mates, that Baal fignified among the orientals, the fun, and
hence it became a denomination for elevated objects; fo that
the Baleares were perfons who projected darts or {tones from
flings to a very great height. Whatever be the precile ety-
mology of the name, the Baleares were famous for their

i ra

BAGG

dexterity in the ufe of the fling ; and in order to attain per-
feétion, they accuftomed pain ht from their infancy to
this kind of exercife; infomuch that mothers did not put
bread into the hands of their children, but obliged them to
beat it down from a confiderable eminence with their flings.
They alfo united force with this addrefs, and the belt tem-
pered arms were {carcely proof again{t the ftones they dif-
charged. When they went to battle they carried with them
three flings of unequal length, according to the different
diftances at which they might have occafion to ufe them
again{t the enemy. ‘hey were originally Phoenicians or
Carthaginians, who poffeffed the iflaads called by theirname
from fach remote antiquity, that their firlt arrival is prior to
every thing related of them by every hiftorian now extant,
except their peopling the ifland Ebufus or Erefus, now
Yvica, about 160 years, as Diodorus Siculus (lv. ¢.1 & 2.
informs us, after the foundation of Carthage. This ifland,
according to Vitruvius, was reckoned to belong to the Ba-
learic iflands. We learn from Juftin (1. xliv.), that the firft
expedition which the Carthaginians made to Spain, was in
order to affilt the city of Gades (now Cadiz); and as the
Carthaginian fleet, failing from Carthage to Gades, might
eafily take Ebufus and the other Balearic iflands in its way,
there is great reafon to believe, that Gades was relieved,
and Ebufus, with the other Balearic iflands, planted or re-
duced much about the fame time. The Baleares lived for a
long time in the fimplicity of uncultivated nature. Caves
under the rocks, or holes dug in the earth, ferved them for
habitations. "Vhey were almoft naked, except that during
the cold of winter they covered themfelves with fheep-ficins,
The foil of their country was fertile, and fupplicd them with
the neceffaries of life ; but being very eager for wine, fuch
of them as had ferved in the Carthaginian armies did not
fail at their return to lay out all the money they had acquired
in this article: indeed, they were not allowed to bring mo-
ney into their country, as the ufe of it was prohibited in
both iflands. They faid, as Diodorus Siculus informs us,
that Geryon’s riches had of old been fatal to him, in draw-
ing Hercules upon him as an enemy ; and that, taught by
this example, they had from the moft remote antiquity al-
ways dreaded introducing among them a metal, capable of
exciting the avidity of other nations, and thus dangerous to
their tranquillity. ‘They were in general a pacific people.
However, fome individnals having leagued themfelyes with
the pirates that infefted the feas, Metellus, who was conful
of Rome about the year of the city 630. B.C. 124, pro-
jected an expedition for invading their country. In order
to fecure his fuccefs, he is faid to have rendered their flings
ufelels, by placing fins on the fides of the decks, which
deadened the blows. As foon as the Roman troops landed,
the inhabitants fled, and difperfed themfelves over the coun-
try, fo that it was more difficult to find than to defeat them.
Metellus, for fecuring his conquett, planted two colonies,
viz. Palma and Poilentia, the one at the-eaft, and the other
at the weft extremity of Balearis major. He obtained a tri-
umph A. U. C. 631. B. C. 123, and affumed the furname of
Balearicus. Flor. 1. iti. c.8. The largelt of thefe iflands was
called Balearis major, now Majorca, and the leait Balearhs
minor, now Minorca. They were diftant from one another.
according to Pliny, thirty miles; and in the latter of the
two iflands, the moft confiderable towns were Mago and
Jamno. Thefe were at firft caltles or forts; but being ereA-
ed near the mouths of two convenient harbours, they be-
came confiderable fea-ports, efpecially that of Mago, now
known as Port Mahon. The Baleares formed a part of the
provincia Tarragonenfis, and were denominated ‘ Fortuna-
tz,’? on account of their fituation and harbours.

BALEARICA,

BAL

BALEARICA Brif. grus balearica Ald. balearic crane
Ray, Willughby, Sloane, &c., in Ornithology, a trivial name
given by thefe and fome other ornithological writers to the
crowned heron of Latham, and ardea pavonia Gmelin.

BALECHOU, Joun Josern, in Biography, a cele-
brated French engraver, flourifhed about the year 1750, and
died not many years fince at Avignon. He was perfe&
matter of the graver, with which he entirely worked; and
diftinguifhed by the clearnefs of his ftrokes, and the depth
of colour which he produced; but for want of drawing well,
his prints failin point of freedom, correCtnefs, and harmony.
His two large plates from Vernet, one reprefenting a
<* Storm,” the other a “ Calm,” are well known, and uni-
verfally admired. Strutt.

BALEME Port, in Geography, is a port of North
America, two.leagues diftant from Louifbourg, on the
coait of the ifland of cape Breton. The rocks, which are
eovered by a high fea, render it difficult of accefs.

BALEN, Henoricx Van, in Biography, a painter of
hiftory and portrait, was born at Antwerp, in 1560; and
after having been a difciple of Adam Van Oort, he purfued
his ftudies at Rome. By copying the antiques, and at-
tending to the works of eminent modern artifts, his improve-
ment was fuch, that, in his return to his own country, he
obtained the efteem of the able{ judges. He was diitin-
guifhed by a good manner of defigning, and his works are
admitted into the cabinets of the curious, among thofe of
the principal painters. He particulaly excelled in the na-
ked, and gave to his figures fo much truth, roundnefs, and
corretnefs of outline, that few of his cotemporaries couid
enter into competition with him. Several of his fine por-
traits are at the Hague; and particularly one adorned with
the figures of wifdom and juitice, which is very highly
commended. -His defigns of the deluge, of Mofes Striking
the rock, and the drowning of Pharaoh, are grand and no-
ble compofitions. His ‘ Judgment of Paris’ .is alfo ac-
counted a mafterly performance; in which the figure of Venus
is fo elegantly defigned, fo full of life, and fo round, that
it feems to ftand fosth from the furface. He died in 1632.
Pilkington.

BALEN, Jacos Van, a painter of hiftory, landfeapes,
and boys, was born ai Antwerp, in 1611, and derived from
his father Hendrick Van Balen his knowledge of the art,
and his fine tafte of drawing and defign. He afterwards
travelled to Rome, and othercitiesof italy. His particular
merit was exhibited in his figures of boys, cupids, and
nymphs bathing or hunting ; and he gained wealth and fame
by his landfcapes and hiftories. His pictures were well
handled, his trees touched with fpirit, and his herbage and
verdure appeared natural and lively. The carnations of his
fizures were clear and frefh, his colouring in general was
tranfparent, and the airs of his heads were in the manner cf
Albano. Pilkington.

BALENBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of the Lower Rhine, and territory of Mentz, two
miles north-weft of Krautheim.

BALENGER, Bacencaria, in Middle Age Writers, a
kind of veffel of war, but what in particular feems not well
known. Blount fays, that by the flat. 28 Hen. VI. cap.5.
balenger feems to have been a kind of barge.

BALES, Peter, in Biography, an extraordinary mafter
of penmanfhip and’fine writing, was born in 1547, and de-
ferves to be recorded on account of the {kill which he ac
quired in the exercife of his art. Anthony Wood mentions him
as ‘a moft dexterous perfon in his profeflion,”’, and as having
««fpent feveral years in fciences among the Oxonians, par-
ticularly as it feems in Gloucefter hall; but that ftudy which

BAL

he ufed fora diverfion only, proved at length an ail

ment of profit.”” Holinfhed, in his Chronicle, A. D.15755
records his {kill in micrography or miniature writing ; and
Mr. Evelyn {Numifmata, fol. 1697, p. 268.) fays of him,
that in 1557 he wrote the lord’s prayer, creed, decalogue,
with two fhort Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day
of the month, year of our Lord, and of the queen’s reigns
to whom he prefented it at Hampton Court, all within the
circle of a fingle penny, enchafed in a ring and border of
old, and covered with cryftal; fo nicely wrote as to be
plainly legible, to the admiration of her majefty, her privy-
council, and feveral ambafladors, who then faw it.” He
pofieffed alfo an extraordinary {kill in imitating the writi
of others; and he feems to have been employed in this an
fimilar ways for the fervice of the itate, with a view to the
complete difcovery and conviction of traitors, between the
years 1586 and 1589. At this time he had reafon to expe&
fome place or preferment at court; but being difappointed
in his expeétations by the death of fecretary Wallingham,
he purfued the bufinefs of a writing-mafter in the Old Bai-
ley; and in 1590, he publifhed his ** Writing Schoolmatter,
in three Parts,’ containing the art of brachygraphy, or
{wift writing ; the order of orthography, or true writing ;
and the key of calligraphy, or fair writing. In 1595, he
was engaged in a trial of ‘kill with another performer in the
fame way, fora golden pen of 2ol. value, which he gained;
and in another more. general competition, he obtained the
arms of calligraphy, which are azure, a pen, or. By various
exercifes of his pen, he recommended himfelf to feveral pere
foas of knowledge and diltin@ion; and Anthony Wood
fays, that he was engaged in the treaforis of the earl of
Eilex, in 1600: but the real fact was, that Bales was inno-
cently employed in ferving the treacherous purpofes of one
of the carl’s mercenary dependants. Towards the clofe of
life, he feems to have been reduced toa deftitute and dif-
treffed condition, ether by his own extravagance, or by im-
prudent confidence in others; and to have died about the
year 1610. Biog. Brit. : ;
BALESCOU ps Trarare, or Vulefeus of Tarenta, a
Portuguefe. It appears from his own teltimony, that he began

writing in the year 1418, after thirty-fix years experience. |

His firtt publication * De Philonio,” was printed at Venice,
1490; then at Lyons, in folio, in 1521; and his work, De
Morbis Curandis,’’? edited by Guido Defiderius, at Lyons,
in 1560, in 4to. and afterwards at Frankfort 1590. A
fhort tragt, “ Tractatus Chirurgie,’? is printed with the.
Philonium. He propofes extirpating cancers by an applica-
tion, in which arfeaicis an ingredient. This drug, we know,
formed the bafis of a preparation of late introduced, forthe
fame purpofe, by Plunket. Our author, however, admo-.
nifhes practitioners, that arfenic is not ufed without dangers
He faw a perfon who died fuddenly in the night, whofe head
had been anointed with an arfenical preparation, for the cure
of tinea capitis. It appears from his works, that he was well
acquainted with the dottrine of Galen, and of the Arabic:
writers. Haller. Bib. Chirurg.

BALESIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Magna Grecia, in the country called Meflapia. Pliny
and Mela.

BALESOS, anifland of the Egean Sea, between Thrace
and the ifle of Crete. Anton. Itin.

BALESSAN, in Befany. See Batsam.

BALESTRA, Axronio,. in Biography, an hiftorical
painter, was born at Verona, in 1666: at the age of twenty-
one, entered himfelf in the fchool of Antonio Belucci, at
Venice, and afterwards vilited Bolognaand Rome, at which
latter place he became the difciple of Carlo Maratti. Havy-

ing

BAL

ing made great proficiency in defigning after the antiques,
after Raphael, Correggio, Annibal Caracci, and other ad-
mired painters, he obtained the prize of merit in the acade-
my of St. Luke, in the year1694, when he was only twenty-
eight years of age. From that time his reputation was
eltablifhed, and his paintings were admired in every part of
Europe. His ftyle is {weet and agreeable, not unlike that
of Maratti; and men of judgment obferved, with delight
and approbation, a certain mixture inhis works of the feve-
ral manners of Raphael, Correggio, and Caracci. At Ve-
nice there are two capital pictures of this matter; one repre-
fentivg the nativity of our faviour, in the church of Santa
Maria Mater Domini; and another, a dead Chrift in the
arms of the Virgin, in a chapel belonging to the church of
St. Geminiano. We have fome etchings by him, in a bold,
matterly ftyle, but very flight. According to Pilkington,
he died in 1720; but Strutt fays, he diedin 1740, at the age
of 74.

~ BALESTRINA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
ftate of Genoa, a fief of the empire, nine miles north of
Albenga.

BALET pe 1a Royne, in Mufic. This dance, more
ancient than any mentioned in the long article on the fub-
je&, in the Encycl. Meth., where it has not been honored
with notict, merited a place, as a curiofity, if not for its fu-
perior plan and execution.

Henry IIT. of France having, inr581, married his favourite
minion, the duc de Joyeufe, to mademoifelle de Vaudemont,
filter to his queen Louife de Lorraine, almoft ruined his king-
dom in balls, mafquerades, tilts, tournaments, and every {pecies
of expenfive feftivity which could be devifed on the occafion.

The queen, likewile, in honour of her fifter’s nuptials,
gave an entertainment at the Louvre, in which a ballet was
exhibited, called «¢ Ceresand her Nymphs,” which was then
a new kind of fpeGtacle in France, avec une grande mujfique,
compofed by the celebrated Claude le Jeune. The Entrées
de Balets, in this fete, were invented by Baltazar de Beau-
joyeux, the famous Piedmontefe performer on the violin,
who having publifhed an account of bis devifes in a book
which is now become extremely fearce, we fhall prefent our
readers with its title, anda {ketch of its contents.

« Balet comique de Ja Royne, faitte aux nopces de mon-
fienr le duc de Joyeufe et mademoifelle de Vaudemont fa
four. Par Baltafar de Beauxjoyeulx, valet de chambre du
Roy, et de la Royne fa mere.” A Paris, 15$2, 4to. The
types and paper equal in beauty thofe of Elzevir in the next
century ; and the mufical chara¢ters, though cut in wood,
are much more clear and neat than any we ever faw of the
kind. But as to the mufic itfelf, itis more barbarous, in
point of melody, than any we have ever feen on paper. The
counterpoint, indeed, is not incorre€t; nor can the French be
juitly accufed of ever being deficient in the mechanical rules
of compolition, fince they were firft eftablifhed; but for fan-
ey, air, and rhythm, there is not a paflage in this whole
performance, except in a few of the dances, by which we
are reminded of their exiftence. But it feems as if dancing
could not fubfift without a marked meafures indeed, when
poetry is fung without meafure, it becomes worfe than
profe. In the operas of Lulli and Rameau, the mufic of
the dances was always much more pleafing to foreigners than
that which wasfung, from its being neceffarily more marked
and accented: that is, in what was danced fome determined
meafure and movement was always perceptible. But in the
vocal part of de Beaujoyeux balet, there is nothing that re-
fembles an air, or that feems to imply a felection of notes,
or to fuggelt a reafon for one found being higher or lower,
more quick or more flow, than another.

BAL

Bat it fhould be remembered, that the mufic of this old
French ballet was not compofed by Baltazarini, the Italian,
who only aéted as ballet mafter on the occafion, but by
Meffrs. de Beaulieu and Salmon, of the king’s band, whom
his majetly had ordered to aflifl him in compofing and pre-
paring all that was mo/? perfedl in mufic for this feftival; ‘*and
M. Beaulieu,” fays Baltazarini, ** whem all profeffors regard
as an-exccllent mufician, has, on this occafion, even furpaffed
himlelf, affited by Maiftre Salmon, whom M. Beaulieu and
others highly efteem in his art,”

We have dwelt the longer on this performance, as it is the
only French theatrical moufic extant of the time. And in
comparing it with that of Lulli, it appears that he did not
difdain to comply with the national tafte, which had been
long eftablifhed, with refpect to meafure and melody; he
certainly added much to both, but conformed tothe genre.

As it will be no kindnefs to curious readers to refer them
to fo fcarce a book for examples of this muftc, we may ven-
ture to mention the Gen. Hilt. of Muf. vol.ii. where copious
extraGis from it are inferted.

BALEY, Wa tes, in Biography, born in the county of
Dorfet, in the year 1529, received his education at Win-
chetter, and went thence to New college, Oxford. Apply-
ing himfelf to the ftudy of medicine, in the year 1558 he
was licenfed to praétife. About the fame time he was
made a prebendary in the cathedral church of Wells, which
office he refigned the following year. He was then ap-
pointed Queen’s profeffor of phyfic at Oxford. In the year
1563, he was created doétor in medicine (Wood’s Fafti
Oxon. vol.i. p.9z.), and foon after, phyfician to queen Eli-
zabeth. For the remainder of his life, which was extended
to the age of 63 years, he enjoyed a confiderable fhare of
reputation and practice. Of this phyfician we have the
following works, three of which were publifhed in his life-
time. ‘ A Difcourfe of three kinds of pepper in common
ufe,”? 1588, 8vo. ‘A brief treatife on the prefervation of
the eye-fight,” in which he attributes great virtues to the
herb eye-bright. This was re-publifhed in 1616, and in
1622 was added to Banifter’s treatife of 113 difeafes of the
eyes and eyelids, but without the name of the author,
¢¢ Directions for health, natural and artificial, with medicines
for all difeafes of the eyes,” 1626, 4to. ‘* A brief difcourfe
of certain medicinal waters in the county of Warwick, near
Newnham,” 1587. In thelibrary of Robert earl of Aylef-
bury was a MS.° of this author, intitled ‘‘ Explicatio
Galeni de potu convalefcentium, et fenum, et precipué de
noftre ale et birie paratione.” Biograph.. Mem..of Med..
J. Aikin.

BALFRUSCH, in Geography, a town of Perfia; the
capital of the province of Mafanderan, fituate at the fouthern
extremity of the Calpian fea. Hither the Ruffians and
Armenians convey their merchandife, though: the traffic is
much lefs confiderable than it was, on account of the impo-
fitions of the khan of Mafacderan.. The chief produétions
are filk, rice, and cotton, of which articles there is a large
exportation. Merchants from Kaflkin, I{pahan, Schiras,
and Korafan refort to Balfrufch, and bring for fale the Per-
fian and Indian commodities.. N. lat. 33°40’. E. long.

O° 30'.
BALGA, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen,
25 miles fouth-weft of Sonigfberg.

BALGUY, Joun, in Biography, an Englith divine, was
born at Shefield in Yorkfhire, in the year 1686. Having
received inffruGtion firlt from his. father, who was mafter of
a free grammar fchool in that place, and after his death
from his fucceflor Mr. Daubuz, author of an efteemed com-
mentary on the revelations, he was admitted in 4702, of St..

John’s.

BAL

John’s college, Cambridge. From the frivolous occupation
of reading romances, in which he loft two years of his aca-
demic education, a circumftance which he mentions with re-
gret, he was diverted by reading Livy, and afterwards devo-
ted himfelf with pleafure to ferious ftudies. In 1711, he
took orders, and diligently difcharged the duties of his pro-
feffion in the living of Lamefly and Tanfield in Durham,
compofing for feveral years a new difcourfe for the pulpitevery
week. Balguy was an early advocate for religious liberty in
the Bangorian controverfy: and in 1718, wrote a vindication
of bifhop Hoadly, intitled “ An Examination of certain
doétrines lately taught and defended by the Rev. Mr. Steb-
bing ;”’ and in the following year, “A Letter to the Rev.
Dr. Sherlock,” both under the fGitious name of Silvius.
In 1720, he publifhed a third tra&, intitled ‘¢ Silvius’s de-
fence of a dialogue between a Papift anda Proteftant.” In
a controverfy concerning the nature and foundation of vir-
tue, occafioned about this time by lord Shaftefbury, who,
in his * Charaéteriftics” referred it to an inftinGive fenti-
ment; and by Hutchefon, who, in his “ Inquiry into the

riginal of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue,”’ maintains the
fame notion; Mr. Balguy took a principal part. In 1726,
he wrote, in reply to Shaftefbury, “‘ A Letter toa Deitt,
concerning the beauty and excellence of moral virtue, and
the f{upport and improvement which it receives from the
Chriftian revelation;’’? and in 1728, he publifhed a traGy, in-
titled, “The foundation of moral goodnefs, or a farther
inquiry into the original of our idea of virtue;” which in
the next year was followed by a fecond part, illuftrating the
principles and reafonings of the former, and replying to
certain remarks communicated by lord Darcy to the author.
(See Viatue.) In 1730, he publifhed a treatife, under the
title of «* Divine ReGiitude; or a brief Inquiry concerning
the moral perfeGtions of the Deity, particularly in refpect
of Creation and Providence. (See AtrrisuTes.) This
treatife was followed by “ A Second Letter to a Deilt,”
occafioned by Tindal’s ‘* Chriftianity as old as the Crea-
tion;?? and by another traG, intitled, ** The Law of
Truth, or the Obligations of Reafon effential to all Reli-
gion.” In 1741, Mr. Balguy publifhed an “ Effay on Re-
demption,”’ explaining the do&trine of atonement ina manner
fimilar to that afterwards adopted by Dr. Taylor of Nor-
wich. (See AronemENT.) Of this treatife, bifhop Hoadly
exprefled his opinion, that the author had been more fuc-

cefsful in refcuing Chriftianity from fome abfurd doétrines,

long confidered as effential to it, than in fubftituting others
in their ftead. The only additional publication of Mr. Bal-
guy was a volume of Sermons, to which has been fince
added a pofthumous volume; the fubjeéts of both are chiefly
practical, and the difcourfeshavebeen juftlyadmired as models
of the plain and fimple ftyle of preaching. Towards the
clofe of his life, his health declined, and he found it neceflary
to withdraw from company, except fuch as he feleéted at
Harrowgate, which he frequented every feafon, and where
he died in 1748, in the fixty-third year of his age. The
only church preferments which Mr. Balguy enjoyed were
the vicarage of North-Allerton in Yorkfhire, worth about
2701. a year, and a prebend in the church of Salifbury, to
which he was collated by bifhop Hoadly in 1728. Mr.
Balguy may juitly be reckoned among the divines and
writers who rank with Clarke and Hoadly, and who affo-
ciated with thefe illuftrious charafers in maintaining the
caufe of rational religion and Chriftian liberty. Candid and
liberal in his own fentiments and difpofition, he cultivated
friendfhip with worthy perfons of all denominations; and his
writings very much contributed to promote liberal difcuffion
and rational inquiry. Biog. Brit.

BAL ,

BALHARY, in Geography, a town of Hindoftan, in the
Myfore country, feventy miles north-eaft of Chitteldroog,
and twenty miles north-eaft of Raidroog. N. lat. 15° 6’.
E. long. 76° 54’.

BALI, or Barry, one of the ifles of Sunda, fituate in
the Java fea, on the eaft fide of the ftrait of Balli, which
feparates it from Java; 25 leagues long, and 15 wide, fertile
and populous. It feems only remarkable for furnifhing
flaves, cotton-yarn, and pickled-pork. S. lat. 8° 30’. E. long.
115° 10’.

Baxi, or Barry, Strait, lies on the weit fide of the ifland
of this name, in the Indian ocean. Its north entrance is in
S. lat. 7° 54’, and the fouth entrance in S. lat. 8° 39’.
E. long. 114° 25’. It is fometimes called the Balambuan
channel. Through this itrait the European Eaft India
merchant fhips occafionally pafs in their return from China,
It is fometimes called Fava trait.

Batt, a province which once belonged to Abyffinia, and
the firft taken by the Galla. It lies to the north-eaft of
Narea, and to the weft of the kingdom of Adel, which
feparates it from the fea, about N.lat..10°, and E.long.

1%

BALICASSE, balicaffe des Philippines, in Ornithology.
Under this name, Buffon defcribes the corwus baticaffius,
Gmel. in his Nat. Hift. Birds; in the Planch. Enl. it is
called choucas des Philippines.

BALICASSIUS, a fpecies of Corvus, of a greenifh
biack colour, with a forked tail. Gmelin. Corvus {plendide
nigro-viridans. Bri. Av. The beak, legs, and claws, are
black.

_ BALIKESRI, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in the province of Natolia, fifty-two miles north-
eaft of Pergamo. N. Jat. 39° 45’. E. long. 27° 50’.

BALINCAILACH, a cape on the weit coalt of Ban«
becula, one of the weftern iflands of Scotland.

BALINE Head and Cove, lie between cape Broyle and
the bay of Bulls, on the coaft of Newfoundland. The
cove is a {mall place behind a rock, called the Whale’s back
and a itage for fifhing, with two or three boats. ;

BALIOL,orBatuiot, Joun, in Biography, king of Scot-
land, was defcended from an illuitrious family, which poffeffed
largeeftates in Scotlandsand France, as well as England. He is
fuppofed to have been born about the year 1260, or at a fome-
what earlier period; and was a competitor with Robert
Bruce for the crown of Scotland; the right of fucceffion to
which belonged to the defcendants of David earl of Hunt-
ingdon, third fon of king David I. Bruce was the fon of
Tfabel, the fecond daughter of earl David; and Baliol, the
fon of John Baliol, who founded Baliol college in Oxford, was
the grandfon of Margaret, the eldeit daughter of earl Dayid.
According to the rules of fucceffion which are now efta-
blifhed, the right of Baliol was preferable; and notwith-
{landing Bruce’s plea of being nearer in blood to-earl David,
Baliol’s claim, as the reprefentative of his brother and grand-
mother, would be deemed ineonteftible. But in that age,
the order of fucceffion was not afcertained with the fame pre-
cifion ; and though the prejudices of the people, and per-
haps the laws of the kingdom, favoured Bruce, each of the
rivals was fupported by a powerful fa¢tion. In order to
avoid the miferies of a civil war, to which it was feared re-
courfe would be had for deciding a difpute which the laws
could not fettle, king Edward oF England was chofen um-
pire, and both parties agreed to acquiefce in his decree.
Under pretence of examining the queftion with due fo-
lemnity, this prince fummoned all the Scottifh barons to
Norham, May roth, 1291; and having gained fome, and in-
timidated others, he prevailed on all who were prefent, not

excepting

BAL

excepting Bruce and Baliol, the competitors, to acknow-
ledge Scotland as a fief of the Englith crown, and to {wear
fealty to him as their fovereign or liege lord. He alfo de-
manded poffeffion of the eenre that he might be able
to deliver it to him whofe right fhould be preferable. ‘This
ftrange demand obtained aflent; and Edward finding Baliol
the moft obfequious, and the leaft formidable of the two
rivals, foon after gave judgment in his favour. Baliol once
more profefied himfelf the vaffal of England, A. D. 1292,
and fubmitted to every condition which the fovereign whom
he had now acknowledged was pleafed to preferibe. Itd-
ward having thus, as he conceived, eftablifhed his dominion,
began too foon to affume the matter; but his new vaflals,
fierce and independent, bore with impatience a yoke to which
they were not accuftomed. The paflive fpirit even of Ba-
liol began to mutiny, upon which Edward forced him to re-
fign the crown, and openly attempted to feize it as fallen to
himfelf by the rebellion of his vaffal. At this critical period,
fir William Wallace, to whom his countrymen have afcribed
many fabulous acts of prowefs, ventured to take up arms in
defence of the kingdom, and by his boldnefs revived the
fpirit of the nation. At laft Robert Bruce, the grandfon
of Baliol’s competitor, appeared to affert his own rights,
and to vindicate the honour of his country. The nobles,
afhamed of their former bafenefs, and enraged at the many
indignities oflered to the nation, crowded to his ftandard.
Tn order to cruth them at once, the Englifh monarch entered
Scotland, at the head of a mighty army; many battles
were fought, but the Scots, though often vanquifhed, were
not fubdued. The ardent zeal with which the nobles con-
tended for the independence of the kingdom, the prudent
valour of Bruce, and above all, a national enthufiafm in-
fpired by fuch a caufe, baffled the repeated efforts of Ed-
ward, and counterbalanced all the advantages which he de-
rived from the number and wealth of his fubjeéts. And
though the war continued, with little intermiffion, upwards
of 70 years, Bruce and his pofterity kept poffeffion of the
throne of Scotland, and ruled with an authority not inferior
to that of its former monarchs: During the conteft in fa-
vour of Bruce, John Baliol lived quietly as a private man
on his own eftates, which were very confiderable, in France,
without interfering in the affairs of Scotland. Some writers
fay, that he lived till he was blind, which, if true, muft have
been the effeG of fome difeafe, fince it is certain that he
died A.D. 1314, when he could not be above 55 years of
age at moft. “ Thus ended,” {ays fir David Dalrymple, in
his Annals of Scotland, “ the fhort and difaftrous reign
of John Baliol; an ill-fated prince! cenfured for doing ho-
mage to Edward, never applauded for afferting the national
independency. Yet, in his original offence, he bad the
example of Bruce; at his revolt, he faw the rayal family com-
bating under the banners of England. His attempt to
fhake off a foreign yoke, {peaks him of a high {pirit, im-
patient of injuries. He erred in enterprifing beyond his
itrength; in the caufe of liberty, it was a meritorious error.
He confided in the valour and unanimity of his fubjects,
and in the affiftance of France. he efforts of his fubje&s
were languid and difcordant; and France beheld his ruin
with the indifference of an unconcerned fpectator.’? Robert-
fon’s Hift. of Scotland, vol.i. p. 10, &c. Biog. Brit.

BALIPATNA, or Parz-Patna, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a maritime town of India, nearly at an equal diftance
from the gulf of Canthi-Colpus, and that of Barigazenus.
The periplus of the Erythrean fea places it to the fouth-
ealt of Mandagora. See Patna.

BALIPATUA, a town of India, on this fide of the
Ganges. Ptolemy.

Vau. III.

BAL

BALIS, a town of Africa, in Libya, and in the vicinity
of Cyrene, which had its name from a temple dedicated to
Baal.

Baris, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, im
Syria, on the frontiers of Diarbekir, on the weft bank
of the Euphrates, twenty leagues eaft of Aleppo.

BALISBIGA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia,
fituate in the mountains north of the river Arfanias, placed
by Ptolemy in Armenia Major. ’

BALISSUS, a ftream in the deferts which anciently
feparated Affyria from Arabia, near the place where Craffus
was defeated by the Parthians.

BALISTA, in Ariillery. See Bavursta.

Barista, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Italy, in
Liguria. Livy.

BALISTES, in Schthyology, the name of a genus of
branchioftegous fithes, in the Linnzan fyftem. The chara@er
of the genusis, to have the head comprefled, continued clofe
to the body; and fometimes a {pine between the eyes; mouth
narrow; teeth in each jaw eight in number, of which the
two anterior ones are longeft, and three interior ones againft
the intervals between thot: on the fide; aperture of the gills
narrow, above the pectoral fins; no operculum; rays of the
membrane two; body comprefled, and carinated on each
fide; fcales joined together, coriaceous, and rough, with
minute prickles, Nearly all the fithes of this genus are re~
markable for their {plendid colours. The fpecies mentioned
by Linnzus and Gmelin are the following: monoceros, {crip-
tus @, hifpidus, tomentofus, papillofus, verrucofus, biacu-
leatus, aculeatus, vetula, maculatus, ringens, finenfis, aflafii,
caprifcus, forcipatus, punctatus, Klein, curaffavicus, and
Americanus; which fee.

Lacepede has defcribed twenty-four f{pecies of baliftes, in
his work on fifhes, and which he divides into four feétions;
le balifte mamelonné, le balifte pralin, le balifte verdatre, ‘le
balitte Mungo-Parck (Park); le balifte métallique, &c.
are new or interciting {pecies defcribed by Lacepede, Bofc.
&c. as will be noticed hereafter.

BALITO (Guiffo Balito}, in Ornithology, the name of
spbenize tridactyla, or three-toed grofbeak, in Buffon’s Hitt.

irds.
_ BALIVIS, a name given by the people of the Philippine
lands to a kind of duck that is fmaller than the common
wild duck of this country. The fpecies is unknown.

BALIVO amovendo, in Law, a writ to remove a
bailiff from his office, for want of fufficieit land in the
bailiwick.

BALIZE, in Geography, a fort at the mouth of the
Miffifippi river.

BALK, in Agriculture, a ridge or bank between two
furrows, or pieces of arable land.

Barks, among Builders, denote large pieces of timber
brought from abroad in floats; or a fort of beams imported
from five to twelve inches fquare. The greater balks are
accounted timber, if above eight inches {quare.

Bacx, or Bawh, is alfo ufed in fome parts of England for
the {ummer-beam of a building, for the poles or rafters laid
over outhoufes or barns; and among bricklayers, for the
pieces of timber that are ufed in making fcaffolds.

Bark, in Geography, a province of Great Bucharia, in
Independent ‘Vartary, correfponding to the ancient BaGiria
or Battriana. It lies to the fouth of the province of Samar-
cand, and eait of Proper Bucharia, and has been eftimated at
360 miles in length, and 250 in breadth. Bentink obferves,
that though this province is the fmalleft of the three into
which Great Bucharia was formerly divided, the other twe
being Samarcand and Bucharia Proper; yct, being very

RAG fertile

BAL

fertile and well cultivated, the prince draws from it a con-
fiderable revenue. The country abounds with filk, which
furnifhed the inhabitants with a valuable article of manufac-
ture. The Ufbecks, fubje& to the khan of Balk, are the
moft civilized of all the Tartars inhabiting Great Bucharia,
which circumftance is attributed to their commerce with the
Perfians. This country has been divided into feveral pro-
vinces, of which the moft remarkable are Khotlan, Tokaref-
tan, and Badakthan. Its chief cities are Balk, Fariyab,
Talkan, Badakfhan, and Anderab. Mod. Un. Hilt. vol. iv.
aaa lig oak wel s Spear

Bavx, a diftinguifhed city of the above-mentioned pro-
vince, feated towards the borders of Perfia, on the river
Dewath, which flows ‘into the Amu from the mountains of
Gaur or Paropamifus. It was probably the ancient Bac-
ria, which fee. The hiftorians of Perfia fay that it was
founded by Kaiumurath, the firft king of Perfia, and that
he gave it this name becaufe he had found his brother, whom
he had loft, on this fpot: balkhiden, or balgiden, fignifying, in
their language, to receive and embrace a friend. The firft
kings of Perfia, who inhabited the province of Aderbijan
in Media, confidered this city of BaGtriana as the frontier of
their country. After fevere contefts between the oriental
Turks and Perfians, the kings of Perfia of the fecond dy-
nafty made this city the capital of their empire, as it ferved
to prevent the people of Turqueftan or Tokarettan from ob-
taining the paflage of the river Oxus or Gihon. The kings
of the fucceeding dynatties eftablifhed other principal cities,
and Balk was merely the capital of Khorafan, which pre-
eminence belonged to it when it was taken by Ahnaf, the
fon of Alkais, the Arabian commander, under the caliphate of
Othman. Under the Abaffide caliphs, and fucceeding fultans,
Balk was a city of peculiar diftinétion; it was called Cubat al
Em, or the Metropolis of Muffulmanifm, and extended its
junifdiGion over the countries of Badakfhan, Khotlan, and
Tokhareftan. It was taken by the Moguls or Tartars, un-
der Jenghiz Khan, in the year of the Hegira 618, A. D.
1221, and by his orders its inhabitants were removed out of
the walls of the city, and cruelly maffacred. In the year of
the Hegira 771, A. D. 1369, Tamerlane compelled fultan
Houflain, the laft of the race of Jenghiz Khan, to fur-
render the city; and his fucceffors retained poffeffion of it
till they were expelled by the Ufbecks in the fifteenth cen-
tury. Between the Ufbeck Tartars and the Perfians it has
been the occafion of continual wars. ‘The principal mofque
of this city is conftru@ed upon the model of that at Mecca.
Herbel. Bibl. Orient. p. 167.

In the beginning of the laft century, Balk was the
moft confiderable of all the towns poficiled by the Ma-
hometan Tartars, as Bentink informs us, being large,
handfome, and well peopled. Moft of its buildmgs are
of brick or ftone; and its fortifications confit of earthern
bul.varks, lined on the outfide with a itreng wall. The
khan’s caftle is a magnificent ftru€ture, after the eaftern
fafhion, built wholly of marble, dug out of the neighbouring
mountains. In 1739, Balk was obliged to fubmit to the
arms of Nadir Shah, or Kuli Khan; but has fince recovered
its independency. As foreigners have free liberty to trade in
this city, itis the chief feat of the commerce between Great
Bucharia and Hindoftan. N.lat. 36°21’. E.long. 65°

f.
3 BALKAN, a bay onthe eaftern coaft of the Cafpian fea,
in which are iflands inhabited chiefly by pirates of the race of
urcoman Tartars. Thefe iflands produce rice and cotton,
and one of them, called Naphthonia, abounds in naphtha.
The trafic, fays Mr. Coxe (Tray. in Ruffia, vol. iii. p. 332-)
might be increafed to the advantage of Ruflia; as it would

BAL

be far more commodious to trade with the Tartars of
Khiva and Bucharia from thefe parts than from Oren-

burg, through the country of the warlike and independent -

Kirghees.

BALKAN, a mountain of European Turkey, which di-
vides Romania from Bulgaria.

BALKEE, a town of Hindoftan, in the country of Dow-
latabad, 15 miles W.N.W. of Beder.

BALKERS, in the Fifbery, perfons placed on rocks
and eminences at fea, to fpy the herring-droves, and give
notice to the fifhermen by waving boughs, what way they
go, and where they may be found. 1 Stat. Jac. I.
cap. 23.

BALL, Joun, in Biography, an Englifh divine, was born
at Caffington, near Wooditock, in Oxtordfhire. Although
educated at Oxford, he attached himfelf to the caufe of the
Puritans. Ordained by an Inifh bifhop without fubfecription,.
he ferved a curacy of 20]. a year at Whitmore in Stafford-
fhire, and with this, together with the produce of a {mall
fchool, he lived contentedly. In this obfcure and lowly con-
dition, he diftinguifhed himfelf by his writings. His chief
work was “* A fhort Treatife concerning all the principal
grounds of the Chriitian religion ;”” and fo popular was this-
treatife that it paffed through fourteen editions before the
year 1632, and was tranflated into the Turkifh language.
He alfo wrote “ A Treatife on Faith,” ato. 1631; «A
Friendly Trial of the Grounds of Separation,” ato. 16405-
and feveral devotional pieces. Although he difliked cere-
monies, he wrote againfi thofe who thought them a fuffiz
cient ground of feparation. He died in 1640, with the-
character of a laborious preacher, and an ingenious writers
Biog. Brit. °

Batt, in a general fenfe, a round body, found naturally,
or formed by art, of this figure.

Batt, in Antiquity, gives the denomination to a fpecies-
of game or fport frequent among the ancients.

The Romans had four kinds of pile, or balls: the firft
called frigon, or trigonalis, becaufe the three gamefters at it
were placed in a triangle: thefe alternately caught and toffed’
the ball, andhe who firlt let it fall to the ground, was the lofer.
The fecond called follis, or folliculus, was made of leather,
blown up like our foot-balls: the large fort of thefe were
ftruck with the arm, the fmaller with the Aft: the former
feems to have been diftinguiihed by the appellation paganica,
as being much ufed in country villages: the fourth was the
harpafi, 2 kind of fmall ball, fo called, becaufe the gamefters
endeavoured to {natch it from each other.

-Galen has an entire treatife on the exercife of the leffer
ball. :

Batts, in ArchiteGure, are reprefented at C, in the figure
of the bafilic (fee Basizic); and are ufed for fupporting

ttic pedettals. 4

Batts, in Brewing. ‘They are either drown or pale, and
ufed to fine, feed, preferve, and colour malt-drinks, wines,
and cyders. See the compofition of them defcribed under
Brewinc.

Batis, Martial, in Chemifiry, a preparation of iron now
entirely difufed in this, form, but retamed in the Materia
Medica as a powder. It is the ferrum tartarizatum, tartrile
of iron; or this metal united with, ard partly diffolved by,
cream of tartar.

To make martial balls, take one part of filings of iron,
and two parts of powdered cream of tartar; mix them well
together, and put them into an earthen or iron veffel with
fome water; ftir the mixture from time to time, till it be-
comes almoft dry ; add more water, and ftir it as before, till
it acguires, when nearly dry, fomewhat of the confiftence

and

ee ee ee te ane

a a

BAL

and tenacity of foftened rofin; then it is rolled into the
form of a ball, generally kept tied up ina rag, and when
it is ufed, infufed into water, till it gives fome colour to
that liquid. Mac. Chem. Dict. Eng. Ed.

Batts, Mercurial, an amalgam of mercury and tin fuf-
ficiently folid to be moulded, and to preferve a folid form.

To make mercurial balls, add mercury to its weight of
melted tin, and pour the fluid mafs into a round and hollow
mould.

Thefe balls have been employed to purify water in which
‘they are boiled, an opinion which is perhaps in fome de-
gree well-founded, fince mercury even in imperceptible quan-
tity is known to deftroy animalcule. However, the boiling
alone would probably produce nearly the fame effet, and
the mercurial balls are no longer in ufe. The tin is not an
ufelefs addition, fince befides giving the mafs a proper con-
filtence, it aflilts molt materially in the oxydation, and there-
fore the folubility, of the mercury.

Barts, in LleGricity, are two pieces of cork, or pith of
elder, nicely turned in a lathe, to the fize of a fma!l pea,
and fufpended by fine linen threads ; intended by Mr. Can-
ton as eleCtrometers, and of excellent ufe to difcover {mall
degrees of electricity, to obferve the changes of it from
politive to negative, and vice verfé; and to eftimate the
force of a fhock before the difcharge, fo that the operator
fhall always be able to tell very nearly before the difcharge,
by knowing how high he has charged his jars, what the ex-
plofion will be.

Batts, Cryflalline, in Natural Hiflory. "There are two
forts of foflile bodies mentioned in authors by this name,
and diftinguifhed into the echinated and concave. The firft
are roundifh nodules of {trong matter, coyered over with
points of cryital ; and the other, flints and. other ftones,
having cavities in their middles, which are lined, or crufted
over with thefe cryttals.

Bat, Vegetable, a very particular kind of plant of a
deep green colour, of an regularly fpherical fhape, hollow
within, and of different fizes, from an inch and a half to
three inches in diameter. It probably belongs to the Con-
FERVA genus, in the clafs of moffes ; though Mr. Ray has
ranged a fimilar plant under the genus of Atcyonium.
(See Corat.) Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvit. art. 83. an. 1752.

Barr, Puff. See Lycorerpon.

Baur, Hero's, Pila Heronis, in Hydraulics, is a kind -of
artificial fountaim, wherein the water is made to {pout froma
hollow ball or globe.

It takes the denomination from the inventor, Hero of
Alexandria, who has leit the defcription of it in his Spi-
vitalia. See Founratin.

Baus of Fire in the air, in AMeteorology, are meteors
fometimes {een pafling over countries, and computed by phi-
lofophers to be at a very confiderable height in the atmo-
fphere. ‘They fometimes burit at that height ; and though
the air muft be exceeding rare there, yet the explofion is
heard at that diftance, and for feventy miles round on the
furface of the earth, &c. Does not this look as if a rare
atmofphere, almoft a wacuum, was no bad conductor of
found? Dr. Franklin’s Works, p. 437.

Among the phenomena of the atmofphere, the larse me-
teors called fire-balls, and do/ides, have in modern times ex-
cited particular attention. Mr. C.F. Fulda has colleGed a
variety of obfervations refpeCting thefe phenomena, in a pa-
per read to the Phyfical Society of Gottingen, Dec. 7,
1796,-and publifhed in profeffor Gmelin’s “ Gottingifches
Journal der Naturwiffenfchafften, vol.i. part 2. Thefe me-
teors, he obferves, appear in every climate in fouthern and

BAL

northern latitude, as well as under the equator. They are
alfo feen at every feafon of the year, and at every period ct
the day, and for the moft part when the fly is ferene, fome
of them proceeding from light clouds, which has given oc-
cafion for fuppofing that they originated at a greater height
than thefe clouds; and they have been obferved to move
with different degrees of rapidity, fome proceeding at about
1530 feet in a fecond or even with a flower motion, and
others moving at the rate of thirty Englith miles in the fame
time, or with a velocity greater by 31 miles in a fecond
than that of the earth in its orbit. They proceed from, as
well as towards, all points of the compafs: however, moft
of them have appeared in the northern or fouthern parts of
the horizon; and yet no general conclufion, in refpect of
their conneétion with the northern or fouthern lights, can
be deduced from this circumftance, though fome obfervations
made in Sweden feem to favour fuch an hypothefis. They
do not always move according to the direction of the winds
nor is their velocity proportioned to that of the wind.
When, indeed, they have appeared, it has generally been
calm ; but fome of them have been fucceeded by even a vio-
lent wind. They almoft all defcend towards the earth, and
from a rarer to a denfer atmofphere, as may be inferred
from their foon becoming confiderably enlarged. Some,
however, have proceeded in an horizontal direétion over the
furface of the earth, but none of them appear to move up-
wards. Their form is fometimes perfeétly globular, and
fometimes more fpindle-fhaped, fo that their length has occu-
pied feven or eight degrees of the heavens. When they
move with a great velocity, they have been followed by a
long_tail, which has been afcribed to the continuance of the
impreffion made on theeye. Others, that have moved flow-
ly, appeared as if the tail, or part of it, belonged to the
body itfelf ; and it fhould feem that the lone train, which
marks their courfe, ought often to be accounted for by
traces left behind them rather than by mere impreffion.
Their apparent magnitude has been very different ; but fre-
quently larger than that of the moon. Few of them have
had an apparent motion round their axes. Mott of them
diffufed a very lively dazzling light ; but the fmaller num-
ber have exhibited a faint light; their colour and {plendor
have been very different and variable, fometimes red, fome-
times blue, fometimes violet, fometimes in part yellow or
dazzling white, and fometimes exhibiting the prifmatic co-
lours. Some have been feen to burn with a bright flame,
and others as if in a flate of ignition. ‘Their real diameter,
afcertained by a¢tual meafurement or by conjecture, has been
always very confiderable. The diameter of that concerning
which fir John Pringle made calculations from various ole
fervations which he collected (Phil. Tranf. vol. LI. pt. nm
p.218.), and that of the meteor feen by Mr. Rittenhoufe
at Philadelphia, in O&tober 1779 (Americ. Tranf. vol. it.
p- 175+), were at moft about half a German mile. Thefe me-
teors feem to originate at a very different, but mot of them
at a very confiderable, height above the furface of the
earth. All of them, whofe mean or greatelt height has
been the fubje&t of calculation, were elevated above the
higheit clouds, as clouds are fearcely perceptible at the
height of 13,500 toifes ; and Silberfchlag tound the greateft
height of the fire-ball, which appeared in July 1762, to be
72,276 toifes. On this account their origin, as Reimarus
and Chladni have fuppofed, 1s not to be alcribed merely to
eleétricity ; but others have confidered them as produced
by the action of the eleétric fluid between the clouds and
the northern lights; and this hypothefis fufficiently corre-
fponds to their aétual height, becaufe by the meafurement

Bh bez of

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of Bergman, Kaftner, and Lambert, the northern lights
have an altitude of more than 20 or 30 German miles, and
according to every appearance, no fire balls have been feen
higher. (See AvRoRA Borearis.) On the other hand,
this general conclufion led Halley, Franklin, and Ritten-
houfe, to adopt the notion ingenioufly defended by Chladni,
that thefe phenomena, as well as fhooting ftars, are co{mi-
cal meteors belonging to the atmofphere of the fun, which,
meeting our earth in its courfe round that luminary, are in-
flamed, by fome caufe or other, when they enter the earth’s
atmofphere. ‘The time of their duration has been very dif-
ferent ; fome of them having continued half an hour, and
others not longer than half a minute. Many of them in
their courfe have thrown out fparks, and moft of them have
been feen to feparate into feveral larger and {mailer parts be-
fore they entirely difappeared. From this divifion it has
been inferred, that thefe phenomena cannot be accounted
for by the hypothefis of a traé&t of inflammable air fet on
fire; to which hypothefis Chladni has objected on other
grounds. This feparation has been accompanied with a
rumbling noife like thunder, or a fudden report. Several,
after burfting, feemed to diffolve into fmoke; but moft of
them, after exploding, have left behind them no vifible
traces. In fome cafes, after their difappearance, a fulphu-
reous fmell has been perceived, which led Mufchenbroeck to
form his hypothefis of an accumulation of fulphureous in-
flammable vapours that arife from volcanoes and fubterranean
pits, which, being driven together by the winds, form clouds
that are by fome accident or other fet on fire; but this hy-
pothefis cannot be reconciled with their prodigious height
any more than that of Silberfchlag’s oily and flimy vapours.
As {coriaceous mafles have frequently been either actually
feen to fall at the time of the difappearance of thefe pheno-
mena, or have been foon after found on the furface of the
earth ; and as it has been fufficiently proved by various ac-
counts, that ftones have fallen from the atmofphere, Dr.
Chladni concludes, that both thefe phenomena are con-
neéted ; but this point can be determined only by future ac-
curate obfervations.

This ingenious profeffor of Wittenberg, in his “ Obfer-
vations on a Mafs of Iron found in Siberia by Profeffor Pal-
las, &c.’? has inveftigated the origin of fire-balls in general.
This mafs, defcribed by Pallas in his “ Travels,’ vol. iii.

- 311. was found between Krafnojarfk and Abekanfic,
in the high {late mountains, open and uncovered. It weighed
1600 pounds; refembled in figure a rough granite ; was co-
vered externally with a ferruginous kind of cruft ; and with-
an confifted of malleable iron, brittle when heated, porous
like a large fea fponge, and having its interftices filled with
a brittle hard vitrified fubftance of an amber yellow colour.
This texture and the vitrified fubftance appeared uniformly
throughout the whole mafs, and without any traces of flag or
artificial fire. This mafs, which the Tartars confider as a fa-
cred relic dropped from heaven, Chladni refers to the fame ori-
gin, and fuppofes to be of the fame nature with the bolides,
or fire-balls. From a variety of obfervations relating to thefe
phenomena, he endeavours to prove that they do not arife
from an accumulation of the matter of the aurora borealis ;
a tranfition of electricity from one part of the atmofphere to
another; an accumulation of porous inflammable fubftances
in the higher regions ; or the catching fire of a long train of
inflammable air; but that their component parts muft be
confiderably denfe and heavy, as their courfe fhews in fo
apparent a manner the effects of gravity ; and becaufe their
mafs, though it diftends to a monftrous fize, retains fufi-
cient confiltency and weight to continue an exceedingly

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rapid movement through a very large f{pace, without being
decompofed er diffolved, notwithftanding the refiftance of
the atmofphere. It feems to him probable, that this fub-
ftance is by the effect of fire reduced to a tough fluid cone
dition ; becaufe its form appears fometimes round and fome-
times elongated, and as its extending till it burfts, as welk
as the burtting itfelf, allows us to fuppofe a previous capa-
bility of extenfion by elattic fluidity. At any rate, it’ ap-
pears to be certain, that fuch denfe matter at fo great a
hei pnt is not colleéted from particles to be found in our at-
mofphere, or can be thrown together into large mafles by
any power with which we are acquainted; that no power
with which we are acquainted is able to give to fuch bodies
fo rapid a projeétile force in a direétion almoft parallel to
the horizon; that the matter does not rife upwards from the
earth, but exifts previoufly in the celeftial regions, and muft.
have been conveyed thence to our earth. In the opinion of
Dr. Chladni, the following is the only theory of this phe-
nomenon that agrees with all the accounts hitherto given ;
which is not contrary to. mature in any other refpeét ; and
which befides feems to be confirmed by various mafles found
on the fpot where they fell.

As earthy, metallic and other particles form the principak
component parts of our planets, among which iron is the
prevailing part, other planetary bodies may therefore~con-
fift of fimilar, or perhaps the fame component parts, though
combined and modified in a very different manner. There
may alfo be denfe matters accumulated in fmaller maffes
without being in immediate connetion with the larger pla-
netary bodies, difperfed through infinite fpace, and which,
being impelled either by fome projecting power or attraction,
continue to move until they approach the earth or fome
other body ; when being overcome by their attractive force,
they immediately fall down. By their exceedingly great
velocity, ftill increafed by the attraction of the earth, and
the violent friétion in the atmofphere, a ftrong ele€tricity
and heat muft neceflarily be excited, by which means they
are reduced to a flaming and melted condition, and great
quantities of vapour and different kinds of gafes are thus
difengaged, which diftend the liquid mafs to a monftrous
fize, till by a ftill farther expanfion of thefe elaftic fluids, they
mutt at length burft. Dr. Chladni thinks alfo, that the
greater part of the fhooting ftars, as they are called, are’
nothing elfe than fire-balls, which differ from the latter-
only in this, that their peculiarly great velocity carries them
paft the earth at a greater diitance, fo that they are not
fo ftrongly attra&ted by it as to fall down, and therefore in
their paflage through the high regions of the atmofphere,
oecafion only a tranfient electric flafh, or actually take fire
for a moment, and are again fpeedily extinguifhed, when
they get to fuch a diftance from the earth that the air be-
comes too much rarefied for the exiftence of fire. The pro-
feffor illuftrates and vindicates this theory, romantie, as he
allows, fome may be difpofed to denominate it, by a variety:
of refileSions ; and in fome fubfequent publications, he has-
endeavoured to confirm it by adducing a great number of »
other phenomena of a fimilar kind. He concludes the
whole elaborate detail with obferving, that the accounts
of fcoriaceous mafles, which contained iron, earth, fulphur,
&c. having fallen from the heavens, with violent explofions,
are not fictions, but true relations of real natural phenomena
actually obferved at various times ; and that fire-balls, and
the falling of fuch majffes, are the fame meteor. “ Refpec-
ting the quettion,’’ he fays, ® whence fire balls and fuch
fallen mailes proceed, opinions are very different. Moft
people believe that they are owing to accumulations in the

atmo-

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atmofphere. But even when it is allowed that a great many
foreign fub{tances are diffolved in the atmofphere, the quan-
tity of them, efpecially in regions at the diftance of eighty
miles or more, from which fuch fire-balls are {een to fall in
the form of a luminous point, is too fmall to admit of our
fuppofing fuch large maffes to be formed of it, Should the
folid particles, which may perhaps be diffolved in the atmo-
{phere, precipitate themfelves, it would be rather in the
form of a fine powder. I confider it, therefore, with Anax-
agoras, Mafkelyne, Halley, &c. as more probable that
thefe mafles come to our regions from the common expanfe
of the univerfe; and that, befides planetary bodies, there
are {maller accumulations of matter, which when they ap-
proach too near our earth muft fall down. That material
bodies a€tually exift in the remoteft regions, is fhewn both
by the fingle and accumulated luminous fparks which Dr.
Schroter faw pafs over the field of his telefcope ; as alfo by
the fhooting ftars which pafs by our earth, probably at a
greater diftance and with greater velocity than to allow their
being attraGted by it, and made to fall to its furface ; and to
which fire-balls, on their firft appearance, when they feem
to approach like a luminous point, have a perfect refem-
blance. ‘There are many reafons for inducing us to believe
that fhooting ftars cannot be mere electric phenomena, with-
out the prefence of fome coarfer fubftances.

The paradoxicalnefs of this mode of explanation, which
is contrary to no known obfervations of nature, is rather
apparent than real, and confifts only in this, that people
have not been accuftomed to it; or that, on account of
the rarity of thefe phenomena, many faéts of this kind have
been denied, or have efcaped notice. For this reafon, after
I had written the Treatife on the Mafs of Iron d:fcovered
by Profeffor Pallas, I hefitated whether I fhould publih it,
becaufe I expected that it would meet with confiderable op-
pofition. ‘The more I endeavoured however to compare,
without partiality for any fyftem, the obfervations already
made, which correfpond fo much with each other, the more
I found that thefe phenomena could not be properly ex-
plained in any other manner, without either contradiéting
obfervations already made, or well-known laws of nature:
fo that I fee no grounds for retraGting any thing I have ad-
vanced on this fubje&t.”* See Height of the ArmosPHERe,
and Mereor.

Bat, in the Military and Pyratechnical Aris, is a com-
pofition of divers ingredients, generally of the combuttible
kinds, ferving to burn and deftroy, give light, f{moke, ftench,
or the like.

In this fenfe we read of fire-balls, light-balls, fmoke-
balls, ftink-balls, fky-balls, water-balls, land-balls, &c.

Balls are likewife ufed for all forts of fire-arms ; thofe for
cannon are made of iron, and are dillinguifhed by their re-
fpetive calibres; and thofe for mufkets, &c. of lead.

Bauus, Fire, are bags of canvas filled with gunpowder,
fulphur, faltpetre, pitch, &c. to be thrown by the foldiers,
or out of mortars, in order to fire houfes, incommode
trenches, advanced pofts, or the like.

The Greeks had divers kinds of fire-balls made of wood,
fometimes a foot, or even a cubit long ; their heads being
armed: with {pikes of iron, beneath which were hemp,
pitch, and other combuttibles, which being fet on fire,
were caft among the enemy.

The preparations of fire-balls, among the moderns, con-
fits of feveral operations, viz. making the bag, preparing
the compofition, tying, and, laftly, dipping the ball.

The bags for this purpofe are either oval or round.

The compofition wherewith fire-balls are filled is. various.

7

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To ten pounds of meal gunpowder, add two of faltpetre,
one of fulphur, and one of colophoay: or, to fix pounds
of gunpowder, add four of faltpetre, four of fulphur, one
of powdered glafs, half a pound of antimony, as much cam-
phor, an ounce of fal ammoniac, and four of common falt,
all pulverized. Sometimes they even fill fire-balls with hand
granadoes. For tying the fire-balls, they prepare two iron
rings, one fitted round the aperture, where the ball is to
be lighted, the other near its bafe. A cord is tied to
thefe rings in fuch manner as that the feveral turns repre-
fent femicircles, or meridians of the f{phere, cutting the
globe through the poles: over the cords, extended accord
ing to the length of the ball, others are tied, cutting the
former at right angles, and parallel to each other, making a
knot at each interfeétion. Laflly, putting in a leaden bul-
let, the reft of the {pace is filled with tow or paper. Thus
completed, the fire-ball remains to be dipped in a compofi-
tion of melted pitch, colophony, and linfeed oil, or oil of
turpentine ; after dipping, they cover it round with tow,
and dip again, till it be brought to the juft diameter re-
quired.

Barts, Land, thofe which, being thrown out of a mor-
tar, fall to the ground, burn, and burft there. The in-
gredients are much the fame as in the water-balls, only
the fpecific gravity is not attended to.

Batts, Light, are fuch as diffufe an intenfe light around :
or they are balls which, being caft out of a mortar, or the
hand, burn for fome time, and illuminate the adjacent
parts.

Thofe for the hand are made of ground powder, falt-
petre, brimitone, camphor, and borax, all fprinkled with
oil, and moulded into a mafs with fuet, common and Greek
pitch, to the fize of an ordinary granado: this is wrapped
up in tow, with a fheet of ftrong paper over it. To fire it,
a hole is made into-it with a bodkin, into which is put
fome priming that will burn flowly. Its ufe is, to caft into
any works that are to be difcovered in the night time.

For the larger light-balls, or thofe to be thrown to a
greater diftance, they are prepared by melting equal quan-
tities of fulphur, turpentine, and pitch; and by dipping
in this compofition an earthen or ftone ball, of a diameter
much lefs than that of the mortar out of which the fire-ball
is to be caft; then rolling it in gun-powder, and covering
it round with gauze, the dipping is repeated till it comes to
fit the cavity of the mortar; laitly, it is fprinkled around
with gun-powder. This being once kindled, will ftrongly
illuminate all round the place where it is thrown, and give
opportunity for examining the ftate and condition thereof.

Bauus, Séy, thofe calt on high out of mortars, and
‘which, when arrived at their height, burft like rockets, and
afford a {pe€tacle of decoration. Sky-balls are made of a
wooden fhell, filled with various compofitions, particularly
that of the ftars of rockets.

Thefe are fometimes intermixed with crackers and other
combuttibles, making rains of fire, &c. -

Barts, Smoke, or Dark, thofe which fill the air with
{moke, and thus darken a place, to prevent difcoveries.
To prepare a darkening ball, make an oval or {pherical bag ;
melt rofin over the coals, and add an equal part of faltpetre
not purified, alfo of fulphur, and a fitth part of charcoal.
The whole being well incorporated, put in tow firlt fhred,
and fill the bag with this compofition, and dip it after the
fame manner:as a fire-ball.

Batts, Stink, thofe which yield a great ftink where fired
to annoy the enemy.

Their preparation is thus: melt ten pounds of pitch, fe

: ®

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of rofin, twenty of faltpetre, eight of eri nemo, and
four of colophony; to thefe add two o charcoal, fix of
horfe-hoofs cut {mall, three of affa-foetida, one of ftinking
faracen, and any other offenfive ingredients. Then proceed
as in making fmoke and fire-balls.

Batts, Mater, thofe which {wim and burn a confiderable
time in the water, and at length burft therein.

Thefe are made in a wooden fhell, the cavity of which is
filled with a compofition of refined faltpetre, fulphur, faw-
duit boiled in water of faltpetre, and dried; to which fome-
times other ingredients are added, as dron-filings, Greek
pitch, amber-duft, glafs powdered, and camphor. The in-
gredients are to be ground and mixt up, and moiftened with
dinfeed-oil, nut-oil, olive-oil, hempfeed-oil, or petrol. At
the bottom is placed an iron coffin, filled with whole gun-
powder that the ball may at laf burft with a great noife ;
and laftly, the ball is, by the addition of lead, or otherwife,
made of the fame fpecific gravity with water.

Baus, Anchor, are made in the fame manner as light
balls, and filled with the fame compofition; and, befides,
they have an iron bar two-thirds of the ball’s diameter in
length, and three or four inches {quare. One half is fixed
within the ball, and the other half remains without; and
the exterior end is made to grapple with a hook. Thefe
are ufeful for firing wooden bridges or buildings, the rigging
of fhips, &c.; as the pile end being the heavieft, flies fore-
moft, and wherever it touches, faltens, and fets fire to all
about it. Y

Batts, Chain. See Cuain-BAatts.

Bars, Stang. .Sce Stanc-Bavrs.

Batt, in Mizeralogy, is alfo ufed in Cornwall, &c. fora
tin-mine.

In this fenfe Godolphin’s ball is faid to be the mo# famous
of all the balls or mines in Cornwall, for quantity of metal.
Phil. Tranf. N° 138. p. 951.

Batt-Vein, a name given by the miners in Suffex to a
fort of iron ore, common there, and wrought to confiderable
advantage. It yields not any great quantity of metal, but
what it has runs freely in the fire; it is ufually found in
loofe maffes, not in form of ftrata, and is often covered with
one or more crufts. It generally contains ‘fome f{parkling
particles, and is ufually of a circular form in the perfect
matfes ; thickeft in the middle, and gradually thinner as it
approaches the fides. The ores of Suffex in general are
poor, but they require very little trouble in the working, fo
that a confiderable profit is annually made from them

Barri of a Pendulum, the weight at the bottom. In
fhorter pendulums, this is called the od.

Bavz, among Printers, a kind of wooden tunnel fuffed
with wool, contained in a cover of fheep’s fkin, which is
nailed to the wood ; with which the ink is applied on the
forms, to be wrought off.

The preffman holding one of thefe balls in cither hand,
firft daubs them on the ink-block, then working them on
each other, he applies them afterwards on the forms, which
xctaia the ink neceffary to make an impreffion.

Baus far Horfes, in Vi elerinary Science, mafles made into
this form which is the moft ufual and moft convenient mode of
adminiftering medicine to thefe animals.

Being mixed with fome vifcid fubftance, the propofed
medicine is formed into maffes of an oblong or oval form,
which are conveyed by the hand or otherwife to the root of
the tongue, from whence they readily pafs to the ftomach.

This mode of adminiftering medicines to horfes is of
great antiquity. Thefe balls were termed by the Romans
sf; by the Greeks, tpoxicxo;, They, however, generally

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preferred giving their remedies as a potion or drink: The
kinds of balls will neceffarily be as various as the nature of
the medicine which is adminiftered ; as purging balls, cor-
dial balls, diuretic, diaphoretic, febrifuge, worm-balls,
cough-balls, alterative balls, &c. Any tenacious fubftance
not poffeffing active properties, will ferve for the admixture
of them, as pafte made of boiled flour, or boiled linfeed
meal; thefe particularly ferve for balls that are to be imme-
diately given, and not kept for any length of time, as they
are apt to grow hard and dry, and fometimes mouldy. To
prevent this, they may be immerfed in melted wax, which
will effectually coat them over and preferve them, and this
was a mode alfo well known to the ancients. Honey, trea-
cle, turpentine, and tar, are not fubje& to the above objec-
tion, and are all ufed by different perfons for this purpofe.
The two laft, however, cannot be ‘{uppofed devoid of ef-
fe& asa medicine; and therefore fhould not be employed,
unlefs when they co-operate with, or do not deftroy, the
effect of the medicine preferibed.

Soft foap is alfo an adhefive particularly ufeful in the ad-
mixture of diuretic and purging balls for horfes, as not dry-
ing nor being particularly expenfive. Aloes, almoft the
only purgative at prefent known for horfes, operates better
when united with this fubftance than in any other way that
we have tried. Calomel alfo operates as a purgative on
horfes. For the particular method of preparing them, fee
PuarmMAcopoeia Lquina. :

Thefe balls fhould not be made too large, or be fuffered
to get too hard; is either cafe, by lodging in the cefopha-
gus, they may prove fatal Z

It may not be unneceflary alfo to obferve, that for the
eafy adminiltratien of them the following circum{tances
fhould be obferved. The tongue fhould be drawn from the
mouth with the left hand over the grinder teeth, the night
hand holding the ball between the thumb and fir finger,
the ball fhould then fuddenly and at once be thrutt into the
throat by gliding the hand along the roof of the mouth ;
when this is done flowly, the tongue rifes, oppofes the -
hand, and renders it difficult. An iron ring with a handle
is fometimes ufed to diftend their jaws ; but in this country
thefe balls are generally given without.

When the jaw is very narrow fo as not conveniently to
admit the hand, the ball is placed on the end of a pointed
ftick, or it might be placed loofely in a cup or focket at
the end of a {mail cane or whalebone, and be thus very
conveniently given,

Bavts, in Zoology, various fubftances under this form found
in the ftemach and inteitines of feveral animals; they occur
molt frequently in thofe quadrapeds which lick the furface of
their bodies, in which cafe they are compofed of the hair that
has been removed by the tongue; the hair, partly by the ope-
ration of licking, and itill more by the motion of the itomach,
beeomes mixt and interwoven in fuch a manner, that it re«
fembles the texture of ahat, and when moulded into a round
figure, receives a {mooth, fhining coat, or calculous incraf
tation. Thefe are the fort of bails ufually met with in the
cow, fheep, and goat kind, efpecially the chamois. Every
indigettible fubftance that is fwallowed is liable, however, to
give origin to thefe balls, or to form a nucleus for caiculous
concretion; hence we meet with them compofed of the
reedy fibres of vegetables, hutks of feeds, feathers, and dif-
ferent animal and vegetable exuvie. When fuch fubitances
as {tones of fruit, nuts, or inorgani¢ fubftances, as pebbles,
coins, &c. are long detained, and have been covered witha ~
deep incruftation, they conftitute the bezoardie ftones.
See Bezoar. Sce alfo Acacroriva. 4 aja

Accord-

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According to authors, the human fubje& is liable to the
formation of balls in the intellines, in confequence of indi-
geltible matters not being regularly expelled. Thus cafes
have been :elited of death enfuing from accumulations of
‘goofeberry teeds, which had been rolled into a folid ball in
the ftomach ; and fir Hans Sloane gives the hiftory of a ball
found in the inteftines of aman, much aflliéted with the
colic, fix inches in circumference, of a fpongy fubttance,
and which, when viewed witha microfcope, appeared made
up of {mall tranfparent hairs or fibres, wrought together
like the tophus Lovinus; in the middle was a common plumb
ftone, which made, as it were, the core or nucleus upon
which the fibrous matter had collected, ftratum fuper fratum.
Phil. Tranf. N° 309. p.2387. Sloane, in Phil. Tranf. N°2$2

see as
D Batts of Silk-worms and Spiders, are little cafes or cones
woven of filk, wherein thofe infects depolit their eggs. See
Sick.

Spiders are extremely tender of their balls, which they
carry about with them, adhering to the papillx about their
anus. Grew fpeaks of balls or bags of a fpecies of filk-worms
in Virginia, as big as hen’s eggs, and containing each four
aurelie. Phil. Tranf. N° 362. ps 1037.

Batt of the Foot of a Dag, is the prominent part of the
middle of the foot, called by atin writers of the middle
age, pelota, which is to be taken away in expeditation. Du-
Cange Gloff. Lat.

Batts, Billiard, are ivory balls ufed in the game of bil-
liards. Moxon deferibes the method of turning hollow ivory
balls one within another. Mechan. Exerc. p. 219.

Bart, Tennis, is a little globe, made and covered with
cloth or leather, ufed in playing at the game of tennis.

Bact is alfo ufed, in a well-known fenfe, for an aflembly
ef both fexes, who dance to the found of inftruments.

Barus, Glafs. See Grass-Baills.

Baw.-Soap. See Soar.

Bat and Socket, a machine contrived to give an inftru-
ment full play and motion every way. It confifts of a ball
or {phere of brafs, fitted within a concave femi-globe, fo as
to be moveable every way, horizontally, vertically, and
obliquely. It is carried by an endlefs {crew, and is ‘princi-
pally ufed for the managing of furveying inftruments ;- to
which it is a very neceflary appendage.

The ancient balls and fockets had two concaves, or chan-
nels, the one for the horizontal, the other for the vertical
dire&tion.

Barus, Woel. See Woot.

Baxw’s Pyramid, in Geography, a rock in the great Sou-
thern Pacific ocean. 5. lat 31° 30’. Ei. long. 159° 8’.

BALLABUAN, Straiis of. See Batt. .

BALLAD), or Batter, a popular fong containing the
recital of fome action, adventure, or intrigue.

The French confine their ballads to itri@er terms. A
ballad, according to Richelet, is a fong confitting of three
ftrophes, or flanzas, of eight verfes each, befides a half ftro-
phe; the whole in rhime, of two, three, or four verfes, with
a burden repeated at the end of each ftrophe, as well as of
the half ftrophe.

In the old Englith verfion of the Bible, the book. of Can-
ticles is intitled the ballad. of ballads, which has given {can-
dal to fome Romifh writers as countenancing the opinion of
thofe who hold that book a ballad of love, or a recital
of the amours between Solomon and his concubine, as Caitalio
and fome others have conceived it to be.

Some have fuggefted that a colleétion of ballads is necef-
fary to a minifter, in order to learn the. temper and inclina-

BAL

tions of a people, which are here frequently uttered with
great fimplicity. The great Cecil, chief minifter to queen
Elizabeth, is faid to have made a moft ample colleétion of
ballads on this account.

A yery ingenious political writer, Mr. Fletcher of Saltoun,
fays, that if he could but make the ballads of a nation, he
would care very little who made the religion of it. There
is a very curious collection of old Englith and Scottifh bal-
lads, publithed in 3 vols. 8vo. by Dr. Percy ; in which, and
in a diflertation prchxed to Aikin’s ColleGtion of Songs, &c.
the curious in this way may find abundance of entertain-
ment and information concerning the old ballads, and ballad-
makers.

Bairuap, a mean and trifling fong, generally, fuch as is
fung in the ftreets. In the new French Encyclopedie we
are told, that we dance and fing our ballads at the fame
time, as the French do their vaxdevilles. We have often
heard ballads fung, and feen country-dances danced ; but
never at the fame time, if there was a fiddle to be had.
‘The moveinent of our country-dances is too rapid for the
utterance of words; though the term ballad, we have no
doubt, was derived from the Italian dallata, a fong to be
fung and danced at the fame time, as it is defined in the
Crufea Di&tionary : canzone, che |: canta ballando. Ballatella,
and Pallateita, are diminutives of the fame word: piccola
canzonetta a ballo. 'Vhe Englith ballad has long been de-
detached from dancing, and, fince the old tranflation of the
Bible, been confined to a lower order of. fong. In
Shakefpeare’s time this {pecies of vulgar and popular poetry
was wholly degraded and turned into the ftreets—

*¢ An I have not ballads made on you all, and fang to
filthy tunes, may a cup of fack be my poifon.”? Hen. IV.

BALLADUK, in Geography, a: town of Arabia De-
ferta, 140 miles E. N. E. of Damafeus.

BALLA-GAUT, denoting the higher or upper Gauts,
an elevated tra& of the peninfula of India, being the weftern
part of the Carnatic, or-of that part of the peninfula that lies
fouth of the Gondezama and Toombuddra (or Tungebadra)
rivers, from the coaft of Coromandel eaftward to the Gaut
mountains weftward, and containing the diltriéts which lately.
compofed the country of Tippoo. The other or eaitern
part, which is- the Carnatic according to its prefent defini-
tion, 1s denominated Payen-Gaut, or the lower Gauts. (Sve
Baracar.) ‘The Balla-Gaut mountains denote that eleva-
ted tract, acrofs which goods were formerly conveyed from
Tacara, or the modern Dowratasapd, to Baroacu.
See Afiatic Refearches, vol.i. p. 369, &c. Svo.

BALLAGHAN Point, a cape on the eafl coaft of Ire-
land, in the county of Louth, at the fouth-weft entrance of
Carlingford bay; eleven miles fouth-eait of Newry. N. lat.
53° 58. W. long. 6° 4/.

BALANTIRE, or Barwanrrar, a fea-port town or
rather populous village of Scotland, on the weft coatt of
the county of Ayr, in that fobdivifion called Carrick, on
the frith of Clyde, containing about eighty houfes, and 300
inhabitants. ‘Chey have.a good falmon fifhery at the month
of a fmall river called Arditinchar which joins the frith near
the town; but the principal fifhery of this diftri@& is that
of haddocks, whitings, cod, ling, fkate, &c. : twenty-eight
miles S. S. W of Ayr.

BALLARD, Cnpe, les on the eaft coat. of New-
foundland, four leagues N. N. E. from cape Race, and
four miles from Frefh-water bay. N. lat. 46°49’. W. long.
52° 40’.

Barvarnp’s Point, a cape on the weft coaft of Ireland,
in the county of Clare. N. lat. .52° 42’, W. long. 9° 32’.

BALLA.

BAL

BALLARINA, in Ornithology, a name under which
Olina deferibes the white-wagtail, motacilla alba.

BALLAS, a town of Egypt, ten miles fouth of Dendera.

BALLAST, in Navigation, any heavy matter ufed to
fink a veffel to its proper depth in water, or to give it a juft
weight and counterpoife, and enable it to bear fail upright,
without overturning.

The word comes from the Flemifh Jelaf, formed of éz,
and /af or eff. The French call it fimply £f. In the
Mediterranean, guartelage. In Latin writers of the lower
age it is denominated /a/lagium. :

The ordinary ballaft is fand or ftones, {towed in the bot-
tom, or hold, next the falfe keel of a veflel: fometimes, iron,
lead, corn, or other heavy goods, ferve for ballaft.—Ships
are faid to be in ballafl, when they have no other loading.

That ballaft is beft which is heavieft, lies clofelt and
fafteft, and drieft, both for the hip, bearing a fail, ftowing
of goods, health of the company, and faving of cafks and
other goods. Ifa fhip have too much ballait, fhe will draw
too much water; if too little, fhe will bear no fail. The
balla is fometimes one-half, fometimes a third, and fome-
times a fourth part of the burden of a veffel. But there is
often great difference in the proportion of ballaft required to
prepare fhips of equal burden for a voyage; the quan-
tity being always greater or lefs, according to the fharp-
nefs or flatnefs of the fhip’s bottom, which feamen call the

oor.

# Although fhips in general will not carry a fufficient
quantity of fail till they are laden fo deep that the furface
of the water will nearly glance on the extreme breadth
amidfhip, yet a great’ weight of heavy ballatt, as iron, lead,
&c. in the bottom, will place the centre of gravity too low
in the hold; andin this cafe, though they may be able to
carry a great fail, they will move heavily, and hazard being
difmafted by their violent rolling. The art of properly
ballafting a fhip is that of difpofing the materials of which
it confifts, &c. fo that it may be duly poifed, and maintain
a juit equilibrium on the water, and be neither too ji nor
too crank. In the frft cafe, though the fhip may be able
to carry a great fail, yet its velocity will not be proportion-
ably increafed, whilit her mafts are more endangered by her
fudden jerks and exceffive labouring ; and in the laft cafe
fhe will be incapable of carrying fail, without the danger of
overfetting. Stiffnefs in bailatting is occafioned by laying
a great quantity of heavy ballaft, as lead, iron, &c. in the
bottom, which of courfe will place the centre of gravity
very near the keel; and cranknefs is occafioned by having
too little ballaft, or by difpofing the fhip’s lading in fuch
a manner as to raife the centre of gravity too high.

As the tendency of a fhip to pitch or roll depends, not
only en her form, but alfo in a greater degree upon the due
diftributions of the heavicft part of her cargo, the know-
ledge of properly ballafting a fhip, as well as of {towing her
cargo, is of great importance to the mariner. Particular
attention fhould be paid to moderate her pitching, as this
molt fatigues a fhip and her maits ; and it is ufwally in one
of thefe motions that malts break, particularly when the
head rifes after having pitched. Rolling, indeed, 1s a more
confiderable movement than pitching ; but it is flow, and fel-
dom attended with any accident. However, Ait fhould be
prevented as much as poflible ; and this may be eafily done
in general, without any detriment to the fhip’s ftiff carrying
of fail, by ftowing up the ballaft, when it is iron, to the
floor-heads ; becaufe the fhip will be reftored by it with
lefs violence after fhe has inclined, and it will a& on a point
at a little diftance from the centre of gravity.

BAL

For the farther illuftration of this important fubje&t, let
it be premifed, that various methods have been recommended
for finding the following points of a fhip; viz. its centre
of gravity, centre of cavity, centre of motion, and metacentre.
(See thefe articles.) Some of thefe points are fixed ; others
are variable. When a thip is completely loaded, the centre
of gravity is fixed, howfoever the veffel may alter her pofi-
tion. The centre of motion is always in a line with the
water’s edge, when the centre of gravity is even with or
below the furface of the water; but, whenever the centre
of gravity is above the water’s furface, the centre of gravity
is then the centre of motion. In circular bodies the centre
of motion will be the centre of the circle. The centre of
cavity varies with every inclination of the fhip, becaufe that
depends upon the fhape of the bocy immerfed. ‘The meta-
centre, called the fhifting centre, depends upon the fituation
of the centre of cavity ; for it is that point where a vertical
line drawn from the centre of cavity cvts a line pafling
through the centre of gravity and perpendicular to the keel.
The centre of gravity muft not by any means be placed
above this point ; becaufe, if that were the cafe, the veffel
would overfet. a

Let the fegment of a circle 1 2 3 (fig. 14. Plate Il. Me~
CHanics), reprefent the tran{fverfe feétion of a veffel’s
bottom; W L the furface of the water; M the metacentre
as well as the centre of motion, becaufe this is a circle; C
the centre of cavity; G the centre of gravity ; and the
line 2 4 the vertical axis of the veffel which may be turned
round the point M, as ona fulcrum, fupported by the centre
of cavity. By thus fimply confidering the veffel as a lever
in the dire€tion of her vertical axis playing round her centre
of motion, it is plain, that if the centre of gravity was
placed above the point M, being the metacentre too, the
veffel would upfet ; therefore that the fhip may have ftabi-
lity, the centre of gravity muft be below this point : and it
may be obferved, that the farther G is removed from the
metacentre, the greater muft be its force, as the gravity
then acts with a greater length of lever, confidering the
fulcrum of that lever to be at the centre of motion ; or, if the
weight at G be augmented, it will likewife increafe the force 5
therefore the force of G may be exprefled, by multiply-
ing the balance of weight beneath the centre of motion, by
the diftance of the centre of gravity from the centre of mo-
tion.

The centres of cavity and motion (in circular bodies)
will ever be in a line perpendicular to the horizon, but the
centre of gravity may be either on one fide or the other of
this line. When fuch a body isat reft, the centre of gravity
will be in this line ; but if in motion it will be diverted from
it. Thus the points M and C, will always be perpendicular
to W L; but the point G, by the body’s rolling, may be
on either fide; for inftance at g. While G is perpendicu-
larly beneath the centre of motion, its aétion can only tend
ta preferve this circular body in her ereé& pofition ; but if
it is removed to either fide as to g, its aGtion is to return it
to the erect pofition ; and this action increafes as the diftance
G g, which is the fine of the angle of roll g M G, the diftance
M G being confidered as the radius. Thus, to gain the force
of gravity with any roll as g M G, let the balance of weight
beneath the centre of motion be multiplied by the fine of
the angle of roll Gg.

Bur the tendency to roll may be alfo diminifhed by the
fhape of the hull: for, let us fuppofe that the tran{verfe
fection be allowed more beam, and increafed by the dotted
lines. Now when this veffel is rolled over, it is plain that
the cavity will be augmented towards the fide L, of courfe

its

BAE

itscentre mutt remove towards L, fay toe; and, if from c be
erected a perpendicular to the horizon, it will cut the vertical
axis at #, which will, in this cafe, be the metacentre, above
which, if the centre of gravity were placed, it would aét in
conjunction with the centre of cavity to overfet the veffel :
-but, as the centre of gravity is here below it at g, her [tabi-
lity will be increafed by the increafed diflance of G from 2,
the metacemtre; and the veflel will roll round the point M
as her centre of motion.

When failing in {mooth water, the greater the ftability
the better; but if a veflel with a heavy cargo, flowed low
in her bottom, be fent out into a rough tempeftuous fea,
where every wave will throw her from her equilibrium, fhe
will return with fuch violence as to endanger her maits; and
fhould fhe be difmafted, her roll will then be with ftill greater
force, pofiibly to the deftruction of her hull. Was the
cargo in this labourfome veilel to be removed higher up to-
wards the centre of motion, fo as to leffen her itability, fhe
would be found coniiderably eafier; her roll would be by
fych deliberate motions, as to leffen the danger to her maits
and hull.

The ballaft is placed round and very near the centre of
gravity of the fhip, becaufe it will prevent the motion of
the pitching being fo hard as it would be, if that weight were
diftant either afore or abaft that point.. Whenever the fea
runs a little high, the fhip is never carried by a fingle wave;
there are generally two or three always paffing under at the
fame time, unlefs when the fea is extremely long, the {wells
comiag from a great diltance, and in latitudes very remote
from land; for, then, it happens that the largeit thips are
fomctimes carried by one fingle wave. But, in either cir-
cumftance, the ballaft ought not to be ftretched afore or
abaft the centre of gravity, as foon as the fhip is in the
parallel to her draught of Water marked for the ballaft,
which it is abfolutely effential to pay attention to. To
prove this principle, fuppofe in either cafe a long or fhort
furge, and that the water ftrikes the fhip forward, that
thereby fhe may be expofed to the greateft and hardeit

itching ; for when the wave takes a fhip under the ftern,
- motions, if fhe has got a little head-way, are not dan-

erous ; becanfe, as fhe flies before the wave, fhe recedes in
as meafure fromm its impulie; while, in the firit cafe, fhe
increafes on the contrary that fame impulfe in the ratio of
the fquare of all her velocity.

Firit, the fhip whofe extremities are light or little loaded,
being fuppofed to run with any velocity whatever againtt
the wave which comes to her a-head, fhocks that wave with
a force exprefled by the fquare of the fum.of the two ve-
locities ; fhe divides it and goes through it, at the fame in-
itant that fhe is raifed by the vertical impulfe of that column
of water, which oppofes to her a fupporting power too con-
fiderable for h2r weight to difplace; the wave which follows

roduces the fame effec in receiving the fall of the fhip,
8 the firft is already under the middle of the fhip,
whence it paffes to the ftern, which is fupported by it, while
the fecond takes its place in the middle, and the third is
come to fupport the head; and this in an uninterrupted fuc-
ceffion. This motion continuing thus as long as the fea is
agitated, it follows that the fhip is never at reft ; no fooner
has fhe been raifed by a wave, but fhe falls again when that
wave is gone, which falling is proportionably lefs fharp as
her head is lefs heavy ;. the fhake is then lefs violent, fince
fhe fhocks the water with a lefs mafs, which prevents her
pitching fo deep as fhe would do, if fhe were more heavy;
confequently, the mafting does not fuffer, and the headway is
lefs delayed, as the fulleft part of the bows is not fo much
expofed ta the fhock of the water. Sak:

Vou. II.

» her overfertingy

B A iy

Secondly, when the fhip is carried by one fingle wave
her fall is {till lefs fharp, if little loaded a-head, than when
the is carried only by the middle. She rifes, therefore, more
eafily at the moment the other wave comes to {trike her, and
the fhake is not fo violent. Was fhe to plunge dex per into
the fluid, it might happen that the column of water would
become higher than her head, and, palling partly over it,
would expofe her to the danger of foundering ;

In the flowing of the car
heaviett part of the ftowage as low as
to preferve that draught of the fhip whi
tageous for her, whether fhe be iu ballait
Thofe points are marked both at the h
word, the great art of {towing lies, in j
each of the vertical parts, in which the extre
may be fuppofed to be equaily «
lading is complete, than the we
they are to difplace; cbferyi
parts of the middle admit of being more heavily than
the weight of water they are able to difplace.

In. the royal navy, the iron ballaft is firit ftowed fore and
aft, from bulkhead to bulkhead in the main hold, next to fe
cants nailed on the limber-dtrakes on each fide the kelfon,
five or more inches clear of the limber-boards; and is winged
up three or more pigs above the floor-heads in the midfhips,
or bearing part of the fhip, and there are two tiers of pigs
in the wake of the main hatchway and well-wings. Ships,
built with a very clear run aft, feldom have any iron ballaft
ftowed abaft the pump-well or after-hold. Ships that have
floor and futtock riders, have the iron ballaft ftowed either
lengthways or athwart fhips, agreeably to the length of the
chambers, which are the clear {paces between the riders.

The fhingle ballaft is next {pread and levelled over the iron
ballaft ; on which is ftowed the ground tier of water, bung
up and bilge free from the fides, either chine and chine, or
bouge and chine, beginning at the coal-room bulkhead, that
being the foremoft, and making the breakage, if any, at the
main hatch. The midthip tiers, fore and aft, are the firit
laid down, and the cafks are funk about one quarter of their
diameter into the fhingle ; the fides are filled-in with wingers
of {mall cafks, as -half-hogtheads, gang cafks, or breakers;
obferving not to raife the wingers above the level of the tier,
to caufe a breakage in the next tier above, which is ‘ftowed
in the cuntline of the ground tier, bung up and bilge free ;
and fo on, for as many tiers°as can be ftowed fufficiently
clear of the beams. i

In the after-hold, between the aft-fide of the pump-well
and fifh-rocm bulkhead, are ftowed the provifions above the
ground tier; between the cafks, billet, or other wood, and
fhingle ballatt. ;

In the fifth room are ftowed fome of the fpirits, or wine,
and fometitmes coals; and in the fpirit room, are ftowed the
wine and fpirits for the fhip’s ufe.

In the merchant fervice, the ftowage confitts, befides the
ballaft, of cafks, cafes, bales, boxes, &c. which are all
carefully wedged off from the bottom, fides, pump-well,
&c. and great attention paid that the moft weighty materials
are ftowed neareft to the centre of gravity, or bearing of the
fhip ; and higher or lower in the hold agreeably to the form
of the veffel, A full low-built veffel requires them to be
ftowed high up, that the centre of gravity may be raifed,
to keep her from rolling away her mafts, and from being
too ftiff and labourfome; as, on the contrary, a narrow high-
built vefiel requires the moft weighty materials to be ftowed
low: down, neareft the kelfon, that the. centre of gravity
may be kept low, to erable her to carry fail, and to prevent

3U Balla 7

go, it 1s proper to place the
1

poi

iafs of water
ays, that the vertica}

BAL,
Ballaft allowed to the following Ships.

n in | Ton-} iron } Shingle
ane on ee | cule nage.| Tors. Tons. |
2290! 180} 370 | 36 |870 65 | 160
2090, 180] 370 || 32 | 700 65 | I40
2110} 160} 350 |{ 28 |600| 60} 100
1870, 160} 350 |} 24 | 500} 50 80
1620) 140) 300 | 22 | 450) 50) 7°
1700} 80] 270 || 20 |400} 50}| 60
1370| 70} 260 |{Sloop |300] 50 | 40
1100) 65] 170 |} Brig |160| 30] 15
goo! 65} 160 |} Cutter 20 |Seldom
939} 70| 170 |}Sloop 15 | any.

By the 19th Geo. II. it is enacted, that if after June 1,
1746, any matter or owner, or any perfon aéting as matter
of any fhip or other veflel whatfoever, fhall caft, throw out,
or unlade, or if there fhall be thrown out, &c. of any veflel,
being within any haven, port, road, channel, or navigable
river within England, any ballaft, rubbifh, gravel, earth,
ftone, wreck, or filth, but only upon the land, where the
tide or water never flows or runs; any one or more juttices
for the county or place where or near which the offence
fhall be committed, upon the information thereof, fhall fum-
mon or iflue his warrant for bringing the matter or owner
of the veffel, or other perfon aéting as fuch, before him ;
and upon appearance or default, fhall! proceed to examine
the matter of and upon proof made thereof, either by con-
feffion of the party, or on view of the juftice, or upon the
oath of one or more creditable witneffes, he fhall convict the
faid mafter, &c. and fine him at his difcretion for every fuch
offence any fum not exceeding 5]. nor under sos. &c. ; and
for want of fufficient diftrefs, the juftice is to commit the
mafter, or perfon ating as fuch, and convicted as aforefaid,
to the common gaol or houfe of correétion, for the fpace of
two months, or until payment of the penalties.

Befides the above general aé& relating to ballaft, there are
the 6 Geo. II. c. 29. and the 32 Geo. II, which regulate
the ballafting of merchant veflels in the river Thames, plac-
ing it under the direction of the corporation of Trinity-
houfe. Elements and Practice of Rigging and Seamanship,
vol. ii. p. 283, &c. ae

Bawast, io trench the, denotes, to divide the ballaft
into two feveral parts or more, in the fhip’s hold, com-
monly done to find a leak in the bottom of a fhip, or to un-
dock her.

Baxrast, the, fhoots, that is, rens over from the one fide
to the other. Hence it is that corn, end all kinds of grain,
is dangerous lading, for that is apt to fhoot. To prevent
which, they make fouc/es, that is, bulk-heads of boards, to
keep it up faft, that it may not run from fide to fide, as the
fhip heels upon a tack.

BALLASTAGE. See Lastrace:

BALLATOONS, large, heavy luggage-boats; carrying
‘goods by the river from Aftracan and the Cafpian fea to
Mofcow. Thefe will carry from a hundred to two hundred
ton; and have from a hundred toa hundred and ten, or
twenty, men employed to row, and tow them along.

BALLENDEN, or Betrenpen, fir Joba, in Biography,
‘an elegant Scots writer of the fixteenth century, defcended
of an ancient and honourable family in Scotland, was pro-
bably born and educated in France. Having in his youth
ferved in the court, and, as fome writers fuggeft, having
-pcen employed in the education of James V., he was diftin-
guilhed by the favour and patronage of that prince, and ob-

I

BAL ‘

tained extraordinary preferment in the church, as well as the
office of clerk of accounts, occupied byhis father Mr. Thomas
Ballenden of Auchinoul, in 1541. ‘The work by which he

ained the higheft reputation, was his tranflation of He€tor
Bocthius out of Latin into the Scots tongue, performed by
the command of his royal mafter, intitled, «*« The Hiftory

and Chronicles of Scotland, &c.’’ and publifhed in folio at

Edinburgh, A.D. 1536. This verfion, in which the tranf-
lator took the liberty of augmenting and amending the ori~
ginal as he thought proper, was well received both in
Scotland and England, and foon became the ftandard of that
hiftory. In the fucceeding reign, he was one of the lords
of feflion; and being a zealous Romanitt, he affiduoufly
laboured, in conjunétion with Dr. Laing, to hinder the
progrefs of the reformation. His zeal involved him in dif-
putes, which obliged him to quit Scotland, and remove to
Rome, where, it is faid, he died A.D. 1550. He was a
man of great parts, and one of ihe fineft poets of which his
country could boait. His works, that are ftill extant, are
diftinguifhed by that noble enthufiafm, which is the foul of
oetry. His poem, intitled “ Vertue and Vyce,” was
addreffed to the monarch of the Scots, James V.; and his
other pieces, both printed and in MS. are now buried in ob-
livion. In Carmichael’s colle&tion of Scottifh poems, there
are fome of this author on various fubjeéts. Biog. Brit.
Ba.ienven Point, in Geography, a projecting point in
the bottom of Donegal bay, on the north-weit coaft of

Ireland, fouth-weit by fouth £ fouth. Eight miles from —

Enifmurry ifland.

BALLENESS Istanps, are four {mall iflands on the
fouth of Troy ifland, off the N.W. point of Ireland, called
Beg, Doway, Bofin, and Maghere Welley. Between Troy
ifland and Ballenefs, there is a good road and fafe anchorage
from a foutherly or eafterly wind. ria

BALLENTAY Port is about 24 leagues eaft from
Skerries ifland, or port Rufch, upon the main, on the north
coaft of Ireland; fouth and fomewhat weft from Rathlin
ifland, and Dummer’s rocks. 4

BALLEROY, a town of France, in the department of
the Calvados, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of
Bayeux, fix leagues fouth of Caen, and 2% S.S.W. of
Bayeux. The place contains 1176 and the canton 14,484
inhabitants: the territory includes 1973 kiliometres and 2g
communes.

BALLERUS, in /chihy-logy, the name under which the:

Gmelinian cyprinus laius 1s noticed by Jonit! and other

old authors.

Barverus,a f{pecies of Cyrainus, with forty rays in the
anal fin. Linneus Fn. Suec. This fifh inhabits the lakes
in fome parts of Europe, and near the Cafpian fea. The
head is imall, obtufe, and brown in the front; cheeks and
gill-covers alternately blue, yellow, or red ; eyes large; iris
yellow, with two black fpots; jaws equal, lower one curved;
back carinated ; lateral line itraight, variegated with brown
dots; edges of the fins blue; dorfal fin placed farther back.
from the head than the pectoral one ; anal fin yery broad ;
tail lunated. Weight in general about a pound; depofits
an immenfe number of eggs in April; grows flowly, is thin,
and covered with minute lax feales; the colour above is
blackifh-blue, yellowifh on the fides, filvery below, and red-
difh on the belly ; flefh not very good. Bloch obferves that
the number of rays in the anal fin amonnt to one-more than
Linneus mentions, and charaéterifes the {peeies as,haying
forty-one rays in the anal fin ; cyprinus pinna ani radtis 41.
Bloch. col bal

BALLET, or Barer, Barerro, a kind of dramati
poem, reprefenting fome fabulous aétion or fubje@, divided

mta

J Mite ee

oe

BAL

into feveral entries; in which feveral perfons appear, and re-

BAL

Ballet is one of the longeft and moft elaborate articles

cite things under the name of fome deity, or other illutrious* of the new French Encyclopedie. When M. Framery

character. ,

Barret, from Bxarw, to caft,_is more particularly ufed
for a {tage dance. Roufleau defines this word a theatrical
action, reprefented by dancing, guided by mufic. The
term is derived from the old French word dal/er, to dance,
fing, divert one’s felf. The mutic of a éa/let ought to be
ftill more cadenced and accented than mere vocal melody ;
as it is the butinefs of mutic to fuggeft to the dancer that
animation and expreffion which the finger acquires from the
words ; and it is likewife her bulinefs to fupply, in the lan-
guage of the foul and the pailions, all that the dancer cannot
oretent to the eyes of the {pectater.

Barer is likewife the name given in France to a whim-
fical kind of opera, where dancing is hardly more in place
than in the others, or productive of better effects. In moit
of thefe ballets, the feveral acts feem fo many different
fubjeéts, connected together only by fome general relation
foreign to the action, which the fpectator would not
difcover, if the author did not make it known in the prelogue.

Thefe ballets contain other little b wets, which are called
feftivals or entertainments ; they are likewife called fuits or
feries of dances, which fucceed each other without fubject
or conneétion with the principal action, and where the prin-
cipal dancers tell you nothing but that they dance well.
This arrangement, by no means theatrical, may do ver
well for a private ball, where each individual has fulfilled his
object fufficiently, when he has amufed himfelf, and where

the intereft which the {pectator takes in this individual, dif-.

penfes with his giving him any other gratification, But
this defect in the fubject and connection, ought never to be
fuffered on a public {tage, noreven in the reprefentation of a
ball, where the whole ought to becombined by a fecret aétion,
which keeps up the attention and interefts of the {pectator.
In general, every dance which reprefents nothing but itfelf,
and every ballet which is only a ball, fhould be banifhed from
the theatre. Indeed every action on the ftage is the repre-
fentation of another a¢tion, and what we fee there is only
the image of what we fuppofe there ; fo that it ought not
to be merely this or that dancer who prefents himfelf to
your obfervation, but the perfon whofe character he has
afflumed. Thus, though the private dance can reprefent
nothing bnt itfelf, the theatrical dance ought neceflarily to
be the reprefentation of fomething elfe, in the fame manner
as the finger reprefents a perfon that is fpeaking, and the
decoration of other places than thofe which he occupies.

The wortt ballets are thefe which are founded on alle-
gorical fubjects, and which reprefent nothing but an imita-
tion of an imitation. ‘The whole art of this kind of dramas
confifts in the perfonifying intelleCtual images, and in making
the fpectator fee what he difbelieves; as if, inftead of attach-
ing him to the {tage, it were meritorious to carry him from it.
Befides, this {pecies of reprefentation requires fo much fub-
tilty in the dialogue, that the compofer of the mutic finds
himfelf loft in the. land of points, allufions, and epigrams,
while the fpeétator does net forget himfelf a moment.
When the words of an opera {peak fenfe, the mufic will learn
to {peak it likewife.

Thefe reflexions of Rouffeau, according to M. Framery,
are now ufelefs, as this kind of {pectacle no langer exiils.
But as we with to record the productions of each art,
Roufleau’s account of the ballets of his time will be hifto-
rical of what they were at the period when he wrote, that is
about fifty years ago; and we think what Jean Jaques fays
of allegorical ballets, woald fuit the mythological nearly as
well. :

.

feems to have exhaufted the fubjeét, it is refumed by his
colleague in the mufical department, M. Guinguené, who has
{till found much to fay on the fubjeét. Ballet, he informs
us, isa term that includes three different kinds of exhibition
on the Lyric ftage. In the firft, the dance conftitutes only
a fubordinate part of the ation reprefented ; in the fecond it
is the principal part, poetry and vocal mufic then becoming
acceffories in their turn; aud, laftly, in the third, the whole
bufinefs is performed in dancing; and in reprefenting am
ation in which the performers neither {peak nor fing; they
dance. The firft kind is fimply called a allet : the fecond
a ballet-opera, or opera ballet; an opera with dances ana-
logous to the drama: the third is calleda pantomine dallet.

“To treat this fubjeét in its full extent (fays M. Guin-
guené) would require a volume.”,—Avnd an excellent volume
has already been written on the fubject, by the celebrated
Noverre, intitled ‘+ Lettres fur la Danfe,”? 1760. In 1754,
M. Cahufac had publithed a pleafing work in 3 vols. “Sur
la Danfe ancienne et moderne,” an Liftorical treatife. But
father Menettiere’s'treatife, “Des Ballets anc. et mod. felon
la rigle du Theatre,’’ 1682, is perhaps the moft curious of
them all, in the hiftorical part.

Mufic is fo infeparable from the dance, that the word
ballet may be regarded as a mufical term, ‘he mufic to
opera dances uied to be furnifhed by the compofer of the
airs and relatives. Haffe, Jomelli, and Gluck, diftinguifhed
themfelves as much by the mutic of grand ballets, as by the
opera itfelf; as did our countryman Dr. Arne, by the dances
inComus. . Of late years, it has been generally affigned to
the principal fecond violin to compofe the mufic and head
the band, in the dances between the aéts of an opera. Agus,
Noferi, and Le Brun the hautboy player, performed this
office during many feafons; and their bufinefs was executed.
fora confiderable time to the fatisfaction of the public and
the performers, by the late Sig. Boffi. The airs of many
ballets were ufually brought from France, particularly thofe
of Rameau; but Teller, a German, about twenty years ago,

acquired great reputation by the mufic of his chaconnes and

ballets heroiques. See Dance, and Pantomime.

Barrer, in Englith Poetry, &c. See Bavuan.

BALLEXFORD, James, in Biggrapby, horn at Ge-
neya, in October 1726, became a diftinguifhed praGtitioner
of medicine in that city, where he lived much efteemed, to
the year 1774, and publifhed the following: « Differtatton
fur 1’ Education Phytique des Enfans,” Paris, 1762, 8vo.
‘Differtation fur les caufes principales de la mort d’un auffi
grand nombre d’Enfans, &c.’? Geneva, 1775, 8vo. Eloy
Dict. Hittor.

BALUEZE, Bauuize, or Watts, in Geography, a
river in the peninfula of Yucatan, New Spain, runs north-
eafterly above 200 miles, and difcharges‘itfelt into the bay of
Honduras, oppofite to the northend of Turneffifland. By
the treaty of peace in 1783, itis agreed that Britith fubjects
fhall have the right of cutting and carrying away logwood in
the diitrict lying between this river and'that of Rio Honde
on the north, which falls into Hanover bay. The unalter-
able boundaries are the courfe of the rivers.

BALLIACE, in Ancient Geography, atown of Illyria, in
the vicinity of Apollonia. — Strabo.

BALLIAGE, a {mall duty paid to the city of London,

by aliens, and even denizens, for certain commodities ex-

ported by them; which they claim by their charter, dated
.the 5th of September, in thé fixteenth of Charles II. con-
firmed by the twentieth rule of the Book of Rates and by

2 W. & M. cap. 8.

3U2 BAL-

BAL
BALLIANI, Joun Bartist, in Biography, a feaator

of Geneva, was born in 1586, anddiitinguifhed himfelf among
natural philofophers by a Latin treatife, On the natural
motion of heavy bodies,”? firft printed in 1638, and repub-
lidzed in 1646, with many valuable additions. Having
paffed with honour through many public offices, he died in
1666.

BALLIBAY, in Geocraphy, a market and poft town of

the county-of Monaghan, provinceor Uliter, Ireland, fituated

3 miles north by weit of Dublin, This town was in a
wretched ftate ; but of late years, fince the eflablifhment of
its linen market, it is greatly improved, and feveral new
houfes have heen built. There is a market-houfe, and a
market on Saturdays, at which webs are perchafed to the
amount of 15col. weekly. In the neighbourhood of the
town are the extenfive bleach-greens and mills of Crieve, at
which 50,000 webs are bleached. ‘Turf is fo abundant,
that it is fold inthe town of Ballibay at 64d for a horfeload.
A-diftriG called the Calills, in this neighbourhood, is re-
markable for producing a heavy crop of flax, eqral to
twenty-eight ftone of fcutched flax to the quarter of an acre,
and from one buthel of feed fown ; this is an immenfe pro-
duce, but the quality is proportionably coarfe. Sir Charles
Coote’s Statiftical Account of Monaghan.

BALLIBOY, a {mail poft and fair town of the King’s
county, province of Leinfter, Ireland, fituated on the Silver
river, and giving name to one of,the baronies in that county;
which from the average rent, ftated by Mr. Young, and
compared with that of the other baronies, feems to contain
the worft ground in it. Diftance from Dublin 56 Inth
miles. N. lat. 53° 8’. W. long. 7° 39’. Young’s
Tour. ;

BALLIELLA, or Barirera Point, the fouth-eaft
point of Galway bay, on the weit coaft of Ireland, eleven
leagues north-eaft by eaft from Loup’s head.

BALLIMONEY, a poft and market-town of the coun-
ty of Antrim in Ireland, not far from Coleraine, and 107%
Trifh miles from Dublin. It is a pretty large town, and has
a good market, eiprcially for linens, {ths wide, called Cole-
yaines, -Between it and Ballymena 1s much grazing land,
from which Belfaft is in great meafure fupplied with provi-
fions for exportation. N. lat. 55° 4’. W. lone. 6°23.

BALLIMORE, a {mall poit town, or rather village, of
the county of Weitmeath, in Irelard, feated on the weft
fide of Lough Seudy. It was-a itrong garrifon of the En-
glith forces towards the latter end of the war of 16.41, being
conveniently fituated between Mullingar and Athlone, and
deriving great advantage from the lake. The name of this
place implies the great town, and it may probably have de-
elined confiderably in importance ; but the idea of a great
town, when this name was given, muft have been very dif-
ferent from that now entertained. Diftance from Dublin 50
Trifh miles. N. lat. 53° 26. W. long. 7° 33’. Colle&,
Hibern. Beaufort’s Map. &c.

Bariimore £u/tace, a imall town, ina detached part of
the county of Dublin, in Ireland, pleafantly fituated on
the Liffey, over which it has an handfome bridge; it has da-
cayed on accoynt of the great fouthern road from Dublin
having been tnrned fo as to pafs through Kalcullen. Near
this town is Rufsborough, the feat of lord Milltown, uni-
verfally efteemed one of the moft fuperbiia Ireland, and cen-
taining a valuable colleétion of paintings by feveral eminent
matters. ‘There is alfoa great natural curiofity in the neigh-
bourhood, the water-fall of Poll-a-phuca, or the demon’s
hole, formed by a river which rifes inthe county of Wick-
lew, and here falls into the Liffey. Lord Milltown, the
proprietor, has fpared no pains to aflift the natural beauties

-tenfively, and almoft without interrnption.

BAL

of the fpot, having planted its fine hanging banks, and
built feveral cottages and grottoes for the reception and ace .
commodation of the numerous parties that refort to it. Di-
ftance from Dublin 174 miles. N. lat. 53° 7’. W. long. 6?
73’. Wilfon’s Book of Roads, -Dodd’s Traveller’s Director,
1801.

BALLIMOTE, a village in the county of Sligo, Ire-
land, which deferves to be mentioned, on account of the
flourithing afpeét which the linen bufinefs wears in its neigh-
bourhood. ‘The great exerticnsof the late Mr. Fitzmaurice,
brother to the prefent marquis of Lanfdowne, firit efta-
blifhed this manufacture, which is fpread throughout all
the adjoining country. Beaufort. Young.

BALLINA, a town of the county of Mayo, in Ireland,
fituated on the river Moy, and connected by a bridge over
that river with Ardnarce, in the county of Sligo, forming
together one town, which is neat and thriving, and has a
brifk market for linen every week. Mr. Arthur Young de-
{cribes its fituation as uncommonly pleafing. It hasa falmon
fifhery, which is one of the moft confiderable in the ifland,
fupplying feventy or eighty tons of fal fifh, befides the
frefh. It waslet for 520l.a year ia 1776. This town being
near Killala, was foon taken pofieflion of by the French
under general Humbert in the late invafion, and many de-
predations were committed there by the rebels. Its diftance
from Dublin 129 Irifh miles. N. lat. 54° 6’ 30%. W. long.
8° 59’. Beaufort. Yonng.

BALLINACOURTY Porxt, a cape on'the fouth
coait .of Ireland, in the county of Waterford, and north
fide of Dungarvon bay, four miles eaft of Dungarvon.

BALLINAHINCH, a barony in the weitern part of
the county of Galway, and province of Connaught, Ire-
land, better known by its ancient name of Connamara, or
Conmacnemara, which implies the chief iribe on the great fea.
This large diftri& is very rude and mountainous, and as
might be expeCied,. very thinly iahabited. Some of the
hills are very high ; efpecially the vaft ridge called Beanna-
beola, or the twelve pins, which is‘a well-known feamark,
confifting of almoft- perpendicular rocks. At the foot of
this ridge, clofe tothe little village of Ballinahinch, a’charm-
ing lake fpreads itfelf for fome miles ; and on the river
which ruas*from it into Roundftone bay, there is'a great
falmon fithery. On-the fides of hills, and in the ies,
which are watered by rivers and {mall lakes, and fheltered
in fome places by the venerable remains of ancient weods,
the foil is moitly inclined to a black bog ; but gravel, fand, ©
crrock lie at no greater depth than from one to three feet
below the furface. Great quantitiesof kelp are made all
along the coait, and by manuring with fea wreck, the land
is rendered very produétive to the fcattered families that in-
habit it, who are all little farmers and hardy fifhermen. Be-
fides the herring fifhery; which employs a great many =
fons, there is a fifhery of fun-fifh on the coaft fromthe roth
cf April to the 10th of May, which is carried on by the
herring boats. Mr. Young’ fays, that one fifh is valued at
five pounds, and that if a boat takes three fh in the

-month, it is reckoned good luck. ‘- The number of boats em-

ployed is from-40:to 50. The indented fhores of this ba-
rony abound in well fheltered havens, of which no ufe 4s
made except by fmugglers, who carry on bufinefs very ex-
ae a The tens of
Kalkerran, Birterbuy, Roundftone, ard Ballinakill, are the
largeft, aud the fine harbour of Killery, on which is a fith-
ing town, is at the northen extremity of this diftri@. “On
the promontory of Slymehead, forming the north extremity
of Birterbuy bay, isa light-honfe. In this barony are made
thofe woollen ftockings, known throughout Ireland by the

name

BAL

name of Connamara, and yery goed blankets; and the en-
couragement given by the preient profeffor (Col. Martin,
M.P. for the county) to fettlers from Uliter, will probably
contribute much to the improvement of what is now one of
the moft rude and uneivilized diltriéts in Ireland. A late
traveller obferves, that even in Galway, within 15 miles of
it, Connamara was lefs known than the iflandé of the Paci-
fic ocean; and that he was advifed not to venture into it.
Such a dread had the inhabitants of this town of the clan
of O’Flahertys, which poffeffed it, that death was threat-
ened, by an infcription over the gate, to every perfon of
that name found within the walls. Yet notwithftanding
their ancient charaéter, the above-mentioned traveller, in
his ramble through the country, found the people peaceable
and friendly, and lefs favage in their appearance than the
peafantry near the capital. ‘They arein general much better
clothed, and are more induftrious. "The women, like thofe
of Wales, knit as they go from one place to another.
Smuggling is very general; and it is confidered fuch an afly-
lum for deferters, that it is not uncommon for poor peafants
to go acrefs Lough Corrib, and enlilt ; and when they are
paid and clothed, take the firft opportunity of returning,
after which they are never heard of, There are many traces
throughout the country of its having been cultivated in an-
cient times by fome intelligent people. Dr. Beautort’s Me-
moirs. Mr. Young’s Tour. Latocnaye’s Rambles through
Treland.

BaLuinanincy, a market and poft town of the county

of Down, in Ireland, fituated nearly in the centre of the

eounty, and for that reafon occafionally fixed on for meet-
ings of the farming fociety, and others of a public nature.
It was the {cene of a dreadful engagement in the late rebel-
lion, the infurgents being numerous, aud ftrongly pofted in
the lawn before lord Moira’s houfe, which is clofe to the
town. They were however defeated with confiderable lofs,
and one fide of the town entirely deftroyed. In its neigh--
bourhood, at the fkirt of S/ebh Crood mountain, isa fulphu-
reo-chalybeate fpring, which is much frequented. ‘The
water is very clear and cold, and of a highly difagreeable
{mell and tatte, like fome of the waters of Aix la Chanelle.
Diftance from Dublin, 76 Irifh miles. N. lat. 54° 23’. W.
long.5° 48’. Dr. Beaufort’s Map. Book of Roads. Rutty
on Mineral waters.

BALLINAKILL, a fair, market, and poft town, of
the Queen’s county, in Ireland, fituate 48 Ith miles fouth-
weit of Dublin. Until the union took place it was alfo a
borough town, and returned two members to parliament.
it now has a brewery and three tan-yards, befides fome in-
confiderable woollen factories. ‘The ruins of acaftle yet re-
main, which was battered by general Fairfax, and bravely
defended by the garrifon. Coote’s Statilt. Account of
Queen’s County.

BALLINASKELIGS,a haven in the county of Kerry,
Treland, between Kenmare river and Dingle bay. It is
deep and open, but not fheltered from foutherly winds. It
takes its name from a town, of which fearcely a trace is
now to be feen ; but which is in Stanihurit’s Catalogue
of the haven towns of Ireland, prefixed to Hollinfhead?s
Chronicle. The ruins of a monattery are near the fhore,
which formerly belonged to the Auguitine order, and was
remoyed from the greater Skelig ifland to this place. From
thefe iflands the town took its name. Inthe neighbourhood
is St. Michacl’s well, one of thofe holy fprings to be met
with in every part of Ireland, which are frequented by the
common people on the day of the patron faint, and which are
fuppofed to cure all manuer of difeafes. "his devotion paid
to wells has been mentioned as one of the remains of Druid-

BAL

ieal superftition, theueh seemingly without fufficlent au.
thority. N. Lat. 51° 42’. W. long. 9° 20°. Smith’s Hif.
tory of Kerry. Rambles through Ireland. Hollinfhead’s
Chronicle.

BALLINASLOE, afmall but neat and well-built town
of the county of Galway, in the province of Connaught,
Ireland. It is fituated on the weit fide of the river Suck
(though in many maps it is placed on the eat fide, in the
county of Rofcominon), which river from the nature of the
country might be eafily made navigable to the Shannon. It
is one of the moft thriving towns in the county, having a
great wool fair on the 13th of July, and feveral cattle fairs,
at. which 10,000 oxen and 100,000 fheep were fold annually
from the paftures of Galway, Clare, and Mayo. From
the increale of tillage however, and other caufes, the num-
ber of fheep is faid to have decreafed. At one of thefe
fairs, a fhow of cattle and premiums have lately been intro-
duced, under the aufpices of the farming fociety of Ireland,.
for the laudable purpofe of improving the breeds. ‘The
wool fair was eftablifhed in 1757, by Mr. Treuch, father of
the prefent lord vifcount Dunlo, to whom the town belongs;:
and on account of the mcre convenient fituation of Balli-
nafloe in the heart of the wool country, and the great at-
tention paid to the accommodation of thofe who frequent
it, it has taken the lead of Mullingar fair, and is now per-
haps the greateit for wool im the united kingdom. Several
days generally elapfe before the buyers and fellers can agree
re{pecting the price; during which period, the news of the
day is as eagerly fought as on the Stock Exchange, and
often produces a confiderable effet. The number of bags
ufually brought to the fair for fome years paft was about
1500, each containing about eight hundred weight; but
this is fearcely a fourth part of what is engaged from the
country gentlemen at the fame time, at a fomewhat higher
price. Mr. A. Young has made a comparifen between the
price of weol in the fleece in Ireland, and in Lincolnthire ;
from which it appears, that for 16 years ending in 1779,
the average price in Ireland was 13s. 8d. per ftone of {ix-
teen pounds; and in Lincolnfhire dnring the fame years, it
was gs. 3d. for the fame quantity. The height of price
in Ireland, he attributes to a decreafe in the quantity pro-
duced, from ploughing up great tracts of fheep-walks, and
an increafe inthe confumption. ‘lhe fame caufes have con-
tinued to operate in a full greater degree, fo that the ave-
rage price for four years ending in 1801, was 18s. as the
writer of this article was informed by an eminent manufac-
turer. A good deal of large combing wool was bought
indeed at a lower price, but not that fit for making cloth.
In comparing the price of English and Irifh wool, it fhould
be mentioned that in Leinfter and Connaught, the bags are
always paid for as wool, which makes an addition of four-
pence per ftone to the price. Yet though the price of wool
is fo much higher, fuch is the difference in the price otf
labour, that there is in time of peace a confiderable export
of worfted yarn to Norwich and Manchefter. The di-
flance of Ballinafloe from Dublin is 72 Irifh miles. N.
lat. 53° 15. W. long. 8° 8’. Mr. A. Yonng. Dr. Beau-
fort.

BALLINROBE, a market, poft, and occafionally an
affize town of the county of Mayo, in Ireland, which is
{mall, but flourifhing, fituated on the River Robe, which
runs into Lough Mafk. Here are the ruins of an abbey ;
and in the neighbourhood a charter fchool for forty
boys. Within a few miles of it, on the road to Caftlebar,
are the ruins of Ballintobee abbey. The part that yet re-
mains entire of this venerable ftructure, exhibits a fine {peci-
men of Gothic architecture ; the rafters, if they may be fo

termed,

BA

termed, being formed of hewn {tone joined in a very fingu-
Jar manner. A view and defcription of this abbey may be
found in Ledwich’s edition of Grofe’s Antiquities of Ire-
land. The diftance of Ballinrobe from Dublin is 120 miles.
N. lat. 53° 34' 30”. W. long. 9° 6’.

BALLINTOY, a {mall town on the northern coatt of
the county of Antrim, formerly called Belletree, which
has a tolerably good bay. A vein of coals was difcovered
here in 1756, which is wrought with fuch effet, as not only
to fupply a faltwork here, but others alfo at Portruth and
Colerain. A grant of 2000 pounds was made by parlia-
ment in 1758 for improving the harbour. The diftance from
Dublin is 150 miles. N. lat. 55° 14’. W. long. 6° 12".

A little to the eaftward of Ballintoy, on an abrupt and
romantic fhore, is a {mall rocky ifland called Carrick-a-rede.
This rock is feparated from the adjacent land by a chafm
full fixty feet in breadth, and of a depth frightful to look
at; at the bottom of which the fea ufually breaks with an
uninterrupted roar among the rocks. Tis ifland is peculi-
arly well fituated for the falmon fifhery; but being inaccef-
fible from the water except at one {pot, and the turbulence
of the fea making it difficult to land even here unlefs the
weather be extremely calm, the fifhermen have contrived a
fingular bridge over the abyfs. ‘T'wo ftrong cables are ex-
tended acrofs the gulph by an expert climber, and fattened
firmly into iron rings mortifed into the rock on each fide.
Between thefe ropes, a number of boards about a foot in
breadth are laid in fucceffion, fupported at intervals by crofs
cords; and thus the pathway is formed, which, though
broad enough to bear a man’s foot with tolerable conveni-
ence, does by no means’ hide from view, “ the rocks and
raging fea beneath;?? which in this fituation exhibit the fa-
tal effeéts of a fall in very itrong colouring, while the {wing-
ing and undulations of the: bridge itfelf, and of a fingle
hand rope, which fearcely any degree of tenfion can pre-
vent in fo great a length, fuggelt no very comfortable
feelings to perfons of weak nerves. Upon the whole, it 1s
a beautiful bridge in the fcenery of a landfcape, but a
frightful one in real life. Hamilton’s Letters on the Coatt
of Antrim. ;

BALLISTA, or BarisrA, in Antiquity, a military engine
in ufe among the ancients, fomewhat like our crofs-bow,
though much larger, more forcible, and more complicated in
itsform, It was ufed in the befieging of cities, to throw in
{tones and fometimes darts and javelins; and received its name
from the Greek Pzarcw, to throw.

Marcellinus defcribes the ballifta thus: a round iron cy-
linder is faftened between two planks, from which reaches
a hollow {quare beam placed crofs-wile, faftened with cords,
to which are added ferews; at one end of this ftands the
engineer, who puts a wooden fhaft with a big head into the
cavity of the beam; this done, two men bend the engine,
by drawing fome wheels ; when the top of the head is drawn
to the utmoft end of the cords, the fhaft is driven out of
the ballifta, &c. According to Vitruvius, the ballifta was
made after divers manners, though all ufed to the fame pur-
pose: one fort was framed with levers and bars ; another
with pullies; another with a crane; and others with a
toothed-wheel. The ballifta was ranked by the ancients in
the fling-kind ; and its ftructure and effect reduced to the
principles of the fling : whence fome writers called it funda
and fundibulus. Gantherus calls it Balearica machina, as a
fling peculiar to the Balearic iflands. ;

M. Rollin joined the account of the catapulta and ballifta
together (Arts and Sciences, vol. ii. p- 52.), obferving
that though authors diftinguifh them, they alfo often con-
found them. The ballifta was at firft chiefly ufed for throw-

BAL

ing ftones, and the catapulta for lancing darts and arrows ;
but by degrees they were confounded and indifferently ap-
propriated to both. (Grofe Hift. Eng. Army, vol. i. p. *66)
The ballifta, however, muft have been the heavieft and moft
difficult to carry ; becaufe there were always a greater num-
ber of the catapultz in the army. Livy, in his defeription
of the fiege of Carthage, fays there were an hundred and
twenty great, and two hundred fmall catapulte taken; with
thirty-three great ballifte, and fifty-two {mall ones. Jofe-
phus mentions the fame difference among the Romans, who
had three hundred catapult and forty ballifte at the fiege
of Jerufalem.

Vegetius fays, that the ballifte difcharged darts with
fuch rapidity and violence, that nothing could refift their
force. Athenzus tells us, that Agefiftratus made one of
little more than two feet in length, which fhot darts almoft
five hundred paces. There were others of much greater
force which threw ftones of three hundred weight upwards
of twenty-five paces. The furprifing effe€ts of thefe ma-
chines are particularly recorded by Jofephus (Bell. Jud.
y. 6.); at Jerufalem, they projected itones which beat down
the battlements, and broke the angles of the towers ; there
was no phalanx fo deep, but one of them would fweep an
whole file of it from one end to the other: and a man who
{tood by Jofephus, had his head taken off by a ftone at
the diitanée of three hundred and feventy-five paces. (Rol-
lin Arts & Se. i. 52, 53.) Tacitus too has recorded more
than one inftance of their force. (Annal. xv. 9. Hitt. iv. 23.)

Among the Saxons, as we have already mentioned (fee
ARTILLERY), great military engines of almoft every kind
feem to have been unknown ; it is to the middle ages we
look for the introduction of any thing like field artillery.
William of Poictou (p. 201.) fays, that machines for throw-
ing darts and itones were ufed with great fuccefs at the
battle of Haftings. The darts that were fhot from thefe
machines, as well as from the crofs-bows, were called guar
rels ; and were pointed with heavy pieces of fteel like py-
ramids, which made them very fharp and very deftrudtive.
The ballitta were more frequently ufed in fea fights than in
battles on fhore ; nor was this particularly the cafe in the
middle ages ; Livy (xi. 21.) fays, that both fcorpions and
balliite were ufed in a fimilar way by the 'Tarentines fo lon
ago as 281. Nor was it in the ancient times alone that
the names and properties and even the ufes of the cata-
pulta and ballifta were confounded. In the Latin of the
middle ages, ballifta, in lieu of arbaleft, was frequently
the term for the crofs-bow ; and catapulta for the fling.

Perrault, in his notes on Vitruvius, gives a contrivance
fimilar to that of the ballifta, for throwing bombs without
gunpowder. ‘

When the ballifta is painted in Armory, it is reprefented
as charged with a ftone. Guillim and other heraldic wri-
ters call it a /weep. oe

Bavuista, in Pradical Geometry, the geometrical crofs,
called alfo Jacob’s flaff. See Cross Staff: ;

Baxuista, or Os Ballifle, is a denomination given by
fome anatomifts to the firft bone of the tarfus, otherwife
called talus and affragalus.

BALLISTARII, or Baristaruy, in Antiquity, flingers
in the ancient armies, or foldiers who fought with the aliifie.
There were two kinds of balliftarii milites; the former caft
{tones and other miflive weapons with the hand, and were
called manuballiftarii, or fometimes fimply manuballifte 5
the latter, called carroballifte, made ufe of a machine. Some
writers {peak of a third kind called arcuballiftarii, but thefe
are better reduced to the fecond. The balliftarii were fearce

heard of before the age of Conftantine.

Baliftariue

ae

BAG

Baliftarius in our ancient hiftory is to be differently ex-
plained. Sometimes it refers to the men who fhot ftones
and darts out of crofs-bows; at others to the officers of the
fteel-bow-men, or direétors of the great brakes or engines,
with which the walls of any place were battered; and occa-
fionally even to the flingers. (See Kelham on Doomfd.
Book, p. 161.) Our kings, fo early as the Conqueft, had an
officer Filed Arbaliftarius or Baliftarius Regis, and lands were
held in capite of the king, by the fervice of prefenting annu-
ally a crofs-bow-ftring as often as he paffed through a cer-
tain diftri€&. (See Blount’s Ten. p. 57. 70. 81.) Walter
de Mofely in the thirty-fecond year of king Hen. III. held
lands in Surry by the ferjeantry of being the king’s balifta-
rius (or crofs-bow-man) in his army for: forty days in the
year. (Pat. rot. in turr. Lond.) And it is not perhaps
improbable, that the infpe€tor of the works relating to the
balifte might occafionally bear the fame title. Such an
officer occurs in the patent rolls of the fame king two years
before. (Ibid. 37 Hen. 3. m. 8.)

BALLISTES, in Ichthyology. See Barisres.

BALLISTEUM, or Bariste4, in Antiquity, a military
fong or dance ufed onoccafions of vidiory.

P ‘The ballifie were a kind of popular ballads compofed by
poets of the lower clafs, without much regard to the laws
of metre.

BALLISTIC Pendulum. See Pennutum.

BALLISTICA, Bacuisrics, is ufed forthe art of
throwing heavy bodies. ’. Merfennus has publithed a trea-
tife on the projection of bodies, under this title.

BALLITORE, in Geography, a {mall poft town in the
county of Kildare, in the province of Leinfter, in Ireland,
pleafantly fituated in a well planted valley on the banks of
the river Grees, a little on the right of the great road from
Dublin tothe fouth. It was chiefly a fettlement of Quakers,
but the number of thefe has confiderably decreafed ; and
the active part taken by many of the inhabitants in the
late rebellion, caufed it to be in a great meafure deftroyed.
The celebrated Edmund Burke received his early education
in this town at the fchool of Mr. Abraham Shakleton, one of
the refpeCtable clafs above-mentioned; which fchool was
then held in high eftimation, and has been continued by his
defcendants of the fame name to the prefent day. Diftance
from Dublin 28 miles. N. lat. 53°. W.long. 6° 51’.

BALLIUM, or Barvey, in our ancient Military TaGics,

- was ufed to fignify a certain plot of ground within a

fortified place. The outer ballium was that which pre-
fented itfelf immediately on entering the outer gate of the
eaftle, where we ufually fee a mount of earth to command
fome diftant work of the befiezers. It was feparated by ae
ftrong embattled wall and towered gate from the inner bal-
lium, where were commonly the houfes and barracks for the
garrifon, the chapel, ftables, and hofpital; and within which,
or at one-corner of it, in the early caitles, furrounded by a
ditch, ftood the keep or dungeon, generally a large fquare
tower, fometimes flanked at its angles with {mail turrets ;
this keep was to our old fortreffes, what the citadel is to
modern ones, the laft retreat or reduit of the carrifon. (See
Grofe Hitt. of the Eng. Army, ii. 3.) And here may be
néticed, that the fmal! remains of Oxford caftle exhibit a
remarkable mitance of the double ballium; in the outer
fpace ftands the mount, and at no great diftance from it
(though without the caftle precin€ts), the church of St.
Peter intbe Bailey ; behind it at a confiderable diftance ftands
the ancient Norman keep, in the upper part of which, on the
different fides, are round-head arches filled up with mafonry,
whence, as from the laft retreat of the garrifon, the befiegers,
though in poffeffion of the mount, might be annoyed. he
Old Bailey, or outer fpace near Ludgate in the ancient forti-

BAL

fication of London, has perhaps a fimilar etymology with
St. Peter in the Bailey at Oxford.

BALLOCK, in Geography, the name of rocks on the
N. W. coat of the ifland of Tla.

BALLOGISTAN, a diftri&@ of Hindooftan, in the
country of Delhi, bordering on the north of Mewat, and
approaching by its eaftern limit within twenty-four miles of
Delhi. It is eighty or ninety miles long, and from thirty
to forty broad. Within the prefent century, and more pro-
bably fince the rapid decline of the Mogul empire, this ter-
ritory was feized by the Balloges or Balloches, whofe pro-
per country adjoins to the weftern bank of the Indus, oppo-
fite to Moultan. Some tribes of them are alfo found in
Makran. They are reprefented as a moft favage race, and
appear to be very proper neighbours for the Mewatti.
This territory is full of ravines, and difficult of accefs to in-
vaders. It has, however, undergone the fate of its neigh-
bours, and been fucceflively tributary to the Rohilla chief,
Nidjib Dowlah; to the Tats; and Nudjuff Cawn. Welt-
ward, it borders on the Seiks. Ren. Mem. Introd. p. 120

BALLON, in Geography, a town of France in the de-
partment of the Sarthe, and cheif place of a canton, in
the diftri€t of I.e Mans: the place contains 3561 and the
canton 15,598 inhabitants: the territory includes 162%
kiliometres and 16 communes.

BALLOON, in 4rchitefure, is ufed for a round ball, or
globe, placed at the top of a pillar, or the like, by way of
acroter or crowning. That on tbe top of St. Peter’s at
Rome is of brafs fuitained by an iron arming within; and
being at the height of fixty-feven fathoms, is above eight
feet in diameter. :

Battoon, in Chemi/Pry, Ballon Fr. is a large globular
veflel, generally of glafs, with a fhort neck, which is em-
ployed in a variety of chemical operations, particularly
in receiving the produdts of diftillation; in containing gaffes
for experiments in which heat or combuftion is ufed; and
for feveral other purpofes. Frequently, it is made with more
than one orifice. It is larger than the mattrafs, has a fhorter
neck, and if heated on a fand bath, great care mutt be taken
to do it gradually on account of the greater thicknefs of the
glafs. In making the glafs-balloon, it is fimply blown,
without a burr at the bottom like the mattrafs, whereas
the receiver is generally fafhioned at the neck, and therefore
muft have the above imperfection at the bottom, unlefs it is
afterwards ground off. :

Barroon, in French Commerce, denotes a quantity of pa
per, containing twenty-four reams.

Barroon, Ballon, or Ballot, fignifies a certain quantity
of glafs-plates, greater or lefs according to their quality.
The balloon of white glafs contains twenty-five bundles, of
fix plates per bundles but the balloon of coloured glafs
confifts only of 124 bundles, each bundle including three
plates. ‘

Battoon
bling tennis.

The balloon is played in the open field, with a great
round ball of double leather blown up with wind, and thus
driven to and fro with the ftrength of a man’s arm, forti-
fied with a brace of wood.

Bartoon, or Lalloen; is more particularly ufed among
Foyagers, for the ftate barges of Siam.

The balloons are a kind of brigantine, managed with oars,,
of very odd figures, as ferpents, fea-horfes, &c. but by their:
fharpnefs and number of oars, of incredible fwiftnefs. ‘The
balloons are faid to be made of a jingle piece of timber, of
uncommon length ;- they are raifed high, and much decora-.
ted with carving at head and ftern: fome are gilt over,
and carry 120, oreven r50 rowers on each fide. ‘The oars

are

alfo denotes a kind of game fomething refem-

B.A.

are either plated over with filver, or gilt, of radiated with
gold; and the dome or canopy in the middle, where the
company is placed, is ornamented with fome rich ftuff, and
furnifhed with a balluftrade of ivory, or other coftly matter,
enriched with gilding. The edges of the balloon juft touch
the water, but the extremities rife with a fweep to a great
height. Some are adorned with a variety of figures, made
of pieces of mother of pearl inlaid: the richer fort, inftead
<of a dome, carry a kindof fteeple in the middle; fo that
confidering the flendernefs of the veffel, which is ufually
100 or 120 feet long, and fearce fix. broad, the height of
the two ends, and of the fteeple, with the load of decora-
tions, it is a wonder they are not overfet.

Battoon, in Paeumatics, a name lately given to an aero-
ftatic machine, employed for the purpole of aerial naviga-
tion. See AEROSTATION.

Baruoon, in Pyrotechny. See Barrs, Fire-Works, and
Prrorecuny. ;

BALLOTA, in Botany, horehound. Lin. g. 720.
Schreb. 975: Juff. 114. Clafs, didynamia gymnofpermia.
Nat. Ord. verticil/ate, or labiate. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth
one-leafed, tubular, falver-fhaped, fiye-cornered, oblong, ten-
ftreaked, ere&t, permanent, equal; mouth acute, patulous,
plaited, five-toothed; involucre of linear leaflets under the
whorls. Cor. monopetalous, ringent ; tube cylindric, the
length of the calyx ; upper lip erect, ovate, entire, crenate,
concave ; lower trifid, obtufe; the middle fegment emargi-
nate, largeft. Stam. filaments four, the two fhorter fubulate,
bending towards the upper lip, and fhorter than it ; anthers
oblong, lateral. Pif. germ quadvifid ; ftyle filiform ; ftigma
flender, bifid. P.7. none. Calyx unchanged, foftering the
feeds. in its bofom. Seeds four, ovate. =

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. falver-fhaped, five.toothed, ten-
ftreaked. Cor. upper lip crenate, concave. It is obferved
that this genus has the involucre of clinopodium; the calyx
of marrubium ; and the corolla of ftachys.

Species, 1. B. nigra, ftinking or black horehound. Smith.
Brit. 635. Hudfon 260. With. 533. Eng. Bot. 46. “* Leaves
ovate, undivided, ferrate, calyxes dilated upwards, fomewhat
truncated.” A hairy plant with an acrid pungent {mell ;
ftera two or three feet high, ere€t, branched, covered with
recurved hairs; leaves petioled, ovate, or fiibcordate, ferrate;
flowers numerous, in axillary whorls, pedunculated, leafy,
braGteated ; brattes brittle-fhaped, ciliate, half the length
of the calyx; calyx tubular, hirfute, ten-ribbed, plaited or
furrowed at the margin, obtufely five-lobed, reticulated
with veins, teeth awned, {preading ; corolla purple, the
upper lip of which is emarginate, hairy, on the outfide ; the
under three-lobed, befet with white veins. It is a perennial
plant, common in wafte places, and hedges, flowering, in
July. 2. B. alba, white flowered black horehound. ‘ Leaves
cordate, undivided, ferrate, calyxes fubtruncate.”? This
Swedith plant has not yet been fatisfaétorily determined.

. B. Janata, woolly black horehound. Phlomis fol. multi-
fidis. Gel. lib. iit. 241. n. 72. t. 54. . ‘ Leaves palmate,
toothed, ftem svoolly.”’
extremely hirfute; leaves like thofe of goofeberry,. with
blunt three-toothed lobes, fmooth above, hirfute under-
neath ; corolla a pale yellow, extremely hairy. _A native
of Siberia, cultivated here in 1776, by Mr. J. Gordon. 4. B.
fuaveolens, {weet {melling black horehound. Jac. Amer. 172.

“pict. t. 163. By/fropogon fuaveolens. L’ Herit. Sert. Ang. 19.
rown Jam. t. 18. £.3. MJentaftrum. Sloane,

Mefofpherum.
Jam. 1. t. 102. f.2. *¢ Leaves cordate, {pikes leafy, calyxes
truncate, awns linear”? A fhrubby, annual, upright plant ;
leaves roundifh or elliptic, crenate, nerved, villofe, on long
footitalks; peduncles axillary, from three to five-flowered ;
flowers blue; calyx and branches villofe; filaments longer

Stems white with wool; whorls

BAL

than the throat of the corolla, Szeds two, black, a little
compreffed. A native of the Weft Indies, where it is ufed
in warm baths for its odour. 5. B. diflicha, betony leaved
black horehound. “ Whorls halved, two-parted, half-
fpiked.’? Stem pubefcent, from one to two feet high;
leaves ftalked, fubcordate, ferrate, tomentofe ; whorls fingle
on each fide; each two-parted ; flowers alternate, feflile,
rifing on a fimple flexuofe rachis. A tapering braéte under
each flower. A native of the Eaft Indies. Introduced in -
1783, by the earl of Bute. 6. B. pi/ofa, Lour. Cochinch.
364. ‘ Leaves ovate, tomentofe, crenate, whorls hairy,
calyxes ten-toothed.’’ Stem perennial, four feet high, weak,
ftreaked, hairy, branched; leaves acute; flowers white in
hairy whorls; calyx recurved, ten-toothed. A native of
Cochinchina.

Propagation and Culture. "The European forts are never
introduced into gardens. The third fpecies is hardy, but
the three laft require the protection of a ftove. They may
all be increafed by feeds. See Martyn’s Miller’s Dict.

BALLOTADE, or Barorane, in the Manege, is a
leap in which the horfe feems as if he intended to kick out
without doing it; he only offers or makes a half kick, fhew-
ing only the fhoes of his hind feet. Berenger farther ob-
ferves, that the horfes deftined to thefe airs (croupades and
balotades), ought to have a light and fteady mouth, and an
active and lively difpofition, with clean nervous ftrength ;
for all the art and knowledge of the horfeman can never
confer thefe qualities, which yet are effentially neceflary
to the perfe€tion of this manege.

The croupades and balotades are different from curvets,
inafmuch as they are much higher behind, and confequently
their time and meafure not fo quick,and clofe, but flower
and more extended; therefore, the rider fhould keep his
horfe’s croupe in awe, by friking it from time to time with:
the {witch, fupporting him not quite fo high before, and-
obferving to aid with his legs flower, and not fo forward as
in curvets, :

To manage the ftrength and vigour of the horfe you in-.
tend to work upon the volts, in croupades and balotades, —
let the line of the volt be larger than for curvets, and let the
ation of the fhoulders be not quite fo high; thus you will
not only check and confine his aétivity and lightnefs, but
by raifing his fhoulders in a lefs degree, will give liberty to
his croupe, aad he will be enabled to furnifh his air altoge-
ther, that is, before and behind, better and with more eafe;
there is ftill another reafon for this, for when the fhoulders
come to the ground from too great a height, the fhock alarms
and diforders the mouth, and thus the horfe lofing the
fteadinefs of his appuy, he never will raife his croupe fo high
as he ought to make perfect balotades. si

BALLOTING, a method of voting at eleCtions,.&c. by-
means of little balls, which are ufually of different colours,
by the French called Aa//otes ; which are put inte a bex pri-
vately. :

BALLTOWN, in Geography, a townthip of America,
in Saratoga county, New York, formerly in Albany county,
contained in the year 1790, 7333 inhabitants, including
fixty-nine flaves. By the ftate cenfus in 4796, there appear
to be 266 eletors in this townfhip. It lies 36 miles N. from
Albany, has a Prefbyterian meeting-haufe, and is in a thriy—
ing ftate. The medicinal waters called ** Balltown Springs,”
from their being fituated within the limits of this town,
have acquired celebrity on account of their fanative virtue,
and the accommodations adjoining to them for valetudinarians.
The fprings are found in the bottom of a valley, or excava-
tion, fig a kind of bafon, and comprehending in their —
extent about fifty acres. In the vicinity of the {prings are
feveral neat bathing-heufes, and fhower baths, for the con~

; “venience

BAL

venience of invalids. Moft of them are private property,
belonging to a merchant of New York; but the largett
{pring belongs to the public. The waters of thefe {prings
contain iron, a mineral alkali, common falt and lime.; they
are brifk and f{parkling like champagne; and they poffels
the properties of other waters of the mephitic kind, in which
there is an intermixture of fixed air or carbonic acid; they
are reckoned cathartic, diuretic, and fudorific; and recourfe
is had to them by invalids of various defcriptions.

Ba.irown, or Baliflown, atownfhip in Lincoln county,
in the dittri€t of Maine, containing 1072 inhabitants; 195
miles N. E. from Bofton.

BALLUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Paririo ( Pleb.
Rur.), with entire fylvous wings dotted with black ; potte-
rior one green, with a brown margin. Gmelin, &c. Inha-
bits Spain.

BALLUSTER, or Bacrisrer, in Architedure, a {mall
kind of column or pillar whereof balluftrades are formed.

* The word is French, éa/uffre, which fignifies the fame,
formed from the Latin baluflrum or baluffrium, a place
among the ancients where the baths were railed in.
Balluiters are of divers forms, as well as matters, accord-
ing to different occafions, and different orders of architec-
ture.

Bauruster of the Ionic capital, denotes the lateral part
of the volute anfwering to what Vitruvius calls pu/vinata
on account of its refemblance to a pillow.

BALLUSTRADE, an affemblage of one or more rows
of ballufters high enough to reft the elbow on, fixed upon
a terrace, or the top of a building, by way of fecurity ;
fometimes alfo to make a feparation between one part and
another, as thofe around altars, fonts, &c. See figure of
Basiuic. )

BALLY, Battin, or Baily, prefixed to names of places
in Ireland, fignifies a town or inclofed place of habitation.
It comes from the Irifh dale, which O’Brien, in his diétion-
ary, fuppofes to be derived from the Latin vi//a, changing
v into 4, and that both come from vallis, on account of the
preference given to low fituations. General Vallancey derives
it from the Arabic da/ad, a province ; and quotes J. Bapt.
Pafferi, as explaining the Phoenician da/ in the fame fenfe as
the Irith dale. But Mr. Ledwich, in his Antiquities of
Treland, obferves, that it is plainly the Teutonic daiie, an
inclofure.

BALLYCASTLE, a fea-port town, in the northern
part of the county of Antrim, province of Uliter, Ireland,
fituated on the weft of Fairhead, near the mouth of the
little river Glenfheik, and oppolite to the ifland of Raghery.
Between this town and Fairhead are valuable collieries, in
an abrupt bank which overhangs the fea; a circumftance,
however, from which little advantage can be derived, as the
unfheltered fituation of the place, and the prevailing wef-
terly winds make a delay on the coait extremely dangerous,
and render it difficult to embark the coals. As the want of
capital has always been an impediment to fuch undertakings
in Ireland, application was made to the legiflature, on the
difcovery of the mine in 1721, for aid to work it; and
6000 pounds were granted for this purpofe, as well as the
large fum of 23,0001. at different times for making a harbour
there, and building a pier to proteét it; which expence was
incurred in the hope that Dublin would be ina great meafure
fupplied from this colliery, and thus be rendered lefs de-
pendant on the proprietors of the Cumberland mmes. The
pier, however, has been wafhed away, and the harbour fo
choaked up with fand, that like many other publick grants
in Iréland, it has been produétive of little or no national
enefit. By the exertions of an individual, fomé years ago,

Vor. ITT.

Baa EL

much coal was procured, and feveral manufactores were efta-
blifhed in the town, but fince his death the latter have been
negleéted. The collieries, however, continue to be worked,
and from the lateft accounts feem to be productive, though
not to the degree that was expected. The coal is faid to re-
femble the Scotch coal, but does not burn fo falt. The
different foflils commonly fituated above it are iron-ftone,
black fhivery flate, grey, brown, or yellowith fand-ftone,
and whin-ftone. The accidental difcovery of an old mine in
1770, which was very extenfive, and was found to be a com-
plete gallery, branching into numerous chambers, which
were drefled in a workmanlike manner, and muft have been
wrought by perfons at least as expert in the bufinefs as the
prefent generation, has furnifhed Mr. Hamilton with an ar-
gument in favour of the ancient civilization of Ireland. As
no coal mine at this place is mentioned either by Boate, or
by fir William Petty, the latter of whom vilited Ballycattle
between 1660 and 1670, and is particular in his account of
it; as for many centuries previous to the reign of James If.
a work of this nature was not likely to have been carried on ;
as the cinders of foffil-coal are vifible in the cement with
which acaftle of great antiquity in the adjoining ile of Rag-
hery was built; and as the tradition of the natives refers it
to a very early period, he concludes that it muft have been
worked previoufly to the eighth century. "Chis opinion feems
to be ftrengthened by Mr. Whitaker’s reafons for fuppofing
foffil-coal to have been known to the ancient Britons. Mr.
Ledwich, on the other hand, affirms, on the authority of
Lombard, that coal was not difeoyered and ufed in Ireland
long before A D. 1632. Near Ballycaftle are two mineral
fprings, one of them vitriolic, and the other chalybeate.
Dittance from Dublin 113 Ivifh miles. N. lat. 55° 11’. W.
long. 6° 6’. Hamilton’s Letters on Antrim. Statutes of
Ireland. Latocnaye’s Rambles. _Ledwich’s Antiquities.
Leaufort’s Memoirs. Rutty on Mineral Waters.

BALLYCLARE, a pott and fair town in the county
of Antrim, province of Ulfter, Ireland, ninety-five miles
north of Dublin.

BALLYCONNELL, a fmall market and poft town
of the county of Cavan, Ireland, fituate fixty-feven Irifh
miles northweft from Dublin, on the borders of a wild
and mountainons diftri&. The peafants are hardy and in-
duftrious, yet hitherto much depreffed for want of encou-
ragement. .The women {pin a good deal of wool as well as
flax, and frizes are made for home ufe; but eyery thing is
on a very narrow and contracted fcale. Agriculture has
lately improved, ard the culture of wheat has been increafed
by the eftablifhment of a good flour-mill; and there is alfo
an excellent bleach-green near the town. The mineral trea-
{ures of this neighbourhood are, however, the moft valuable.
Coal is found in the adjoining mountain of Slieve-Ruffell,
and generally duce out of the fide of the hill, in blocks,
near the furface.* No attention to this valuable concern has
yet actuated the proprietors on whofe eftates this mineral is
found m fuch abundance, and fo eafily raifed. In the moun-
tain of Ortnaeullach, both filyer and lead ore are carried
down the ftream which flows from it. Befides thefe, pure
fulphur is frequently found; and fuller’s earth is i abun-
dance. There is much pipe-clay alfo, which is found very
foft, and when baked in the fun acquires a proper conhit-
ency.

BALLYCOTTON, a village on the fea-coaft of the
county ef Cork, province of Munfter, Ireland, inhabit-
ed by fifhermen, and frequented for fea-bathing. It is,
four miles from Cloyne, and has fome ruins in tlie neigh-
bourhood. It gives name to a large but dangerous bay,
nearly femicircylar, which is remarkable for abundance of

3X ime

BAL

fme flat fith and lobfters, which are chiefly fent to Cork.
"There is a {mall ifland of the fame name, which forms one
extremity of the bay, and is almoft covered, in the feafon,
with the nefts and eggs of various fea-fowl, efpecially puffins.
N. lat. 51° 50’. W. long. 7° 59.

BALLYDONEGAN, a bay on the fouth coaft of Ire-
Jand, in the county of Cork, on the fouth fide of the en-
trance into Kenmare river. It has an open entrance, with a
good depth of water and anchorage, ,

BALLYELA, a bay in the Atlactic ocean, on the weft
coalt of Ireland, twelve miles fouth-eaft of South Arran
iflands, N. lat. 52°53’. W. long. 9° 20’. See Bat-
LIELA.

BALLYGELLY Heap, a cape on the eaft. coaft of
Ireland, in the Infh fea. N. lat. 5,° 54’. W. long. 5°
AA’,

f BA LLYHAVEN, in Geography, lieswithin the entrance
of Strangford haven, on the eaft coait of Ireland, beyond
Port Ferry on the eait fide.

BALLYHAUNIS, a poft-town, or rather village, in
the county of Mayo, province of Connaught, Ireland, where
are the ruins of a monattery; 100 Irifh miles north-wedt of
Dublin.

BALLYHAYES, a {mall town of the county of Cavan
ia Ireland, which has an improving market, and mills for
flour and oatmeal. The market-houfe and the ring of the
old town are arched, and built of brick. hele antique and
fantaftical buildings fhew it to have been once a place of
confiderable note, being remarkably furnifhed with all the old-
fafhioned ornaments to which the lords of this county were
particularly attached. This town and the adjoining demefne
have fuffered much from a long difpute refpecting the pof-
feffion.. Diftance trom Dublin 57 Irifh miles north-wett.

BALLYKATA, an ifland on the north-weit fide of the
fea of Azof, and near the northern extremity of it. N.
lat. 46° 38'. E. long. 56° 18’.

BALLYLANY, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic ocean,
near the weft coait of Ireland. N. lat. 53° 23’. W. long.
10° 16’.

BALLYLEIGH Heap, or Kerry-head, the fouth point
of the entrance of Shannon river.

BALLYLESS Bay, a {mall harbour on the north-weft
coaft of Ireland, towards the weftern point, having Dunfine
head for its eaftera limit, and direétly weft from Sligo bay,
and eaft from Broad haven.

BALLYMACHUS Pornr, the weftern point of the
entrance into Oyiter-haven, without the eaftern point of the
entrance into Kinfale harbour, on the fouth-eaft coalt of
Treland.

BALLYMEHON, a market and poft town in the coun-
ty of Longford, province of Leinfter, Ireland, 55 Inith
miles north-weit of Dublin.

BALLYMENAH, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Antrim; ten miles north of Antrim.

BALLYNAMORE, a pott-town in the county cf Gal-
way, province of Connaught, Ireland, eighty-five Irith miles
welt of Dublin.

BALL,Y QUINTON Pornrt, a cape on the eaft of the
county of Dowa in Ireland, in the Inth fea, at the eaft of
the entrance into Strangford lough; feven miles eait of
Downpatrick. N. lat. 54° 19’ W. long. 5° 26’.

BALLYSERAY Care, lies north-eaft of Ballykaia
ifland in the fea of Azof, on a peninfula. N. lat. 46 50’
FE. long. 56° 48. It is alfo called Agfa Biclo Sierai

‘ya.
ss BALLYSHANNON, a town of the county of Done-
gal, in the province of Uliter, Ireland, fituated on the river

BAL

Erne, which difcharges the wators of Lough. Erne inte
the bay of Donegal, at the diftance of about three miles
from the fea. It is the principal town in the county, and
was formerly of fome confequence as a fortified place,
though at prefent it derives its importance chiefly fram its
falmon fithery, The harbour is a barred one, but at high
water is navigable for veffels of 4o or 50 tons burden up
to the waterfall, where is fafe anchorage for a great deal
of fhipping ; but the bar is for fome hundreds of yards fo-
expofed to fouth-wefterly florms, as to render it quite inac-
ceflible during high winds, The falmon leap, which is near
the town, has a very beautiful appearance ; the fall is down
a ridge of rocks about twelve feet high, and at low water
forms a very picturefque objet. It is one of the principal
falmon leaps in Ireland, and when lat rénted was fet for near
rrool. It has during the two lait years (1802) been much,
more productive. ‘There is alfo an eel fithery, which fets
at 3251. 108. 6d. yearly. Before the fall, in the middle
of the river, is a rocky ifland, on which is a curing-houfe,
inftead of the turret of a ruined caftle for which it feems
formed. The coaft of the river is very bold, confifting of
perpendicular rocks with grafs of a b-autiful verdure to the
very edge; it projects in little promontories which grow
longer as they approach the fea, and open to give a fiae
view of the ocean. ‘The town is prettily fituated on the
rifiag ground on each fide of the river, over which there is
a bridge of fourteen arches. It has improved much within
a few years, and is acquiring fome degree of importance in
trade, which would increafe much more if a {trong wall was

built to fhelter the entrance of the harbour. The comple- ,

tion of the canal which has been undertaken to join Lough
Erne to the fea at Ballyfhannon, would alfo be of material
fervice to it. Near the town, the Rt. Hon. Thomas
Conolly has eftablifhed a linen manufactory, viz. twenty
houfes with two looms in each houfe, and a certain portion.
of land annexed to it. The Tyrhugh Farmers Society
has alfo offered premiums for eftablifhing a linen market
at Ballyfhannon. A little north of the town of Bally than-
non, ou Mr. Conolly’s eftate, is a large bank of yellow py-
rites.. This town was made a corporation in 1611, and
fent two members to parliament; but this privilege has
been difcontinued fince the union. Its diftance from Dub-
lin is ror Irith miles. Longitude 8° 2’ weft of Greenwich,
latitude 54° 31’ N. Young’s Tour. Boate. Dr. Beau-
fort. M°‘Farlane’s Stat. Account of Donegal.

BALLYTEIGH Bay lies round the eaft point of the
entrance into Bannoc or Bannow bay. (See Bannow.) At
the fouth end is a fmall ifland called Inch ifland.

BALLYVAGHAN, a bay on the wettern coaft of Ire-.
land, and north part of the county of Clare, in the fouth
part of Galway bay.

BALLYVARY, a poft and fair town in the county of
Mayo, province of Connaught, Ireland, 135 Irifh miles
north-welt of Dublin.

BALLYWATER, the mouth of the entrance into
Carrickfergus bay, on the north-eaft coalt of Ireland, aud’
the opening of Belfaft river. ‘The name is fometimes given

to the fea feuthward along the eaft coaft of the peninfula, ~

of which Stangford lough, or lake, is the weft fide.
BALM, in Botany. See Meuissa..
Baim of Gilead... See DracocrrHaLums,
Baum, or Barsam. Sce Barsam.

Baim, in Geography, a town of Germany; in the circle
of Upper Saxony, and Hinder Pomerania, 17-miles S. W.
of Stargard, and 17 fouth of Old Stettin. N..lat: 53° 8.

E. long. 14° 48’.
BALMALA,,

ie

BAL

BALMALA, a town of Africa, in the defert of Ber-
doa. :

BALMAMAT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, twelve
miles weft of Karahifar.

BALMARINO, in the county of Fife, in Scotland, is
the name of a parifh within whofe limits is a {mall har-
bour, and the remains of an abbey which bears the name
of the parifh. From the former a confiderable quantity of
grain is annually exported ; and a falmon fifhery is efta-
blifhed near this place in the frith of Tay. The abbey of
Balnarino, which was founded in 1229, for monks of the
Cilkercian order, has been a magnificent and extenfive pile
of building; but its grandeur is nearly annihilated, and only
a few fragments remain to mark its fite and character,
It is about ten miles to the eaft of Perth.

BALMING. Sce Emsatminc.

BALMUCCIA, a town of Piedmont, in the valley of
Sefia, feven miles welt of Varallo.

BALNAVES, Heyry, in Biography, a Scots Proteftant
divine, was born in the fhire of Fife in the reign of James
V., and educated in the univerfity of St. Andrews. He fi-
nifhed his ftudies in France; and on his return to Scotland,
was admitted to the family of the earl of Arraa, but dif-
miffed in 1542, for embracing the Proteftant religion. Hav-
ing joined the murderers of cardinal Beaton in 1544, he was
declared a traitor, and excommunicated. During the fiege
of St. Andrews, he was feat by his party to England, and
returned with a confiderable fupply of provilions and money ;
but being compelled to furrender to the French, he was
fent with the reft of the garrifon to France. After his re-
turn to Scotland, about the year 1559, he was appointed
one of the commillioners to treat with the duke of Norfolk
on the part of queen Elizabeth. In 1563, “he was made
one of the lords of feffion; and appointed, with other
learned men, to revife the book of difcipline. Knox, who
was his fellow-labourer, gives him the chara&ter of a very
learned and pious divine. He died at Edinburgh in 1579.
His writings are “ A Treatife concerning Juttification,’”’ and
«© A Catechifm, or Confeffion of Faith.” Encycl. Brit.

BALNEARII Servi, in Antiquity, fervants or attend-
ants belonging to the baths.

Some were appointed to heat them, called fornicatores ;
others were denominated cap/arii, who kept the clothes of
thofe that went into them; others alipte, whofe care it was
to pull off the hair; others un@uarii, who anointed and per-
fumed the body.

BALNEARIUS Fur, a kind of thief who practifed
ftealing the clothes of perfons in the baths; fometimnes alfo
ealled fur balnearum.

he crime of thofe thieves was a kind of facrilege for
the hot baths were facred: hence they were more feverely
punifhed than common thieves, who ftole out of private
houfes. The latter were acquitted with paying double the
value of the thing ftolen; whereas the formcr were pu-
nifhed with death.

BALNEUM, in Chemi/fry. See Barr.

BALNIA, Cano, in Geography, Balnea, or White
Cape, a {mall white cliff, about fix leagues from cape Pal-
fado, nearly under the equator, on the coait of Peru, in
South America.

BALOG, a town of Hungary,
Altfol.

BALOHA, a town of Africa, on the river Grand, in-
habited by the defcendants of a mixture of Portuguefe and
Africans.

BALONGO,

twenty miles eaft of

three iflands in the bay of Bengal, near

B Ave

the coaft of Arracan. WN.
93° to 93° 20.

BALONIC} ie, in the Mut ria Medica of the a icients, 2
name given by Avicenna, Averrhoes, and others, to a kind
of camphor, which they deferibe as coarfe, brown, and of
lefs value than the other forts. ‘This is probably the fame
with our rough camphor, as brought over to us from the
Eatt Indies.

BALONTES, in Gergraphy, a people of Africa, who in-
habit the banks of the river Geves, the channel of which fe-
parates Biffao fromthe main land. Their territory 13 about
twelve leagues in length, and ebout as much in breadth,
The Balontes maintain no intercour‘e with the neighbouring
negroes, either on the continent or iflands; and though
they fometimes travel beyond their own limits, they will
permit no foreign negroes to pafs their frontiers. Their re-
ligion is idolatry, and their form of government an ariflo-
cracy. They allow of no flavery ; they are boid, intrepid,
and warlike; but crafty, treacherous, and fraudulent.
Their arms are aflagayes, arrows, and fabres. “The Balon-
tans are fuppofed to have gold mines in their country; aud
under this idea the Portuguefe aflembled a large body of
troops at Biffao in 1695, and invaded the country. But
the rain of the feafon rendered their arms and ammunition
ufelefs; and the Balontans attacked them with this difad-
vantage fo vigoroufly, with their affagayes and fabres, as
foon to rout them and force them to retire with'a confider-
able lofs of men, aad of all their ammunition and ftores.

BALOU, a town of Afia, in Armenia, twenty-five miles
northweft of Cars.

BALQUHIDDER is a parifh in Perthfhire, in the
highlands of Scotland, and is noted for its mountainous
{cenery. Some of the mountains are very high and fteep ;
among them, thofe of Benmore and Benvoirlich are the
moft lofty and confpicuous; the fitlt rifing to the height of
3903 feet above the level of the fea, and the latter to
that of 3300 feet. In this parifh is a confiderable extent of
the ancient Caledonian foreft; but it is annually abridged
by the inclofing fyftem, which has at length found its way
into thefe northern regions, Here are alfo feveral lakes
or lochs, of which the principal are thofe of Lochdoine,
Lochvoil, part of Lochlubuaig, and part of Lochearno,
The military road from Stirling to Fort William paffes
through this parith. The great inequality of ground pre-
vents the farmers from appropriating any of their lands
to arable; and the pafture on the fides of the hills is
chiefly fed by fheep.

BALS, a river of Greenland, which runs into the fea.
N. lat. 64° 30. W. long. 50° 10’.

BALSA, in Ancient Geography, Tavira, a town of Hif-
pania, in Lufitania; belonging, according to Ptolemy, to
the Turdetani. It was in the part called Cuneus, near the
fea, and not far from Anas to the weft.—Alfo, a burgh
of the interior of Africa, reckoned by Pliny among the
conquefts of Cornelius Balbus.

BALSAM, in Chemiftry and Medicine, Rarcapov, Gr. 5
balfam, balfamum. Lat; beaume, Fr. Various meanings
have been affixed to this term, which it is of fome import-
ance to diftinguifh, as the clafs of natural balfams have been
efteemed from the earlieft ages as fome of the mott yaluable
productions of the vegetable kingdom, have formed the
moit precious articles of commerce in the Eaft, and have
been ufed for medicinal purpofes, and about the human bo-
dy, as-long as the art of medicine and the practice of adorn-
ing the perfon ‘have been cultivated.

‘The term balfam appears to have been originally confined

3X2 to

, . ;
no" to 20. ¢’. Eu. lor
lat. 19° go’ to zo 5’. FE. long.

BAL

to 9 certain fragrant vifcid juice exuding frem a tree tn
Arabia and Egypt, and now denominated the balfam. of
Mecca, or Opobalfamum. Henee it was extended to other
productions of the fame nature; and we may define the true
meaning of a balfam to be a fragrant, oily, vifcid, inflam-
mable juice, exuding from various trees and plants, not foln-
bie in water, incapable of putrefaGtion, and poilefled of
the power of preferving animal nature from {pontaneous
change for a confiderable length of time. This latter pro-
perty has given rife to the term embalming or balfamation of
bedies, fo univerfally practifed among the Egyptians.

Balfams are generally more or lefs acrid to the tatte, par-
ticularly after having been for fome time chewed in the
mouth. They haye the itrongeft affinity to Resins, from
which they feem to differ only in containing a larger portion
of efléntial oil, fo that if any of the liquid balfams (turpen-
zine for example). be diftilled per fe with a gentle heat, an
oil rifes in confiderable quantity, and the refiduum is a fub-
ftanee now dry and brittle, {earcely in any refpeét different
from a refin.

Of late years a diftinG@ion has been made, and admitted
into the French nomenclature, between balfams and reiins,
in the cireumftance of the former containing a portion of
the Benzorc acid, which confiderably adds to the pene-
trating fragrance of thefe fubftances, etpecially when
warmed, and may be expelled from them by a gentle heat,
This diftin&tion was propofed by Buequet, and has fince
been very Generally adopted. We cannot however al-
low of its propriety, fince it would confine the term to a
very {mall number of fubftances, even to the exclufion of
the original balfam of Mecca and many others to which
the term has long been appropriated; and it would extend
to the folid and brittle gum benzoin contrary to the quality
of un@uou nefs or vifzidity which has always been contidered
as eflential to a balfam; fo much that even the folution of
fulphur in oil has on this account been termed a balfam.

, Balfams are natural or artificial. ‘The latter are compofi-
tions exclufively belonging to pharmacy, and generally com-
poled of effential oils, reiins, and aromatics brought to the
sonfiitence of a balfam, fometimes by oil, fometimes by ar-
dent fpint. Thefe preparations are fo numerous and often
complex, that we fhall only meation a few of the mott cele-
brated; but firft. we thall notice the-—

§ 1. Netural Balfams.

Lalfamum Mecca.—B. Opobaljamum.—B. Gileadenfe.—B.
Judaicum.—B. Syriacum.—The genuine opabalfam or balm
of Mecca.

This celebrated balfam has preferved almoft from time
immemorial the high value in which it has been invariably
held by. the eafiern nations. This indeed is partly owing to
the exclufive fpirit of oriental defpotifm, which prevents
this precious drug from entering the common markets; fo
that all our knowledge of its properties is derived either
from report, or from the rare Opportunities which individuals
have enjoyed of pof efling a {pecimen of it.

The tree that yields it is the Amyris, of which there
appear to be feveral fpecies, all of them fragrant and bal-
famic. It is commonly obtained by incifions: the xy/obal-
Janum being prepared from the wood, and the carpobalfamum
from the fruit. It is chiefly colle&ted in Arabia, in the in-
terior of the country, between Mecca and Medina. Ac-
cording to Bruce, when freth from the tree, the balfam is
of a light yellow colour, a little turbid. It prefently grows
clear and yellow like honey, which deepens by age. Its
fell is exquifitely fragrant aud very pungent, giving a fen-
Tation like that of volatile falts. ‘This remains for years if

BAL

the balfam is kept ‘earefully corked,
acrid, aromatic, and altringent,

The quantity yielded by one tree is very fmall, feldom
more than about a dram daily; which alone muft render it
aic expentive articles but ja ail probability it might be ob.
tained without much difficulty by Europeans, ifit was likely:
to repay the expence, On pouring a drop of this balfam
on a glafs of cold water, it {preads itfelf over the furface ju
a thin pellicle, which may afterwards be taken off by @ pin,.

The tafte is bitter,

whillt the water becomes {trongly impregnated with the-

{cent and flavour of the balfam. This is generally men-
tioned as a teft of the genuinenefs of this article, but it is
entirely fallacious, for when long kept the true balfam will
not exhibit this appearance, and many of the other thin
balfams will thew it with as much eale as the opobalfam.
Whea rubbed with water it becomes milky, and is refolyed
into a mafs refembling lard in appearance. On adding more
water it feparates altogether, and {wims at the top. Spirit
of wine highly reétified diffolves this balfam without much
difliculty: on adding water, the whole becomes milky. It
is alfo foluble in the exprefled and the effential oils. Tf a
folution in olive oil is mixed with water very gradually, it
forms a kind of pommade.

This coftly balfam‘is in the higheft efteem among the
Turks and other eaftern nations both as a medicine and a
cofmetic. ‘The Turks take it in the dofe of a few drops
to fortify the ftomach and excite the animal powers: exter-
nally it is ufed as a vulnerary. It may readily be imagined
that the oriental {pirit of exaggeration fhould have extolled
the fuperior virtues of this admired balfam 3 but fair experi-
ments on its medicinal properties are {till wanting, nor is it
probeble that it would be found to exceed the other balfams
in this refpe&t, fo much as it does in fragrance and fcent.

The Mecca balfam is alfo employed at Co:ftantinople as
a cofmetic in the feraglio, according to the teftimony of
lady Wortley Montague. Under what form it is ufed does
not appear, but its acrimony is fuch as to irritate the {kin
very confiderably when rubbed on the face unmixed, as the
fame eminent lady experienced on her own perfon. It is
{carcely neceflary to add that the fubftance fometimes fold
in the fhops for balfam of Mecca, and at no great price,
mut be a mixed and adulterated compound in no degree to
be depended on as the true opobalfam.

The dried berries of this tree were formerly kept in the
fhops, and called, as well as the balfam, carpobalfamum; and
the dried twigs, xylobalfamum. .

Balfamum Copaiva—B. C opaibe—B. Brafilienfe—Copaiba
or Capivi Baljam.

This balfam, one of the moft ative and valuable for me-
dicine, is obtained from the CoparFERa officinalis, Linn. a
tall and elegant tree growing in Brafil and ieveral other parts
of South America. To procure it, feveral incifions or

. fometimes augre holes are made near the ground penetrating

through the bark into the fubstance of the wood, when the
balfam flows out in fuch abundance, that fometimes in three
hours twelve pounds have been obtained.

This balfam is colourlefs when flowing from the tree ;
after a while it becomes of an amber yellow, and confiderably
vifcid, but retains its tranfparency; it is never known to
become perfeétly folid. The f{mell of capivi balfam is fra-
grant and powerful ; to the tatte it is bitterith, heating, aro-
matic, and permanent on the tongue ; it ftains paper as oil
does. It is nearly infoluble in water; but on being long
rubbed with it, a kind of milky emulfion is produced, from’
which however the balfam foon feparates and rifes to the
top. It is readily foluble in fixed and volatile oils, and in

I fpirit

BAL

irit of wines the latter ‘makes a very ftrong penetrating
tindare. Dittillation reqdily feparates the balfam into an
oil which has. all the fenfible properties of the capivi, and
into an infipid refin. If carefully dittitled with water, from
a fifth to half the weight of oilis obtained, which is highly
fragrant and nearly colouriefs, The residuum is a refin, at
frit green and tenacious, afterwards- growing yellow and
brittle, foluble in alcohol, but not in water. ‘Lhe water
with which the balfam has been diltilled becomes flightly
impregnated with the odour and flavour of the capivie Di-
flilied per /e, or mixed with athes and fubjected to a {trong
heat, the oil which rifes is at firft fragrant and clear, after-
wards bluifh, thick, empyreumatic, but not ungrateful to
the {mell.. F

The capivi balfam is unqueftionably an a&tive fubftance
whea taken into the ftomach; and its medicinal virtues,
though perhaps over-rated, are however yery confiderable,
Like turpentine, it determines powerfully to the kidnies,
and impregnates the urine with its qualities, and has there-
fore been fuppofed p culiarly fuited to difsafes of thefe or-

ans. A\s its effects, however, are heating and irritating, it
1s capable of producing much mifchiez as wellas good, and
its ule is now chiefly confined to the cure of gleet and go-
norrhea. It isalfo ferviceable in certain ftates of haemor-
rhoids and difeafes of the reCtum, a fat which may well be
credited, when it is confidered of what acrid materials the
celebrated Ward’s pafte is compofed. In pulmonary affec-
tions it has been ufed ftrictly asa vulnerary or baljimic, but
it is too apt to produce or increafe the general fever, and
can feldom be employed with fafety in thefe cafes. The
ulual dole of this balfam is about twenty drops, -but it is
fo yifeid that this method of divifion cannot be adopted
tllit is warmed. The beft form of exhibition is triturated
with yolk ef egg, almonds or mucilage, and thus united
with water into an emulfion. . This bal{- a: is eafily adulte-
rated with the thinner turpentines or with oils, and the de-
teGiion of this fraud is often difficult on account of the
potency of the {mell and taite of the capivi, which covers
almoft every other.

Balfam Peruvianum exudes from a large tree growing
in Peru, Mexico, Brafil, and other partsof America. See
Myroxyton Peruvianun.

There are two fpecies of the Peruvian balfam, the
white and the brown: the white balfam is very rarely met
with in the fhops. It is procured by incifion of the bark,
but very fparingly, and it foon concretes into a fragrant
brittle refin, which is brought over in gourd fhells. It is
alfo called the white /lyrax. It is lefs hot and more fragrant
than the black balfam, and more approaches to the proper-
ties of fyrax.

The common Peruvian balfam is of a dark colour ap-
proaching to black; the {mell highly fragrant; the taite
aromatic, rather bitter, and confiderably acrid ; the confift-
ence always thick and vifcid. Dropt into water, it finks
to the bottom, and refufes to mix withit: but by agitation
gives it a fragrant {mell and fomewhat of the fenfible pro-

erties of the balfam. It diffolves readily in {pirit of wine.
hen mixed with the fixed oils and heated, it is decom-
poled ; its effential oily ingredient, which gave it fluidity, is
abforbed by the exprefied oil, and a thick tenacious refin re-
mains, which gradually becomes folid in the air. In this
infolubility in fixed oils it remarkably differs from the other
balfams, nor does it readily mingle with the other balfams.
Diitilled with water, it gives about a fixteenth of an effen-
tial fragrant reddifh oil, very fparingly foluble in alcohol.
Dittillation fer fe gives a fimilar oil, butempyreumatic, By

BAL

regulated heat a {mall quantity of benzoic acid maybe fub-
limed out of this balfam. ;

Peruvian balfam is one of the moft ftimulant of all.this”
{pecies of fubftances, and 1s therefore applied with advans
tage in,feveral difeafes. It is allo particularly recommended
as an external application, where a warm ftimulant is re-
guired.. A. tinétureis made by diffolving it in {pivit-of wine
(Lin#ura Baljami Peruviani, Ph, Load.), and it enters into,
feveral-of the’ artificial or compound baliamic preparations.
The dofe of this balfam is from two to twelve grains, and
it may be given in the form of an emulfion mixed with
water through the medium of yolk of egg. Aloctic and
warm cordial pills are conveniently made up with this: bal-
fam, and their virtue is fomewhat increafed by it.

Beaumé afferts that it is fometimes falfified by the fecond
oil that rifes from gum benzoin in diftillation, digefted upon
poplar buds, which have a fise terebinthous odour, and af-
terwards mixed with a little of the true balfam: . he com-
paratively low price of the genuine:balfam, however, would
feem te render this falfification fcarcely worth the trouble.

Balfamum Tolutanumis the produtvof the Teruirera
Baljamum, a tree which grows inthe province of Tolu, in
Spanifh America, behind Carthagena. ‘The balfam is ob-
tained by making incifions on the bark of the tree, and is
brought over in fmall gourd fhells. This balfam is of a red-
difh yellow colour, and pellucid; its confiftence when frefh
is extremely tenacious, but by age it becomes brittle; but
in hot weather, pteces of this balfam generally coslefce and
adhere to the bottom of any veffel in which it is kept. The
fmell of this balfam is extremely fragrant and grateful: it:
has but little tafte; when chewed, it flicks tothe teeth,
and appears almott infoluble in the faliva, but gives a gentle
aromatic warmth to the tongue. The Tolu balfam is one
of thofe that contain a notable proportion of the benzoic.
acid, and is therefore itri€tly 3 balfam according to the mo-
dern acceptation, and, probably owing to the prefence cf
this acid, it readily imparts its flavour to watery liquids,
though it appears to be fearcely at all foluble in this fluid.
Eight ounces of this balfam boiled for two hours in a clofe
veflel in three pints of water make a very fragrant decoc-
tion, which, when mixed with the requifite quantity of fu-
gar, forms the /yrzpus To/utanns, Ph. Lond. In the Edins-
burgh Pharmacopoeia the fyrup is formed by the admixture
of two pounds of fimple fyrup recently prepared and not
yet cold, with one ounce of the tinéture of ‘Tolu. r

This balfam is perfe@tly foluble in fpirit of wine. The
tin@ura Tolutana, Ph. Ed. and tind@ura balfami Tolutani Phi
Load. are prepared by diffolving an ounce anda half of Tolu.
balfam in a, pint of rectified {pirit of wine. It is eafily
foluble in the-effential oils, but with difficulty in the fixed.
By dittiilation per fe, the fublimed benzoic aeid is firft given
out ina very gentle heat, together with a fragraat empy-
reumatic cil. On account of the benzoic acid, this balfam
burns with a remarkably aromatic penetrating {moke ; and
was often an ingredient in thofe fumigations which -were
formely fo much employed either with a view of purifying
an infe¢ted atmofphere, or for diffufing a grateful fcent.
When taken medicinally, either the tincture is employed, or
the balfam is united with water by egg or mucilage. Its
powers are gently ftimulating ; but it appears altogether a
trifling article of the Materia Medica, except on account
of its odour. Itis given with more fecurity in pulmonary
complaints than the other balfams ; and it appears to have
fome effe&t in checking or difguifing the exceflively offen-
five factor of the breath of perfons fuffering under ulcera-

tion of the lungs,
Balfamunz

BAL

Balfamum Rackafira is a balfam deferibed by Murray
(App. Med.), which Spielman relates to be brought from
India. In confiftence, and other fenfible properties, it
much refembles the Tolu balfam, but appears to be weaker,
Its origin is unknown, and it is fuppofed to be facitious.
It is feldom feen, and never ufed.
Balfamum Carpathicum, Carpathian or Hungary balfam,
\ Krummbolztaum, Germ.; called alfo balfamum Libani.
This fine balfam is procured from the pinus Mugo and the
pinus Ambra, which grow abundantly on the Carpathian
mountains, the Tyrol, and many parts of Hungary, Ger-
mary, and Switzerland. The ballam is efteemed by the
common people as a fovereign remedy for almoft every dif-
order, external and internal. The Oleum Templinum, or
Krummhobzoh/ is an oil of turpentine prepared by dittilling
this balfam, and is in equal repute. For a further deferip-
tion of this and all of the turpentines, which are truly and
properly da//ams in the ufual meaning of the term, fee the
articles Pinus, and TurPENTINE, particularly the latter,
under which we mean to include moft of the refinous pro-
ducts of the different fpecies of fir.

Balfamum Canadenfe, a very fine fragrant and powerful
TurPENTINE, procured from the Pines balfamea, the
Virginian or Canada fir.

Balfamum Styrax, ftorax, or liquid amber. See Sry-

RAX,
§ 2. Artificial Balfams.

Thefe are preparations of the Materia Medica formerly
in much repute, and compounded of a vatt variety of refi-
nous and aromatic drugs, the whole brought to a thickith
confiftence, fo as to refemble the natural balfams. They
are but little employed at prefent. Any preparation in
which oil was fo thickened as to be brought to a treacly
confiftence, was termed, in the older Pharmacopoeias, a bal-
fam, and many of this fpecies were equally ufed as external
and internal applications. We fhall only mention a few of
thefe preparations.

Balfamum Locatelli—Of the former London and Edin-
burgh Pharmacopoeias. In the former, it was prepared by
melting half a pound of yellow wax-with about half a pint
of olive oil, then adding another half pint of oil, with half a
pound of Strafburg turpentine, and when nearly cold, ftir-
ring in fix drams of red faunders wood to colour the whole.
In the latter, inftead of the red faunders,. balfam of Peru,
and powdered dragon’s blood were added to the melted wax,
oil, and turpentine. Another variety of this preparation
ufed in the Paris Pharmacopoeia, is to employ wax, olive oil,
white wine (which was evaporated off the wax and oil),

turpentine, faunders wood, and Peruvian balfam.

Balfamum Commendat-ris, Baumedu Command: ur.—Balfam
of Be rae.—Wade’s Balfam.—Jefuits Drops, orfriar’s Balam.
Under all thefe appellations, and with fome variation in the
ingredients, was this celebrated balfam known and prepared.
In the Paris receipt, a tin¢ture is firlt made of angelica root
and the flowers of hypericum in fpirit of wine, in this are
‘diffolved myrrh, olibanum, aloes, itorax, benzoin, Peruvian
balfam, and ambergris. The whole makes a thick, fragrant,
and highly ftimulating liquid; which is ufed either inter.
nally as a cordial and fuppofed vulnerary, or externally to
promote the cicatrization of wounds. A judicious reforma-
tion of this balfam is retained by the London and Edinburgh
colleges, under the name of — “

Balfamum Traumaticum, or Tin@ura Benzves Compofita.
This 1s prepared by diffolving three ounces of benzoin, two
ounces of f{terax, one ounce of balfam of Tolu, and balf an

BAS,

ounce of aloes, in two pints of reé&ified {pirit of wine. The
Edinburgh college omits the ftorax.

B Wfamum Vite, Beaume de Vie. This powerful medicine
was prepared by Hoffman, under whofe hame it went. It
confifts of a folution of feveral effential oils, and a
fmall portion of Peruyian balfam, in highly reGtified fpirit of
wine. It is extremely fragrant and ftimulating, and is em-
ployed almoit-entirely as an internal medicine in languors,
faintings, violent colic, and other cafes that require a fudden
and perce ftimulant. The ingredients in the Branden-
burg pharmacopoeia, adopted as an improvement of Hoff-
man’s balfam of life, are the effential oils of lavender, nut-
megs, cloves, rhodium, wild thyme, cinnamon, lemon, ber-
gamotte, and balfam of Peru, diffolved in fpirit of lavender.
The prefent laudable cuftom of fimplifying the pharmaceu-
tical preparations, would probably dimininifh the number of
thefe eflential oils which appears to be quite arbitrary. ~

A mixture of eight ounces of vitriolic acid and two
ounces of olive oil forms the—

Balfamum Arthriticum, a very powerful external applica-
tion, in which the corrofive power of the vitriolic is mode-
rated, but it requires to be ufed with great caution. In
preparing it, the acid muft be added very gradually to the
oil with conftant agitation, otherwife part of the oil will be
charred ard reduced toa hard black mafs. When well pre-
pared, it is of a very dark ‘brown colour, and an uni orm
balfamiec confiftence.

The laft of the artificial balfams which we fhall mention,
are the combinations of fulphur with oil.

Balfumum Sulphuris, or Oleum Sulphuratum ; Ph. Lond.

and Edin, prepared by melting in an iron pot flowers of
fulphur, with four, or with eight times the weight of olive
oil.

The refult is a thick, foetid, tenacious balfam,

Petroleum Sulr-uratum is prepared the fame way, only
with the ufe of petroleum, initead of olive oil.

Balfamue Sulphuris Terebinthinatum. B.S. Anifatum, which
are now nearly difufed, were. prepared by digeiting the ful-
pher in oil of turpentine, in gilafs veffels on a fand heat,
and in the latter cafe, alfo adding oil of anife feed. Qil of
turpentine readily diffolves the fulphur, and with vehemence
when in quantities, fo that this preparation fhould be made
in a very large mattrafa All the fulphur balfams differ
from the other balfams, in having a very offenfive fmell and
taite. They are hot and inritating, and their internal ufe
is very limited. Externally, the thick fulphur balfam is
ufed in farriery.

Batsam pple, Male, in Botany. See Momoronica.

Barsam Bay, in Geography, lies on the weft fide of Old
Cape Frangois, and on the north fide of the ifland of Hifpa-
niola, or St. Domingo, in the Weit Indies, N. lat. 39° 427.
W. long. 69° 35’. See Baume.

BALS.AMATION. See EmBAtMina. ;

BALSAMELZAON, in the Mareria Medica, a name
given by fome authors to the balm of Gilead, or true balfa-
mum Judaicum. .

BALSAMICS, in Medicine. Before weconclude thearticle
of balfams, it may be proper to make a few obfervations on
their ufe in medicine. OF the properties which have been
attributed to the internal ufe of all balfams, none is more
ancient, and: commonly prevalent than that of healing or vul-
nerary. ‘This idea appears to have arifen from the obferva-
tions of their ufe, when externally applied to a recent wound.
{f a gath is made in the hand with a clean cutting knife, and
the parts are brought together and bound up with a rag
dipped in any baliam, and left unditurbed for fome days,

"

‘ as

‘

BAL

it is a matter of common remark, that the wound will gene-
rally heal without any fuppuration, by fimple union of the
divided parts. However, it ishighly probable that the bal-
fam aéts, in this cafe, principally as a cement to keep the
divided lips in more complete re-union, and to exclude the
external air; for the fame application to the furface of an
open lacerated wound, is known by every furgeon frequently
to bring on extreme pain and inflammation, and to increafe
all the danger of too extenfive {uppuration or gangrene.
The natural balfams are fome milder than others, but all
have a certain degree of acrimony, which renders their in-
difcriminate ufe in injuries of the body extremely hazardous;
though under due management they may be of effential fer-
vice. But fearcely a fingle cireumftance which recommends
their external ufe, can apply to internal ulceration or rupture
of veffels. The healing power depends chiefly on the mode
of application, the degree of opical ftimulus, and probably
the exclufion of external air; ‘and hence, the value which
has been fet on balfams as interna/ vulneraries is entirely lott.
A languid indolent ulcer in the kidney might perhaps be
affifted by local ftimulating remedies, but when the remedy
muit enter the ftomach, and pervade all the veffels mixed
with and diluted by the common circulating fluid, the
remedy is no longer local, and the irritation which it pro-
duces, is either counteracted during the circulatioa, or is
equally diffufed over the whole fyftem. Balfams, therefore,
fhangh they are by no means to be defpifed, are no longer
viewed with that degree of partiality which the older phy-
ficians entertained for them, and repeated experience has
fhewn them to be fometimes abfolutcly ufelefs, and often
ofitively detrimental in internal ulceration of the lungs,

kidney, or other difeafes for which they have been long
celebrated.

BALSAMINA, or Batsam, in Botany.
TIENS.

BALSAMITA. See AcHiLtLEA, CHRYSANTHEMUM,
and TaANAcCETUM.

Batsamira, in the Materia Medica.
TUM.

Batsamita, in Entomology, a {pecies of Apuis, that
feeds on the tanacetum balfami:a. Mull. Zool. Dan.—The

eneral colour is black ; abdomen green ; eyes red.

BALSAMON, Tueopore, in Biography, an eminent
mafter of the canon law, flourifhed in the Greek church to-
wards the clofe of the twelfth century. He was appointed
guardian of the laws and records, 1. e. Nomophylax and
Chartophylax, of the church of Conflantinople ; and he
was nominated by the Greek church to the patriarchate of
Antioch; but this fee being feized by the Latins, never
came into his poffeffion. By the emperor Ifaac Angelus
Comnenus he was flattered, for ferving his own purpoies
in favour of Dofitheus, with the hope of being advanced
to the patriarchate of Conftantinople; and thus feduced,
he maintained, in the aflembly of the prelates, that the
tranflation of the patriarch of Jerufalem to this elevated ita-
tion, was agreeable to the cangn law, and the prelates ac-
quiefced in his opinion. But after this exercife of ingenuity
and violation of confcience, he was deceived and difap-
pointed ; for Dofitheus was preferred, upon the authority
of his decifion.
canon law ; particularly ‘« Commentaries on the Apoftolical
Canons, the General and Particular Councils, and the Ca-
nonical Letters of the Greek fathers,’ printed in folio, in
Greek and Latin, at Paris, in 1620; and in two volumes
folio, in ‘ Beverege’s Pandeéts of Canons,” printed at
Oxford in 1672. He alfo wrote a “ Colleétion of Ecclefia-
‘ftical Confiitutions, which may be found in Greek and

See Impa-

See Tanace-

Balfamon wrote feveral learned works on.

BAL

Latin in “ Juftelli Bibliotheca Canonica,” and other leamead
works. Fuabr. Bibl, Gree, t.v. ps 33. t ix. pe 184. te xi.
Pp: 47. t. xu. p. 403, &c.

BALSANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the king-
dom of Naples, and province of Bari; feven miles fouth of
Bani.

BALSAS, a town of South America, in Peru, in the
jurifdiction of Caxamarca, near the river Maragnon.

Bausas, in Navigation. See CATAMARAN.

BALSEY Chf, in Geography. See Bawpsey.

BALSHAM, Hueu pe, in Biography, an Englith di-
vine, bifhop of Ely, and founder of St. Peter’s College, or
Peter-houfe, in Cambridge, was born, probably, at Balfham
in Cambridgefhire, towards the beginning of the thirteenth
century. In 1247, he was nominated by the monks of the
Benediétine monattery of Ely, of which he was fub-prior, to
the fee of Ely: but Henry III. refufed to confirm the no-
mination. Balfham appealed to the pope, and the butinefs
remained for ten years undecided, At laft, however, the
pope and monks prevailed. When the prelate was feated
in his fee, he projeéted the laudable defign of providing edu-.
cation for poor {cholars, and inftituted a college, fince known
by the name of Peter-houfe. He died at Dodington, in 1286,
and was buried in the cathedral church of Ely. By his:
will he left many books to his fcholars, and 300 marks for
erecting new buildings. By an inftrument, dated in 1291, his
memory is annually celebrated in his college. The diftinétion:
of jurifdiétion between the chancellor of the univerfity of
Cambridge, and the archdeacon of Ely, was fettled in
1276 by this prelate. Diog. Brit.

BALSIO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, twenty-
miles from Turtafo, near the Iberus, and fouth-eaft of Cala-

urtis.

BALSORA, in Geography - See Bassora.

BALTAGI, among the Turks, porters, and hewers of
wood, in the court of the grand fignior; who alfo mount on
horfeback, when the emperor rides out. Part of them
alfo, who for that purpofe muft be caftrated, keep watch
at the gates of the firft and fecond courts of the feraglio.
Thefe latt are called capigt, and their commander cabigt
afcha.

A BALTAS, in Geography, a town of Courland, 20 miles
ealt of Seelburg.

BALTAZARINI, in Biography, an Italian performer
on the violin, who feems firft to have brought that inftru-
ment into favour at the court of France, before any ho-
nourable mention is made of it elfewhere in that kingdom.
He was fent, 1577, at the head of a band of violin players from
Piedmont, by marfhal Briflac, to Catharine de Medicis, and
appointed by that princefs her firft valet de chambre, and
fuperintendent of her mufic. The violin, however, feems to
have been well known and in general ufe in Italy at this
time, as Montagne, who was at Verona in 1580, fays that
there were organs and violins to accompany the mafs in the
great church. Journ. du Voyage. Baltazarini having contri
buted. greatly to the amufement of the royal family and
nobility, by his ingenuity in fuggefting magnificent plans,’
machinery. and decorations, for balets, divertifements, and
other dramatic reprefentations, received the quaint title of
de Beau-joyeux. See Barer de la Reynes

BALTCHATSKO,,.a town of Siberia, 48 miles eaft of
Krafnoiarfc. ,

BALTEATUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cimex.
(Spinofus ) that inhabits South America. It is oblong, fer-
ruginous, with a tran{verfe yellow line, and many teeth on.
the hinder thighs. Fabricius. Gmelin.

ie Bartsatus?

BAL

Bartesrtus,af{peciesof Evarer, ofa black colour; a%-
terior half of the wing-cafes rufous. Linn. Fn. Suec. A
native of Europe.

BALTELUK, in Geography, a town of European

“Turkey, in the province of Bulgaria, twelve miles north-eaft
of Varna.

: BALTEUS, in Entomology, a f{pecies of CeramByYx,
that inhabits Lufitania. The thorax is fpinous; body fer-
ruginous; abdomen.ovate ; wing-cafes with a blackifh band.
Linneus.

BALTHAZAR, Axruony, in Biography, furgeon at
Leyden, publifhed in 1722, “ Pathologia chirurgicalis,
&c.”? 8vo. in which are fome judicious obfervations on
hernia congenita, and on wounds of the cerebellum, which
be does not confider as mortal. ‘He mentions a hernia of
the brain, reaching from the occiput to the fhoulder, and
perfons living to an adult age, who were born with {pina
bifida. ‘Tue fchirri are not curable, he maintains, by in-
ternal mediciaes. The work has confiderable merit ; ot the
author, however, we have no particular account. Haller
Bib. Chirurg.

BaurHazar, CurisToPHER,a learned French Proteftant,
was born about the year 1588, at Villeneuve—le-rei, and
though educated in the Romifh church, induced by the
‘itudy of ecclefiattical hiftory to embrace the reformed re-
ligion. @n account of this change in his religious profef-
fion, he was obliged to abandon the lucrative poft of advo-
cate to the prefidial.cf Auxerre, and to remove to Cha-
yenton, at a diftance from his relations and friends, where
he was publicly received among the Proteftants. He was
afterwards -patronifed by a wealthy young counfellor of
€altres, who, as an acknowledgment for the benefit of his
initru€tions, allowed him a liberal penfion. But attached
to the Protéitant canfe, and defirous of promoting it, he
left the houfe of his patron, and devoted himfelf to writing.
His talents and zeal attracted the notice of the reformed
party, and in 1659, the national fynod of Loudon granted
him a penfion of 750 livres. In his diflertations on the fub-
jects in difpnte between the Catholics and Proteftants, he
particularly oppofed cardinal Baronius, and his papers hav-
ang been read and approved by M. Daillé, moderator of the
fynod.of Loudon, were ordered for publication. But being
returned to their author, who foon after died, they were pro-
bably fuppreffed by him on account. of the defect of their
ftyle, as they could not be found. In his animadverfions oa the
annals of Baronius, he is faid to have been fo attentive to his
flyle, that he was not able to finith a fingle page of his work
in a day. Of his Latinity, a favourable {pecimen may be
feen in his “¢ Panegyric on M. Fouquet,”’ printed in 4to.
in 1655. He alfo wrote in French “ A Treatife on the
Tfurpation of the Kings of Spain upon the Crown of
‘France,”’? 8vo. Paris, 1626, and another tra¢t upon the fame
fubje&, publithed in 1657. Gen. Did.

. BALTHEUS Orionis, belt of Orion, in Aftronomy, a part
ef the conftellation of Orion, confifting of three bright ftars
of the fecond magnitude, placed nearly in a right line in
Orion’s girdle.

BALTHICA, in Conchology, a fpecies of Tevuina
that inhabits the Baltic fea. This hell is roundith,
fmooth, outfide carnation colour. Linn. Fn. Suec. About
the fize of a horfe-bean, and very rarely larger; ex-
tremely thin, pellucid, brittle, and white within. Chemnitz,
éc.

- Barrntca, a fpecies of Hex1x found on the fhores of
the Baltic fez. The fiell is imperforated, ovate, and
pointed; with elevated wrinkles; -aperturé-ovate, and very

BAL
ample. Linn. Fn. Sute. This animal is ‘black, with two
tentacula; fhell peilucid, and with four whorls. '

BALTHICUS, a fpecies of Nautitus, of the {maller
kind, that is found adhering to the roots of fuci. This fhell
is fometimes opake, fometimes glofly, frequently pellucid ;
and the wreaths either fmooth, itriated, ribbed, or tuber-
culated. It is f{pecificalty diftinguifhed by being white,
convex, aperture ‘linear, and the firft wreath much larger
than the others. Sehroéb.

BALTIC, or Easr-sra, anciently called Variatfkoi
moré, or the fea of the Varags or Varagians, in Geography,
lies weltward of Ruffia, Ptolemy calls it Venedicus finus ;
Tacitus, mare Suevicum and Pliny {peaks of it under the
name of Codanus finus. The Ruffians denominate it Bal-
tifkoi moré; the Germans the Oft-fee; and the Swedes
Oiter-fion. That part-of it which wafhes the coafts of the
governments of St. Peteriburg, Reval, and Vyborg, is called
the gulf of Finland, which is above four hundred verfts in
length, and from a hundred toa hundred and twenty broad ;
the part extending between the government of Riga and
the ifland Gifel, is called the gulf of Riga. The chief harbours
in the Baltic are, Riga or Dunamunde, Reval, Pernau, Hab-
fal, Rogervyk, now called Baltic-port, Peterfburg or Cron-
ftadt, Vyborg, Frederickfhamm, and Arenfberg in the ifle
of Céfel. The principal iflands in this fea are, Rugen,
Bornholm, ‘Oland, Gottland, Gifel, Dago, Falfter, Mohn,
Seitfari, Penifari, Lavanfari, Tyterfan, Hochland, Cron-
itadt. There are great fifheries in thefe parts, and numbers
of feals are taken; but far more confiderable is the navigation ;
as it may be computed that every year upwards of two thou-
fand fhips of burden pafs to and from the Ruffian ports
alone. Much {kill and caution are requifite for navigating
this fea, and efpecially the gulf of Finland, both on account
of the heavy fqualls and gales of wind fo frequent here, and
the multitude of rocks and fhelves with which thefe feas
abound. The water is only brackifh, and has a very per-
ceptible current, fo that in northerly winds it is almoft frefh
to the tafte. It is afferted, on very good foundation, that
the water of the Baltic is every year decreafing ; indeed, b
repeated obfervations made in Sweden, it is found to fubfide
at the rate of forty-five inches every hundred years. Mr.
Otto (ubi infra) is of opinion, that nothing certain can be
determined upon this point. Since the time when the Baltic
was confined within its prefent boundaries, the decreafe and
increafe of its water are, as he conceives, merely apparent ;
and it may have happened from various caules, that land may
have been gained in one quarter and loft inanother. Large
rivers, which flow with great rapidity, may, for example,
have carried with them into the fea a great deal of earth
and fand, by which the beds at their mouths may have been
raifed, and the banks extended towards the fea. The Baltic
has Denmark on the fouth, Sweden to the weft, Lapland to
the north, and to the eaft Bothnia, Finland, Livonia, Ingria,
Courland, and a part of Poland. It communicates with the
Cattegatte to the fouth by the Sound, the great and the
leffer Belt. At Pillau and Memel it communicates with two
large lakes, the Trifch Haff and Curifch Haff, both of which
contain frefh water. The waves of the Baltic are lefs high
than in the ocean, but they fucceed one another in greater
number and with more impetuofity, and thus are more harafl-
ing to the fhips, In its agitations it depofits amber on the
fhores of Courland and Pruffia. It appears from Tacitus
(De Moribus German. c. 445 45.) that the knowledgewhich
the Romans acquired of the maritime powers of the Baltic —
was obtained by their land journies in fearch of amber. "The
Baltic is liable to be frozen for about three months-én the
year, which may’ptobably be in part owing to the =

°

BAL

of its water, which again may be occafioned by the numerous
rivers that flow into it. The number of {treams which
dire&tly or indireAly empty themfelves into this fea, amount,
according to Buffon, to 403 and among thefe the Oder, the
WVittula, &c. are the molt confiderable. We are affured by
hiftory, that this fea has been {fometimes totally frozen dur-
ing fevere cold. This was the cafe in 1333, at which time
people could travel on the ice from Lubec to Pruffiaand Den-
mark; and on this occafion tents were erected in different
places for the accommodation of travellers. A fimilar pheno-
menon occurred in 1399, and in 1533; andin 1423, people
could walk and ride over the fea in a {traight line from Komg-
{berg to Lubec. Journics of thelike kind were undertaken, fix
years after, not only from Pruffia to Holitcia, but alfo from
Mecklenburg to Denmark; and this was done likewile in
1459. The frofts of the year 1709, and alfo of 1740, were
alfo very remarkable. The depth of the Baltic, in mot
places, never exceeds 50 fathoms. In fome few places of
the gulf of Bothnia no bottom is to be found; but in
others, quite near, the depth is not more than 50 fathoms.

It has been cbferved, that the water in the Baltic is cooler
even in the hotte‘t fammers than that of the other feas.
‘The Baltic has no tides, or is not fubjeét to a regular ebbing
and flowing, as it is furrounded by land, and is united with
the North fea only by the Sound and the two Belts; which
-circumtlance has given occafion to its being called the inactive
fea, or ‘ Mare pigrum.””? During a long continuance of the
weft wind its natural efflux is prevented, and a confiderable
quantity of water is forced into it from the North fea; fo
that it then rifes on the coafts a little above its ufual level.
This connection, however, with the German ocean is fome-
times the caufe that the ebbing and flowing of the latter,
though weak, co-operates with the Baltic, fo that traces of
their effets may be perceived. See Phyfical Obfervations
on the Eaft or Baltic Sea, by F. W. Otto, from “ Abris
einer Naturgefchichte des Meeres, Berlin, 1792 and 1794,
2 vols. 8vo.

Batic Port, formerly called Rogervyk, was raifed to
a circle town in 1783, and one of the five diftricts of the
government of Reval, or Efthonia, according to the geo-
graphical divifion of the Ruffian empire in 1782 and 1783.
Situate in a bay on the Baltic, in the government of Reval,
lat. 59° 22’. long. 41° 51/ 3”. it has rro timber houfes, 211
inhabitants, and a brick church. This harbour has been

reatly improved of late by art. Its trade arifes from the
Uiieiys &c. but it has few or no manufactories.

Barric Fifbery and Commerce. A conliderable fifhery
is carried on along the coafts of the Baltic. The gulfs of
Riga and of Finland contain generally the fame fpecies of
fith, and the employment which the produce of both occafion
is nearly equal. Phenaturalilt of Livonia(lifcher) enumerates
in the waters belonging to that province forty-nine different
fpecies of fith, among which the falmon, itreamlings, pike,
and lampreys, if not for home confumption; yet for exporta-
tion, are the moft important. The falmon is caught in
almoft all the rivers, but thofe in the Dvina and the
Narova are the beft, though they come far behind thofe of
Archangel in delicacy and plumpnefs ; they are exported
fmoaked and falted. The ftreamiings, a degenerate {pecies
of herring, are everywhere found on the fhores of the Baltic,
but efpecially about Pernau, where they are in fuch quanti-
ties, that 300 of thefe fmall fifh are bought for three or five
Kopeeks ; aton of them when falted coits from three to fix
rubles. Formerly they were exported; but the northern
herrings have annihilated this branch of commerce, which
are at prefent even bought by Livonia, the ftreamlings
being not fuflicient for the home and the foreign confump-
~ Mor. Ill.

BAL

tion. Yet inftances are not wanting of 300,000 of them
having been taken at one fuccefsful draught. One fpecies
of fith quite peculiar to thefe waters is the kyllo flreamling, a
fmaller and more delicate variety of the true ftreamling,
caught in great numbers in autumn near Reval and Ro-
gervyk, They are pickled, and form a good fubftitute for
anchovies ard fardelles, and are accordingly, thus prepared,
fent abroad to various parts. Not lefs exquifite are the
potted lampreys that come particularly from Narva. The
greatett {tore of the gulf of Vinland confifts in flerlets, fal-
mon, and carp; even {turgeon are found in the gulf of
Cronftadt, and likewife at times in the Neva. Of the
finaller forts of fifh with which the government of Vyborg
is provided to a great foperfluity, an exceedingly great
quantity is brought alive in pierced veffels to St. Peterf-
burg, and there fold cheap at the water-fide in the barks
which form a fort of ffl) market, and others that lie in va-
rious parts of the canals. In winter the tran{port of frozen
fifh from the remoter parts of the empire is alfo very confi-
derable. The Ruffian commerce, in all the ports, which
may be generally termed the Baltic trade, as it is ftated by
Mr. Tooke, from Herrmann and Taube, amounted in 1790to
a fum of 35,750,000 rubles, of which the exports make
21,200,000, and the imports 14,550,000 rubles. ‘Tooke’s
View of the Ruffian Empire, vol. ii. p. 73. 436.

BALTIMORA, in Botany (a plant fo named by Linnzus
in honour of I. C, lord Baltimore, preprietor of Maryland
in North America). Lin. g. Schreb. 1333. Jufl. 187.
Gertn. t. 169. Clafs, Aingencfia polygamia neceffaria. Nat.
Ord. compofite oppofitifolie. Corymbijere, ull. Gen. Char. Cal.
common cylindric; leafletsfeven, lanceolate, ereét ; the interior
oues fhorter. Cor. compound, radiate; corollules hermaphro-
dite of the difk (eleven); females of the ray five; proper of
the hermaphrodites funnel-form, with a five-cleft, tomentofe
border; of the females ligulate, ovate, trifid, the middle ones
lefs. Stam. in the hermaphrodite, filaments five; anther cylin-
dric. Pi. in the hermaphrodite, germ ob{cure; {tyle fhort ;
fligma none; in the females, germ oblong, erowned with a
toothed deciduous calycle; ityle filiform, very fhort ; itigmas
two, filiform, longer than the corollule. Per. none. Calyx
unchanged. Seeds, in the hermaphrodite none; in the fe-
males three-feeded, naked, gibbous at the top. Rec. chafly.

Eff.Gen. Char. Cal. cylindric, many-leaved; ray of the
corolla five-fowered; down none. Rec. chafty. ,

Species, t. B. reda. Gertn. Fru. 2. 444. An anpual
upright plant about two feet high. Stem four-cornered,
channelled, green, rugged at the angles. Branches thort,
lateral; leaves oppefite, ftalked, ovate, acuminate, ferrate,
three-nerved, fomewhat tomentofe; flowers yellow, in ter-
minal panicles; corollules of the difk tomentofe, with black
anthers. ‘This is a dillinét geius from Milleria, although
the plart much refembles it. A native of Maryland, near
Baltimore. Introduced in 1781 by Monf.Thouin. It
flowers in June and July.

BALTiMORE, in Gengrapy, a county of Maryland,
in North America, lies between Patapfeo and Gunpowder
rivers; the former feparating it from Ann Arundel county
on the fouth and fouth-welt, and Gunpowder and Little
Gunpowder dividing it from Hartford county on the eaft and
north-eaft. It has Frederick county on the weil and north-
welt, Pennfylvania on the north, and Chefapeak bay on the
fouth-eaft. Befides the rivers which bound it, and their
branches, this county has Back and Middle rivers, between
the two former, but they are rather arms of Chefapeak bay
than rivers. In this county there are numerous iron
works; and it contains 25,434 inhabitants, including 5,877
flaves.

43 ve Bau.

BAL

Bartimore, the chief town in the above county, and
the largeft in the ftate of Maryland; ranks in fize the fourth,
and in commerce the fifth, inthe United States. It is feated
on the north fide of Patapfco river, at a {mall diftance from
its junétion with the Chefapeak, and furrounds what is called
the Bafon, in which the water rifes at common tides to the
height of five or fix feet, and which is reckoned one of the
fineft harbours in America. This bafon, fays Weld, affords
about nine feet of water, and is large enough to contain
2000 fail of merchant veffels. Along this bafon are wharfs
and ftores through the whole length of the town. Baltimore
is divided into the part called the town, and rhat called Fell’s
point, by a creek, over which are two bridges; but the
houfes are irrecularly {catered from the one to the other.
At Fell’s point the water is deep enough for hips of burden,
but only {mall veffels go up to the town. Wharfs have
been built at this point, by the fide of which veffels of 600
tons burden may lie with perfeét fafety. Here many per-
fons have been induced to fettie, on account of its contiguity
to the thipping. Upwards of 700 houfes have been already
ere&ted there, and regular ftreets laid out, with a large mar-
ket place. Thefe houfes, generally {peaking, are confidered
as a part of Baltimore, though they apparently form a fepa-
rate town, being more than a mile diftant from the other part
of the town. Fell’s point is chiefly the refidence of feafaring
people, and of the younger partners of mercantile houfes,
who are ftationed there to.attend the fhipping. The fitua-
tion of Baltimore is low, and it was formerly thought im-
falubrious; but by its rapid increafe, and the improvements
attending it, the air is lefs loaded with vapours, and the
town is become more healthy. The feafon of the year, leait
favourable to health, is autumn, when the more opulent in-
habitants retire to. their country feats, delightfully fituated
in the neighbourhood. The principal ftreet, called Market
ftreet, is nearly a mile long, and about eighty feet wide,
and runs nearly from eaft to welt, parallel with the water ;
it is crofled at right angles, much after the manner of thofe
in Philadelphia, by other ftreets, feveral houfes of which are
well built, leading from the water. North and eaft of the
town the land rifes, and affords a fine profpect of the town
and bay; the town, the point, the fhipping both in the
bafon and at Fell’s point, the bay as far as the eye can reach,
rifing ground on the right and left of the harbour, a grove
of trees on the declivity at the right, and a ftream of water
breaking over the rocks at the foot of the hill*on the left,
all confpire to complete the beauty and: grandeur of the
profpect.

In 1787, Baltimore contained 1955 dwelling-houfes, 1200
being in the town, and the reft at T’ell’s point. Tt then con-
tained 152 ftores. The number of the inhabitants of the town
and precinéts amounted, in 1791, to 13,503; including 1,295
flaves. But the number of houfes and inhabitants have fince
that time very much increafed. Mr. Welds who vifited this
place in 1795; fays that it contains about 16,000 inhabitants 5
among whom are to be found Englifh, Irih, Scots, and
French; but the Irifh, of whom many are the principal
merchants of the town, are the moft numerous. Since the
war it has received a great acceffion of French, both from
France and from the Weft India iflands.

Mott of the inhabitants are engaged in trade. They are
moftly plain people, fociable, however, among themfelves,
fays Weld; and very friendly and hofpitable towards ftrangers.
“There are many refpeCtable families in Baltimore,” fays
Morfe, “ who live genteelly, are hofpitable to flrangers, and
maintain a friendly and improving intercourfe with each
other; but the bulk of the inhabitants, recently colleéted
from almolt all quarters of the world, bent on the purfuit

aA

BAL

of wealth, varying in their habits, their manners, and their
religion, if they have any, are unfocial, unimproved, and ine
hofpitable.””, The churches and places for public worthip
are ten in number; one_refpectively for Epifcopalians, Pref-
byterians, German Lutherans, German Calvinifts, Reformed
Germans, Nicolites or new Quakers, Baptiits, Roman Ca-
tholics, and two for Methodiits. ‘lhe bett building, and
the handfomelt in the town, is the Prefbyterian church,
lately erected. At Baltimore there are two theatres, that
are ufed occafionally; cards and dancing are favourite amufe-
ments, both in private and public affemblies, which are held
every fortnight. They have three incorporated banks in
this town, and the number of notes iffued from them, fome
of which are for {o fmall a fum as a fingle doliar, is fo great
as almoft to preclude the circulation of fpecie. Gold is
extremely fcarce. As for the ftate of the trade of this
town, Morfe informs us, that, in 1790, it owned 27 fhips,
one {fnow, 3 brigantines, 34 fchooners, aud 9g floops; in
all 102, whofe total tonnage was 13,564. The exports in
the fame year amounted to 2,027,770, and the imports to
1,949,899 dollars. In July, Auguit, and September of this
year, they amounted only to 343,584 dollars; but in the
fame months in 1795, they were advanced to 1,675,748
dollars. The police of the town is conducted by a board
of town conimilffioners, a board of {pecial commiffioners, and
a board of wardens; the firft board fupplies its own vacan-
cies, and is perpetual; the two laft are appointed by eleétors,
chofen every fitth year by the citizens. Baltimore is diflant
53 miles S.W. from Elktown, 176 N.E. from Richmond
in Virginia, 50 N.E. from the city of Wathington, and 103
5.W. from Philadelphia. N. lat. 39° 21’. W. long. 77° 48’.
Morie’s Geog. p. 353. Weld’s T'ravels through N. Ame-
rica, In 1795, 1796, ard 1797; vol. i. p. 43.

Battimore Say, lies near the extremity of the fouthern
coaft of Ireland, between two headlands, and runs a confi-
derable way into the land towards the north-eaft. The
town, or village, from which it takes its name, was formerly
a place of trade, but being plundered by the Algerines, in
1631, it never recovered itfelf. It was one of the Irih
boroughs, and fent two members to parliament. It ftands
on the fouth point of the ealtern headland, in N. lat. 51° 15’.
and W. long. 9° 10’; and has a good harbour. The bay
extends from Baltimore point on the eaft to Mizen head
on the welt, which are eight leagues afunder. It has feveral
coves or harbours befides that of Baltimore, and contains.
many {mall iflands.

BartimorE, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Or1oxvus, of a
blackith colour, with a fulvous breaft and belly, and a band
on the wing of the fame colour. Gmelin. Linn. Syft. Nat...
This is /e Baltimore of Briffon, Buffon, &e.; Baltimore bird:
of Catefby; and Baltimore orio’e of Latham.

“« Baltimore birds are found in many parts of North Ame-
rica, the northern parts of which they occupy in fummer,.
being feen fometimes as far as Montreal in Canada, where
they come in May;. returning fouthward in the wintery.
which accounts for their being feen in Maryland and Vir--
ginia at that time. ‘They make the neft of foft downy
matter, in the fhape of a purfe, tying it with threads to the
very extreme forked twigs of the tulip, plane, and hiccory.
trees; in which they lay their eggs, and rear their young,
free from depredators of all kinds.

‘They are called fire-birds by the country people; and’
indeed, when in high plumage, their motions from branch to.
branch not inaptly refemble a flafh of fire.” Latham Gen.
Syn.
This kind is about feven inches in length. The male bird.
has the head, neck, and upper parts black; reft of the =

ber

2 ao

a ipa 4 pels

BAL

bend of the wing, and lefler wing-coverts orange; greater
coverts and quills black; the firft tipped with white, which
forms a white bar on the wing; two middle tail feathers
black; four outer ones orange from the middle to the tips;
and the two next orange at the tip; legs and claws black.
The female, according to Buffon, has all the foreparts of a
fine black, like the male; tail the fame; wing-coverts and

uills blackifh; and thofe parts of a dull red, which are of a
fine orange in the male,

Battimore, Baffard. "This is rather fhorter than the
true Baltimore. ‘The bill is lead colour; forehead and
cheeks black and yellowith mixed; hind head and nape olive-
grey, marked with a few fpots of black; upper part of the
back dull black; lower part of the back, the rump, fore-
part of the neck, brealt, belly, fides, thighs, upper tail co-
verts, and under the wings, orange-yellow, brightcit on the
breaft and tail-coverts; leffer wing-coverts deep brown; the
greater the fame, tipped with dirty yellowish white; quills
brown, bordered on both edges with whitifh; the two
middle tail feathers are olive and black confufedly mixed;
and the four outer ones of a yellowifh olive; legs and claws
blueifh.

This latter bird is defcribed by Linneus under the fpecific
name of /purius. Dr. Latham, to whom we are indebted
for the preceding minute defcription, obferves, that there
feems to be much confufion and uncertainty between the
true and baftard Baltimores and their females; and that at
laft they may prove to be mere varieties of one fingle {pe-
cies; all perhaps referable to one or other fex of the true
Baltimore, in different ‘ftages of life. See Spurius
Oriolus.

BALTINGLASS, in Geography, a town of Treland, in
the county of Wicklow, tweuty-five miles weft from Wick-
low.

BALTISTAN. See Lith Turser.

BALTRUM, an ifland in the German ocean, near the
coaft of Eaft Friefland, about 4 miles long, and about 13
broad. N. lat. 53° 47’. E.long. 6° 56’.

BALTSHIK, a town of European Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Bulgaria, eighteen miles north-ealt from Varna.

BALTURTA, a falt lake of Afiatic Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Orenburg, 144 miles S.W. from Ufa.

BALTZAR, Tuomas, in Biography, the firft great
performer on the violin who vifited this country from the
continent, whofe name appears in our mufical annals; and
the account, which Anthony Wood gives of this extraordi-
nary mufician, in his life written by himfelf, is fo charaGter-
iftically quaint, minute, and amufing, that we hall tranf-
cribe it in his own words ; as it will at once convey an idea
to the mufical reader of the fuperiority of Baltzar’s execu-
tion, and of the itate of mufic at Oxford during the latter
end of the interregnum.

« Thomas Baltzar,’’ fays Ant. Wood, “ a Lubecker
born, and the moft famous artift for the violin that the world
had yet produced, was now (1658) in Oxon, and this day,
July 24, A.W. was with him and Mr. Ed. Low, lately or-
ganift of Ch. Ch. atithe houfe of Will. Ellis. A.W. did
then and there, to his very great aftonifhment, hear him
play on the violin. He then faw him run up his fingers to
the end of the finger-board of the violin, and run them
back infenfibly, and all with alacrity and in very good tune,
which he nor any in England faw the like before. A. W.
entertained him and Mr. Low with what the houfe could
then afford, and afterwards he invited them to the taverne ;
but they being engaged to goe to other company, he could
no more heare him play or fee him play at that time. Af-
terwards he came to one of the weekly meetings at Mr. El-

BAL

lis’s houfe, and he played to the wonder of all tie auditory,
and exercifing his finger and inftrunsent feveral ways to the
utmolt of his power. Wilfon (Door) thereupon, the pub-
lic profeffor, the greateft judge of mufick that ever was, did,
after his humourfome way, ftoop downe to Baltzar’s feet, to
fee whether he hada huff on, that is to fay, to fee whether he
was a devil or not, becaufe he aéted beyond the parts of man.

« About this time it was that Dr. John Wilkins, after-
wards bithop of Chefter, and called the flying Li/bop, warden
of Wadham, the greatcft curiofo of his time, invited him
and fome of the mufitians to his lodgings in that coll. pur-
pofely to have a confort, and to fee and heare him play.
The .inftruments and books were carried thither, but none
could be perfuaded there to play againft him in confort on
the violin. At length the company perceiving A. W. fland-
ing behind in a corner neare the dore, they haled him in
among them, and play, forfooth, he muft againft him.
Whereupon, he being not able to avoid it, he took up a vio-
lin, as poor Troylus did againt Achilles. He abathed at
it, yet honour he got by playing with and againit fuch 2
grand matter as Baltzar was. Mr. Davis Mell was accounted
hitherto the beft for the violin in England; but after Balt-
zar came into England, and fhewed his moft wonderful
parts on that initrument, Mell was not fo admired, yet he
played {weeter, was a well-bred gentleman, and not given
to exceflive drinking as Baltzar was.”

At the reftoration of king Charles II. Baltzar was placed
at the head of his majefty’s new band of violins. His com-
pofitions have more force and variety in them, and confe-
quently required more hand to execute them, than any mu-
fic then known for his inftrument; as appears by a MS.
colle€tion of his pieces, with which we were prefented by the
late Rev. Dr. Montagu North.

Ant. Wood tells us, that this celebrated violinift died in
July 1663, and was buried in the cloifter belonging to St.
Peter’s church, at Weitminfter ; and adds, that “ this per-
fon being much beloved by all lovers of mufick, his com-
pany was therefore defired ; and company, efpecially mufi-
cal company, delighting in drinking, made him drink more
than ordinary, which brought him to his grave.”” A.Wood’s
Life, p.1go.

BALU, or Batov. See Baur.

BALUCLAVO, or Jamzot,a fea-port town of Crimea,
on the Black fea, with a fine harbour; the only one on this
fea capable of accommodating a large fleet.

BALVE, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine, a feat of a bailiwick in the duchy of
Weltphalia, feated onthe Hohn, 1o miles S.W. from Arenf-
berg, and 38 N.E. from Cologn. y

BALUMA Point, lies on the weft coaft of Africa, to
the fouth-eaft from cape Roxo. N. lat. 12°.

BALUS Heap, the north-weit point of the entrance
into Ballingfkellings bay, on the fouth-weft coaft of Ire-
land.

BALUZE, Sreruen, in Biography, was bornat Tulles
in 1631, and as he advanced in years, dire€ted his particular
attention to manufcripts, and to new editions of books, upon
whichthe beftowed much critical fkill and erudition. His
principal cbjeét, however, was ecclefiaftical hiftory; and in
this department, fuch works as the lives and letters of popes,
and other eminent ecclefiaftics, hiftories of councils, and
homilies. In 1656 he was taken under the patronage of the
archbifhop of Touloufe, and he was, after his death, libra-
rian to the famous Colbert. The king created in his fayour
a chair of canon law in the royal college, appointed him in-
fpeGtor of the college, and granted him a penfion. His
“ Genealogical Hiftory of the Houfe of Auvergne,’ writ-

KS ten

BAM

ten at the inftigation of cardinal Bouillon, gave fuch offence
to the court, that the work was fupprefled by order of the
parliament of Paris, and the author deprived of his placcs
and penfion, and fent into exile; nor was he recalled to Paris
till after the peace of Utrecht. In old age, he amefed him-
felf in writing the hiftory of his native place, under the
title of ** Hiftoria Tutellenfis,” printed in 1717, at Paris,
in 4to. He died in 1718, much regretted by his friends on
account of his amiable, obliging, and communicative difpo-
fition; and honoured amongtt the learned for his extenfive
acquaintance with books and manufcripts. Gen. Dict.

BALZAC, Joun Lewis Guez pe, was the fon of a
gentleman, whofe name was William Guez, of Languedoc,
and born at Angouleme in 1595, or 1596. In his youth,
he attached himfelf to cardinal de la Valette, who for two
years employed him as his agent at Rome. On his return,
he was intrcduced to court, and much admired. By the
favour of cardinal Richelieu he obtained a pention, together
with the brevets of counfellor of flate, and royal hiitorio-
grapher. His “Letters,” firft publifhed in 1624, efta-
blifhed his reputation in early life, and were long regarded
as perfe&t models in that kind of compoficion. “ With much
fine fentiment and beauty of language, they ave, however,
ftudied, pompous, and inflated.” With regard to flyle and
manner, they form a contraft to the eafe and fprightlinefs of
Voiture, thouzh Balzac excells in refpe&t to weight of mat-
ter. Such was this epiltolary wniter’s reputation, that thofe
who were defirous of being thought ‘* bel efprits’’ in France,
wilhed to engage Balzac ina correfpondence, that they might
be in poffeflion of one of his letters. His flyle became the
fubje& of criticifm ; and even the morality of his writings
was abufed, without fufficient reafon. Difgufted by this
treatment, he retired to his eftate at Balzac, on the borders
of the Charente, near Angouleme; and there employed his
time in ftudy and compofition, and in correfpondence with
his friends, among whom were fome of the moft learned and
eminent of his countrymen. He was deemed a good claf-
fical {cholar; and he wrote Latin with eafe and elegance;
and his converfation was unaffeGted and agreeable. His ge-
neral charaGter was that of a good man, and a devout cha-
ritable chriftian. He fet apart, even in his life-time, eight
thoufand crowns of his eftate, to be diftributed to pious
ufes. He built two chambers in the convent of capuchins
at Angouleme, where he often refided ; and at his death he
bequeathed 12,000 livres to this-hofpital, and he left an
eftate of 100 franes per annum, to be appropriated every
two years as a prize to him who, in the judgment of the
French academy, of which he was a member, fhould write
the beft difcourtes upon a fubje& of religion. He died in
1654, and was buried, according to his own order, “ at the
feet of the poor interred”’ in the hofpital at Angouleme.
« The French language (fays Voltaire, age of Louis XIV.)
is nuder very great obligations to Balzac. He firft gave
number and harmony to its profe.”’ In early life he feems
to have been unduly admired, and afterwards he funk into
unmerited degradation and negle€&t. His principal works are
his ‘ Letters,” printed at different times; ‘ Le Prince ;”’
“ Le Socrate Chriftien;”? ‘ L’Ariftippe;”’ ‘ Entretiens ;”
* Latin verfes,”’ in three books, of which his ‘« Amyctas,”
and * Chrift yitorious,”’ are moft efteemed. All thefe have
been colle&ted in two volumes, folio, and were publifhed at
Paris in 1665. Gen. Di&. Nouv. Did. Hilt.

BAMBA, in Geography, the largeft and richeft province
or duchy of the kingdom of Congo, in Africa, fituate be-
between the rivers Ambrifi and Loze; the laft of which
parts it from the marquifate of Pemba on the eaft, and the
Ambrifi from the county of Songo on the north. Along

BAM

the fea-coafts it extends ftill farther northward to the river
Lelunda, and on the fouth to that of Danda, which feparates
it from the kingdom of Angola. The governors of this
province bear the title of dukes, and are always princes of
the royal family, being as defpotic and arbitrary as if chey
were really kings. The foil is fertile, and capable of pro-
ducing all the neceffaries of life in great abundance, if it
were duly cultivated. The fea-coafts produce a large quan-
tity of falt, which formsa confiderable article of exportation.
The fithery of the Zimbis, whofe fhell is the current coin in
this and the two neighbouring kingdoms, furnifhes alfo 2a
valuable fource of revenue. Several authors have added a
third kind of treafure in this province, viz. the mines of
gold, filver, quickfilver, copper, tin, and iron, which are
found in the mountainous parts; but the richnefs, and even
the reality of thefe mines, have been queftioned ; and it is

certain, that the iron mines are only allowed to be ufed, and _

that there are fevere laws againft meddling with any of the
relt. The interior of the country furnifhes clephants, flags,
buffalos, tigers, civets, and parroquets ; and here is a con-
fiderable traffic of flaves. ‘The people are numerous, ftrong,
and warlike. In this province is a town of the fame name,
which is large and populous, dittant about feventy leagues
from the fea, and in the poffeffion of the Portuguefe.
Bamsa, a colleGtion of villages in the kingdom of Dem-

bea, in Abyflinia, near the weftern bank of the lake Tzana, ~

or Dembea. N. lat. 12° 11’. E. long. 37°

BAMBALA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of
India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy. ~~ :

BAMBAMARCA, in Gvography, a town of South
America, in Peru, and juriidiétion of Patas, or Caxamar-

uilla. Seta

BAMBAN, a town of Upper Egypt, feated on the
Nile, about forty-two miles S.S. E. of Efneh. | N. lat. 24°
26'.

BAMBARA, an extenfive kingdom of Weftern Africa,
bounded by the Moorifh kingdom of Beeroo to the north,
and Mafina, a Foulah ftate fouth of Beeroo, by the diftriéts
of Gotto, Baedoo, and Marciana, and Nigritia or Soudan,
to the eaft, by Kong to the fouth, and by Ludamar and
Kaarta to the weft. The courfe of the river Jolibah, or
Niger, lies through this country; and its capital is Sego,
feated on thisriver, in N. lit. 14° 10! 30”. and W. long. 2°
1. The language of Bambara was found by Mr. Park, in
his travels through this country, to be a fort of corrupted
Mandingo; and from Manfong, the king, who refided in
this city, he received tokens of favour, though frem motives
of prudence he was not admitted into the royal prefence,
and he was ordered to leave Sego. This benevolent prince,
in {pite of the jealous machinations of the Moorifh inhabit-
ants, thought a ftranger in diftrefs a proper object of com-
paffion and relief; and probably difmiffed him under an ap-
prehenfion that he might not be able to afford him efe@ual
protetion againft their blind and inveterate malice. This
country is beautiful and highly cultivated; and at Kabba,
which Mr. Park vilited, and which is fituated at a {mall
diftance from Sego, it bore, according to this traveller, a
greater refemblance to the centre of England, than to what
he fhould have fuppofed to have been the middle of Africa.
The fhea-trees (fee SHEA), from which the inhabitants pre-
pare their vegetable butter, conftituting a main article of
their inland commerce, abound in this part of Bambara.
Whilft Mr. Park travelled through this country, he was
much incommoded by the tropical rains; and he was chiefly
indebted for his daily fupport to the dooty or chief man in
the feveral towns through which he paffed. This officer
feems to poffefs the authority of mayor in the corporate

towns

Ge are OOS

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BAM

towns of England; and it reflets great honour on the po-
lice of the African kingdoms, or on the benevolent manners
of the natives, that it is confidered as one part of the
dooty’s province to beftow food on the indigent tra-
veller. ‘* To fuffer the king’s ftranger to depart hungry,”
as they exprefs themfelves, is an offence of a very heinous
nature. See Arrica, and Seco.

BAMBELE (glatie Lamlck), in Ichthyology, the name
of cyprinus phoxinus, Gmel. in Gefner’s Vhierb.

BAMBERG, in Geography, a principality and bifhopric
of Germany, in the circle of Franconia, is bonnded on the
north by the principality of Coburg and the Vogtland, on
the ealt by Brandenburg-Baryeuth and the ettates of Nurem-
berg, on the fouth by the eflates of Nuremberg and the
principality of Schwartzenberg, and cn the weit by the
bifhopric of Wurtzburg. It is about fixty miles long, and
forty broad; the foil is good, aad produces all forts of grain,
fruit, and wine; and in the vicinity of the capital are fuch
numbers of laurel, fig, lemon, and orange trees, that this
{pot is generally called the garden of Italy. The inhabitants
alfo rear a confiderable number of cattle. The principal
rivers are the Mayn, the Rotach, the Itz, and the Regnitz.
Tt contains eighteen cities and fifteen market-towns. At
the diet of the empire, the bifhop, whofe revenuc is about
700,000 florins, takes the fourth place in the council of
{piritual princes. The inhabitants are Roman Catholics.
The military confilts of one company of 100 men, and 50
huffars.

Bamsera, thecapital of the above bifhopric, is faid tohave
derived its name from Baba, fifter to the emperor Henry I.
and is pleafantly fituated on the river Regnitz, in the midft
of a fruitful country. It was formerly an imperial city, but
is now fubjeét to its bifhop. The town is large and populous;
and being fituated in the centre of Germany, contiguous to
feyen or eight different flates, it isa Very great thoroughfare.
The ftreets are wide, and the buildings neat and regular.
It has no fortifications, but lies open, and has the appearance
of a large village. The cathedral is one of the mof mag-
nificent in the empire. The chapter is compofed of twenty
capitular canons, and fifteen domiciled. The bifhopric was
founded by the. emperor Henry If. in 1106. Among

-other curiofities depofited in the treafury of this church,
are the imperial crown of Henry II., confifting of_fix
plates of gold adorned with precions ftones, and another of
his emprefs, compofed of two circles of gold richly fet with
pearls and jewels; and alfo a folio MS. of the four gofpels
in Latin, upon fine vellum, in a neat Roman charaéter, with
Gothic letters inter{perfed, and very beautiful miniatures;
the binding is adorned with pearls and precious ftones.
There is ancther Latin MS. in folio, of the four gofpels,
with a commentary by St. Jerome, and fine miniatures; and
athird in Gothic letters, with a binding of very great value;
all of which were prefented to this church by Henry ITI.
In this city there are feveral convents of men and women,
two palaces, and an univerfity, founded in 1585. The
bifhop is abfolute fovercign of this town and diftri@, and
has feveral caftles and royalties in Carinthia and other parts
of Germany. He holds immediately under the fee of Rome;
and he is joint direétor of the circle of Franconia with the
marquis of Culembach. ‘he benefes in this bifhopric and
that of Wurtzburg are reckoned’ the beit in Germany.
Within nine miles of Bamberg, at a place called Pom-
mersfelden, there is a beautiful palace belonging to
the houfe of Schonborn, which may be coanfidered as
one of the beit in Germany. N. lat. 49°51’. E.long.
Io° 50’.

Bamzerc, New, a towm of Germany, in the circle of

rd

BAM

the Lower Rhine, twenty miles fouth-weft of Mentz, and
eight fouth of Bingen,

BAMBINI, in Biography, a {pirited Italian compofer,
who arrived at Paris during infancy, with the company of
burletta fingers who firft performed in that capital the Serva
Padrona of Pergolifi, which gave birth to Rouffeau’s admir-
able ‘ Lettre fur la Mufique Frangoife,” and raifed a party
for Italian mufic, which has increafed ever fince. Bambini
was the child, whofe judicious accompaniment of the bur-
Jetta fingers on the harpfichord, Rouffeau in his letter has
fo well defcribed, and recommended to clumfy thorough-
bafe players, who let nothing elfe be heard but the clattering
of theirchords. his letter, for which Rouffeau was burnt
in effigy at the opera-houfe door at Paris, has never yet been
forgiven, even by thofe who pretend to admire no vocal
mufic but Italian, or German on that model. See Accom-
PANIMENT.

SAMBILA, in Ornithology, a {pecies cof Turpus, that
inhabits Cayenne, and is about the fize of the common or
domettic fparrow. It is {potted ; above rufous brown; be-
neath cinereous ; wings black, with a tranfverfe white band.
This is the dlack. winged thrufh of Latham, and bamdbla of
Buffon.

BAMBO, in Commerce, an Eaft Tudia meafure, ‘contain-
ing five Enel pints.

BAMBOCCIO, in Biography, an eminent painter of
ccnverfations, land{capes, cattle, &c. was born at Laeren,
near Narden, in 1613 ; and for his real name of Peter Van
Laer, they fubitituted in Italy that of Bambocctto, from his
uncommon figure, the lower part of his body being one-
third part larger than the upper, and his neck fo fhort that
it was buried between his fhoulders. His genius, however,
was very great; and his tafte extended to every part of
painting. He refided at Rome for 16 years, and availed
himfelf of the opportunities for improvement which that city
afforded him. is ftyle of painting is {weet and true, and:
his touch delicate, with great tranfparency of colouring.
His figures are well proportioned and correétly defigned ;
and though his febjects are deduced from the lower kind of
nature, {uch as plunderings, playing at bowls, inns, farriers’
fhops, cattle, or converfations, his defigns and execution
were fo excellent, that his manner was‘adopted by many of
the Italian painters of his time; and he has been juftly
ranked in the firlt clafs of eminent mafters. His hand was
as quick as his imagination, fo that he feldém made fketches
or defigns ; but having marked the fubjeét with a crayon on
the canvas, he immediately finifhed it. He poffefled an
a{toniihing memory, and the idea of any objcéts which he
faw was fo ftrongly impreffed o1 his mind, that he could re-
prefent. them with as much truth as if they were placed be-
fore his eyes. ‘The clofe of his life was embittered by an.
afthmatie complaint ; and it is faid, that in order to termi-
nate his mifery, he threw himfelf into a canal, and was
drowned, A. D. 1673. Pilkington.

BAMBOO, in Botany. See Anunpo, and Nastus.

Bamaco Habit, a Chinefe invention, by which a perfon,
who cannot fwim, may eafily keep, himfelf above water.
Four bamboos, two before and two behind their bodies, are
placed horizontally, and proje@ about twenty-eight inches.
They are croffed on each fide by two others, and the whole
properly fecured, leaving a {pace for their body ; it is put
over their heads, and tied fecure in two minutes.

BAMBOROUGH, in Geography, a village of England,
in. the county of Northumberland, near the coait cf the
German ocean, with a caltle faid to be built. by Ina, king
of the Northumbrians, in the year 548. ‘This caftle with
the eftate was purchaled by Crew, bifhop of ‘Durham, and

left

BAM

left to charitable ufes. One of the truftees, Di. Sharp,
prebendary of Durham, refided in this cattle, and appro-
priated a part of it to the accommodation of fhipwrecked
mariners, and to the purpofes of a granary, which ferved
for the fupply of the poor with corn, in dear feafons, at a
low price. A patrole was kept every ftormy night through
the whole extent of the manor, which was eight miles, for
the fuccour of the diftreffed ; and by the mode of firing a
cannon from the caftle, the place where any difaftrous acci-
dent occurred was pointed out, and directions given for the
neighbouring people to afford affiftance. This village is
four miles eaft from Belford, and 324 north of London.
BAMBOTHUM, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afri-
ca, in Lower Libya, from which extended a chain of moun-
tains as far as mount Theon Ochema. Pliny.
BAMBOUK, in Geography, akingdom of weftern Africa,
fituate between the rivers Bafing and Faleme, which, by their
junétion with the Kokoro and other ftreams, form the river Se-
negal; and bounded on the north by Kajaaga and Kaffoon,
on the ealt by the rivers Bafing and Brooko, on the fouth
by Konkodoo or Concoudou, and Satadoo, and on the welt
by the river Faleme and Bondou. The town of Bambouk is
feated on a ftream which joins the river Faleme, and lies, ac-
cording to Rennell’s map, in about N. lat. 13° 24’. W. long.
g° 10’. This country, according to the account of the pro-
ceedings of the African affociation, is inhabited by a nation
whofé woolly hair and fable complexion denote them to be of
the negro race ; but their character feems to vary in propor-
tion as the country rifes from the plains of its weitern divifion
to the highlands of the eaft. The inhabitants are diftin-
guifhed into feéts or parties like the people of Woolli and
Bondou, by the different tenets of Mahometans and Deitts ;
they are equally at peace with one another, and mutually
tolerate the opinions they refpeétively condemn. Their
chief occupations are agriculture and pafturage ; but they
have made fuch progrefs in the arts and manufact#res, that
they are able to {melt iron, and to furnifh themfelves with
the feveral inftruments of hufbandry and war. Their pro-
cefs for weaving cotton cloth, the habit of this part of
Africa, is dificult and laborious. ‘Their common vegetable
food appears to confilt of rice, and their animal diet of
beef or mutton; a liquor prepared from fermented ho-
ney fupplies the want of wine, and furnifhes the means of
thofe feftive entertainments that conftitute the luxury of
the court of Bambouk. The king of Bambouk gave to
major Houghton a friendly reception at Ferbanne, where
he refided ; but the major did not long furvive this vifit.
The mountains of Konkodoo, charaéteriftically fo called
becaufe it is the “country of mountains,” extend through
Bambouk and Kaffon, and are produétive in gold. Pro-
ceedings of the African Affociation, by major Rennell, 1798.
BAMBRIDGE, or Bainsrince, Chriflopher, in Bio-
graphy, an Englifh divine, was a native of Hilton, near
Appleby, in Weftmoreland, and a ftudent in Queen’s col-
Jege, Oxford. By a rapid progrefs he was advanced, in
1507, to the fee of Durham; and in the next year,
to the archbifhopric of York. Under Henry VII. he
regained that royal favour; which had been interrupted
in the reign of Richard III.; was made almoner to that
prince, and employed by him in feveral foreign cmbaflies.
In the reign of Henry VIII. he was engaged in a nego-
tiation with pope Julius IJ. under a pretence of reftoring
peace to Europe, but in reality to excite the pope’s enmity
againft the king of France. Bambridge, attentive to his
own intereft, contrived fo to ingratiate himfelf with the
pope, as to obtain a cardinal’s hat and an informal prece-
dency in the conclave. He was alfo appointed legate ef the

BAM

ecclefiaftical army, which was then befieging Baflia. Upon
his return home, he manifefted his gratitude to the pope
by inducing his royal mafter to enter into an unneceflary
war in his defence. Ambition feems to have been the rul-
ing principle of Bambridge ; of his learning no evidence re-
mains ; and as to his temper, no favourable opinion can be
entertained of it if we advert to the tragical incident that
clofed his life. Inflamed with refentment againft Renaud
of Modena, his major-domo, he fell upon him with fury
and beat him ; and the enraged domeltic revenged himfelf
for the infult and abufe, by adminiftering to his matter a dofe
of poifon. This happened at Rome, on the 14th of July
1514. Biog. Brit. ;

BAMBUKALAISI, in Geography, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, in the province of Natolia, twelve miles north of
Degnizlu.

BAMBUSA, in Botany, Lin. gen. Schreb. 607. Clafs,
hexandria monogynia. Gen. Char. Cal. none, except giume-
like bractes fcattered, often three under each {pikelet, ob-
long, pointed, concave, keeled, unequal, fhorter than the
flo{cules, two oppofite, the third leaning on the flat fide of
the f{pikelet; fpikelets lanceolate, diftichous, compreffed,
fharp, nearly five-Aowered. Cor. glume two-valved ; valve
inferior, oblong, ventricofe, acuminate, towards the tip
keeled and ftreaked ; interior lanceolate, flat, with compli-
cated margins, ciliate, a little longer than the inferior, and
projecting from it ; nectary two-leaved, flat at the anterior
fide of the germ; leaflets ovate, acuminate, bearded at the
tip, membranous. Svam. filaments fix, capillary, almoft
the length of the corolla; anthers parallelopiped, two cleft
at the bafe. iff. germ oblong ; ftyle capillary, two cleft ;
ftigmas feathery. Per. none; corolla cherifhes the feed,
gapes? lets it fall? feed fingle, oblong. O2/. The fuperior
flofcules in feveral {pikelets examined by Schreber were
merely male ; -he therefore fays, ** ought not this genus to
be transferred to polygamia?”’? For the reft fee Arunpe
Bamsos, and Nastus. Gmelin has made two genera of
this, under Bambus, and Nattus.. n

BAMBYCE, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia, in
Affyria, beyond the Euphrates; called alfo, according to
Strabo, Edeffa, and Hierapolis.

BAMFF, or Banrr, in Geography, the capital of Banff-
fhire, in Scotland, ftands on a gentle declivity at the mouth of
the Deveron, a confiderable ftream which has its fource amon
the mountains of Aberdeenfhire, and after winding through
narrow vallies and wel\ cultivated plains, falls into the
Moray frith, a little below this ancient burgh. The earlieft
authentic document we meet with relating to this town
ftates, that Robert II. by virtue of charter, dated O&ober
7> 1372, conferred on it all the immunities and privileges
of a royal burgh; which were afterwards confirmed by
James VI. and further by his grandfon Charles II. Soon
after the union of South and North Britain, this burgh, in
common with many others, loft much of its political im-
portance ; as by that event it was united with Inverary,
Cullen, Elgin, and Kintore, which return but one repre-
fentative to parliament. Agreeable to the Seft, or municipal
government of Bamff, two thirds of its magiftrates are re-
elected annually. Duff-houfe, the family refidence of the
earl of Fife, together with the pleafure grounds and planta-
tions around that truly magnificent manfion; the harbour
which is defended by a battery, and the fhipping ;_ the plain
fubftantial bridge of feven arches over the {mooth windin
Deveron; the caftle of Bamfl belonging to the earl o
Finlater ; the town houfe and prifon, including its hand-
fome fpire ; the parifh church, an elegant and newly built
{tructure ; are flriking and interefling objeéts, with refpect

to

——

os

— ew

BAM

to the general appearance and commercial confequence of
this flourifhing fea-port town. The induitry of its inhabit-
tants is fufficiently manifeft in their various employments ;
and thofe of condition fet a laudable example in the improve-
ments carried on in the immediate vicinity; fo that in all
likelihood Bamff bids fair to accumulate wealth under cir-
cumitances favourable to the {pirited exertions of thofle en-
gaged in commerce and trade. ‘he falmon-fithery extends
about four miles on the Deveron. It belongs to the earl of
Fife ; and it yields him a yearly rent of 2501. The sight
of this property, together with fome land, was, in A. D.
1470, by reafon of the poverty of the burghers of Bamff,
alienated to perpetuity for a {mall annual fue-duty or
fine for the purpofe of keeping the parith church. and _pri-
fon in proper repair. Before the reformation, there was a
convent dedicated to the Virgin Mary, which belonged to
the order of Carmelites, or white friars; its houfe and lands
were annexed to the old college of Aberdeen, in A.D. 1617 ;
and in the year 1752, thefe were purchafed by the prefent
earl of Fife. ‘The ecclefiaitics, both epifcopal and prefby-
terian, are on the beft terms with each other. . The former
are under the jurifdiction of the bifhop of Aberdeen ; and the
latter is under the prefbytery of Fordyce. The unfortunate
James Sharp, archbifhop of St. Andrews, the arch-epifco-
pal fee of Scotland, was born in the caftle of Bamff, in
May 1613.

The parifh of Bamff is about fix miles in length and two
in breadth ; its furface is beautifully diverfified, and the foil
is generally good, though of different qualities. “Phe greater
part is kept in paiturage, on which a number of black cat-
tle are annually reared. Population of the town in 1800,
3571. Bamff is about 165 miles north of Edinburgh. In
the vicinity of this town is Duff-houfe, the magnificent man-
fion of the earl of Fife. This was built after the defigns
of the late Mr. Adam. It is enriched with fluted columns,
fculptured cornices, and ftatues, vafes, &c. which give pe-
culiar elegance to its external appearance. The internal is
fplendidly furnifhed, contains a large, well-felected library,
and many valuable paintings, &c. Cordiner’s Antiquities
and Scenery of Scotland.

BAMEISHIRE gives name to one of the counties in
Scotland ; it is bounded on the north by the Moray frith, on
the weft by the ecunties of Moray and. Invernefs, and on
the fouth and eaft by Aberdeenfhire. It extends about 36
miles in its longeft diameter north and fouth; and its ave-
rage breadth is about 16 miles. Within its boundaries are
included twenty-four parifhes, and two royal boroughs.
The furface of the country is agreeably diverfified with hill
and dale, well-watered with rivers, and ornamented with
feveral feats and their annexed plantations. The principal

-of thefe belong to the duke of Gordon, earl of Findlater,
earl of Fife, and lord Bamff. Part of the county is moun-
““Yainous ; but the lower lands, and thofe in the vicinity of
towns, are in high cultivation. Its principal rivers are the
Spey, which partly divides this county from Moraybhire ;
the Deveron, which feparates it from Aberdeenthire 3 the
Ifla, Conglas, Avon, and Fiddich. Some valuable mine-
rals are feund in this county ; and great quantities of hones
and whetiiones are obtained from a hill in the diftrict of
Balvenie. Severak mountains are noted for their elevated
fummits. Of thefe Cairngorum, about 4050 feet in heigMt,
is the chief, and is reckoned among the higheit of the
Grampian hills. That of Belrinnes runs to the height of
2690 feet above the level of the‘fea, and Knock-hill is efti-
mated at 2500 feet. At Portfoy, near the north coaft, is
a ftratum of ferpentine, called Portfoy marble, alfo a fpe-
cies of granite, which when polifhed exhibits various figures
and characters, fome ef them refembling thofe of the Arabic

; BAM

and Hebrew alphabet. A gredt number of tumuli are feat-
tered over the hills near the coalt ; and fome druidical anti.
quities are in this diftriét. The population of this county,
according to the parliamentary report in 1800, was 35,807.
BAMIAN, or Bamiyan, acity which fome have referred

to Khorafan, in Perlia ; and others, with greater propriety, to
that part of Independent ‘Tartary, called great Bucharia,
near its fouthern limit, at the foot of mount Caucafus, or
near that part of this range of mountains called Paropa-
mifus, and Hindoo Khoo, and not far from the ancient
Alexandria. Bamian belongs to the fame portion of Bucha-
ria which includes Gaur, and lies between this province and
Cabul. It is eighty-eight geographical miles from Ghizni.
N. lat. 34° 30’. E.long. 67°. It gives name to a diftrict
that extends from Balk towards the ea{t, or the kingdom of
Cabuls This famous city, denominated the Thebes of the
eaft, is fituated on the road between Bahlac, or Balk, and
Cabul; and they reckon eight manzils, or days’ journey,
from Cabul to Bamian. Like Thebes in Egypt, it is en-
tirely cut out of an infulated mountain, and the valley round
it is called, in the language of the country, the Tagavi of
Bamiyan; Tagavi being fynonymous with Purganah or
diftriét. Nearly to the fouth are the ruins of feveral build-
ings of mafonry round a {mall conical hill; on the fummit
of which are the remains of the palace of its ancient
kings. A rivulet, rifing in the adjacent hills, goes through
the ruins of Ghulguleh and the Tagavi of Bamiyan, and
falls into a {mall lake, from which iflue four rivers, the
Hirmend, the Landhi-Sindh, the rivers of Bahlac, and of
Conduz. The city of Bamiyan confifts of a great number
of apartments and receffes, cut out of the rock; fome of
which, on account of their extraordinary dimenfions, are
fuppofed to have been temples. Some of them are adorned
with niches and carved work ; and there are fome remains
of figures, in relievo, which have been deftroyed or disfigured
by the Muffulmans. Some remains of paintings on the walls
are ftill to be feen ; but the fmoke has almoft obliterated
them. In the Ayeen-Akbery it is faid, that there are
about 12000 of thefe recefles in the Tagavi of Bamian ; and
this account is confirmed by the general report of travellers.
The country of the Afghans, as far as Bahlac and Badak-
fhan, abounds with thefe receffes, called Samach’hes in the
language of the country, or Samajes in Perfian. ‘The moft
perfect are at a place called Mohi, on the road between
Bamian and Balk; but as they are fituated among preci-
pices, the Muffulmans have not thought of ufing them
as habitations ; the paintings with which they are adorned
appear quite frefh. The attention of travellers is particu-
larly attraéted by two coloffal ftatucs, which are feen at a
great diftance. They are erect, and adhere to the moun-
tain from which they were cut out. ‘They are ina fort
of niches, the depth of which is equal to their thiclenefs ;
and in the Ayeen-Akbery, the largeit is faid.to be aghty
elis high, and the other only fifty. But thefe dimenfions
aré exaggerated ; and the truth feems to be, that they are
only fifty cubits high. At fome diftance from thefe, there
is another about fifteen cubits high. Authors are difagreed
both as to their fex and their names. A late traveller fays,
that the drapery is covered: with embroidery and figured
work, which was formerly painted of different colours ; one
feeming to have been red, and the other retaining the origi-
nal colour of the ftone, or having been painted grey. Ac-
cording to Dr. Hyde, one of thefe ftatues is called Surkh-
But, or the red idol, and the other Khink-But, or the grey
idol. Between the legs of the male figure is a door leading
into a fpacious temple, at the entrance of which are ftationed
a few wretched Banyans, who fell provifions to travellers.
According to Perfian authors, Bamian muft have os
efore

BAM

before the flood: but the followers of Buddha infift, that
it was built by a religious man called Shama, fuppofed to
be the fame with the patriarch Shem, and that his pofterity
lived there for feveral genérations. Hence Balk-Bamian is
faid to have been originally the place of abode of Abraham,
who, according to feripture, and the Hindu facred books,
removed with his father to diftant countries to the weftward.
According to Diodorus Siculus, Bamian esiited before
Ninus ; for this hiftorian, as well as the Perfian authors, has
smiftaken Bahlac for Bamian; which he defcribes as fituated
among fteep hills; whilft Bahlac is fituated in a low, flat
country, and at a great diftance from the mountains. The
natives loos upon Bamian, and the adjacent countries, as the
place of abode of the progenitors of mankind, both before
and after the flood ; meaning by Bamian and the adjacent
countrics all the country from Siftan to Samarcand, reaching
towards the eaft as far as the Ganges. This tradition is
very ancient, and is countenanced equally by Perfian arthors
and the facred books of the Hindus.

Gamiaa, as well as Cabul and Balk, were at an early period
in the hands of the Muffulmans. There were even king's
of Bamian; but this dynafty lafted but a few years, ard
ended in 1215. The kings and governors refided at Ghul-
guleh, called at that time the fort or palace of Bamian. It
‘was -deftroyed by Genghiz Khan, in the year 12103 and
becaufe the inhabitants had prefumed to refift him, he or-
dered them to be butchered, without diftin@ion either of
age or fex ; and in his brutal rage, he {pared neither animals
nor even trees. He ordered it to be called in his own lan-
guage Mau-balig, or the city of grief and forrow ; but the
mhabitants of the country called it, in their own diale&,
Ghulguleh, which word ufed alfo in Pertian, fignifies “* the
cries of woe.” To have rebuilt it would have beer omindus;
and, therefore, they ere¢ted a fort on a hill to the north of
Bamian, which is called to this day the imperial fort. Tivis
fort was alfo deitroved by Zingis the Uibeck, in 1628, and
has not been rebuilt ince. Thecity of Bamian is reprefented
in the ancient legends of the country as the fountain of
purity and holineis; and wascailed Para-Bamiyan, or Bami-
yan the pure and holy, and the diftri@ of Bamiyan might
alfo be called Para-defa, the pure and holy country. It is
now barren, and withovt a fingle tree ; but, according to
the faercd books of the Biadus and of the Bauddhitts, it
was otherwife formerly. Tradition alfo informs us, that the
number of inhabitants was at one period fo prodigious, that
the trees, underwood, grafs, and plants were deftroyed.
The vegetable foil being no longer prote&ed, was in the
courfe of ages wafhed away by the rains: and it is certain,
that the foil in the vallies is very fertile, and the whole di-
fri, in its prefent ftate, is a molt enchanting and delight-
‘ful fpot. The country to the eaftward of Bamiyan, as far
as the Indus, is the native country of the vine, and of almoft
all the fruit-trees we have in Europe: there they grow
fpontaneoully, and to a great degree of perfeGtion. When
the natives find a vine, an apple-tree, &c. in the forefts,
they clear all the wood about it, dig the ground, and thus
the fruit comes to perfect maturity. ‘ When we are told
in feripture of Noah cultivating the vine, we may be fure
(fays captain Witferd, ubi infra), that it was in its native
country, or at leaft very near it.”? Bamiyan, though not
mentioned by name in Nonnus’s Dionyfiacs, is well defcribed
by him as the abode of the benevolent Brongus, who lived
in Samach’hes, or receffes artfully excavated in the moun-
tains. Brongus was the Bhranga of the Puranas; and had
feveral children, who afcended the throne of Calinga, after
their father had forfaken the world. Bamiyan appears alfo
to be the town called Draftoca by Ptolemy ; which is de-
rived from the Sanferit Drafhatca, and implies the itone-city :

‘BAN

towns before being merely an afiemblage of huts. Its di-
flance and bearing, fays captain Wilford, from Cabura, or
Orthofpana, the prefent city of Cabul, puts it beyond -
doubt. See captain Francis Wilford’s “ Obfervations on
Mount Caucafus,” in Afiatic Refearches, vol. vi. p 495.

BAMMAGURA, in Ancient Geography, atown of India,
on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

BAMMAKOO, in Geography, a town of the Mandingo
country, in Weltern Africa, feated on the river Niger, where
it ceafes to be navigable, about 150 miles below its fource.
Here the river defcends from the high land cf Manding in-
to Bambara, on the eaftward, with a rapid and furious courfe;
after which it glides {moothly along, and affords an uninter-
tupted navigation to Houfia, and probably by Kaffina to
Wangarah. It lies about fifty miles. fhort of Kamalieh ;
and it is reckoned by the natives ten journies only from
Sego. By Mir. Parke’s bearings corre€ted, it lies from Sego
Ww. <A S. dillant 178 geographical miles. N.lat. 12° 54’.
W. lone: 5° 20’. 3

BAMMONITIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of
A.fia Minor, which Strabo places in the vicinity of the river
Halis.

BAMOTH-BAAL, a city of Paleftine, beyond Jordan,
belonging to the tribe of Reuben, feated in the plain
through. which lay the courfe of the Arnon. Jofh. xiii. 17.
In this city was a high place confecrated to Baal, the idol
ofthe Moabites. Yr

BAMPTON, in Geography, is an ancient market town
in the county of Devon, in England. Polwhele afferts
that it was a Roman lation ; but this is not proved by his
defcription of the parifh, nor by any dilcoveries that have
been made relating to that people. It is feated on a branch
of the river Exe, and is alfo watered by the river Batham,
over which is a ftrong ftone bridge. » ‘The town is nearly en-
compafled with hills which confitt chiefly of lime-itone recks.
Thele are burnt on the fpot, and the lime ufed by the neigh-
bouring farmers in meliorating the foil of their lands. Bamp-
ton Is governed by two portreves, two conftables, and other
inferior officers, who are annually cleGted at the lord’s court.
The principal manufactory of the place is ferges. This
was formerly a borough, and fent two members to parliament,
whofe expences were defrayed by the inhabitants; but this
privilege has long been loft. It gives name to the hundred,
and includes within the pariih two {mall villages, whofe cha=
pels have only monthly fervice. The town is irresularly
built, and extends about half a milein length; containing
302 houfes, with 1364 inhabitants. Here ts a large church
with a lofty tower, and the church-yard, which is extenfive,
contains two yew trees, diftinguifhed for their age and mag-=
nitude. The market is held every Saturday, and here are
two annval fairs. Bampton is 167 miles weft of London,
and about twenty-two N.W. from Exeter. pos
Hittory of Deventhire, vol. ii. ae

BAN, a fort of fmooth fine muflin, which the Englifh
import from the Eaft Indies.’ The piece is’a yard broad,
and runs about twenty yards and a half. Lacs

Banand Bars. See Bannand Bannse. 2) ) 08

Ban Jfand, in Geography, is the mott foutherly of the
Ladrones, north of New Guinea, in N. lat. 11°, and E lon
of the eaft end 142°. Between this and Bato ifland, on ae
north, is a rocky ifland. * e

Ban, Arriere. See ARR ERE.

BANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia F
Ptolemy. ua ae
BANAAUSIT, a town of India, on this fide of the G
es. Ptolemy. : Xe

BANABA, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia.

BANAGHER, in Geography,.a market and pe

1,40 70

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Cet ee eee

BAN

of the King’s county, in the province of Leinfter, in Ireland,
which, betore the ‘union, returned two members to the
houfe of commons. Here are an excellent endowment for a
{chool, and an ancient bridge over the Shannon, on which
river it is fituated, but it is a very inconfiderable town. Its
diftance welt from Dublin is 654 Irifh miles.

BANAMATAPA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Monomotapa..

BANANA, in Botany. See Musa.

BANANA Bixp of Jamaica, in Ornithology, the name
under which the oriolus i@erus of Scopoli and Gmelin is
figured in Brown’s Nat. Hilt. Jamaica; and Aibin’s Birds.—
The banana warbler of Latham, is the motaci/la benanivoera
of Gmelin, and dananiffe of Buffon.

BANARA, in Botany, a {mall tree in Cayenne. Lin. ¢.
Schreb. 809. Aubl.217. Jufl. 293? Clafs, dodecandria
monogynia. Nat. Ord. Columnifere.—Tiliacee, Juil. Gen.
Char. Gal. perianth one-leafed, fix-parted, permanent ; parts
ovate. Cor. petals fix, roundifh,. concave, {preading,, three
times larger than the calyx, inferted into the receptacle.
Stam. filaments fifteen and more, capillary, length of the
corolla, inferted into a glandule furrounding the germ ; an-
thers roundith. Pi, germ fomewhat globofe, feated in a
glandule ; ftyle filiform of the height of the ftamens; ftig-
ma headed, Per. berry globofe, but little fucculent, one-
celled, crowned by the permanent ftyle. Seeds numerous,
very fmall, cornered, ftriated. ;

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. fix-parted, permanent. Cor. fix-
petalled ; germ feated on a fmall gland; ftigma headed ;
berry globofe, one-celled, many-feeded.

Species, 1. B. guianenfis. Aubl. Guian. 548. t.217. A
tree growing about ten or more feet high, and about feven
inches in diameter. Its bark is grayifh, and its wood whit-
ifh and light. Leaves alternate, ovate-oblong, toothletted,
fharp, green and f{mooth on the upper furface, pale, and
flightly tomentofe on the lower ; petioles fhort, with two
{mall deciduous ftipules at the bale of each. The largeft
leaves are five inches long and two broad; flowers yellow,
in axillary and terminal racemes, with a fingle bracte to’each
pedicel ; berry black. A native of the ifland of Cayenne,
flowering in May.

BANASA, or Banassa, in Ancient Geography, a Ro-
man colony eftablifhed in Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana.
It was feated-on the river of Subur, at a confiderable diltance
northerly from Gontiana. ;

BANAURIDES, iflands of the Tyrrhenian fea, fo called
from Banaurus, fon of as. Steph. Byz.

BANAW, in Geography, a viverof Praffia, which runs in-
to the Frifch Haffe, two miles W.N. W. of Heifigenbeil.

BANAZ, a town of Afiatic Turkey, thirty miles N. W.
of Karshifar.

BANBURY, a town of Oxfordhhire, in England, lies on
the river Charwell, at the difance of 17 miles nerth of Ox-
ford, and about 74 miles welt from London. ‘This town
is fuppofed to occupy the fite of the Roman flation named
Branavis, as many coins, and a Roman altar, have been found
here. The latter was placed in a niche under the fign of
an inn, which was called from thence the Altar-{tone-inn ;
but this has been converted into a private houfe, and the
altar is probably demolifhed. A caitle was built in this

town by Alexander bifhop of Lincoln, foon after his confe-

eration, which occurred in 1123. This building was pre-
Served as one of the diocefan palaces from the above date till
the firft of Edward V1. when bifhop Holbech conveyed it,
with about thirty other manors, to the king and his courtiers.
The eftate was afterwards given by queen Elizabeth to the
bifhopric of Oxford in exchange for other lands. In the
time of Henry VIII. 1534, it was valued at 14]. 13s. 10d.
but at the time of the above exchange it was eftimated at
Vou. III.

BAN

491. 18s. 9d. a year. This place was made a borough by
queen Mary, who being pleafed with the inhabitants for
their fupport of her againit lady Jane Grey, granted them a
charter, and invelted the town with feveral privileges. This
charter was altered by James I., who appomted the govern-
ment of the town to confift of a mayor, twelve aldermen, and
fix capital burgefles. A new charter was granted by
George 1. A.D. 1718, and the town is now governed by a
mayor, high fteward, recorder, fix capital burgeffes, and
thirty affiltants, a town-clerk, and two ferjeants at mace.
The church, which is a large handfome ftruGture, was built
by the above bifhop Alexander, who is fuppofed to have
been buried in the chancel under a tomb, on which is a re-
cumbent mutilated figure. ‘The outer walls of the church
are ornamented with a number of carved heads of men and
animals. Banbury has been particularly noted for the nnm-
ber of Puritanic inhabitants, who have been fignalifed by
Ben Johnfon, and other dramatic writers, Camden {peaks
of it as famous for cakes and ale; and when Holland tranf-
lated his Britannia, he changed the latter word, and printed
it cakes and zeal. Here are a free-fchool, two charity
{chools, and a workhoufe.

Many military tranfactions and battles have taken place
in this town and neighbourhood; and the cattle of Banbury
is often mentioned by hiltorians as the fcene of repeated
fieres and retreats. In the time of Edward IV. the earl of
Pembroke and lord Stafford entered this town with their
army, when a battle was fought between them and an army
under the command of the earl of Warwick. After the
battle of Edge-hill, the parliament had a garrifon of 800
foot and a troop of horfe in the caftle, which was furren-
dered to the king in a few days, who gave it up with other
garrifons to the Scots general.

The navigable canal from Coventry to Oxford paffes by
this town, and at the diftance of about five miles it is conveyed
through a hill by a tunnel three quarters of a mile in length.
In the grounds adjoining the Ram inn is a well of ful-
phurated water; and at a fhort diftance from the town is
another {pring of chalybeate water. 'ThePyrites-aureus, or
golden fire ftone, is often found here in digging wells. A
number of the inhabitants are employed in the manufaQory
of plufh and fhag cloth; great quantities of which are an-
nually made here, and {ent to London and Portugal. Ban-
bury has a weekly market on Thuriday, and feven annual
fairs; one of which is appropriated for the hiring of fervants,
and is provincially called a mop. ‘The principal feats in the
neighbourhood are, Wroxton-honfe or priory, belonging to
the earl of Guildford; and Broughton caftle, ‘the property
of lord Say and Sele. The firfk was a priory of Auguttine
canons, founded by Michael Belet, an ecclefiaftic, in the
reign of king John. Banbury fends one member to parlia-
ment, contains 525 houfes, and 2755 inhabitants. Bray’s
Sketch of a Tour into Derbyhhire, &c.

BANC, Bancus, or Banx, in Law, denotes a feat or
bench of judgment. See Court. Fus Banci, or the pri-
vilege of having a bench, was anciently only allowed to the
king’s judges, gui jummam adminiffrant juflitiam. Inferior
courts, as courts baron, hundred courts, &c. were*not al-
lowed that prerogative; and even at this day the hundred
court at Freibridge in Norfolk is held under an oak at
Geywood ; and that of Woolfrey, in Herefordthire, under
an oak, near Afhton in that county, called Hundred-oak.

BANCA, in Geography, an ifland of the Haft Indies, ex-
tending from S. lat. 3° 15’, to S. lat. 1° so’, and from E.
long. 107° 5’, to E.long. 105° 25’. ‘The latitude of Capt,
Marchand’s anchorage at three leagues diftance from the
northern coaft, deduced by the dead reckoning, was 1° 23’,
S. and long. 103° 27’, E. from Paris. It lies on the eaft
fide of the ifland of Sumatra, oppofite to the river Palam-

34 bang

BAN

bang in that ifland ; on which the fovereign of Banca, who
is poff{for alfo of the territory of Palambang, keeps his con-
ftant refidence. He maintains his authority over his own
fubje&te, and his independence of the neighbouring princes,
in great meafure, by the affittance of the Dutch, who have a
fettlement and troops at Palambang, and who enjoy the
benefit of a contraét with the king of Banca for the tin
which his fubjeéts procure from thence; and which, like the
king of Bantam, with regard to pepper, he compels the
miners to deliver to him at a low price, and he fells it to the
Ditch at a fmall advance, agreeably to his contract. This
ifland is celebrated throughout Afia for its tin-mines, which
were firft difcovered in 1710 or 1711, and which fince
that time have yielded immenfe quantities of ore, and appear
to be inexhauttible. It is dug chiefly in feven places, which
are under the direétion of Chinefe managers, that provide and
pay the labourers, who are alfo, in general, of that nation.
'Thefe miners reduce the ore into metal by employing wood
as fuel in their furnaces, and not foffil-coal or coak, which
is feldom fo free from fulphur as not to affeét the mallea-
bility of the metal. It is therefore fometimes preferred to
European tin at the Canton market; and the proft upon it
to the Dutch company is fuppofed to be not lefs any year
that 150,000 pounds. The tin is delivered by the managers
of the mines to the king at Palambang for five rix-dollars per
725 pounds, and by him to the Dutch for 15 rix-dollars,
equal to about 58s. fterling per cwt. Englifh. Raynal, and
others, ftate the quantity of tin received by the Dutch com-
pany at 2,000,000]h, but it appears that they take at leaft
3,000,000 }f- Very little, however, comes to Europe; in
1778, 700,000} were fold in Holland at f. 42 per 1oofb.
but the greatet part goes to the China market. Stavorinus’s
Voyage to the Eaft Indies, by Wilcocke, vol.i. p. 357-
Staunton’s Embafly to China, vol.i. p. 305.

Banca, Straits of, lie between this iflaad and Sumatra;
which, on its eaftern fide, forms the weftern fide of thefe
firaits, and its fouthern extremity forms the northern fide
of the {traits of Sunda. Through thefe Mtraits there is a fafe
navigation from the China fea, except near the northern en-
trance, where a fhoal lies off, and another within it, fo that
jt is neceflary for a fhip to found in that fitnation. Capt.
Marchand, in endeavouring to gatn the entrance of thefe
ftraits, experienced ftrong currents, fome fetting to the
E.N.E. others to the E. and others tothe E.S.E. He
therefore renounced the idea of going out of the China fea
by the ftraits of Banca, and determined to fail by another
ftrait fituated more to the eaftward, between the ifland of
Banca and that of Billiton, This {trait is known under the
names of Ga/par’s, Billiiton’s, ov Clement’s ttrait 5 and has been
much frequented in pafling to and from the China fea. See
Marchand’s Voyage, vol.1. p. 98.

BANCALA, a kingdom in the ifland of Celebes.

BANCALIS, a town of the ifland of Sumatra, in the
kingdom of Acheen.—Alfo, a bay on the north-eaft coaft
of this ifland, in N. Jat. 1° 15’. E. long. 100° 7’. 43 leagues
welt of Malacca; itisin Brower ftrait, which is a branch of
that of Malacca; is large, and affords good anchorage, and
its navigation, as far as Bancalis, at the fouth extremity, is fafe.

BANCAPOUR, a diftri& of Hindoftan, in the country
of the Mahrattas.—Alfo, a town of this diftidt. N, lat.
34°55’. E.long. 75° 157.

Bancarour, Sanore. See SANORE.

BANCK, Lavrence, in Biography, a Swedifh lawyer,
was born at Norcopin, and after returning from his travels in
France, Italy, Spain, &c. acquired great reputation as pro-
feffor of the civil law in the univerfity of Franeker, which
poft he occupied for 15 years. He died on the 13th of
Odtober in the year 1662. In 1649, he publifhed a Latin
woxk “ Qn the T'yranny of the Pope over Chriftian Kings

7

BAN

and Princes;’? and in 1656, ‘* Rome triumphant, or the
Inauguration of Innocent X.”?_ But his principal work was
his edition of the famous book of ** The Tax of the Roman
Chancery,” in which are fixed the prices of abfolution for
the moft heinous and infamous crimes. This edition, formed
by a collation of the moft ancient copies, both printed and
manufcript, was printed at Franeker, in 8vo. in 1651; and
feveral other editions have been, before and fince, printed at
different places. Jurieu, in his “ Prejuges legit. contrele
Papifme,” t.i. p. 295, &c. publifhed the particulars of thefe
taxes. Banck’s edition of thefe taxes, and fome others, have
been referred to the clafs of prohibited books, in the ** In-
dex”? of the Inquifition, as corrupted by heretics; but
enough remains in uncontroverted editions to induce worthy
Catholics to lament that fuch taxes fhould ever have dif-
graced the church. Gen. Did.

Bancx, Peter Vander, an eminent engraver, was a native
of Paris, and received inftruGtion in the art of engraving
from the celebrated Francois de Poilly. About the year
1674, he came over to England, and married; but not re-
ceiving recompence anf{werable to his labour as an artift, he
was reduced to penury, and to dependence on the brother of
his wife. He died at Bradfield in 1697, and left his plates
to his widow, who fold them to great advantage, and left
an eafy fortune.

His chief employment was engraving of portraits; and he
was the firft in England who engraved them on fo large a
fcale. Like many of Poilly’s difciples, his great merit con-
fifts in the laboured neatnefs and management of the me-
chanical part of the art. In England his produétions will
be always elteemed, as they preferve the beft refemblance of
many eminent perfons who were living at that time. Strutt.

BANCOK, Bankok, or Fou, in Geography, a marie
time and fortified town of Afia, in the kingdom of Siam,
feated on an ifland formed by the river Menan. N, lat.
13°25’. E.long. 101° 5/.

BANCOTE, now fort Vidoria, liesonthe Malabar coaft of
India, contiguousto Rajapore. It has a good harbour, and
a great trade for falt, &c. from Bombay, whither it makes
returns in cattle.

BANCROFT, Ricuarp, in Biography, archbifhop of
Canterbury in the reign of James I. fprung from a good
family at Farnworth in Lancafhire, and was born in Septem
ber 1544. Having finifhed his education in the univerfity
of Cambridge, he rofe by quick gradations to very diftin«
guifhed ftations in the church. The Puritans were the ob-
jects of his bitter inve@tives. Accordingly, in a fermon des
livered at St. Paul’s crofs, on the gth of February 15805
he accufed them, in very intemperate language, of ambition
and covetoufnefs ; alleging that the principal caufe of non-
conformity and {chifm was the profpeét of plundering bifhop-
rics, feizing the endowments of cathedrals, and f{crambling
for the remainder of the church revenues ; and accufing the
laity among the non-conformifts of an intention to diffolve
the bonds of property, and to introduce a community of
goods. He ftrongly reprefented the danger of permitting
private men to conteft the authority, and violate the con-
ftitutions of the church, expofed the abfurdity of extempo-
rary prayers, and maintained the divine right of bifhops, in
terms which, in the judgment of fir Francis Knollys, one
of the queen’s counfellors, were injurious to the fupremacy
of the crown, This fermon, preached, as Strype fuppofes,
at the inftigation of archbifhop Whitgift, furnifhed ample
evidence of Bancroft’s inveterate hoftility againft the Puri-
tans, As one of the commiffioners for ecclefiaftical eB,
he adopted rigorous meafures for the fuppreffion of herefy
and {chifm ; and he was an avowed enemy to feéts and inno-
vations of every kind. Writings againft epifcopacy, or
recommending any other mode of church dilcipline, were

treated

POA

toa

BAN

treated by Bancroft asfeditions, and he purfued their authors
as enemies to the ftate. His zeal recommended him to ec-
clefiaftical preferment ; and in 1597, he was advanced to the
fee of London, and the management of the ecclefiattical
affairs of the kingdom devolved upon him, _ In the celebrated
conference between the bifhops and the Prefbyterian mini-
fters, held at Hampton court in 1603, Bancroft took an
active part; and when the king required fatisfaétion in the
three points of confirmation, abfolution, and private baptifm,
he undertook to explain and vindicate thefe branches of
ecclefiaftical difcipline, as they were exercifed in the church
of England. In the profecution of this conference, and
with a view to its fpeedy termination by an aét of authority,
he moved the king, that an ancicnt canon, that ‘* Schifmatics
are not to be heard againft Bifhops,’’ fhould be revived ;
and that, according to a decree of an ancient council, which
prohibited any man to plead againft his own fubfcription,
thofe of the opponents, who had fubfcribed the communion-
book, fhould be fet afide. Thefe abfurd and unjuft propo-
fals were rejected by the king. When Dr. Reynolds, on
‘the part of the non-conformilts, moved for feveral alterations
in dotrine and difcipline, the bifhop fell upon his knees
before the king, praying that care might be taken to pro-
vide a praying clergy, as the fervices of the defk were too
much negleéted, and the duty of a parifh prieft wholly re-
ftrited to the pulpit; that till men of learning could be
procured for every congregation, homilies fhould be read,
and their number increafed; and that pulpits might not
be turned into batteries, from which every malecontent
might be allowed to vent his fpleen againft his fuperiors.
Thefe reqnefls, whether well or ill-founded, were evidently
pointed againft the non-conformifts. Upon the lord chan-
cellor’s ee occafion to argue againft pluralities, and ex-
prefling a with that fome clergymen might have fingle coats
before others had doublets, adding alfo, that he had be-
ftowed benefices inthe king’s gift upon this principle, the
bifhop of London replied, “* 1 commend your honourable
care that way ; but a doublet is neceflary in cold weather.’’
The good bifhop, it is faid, {poke feelingly, for he had
himfelf experienced the comfort of warm cloahing. In
1604, bifhop Bancroft was elected and confecrated to fucceed
archbifhop Whitgift in the fee of Canterbury ; end in this
high ftation he retained his intolerant principles, and pur-
fued the fame meafures again{t the non-conformifts, To
this purpofe lord Clarendon (Hift. vol.i. p. 88.), in his
eulogy, teltifies, that ‘if he had lived, he would quickly
have extinguifhed all that fire in England, which had been
kindled at Geneva, and would eafily have kept out that
infeGtion which could not afterwards be fo eafily expelled.”
For the rights of the church, the archbifhop manifefted a
jealoufy, which involved.him ina conteft with the judges ;
againft whom he exhibited to the lords of the council, com-
plaints of their encroachments on the ecclefiaftical courts in
granting prohibitions; but thefe complaints were over-ruled
by the unanimous opinion of the judges, which Coke juttly
calls the highcit authority of the law. In the interior difl-
cipline of the church, the archbifhop was rigoroufly exact,
urging a {triét conformity to the rubric and canons, and
making no allowance for diverfity of opinion. He en-
forced {ubfcription to the articles in the moft unevafive terms ;
and it appears, that, not long before his death, forty-nine
clergymen were deprived of their benefices for not comply-
ing with his rigid requifitions. In 1610, he propofed to
‘parliament a plan for increafing the revenues of the church,
by improving the tithes, redeeming lay impropriations, and
reftoring the practice of mortuaries by repealing the ftatute
of mortmain. Parliament wifely refitted this projeét, which
feems to have been the laft public a& of the archbifhop’s life ;

a

BAN

for he died of the ftone, at his palace at Lambeth, in No-
vember 1610, aged 67. His library was bequeathed to his
fucceffors in the metropolitan fee of Canterbury. Befides
his fermon again{ft the Puritans, we have only two tratts,
written by him before his advancement to the epifcopal
dignity, in defence of the church again{t the non-conformilts,
intitled “* Dangerous Pofitions,”’ and * Survey of the pre-
tended holy Difcipline.”’ 'The prominent features in the
character of this prelate were intemperate zeal and intolerant
feverity ; and if he rendered any fervices to epifcopacy, the
general caufe of Proteftantifm owed him little obligation ; for
nothing could be more inconfillent with the fundamental
principle of the reformation, than the reftraint and prohibi-
tion of that freedom of judgment and choice in the pro-
vince of religion, which had been afferted and maintained
by the predominant party on their feparation from the
church of Rome. Bancroft, however, thongh his principles
were narrow and temper rugged, poffefled a degree of
underltanding and of activity of fpirit, which fitted him
for public bufinefs, and which enabled him to occupy im-
portant ftations in the church with a confiderable degree of
reputation. A letter written by this prelate to king James L.,
in vindication of pluralities, is preferved in the advocate’s
library at Edinburgh, and may be read in the firft volume
of fir David Dalrymple’s Memorials. Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

BAND, in a general fenfe, fome fmall, narrow ligament,
wherewith a thing is tied or faftened.

We fay, a flay-band, a brow-band, a hat-band, &c.

Bann, in Archite@ure, denotes any flat, low member, or
moulding. This amounts to the fame with what is others
wife called face, from the Latin fa/cia, which Vitruvius ufes
for the fame thing, and fometimes fillet, plinth, &c.

Banps of Columns, properly denote a kind of emboff-
ments furrounding fhafts of ruftic columns, at certain dis
ftances, by way of decoration.

Thefe are fometimes plain, fometimes picked or vermicue
lated, and fometimes carved with decorations of low relieyo,
which are different in every different band.

Columns enriched with thefe bands, are fometimes called
banded columns.

Banp, in matters of Artillery, denotes a hoop of iron ufed
about the carriage of a gun.

Such are the nave bands, which are iron hoops binding the
nave at both ends.

Banp, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Mekran, 400 miles S.S.W. of Candahar.

Bann, Bandum, is ufed, in Middle Age Writers, for a
flag or banner.

Banp of Soldiers, in Military Language, fo many as fight
under the fame flag or enfign. Thus Romulus called thofe
who fought under the fame manipule (a handful of hay
being then ufed for a flag) manipulus militum.

Formerly bands efpecially denoted bodies of foot; and the
French formerly called their infantry dandes Frangeifes.

Banp of Penfioners, is {till retained, to denote a company
of gentlemen, who receive a yearly allowance of 100). for
attending the king on folemn occafions. See PENSIONERS.

Banps, Trained. See Trainepv Baads.

Banp, gives the denomination to a military order in
Spain, inftituted by Alphonfus XT. king of Cattile, in the
year 1332. It takes its name from banda, band, or red
ribband, which comes acrofs over the right fhoulder, and
under the left arm of the knight. This order is for none
but the younger fons of nobles; the eldeft fons of grandees
are excluded; and, before admittance, it is requifite to have
ferved at leaft ten years, either in the army or at court.
They are bound to take up arms for the Catholic faith
againit the infidels.

a Aur: The

BAN

The king himfelf is grand-matter of the order.

Banps of a Saddle, denote two flat narrow pieces of iron,
nailed on each fide the bows of the faddle, to retain
thofe bows in the fituation which makes the form of a faddle.

Bano, to put a bow in the, is to nail down the two ends of
each band to each fide of the bow.

Befides the two great bands, the fore-bow has a {mall one
called the wither-band, and the hinder-bow another to
ftrengthen it.

Bann, in Surgery, is a long flip of linen, or fome other
convenient material, intended for the purpofe of binding
and furrounding any part of the body. When a band has
been rolled up for ufe, into a cylindrical form, it is generally
denominated a Banpace or Rotter.

BANDA, in Geography, the chief ifland ofa group, which
comprifes five others, lying clofe to one another, and fituated
in the Eaftern Pacific ocean, ealt of ‘Celebes or Macaflar,
fouth of Ceram, and fouth-eaft of Amboyna, in about S. lat.
5°45’. E.long. 130°30’. Thefe iflands are called the
Spice or Nutmeg iflands, and alio Panda ifles from the name
of the principal of the group. Banda formed the fecond
government of the Dutch to the eaftward. The firft of
thefeiflands is Neira or Nera, where ftandsthe chief fettlement
of the province; it has a fpacious and commedio:s harbour,
but difficult of accefs; fhips anchor under the cannon of two
forts, called Belgica and Naffau, the firft ftanding on an emi-
nence, and commanding the whole extent of the ifland and of
the harbour, as well as fort Naffau; the defence of it would re-
quire a garrifon of 400men, and yet the whole number of mifi-
tary in all the iflands fearcely ever exceeds 300. The next
ifland is that of Banda, Lantor, or Lonthoir; it does not ex-
ceed eight Britifh miles in length from weft to eaft, and the
greateft breadth at its eaftern extremity may be five; ithasa
fort and two or three redoubts. The third and fourth in im-
portance are Pulo-way or Way, and Pulo-run or Rohn:
upon the firlt of which is a {mall fort, and upon the other a
redoubt. The other two are Rozingen or Rofligen, in
which there is a redoubt, and to this ifland the Dutch com-
pany often banifh their ftate prifoners; and Gunung-api,
Gonong, or Ganapez, which has a volcano conttantly emit-
ting {moke, and often flames. ‘The nutmeg-tree is chiefly
cultivated in Neira, Gonong, Ay or Way, and Lantor or
Banda; and it flourifhes not only in the rich black mould,
but even amidft the layas of Gonong, which is the higheit
ifle, the fummit being 1940 feet above the fea. When the
Englith admiral Rainier took poffeffion of the iflands of
Amboyna and Banda, which he feized without refiftance,
in February and March 1796, the annual produce was about
163,000 pounds of nutmegs, and 46,000 pounds of mace.
The hurricane and earthquake, in 1778, almoft annihilated
the nutmeg-trees in Banda, fo that the Dutch have become
the dupes of their own avarice. From 1796 to 1798, the
Englifh Eaft India company imported 817,312Th of cloves,
93:7321b of nutmegs, and 46,730}h of mace, befides con-
fiderable quantities of each in private trade and privilege
goods, amounting to about a third part of the above. The
ground being chiefiy occupied with thefe precious planta-
tions, cattle and grain, &c. are imported from Batavia, at
the diftance of three or four weeks’ fail, The inhabitants of
the Banda ifles were found to be 5763. The Enslith were
expelled from Lantor and Rohn, at a period prior to the
maffacre of Amboyna; but feized the whole Spice iflands
in 1796, and reftored them to their Batavian matters by the
treaty with France in 1801.

To the government of Banda belong likewife feveral other
iflands in the neighbourhood, known by the appellations of
the South-eaftern and the South-weltern ifles. Their in-
habitants are in alliance with the company, and furnifh a

BAN
confiderable quantity of provifions, confifting of wild-boarss
ftags, fea-cows, and other articles of food, which they barter
at Neira for piece-goods and other neceffaries. This trade,
however trifling, is very beneficial to the inhabitants of
Banda; and it is fuppofed, that the province would derive
greater advantages from it, if the company would allow
Neira to become a more commercial place: but this is
prevented by the fufpicious policy of the government. Sta-
vorinus’s Voyages, by Wilcocke, vol.i. p. 331. vol. ii p. 418.

Banna, dcan banda Ruyfch. Theat. banda/the cacatoeha
and ikan bandan Jang. Swangi, Valent amb. banda Ican
Potou, banda Renard Pife. in /chthyology, fynonymous names
of the {pecies of Coryrn #na, called by Gmelin pentadadyla.

BANDAGE, in Surgery, is a Strap, a Fiver,
Swarue, or Bann, applied to its peculiar ufe upon any
member, &c. of the body. The nature and application
of bandages are a ftudy of confiderable importance in Sur-
gery ; for itoften happens that the cure of alocal difeafe de-

ends principally or entirely upon the proper management of
them. Their fubftance and form are various, according to the
nature of the cafe, and the intention to be fulfilled in their
application. They may be made of linen, flannel, leather,
or cloth compofed of different materials. Each of thefe
fubftances, on particular occafions, has its refpeétive ad-
vantages or difadvantages.

The common properties and ufes of bandages
. To retain parts in their fituation.

. To feparate or keep them afunder.

. Toexpel morbid fluids, or prevent their accumulation.
. To confine dreffings or external remedies.
. To comprefs and obliterate certain veffels.

The bandages moft in ufe are made of linen or cotton.
The linen ufed for this purpofe muft have been already worn,
but ftill {nfficiently ftrong, cut according to the diretion of
the threads, and without feam. In order to prevent its’
unravelling, the edges may be flightly ititched round, but
it ought to have no feams whatever,

As it is often impoffible to procure long bandages of a
fingle piece, and we are confequently obliged to form them
of feveral different pieces, they fhould be fewed together
with back-flitches, leaving ends feveral lines in breadth,
which muft be doubled round and beat perfeétly fmooth and
even. But in order to avoid all the inconveniences that at-
tend the ufe of bandages made of linen, it will be beft to
ufe fillets of linen exprefsly manufa@tured for the purpofe,
which may be wove of different breadths and lengths.

Bandages are diftinguithed into /imple bandages, which
confit of a fingle piece, and compound bandages, which are
compofed of feveral different pieces, and whefe application
requires greater trouble and ficiil. They are alfo divided
into general bandages, or fuch as may be applied to feveral
different parts of the body, and particular bandages, which
are adapted only for one particular part. :

Every fimple bandage confilts of a beginning, middle,
and end. The beginning and termination are named its ends ¢
and when the bandage is rolled up, they are called rads.
The middle part of the bandage is called its body. When
we roll up one end of the bandage to the other, we have a

Jingle-headed bandage ; but when we roll up each end fepa-
rately only towards the middle, it is then tefmed a double-
headed bandage. In order to apply any bandage properly,
it is neceflary that it fhould firlt be roiled up tight and per-
feétly even. The operator, when he applies it, holds its
head between the thumb and fore-finger of one hand, in
fach a manner that it lies direted upwards in the hand, and
the end that has been rolled off is held down with the other

are—
>

Now

in Uo

hand upon the part tillit is fufficiently fecured by feveral
turns. In rolling out the bandage, the head mu na .
clole

ee

ae ee ee ee ee le

“ .

“BAN

clofe as poffible to the difeafed part, and conftantly be turned
towards the furgeon; the bandage fhould never be rolled
out too far, and the head fhould be held neither too tight
nor too loofe. When we with to remove the bandage again,
we fhould not pull it forcibly off from any part to which it
may adhere, but previoufly foften it with warm water. It
is then cautioufly drawn off from the difeafed part, and in
winding it off, that part of the bandage which has been
rolled off is alternately fhifted out of the right hand iato the
left, and vice versa.

To the fimple bandages belong the circular bandage, the
fpiral bandage, the retaining, the expellent, the creeping,
and the uniting bandages. ‘To the compound bandages are
referred the eighteen-headed bandage, the many-headed
bandage, the T bandage, and in fome meafure alfo the Tour-
nigueT. Some bandages receive their appellations from the
names of the parts to which they are applied : as, bandages
for the head, eyes, ears, nofe, neck, breait, back, belly, &c.

The cighicen-headed bandage may be formed of feveral
(fuppofe three) pieces of linen, about a foot in length, and
ten or twelve inches in breadth, more or lefs according to
the length and thickneds of the limb, and ail three are laid
at the middle over each other. At the middle they are
fewed together longitudinally, after which each of them is
cut through on each fide, till about two fingers breadth
from the middle, into three equal parts, which form nine
heads on each fide. But as in this mode one head covers
the other, there always remains a flit between the heads, by
which means the limb is unequally preffed upon and fecured.
This defe& may be remedied by arranging the cuts in fuch
a manner that the heads of the middle piece of linen are
always covered by a flit and the half of two heads of the
two other pieces of linen. This will be the.cafe if, as Lo-
effler advifes us, we give the firft piece of linen four, the
fecond three, and the third again four heads. See the Many-
headed Bandage. ss

In cafes of compound fragtures, in which the bandages
are frequently foiled,.i be more convenient, as Default
adviles, to ule a bandagé<onfilting of eleven feparate fillets
of linen, each a foot anda half in length, and four fingers
broad. Four of thefe are to be laid at the bottom, three
in the middle, and again four at the top, at the fide of each
other: and thus we obtain a twenty-two headed bandage of
a more convenient cdailruction. ‘This bandage may itill-be
improved by cutting the middle fillets fhorter than the
loweft, and the upper fhorter than the middle ; by which
means the bandage wiil apply far better to the part.- Should
now any of the fillets be foiled, we have the advantage of
being able*calily to fubfitute another in its place; for we
need orily to few the new fillet to the old one, and draw it
by means of the latter through between the reit, without
deranging any cE fhe parts of the bandage.

The Circular Bandage. This bandage may be of various
lengths and breadths; it is rolled upon one head, and is
ufed for fecuring {mall dreffings, fuch as lint and com-
prefies. Lt is applied in fuch a manner that one turn entirely
covers the other, fo that only the laft turn. is vifible.

Retentive Ban:lage. This is a common fimple bandage,
which is ufed for retaining dreffiags in their proper fituation ;
and it is applicd fometimes with circular, fometimes. with
fpiral, aad fometimes with creeping turns.

The Neck Bandege. A fillet, two feet or two feet and a

\ half in length, is laid acrofs over the head in fuch a manner

that the ends reach down on both fides to the fhoulders;
and over this another fillet, five or fix feet in length and
two or three fingers. broad, is rolled round the neck with circu=
lar turns. The two ends of the firf fillet are then doubled

a? to the head, and fecured to the circular turns with

.

BAN

pins; by which means the circular turns are prevented from
flipping off, an accident that is particularly to be appre-
hended when the neck is long.

Divifive Bandage, to {apport the head, is formed with a
fmall fillet, which is laid over the head in the direGtion of
the fagittal future, fo that one end hangs over the nofe
down to the brealt, and the other over the back of the
neck till between the fhoulders ; and another larger fillet,
fixteen or eighteen feet long and three fingers broad, which
is rolled upon two heads. ‘he middie part of the latter is
laid. upon the forehead, over the firlt fillet ; it is then carried
over the ears, round the head, to the back of the neck ;
its heads are then fhifted to oppofite fides, brought forwards
undér both axille, then carricd backwards over the fhoul-
ders, crolfed again, carried under the axille over the breait,
the heads fhifted again, and the reft ef the bandage rolled
round with circular turns. The furgeon then takes hold
of the two hanging ends of the fmall fillet, carries them
back over the head, and there pins them together, or to the
other turns, after having drawn the patient’s head ftraight.

The Expulfive, or Lxpellent Bandage. "This is a common
fimple bandage, the length and breadth of which are to be
regulated according to the purpofe for which it is to be
ufed. It is ufed in cafes of tiftulas, and wounds made with
pointed inftruments, in order both to force the pus and
blood towards the orifices, and thus expel them from the
body, and alfo by bringing their inner furfaces into conta,
to promote their healing up. Before the bandage is applied,
all the fluids muft be expelled out of the wound, ulcer, or
filtula, by rubbing, prefiing, or throwing injeCtions into it.
When this has been done, comprefles of various dimenfions
are applied along the courfe of the fore, and particularly
at the region of its bottom; and generally it is neceflary
to have compreffes that are graduated at one end, the
thickeit part of which is applied over the bottom of the
fore, and the thinneft over its orifice. An affiftant holds
the compreffes faft in their proper fituation, whilft the fur-
geon applies a fingle or a two-headed bandage, according to
the fituation of the ulcer. He commences the application
over the hottom of the comprefs, fo as to fecure and prefs
it down by two or three turns of the bandage, which he
then carries towards the orifice with fpiral turns ; after which
he carries it back again, and finifhes. with {piral turns. This
mode of bandaging may alfo be ufed with great advantage in
cafes in which a flap of flefh has been partly cut or torn off
from the body, whilft it {till remains attached by one part, in
order to make it heal up again in its proper fituation ; and in
this cafe the bandage becomes an uniting one. But when we

‘apply it in this.manner, we ought always to be careful to

make a fufficient and equal preffure at every point; for
otherwife our intention, if not entirely fruftrated, will at
lealt be impeded, and the cure protraéed.

Galen’s Bandage. "The four-headed or fling bandage for
the head. This bandage is’ formed of a piece of linen three
or four feet in length, and from four to eight fingers broad,
both ends of which are flit open fo far as to leave the mid-
dle part about eight fingerslong. It is generally applied
with the middle part ftraight upon the head, fo.that the an-
terior ends hang down over the cheeks, and the two others
over the ears; and in order that it may lie more firmly upon
the head, the edge of the middle part that les over the
forehead, as weil as that on the back of the head, i8 doubled
round, fo as to form a kind of feam. The two anterior
ends of the bandage are then carried over the ears, and fait-
ened at the back. of the neck ; after which the two pottes.
rior ends are carried in the fame manner over the ears, and
fattened under the chin. ‘The bandage may be applied in
a fimilar manner upon various parts of the head, only it is to

be

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be obferved, that the central’ portion muft always be placed
over the difeafed part, and the ends carried in oppofite di-
reGtions, either croffed or ftretched out.

The Uniting Neck Bandage. 'This bandage is formed in
the following manner. The furgeon takes a napkin four
double, lays it under the patient’s axille, and pivs it toge-
ther in the front of the brealt. He then takes two pieces
of linen, faftens one end of them to the patient’s night-cap,
and the other to the napkin, in fuch a manner, that if the
wound be fituated in the trachea, or at the fore-part of
the neck, the ends, after the patient’s head has been in-
clined forwards a little, can be faitened to the fore-part of
the cloth, in order to keep the head in that pofition. But
fhould the wound be fituated in the back of the neck, the
head may be inclined a little backwards, and retained by
the fame bandage in that pofition, by drawing the ends of
the two {mall fillets more backwards, and faltening them
there to the napkin. ,

The application of the T bandage, according to Mr.
Evers’s method, is however more advantageous, efpecially
for uniting wounds acrofs the throat. For this purpofe,
we are to take a fillet, three fingers broad and ten feet
long, and few to the middle of it another of equal breadth
and fix feet long, fo as to reprefent the figure of the letter
T. The fmaller fillet is now to be flit open all but one
foot. In applying it, the part at which the two fillets
are fewed together, is placed upon the back of the neck
in fuch a manner that the {fmaller fillet lies over the back of
the head upon the vertex. The two heads are next brought
forwards over the fhoulders, then carried under the axille,
which are guarded with compreffes, to the back; the ban-
dage is then crofled, brought forwards again upon the breaft,
and faftened. The flit ends of the fmaller fillet are next
croffed over the vertex ; after which they are carried over
the face under the axillz; the patient’s chin, if neceflary,
being drawn downwards towards the breaft, and this fillet is
finally faftened like the former. Mr. Koehler has propofed
for this purpofe a leathern cap with ftraps, by means of
which the patient’s head may be drawn into any pofition
that may be neceffary. See the T Bandage.

The Inguinal Bandage. "The bandage for luxations of the
os femoris. This is a bandage eight or, nine yards in length,
and three or four fingers broad, rolled up into one head.

The Six-headed Bandage of Galen. This bandage coniilts of
a piece of linen from three to four feet in length, and 8—12
fingers broad ; its breadth and length being determined ac-
cording to the fize of the patient’s head. The cloth is
folded in fuch a manner that its breadth can be divided into
three equal parts, and thefe parts are flit open from both
fides, fo far as to Jeave entire in the middle a {pace of the
breadth of a man’s hand, by which means fix heads are formed.
It is applied nearly in the fame manner as the four-headed
bandage for the head.

The many-headed. Bandage. This bandage is formed of a
piece of linen or flannel, the dimenfions being regulated ac-
cording to thofe of the difeafed part, into which a number of
flits are made at both fides, fo as to leave only one part en-
tire in the middle for the purpofe of conneéting the reft. In
applying it, the whole piece is laid under the difeafed part ;
the loweft of the ends, which lies on the outer fide, is then
brought obliquely upwards on the inner fide, and that which
lies within is brought obliquely upwards on the outer fide,
and fo on; fo that the lower ends are always half covered
and fecured by the upper. A many headed bandage may
alfo be formed in another way, by cutting a piece of linen or
flannel into feveral ftrips, of which the one is always longer
than the other, but each of the fame breadth with the reft.
The thorteft is generally made a foot, and the longeft two

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feetin length, All thefe ftrips are now laid over each other
in fuch a manner that always half the breadth of the one is
covered by the other. To fecure the whole, a narrow flip
of linen or tape is fewed to them behind and alfo in the
middle, In applying it, the narrowelt part of the bandage
mutt always come to lie over the {malleft part of the limb.
A bandage of this kind will perform the funétions of the
beft applied circular or {piral bandage, and it applies to the

parts far better than the eighteen-headed bandage; on-

which account it may be ufed inftead of the latter.

The T Bandage, the bandage for the filtula in ano. This
is a common compound bandage, which is chiefly ufed in
lefions of the neck, the breaft, the abdomen, the back, but
particularly the genital organs, the anus, the groin, and
the perineum. It is either fingle or double. The fimple
T bandage is formed in the following manner: take a fillet
from four to eight feet in length, and fold it together in
{uch a manner as to get the exa€t middle point. At this
middle point few to it another fillet in a perpendicular di-
reCtion, and of {uch length as may be molt convenient for
the purpofe for which it is intended. ‘To form the double
T bandage, either two fillets are fewed in the middle ob-
liquely befide each other, or a whole piece is fewed on and
afterwards flit open. According to the dimenfions of the
place to which it is to be applied, it is made more or lefs broad.

The Creeping Bandage. .This is a common limple bandage
rolled upen one head, which is applied in a {piral manner
round the limb, fo that the one turn does not cover the
other, but only lies clofe to it, in fuch a manner that no
part of the limb remains vifible. It may fometimes be ufed
for fecuring compreffes and other dreffings.

The Scapulary and Napkin. This bandage confifts of a
napkin, and a fcapulary as it is termed. The napkin is
folded together, and rolled upon two unequal heads; the
middle part is then applied under the arm in fuch a manner
that the largeit head is carried over the back, and the fmaller
over the breaft ; but both heads are laid over each other,
and then faftened. But in order perrerent the napkin from
flipping out of its fituation, the fcapulary is required. This
is formed of a piece of linen 2—g feet long, and halfia
foot broad. In the middle of the piece a flit is cut, large
enough for the head to pafs conveniently through it; and
in this manner one end hangs down before over the breaft,
and the other over the back. Thefe two ends are ‘then
fattened to the napkin before applied. We may alfo flit
open the ends, and thus attach them more extended to
the napkin, by which means they will fupport it better. This
bandage may be ufed in almofft all lefions of the brealt, as alfo
in fimple wounds of the abdomen.

The Spiral Bandage. ‘This is a common fimple bandage,
the length and breadth of which muft be adapted to the
dimenfions of the part: the fecond turn cf the bandage
always covers the firft, and the third and following turns
always cover each the preceding turn, either half or a little
more, fo as to reprefent a fpiral figure. The turns may be
made either from the upper towards the lower part of the
limb, or from the lower towards the upper ; in the firft cafe
it is termed the defcending, and in the fecond, the afcending
fpiral bandage. It is generally applied in the laft-mentioned
manner, and may be ufed for {wathing whole limbs, by which
means alone very obitinate difeafes may fometimes be cured.

Mr. Theden (Neue Bemurkungen u. Erfahrungen, &c.
Th. I. Berl. 1781, p. 1.) was the firft who called the atten-
tion of the public to the more frequent and rational ufe
of {wathing with this bandage; and experience has proved
that this practice may certainly be attended with very
great advantages. In applying it, every thing depends
upon the whole limb being entirely encircled with it —

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the very points of the fingers or toes, fo as to leave no part
whatever bare, as a tumor would be produced in fuch a
part. The method of applying it to the fuperior extremi-
ties is as follows ;—For each finger we are to take a fillet a
foot in length, and of the breadth of a finger, and wind
it round each finger as well as the thumb in’ the following
manner. The firlt turn is made circularly round the point
of the finger, the fecond, in order to afford a good hold
for the re{t, immediately over the firft; the third turn co-
vers half or a little more of the fecond, and the fourth and
following turns the fame. The ends of thefe fillets are laid
upon the back of the hand, and fecured with a fillet from
20 to 40 feet long, and 2 or 2} fingers broad. With this
long fillet, the firft turn is made immediately over the fin-
gers round the hand, and for the fake of fecurity, the fe-
cond ftraight over the firft; but the following turns always
cover each one half of the preceding turn, and they afcend
as high as the elbow, being applied neither too loofe nor too
tight ; for we muit always have it in our power to introduce
a finger between the turns in cafe of neceflity. If we in-
tend to wet this bandage with any liquid, we mutt apply
it fomewhat loofer, as it contra&ts and becomes tighter when
it is moilt; but afterwards it muft be kept conliantly moitt,
as otherwife, when it dries, it becomes too loofe, and is
confequently rendered ufelefs. Should the perfon who ap-
plies the bandage, not know how to hit the proper meafure
of tightnefs in this cafe, he may wet the bandage before
he applies it.

Thefe turns are carried up as high as the elbow, where,
if it be a cafe of injury from blood-letting, a piece of rag
fpread with a proper ointment is laid upon the inflamed or
ulcerated part, and the bandage is carried two or three times
up to the humerus, and back again, fo as to form turns
like CO ©6, as in the operation of blood-letting. If we
cannot cover every part by means of thefe turns, we may
lay an oblong piece of linen, 3—4 fingers broad, and a foot
Jong, under the elbow, draw it tight, and fecure it above
and below with the bandage. The end of the piece of li-
nen that projects under the bandage is doubled back, and
another turn made round it, in order to prevent its giving
way. The turns are then continued as high as the deltoid
mufcle, or to the fhoulder, and the end of the bandage is
faftened to the neck, When the tumor grows fmaller, fo
as to render the bandage too loofe, it may be renewed.

In fwathing the lower extremities, it is not neceflary to
bandage each toe feparately, and this would alfo be very
difficult on aceount of the fhortnefs of thefe members.
We may therefore apply the middle part of a piece of
linen, about twice the breadth of a man’s hand in
breadth and length, clofe to the points of the toes, and
turn one part over the back of the foot, and the other
under the fole ; the two folds of the linen are then to be
drawn tight towerds the foot, and doubled downwards, both
at the great and little toe, towards the fole, where they are
to be held faft with the left hand. The furgeon then takes
into his other hand the bandage, which may be from 30
ta 40 feet long, and 2—3 fingers broad, and fecures the
piece of linen that inclofes the toes, with two circular turns,
after which he proceeds to carry the bandage with fpiral
turns towards the leg. In order to obviate the cifficulty
that attends the bandaging of the heel, we may apply under
the fole another piece of linen, fomewhat more than the
breadth of a man’s hand, fo as to reach above the heel,
furround it with the bandage and draw it tight, then dou-
ble down the ends, and fecure them with the bandage in
order to prevent their giving way. For the greater fecurity
of the bandage, and in order to prevent the pain which it
might occafion by its preflure upon the Tenpo Acuituis,

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we may fill up the depreffions on both fides of the tendon,
as high as the termination of the calf, with lint, whilft we
are bandaging thelimb. As often as it is neceffary, namely
when any turn is not drawn fo as to cover half of the pre-
ceding, we muft turn the bandage, and this muft be done
particularly under the calf. When the limb has been
{wathed, a ftocking that fits well fhould be drawn over it.

Stellated Bandage with Two Heads. This bandage is
ufed after blood-letting at the temporal artery. It is from
16 to zo feet long, two fingers broad, and rolled upon
two heads. Inftead of this bandage Mr. B. Bell recommends
the ufe of a well-hardened fteel fpring, three quarters of an
inch broad, and twelve or fourteen inches long, which is
covered with foft leather, and of equal ftrength with the
{pring of a rupture bandage.

The fingle Star Bandage. This is a one-headed bandage,
from fixteen to twenty-four feet long, and four fingers broad,
which is ufed in fome affe&tions of the feapulz.

The double Star Bandage. This bandage is 3—4 fingers
broad, 24—32 feet long, and rolled upon two heads : it is
likewife ufed in lefions of the fcapulz.

The Bandage for ax Umbilical Hernia. Thefe bandages
may either be elaftic or non-elaitic. With infants an elaftic
bandage is both troublefome and fuperfluous. Mr. Richter
therefore recommends to apply half a nutmeg, wrapped in
a picce of linen to the umbilicus, and to fecure this with a
fingle adhefive plaifter and a circular roller. But left the
bandage fhould flip, and the plaifter together with the nut-
meg fall off, he dire&ts the front part of the bandage to
be made almoit as broad as the hand, and that which lies
upon the hips two thirds narrower, in order that if it
fhould flip a little upwards or downwards, it may {till ia
fome degree help to retain the piece of nutmeg in its place.
In order to prevent the bandage from wrinkling, it is made
of double linen, and at the front part which covers the na-
vel, a piece of leather is inferted between the two pieces of
linen ; by which means this part of the bandage conttantly
preferves its proper breadth. When we with to change the
bandage, we fhould introduce a finger under the bandage,
and prefs down the nutmeg upon the navel till the new ban-
dage has been appljed, left the navel fhould again be pre-
truded. Inftead of the nutmeg, we may employ for the
fame purpofe a fet of graduated compreffes, or any other
proper hard fubftance. See the article Rupture.

An unelaitic bandage for the umbilical hernia in adulte
is made in the following manner. We take a piece of
parchment four or five feet long and four fingers broad,
and cut into the middle of it a flit a foot long, which
paffes over the patient’s head when it is applied. To the
one end, at both corners, two ftraps are fewed, which run
on in a ftraight line with the whole. Two other {traps are
fewed immediately over the former to the margin of the
bandage, fo that when the whole is laid upon a horizontal
furface, they forma right angle with the flip of parchment,
on each fide. Finally, to the inner fide of the bandage
a cufhion is attached, which is fluffed with horfe-hair, cork,
or cotton, and in order that it may lie properly, it ought
to have a degree of fwell round the margin. In applying
it, the patient introduces his head threugh the flit above-
mentioned, fo that the longer portion of the flip of parch-
ment hangs down perpendicularly over his brea{t, and the
fhorter down his back. After the hernia has been reduced,
the two upper ftraps attached to the margin of the bands
age are carried round the body and tied upon the back ;
or if they be long enough, over the cufhion in front. The
other two are brought through between the thighs, and
faitened at the back to the firlt, or to the upper piece of
parchment or linen. But

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But as the hernia is not always of equal fize, being
fmaller in the morning, and larger after meals, and as it
alternately rifes and finks ig infpiration and expiration,
it is evident that thefe unelaftic bandages cannot adapt
themfelves to thofe diverfities, as they cither render necef-
fary a flronger, inconvenient, and often hurtful preflure, or
do not prefs fufficiently, fo that the hernia is conftantly in
danger of flipping through.

With adults therefore we can expe& no fecurity, except
in the ufe of elaftic bandages for the umbilical hernia; and
of thefe there are fimple, compound, and double bandages.
The fimple bandage confiits. of a fomewhat broad, round,
or oval cufhion, and an elaftic femicircle. With patients
whofe umbilical region is more debilitated, an oval cufhion
is requifite, having in the middie a bulb of the fize of a
walnut, which comes to lie upon the navel. Mr. Richter
alfo recommends the ufe of a common bandage for the in-
guinal hernia, provided in its front-with a fhield, to the inner
fide of which a cuthion is attached. - However, this and
the above-mentioned rupture bandages are not fufficiently fe-
cure againft flipping out of their fituation, on account of
their being provided only with a fingle lateral fpring.

Mr. Theden has propofed the ule of elaitic gum tor band-
ages for the umbilical hernia; and Mr. Juville thinks that it

may be fufficient with patients that are not corpulent, and’

when the hernia is fmall. But as elaftic gum lofes its elaf-
ticity when it grows warm, it has been propofed to fuper-
fede its ufe by the application of {piral fteel fprings to both
fides of the cufhion. However, both thefe methods are
liable to the objeGtion, that they produce the fame preffure
upon the whole furrounding part of the abdomen, as they
do upon the navel itfelf ;:and confequentiy the cufhion either
does not comprefs the navel fufficiently, or it preffes it more
than is neceffary.

A better bandage than thefe, for the umbilical hernia, is
that of Squire, which coniifts of a plate, with a cufhion
{crewed to it, and two lateral {prings proceeding from the
plate, which, when it is applied, firmly embrace the body.
An elaftic bandage of another kindisthat of Suretiche, which
Mr. Richter (Abhandlung von den Bruechen. Gottingen,
1785, p. 641. tab. vii.) has defcribed, delineated, and ina
high degree improved. Two bandages of Mr. Juville for
umbilical hernia, of which the one is defcribed and delineated
by Mr. Bell. and the other by Mr. Hofer. (Lehrfacke des
Chirurg. Verbandes. Th. IT. Erlangen, 1791, p. 278. tab.
xi. fig. 77.) . Dr. Alex. Monro, fenior, has a!lfo defcribed
atandage, confifting of a ftcel {pring, which, after the
hernia has been reduced, is placed upon the navel, and re-
tained in this fituation by a bandage. It is drawn as tight
as may be neceffary by means of flraps and buckles.

When, as fometimes occurs, the hernia has formed adhe-
fions, either fpontaneonfly, or in confequence of improper
bandaging, in which cafe its reduction is altogether imprac-
ticable, we mult ufe a concave cufhion, inftead of a convex
one, that may receive the hernia into its hollow, and prevent
the farther protrufion of the inteftines. If the bandage be
fkilfully conftru&ed, the adhefions may gradually be dimi-
nifhed, and the hernia at length reduced.

The uniting Bandage. ‘This is a common double-headed
bandage, and one of the moft ufefal and indifpenitble
which is ufed in cafe of frefh wounds, in order to promote
their fpeedy re-union. Properly it is only adapted for fuch
wounds as run in the direction of the body and limb, and
that are fituated in parts which admit of the application of a
bandage ; however, it may alfo be ufed in cafes of tranfverfe
wounds; but then it rather belongs to the compound band-
ages. It may be formed in different ways: viz. ,

1. According to one method of forming it, its length

8

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moft be regulated by the circumference of the wounded
part, and its breadth muft be equal to the length of the
wound. In general, however, it israther ufed narrow than
broad, and it muft always be fo long that the wounded limb
can be thrice encircled with it. In the middle part it muft
have a large flit, through which the head of the bandage
rolled up may eafily be pafled. In applying it, the furgeon
takes one of its heads into each of his hands, applies that
portion of the middle part that is not flit to the fide of the

limb oppofits-to the wound, brings both the heads round the”

limb towards the wound, paffes one of the heads through
the flit, over the wound, drawing both heeds in fuch aman-
ner as to bring the lips of the wound together; after
which the one head is rolled’ round the limb above the wound,
and the other below it. When the wound is deep, a lon-
guette is applied under the bandage to each of the lips of
the wound, at fome diftance from its edges; the thicknefs
of thefe longuettes muf be proportionate to the depth of
the wound, and by means of them the bottom of the
wound is preficd together when the bandage is drawn tight.
When the wound is very long, we muft either apply
feveral bandages, one at the fide of the other, or make
feveral flits in a fingle bandage, and pals the head through
the fecond flit over the firft turn, and there draw the lips of
the wound together, and fo alfo the fecond and the third
time. In this cafe it will be beft to make the flits whilft
we are applying the bandages, namely, at the place where
the two heads meet each other, as otherwife they do not
fit accurately to the wound. The application of this band-
age, however, requires great accuracy. If it be applied’
too tight, it excites pain, {welling, inflammation, and fruftrates
the purpofe of re-wnion; but if it be applied too loofe, the
lips of the wound do not come into contaét with each other,
and the re-union is not properly effected. 4
z. Another more convenient bandage which is ly
applicable to longitudinal and to tranfverfe wounds, is that
which has already been recommended by Mr. Henkel. (An-
weifung zum verbeff. Verbande, Berlin, 1767, 8 p. 237-
Tab. XV. jig. 104.—Alfo Richter’s Anfangfgruende des
Wundarzneykunft. Bil. Tab. 1. fig. 2-) It confifts of four
ftripes of linen, each of which is from one to two feet in
length, and two or three inches in breadth. The dimen-
fions, however, mutt always be regulated according to thofe
of the difeafed part.. Thefe four pieces are united by means
of fix narrow {traps in fuch a manner, that all the fix ftraps
crofs each other like the fingers of the hand when folded.
In this manner we obtain a four-headed crucial bandage, in
which the {ix narrow {traps form the centre of the whole.
When it is applied, the narrow ftraps, or the middle of
the bandage, mutt be placed direétly over the wound, and
two of the heads muft lie on each fide of it, in fuch a manner
that the one entirely covers the other. Firft, the two loweft
heads on each fide are faftened quite loof- round the limb
with circular turns. The two heads above are then alfo firft
drawn tight with both hands, and then faftened in the fame
manner as the former. When this bandage is ufed, we
have conftantly a view of the wound, as the narrow itraps
lie immediately over it. :
3. Mr. Boettcher (Aufwahl des chirurgifchen Verbandes,
erlin, 1795. p.62. § 71.) has allo recommended ‘a very’
fimple bandage for promoting the re-union of longitudinal
wounds. He takes a common two-headed bandage, two”
or three fingers in breadth ; and firit applies to each fide
of the wound, at the diftance of from half an inch to three
inches from the edge, a longuette, which in the mean time
is held by an affiftgnt ; he then takes one of the heads into
each haad, and makes the beginning with the middle of the
bandage, on the fide of the Limb oppofite to the

-

Eo

UD FP ft) ewes

a.

oo al hee

* have difcourfed on this fbjec&t very amply.

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The two heads are now brought over the longuettes, and
in the fame manner alfo over the wound; but this mult be
done in a very loofe manner, The heads are then fhifted
into different hands, and drawn tight, by which means the
Jonguettes are brought torether, and the wound united.
The two heads are then flung round each other, over the
middle of the wound, then fhifted again into different hands,
and carried back in the fame manner as they were brought
forwards to the wound. This turn may be repeated three,
four, or more times, according to the fize of the wound.
The ends are then cither entirely wound off in circular turns,
or fhould they not be long enough for that purpofe, pinned
to the other turns.

Should no unfavourable fymptoms fupervene, the uniting
bandage may be fuffered to remain in its fituation, five, fix,
and, if the wound be deep, {till more days. Great accuracy,
however, mutt always be ufed in applying it, as the wound
is to be united from its bottom; and the dimenfions of the
longuettesy or compreffes, mult alfo be regulated accord-
ingly; for with deep wounds they mult be thicker, and
with fuperficial wounds thinner. When the wound is en-
tirely fiyperficial, none are required. When the bandage is
removed, the part muft ke retained precifely in the fame po-
fition that has been given to it, and the new bandage applied
in the fame manner as the former. Even after the wound
has completely healed, it will {till be proper, by way of
precaution, to leave the bandage in its fituation for fome
days longer. ,

The Bandage of the Patella fradured longitudinally. For
this purpofe is required a bandage from fixteen to twenty-
four feet long, three fingers broad, and rolled upon two
heads. When it is applied, the hollow of the knee muft
be bolftered with compreffes, and a {mall longuette, about
half an inch thick, laid on each fide of the knee-pan. The
middle part of the bandage is then laid upon the hollow of
the knee, and both heads brought forwards ; a flit is then cut
into the one part, through which the head of the other is
paffed, in fuch a manner that the flit firs to the middle of
the knee-pan, after which the bandage is drawn tight tranf-
verfely. The heads are then carried backwards, but oblique-
ly, fo that one comes to be fituated higher than the other ;
and the bandaging is completed with circular turns. In
order to keep the lee conitantly extended, a well-bolftered
ferula or fplint is laid into the hollow of the knee, which
may be faftened there by the laft turns of the bandage. For
greater fecurity, the leg may alfo be inclofed in a box pro-
perly lined, which reaches as high as the thigh.

We do not here profefs to give an entire treatife on Ban-
dages, but only an account of thofe which are moft com-
monly ufed. Several authors, both ancient and modern,
Jn particule+,
we recommend the perufal of Vidus Vidius, for the opinions
and praétice of the oldeft furgeons, which he has tranflated
from the original Greek, and elucidated by various figures :
edit. Lutetie Parifiorum, fol. 1¢44. Among the moderns,
the bett writers on bandages are M. Sve, Thillaye, Heitter,
Lombard, and Bernftein ; but all of them are too prolix
and tedious, efpecially the Frencl: authors.

Mr. John Bell of Edinburgh has endeavoured to fimplify
this ftudy in his firft volume of “ Principles of Surgery 5”?

there is, however, a very fingular declaration in that part of

Mr. Bell’s book, viz. ‘ Thofe innumerable forms in which
the ancients turned the roller ron d the head, neck, and
body,” fays he, “ are to be found in the treatifes of Sora-
nus. Glancus, Diocles, and Galen. In their treatifes I find
nothing but what has fallen into deferved negle&, nothing
that I could mention either for your amufement or inftruc-
tion.’ See page 129. Now it happens in this inftance, if
evox. III.

BAN

not in fome others, that Mr. Bell has never perufed the au-
thors whom he quotes ; for no treatifes of the kind alluded to,
by Soranus, Glaucus, and Diocles, have ever defcended to
their pofterity. Galen, indeed, wrote on bandages, and his
obfervations are tranflated by Vidus Vidius, in the collection
we have already referred to; but certainly Mr. Bell has had
no accefs to copies of any fimilar works by the three former
phyficians.

BANDAL, or Banonte, in Commerce, the name of a
meafure ufed in the fouth of Ireland, which is fomewhat
more than half a yard, by which coarfe narrow linen is fold
in the markets; whence it is called dandal-clith.

BANDALEER, Baxnererr, or Bandileer, a large
leathern belt, thrown over the right fhoulder, and hanging
down under the left arm; worn by the mufqucteers in the
time of James and Charles ¥. both for the fuitaining of their
fire-arms, and for the carriage of their mufquet-charges ;
which being put up in little wooden, tin, or leathern
cylindric boxes, were hung, to the number of twelve, to
each bandaleer. ach of thefe boxes contained a fingle
charge of powder.

The word is originally French, bandouiller, formed appa-
rently from bandoulier, a kind of banditti particularly infeft-
ing the Pyreneans, who were formerly diftinguifhed by this
piece of furniture; and were themfelycs fo denominated,
quaft ban de volieres, a knot of robbers.

The French foldiery flill retain the bandaleer ; their horfe,
their mufqueteers, and common guards, wearing it indif-
ferently ; excepting for fome difference in its garniture.
Grofe (Treatife on Ancient Armour, p. 293.) fays, this
contrivance feems to have been borrowed from the Dutch or
Walloons.

BANDARMALANKA, in Geography, a town of Hin-
doftan, in the Circars, fituated at the mouth of the river
Godavery. N. lat. 16°25’: E. long. 82° 26’.

BANDE’, or in Bend, in Heraldry, expreffes the pofition
of a lion, when he is placed diagonally in the fhield.

BANDED, a term applied to a garb, or wheatfheaf,
&c. when the band is of a colour different from that of the
garb itfelf.

BANDEL Caus, in Geography, a town of Africa, on
the coaft of the kingdom of ‘Adel.

Baxpet, a town in the kingdom of Bengal, fituate
on the weftern arm of the Ganges, or Hougly river. N,
lat. 22° 53’. E. long. 88° 32’.

BANDELET, or Bannver, in Architedure, any little
band or flat moulding, encompafling a column, like a ring ;
as that which crowns the Doric architrave. It is alfo called
tenia, which Vitruvius ufes for the fame thing ; fometimes
fillet, diadema, &c. It is fometimes ufed for the three parts
which compofe the architrave, called by Vitruvius, fa/cie ;
and which are fometimes alfo denominated ands or plat-bands.

BANDELLO, Marruew, in Biography, bithop of
Agen, was born towards the clofe of the filteenth century,
at Caftelnuovo of Scerivia, in the Milanefe. He entered
into the fociety of the Dominicans; and after many changes
of fituation, he fettled in France ; and in 1550 was nomi-
nated by Henry II. to the bifhopric of Agen; but he paid
little attention to the duties of his office. |The time of his
death is not exactly known; but he was living in 1561.
He was principally diltinguifhed as a writer of novels. His
colleGtion was firft printed at Lucca in 1554, in three vo-
lumes 4to. under the title of ** Noveile del Bandello,”’ to
which was added another volume, printed at Lyons in 1573.
The edition of London in 1740 comprifes four volumes gto,
In his narrations the author is faid to imitate the manner of
Boccacio, and to write ina lively, pleafing ftyle; but he
has alfo copied his model in thofe licentious freedoms, which

4A were

BAN

were no lefs unfuitable to his office, than offenfive to the
church. He was alfo author of a Latin verfion of Boc-
cacio’s ftory of “ Tito et Gifippo,” of eleven cantos, in
ottava rima, in honour of Lucretia Gonzaga; and of fome
other works. Nouv. Did. Hittor.

BANDELVELLO, or Otp Port, in Geography, the
name of a good harbour at the mouth of the river Doara,
on the eaft coaft of Africa, in the Indian ocean; about
twenty-feven leagues north of Magadoria or Magadoxo, on
the fame coaft. ’

BANDER Asass1. See Gomsroon.

BANDERAS, a large bay of the Pacific ocean, on the
welt coat of Mexico, in North America; running inland
between two points of land, the north point called Tintoque,
and the fouth cape Corientes, with an open entrance, and
fufficiently fpacious for the accommodation and anchorage of
a fleet of fhips.

BANDER Conco, a port town of Afia, on the eaft
fide of the Perfian gulf, and thirty-three leagues weft from
Bander Abaffi. N. lat. 27° 5’. E. long. 55° 8.

BANDERE, a town of Hindoftan, in the circar of
Gohud, one hundred miles fouth of Agra, and forty-four
S.S.E. of Gohud.

BANDERET, the name appropriated to the com-
manders of the militia of the canton of Bern.

BANDEROLE, in Heraldry, is a ftreamer affixed by
{mall lines or firings immediately under the crook on the
top of the flaff of a crofier, and folding over the ftaff.

BANDEROLES, in Military Language, the ornaments
which were given to pikes near the point, in order to render
their appearance handfome. Thefe fometimes had the
name of pencells. (See Grofe on Ancient Armour, 1. 277.)

BANDEROLL, in Naval Language, a little flag, in
form of a guidon, extended more in length than breadth,
ufed to be hung out on the matts of veffels, &c.

BANDEROLLS, in Miltary Language, an ancient
name for camp-colours.

BANDI, in Geography, a river of Africa, in the country
of Calabar, in Lower Guinea, which runs into the fea by
two channels.’ There is a town of the fame name on an
ifland at the mouth of the river.

BANDINELLI, Baccio, in Biography, a painter of
hiftory, was born at Florence in 1497, and became a difciple
of Giovanni Francefeo Ruflico, a good feulptor. He had
the ambition to become a rival of Michael Angelo, in paint-
ing as well as in feulpture; but hearing that this great
matter treated his works contemptuoufly, he laid alide the
pencil, and would never afterwards refume it. As a ftatuary,
he pofleffed {kill aud merit, and in that art he deemed himfelf
equal to Buonaroti; however, when he found that the
world did not concur with him in opinion, he was much
mortified. He died at Florence in 1559, at the age of 62
years. Several of his pupils became eminent artifts. The
principal of his works are the bas-reliefs of the tombs of
‘Leo X. and Clement VII. at Rome, a St. Peter, a Bacchus,
the Laocoon, and fome figures of fome princes of the
Medici family at Florence. His drawing is generally
correét, and evinces an extenfive knowledge of anatomy;
but his mufcles are too flrongly marked, and he is deficient
in grace. Argenville, Viede Sculptevrs. Pilkington.

BANDITTI, from the Italian bandito, perfons pro-
feribed, or, as we call it, outlawed; fometimes denominated
banniti, or foris banniti.

Banvitti, or Banvitt, is alfo a denomination given to
highwaymen and robbers, who infeft the roads in troops,
efpecially in Italy, France, and Sicily. Mr. Brydone, in
his Tour through Sicily, informs us, that in the eaftern part
called Val Demoni, from the devils that are fuppofed to in-

BAN

habit. mount /Etna, it has ever been found altogether im-
practicable to extirpate the banditti; there being numberlefs
caverns and fubterraneous paflages round that mountain,
where no troops could poffibly purfue them; befides, they
are known to be perfeétly determined and refolute, never
failing to take a dreadful revenge on all who have offended
them. Hence the prince of Villa Franca has embraced it,
not only as the fafeit, but likewife as the wifeft and moft
political {cheme, to become their declared patron and pro-
tector; and fuch of them as think proper to leave their
mountains and foreits, though perhaps only for a time, are
fure to meet with good encouragement and a certain pro-
te¢tion in his fervice, where they enjoy the moft unbounded
confidence, which, in no inftance, they have ever yet been
found to make an improper or a difhoneft ufe of. They
are clothed in the prince’s livery, yellow and green, with
filver lace; and wear likewife a badge of their honourable
order, which intitles them to univerfal fear and refpeé from
the people.

In fome circumftances, thefe banditti are the moft re-
fpeCtable people of the ifland, and have by much the-higheft
and moft romantic: notions of what they call their point of
honour. However criminal they may be with regard to
fociety in general; yet, with refpe& to one another, and to
every perfonto whom they have once profefled it, they have
ever maintained the moit unfhaken fidelity. The magiftrates
have often been obliged to protect them, and pay them
court, as they are known to be perfe&ly determined and
defperate, and fo extremely vindictive, that- they will cer-
tainly put any perfon to death that has ever given them juit
caufe of provocation. On the other hand, it never was
known that any perfon who had put himfelf under their
proteétion, and fhewed that he had confidence in them, had
caufe to repent of it, or ,was injured by them in the moft
minute trifle; but, on the contrary, they will proteét him
from impofitions of every kind, and fcorn to go halves with
the landlord, like moft other conduétors and travelling fer-
vants, and wiil defend him with their lives, if there be occa+
fion. 'Thofe of their number who have thus enlifted thems
felves in the fervice of fociety, are known and refpe&ed by
the other banditti all over the ifland; and the perfons of
thofe they accompany are ever held facred. For thefe
reafons, moft travellers choofe to hite a couple of them
frem town to town; and may thus travel over the whole
ifland in fafety.

The term is alfo applied to a fort of free-booters, who
pillage in the iflands of the Archipelago.

BANDOBENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, feated, according to Strabo, on
the river Choafpes. ;

BAN-DOG, in Zoology, a variety of the matiff or Canis
Mo ossvus of Linnzus.
and vigilant than the maftiff, but not fo powerful; its nofe
is fmaller, and poffeffes, in fome degree, the feent of the
hound; its hair is rougher, and generally of a yellowifh

rey, ftreaked with fhades ofa black or brown colour, It
Eecucttly feizes cattle by the flank, attacks with eager-
nefs, and its bite is keen and dangerous.
to be feen at prefent. Bewick’s Hilt. Quadrupeds,

- 338. ' ; t /
BANDOL, in Geography, a harbour of the Mediter-
ranean, nearly weft, and about five leagues from Toulon.
It has a fort, and there is anchorage near the eaft part of a
{mall ifland, which lies on the weft point of the bay that
here formed by the coatt. ‘al

BANDOLEERS, from the French Jandouliers, in the
Military Art. See BANDALEER. L ; ’.

BANDON, in Geography, the name of a fine river in the

county

It is lighter, fmaller, more ative _

It is not often”

= ml ° hte EE =
— A ee er ee ee

le

ee

a el

———

=". v ee
ow Prt

a es eee ee eee

BAN

county of Cork, province of Munfter, Ireland, which rifes
in the mountains of Carbery, and after watering the large_
and thriving town of Bandon-bridge, and the village of
Inifhonan, falls into the harbour of Kinfale. It is navigable
for large floops as far as Collier’s quay, near Inifhonan, from
which place Bandon is fupplicd with Englifh coal. At
the confluence of the Bandon and Brinny rivers, a little
above Inifhonan, the Eat India company of England formed
a fettlement about the year 1612, for carrying on iron works,
and building large fhips; for which purpofe they purchafed
the adjoining woods and lands. They garrifoned a cattle,
and built three villages; but the cppofition given to this
undertaking by the natives, foon obliged them to relinguifh
it. The great woods in the neighbourhood were from that
time much demolifhed; though the river has not yet for-
feited the character given of it by Spenfer in his Fairy
ueen:

« The pleafant Bandon, crown’d with many a wood.”
Campbell’s Political. Survey of Great Britain, &c. Smith’s
Cork. Beaufort’s Memoir.

BANDON-BRIDGE, or, as it is more commonly called,
Bawpon,a confiderable market and poit town of the county
ef Cork, province of Muntter, Ireland, fituated on both
fides of the river Bandon, over which it has abridge. It
was one of the towns which owed their origin to the laudable
exertions of Richard Boyle, the firlt, and frequently called
the grea/, earl of Cork. He built it in the year 1610, in the
midit of a wafte bog and wood, which had been impaflable,
and inclofed it with walls, which were of great flrength for
that period. In 1613, he procured for it a charter of in-
corporation, in confequence of which it fent two members
to the houfe of commons; and was one of .the boroughs
which occafioned fo violent a debate at the meeting of par-
liament in that year. It was part of the policy of lord
Cork, as appears from his letter to fecretary Cook (quoted
in Smith’s Cork, vol.i. p.236.), to admit none but Pro-
teftants to live in the town; which feems to have been con-
fidered a neceflary fupport to the infant colony. The con-
fequence of this was, that the inhabitants, being united
among themfelves, and all trained to arms, were very power-
ful, and took an ative part in the civil wars which diftraGted
Ireland, in the middle of the feventeenth century. After
the reftoration of Charles II. the exclufion was not very
ftndtly obferved, though it had been confirmed by a bye-
law of the corporation; but the adherents of James IT.
under the earl of Clancarthy, having deftroyed the walls ia
1689, and treated the Proteftant inhabitants with feverity,
it was revived, and has been fince, with few exceptions,
ftriGly attended to. The wifdom and advantage of this
exclufion have been often called in queftion, but the ftrongeft
objeGtion to it certainly is, that it tends to keep alive that
animofity which has been the bane of Ireland, and which
all who {tudy the true interefts of the country will endeavour
to appeafe. “The inhabitants of Bandon have been gene-
rally induftrious. For many years they carried on the ma-
nufa&tures of ftuffs, camblets, and fhags, very extenfively,
but thefe have of late declined. Ticken of fuperior quality,
and coarfe green linens 27 inches wide, called wittery, are
made in the town and neighbourhood; the latter of which is
fent from Cork to London and Briftol. There are alfo
fome cotton manufacturers, who employ a great number of
people. The town is chiefly the property of the duke of
Devonbhire, reprefentative of the eldeft branch of the Boyle
family, and on account of the fhortnefs of the leafes, and
the want of proper encouragement, it is in general ill built,
the houfes not at all correfponding to the wealth of the in-
habitants. During the late war, Bandon became a great
military ftation, being conveniently fituated for fending

BAN

affiflance to any part of the fouth-wellern coaft at which it
might be wanted, and a flrong garvifon is ftill continued
there. The population is eftimated at 12,000, and it fends
a member to the imperial parliament. Its diftance S.W.
from Dublin is 136 lrifh miles, and S.W. from Cork 12.
N. lat. 51° 44’. W. long. about 8° 44’. Smith’s Cork, &c.

BANDORA, the capital of Salfet ifland, and feparated
from Bombay ifland, on the Malabar coaft of India, by a
narrow channel, in N. lat. 19° 5’. E. long. 72° 30’.

Bannora, in Mufic, an inferior kind of lute, for which
the notes were written in the fame kind of tablature as
far the theorbo or great lute. See Lure.

BANDT, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the German
ocean, neat the coait of Kaft Friefland. N. lat. 53° 36%
E. long. 6° 33’.

BANDURI, Anseume, in Biography, an antiquary of
the eighteenth century, was a fative of the republic of
Ragufa, in Dalmatia, anda Benedi@tine monk. He ftudied
at Florence, and having made rapid progres in the learned
languages, he became a preceptor. Montfaucon employed
him in 1700 to exantine MSS. for his projeéted edition of
Chryfoftom’s works; and for extending his acquaintance with
ecclefiaftical antiquities, Banduri, under the patronage of
the grand duke of Tufcany, {pent fome years in the abbey of
St. Germain in Paris. Here he was enabléd to compofe his
valuable work, intitled, “ Imperium Orientale, five, Anti-
quitates Conftantinopolitane,’’ and publifhed at Paris, in
1711, in two volumes, folio. _Healfo publifhed at Paris, in
1718, fol. a colle€tion of Roman medals, under the title of
« Numifmata Imperatorum Romanorum 2 Trajano Decio
ad Paleologos Auguftos;’? which was enriched and enlarged,
and r€printed in 4to. at Hamburg, in 1719, by J. A. Fabri-
cius. In 1724, Banduri was appointed librarian to the duke of
Orleans, and he died at Paris in 1743. Nouv. Did. Hittor.

BANDUSIAN Fountain, in Ancient Geography, a
famous {pring of Sicily, celebrated by Horace in the thir-
teenth ode of his third book, placed by fome at his Sabine
farm ; but inconteltibly proved by the abbé Chaupy, to be
near Palazzo, in the principality of St. Gervafio. No fhady
groves now hang over its banks to fhut out the burning mid-
day funy its gelid waters no longer tumble down the rocks
in beautiful cafcades; but choaked with dirt and loft in
bogs, are forced to feek their way under ground to a vent at
the foot of the hill. Swinb. Travels, vol. it. p. 33.

BANDY-Less, in Surgery, ave the diftortion of the lower
extremities, in any direction. ‘This difeafe is ufually occa-
fioned by.a defeétive offification of the T1s1a or leg-bone,
which therefore is unable to fuflain the weight of the body
without yielding. See Disrortions,and Mouuities Ofium.

BANE-Berry, in Botany. See ActTEA. :

BANEE, in Geography, a {mall ifland of France, near the
Englifh channel, about a league S. W. of Uthant.

BANER, Joun, in Biography, a famous general of
Sweden, defcended of an illuftrious family, was born in 1601,
and was fo much diftinguifhed by his proficiency in literature,
that Guftavus Adolphus ufed to call him his learned general.
In yery early youth, he attracted, by his magnanimity, the
notice of that monarch, who prononced him formed for
great events, and placed him in the army; and he foon
fignalized himfelf fo much, that, under twenty years of age,
he was employed in many critical enterprifes, which required
no lefs dexterity than bravery. After the death of Guttavus,
he fupported, as commander jn chief, the luftre of the
Swedifh arms, by a feries of victories, which raifed his mili-
tary charafter as high as that of any general of the age.
He fuftained this reputation undiminifhed till his death,
at Halberftadt, on the roth of May 1641, inthe goth year
of hisage. Baner, though not infenfible of the glory he

4 Iie ha

BAN

had acquired by his ations, ufually fpoke of them with great
modefty. He was accuftomed tofay, that he never formed
an expedition, nor hazarded an aétion, without the molt
reafonable hopes of fuccefa. He was equally feared and
beloved by the foldiers, and always infpired them with un-
bounded confidence. At the head of his troops, he aéted
folely from himfelf, and without dependence, and would
rather have refigned the command, than have been directed
in his military operations by the orders of the cabinet. He
had the abfolute difpofal of all commiffions, and eftablifhed a
regular order of promotion; he was humane to the vanquithed
enemy, cautious in not wantonly expofing his troops to
action, and he blamed thofe generals who in fieges facrifice
the lives of their men to raife their own military charaéter.
Coxe’s Travels in Poland, &c. vol. iv. p. 51.

BANFF, in Geography. See Bamrr.

BANGA, a town of Africa, in the country of Whidah,
on thé Slave coait. '

BANGALORE, a town of Hindofan, in the Myfore
country, fituate in the centre of the peninfula, and having
routes pafling through it in every direction. It is, in itfelf,
a place of great political importance, being a fortrefs of
ftreneth, and from fituation, the bulwark of the Myfore
country, towards Arcot. It is placed, by major Rennell,
in N. Jat. 13°. E.long. 77° 37/ 1c". This is the common
point of union, in the centre of the peninfula, as Coim-
bettore is in the fouth-weft, and Tritchinopoly in the iouth-
eaft.

BANGER, one of the principal places in the ifland
of Belleifle, on the coaft of France; and Palais is the
other.

BANGIUS, Perer, in Biography, a Swedifh divine,
was born at Hellingberg, in 1633, and having itudied at
Uplal, travelled with a pupil through Sweden, Denmark,
and the Netherlands. On hisreturn, he wasappomted pro-
feffor of theology in the univerfity of Abo in Finland, and
filled the chair with credit 32 years. In 1682, he was ap-
pointed bifhop of Wyburg, by Charles IX. of Sweden; and
died in 1696. He took ¢reat pains to ferve his country,
by eftablifhing {chools and promoting knowledge. He
wrote in Latin an ecclefiaflical Swedifh hiftory; a treatife
on Sacred Chronology; a Commentary on the Hebrews,
and other works.

Bancivs, lHomas, a learned Danifh divine, of the uni-
verfity of Copenhagen, wasborn in 1600. He difcharged,
with great credit, the duties of the profefforfhips of Hebrew,
philofophy, and divinity ; and was the author of feveral learned
works. He died in 1661. Among his writings in Latin
are various differtations to elucidate the feriptures; * Pii-
lological Obfervations,”” printed in 8vo. at Copenhagen, in
1640; “ An Exereitation on the origin of Diveriity of Lan-
guages, and on the Excellence of the Hebrew;” Svo. 16345
anda ‘ Hebrew Lexicon,” 4to. 1641. Gen. Did.

BANGLE Ears, in the MManege,an imperfeGtion in
a horfe’s ears, remedied in the following manner; place
his ears in {uch a fitwation as they are wanted to ftand;
bind them with two fma!l boards, fo falt as not to ftir;
aod then clip away the empty wrinkled fkin clofe by the
head.

BANGO, in Geography, a long fhoal on the eaft coat of
Africa, of variable breadth, but in fome places about two
leagues. Sce Cape Cortentes.

BANGOR, a townthip of America, in Hancock county
in the diftr& of Maine, on the wett fide of Penobfeet river,
25 miles from its mouth at Belfalt bay; 65 N.W. by W.
from Machias; 63 N.E. from Hallowell; and 280 N.E.
from Bolton.

Baneor, a {mall city of Carnarvonthire, North Wales,

8

BAN
eonfilts principally of one ftraggling ftreet which is fituated

in a narrow valley between two low ridges of flate rock,
opening fouthward towards Snowdon, and terminating
northwards about half a mile from.the cathedral, in the
beautiful bay of Beaumaris. This town is watered by the
“ Decva’s wizard ftream,” whofe oppolite banks are con-
nected now by a well-built bridge of five arches. Bangor
is reprefented as the oldeit epifcopal fee in Wales, but the
prefent cathedral was not founded till the beginning of the
fifteenth century. The choir wa’ built by bifhop Denn,
in 1496, and the tower and nave by bifhop Skivington, in
1532, as appears recorded over the weitern door. “The
former meafures 141 feet by 60, and the length of the
whole from eait to weit is 214 feet. This edifice contains
many monuments of its bifhops and other perfonages ; but
it poffefles no extraordinary attractions either in its architec-
ture or ornaments. ‘The officers belonging to the cathe-
dral, are a bifhop, a dean, three archdeacons, a treafurer,
two endowed prebends, a precentor, chancellor, and three
canons; befides ‘other interior officers. The cathedral
fervice is alternately in Englifh and Welfh. Within the
diocefe ave included the whole county of Anglefea, all
Carnarvonthire, except Llysvaen, Eglwys Rofe, and Llang-
witerin, the greater half of Merioneththire, and the Dean-
ries of Dyflrynclwyddand Arwitley. ‘This bifhopric, though
not large, nor rich, has fuflered many defalcations. Among
others it is faid, that Owen Glendower dettroyed the ¢athe=
dral by fire, and bifhop Bulkley walted aud fold all the
revenues, and reduced the fee to great poverty. It is now
valued in the king’s books at 13:1. 16s. gd. The late
and prefent bifhops have made contiderable alterations and
improvements in the palace, its appendages, and in the
town. Among the praifeworthy aéts of the former, was
the re-ereétion of a large free fchool under his fuperintend-
ance. This city is poverned by the bifhop’s ileward,
who holds his court here. Befides a weekly market on
Friday, here are four fairs annually. Its number of houfes
is 304, and thefe contain 1770 inhabitants. Bangor is
about fifteen miles weft of Conway, and 253 from London.
Half a mile from Bangor, on the fhore of the bay, is
Abercrugin, or port Penrhyn, the grand depofitory of the
flates that are procured from lord Penrhyn’s quarries, at
Dolawan. Great quantities of thefe flates are fhipped for
London, Liverpool, Briflol, and other large towns.

About two miles S. E. of Bangor, is Penrhyn-hall, the
elegant manfion of lord Penrhyn, ‘he improvements made
by this nobleman in the commercial charaSter of this part
of the country, and by plantations, buildings, &c. are highly
honourable to his liberality and judgment. ‘here is a
ferry into sAnglefea, about two miles from this town, which
is much more commodious than that of Conway.

Bancor, Bangor-Ljcoed, or Bangor Monachorum, is a
fmall village in Flinthhire, North Wales, remarkable for a
handfome bridge over the river Dee, and the fite of an ex-
tenfive and rich monaftery. Bede, and feveral of our hifto-
rians, defcribe this place as very flourtthing at the coming
of St. Auguttine ; and moft of them relete, that Ethelfrith
king of the Angles, advanced to Chefler with a large army,
and obferving the monks praying for the fuecefs of their
countrymen, he rufhed upon them, and configned 1200 to
death. his abbey, according to Leland, tlood in a fair
valley clofe on the Dee; but’ when he vilited the place,
every veltize of the buildings was deftroyed, and the fite
ploughed over. Some writers have confounded this with
the Bangor in Carnarvonthire. It is probable that the
latter derived its name and confequence from and after the
deftruétion of the former.

Bancor, a poit town, and fea-port of the county of

Down

————

BAN

Down, in the province of Ulitcr, in Ireland, fituated on
the fouth fide of the bay of Carrickfergus ; but though par-
liamentary aid was granted to improve its port, it has very
little trade. An abbey was founded here in the fixth cen-
ury, part of the ruins of which yet fubfifts. Near this
town duke Schomberg landed with the English army,
13th Augult 1689. Diftance N. from Dublin, 90 Inith
vmiles. N. lat. 54° 38’. W.long. 5° 33’:

BANGUE, in the Marrie Medica, a Species of opiate,
in great ufe throughout the Eaft for drowning cares, and
infpiring joy.

This, by the Perfians, is called Jeng ; by the Arabs, e/rar,
corruptly aféral and affarth ; by the Turks, dengitic, and
vulgarly ma/lack ; by the European naturalifts, bangue or
bange. The Indians, fays Acolta, eat the feed and leaves to
increafe their vizour, and to excite an appetite to their food.
‘The nobles, and chief military officers, whtn they are dif
pofed to forget their toil, and to fleep in perfect eafe and
fecurity, take of the powder of the feed and leaves, as much
as they think f{uflicient; and add to it an_areca, or green
Indian hazel-nut ; with as much opium as they think fit,
and eat them all together with fygar. If they defire to be
entertained with variety of fcenes, and images of things
in their fleep, they add fome of the choicelt camphor,
cloves, nutmegs, and mace. If they have a mind to be
merry, witty, and to indelge their amours, they add am-
bergrife and mufk, and make themall into an electary with
fugar. It is by mary affirmed that the feed and leaves
promote luft ; whence fays J. Bauhine, it appears that this
herb has no affinity with hemp, though it be very much
like it ; fince hemp, according to Diolcorides, is of a hot
and dry nature, and extinguifhes amorous delires.

Ray, from whom this account is taken, fays, he learned
from fir Hans Sloane, that it is a different plant from hemp.
Tt grows in Hindoftan, and other parts of the Eaft Indies,
where it is principally in ufe. Among the Indians, the
feed is prepared among other meliorating ard aromatic
fubftances into an eleftuary, which excites plealing vifions,
‘and as fome fay, emboldens them to perform the mott
daring and atrocions deeds. See Datura.

Bangue, in reality, is a /uccedaneum to wine, and obtains
in thofe countries where Mahometani{m is eftablifhed ;
which prohibiting the ufe of that liquor abfolutely, the poor
muffulmen are forced to have recourfe to /uccedanea, to
roufe their fpirits. ‘The principal are opium, and this bangue,
which, fays Sale (Prel. Dife. p. 124.), confifts of the leaves
of hemp in pills or conferve, and by the rigid Mahometans
is efteemed unlawful, though not mentioned in the Koran,
becanfe it intoxicates and difturbs the underftanding as
wine does, and ina more extraordinary manner. It is,
however, commonly ufed in the Ealt, but they who addict
themfelves to the ufe of it, are generally looked upon as
debauchees. According to the account given of this fub-
ftance by Alexander Maurocordato, counfellor and phy-
fician to the Ottoman Porte, ina letter to Wedelius, bangue
is prepared of the leaves of wild hemp, dried in the fhade,
then ground to powder, pvt into a pot, in which but-
ter has been kept ; fet in an oven till it bezin to torrefy ;
then taken out, and pulverized azain; and thus to be ufed
in the quantity of as much, &t a time, as will lie on the
point of a knife. As to the opinion among the Europeans,
that the Turks prepare themfelves for battle by a dole of
bangue, which ronfes their courage, and impels them with
ardour to certain death, Dr. Maurocordato affures us, that
it is a popular error. The Turks think they are then
going to receive the crown af martyrdom ; and would not,
for any confideration, forfeit the merit of it, which they

a do by eating the bangue, which is held. to be un-
7,

BAN

lawful by their apoftle, among other things which intoxt-
cate.

BANGUEY, in Geography, an ifland of the Indian ocean,
at the northern extremity of Borneo, not far from Balabae,
the moft fouth-weftern of the Philippines. N. lat. 7° 12’.
E. long. 117° 25’.

Bancury Peak lies in the peninfula of Malacca. N. lat.
FTE wong mip. 17! 2ot.

BANUAS, Papro pos, a {mall ifland and fand bank,
north of Madagafcar, and near the fouth-welt from the
iflands del Almirante, in about S. lat. 5° 39’, and E. long.
50° 4o!.

BANHOS, Papro vos, a fmall ifland furrounded by a
fand bank, eat of the: laft ifland, as far as S.lat 6° sol.
E. long. 70° 20’.

BAN, afmall diftriG of Africa, in the county of Cala-
bar, contaiaing nine or ten villages.

Bani, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and
province of Cap'tanata, ten miles fouth of ‘Troia.

BANITA, a river of Creatia, which runs into the Lenia.

BANTIAC, a {mall ifland on the weft coatt ef Sumatra,
in about N. lat. 1° go’. EE. long. 96° 50’.

BANJALUKA, or Bacnaruxa, a confiderable town
of Eurepean Turkey, in Bofnia, the refidence of a pacha,
feated near the river Setina, on the frontiers of Dalmatia,
144 miles W. of Belgrade. It isfuppofed to contain 18,000
pertons. N.lat.44° 20. E.long. 18° 20%

BANIAN-Days, in Marine Language, acant term among
failors, to fignify thofe days in which they have no fiefh
meat. It feems to be derived from the praétice of the
people mentioned in the article Banians.

Bawian Tree, in Botany. See Ficus.

BANIANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Betica, in the country of the Turduli. Ptolemy.

BANIANS, a religious fe& in the country of the Mo-
gul who believe a mefemp/ychofis, and will therefore eat no
living creature, nor even Kil nexious animals, but endeavour
to releaie them, if they fee them in the hands of others.

The Baniens are faid to be fo fearful of having commu
nication with other nations, that they break their cups, if
one of a different religion have drank out of them, cr even
touched them ; and empty the water out of a pond where
he has wafhed himfelf. It is added, that if they happen te
touch one another, they mult wath and purify themfelves
before they eat, or enter-their own houfes. They carry
hanging at their necks, a ftone called tamberan, as big as
an egg, and perforated in the middle, through which run
three ftrings: the ftone, they fay, reprefents their great
god, and upon this account, they have great refpect fhewn
them by all the Indians.

Ina more general fenfe, the appellation of Banians com-
prehends all the idolaters cf India, as contraditing ufhed
from the Mahometaus: but in a more rettricted and pecu-
liar fenfe, it is appropriated to one of the four principal
cafts, into which the Indians are commonly divided; the
other three being the Bramins orpriefts, the Rajaputs or men
of the fword, and the artifars and labourers. See Hinpoos..

The proper Bantans are calied, in the SHasterR, or book
of their law, by the name of /£uddery, under which are
comprehended all who live aiter the manner of merchants,
or that deal and tranfaét for others, as brokers ; exclutive
of the mechanics, or artificers, who make another caft,
called wy/fe. Their name in the Bramin language, in which
their law is written, fignifics “ an innocent and harmlefs’?
people; and fuch they really are; for they cannot bear
to fee a fly, worm, or any other living creature hurt; and
and if they receive a blow, they take it meekly and patiently.
Thefe Banians have no peculiar feét or religion, unlefs it

bey

a

BAN

be, that two of the eight general precepts given by the
leciflator, Bremaw to the Indian nation, are, on account
of the profeflion of the Banians, fuppofed more immediately
to relate to them, viz. thofe which enjoin veracity in their
words and dealings, and avoiding all practices of circum-
vention in buying and felling.

The Banians and the Chinefe are the greateft traders in
the Indies, to whom muft alfo be added the Jews and
Armenians who are greatly difperfed over thofe parts.
But the moft confiderable trade is carried on by the Banians,
in the whole peninfula on this fide the Ganges. They are
extremely fkilful and cunning in commerce. Moft of them
follow brokerage, and moft of the brokers of the Englith,
Deutch, and French companies are of that nation. They
are deemed, in general, very honeft, and have almott ccon-
ftantly in their hands the ftock and cath of thofe companies.

They are likewife bankers ; and there are few places in
the Eaf Indies for which they cannot furnifh bills of ex-
change. They have alfo a fort of ftanding cafh or bank
where perfons may depofit their money, and take it ovt again
whenever they pleafe. :

Their form of contra, in buying and felling, is remark-
able ; being done in the profoundeft filence, only by touch-
ing each others fingers: the buyer loofening his pamerin,
or girdle, fpreads it on his knee; and both he and the
feller having their hands underneath, by the intercourfe of
the fingers, mark the price of pounds, fhillings, &c. de-
manded, offered, and at length agreed on. When the fel-
ler takes the buyer’s whole hand, it denotes a thoufand,
and, as many times as he fqueezes it as many thoufand
pagods, or roupees, according to the fpecies in quettion,
are demanded: when he only takes the five fingers, it de-
notes five hundred, and when only one, one hundred ;
taking only half a finger, to the fecond joint, denotes fifty ;
the fmall end of the finger, to the firft joint, ftands for ten.
See Cev’awaTH.

Their children are betimes accuftomed to trade, and to
imitate the gentlenefs of manners, which diftinguithes this
elafs of perfons. Thofe of the Banians, who have flaves,
treat them with great humanity. Their manner of living
is very frugal, and they never depart from it, except when
they fettle their children ; on which occafion, they {pend a
fum amounting to no lefs than 12,5001. Their women are
alfo diftinguifhed by their fimplicity of manners. They
hold the nuptial tie in great veneration ; and never allow
themfelves the leaft intercourfe with ftrangers. Their
hufbands will not be fatisfied without this referve ; alleging
againit every kind of familiarity between the fexes this
proverb ; “if. you bring butter too near the fire, you can
hardly keep it from melting.”

BANIAS, in Geography, a town of Syria, fifty miles
S. W.s0f Damafcus.

BANIER, Antony, in Biography, a French abbé, was
a native of Clermont, in Auvergne, who completed his edu-
cation at Paris. Having been employed in claflical inftruc-
tion, he direéted his particular attention to the fubje& of
ancient mythology, and publifhed in two volumes, 12mo.,
«* An Hiftorical Explanation of the Fables of Antiquity.”
This work gained him the reputation of being a writer of
tafte and erudition; and 1714, he was admitted into the
Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres. In 1715,
his treatife, defigned to trace the fables of the ancients to
hiftorical fats as their true origin, was much enlarged and
publifhed in the form of dialogue. The fame fubje& was
purfued by the author in feveral differtations communicated
to the academy of which he was a member, and publifhed
in its Memoirs. With a view to the fame fubje&, he pre-
fented the public with the refult of his refearches during the

BA N

laft ten years of his life, firft in his “ Tranflation of the
Metamorphofes of Ovid,”? with hiftorical remarks and illu
trations, and the plates of Picart, publifhed at Amfterdam,
in folio, in 1732, and reprinted in 1738 at Paris, in two
volumes, 4to; and afterwards in a work, intitled, * My-
thology, or the Fables explained by Hiftory,” printed in
4to. and alfo in r2mo. at Paris, m 1740, tranflated into
Englith, and printed at London in 1741, in 4 vols. Svo.
Banier died in November 1741, aged 69 years. He pub-
lifhed an improved edition of Marville’s “* Melanges d’ Hif-
toire et de Ja Literature,” and had a great fhare m the new
edition of Picart’s * General Hillory of Religious Cere-
monies,” publifhed in 1741. Nouv. Di&. Hitter. ~

BANIERMASSING, or Benper Massin of M.d’?An-
ville, in Geography, a town and diftri& on the fouth fide of
the ifland of Borneo; the chief produ& and trade of which
are pepper. The faGtory of the Dutch lies in S. lat. 3°.
They have here a {mall fort, where a junior merchant, as
refident, with about 25 or 30 foldiers, are ftationed. The
object of this eftablifhment is chiefly the colle€tion or pur-
chafe of the pepper and rough diamonds produced in the
country. The refident is allowed five per cent on the pep-
per. The contraé with the king obliges him to deliver
600,000 pounds at three ftivers per pound ; and this is the
only article which induces the company to retain this poffef
fion; for the profits on the rough diamonds, gold, wax, canes,
and fago, would not be fufficient to make good the charges.
Banjermaffing is of no importance to the company as a
fource of revenue, for they do not poflefs a foot of Jand
without their fort, and are obliged to be conftantly on their
guard againft the infidious attacks of the natives. The
charges of this eftablifhment in 1779 were about rrool.
fterling, which, together with thofe of conveying the pep-
per to Batavia, are fcarcely covered by the profits accrui
from this feanty trade.» The river Banjar, called Biajos by
d’Anville, flows from the centre of the country almoft due
fouth, and forms the harbour of the town; and on this
river is experienced a difference of twelve fect in the rife
and fail of the tide. The Biajos, as they are denominated,
come down this river to the port in rude boats, with gold
duft, and other articles, among which are diamonds; the
Moors called Banjareens being the fa@tors. Thefe Bia-
jos are tattooed blue, with a {mall wrapper about the
loins. The chiefs extra&t one or two of the fore-teeth, fub-
ftituting others of gold; and ftrings of the teeth of tigers,
which abound in the ifland, a real badge of knighthood or
of courage, are worn round the neck.

BANILLIA, inthe Materia Medica, a name ufed by
fome for the wvanillia, or vanilloes, ufed in making the
f{cented chocolate.

Banisument, Exire, in Law, among us, is of two
kinds: the one voluntary, and upon oath; the other by
compulfion, for fome offence or crime. ,

The former, properly called abjuration, was abolifhed by

flat. 21. Jac. I. c. 28.3 and has now ceafed, 2 Inft. 629: -

the latter is enjoined by judgment of parliament. Yet out=

lawing and tranfportation may be alfo confidered as a fpecies "

of exile.
However, no power on earth, except the authori

of

parliament, can fend any fubje& of England out of the —

land againft his will; no, not even a criminal. For exile
and tranf{portation are punifhments at prefent unknown to

the common law; and whenever the latter is now infli@ed,
it is either by the choice of the criminal himfelf to => ae
ome

capital punifhment, or elfe by the exprefs dire€tion of
modern aé& of parliament. ‘To this purpofe Magna Charta
declares (c. 294 that no freeman fhall be banifhed, yee
the judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land.

by

¢

1

ee

BAN

by the habeas corpus ac (31 Car. II. c.2.), it is enaéted,
that no fubject of this realm, who is an inhabitant of Eng-
land, Wales, or Berwick, fhall be fent prifoner into Scot-
land, Ireland, Jerfey, or Guernfey, or places beyond the
feas, where they cannot have the full benefit and proteétion
of the common law ; but that all fuch imprifonments fhall
be illegal; that the perfon who fhall dare to commit ano-
ther contrary to this law, fhall be difabled from bearing any
office, fhall incur the penalty of a pramunire, and be inca-

able of receiving the king’s pardon; and the party fuf-
ae fhall alfo have his private action againft the perfon
committing, and all his aiders, advifers, and abettors, and
fhall recover treble cofts befides his damages, which no
jury fhall affefs at lefs than s5ool. Blackit. Com, vol. i.

137.
_ BANISTER, Jonny, in Biography, was educated at
Oxford. In 1573, having taken a bachelor’s degree, he
obtained a licence to praétife phyfic. He then went to
Nottingham, and profeffing both medicine and furgery,
«was wonderfully followed (Wood fays) by all forts of
people, for his happy practice in thofe arts.”” Banilter pub-
lithed feveral works, of which the following are the titles:
« A needful, new, and neceflary Treatife of Chirurgery,
briefly comprehending the general and particular Curation
of Ulcers, with certain Experiments of his owa Invention,”
London, 1575, 8vo. It is dedicated to Tho. Stanhope,
efg. high fheriff of Nottinghamfhire. ‘ The Hiftory of
Man, fucked from the Sap of the moft approved Anato-
mifts,’’ nine books, fol. Lond. 1578; decorated, Douglas
fays, with anatomical engravings, copied from Vefalius, but
miferably executed. ‘¢ Compendious Chirurgery, gathered
and tranflated, efpecially out of Wecker,”? Lond. 1585,
t2mo. This is not a mere tranflation, the wark being cor-
reted and much improved by Banilter, ‘* Antidotary Chi-
rurgical,” containing variety of all forts of medicines,
Lond. 1589, 8vo. In 1633, feveral years after his death,
his chirurgical works were publifhed together in fix books,
in 4to. ‘The Antidotary was dedicated to the earl of War-
wick, by whom he appears to have been patronifed. Wood’s
Athenz Oxon. Aikin’s Biograph. Mem.

Banister, Richard, was in great credit in the end of
the fixteenth and beginning of the feventeenth century,
for his fkill in furgery, which he practifed at Stamford
in Lincolnfhire. His knowledge in the art he learned
of his near kinfman, John Banifler, by whom he had been
educated. ‘Sitting at the feet,” he fays, “ of a Gama-
Hel in that art, let his name (he adds) be as a precious oint-
ment poured out ; for he was one to whom malice itfelf
could do no mifchief, nor hatred hurt.’? He continued in
the general practice of furgery feveral years. ‘ At length,”
he fays, “I left the greateft mafs of that unmeafurable myf-
tery, and confined myielf to the cure of the eyes, of the
hare lip, the wry neck, and to affift the hearing by an in-
ttrument.”’ But his principal obje& was relieving the blind ;
to perfect himfelf in this art, he appears to have affociated
with Henry Blackbourne, Robert Hall of Worcelter, maf-
ter Velder, Surflet, and Barnabie, of Fenny Stanton,
Lynn, and Peterborough, all famed for their flill in couch-
ing and performing their operations on the eyes. Follow-
ing their example, he vifited many of the principal cities in

the kingdom, particularly London, which place he vifited
' fpring and autumn for feveral years. It appears to have
been his cuftom to procure certificates of the cures he per-
formed at each place. ‘ I can fhew,’’ he fays, “ that in
the year 1609, I made, with the help of God, twenty-four
blind people {ee in the city of Norwich ; and I came thi-
ther again in 1611, and all of them had their fight; for
confirmation of which, I had a certificate from the mayor

7

BAN

and alderman, with the city feal annexed.?? A. fimilar cers
tificate he obtained from fir Wm. Cockaine, lord mayor of
London in the year 1621, which appears to have been the
laft time of his coming hither. ‘ But now,” he fays,
I know it is not long to the period of my days, fo I mean
to reft at home the fmall remnant that God hath allotted
to me.” He promifes, however, to continue to affift thofe
who vilit him at his houfe. The time of his death is not
known.

In 1622, he publifhed “* A Treatife of one hundred and
thirteen difeafes of the eyes and eye-lids; the fecond time
publithed with fome profitable additions of certain principles
and experiments by Richard Banitter, mafler in chyrurgery,
oculift, and praCtitioner in phyfic,” 12mo. The book is
not paged. ‘he part added by Banifter feems to be a {mall
treatife at the beginning of the volume, which he calls “« Bas
nifter’s Breviary of the Eyes.”? He here complains of the
number of ignorant perfons, and among them many woe
men, who interfered in the art, to the hurt of the people.
This part is interfperfed with poetical effufions, in which
he laughs at fome pretended cures performed by drinking
and wafhing the eyes with the waters of the Malvern and
other {prings.

«“ So many folks unto the town did run
For water, that alewives were half undone.
At firft, when this news unto me was told,
I daunted was, it touched my freehold.
I dwelt from thence, at lealt fome twenty miles,
Yet there my patients went o’er fields and flyles.””
He had the fatisfaGion, however, to fee them come back,
«< Their bodies wearied, and their griefs made worfe,
And eas’d and purged only in the purfe.”’
The treatife which gives the general title to the volume, and
of which Banifter has with mot people the credit of being
the author, was written originally in French by Jacques
Guillemeau, tranflated into Englifh by an anonymous writ-
er, and dedicated to John Banilter. Wood's Athene Ox-
on. Aikin’s Biog. Mem.

BANISTERIA, in Botany, fo named by Dr. Houftoun
in memory of the Rev. John Banifter, a curious botanift,
who loft his life in the fearch after plants in Virginia. Linn.
gen. n. 573. Reich. 622. Schreb. 780. Cavanilles, t.243,
258. Gert. t.116. Clafs, decandria trigynia ; monadelphia
Cav. Nat. Order, tribilate ; malphigie, Jufl. Gen. Char.
Cal, pevianth, five-parted (four, feldom five, Cavan.) very
fmall, fliff underneath with tubercles, permanent ; two mel-
liferous glands under each divifion of the calyx, except one;
and they are therefore eight in number. Cor. petals five,
orbiculate, very large, {preading, crenate (fimbriate C.) ;
claws oblong, linear. Stam. filaments ten, very fmall, coa-
lefcing at bottom ; anthers fimple. P#/?. germs three, wing-
ed, coalefcent ; ftyles three, fimple; ftigmas obtufe (ex-
larged into a leaflet, Cav.) Per. capfules three, running
out into a long wing, one-celled, marked at the fides with
fmali appendicles, not gaping. «Seeds folitary, covered,
toothed on the lateral edge. Od/: The flower, efpecially the
glands of the calyx, fhew the affinity between this and mal-
pighia. It differs however in the leafy ttigmas and winged
fruit. B. /eona has ten, the reft have eight glands. Cav.

Eff. Char. Cal. five-parted, with melliferous pores at the
bafe on the outfide. Pet. roundifh with claws; fticmas
leaf-fhaped ; feeds three, winged with membranes.

Species, 1. B. angulofa. Reich. 2. 471. Cavan. diff. 426.
t.252. Lamarck. Diét. n.1. Aublet. Guian. 2. 466. Acer
{candens, fol. angulofo. Plum. Spec, 18. Clematis angu-
lofo folio, aceris fru&tu. Plum. Amer. 77. t.92. “ Leaves
finuate-angular.” Stem twining, with oppofite branches;
thickened at the bafe; leaves cordate, angular, terminating

" at

BAN

at top in a fhort dagger point, green above, whitifh be-
neath, nearly equal to the petioles, on which and near the
leaf are two oppofite glands ; without ftipules; flowers in
oppofite axillary umbels; common peduncle elongated ;
rays five ta feven, an inch long, jointed, with two fhort,
oppofite braétes ; at the infertion of the rays are two fmall
fuborbiculate leaves; corolla fulphur-coloured. A native of
Dominique, Hifpaniola, &c. 2. B. purpurea. Lam. Di&.
n. 2. Plum. Spec. 18. ic. 15. Mf. t. 2. Acer. Burm. Amer.
t. 15. “ Leaves ovate; fpikes Jateral ; feeds ercét.’’ Stems
ftrong and woody, dividing into many oppolite and twining
branches ; leaves ovate, on fhort petioles; there are five or
fix pairs of branches, nearly of the fame fize with thofe of
the commonacacia, but whitifh on their underfide; flowers
axillary, ina kind of {pike; petals purplish, thort ; third germ
often abortive, whence Plumicr fays that the fruit is bicapfular
and two winged ; and Miller, that the greater number of
fpecies have only two ftyles. A native of the Caribbee
iflands, fent to Miller from Campeachy, and cultivated by
him in 1759. 3. B. /aurifolia. Lomarck. Dict. n. 3. Acer
feand. fol. laurinis. Sloan. Jam. 2. 26. Plum. Spec. 18.
ic. 14. Leaves ovate-oblong, rigid ; racemes terminal.”
Stem fhrubby, climbing, with loofe, reflex, diverging,
roundifh, rugged branches ; leaves petioled, ovate-lanceolate,
acute, entire, nerved, fmooth ; racemes panicled ; peduncles
commonly one-flowered, fhort, yellow ; leaflets at the bafe
of the peduncles two, minute, tomentofe ; calyx five-leaved ;
. petals {patulate ; anthers elliptic; germ three-cornered, tri-
fid at the tip; ftyles fubulate, fhort; ftigmas dilated, one
of the three capfules ufually abortive; wings three or four
times longer than the caplules. A native of Jamaica and
Hifpaniola. 4. B. /ongifolia. ‘* Leaves oblong, acuminate,
rigid, fhining, panicle terminating ; branches fpreading very
much.” <A native of the Weft Indies. 5. B. denghalen/is.
« Leaves ovate-oblong, acuminate ; racemes lateral; feeds
f{preading.”” This fpecies recedes from the genus, it has
only one fty'e, and the capfule has four wings. It has
ftrong woody ftalks, twining about trees which grow near
it, and rifes twenty feet high. A native of the Eait and
Wet Indies. 6. B. dichotoma. B. convolvulifolia. Cavan.
diff. 428. t. 236. Lamarck. Diét. n.6. ‘¢ Leaves ovate;
branches dichotomous.” Plumier firft obferved it in the
ifland of Martinico. 7. B. fulgens. “* Leaves fubovate, to-
mentofe underneath; racemes brachiate; peduncles um-
belled.”? Its flender winding ftalks rife five or fix feet high;
the flowers crow in a round bunch at the extremity of the
branches, of a brownifh yellow colour; the feeds are fmall-

er, and have narrower wings than in the third {j ecies. A
native of Jamaica and Barbadoes. 8. B. brachiata. * Vicaves
fubovate ; branches brachiate ; feeds narrower within.”

Wery like the foregoing ; but the leaves more blunt ; {c nd-
ing out many branches, dividing into others, and yielding
tendnls which faflen to neighbouring trees, and mounting
to a great height; the flowers, in loofe clufters at the ends
ef the branches, are firit of a gold colour, and fade to a
{carlet, fucceeded by flender thin feeds. A native of Car-
thagena. 9. B. aculeata. ‘* Leaves pinnate 5 leaflets ob-
long, obtufe ; flowers fpiked ; flem brayching, prickly.”
Climbing ftalks, dividing into many branches with long
winged leaves, compofed of about twenty pair of {mall
blunt pinne, each having a deep furrow on the under fide ;
the flowers grow on loofe {pikes at the end of the branches,
and are fucceeded by fingle feeds, as large as thofe of the
greater maple. A native of Tolu. 10. B. cerulea. Acer.
Plum. Mf. 2. t. 10g. Spec. 18. “* Branches tubercled ;
leaves ovate-acute, coriaceous ; racemes axillary.’ A na-
tive of Jamaica and Dominique. 11. B. nitida. “ Leaves
gvate-oblong, quite entire, fhining beneath ; panicle termi-

BAN

nating Jeafy.’’ A native of Brafil, where it was found by
Commerfon. 12. B. chryfophylla. ‘ Branches tubercled ;
leaveS ovate-acute, with a golden nap on the lower fur-
face; wings very long.’? Found by Commerfon near Rio-
Janeiro in Brafil. 13. B. muricata. “ Leaves ovate-acute,
tomentofe beneath ; racemes axillary ; capfules muricate.’?
A native of Peru, where it was found by Jofeph de Juf-
fier. 13. B. Leona. ‘ Branches tubercled; leaves ovate-
acuminate, coriaceous ; flowers panicled.”? Tt varies with
more elongated leaves. A native of America, and found
by Smeathman at Sierra Leona in Africa, whither perhaps
it has been tranfported. 15. B. ferruginea. “ Leaves
ovate-acuminate, ferruginous beneath ; flowers panicled 5
braétes imbricate. A native of Rio-Janeiro, near, St.
Sebaftian, in Brafil, found there by Commerfon. 16. B.
emarginata. «© Leaves ovate, iubcordate, emarginate-
cufpidate at the end, tomentofe on the lower durfacg,
flowers raceme-corymbed.” A native of America. 17.
B. Quapara. “ Leaves ovate, tomentofe beneath, flowers
in corymbs, feeds erect.” A fhrub, fix feet high, petting
out many tomentofe twining branches, by which it climbs
up trees. A prative of Guiana, on the borders of meadows,
flowering in Auyuit, obferved there by Aublet. 18. B.
Jinemarienfis. “ Leaves ovate, acuminate, flowers in corymbs,
yellow, wings gradual’y widening.”” A fhrub with a trunk
five feet high, putting forth many climbing, twining
branches. A native of Guiana, on trees, by the fides of mea-
dows and fields, flowering and fruiting in Augutt, obferved
there by Aublet. 19. B.ordiculata. “* Stem twining ; leaves
orbiculate, beneath tomentofe and filky ; petioles biglandu-
lar.” A native of Jamaica, Guadaloupe, and St. Domingo.
Cavanilles attributes to this the fame fynonyms of Sloane
and Browne, which Linnzus has given to B.fulgens. 20.
B. ciliata. ‘ Leaves cordaté-roundifh, eared, {mooth, ci-
hate.”” A native of Brafil, where it was found by Dombey.
21. B. auriculata. ‘* Stem twining, leaves fubfagittate,
fmooth, with rounded lobes, flowers in wmbels.”? A native
of Rio Janeiro, found there by Commerfon. 22. B. ovata.
«Stem twining, leaves ovate; acute, quite entire, flowers
in umbels, involucres ttipuled.? A native of the ifland
of Dominiaue, where it was found by Defportes and Surian.
23. B. palmata. ‘ Stem twining, leaves palmate, tomentofe
beneath, petioles biglandular.”” A native of St. Domingo,
found there by Defportes. 24. B. fagiitata. ‘ Stem twi-
ning, leaves fagittate, large, tomentofe, petioles biglandular.”
A native of St. Domingo, found there by Defportes.
he fpectes of this genus are all inhabitants of very hot
climates, chiefly of America, from Brafil to Lonifiania,
particularly the iflands. They are fhrubs, moftly with
twining {tems, adorning the woods with the beauty of their
flowers, and the variety of their oppofite leaves. Plus
micr difcovered four forts ; and for the reft. we are obliged
to Aublet, Commerfon, and other modern travellers.
Propagation and Culture. ‘Thefe plants, being natives of
hot countries, cannot be preferved in England, unlefs they
are kept in a bark-flove. They are propagated by
feeds, procured from the countries where they grow, natu-
rally gathered when fully ripe, and brought to England
in fand or earth. When they arrive, they fhould be fown
immediately in pots, and if it be autunm, or winter, the
pots fhould be plunged into a hot-bed ot tanner’s bark, and
fecured from froit and*wet, til fpring, when they muft be
removed to a frefh hot-bed, which will bring up the piants;
when the plants come up, let them be put into feparate
pots, filled with light carth, and ay into the bark-bed,
after which they muft be treated like other tender plants
from the fame countries. Martyn’s Miller.

ies 4
Banisterta. See Govania. —
BANK,

BAN

' BANK, in Commerce, is a denomination given to certain
focieties or communities, who take on them the charge of
the money of private perfons to improve it, or keep it fe-
cure; or it is a common repofitory, where many perfons
agree to keep their cafh, to be always ready at their call,
or diretion. The word bank in this fenfe comes from the
Italian Janca, formed of the Spanifh Lanco, a bench, whereon
the ancient money-changers fat in the public markets ; or,
as others think, a table whereon they told their money ; for
the Spanifh banco fignifies a table, as well as a bench; as
among the Greeks the word spam:o fignified a Lench, as
as well as a table, whence the word cpaqfirns for a dencher.
Accordingly the inititution of banks commenced in Italy,
where the Lombard’ Jews kept benches in the market-places
for the exchange of money and bills. Mr. John Law, in-
deed, in his treatife, intitled, “* Money and Trade confi-
dered,’’ afcribes the invention of banks to Sweden; alleg-
ing that the bulk of their money being copper, rendered it
inconvenient ; and in order to remedy this, a bank was fet
up, where the money might be pledged, and paper credit
given to the value, which paffed in payments, and facilitated
trade. But this opinion, fays Anderfon (Hift. Comm.
vol. i. p. 4.76.), is fo far from being barely probable, that it
is in a manner paft all doubt, that the free cities of Italy
were, in very early times, the inventors of banks (lumber-
houfes, or lombard-houfes) and bills of exchange, long
before the countries on the north extremity of Europe knew
any thing of commerce, which Sweden knew leaft and lateit
of all the ref.

It cannot be doubted but that the beginning of traffic
was by exchanging one commodity for another, as men
could beft fuit each others occafions. But the neceflities of
‘men being fo various and different, in refpect to the quan-
tity and quality of requifites, money was inftituted as the
moft convenient medium for commerce, whereby people
might procure whatfoever they ftood in need of, ‘in quanti-
ties according to their exigencies.

This changed the term of bartering into that of buying
and felling ; yet all trading at length refults into a general
barter. For he who fells any thing to receive money for
it, purchafes what he requires with the fame money. Mo-
ney then becoming the principal engine for circulating the
bulk of commerce, its application to trade is proper to be
confidered.

Money is ufed in the minuter kinds of dealings, as retail-
ing, &c. when it is commuted for all kinds of labour, and
to furnifh the neceflary provifions for daily ufe. This re-
quires its being divided into the f{malleft denominations of
the pieces, as into fhillings and pence ; fo that this way of
dealing is not capable of being tranfatted by bills and af-

efignments.

Money is alfo employed in the more extenfive and whole-
fale way of trade, wherein large fums are negotiated ; and
this oceafions frequent payments from one tradefman to ano-
ther. .In which payments, although ftrictly {peaking ready
cath be required as often as contracts are made, yet as
commerce in general confifts in the mutual dealings and
tranfations of many traders, it may often fo fall out, by
“means of interchangeable debts and credits, that divers
traders may fatisfy each others occafions, without making
any payments in fpecie, by transferring their debts to each
other.

But when fech mntual conveniences do not occur, traders’
ufually receive their money in fpecie, and fo pay it from
one to the other. Yet this way of payment is attended
with many inconveniences, as trouble in counting the

: fe hazard in fecuring it from the attempts of robbers,
. Vou. III.

BAN

and lofs from trufting it with unfaithful fervants: for the
prevention of all which, cities of large commerce have very
naturally introduced the ufe of banks.

Of thefe banks fome are public, confifting of a company
of moneyed men, who, being duly eftablifhed and incorpo-
rated by the laws of their country, agree to depofit a con-
fiderable fund or joint ftock, to be employed in various
ways for the ufe of the fociety: or private, being fuch as
are fet up by private perfons or partnerfhips, who traffic
in the fame way upon their own fingle ftock or credit. Of
the former fort of banks, fevéral have been eftablifhed in
the principal trading cities of Europe, as in Venice,
Genoa, London, Edinburgh, Amfterdam, Hamburgh,
Paris, &c. The moft ancient of thefe is the bank of
Venice.

Bank, or Banco, of Venice, commonly. called Lanco del
guira, was eftablifhed in the middle of the twelfth century, or
as Anderfon fuggetts (Hilt. Com. vol.i. p. 84.), A.D. 1157,
though fome have dated its eftablifhment in 1176, or fome-
what later. It is properly a board of public credit and
intereft, or a general and perpetual purfe for all merchants
and traders, eftablifhed by a folemn edi&t of the common-
wealth, which enaéts, that all payments of wholefale mer-
chandife, and letters of exchange, fhall be in banco, or
bank notes; and that all debtors and creditors fhall be ob-
liged, the one to carry their money to the bank, the other
to receive their payments at banco; fo that payments are
performed by a fimple transfer from the one to the other;
he who was before creditor on the bank books, becoming
debtor as foon as he has refigned his right to another, who
is entered down as creditor in his place; fo that the parties
only change name, without any effeGlive payment bang
made. Indeed there are fometimes a€tual payments made,
efpecially in matters of retail, and when foreigners are dif-
pofed to have ready money to carry off in fpecie ; or when
particular traders choofe to have a ftock by them to nego-
tiate in bills of exchange, &c. The neceffity of thefe e&
fetive payments has given occafion to the opening a fund
of ready money ; which is found fo far from diminifhing the
ftock, that this liberty of withdrawing money at pleafure
rather augments it. By means of this bank, the republic,
without encroaching on the freedom of commerce, or with-
out paying any intereft, is miftrefs of 5,000,000 ducats,
to which the capital of the bank is limited, to be in readi-
nefs on any prefling occafion ; the republic being fecurity
for the capital. The original fund of this bank was two
millions of ducats. In one of its wars with the Turks, tks
ftlate became fecurity to pay the money lodged in it, which
they had been under a #eceflity of ufing in that exigency.
Its agio, in procefs of time, arofe fo high as to be 30 per
cent. better than current money, although the ftate by fe-
veral edi€ts endeavoured to keep it lower. Its capital was
afterwards made double the original fum ; and the ftate, in
another exigency, made free with that increafed capital.
In after times the flate enacted, that bank money, or the
agio of the bank, fhould never exceed 20 per cent. advance,
as it ftill remains to this day.

The conftitution of this bank was originally founded on
fuch juft principles, that it has ferved as a model in the
eftablifhment of banks in other countries, and the admini-
ftration of its affairs has been condu€ted with fo much in-
tegrity, that its credit has never been fhaken; and it has’
beén of infinite benefit to the ftate. For adjufting and balanc-
ing all their accounts in banking, they fhut their books
four times in every year, for three weeks at each period.
Accordingly, Venice may boaft of having given the firit
example to Europe of an ae altogether unknown

4: ty

BAN

to the ancients, and which is the pride of the modern com-
mercial fyftem.

Bank of England, was firkt eftablifhed in the year 1694,
partly for the convenience of commerce, and partly alfo for
the emolument of the proprietors; and it is the greateft
bank of circulation in Europe. The fcheme was projeéted
by Mr. W. Paterfon, a merchant, and debated for a long
while in the privy council, till at length, by an a&t of 5 & 6
William & Mary, cap. 20. it was enacted, that their majef-
ties might grant a commiflion to take particular fubfcrip-
tions for 1.200,0001. of any perfons, natives or foreigners,
whom their majeities were hereby empowered to incorporate
with a yearly allowance of 100,000l. viz. 96.0001. or 8 per
cent. for interett till redeemed, and 40001. to be allowed the
intended bank for charges of management. The corpora-
tion was to have the came of * The governor and company
of the bank of England;”’ their faid fund to be redeemable
upon a year’s notice, after the 1ft of Auguit 1705, and
payment of the principal, and then the corporation to ceafe.
The company was enabled by this act to purchafe lands, &c.
unlimitedly, and to enjoy the other ufual powers of corpo-
rations; their ftock was to be transferrable. They were re-
ftriGed from borrowing more than 1,200,000. except on
parliament funds, and from trading ia any merchandife, ex-
cept in bills of exchange, and in bullion, and in the fale ‘of
fuch goods as were the produce of lands purchafed by the
corporation: and all bills obligatory under the feal of the
faid corporation, were made affignable by indorfement. The
charter of incorporation was executed July 27, 1694;
which directs, that there be a governor, deputy-governor,
and twenty-four directors; and {pecifies the qualifications
of voters and of directors, together with other regulations,
which have been farther amended and enlarged by fubfe-
quent ftatutes.

In 1697, the bank was allowed to enlarge its capital ftock,
by an engraftment of 1.001,1711. ros. Its whole capital
ftock, therefore, amounted at this time to 2,201,174. 10s.
This engraftment is faid to have been for the fupport of pub-
lic credit. In 1696, tallies had been at 40, and 50, and 60
per cent. difcount, aud bank notes at 20 percent. During
the great recoinage of filver, which was going on at this
time, the bank had thought proper to difcontinue the pay-
ment of its notes, which neceflarily occafioned their difcredit.
By this engrafting act, as it was called, the capital itock of
the bank was.to be exempted from any tax; no act of the
corporation, nor of its court of directors, nor {ub-committees,
fhould fubje€t the particular fhare of any member to for-
feiture; but thefe fhares were fubject to the payment of all
jutt debts contra€ted by the corporation; and it was made
felony to counterfeit the common feal of the bank, affixed
to their fealed bills, or to alter or erafe any fum in, or any
mdorfement on their fealed notes, figned by order of the faid
governor and company, or to forge or counterfeit the faid
bills or notes. This at was judicioufly framed for the re-
ftoration of public credit ; and it ferved to effect two points;
viz. the refcue of the exchequer tallies and orders from the
ftock-jobbmg harpies by engrafting them into this company,
and allo by cancelling the bank notes, alfo engrafted, which
had been at 20 per cent. difcount; becaufe the government
had been greatly deficient in their payments to the bank;
and a good intereit was fecured to the proprietors of the in-
creafed capital. By {tat. 6 Anne c. 22. it was enacted, for
fecuring the credit of the bank of England, that no other
banking company in England shall confiit of more than fix
perfons, empowered to iffue bills or notes payable on de-
mand, or for any time lefs than fix months, which is the
only exclufive privilege belonging to the bank. In pur-

BAN

fuance of the 7th Anne, c. 7. the bank advanced and paid
into the exchequer the fum of 400,000l. ; making in all the
fum of 1,600,000]. which it had advanced upen its original
annuity of 96,0001. intereft, and 4ocol. for expence of ma-
nagement. In purfuance of the fame aét, the bank cancelled
exchequer bills to the amount of 1,775,027]. 17s. 103d. at
6 per cent. intereit; it likewife undertook the circulation of
2,500,000]. of exchequer bills iffued for the fupply of the
year; and it was at the fame time allowed to take in fub-
{cripticns for doubling its capital. In 1709, therefore, the
capital of the bank amounted to 4,402.3431.; and it had ad-
vanced to- government the fum of 3,375,027]. 17s. 103d.
By a call of 15 per cent. towards the 400,coo0l. advanced to
government, there was paid in and made ftuck 656,2041.
1s.9d.; and by another call of 10 per cent. in 1710,
sor,448l. 12s. 11d. In confequence of thefe two calls, the
bank capital amounted to 5,559,9951. 14s. 8d. In con-
fideration of the fum of 400,000]. advanced to goveroment
without: intereft, the ‘exclufive privileges of the bank were
prolonged to one year’s notice, after the if of Auguit
1732.

The convenience which government found in iffuing ex-
chequer bills by means of the bank, produced an agreement
in 1713, when the company undertook to circulate new bills
for raifing 1,200,000]. towards the fuppltes, on having an
allowance of 3 per cent. per annum, payable weekly, and a
farther allowance of Sooo]. per annum, payable quarterly.
On this occafien, by 12 Anne, c. 11. the company obtained
an additional term of 10 years to the period of their conti-
nuance asa corporation; fo that they were not to be dif-
folved but upon twelve months notice after 1it of Auguit
1742; and to enable them to fulfil their engagements, they
were empowered to make a call for money upon the pre-
prictors. In the following year, they firlt received the fub-
{criptions to a loan for the public fervice, which had been
hitherto ufually taken at the exchequer; but the bank,
being found more convenient for monied perfons, has ufually
received them ever fince.

In purfuance of tat 3Geo.I. c.7, 8, 9. in 1717, the bank
delivered up two millions of exchequer bills to be cancelled ;
and it had, therefore, at this time, advanced to government
5:375,0271. 17s. 103d. It was now agreed to reduce the
interelt from 6 to 5 percent. In purfuance of the ftat.
8 Geo. J. c. 21. in 1722, the bank purchafed of the South
Sea company fteck to the amount of 4,000,000]. ; and in
this year, in-confequence of the fubfcriptions which it had
taken in for enabling it to make this purchafe, its capital
ftock was increafed by 3,400,000l. At this time, therefore,
the bank had advanced to the public 9,375,027]. 17s.
1oid.; of which the fum of 1,600,c00l. was entitled to
6 per cent. intereft, till the 1f of Auguft 1743; but the

rett was to be reduced to 4 per cent. from and after Mid-~

fummer 1727; and the capital ftock of the bank amounted
only to 8,959,9951. 14s. Sd. It was upon this occafion,
that the fum which the bank had advanced to the public,
and for which it received intereft, began firft to exceed its
capital ftock, or the fum for which it paid a dividend to the
proprietors of bank ftock; or, in other words, that the bank
began to have an undivided capital, over and above its
divided one; and it has continued to have an undivided ca-
pital of the fame kind ever fince. ‘

In 1728, the company of the bank advanced to govern-
ment 1,750,000l. at 4 per cent. intereft, without aay power
of enlarging their capital. In the following year, they ad-
vanced the farther fum of 1,250,000]. at 4 per cent. The
capital due from government, after fundry redemptions, was
10,100,000]. ; of which the fum of 1,000,000]. was re-

= Aare% ‘

BAN

deemed in 1738, being part of the principal for exchequer
bills cancelled in 1717.

In 1742, the company advanced a farther fum of
1,600,000]. towards the fupply for that year, without re-
ceiving any additional allowance for interett or manage-
ment; but they were empowered to enlarge their capital
ftock to the fame amount ; and by the a 15 Geo. II. c. 13.
eftablifhing this contraét, by which the privileges of the
bank were continued till one year’s notice after the ult of
Augult 1764, it was declared, that the acts of 7 and 12
Anne, and all other a&ts for determining the corporation,
fhould be void; and that the governor and company of the
bank fhould remain a body corporate and politic for ever,
fubjet to fuch rettrictions and regulations as were contained
in the aéts and charters then in force. The whole fum, ad-
vanced on the original fund of 100,o00l. per annum, thus
became 3,200,000l. and the intereft upon it from rit of
Augult 1743, 3 per cent. per annum.

By this act, perfons forging, counterfeiting, or altering
any bank note, bill of exchange, dividend warrant, or any
bond or obligation under that company’s feal, or any in-
dorfement upon it, or knowingly uttering the fame, fhall fuffer
death without benefit of clergy. Moreover, the company’s
fervants breaking their truft to the company, fhall fuffer
death as a felon without benefit of clergy. It was alfo
enacted, that when, at a court of directors of the bank, nei-
ther the governor nor deputy governor fhall attend in two
hours after the time appointed for bufinefs, then any 13 or
more of the dire€tors may chufe a chairman for the time, for
the difpatch of bufinefs; and that fuch court fhall be as
valid as if either the governor or deputy governor had duly
attended.

In confequence of the ftat. 19 Geo. II. c. 6. in 1746, the

bank agreed to deliver up to the treafury 986,800]. in ex-
chequer bills; in lieu of which it was to have an annuity of
4 per cent for that fum, out of the fund for licenfing
{pirituous liquors; and the bank was empowered to add the
faid 986,800l. to its capital ftock, by taking in fubfcrip-
tions for that purpofe. Accordingly, at Michaelmas
1746, the whole debt due to the bank from the public
was 11,686,800l. and its divided capital had been raifed
by different calls and fubfcriptions to 10,780,000l.
The ftate of thefe fums has continued to be the fame ever
fince.

In 1764, the company of the bank agreed to advance
1,000,000). towards the fupplies, in exchequer bills, to be
repaid in 1766; and to pay into the exchequer 110,000l.
without any repayment of the principal or allowance of
intereft for the fame ; in confideration of which, the term of
their charter was extended to 1{t of Auguit 1786; and the
dividend on the company’s ftock was railed at Michaelmas
from 44 to 5 percent. At Michaelmas 1767 it was raifed to
5% percent.

From a very early period after the eftablifhment of the
bank, it had been the practice of the company to affift
government with money in anticipation of the land and
malt taxes, and by making temporary advances on exchequer
bills and other fecurities. In the year 1781, the fums thus
lent to government amounted to upwards of eight millions,
in addition to the permanent debt of 11,686,8001. An
agreement was now entered into for the renewal of their
charter, the term of which was extended to Augutt 1812,
on the company’s engaging to advance 2,000,0001. on ex-
chequer bills, at 3 per cent. interelt, to be paid off within
three years out of the finking fund. In order to enable them
to make this advance, a call of 8 per cent. on their capital
was thought neceflary, by which their former capital ftock

BAN

of 10,7%0,0001. was increafed to 11,642,400]. the fum on
which they now divide. The dividend was alfo increaled
one half per cent. fo that it now became 6 percent. In
confequence of this agreement, the total of their advances to
government on the land and malt taxes, exchequer bills, and
treafury bills, was increafed, on the 25th of February 1782,
to 9,991,6781. The amount of the bank-notes in circula-
tion muft of courfe be augmented by the increafe of advances
to government.

In confequence of large advances to government, the great
exportation of coin and bullion to Germany and Ireland,
and feveral concurring circumitances, which, at the com-
mencement of the year 1797, produced an unufual demand
of fpecie from different parts of the country on the metro-
polis, an order of the privy council was iffued on the 26th of
February, prohibiting the directors of the bank from iffu-
ing any cafh in payment till the fenfe of parliament on the
fubjec&t was obtained. This reftriétion was fanétioned by
parliament; and a committee was appointed to examine the
{tate of the bank, from whofe report it appeared, that, on
the 25th of February, after examining the outftanding
claims againtt it with the correfponding affets, the amount of
demands on the bank was 13,770,390; and that of affets,
not including the {um of 11,686,800l. of permanent debt due
by government, was 17,597,2981.; fo that there was a
furplus of 3,826,903]1.

Soon after the meeting of parliament, in November follow-
ing, the committee of fecrecy, appointed to inquire into the
expediency of continuing the reftrition on the bank, re-
ported, that the total amount of outftanding demands on the
bank, on the 11th of November, was 17,578,91ol. and of the
funds for difcharging the fame, exclufively of the permanent
debt, 21,418,640]. leaving a balance in favour of the bank
at that time of 3,839,5501. ‘The report ftated that the
advances to government had been reduced to 4,258,140]. and
that the cafh and bullion in the bank had increafed to more
than five times the value at which they flood on the 25th of
February 1797, when it was about 1,272,000l.

By this ftatement, the folvency and folidity of the bank
were fatisfaGtorily evinced; and, indeed, its ftability muit be
coeval with that of the Britifh government. All that it has
advanced to the public muit be loft before its creditors can
fuftain any lofs. No other banking company in England
can be eitablifhed by act of parliament, or can confift of
more than fix members. It aéts, not only as an ordinary bank,
but as a great engine of ftate. It receives and pays the
greater part of the annuities which are due to the creditors
of the public (See National Dest, and Funp); it circulates -
exchequer bills; and it advances to government the annual
amount of the land and malt taxes, which are frequently not
paid up for fome years. It likewife difcounts the bills of
merchants, and has, upon feveral different occafions, fup-
ported the credit of the principal houfes, not only of
England, but of Hamburgh and Holland. The bufinefs
of the bank is under the direétion of a governor, fub-
governor, and 24 directors, who are elected annually by a
general court; and it is tranfacted by a great number of
{ubordinate clerks in different offices. The qualification of
a dire&tor is 20001. of a deputy-governor 30001. and of a
governor 4000l.; 500). bank {tock intitles the proprictor to
vote at the general courts, provided he has been in poffeflion
of it fix months.

The company may not improperly be denominated a
trading company, and that which is peculiarly diftinguifhed by
the appellation of bank ftock is a trading ftock, the dividend
of which, amounting to 11,642,400]. paid half-yearly, and
now 7 per cent. accrues from the annual income of the com-

4Ba pany

BAWN

pany; and this arifes from the intereft received» for the
money advanced by the proprietors to the public, or the
permanent debt of 11,686,800l.; from intereft on the
annual temporary advances; from the profits of their deal-
ings in bullion, and of their difcounts; from the intereit of
ftock held by the company ; from the {ums allowed by go-
yernment for the management of the annuities paid at the
offices of the bank, fuch as, an allowance of 450]. per
million for management of the public funds, and the allow-
ance of 805]. 15s. 10d. per million for receiving the con-
tribution to loans, and from fome other {maller articles. __

The bank of England may be confidered as the main
{pring of that complicated mechanifm, by which the com-
mercial payments of this country are tranfaéted; and by
which the comparatively {mall fum of money with which
they are performed is kept in perpetual and regular circu-
lation. The fubordinate parts of this machine confiit of
about 79 private banking-houfes in London, and about 386
banks difperfed over the country. By the joint operation
of thefe vatious money-dealers, almoft all bank payments,
founded on commercial bargains, are ultimately fettled in
London, with the money which iffues from the bank of
England. ‘his money confilts, in ordinary times, partly of
coin, and partly of bank notes. From its large capital and
extenfive ifflue of paper, that bank indiredtly fupplies the
whole kingdom with as much gold as is required for circu-
lation. Its notes are iffued in loans, granted either for the
accommodation of the public treafury, or for that of mer-
chants by difcount of their bills; and in confequence of a
common agreement among the bankers, no notes of any
private houfe are current in London, All-the large pay-
ments of that metropolis are in this manner effected by the
paper of the bank of England; and they are chiefly tran{-
aGted by the private bankers, who, according to a conjec-
tural eftimate, make daily payments to the amount of four
or five millions, and have probably in their hands a very
large proportion of the whole of the notes circulating in the
metropolis.

The following table will exhibit, at one view, the ftate of
the cafh and bullion, the average of bank notes in circulation,
and alfo the difcounts and advances to government during
the feveral periods which it comprehends.

Average
| Average of Averag

5 Cafh and ; Bills Dif- | Advan. to
vega Bullion, ae ease counted. | Govern-
circulated.

ment.

11,963,820! 4,817,000] 8,735,200
12,100,650] 5,325,coc] 9,434,000
10,938,620| 2,c65,00c} 9,455,700
10,967,310! 1,976,0c0} 8,587,500
T1,1§9,720| 2,908,c00} 8,494,100
10,366,450} 3,263,000} 7,735,800
10, 343,940] 2,C00,000| 6,779,800
10,927,970| £,887,000} 7,545,100
12,432,240| 2,287,000| 9,773,700
10,912,680} 3,485,000] 10,879,700
11,034,790] 1,887,000 |10, 197,600)
11,608,670] 3,109,0c0 | 10,863, toc
10,824,150] 2,820.0c0 } 11,351,000
10,770,200] 3,730,000 | 11,269,700
9,720,440 | 3,352,0cO} 9,901,1c0
9,645,710) 3,796,000} 9,511, 4ce
8,640,2501 2,905,000] 10,672,490

March | 3,508,000
June | 4,412,000
September} 6,836,000
December | 7,720,000
1794. March] 8,608,000
June} 8,208,000
September} 8,096,000
December } 7,765,000
1795. March} 7,940,000
June | 7,356,000
September } 5,792,000
December} 4,000,000
1796. March} 2,972,000
June} 2,532,000
September] 2,532,000
December] 2,505,000
1797- Feb. 26.) 1,272,000

1793+

In the beginning of 1798, the bank advanced to govern~
ment 3,000,000 on exchequer bills, and in the progrefs of
the year a farther advance of 500,0001.; fo that the total
fum, advanced by the bank for the public fervice, and out-

BAN

fianding on the 7th of December, was 6,7°7,7791. Ats
general court, held 14th of March 1799, it was agreed to
advance to government 1,500,000I. on exchequer bills, and
it was propoted to divide among the proprietors the 5 per
cent. {tock held by the company for the mifiion fub-
feribed to the loyalty-loan; and with this view to purchafe
39,240l. of the fame ftock, to make up the fum held by
them 1,164,240], in order to make a dividend of rol. 5 per
cent. ftock for every 100]. bank capital. Accordingly the
transfer was meade on the 1% of June.

In November following, a negotiation was entered into
for renewing the term of the company’s charter, although
about 13 years of it remained. ‘The propofition was agreed
to ata general court held January the gth, 1800. The con-
ditions were, that the bank fhould advance to government
3,000,cool. for the fervice of the year 1800, on exchequer
bills, payable, without interelt, out of the fupplies to be
granted for the year 1806, in confideration of which the
term of their charter was continued till the end of twelve
months notice after the 1ft of Auguit 1833.

The amount of bank notes in circulation had gradually
increafed fince the begianing of 1797; and, during the year
18co, amounted to about 15,000.0001. The amount, on,
an average of a month, to 25th of January 1801, was
16,365,2001.; confifting of 13.845,800l. in notes of 51,
and upwards, and 2,519,400]. in «i. and 21. notes.

Ata general court, held 19th of March 1801, another
occafional dividend of ftock was propoied. This dividend
was to be made of 582,120l. of 5 per cent. navy annuities, at
the rate of 5 per cent. for every 100]. bank capital; and
the transfer was made on the ft of May. ,

The commerce of London itfelf is immenfe; not only as
a feat of populous and luxurious coufumption. but as a
ftation of manufaGtures, and an emporium of maritime trades
The number of payments occafioned by fuch various tranf-
a‘tions, is farther increafed by the dividends which the
national creditors receive on the great fum of our public
debt. But in addition to all thefe payments, originating
within the capital itfelf, bills are drawn upon London, and.
remittances are fent thither to provide for them, from all parts
of the kingdom. Even foreign drafts, on account of mer-
chants in the country, are, with fcarcely any exceptions,
made payable in London. And thus a great proportion
of the pecuniary engagements, to which the whole coms
merce of the kingdom gives birth, are ultimately fettled
there. This transfer of the country payments to London,
has, in fome degree, fubfifted for a long ume; the praétice,
once begun, was likely, from its great advantages, to be
gradually extended ; and, of late years, it feems to have been
reduced to a regular and very commodious fyftem. It was
much facilitated by the muitiplication of country banks,
during that period of high proiperity and confidence which
immediately preceded the late war. The formation of thefe
throughout the whole country was. actively encouraged by
the private bankers of London ; and, indeed, the exiltence
of a great national bank, which, like that of England, muft
provide a conftant referyoir of gold, naturally iuggets the
creation of {mailer eftabliihments. Upon the formation of
fuch banks in the country, many traders of all deferiptions,
who had formerly maintained a dire correfpondence with
merchants in London, fell into the praétice of tranfaéting
their bufinefs with the metropolis through the banker in
their own neighbourhood with whom they kept their cafh,
On their account, he drew largely wpon a banker in
London; who agreed to execute the extent ve country bulingfs
he had thus acquired, ata much lower comouflipn than what
had formerly been paid by the feveral country a me

cr

, ee Se

——e

BAN

thelr feparate correfpondents, The rate of commiffion waa
reduced, in confequence of the diminifhed trouble as well as
rifle; the labour of keeping accounts, writing letters, re;
ceiving and per + bills, was now transferred to one houte,
which had before been divided among many; and anew
fecurity was afforded to the tranfaGtions between the metro-
polis and the country, by the interpofed credit of wealthy
and refpeétable country banks.

The eltablifhment of fuch a fyftem of banks, and the
transference of ultimate payments to one particular place,
are in the natural courfe of that progreflive fubdivifion of
labour, which extends itfelf over an opulent and induttrious
country. The receipt and payment of money, inttead of
being cinduéted at home, are transferred, by every trader,
to his-banker; who devifes means both of abridging his own
labour, and of economifing the ufe of money, efpecially of
that coftly part of it which confilts of fpecie. By his fkill
and fuccefs in attaining thefe objects, he manages an im-
portant part of trade, at an expe: ce far inferior to what the
merchants themfelves mutt thave incurred, had they conti-
nued to conduét it {eparately by their own clerks. In pro-
portion, likewife, as the amount and number of payments
and receipts is augmented in one particular place, the bufi-
nefs of paying and receiving is more eafily and cheaply
tranfaéted; the guineas or bank notes required, though
more upon the whole, are fewer in proportion to the fums
paid and received. So complete, accordingly, and fo
fyftematic is that economy in the ufe of notes, which long
experience has mtroduced among the London bankers, that
the prefent payments of that metropolis could fearcely be
tranfacted, with due regularity, if the quantity of notes
were to fuffer any confiderable diminution. In this they
are aflilted by the fitnefs of bills of exchange and govern-
ment fecurities to fupply the place of bank netes; fer the
intereft that grows on fuch negotiable paper while it 1s de-

tained, faves all the lofs which the banker would undergo

from the detention of coin or notes; aud there is a certain
fort and quantity of bills, on the converfion of which into
money he may rely almoft as confidently as on the changing
of a note into guineas, or of a guinea into filver. “The in-
genuity of thefe money-dealers, in {paring the circulating
medium, is aptly illuftrated by a cuftom which prevails
among the city bankers. Tach of them fends a clerk, at an
appointed hour in the afternoon, to a room provided for
their ufe. Each clerk there exchanges the drafts on other
bankers received at his own houfe for the drafts on his own
houfe received at the houfes of other bankers. The
balances of the feveral bankers are transferred from one to
another, in a manner which it is unneceffary to explain in de-
tail, and the feveral balances are finally wound up by each
clerk into one balance. The difference between the whole
fum which each banker has to pay to all other city bankers,
is, therefore, al) that is difchatged in bank notes or money;
a difference evidently much lefs in its amount than that to
which the feveral differences would be equal.

But the economifed ufe of circulating medium is by no
means the only collateral advantage that arifes from this
fyftem of banks, conneéted ii fubordination to each other,
with the great national bank at their head. Although a
very few of the country eltablifhmenuts have occafionally
fubjected themfelves to the charge of encouraging rath {pe-
culation, the fyitem, in its complex operation, has a real
tendency to ftrengthen as well as to enlarge the bafis of
eredit. Bankers poffefs, from their fituation, very fuperior
means of diftingnifhing the careful trader from the impro-
vident. ‘The bill tranfactions of the neighbourhood pals
under their infpection; and by this information they are

BAWN

enabled to meafure out confidence very nearly in a jut pro-
portion, In faét, it is confidered as a reeular branch of
their profeffional experience, that they fhould appreciate the
credit of the various traders within their diftri@ of circu-
lation ; and this fort of praétical fagacity they are under-
flood to cultivate with grcat affiduity. Jt is faid to be the
general practice of banks, to communicate fuch intelligence
for their mutual advantage. Each of them endeavours to
limit, not only the fum which any one trader fhall obtain
from themfelves, but the total amount alfo, fo far as they
are able, of the fum which the fame perfon hall borrow in
different places. They endeavour, abov. all, to difcourage
bills of accommodation. While the tranfaétions of country
traders are thus furveyed by the banks cf their refpeétive
diftriéts, thofe of the country banks themfelves are fubjeé&
to the view of the London bankers, their correfpondents;
and thefe, again, are in fome degree controled by the bank
of England, which reftri€’s, according to its own difcretion,
the credit with which they are accommodated. A feries of
checks is thus maintained, which. though far from eflablifh-
ing acomplete fecurity againft all injurious {peculation, pre-
fents a powerful obftacle to its progrefs.

3ut the bank of England retains another check, of a
highly important nature, over the banks in the country.
The iffue of its own notes is reftri€ted, in ordinary times, by
the obligation to convert them into f{pecie. The quantity
of country paper, even during the prefent-times, is limited
by its accultomed convertibility into the notes of the bank
of England. If a particular country banker is imprudent
enough to iffue an extraordinary quantity of paper, while
that of the bark of England does not exceed the demands
of London erreulation, a local rife of prices will be produced
within the diltnét of that country paper, but prices in
London will remain as before. In this fituation, the holders
of country paper, in order that they may purchafe goods
where they are cheaper, will return that paper to the banker,
demanding in return bank of England notes, or at leaft bills
upon London. ‘The excefs of his notes will thus be con-
tinually returned upon the country banker, and he will at
length find himfelf under the neceffity of limiting his iffue
to that quantity which the circulation of his own diftri&
can abforb. The quantity of bank of England paper may
thus be faid to regulate the quantity of that which is iffued
by the country banks. It is not, that one uniform ratio is
maintained between thefe two quantities; but that both are
in the fame proportion to the demand that is created for
each by the trade which it is deftined to circulate. When-
ever the bank of England paper happens to exceed what is
required for the purpofes of London circulation, the country
paper may become exceffive in the fame degree. And fuch
an excefs of bank of England paper may be produced, either
by a diminution in the number of payments, while that of
notes remains undiminifhed; or by whatever has a tendency,
while the number of payments remains unaugmented, to
augment the number or the effe€tive power of the notes in
circulation.

The moft ferious danger to which the bank of England
is expofed is that of being drained of its fpecie. To fuch a
drain it may be fubjeéted in confequence of any alarm that
occafions a great demand for guineas, either to be hoarded, or
to fupply the place of paper thrown out of circulation. If the
alarm fhovld be of long continuance, and the bank maintains
in circulation no more than its ufual quantity of notes, it may
be altogether exhaulted of its guineas, however fmall that
quantity of notes may be; becaufe if thefe are always re-
iffued in loans upon the difcounts of bills, they may be per-

petually returned upon the bank in demand for more fpecie.
Should

BAN

Should the alarm be great and of long continuance, the
bank, by maintaining only a million of notes in’ circu-
lation, may, by the continual return of thefe, be exhaufted of
fifty millions of guineas. Befides, a more permanent caufe
of arun upon the bank of England for fpecie is the excefs
of the market price of gold above its mint price. This was
formerly occafioned by the debafed ftate of geld currency ;
and the bank has been reduced to the neceflity of coining
new guineas, which were immediately melted down, that the
bullion might be fold to the bank itfelf at the high market
price. In whatever manner the high price of gold is pro-
duced, immediate demands are made upon the bank for
guineas, in order to export them. Thefe it endeavours to
replace, though gold cannot be purchafed without a confider-
able lofs. A molt unequal competition will thus be elta-
blifhed between the bank, on the one hand, which buys and
coins ata great lofs, and the clandeftine dealers, on the other
hand, who melt and fell at a great profit. If the unfavour-
able balance of trade, which has caufed this high price of
bullion, were not of a temporary nature, the bank of Eng-
land, by this continued accumulation of unproductive ex-
pence, might ultimately be reduced to very great diltrefs.
Befides, the excefs of the market price of gold above its
mint price may likewife be produced by too great a quan-
tity of paper-money. The bank, indeed, has the power of
reftriGting the country paper, by limiting its own notes to
thofe which are aétually needed for the purpofes of circu-
lation. It has, therefore, the power in a great degree of
preventing that high price of gold, and the confequent
drain of its own guineas, which proceed from an exceflive
circulation of paper. So long, then, as the bank is
liable to payments in fpecie, it has an evident intereft to
prevent its own paper, as well as that of the whole country,
from being fo exceffive, as to occafion a rife in the price of
commodities. To limit the total amount of paper iflued,
and to refort, whenever the temptation of borrowing
is ftrong, to fome effectual principle of reftriGtion; never to
diminifh greatly the fum in circulation, but to let it vibrate
only within certain limits; to afford a flow and cautious ex-
tenfion of it, as the general trade of the country is enlarged;
and to permit a temporary increafe during an extraordinary
period of difficulty or alarm:—this, according to Mr.
Thornton (ubi infra), is the true policy of an inflitution
placed in the circumftances of the bank of England.

If the bank of England, fays an anonymous writer
(Edinb. Rev. N°. I. p. 196.), mult now be confidered as a
national eftablifhment, not merely influencing, by the fu-
perior magnitude of its capital, the itate of commercial cir-
culation, but guiding its movements according to views of
public policy, an important revolution has taken place
fince the firft ereGtion of that corporation as a banking
eftablifhment. That power of iffuing the medium of ex-
change, with the opportunities it implies cf varying its
quantity and value, which, while precious coin was in ufe,
was exercifed under the immediate prerogative of the crown,
is now virtually invefted in the governor aud dire€tors of
the bank of England. In the official character of that
board, fome of the functions of fovereignty are united to
thefe of a trader; and the opportunitics of banking profits
are blended with a truft and charge of the public interelt.
Ti will be pleafing if thefe fhall prove more happily com-
patible, than they have been found in other inftances. The
organization of this eftablifhment, poffcfed of fuch means
‘to control the operations of commerce, as well as to facili-
tate the advance of financial fupplies, may, into our political
conttitution already fe complicated, introduce a new prin-

ciple of action, the effe& of which cannot be clearly difcern-
2
vv

BAN

ed. Perhaps an unbounded field will be opened for the ex-
tenfion of. minifterial influence; perhaps an unexpeéted

control may be gained to the people, over the views and

meatures ot the executive.

The fufpenfion of cafh. payments in 1797, was an
event, in the opinion of Mr. Thornton, to which the national
bank was liable from its very nature; the probability of
which has been too ftudioufly concealed ; and to the recur-
rence of which we may look forward. The gold, in the
coffers of the bank, had been much reduced by the cffe& of
an unfavourable balance of trade. ‘The alarms of invafion
had led to the failure of fome country banks in the north of
England; this occafioncd a further demand of guineas
from the bank, and a diminution in the circulating notes
of London. The direétors aggravated the diilreis, and aug-
mented the demand for guineas, by unadvifedly fupprefling
fome of their notes, inflead of enlarging the quantity. It
has alfo been alleged, that the loans of the bank to govern-
ment, which occafioned a limitation in its difcount of com-
mercial paper, contributed, by their indire& and unavyoid-
able operation, to aggravate that diftrefs of the circulation
which was chiefly produced by other caufes. Although
the loans to government could have no tendency to diminifh
the {um of notes in circulation, it neverthelefs tended to
diftrefs the circulation, by rendering that fum of notes
lefs adequate to the wants of commerce, than if they had
flowed into the market through the ufual channel of dif-
counts. The fufpenfion of payments in fpecie was pro-
perly continued, according to Mr. Thornton, from the
permanence of thofe circumitances which rendered it origi-
ually neceffary :—an unfavourable exchange, produced partly
by our heavy expenditures, but chiefly aggravated by valt
importations of corn; and the prevalence, till the eve of
peace, of alarms about hoftile invafions. Mr. Thornton
maintains that the circulating paper of the bank of England
does not in fact amount now toa greater fum than, upon an
average of years, was in circulation before the fufpenfion of
cafh payments. Upon an average of three years, ending in
December 1795, their amount, according to the evidence
laid before parliament, was 11,975,573]. By a fubfequent
ftatement prefented to the houfe of Commons, they amount-
ed in December 1800, to 15,450,970]. From the difference
between thefe two fums, Mr. Thornton infifls that we ought
to dedu& the amount of two millions, confilting of one and
two pound notes, which according to him have difplaced
in the circulation an equal fum of guineas. After this
deduction, there itill remains the fum of 1,475,307]. by
which the bank paper exceeded in 1800, its average amount
before the fufpenfion of cath payments. But in the {pring
of 1801, the governor of the bank ftated to the houfe of
commons, that the company had reduced its notes to a
fum lefs, by about a million and a half, than their amount
in the preceding December. Lord King, in his “* Thoughts
on the Reftriétion of Payments in Specie at the Banks of
England and Ireland,” 8vo. 1803, difputes the correétnefs
of Mr. Thornton’s ftatement; .and alleges, that in the
{pring of 1801, the iffue of notes amounted to 16,365,2061.
which was {till farther increafed, in the fummer of 1802, to
16,747,300]. According to the laft account prefented to
the houfe of commons, the bank of England notes in cir-
culation amounted to 16,108,560l. If we compare, fays
his lordfhip, this fam with the above average of three years
ending in December 1795, even after we add to the latter
the whole two millions of which Mr. Thornton fpeaks,
and which feems a very large allowance, the prefent iffue
from the bank will be found to exceed that, which was for-
merly convertible into {pecie, by fomething lefs than aa

t

BAN

fixth of the whole. If we confider the qnick circulation
which paper admits of, and the increafe which an accelerated
rate of circulation gives to the effective powers of currency,
this addition of almoft one-fixth mult be regarded as an
immenfe augmentation of the mafs of efficient currency.
While the iffue of bank of England notes was moderate and
retrained, the market price of bullion, particularly of filver
bullion, which is a more certain flandard thaa gold, becaufe
it is a more regular article of commerce, continucd very
nearly the fame as its eftablifhed price in our mint. In the
fummer of 1799, however, about the fame time with the
great increafe ot bank paper, a rapid and extraordinary ad-
vance took place in the market price of bullion, That of
filver rofe at once to 5s. 8d. almolt ter per cent. above the
mint price. It continued to rife along with the progreflive
increafe of notes; and in 1801, when they exceeded fixteen
millions, it was as high as 6s. more than 16 percent. and
even as 6s. 1d. more than 17 percent. above the mint price.
Thus alfo, while the iffue of the bank of England notes
Was moderate and reftrained, the rate of exchange at Ham-
burgh continued in favour of this country, being from three
to five per cent. above par. But in the fummer of 1799,
about the fame time with the great increafe of bank paper,
a very rapid fall took place. It fell at once to 32, above
eight per cent. below par; and continued to fall alinoft re-
gularly, though not quite fo regularly as the price of
bullion rofe, along with the progreffive increafe of notes.
At thecommencement of 1801, when they exceeded fixteen
taillions, the exchange with Hamburgh was as low as 2gl.
ros. almoft 16 per cent. below par. Lord King has fub-
jomed a fet of tables, which exhibit the remarkable cor-
refpondence between the variations in the quantity of bank
notes, and the variations in the price of bullion.and rate of
exchange. His lordihip has alfo fhewn, that the paper
currency of the bank of Ireland has been augmented from
621,9171. to 2,633,8641.; and that its notes at prefent in
circulation exceed more than four times the amount of what
were in circulation when the act of reftriction was pafled.
During the fame period, the price of filver in Dublin has
experienced a great advance, having varied from 6s. 6d. to
7s. Irifh currency; an increafe, which, eftimating the mint
price at 5s. 7d. is from 14 to 20 percent. The rate of ex-
change between Dublin and London has been alfo remark-
ably affected; the difference having progreflively increafed
from 82, the ordinary difference, to 10, 12, 14, and ever 16.
This proof of the depreciation of bank of Ireland notes has
not been confined to the courfe of exchange with London;
but is felt in the tranfa@ions of Dublin with many of the
provincial towns, where thofe notes have not acquired a
general circulation; the currency {till confifting either of
{pecie, or of country notes. In confequence of this, and
of the depreciated condition of the Dublin currency, there
is an actual difference of exchange between Dublin and thofe
towns. his is the cafe, for inflance, in Belfatt; when a pay-
ment is there made in bank of Ircland notes, an additional
fum is paid proportional to the difcount. Hence lord King
infers, that the meafure of 1797 has actually had a pernicious
influence upon the fyftem of circulation; and in ftrong terms
deprecates its continuance. Mr. Thornton {tates the fol-
lowing fact, that the enumeration of country-banks taken in
1800, differed from that taken in 1797, by the excefs of
386 above 353.

_ It is not, fays Dr. Smith (ubi infra), by augmenting
the capital of the country, but by rendering a greater
part of that capital active and produtive than would
otherwife be fo, that the moft judicious operations of
banking can increafe the induftry of the country. That

BAN
part of his capital which a dealer is obliged to keep by

him unemployed, and in ready money for anfwering occa-
fional demands, is fo much dead ftock, which, fo long as it
remains in this fituation, produces nothing either to him o¢
to his country. The judicious operations of banking ena-
ble him to convert this dead ftock into aétive and produc-
tive ftock ; into materials to work upon, into tools to work
with, and into provifions aud fubfiftence to work for ; into
{tock which produces fomething both to himfelf and to
his country. The gold and filver money which circulates ia
any country, and by means of which the produce of tts
land and labour is annually circulated and diltributed to
the proper confumers, is, in the fame manner as the ready
moncy of the dealer, all dead ftock. It is a very valuable
part of the capital of the country, which produces nothing
to the country. lhe judicious operations of banking, by
fub{tituting paper in the room of a great part of this gold
and filver, enable the country to convert a creat part of this
dead tock into ative and produétive flock; into {tock
which produces fomething to the country. The gold and
filver money which circulates in any country may very pro-
perly be compared to a highway, which while it circulates
and carries to market all the grafs and corn of the country,
produces itfelf not a fingle pile of either. The judicious
operations of banking, by providing, if I may be allowed
fo violent a metaphor, a fort of waggon-way through the
air; enable the country to convert, as it were, a great part
of its highways into good paftures and corn fields, and
thereby to increafe very confiderably the annual produce of
its land and labour. ‘The commerce and indultry of the
country, however, it muft be acknowledged, though they

ay be fomewhat augmented, cannot be altogether fo
fecure, when they are thus, as it were, fufpended upon the
Dedalian wings of paper money, as when they travel about
upon the folid ground of gold and filver. Over and above the
accidents to which they are expofed from the unfkilfulnefs
of the conductors of this paper money, they are liable to
feveral others, from which no prudence or {kill of thofe
conductors can guard them. Mr. Hume (Effays, vol. i.
Eff. ni. p. 301.) expreffes his doubt concerning the benefit
of banks and paper credit. ‘That provifions and labour,
he fays, fhould become dear by the increafe of trade and
money, is, in many refpects, an inconvenience, but an incon-
venience that is unavoidable, and the effet of that public
wealth and profperity which are the end of all our withes.
It is compenfated by the advantages, which we derive from
the poffeffion of thefe precious metals, and the weight
which they give the nation in all foreign wars and negotia-
tions. But there appears no reafon, as he conceives, for
increafing that inconvenience by a counterfeit money, which
foreigners will not accept of in any payment, and which
any great diforder in the {tate will reduce to nothing. (See
Paper-Money.) Inquiry into the nature and effets of
the Paper Credit of great Britain, by Henry Thornton,
Efg. M.P. London, 1802. Smith’s Nature and Caufes of
the Wealth of Nations, vol.i. p. 479—484.

In Scotland, there are two public banks ere&ted at Edin-
burgh ; of which the one, called “The Bank of Scotland,”
was eltabliged by act of parliament in 1695; the other,
called «* The Royal Bank,’’ by royal charter in 1727. New
banking companies have been alfo ere€ted within the laft
thirty and forty years in almoft every confiderable town, and
even in fome country villages. ‘The bufinefs of the country,
fays Dr. Smith (vol.i. p. 442), is almoft entirely carried
on by means of the paper of thefe different banking compa-
nies, with which purchafes and payments of all kinds are
commonly made. Silver very feldom appears except in the

j change

BAN

ehange of a twenty fhilline bank note, and gold feldomer.
But though the conduét of all thefe different companies has
not been unexceptionable, and has accordingly required an
ac of parliament to regulate it ; the country, notwithftand-
ing, has derived great benefit from their trade. It has been
afferted, fays this writer, that the trade of the city of Glaf-
gow doubled in about fifteen years after the firft ereGtion of
the banks there; and that the trade of Scotland has more
than quadrupled fince the firft ere€tion of the two public
banks at Edinburgh. Whether this ftatement be ftriGlly juit
or not, it is certain, that the trade and induftry of Scotland
have increafed very confiderably during this period, and it
muit be allowed, as an unqueftionable fac, that the banks have
greatly contributed to this increafe. The whole value of
the gold and filver, which circulated in Scotland before the
union, cannot -be eftimated at lefs than a million fterling.
In the prefent times, fays Dr. Smith, the whole circulation of
Scotlandcannot beeftimated at lefsthan two millions, of which
that part which-confifts in gold and filver, moft probably,
does not amount to half a million. But though the circulat-
ing gold and filver of Scotland have fuffered fo great a
diminution during this period, its real riches and profperity
do not appear to have fuffered any. In agriculture, manu-
faGtures, and trade, on the contrary, the annual produce of
its land and labour has evidently been augmented. It is
chiefly by difcounting bills of exchange, that is, by advanc-
ing money upon them before they are due, that the greater

number of banks and bankers iflue their promiffory notes; _

deduGting always, upon the fum they advance, the legal
intereft till the bill fhall become due. ‘The payment of
the bill when it becomes due, replaces to the bank the value
of what had been advanced, together with a clear profit of
the intereft. The banker, who advances to the merchant
whofe bill he difcounts, not gold and filver, but his own
promiffory notes, has the advantage of being able to dif-
count to a greater amount by the whole value of his promif-
fory notes, which he finds by experience are commonly in cir-
culation. He is thereby enabled to make his clear gain of
intereft into a much larger fum. The commerce of Scotland
was much lefs confiderable than it is now, when the two
firft banking companies were eftablifhed, and thofe compa-
nies would have had but little trade, if their bufinefs had
been reftricted to the difcounting of bills of exchange. They
invented, therefore, another method of iffuing their promif-
fory notes; by granting, what-they called ‘‘cafh accounts,”
that is, by giving credit to the extent of a certain fum
(e.g. 2 or 3000 pounds), to any individual who could pro-
cure two perfons of undoubted credit and good landed ettate
to become fecurity for him, that whatever money fhould
be advanced to him within the fum for which the credit
had been given, fhould be repaid upon demand, together
with ‘the legal intereft. Credits of a fimilar kind are
commonly granted by banks and bankers, in all different
parts of the world. But the eafy terms upon which the
Scotch banking companies accept of repayment are, fays
Dr. Smith, peculiar to them, and have, perhaps, been the
principal caufe, both of the great trade of thele companies,
and of the benefits which the country has received from it.
Whoever has a credit of this kind with one of thefe com-
panies, and borrows e. g. a thoufand pounds upon it, may
repay this fum by piece-meal, by 20]. and 3ol. at a time;
the company difcounting a proportionable part of the in-
tereft of the great {um from the day on which each of thofe
fmall fums is paid in, till the whole be in this manner re-
paid. All merchants, therefore, and almoft all men of bufi-
nefs, find it convenient to keep fuch cafh accounts with
them, and are thereby interefted to promote the trade of thofe

BAN

companies, by readily receiving their notes in all payments,
and by encouraging all tbofe with whom they have any ine
fluence to do the fame. The banks, when their cuftomers

apply to them for money, generally advance it to them in -

their own promiffory notes. TThefe the merchants pay
away to the- manufacturers for goods, the manufaCturers to
the farmers for materials and provifions, the farmers to their
landlords for rent, the landlords repay them to the mer-
chants for the conveniences and luxuries with which they
fupply them, and the merchants again return them to the
banks in order to balance their cafh accounts, or to replace
what they may have borrowed of them ; and thus almoft the
whole money bufinefs of the country is tranfaGted by means
of them. Hence the great trade of thofe companies.

By means of thefe cafh accounts, every merchant can,
without imprudence, carry on a greater trade than he other-
wife could do. If there are two merchants, one in London,
and the other in Edinburgh, who employ equal ftecks in
the fame branch of trade, the Edinburgh merchant can,
without imprudence, carry on a greater trade, and give em-
ployment to a greater number of people, than the London
merchant. The London merchant muft always keep by
him a confiderable fum of money, either in his own coffers,
or thofe of his banker, who gives him no intereft for it, in
order to anfwer the demands continually coming upon him
for payment of the goods which he purchafes upon credit.
Let the ordinary amount of this fum be fuppofed 5col. The
value of the goods in his warehoufe mutt always be lefs by
sool. than it would have been, had he not been obliged to

eep fuchafum unemployed. Let us {nppofe that he gene-
rally difpofes of his whole ftock upon hand, or of goods to
the value of his whole ftock upon hand, once in the year.
By being obliged to keep fo great a {um unemployed, he
mutt fell in a year sool. worth lefs goods than he might
otherwile have done. His annual profits muft be lefs by all
that he could have made by the fale of 5col. worth more
goods; and the number of people employed in preparin
his goods for market, muft be lefs by all thofe that 500].
more ftock could have employed. The merchant in Edin-
burgh, on the other hand, keeps no money unemployed for
anf{wering fuch occafional demands. When they a€tually
come upon him, he fatisfies them from his cafh account with
the bank, and gradually replaces the fum borrowed with the
money or paper which comes in from the occafional fales of
his goods. With the fame ftock, therefore, he can without
imprudence, have at all times in his warehoufe a larger
quantity of goods than the London merchant; and can
thereby both make a greater profit himfelf, and give
conftant employment to a greater number of. induftrious
people who prepare thofe goods for the market. Hence
the great benefit which the country has derived from this
trade.

The late multiplication of banking companies in both
parts of the united kingdom, an event by which many peo-
ple have been much alarmed, inftead of diminifhing, increafes
the fecurity of the public. It obliges all of them to be
more circum{peé in their condu&, and, by not extending
their currency beyond its due proportion to their cath, to
guard themfelves againft thofe malicious runs, which the
rivalfhip of fo many competitors is always ready to bring
upon them. It reftrains the circulation of each particular
company within a narrower circle, and reduces their circu-
lating notes to a fmaller number. By dividing the whole
circulation into a greater number of parts, the failure of any
company, an accident which, in the courfe of tinea j
fometimes happen, becomes of lefs confequence to the pub-
lic. This free competition too obliges all bankers to be

i more

;
‘

BANK.

more liberal in their dealings with their cuftomers, left their
yivals fhould carry them away. In general, if any branch of
trade, or any divifion of labour, be advantageous to the pub-
lic, the freer and more general the competition, it will always
be the more fo. Smith’s Wealth of Nations, vol. i. p. 446,
&c. p. 498, &c.

Banks of Depoft are fuch as are inftituted wholly for the
benefit of the public. Of thefe Dr. Smith has given the
following account: ‘ The currency of a great ftate, fuch
as France or England, generally confifts rant entirely of
its own coin. Should this currency, therefore, be at any
time worn, clipt, or otherwile degraded below its ftandard
yalue, the flate by a reformation of its coin can effectually
re-eltablifh its currency. But the currency of a {mall late,
fuch as Genoa or Hamburgh, can feldom confilt altogether
in its own coin, but muft be made up, in a great meafure,
of the coins of all the neighbouring ftates with which its
jnhabitants have a continual intercourfe. Such a {tate,
therefore, by reforming its coin, will not always be able to
reform its currency. If foreign bills of exchange are paid
in this currency, the uncertain value of any fum, of that which
js inits own nature fo uncertain, muft render the exchange
always very much againft fuch a ftate ; its currency being,
in all foreign ftates, neceflarily valued even below what it 1s
worth.

In order to remedy the inconvenience to which this dif-
advantageous exchange mutt have fubjected their merchants,
fuch {mall ftates, when they began to attend to the intereft
of trade, have frequently enaéted, that foreign bills of ex-
change of a certain value fhould be paid, not in common
currency, but by an order upon, or by a transfer in the
books of a certain bank, eftablifhed upon the credit, and
under the protection of the flate; this bank being always
obliged to pay, in good and true money, exattly according
to the ftandard of the ftate. The bank of Venice eftablifhed
in 1157, that of Genoa in 1345, that of Amflerdam in
1609, that of Hamburgh in 1619, and the bank of Nu-
remberg, feem to have been all originally eftablifhed with
this view, though fome of them may have afterwards been
made fubfervient to other purpofes. The money of fuch
banks, being better than the common currency of the
country, neceflarily bore an agio, which was greater or
{maller, according as the currency was {uppofed to be more
or lefs degraded below the ftandard of the ftate. ‘The agio
of the bank of Hamburgh, for example, which is faid to
be commonly about fourteen per cent. is the fuppofed dif-
ference between the good ftandard money of the ftate, and
the clipt, worn, and diminifhed currency, poured into it from
ail the neighbouring ftates.

Before 1609, the great quantity of clipt and worn foreign
coin which the extenfive trade of Amfterdam brought from
all parts of Europe, reduced the value of its currency about
nine per cent. below that of good money frefh from the
mint. Such money no fooner appeared than it was melted
down or carried away, as it always is in fuch circumftances.
The merchants, with plenty of currency, could not always
find a fufficient quantity of good moncy to pay their bills
of exchange ; and the value of thofe bills, in {pite of feveral
regulations which were made to prevent it, became in a
great meafure uncertain.

{n order to ‘remedy thefe inconveniences, a bank was
eftablithed in 1609, under the guarantee of the city. This
hank received both foreign coin, and the light and worn
coin of the country at its real intrinfic yalue in the good
ftandard money of the country, dednéting only fo much as
was neceffary for defraying the expence of coinage, and
the other neceflary expence of management. For the value

Voy. Ii.

which remained after this fmall deduétion was made, it gave
a credit in its books, This credit was called bank money,
which, as it reprefented money exaétly according to the
ftandard of the mint, was always of the fame real value,
and intrinfically worth more than current money. It was
at the fame time enacted, that all bills drawn upon or nego-
tiated at Amfterdam, of the value of fix hundred guilders
and upwards, fhould be paid in bank money, which at once
took away all uncertainty in the value of thofe bills. Every
merchant, in confequence of this regulation, was obliged
to keep an account with the bank in order to pay Ins fo-
reign bills of exchange, which neceflarily occafioned a cev-
tain demand for bank money.

Bank money, over and above both its intrinfic fuperiority
to currency, and the additional value which this demand
neceflarily gives it, has likewife fome other advantages. It
is fecure from fire, robbery, and other accidents ; the city of
Amitterdam is bound for it ; it can be paid away by a fimple
transfer, without the trouble of counting, or the rifk of
tranfporting it from one place to another. In confequence
of thefe different advantages, it feems from the beginning
to have borne an agio, and it is generally believed, that all
the money originally depofited in the bank was allowed to
remain there, nobody caring to demand payment of a debt
which he could fell for a preminm in the market. By de-
manding payment of the bank, the owner of a bank credit
would lofe this premium. Asa fhilling frefh from the mint,
will buy no more goods in the market than one of our
common worn fhillings, fo the good and true money which
might be brought from the coffers of the bank into thofe
of a private perfon, being mixed and confounded with the
common currency of the country, would be ofno more va-
lue than that currency, from which it could no longer be
readily diftinguifhed. While it remained in the coffers of
the bank, its {uperiority was known and afcertained. When
it had come into thofe of a private perfon, its fuperiority
could not well be afcertained without more trouble than
perhaps the difference was worth. By being brought from
the coffers of the bank, befides, it loft all the other advan-
tages of bank money; its fecurity, its eafy and fafe trans-
ferability, its ufe in paying foreign bills of exchange. Over
and above all this, it could not be brought from thofe cof-
fers, as will appear by and by, without previoufly paying
for the keeping.

Thofe depotits of coin, or thofe depofits which the bank
was bound to reitore in coin, conftituted the original capital
of the bank, or the whole value of what was reprefented
by what is called bank money. At prefent, they are fup-
poled to conftitute but a very {mall part of it. Inorder to
acilitate the trade in bullion, the bank has. been for thefe
many years in the practice of giving credit in its books upoa
depofits of gold and filver bullion. This credit is generall
about five per cent. below the mint price of {uch bullion.
The bank grants at the fame time what is called a recipice
or receipt, entitling the perfon who makes the depofit, or
the bearer, to take out the bullion again at any time within
fix months, upon transferring to the bank. a quantity of
bank money equal to that for which credit had been given
in its books when the depolit was made, and upon paying
one-fourth per cent. for the keeping, if the depefit was in
filver ; and one-half per cent. if it was in gold; but at the
fame time declaring, that in default of fuch payment, and
upon the expiration of this term, the depofit thouid belong
to the bank at the price at which’ it had been received, or
for which credit had been given in the transfer books,
What is thus p2:4 for the keeping of the depofit may be
confidered as.a lort of warehouse rent ; and why this ware-

4C houle

houfe rent fhould be fo much dearer for gold than for fil-
yer, feveral different reafons have been affigned. The fine-
nefs of gold, it has been iaid, is more difficult to be af-
certained thaa that of filver. Frauds are more eafily prac-
tifed, and occafion a greater lofs in the moft precious metal.
Silver, belides, being. the ftandard metal, the ftate, it has
been faid, wifhes to encourage more the making of depofits
of filver than thofe of gold.

Depofits of bullion are moft commonly made when the
price is fomewhat lower than ordinary ; and they are taken
out again when it happens to rife. In Holland, the mar-
ket price of bullion is generally above the mint price, for
the fame reafon that it was fo in England before the late re-
formation of the gold coin. The difference is faid to be
commonly from about fix to fixteen ftivers upon the mark,
or eight ounces of filver of eleven parts fine, and one part
alloy. The bank price, or the credit which the bank gives
for the depofits of fuch filver (when made in foreign coins
of which the finenefs is well known and afcertained, fuch as
Mexico dollars), is twenty-two guilders the mark; the
mint-price is about twenty-three guilders, and the market
price is from twenty-three guilders fix, to twenty-three
guilders fixteen ftivers, or from two to three per cent. above
the mint price.’ The proportions between the bank price,
the mint price, and the market price, of gold bullion, are
nearly the fame. A perfon can generally fell his receipt for
the difference between the mint price ef bullion and the
market price. A receipt for bullion is almoft always worth
fomething, and it very feldom happens, therefore, that any
body fufiers his receipt to expire, or allows his bullion to
fall to the bank at the price at which it had been received
either by not taking it out before the end of the fix months
or by negleéting to pay the one-fourth or one-half per
cent. in order to obtain a new receipt for another fix
months. This, however, though it happens feldom, is
faid to happen fometimes, and more frequently with regard
to filver, on account of the higher warehoufe rent which
is paid for keeping of the more precious metal. _ ;

The perfon who by making a depofit of bullion obtains
both a bank credit and a receipt, pays his bills of exchange
as they become due with his bank credit ; and either fells
or keeps his receipt according as he judges that the price
of bullion is likely to rife or to fall. The receipt and the
bank credit feldom keep long together, and there is no oc-
cafion that they fhould. The perfon who has a receipt,
and who wants to take out bullion, finds always plenty of
bank credits, or bank money to buy at the ordinary price ;
and the perfon who has bank money, and wants to take
out bullion, finds receipts always in equal abundance.

The owners of bank credits, and the holders of receipts,
conttitute two different forts of creditors againft the bank.
Phe holder of a receipt cannot draw out the bullion for
which it is granted, without re-affigning to the bank a fum
of bank money equal to the price at which the bullion had
been received. If he has no bank money of his own, he
muit purchafe it of thofe who have it. The owner of
bank money cannot draw out bullion without producing to
the bank receipts for the quantity which he wants. If he
has none of his own, he muft buy them of thofe who have
them. ‘The holder of a receipt, when he purchafes bank
money, purchafes the power of taking out a quantity of
bullion, of which the mint price is five per cent. above the
bank price. The agio of five per cent. therefore, which
lie commonly pays for it, is paid, not for an imaginary, but
for a real value. The owxer of bank money, when he pur-
chafes a reczipt, purchafes the power of taking out a quan-
tity of bullion of which the market price is commonly from

two to three per cent. above the mint. price. The price
of the receipt, and the price’ of the bank money, com-
pound or make up between them the full value or price of
the bullion: .

Upon depofits of the coin current in the country, the
bank grants receipts likewife as well as bank credits ; but
thofe receipts are frequently of no value, and will bring no
price in the market. Upon ducatoons, for example, which
in the currency pafs for three guilders three ftivers each,
the bank gives a credit of three guilders only, or five per
cent. below their current value. It grants a receipt likewife
entitling the bearer to take out the number of ducatoons”
depofited at any time within fix months, upon paying one-
fourth per cent. for the keeping. This receipt will fre-—
quently bring no price in the market. Three guilders bank.
money generally fell in the market for three guilders three
ftivers, the full value of the ducatoons, if they were taken
out of the bank ; and before they can be taken out, one-
fourth per cent. muft be paid for the keeping, which would
be mere lofs to the holder of the receipt. If the agio of
the bank, however, fhould at any time fall to three per
cent. fuch receipts might bring fome price in the market,
and might fell for one and three-fourths per cent. But

the agio of the bank being now generally about five per _

cent. {uch receipts are frequently allowed to expire, .or, as
they exprefs it, to fallto the bank. ‘The receipts which
are given for depofits of gold ducats fall to it yet more fre-
quently, becaufe a higher warehoufe rent, or one half per
cent. muft be paid for the keeping of them before they
can be taken out again. he five per cent. which the.bank
gains, when depofits either of coin or bullion are allowed
to fall to it, may be confidered as the warehoufe rent for
the perpetual keeping of fuch depofits. _ bad
The fum of bank money for which the receipts are ex—
pired muft be very confiderable. It muft comprehend the
whole original capital of the bank, which, it is generally
fuppofed, has been allowed to remain there from the time
it was firft depofited, nobody caring either to renew his re-
ceipt or to take out, his depofit, as for the reafons already

affigned, neither the one nor the other could be done with-

out lofs. But whatever may be the amount of this fum,
the proportion which it bears to the whole mafs of bank
money is fuppofed to be very fmall. The bank of Amiter-
dam has for thefe many years paft been the great warehouie
of Europe for bullion, for which the receipts are very fel-
dom allowed to expire, or, as they exprefs it, to fall to
the bank. The far greater part of the bank money, or of
the credits upon the books of the bank, is fuppofed to have

been created, for thefe many years paft, by fuch depofits-
which the dealers in bullion are continually beth making

and withdrawing..

No demand can be made upan the bank but by means of -

a recipice or receipt. The {mailer mafs of bank. money,
for which the receipts are expired, is mixed and confounded
with the much greater mafs for which they are, ftill in
force ; fo. that, though there may he a confiderable fum of
bank money, for which there are no receipts, there is no
fpecific fum or portion of ‘it which may not at any time be
demanded by one. The bank cannot be debtor to two
perfons for the fame thing ; and the owner of bank money
who has no receipt, cannot demand. payment of the bank
till he buys one. In ordinary and quiet times, he can find.
no difficulty in getting

which generally correfponds with the price at which he

can fell the coin or bullion it entitles him to take out of

the bank. :
It might be otherwife during a public calamity ; an
invafion

one to bny at the market price,

BA N'vkK.

javafionfor example, fuch as that of the French in 1672.
The owners of bank money being then all eager to draw
it out of the bank, in order to have it in their own keep-
img, the demand for receipts might raife their price to an
exorbitant height. The holders of them might form extra-
vagant expectations, and inftead of two or three per cent.
demand half the bank money for which credit had been
given upon the depofits that the receipts had been refpec-
tively granted for, The enemy, informed of the conttitu-
tion of the bank, might even buy them up, in order to
prevent the carrying away of the treafure. In fuch emer-
gencies, the bank, it is fuppofed, would break through its
ordinary rule of making payment only to the holders of re-
ceipts. The holders of receipts, who had no bank money,
mult have received within two or three per cent. of the va-
lue of the depofit for which their refpective receipts had
been granted. The bank, therefore, it is faid, would in
this cafe make no {cruple of paying, either with money or
bullion, the full value of what the owners of bank money,
who could get no receipts, were credited for in its books;
paying at the fame time two or three per cent. to fuch
holders of receipts as had no bank money, that being the
whole value which in this ftate of things could juttly be
fuppofed due to them.

Even in ordinary and quiet times it is the intereft of the
holders of receipts to deprefs the agio, in order either to
buy bank money (and confequently the bullion, which their
receipts would then enable them to take out of the bank)
fo much cheaper, or to fell their receipts to thofe who have
bank money, aud who want to take out bullion, fo much
dearer; the price of a receipt being generally equal to the
difference between the market price of bank money aad
that of the coin or bullion for which the receipt had been
granted. It is the intereft of the owners of bank money,
on the contrary, to raife the agio, in order either to fell
their bank money fo much dearer, or to buy a receipt fo
much cheaper. ‘To prevent the ftock jobbing tricks which
thefe oppofite interefts might fometimes occafion, the bank
has of late years come to the refclution to fell at all times
bank money for currency, at five per cent. agio. and to buy
it again at four per cent. agio. In confequence of this re-
folution, the agio can never ejther rife above five, or fink
below four per cent. and the proportion between the market
price of bank and that of current money, is kept at all
times very near to the proportion between their intrinfic
values. Before this refolution was taken, the market price
of bank money ufed fometimes to rife fo high as nine per
cent. agio, and fometimes to fink fo low as par, according
as oppolite interelts happened to, influence the market.

The bank of Amfterdam profefles to lend out no part of
what is depofited with it, but, for every guilder for which
it gives credit in its books, to keep in its repofitories the
value of a guilder either im money or bullion. hat it keeps
in its repolitories all the money or bullion for which there
are receipts in force, for which it is at all times liable to be
called upon, and which, in reality, is continually going
from it and returning to it again, cannot well be doubted.
But whether it does fo likewife with regard to that part of
its capital, for which the receipts are long ago expired, for
which in ordinary and quiet times it cannot be called upon,
and which in reality is very likely to remain with it for ever,
or as long as the ftates of the United Provinces fubfilt, may.
perhaps appear more uncertain. At Amfterdam, however,
no point of faith is better eitablifhed than that for every
guilder, circulated as bank money, there is a correfpondent
guilder in gold or filver to be found in the treafure of the
bank. The city is guarantee that it fhould be fo. The

bank is under the direction of four reigning burgomatters,
who are changed every year. _Each new fet of burgo-
matters vifits the treafure, compares it with the books,
receives it upon oath, and delivers it over with the fame
awful folemnity to the fet which fucceeds; and in that
fober and religious country, oaths are not yet difregarded.
A rotation of this kind feems alone a fufficient fecurity
again{t any practices which cannot be avowed. Amidtt all
the revolutions which faétion has ever occafioned in the go-
vernment of Amiterdam, the prevailing party has at no
time accufed their predeceflors of infidelity in the admini-
{tration of the bank. No accufation could have affected
more deeply the reputation and fortune of the difgraced
party, and if fuch ah aceufation could have been fupported,
we may be aflured, that it would have been brought. In
1672, when the French king was at Utrecht, the bank of
Amiterdam paid fo readily as left no doubt of the fidelity
with which it had obferved its engagements. Some of the
pieces which were then brought from its repofitories ap-
peared to have been fcorched with the fire which happened
in the town-houfe foon after the bank was eftablifhed.
Thofe pieces, therefore, muft have lain there from that
time.

What may be the amount of the treafure in the bank,
is a queftion which has long employed the fpeculations of
the curious. Nothing but conjecture can be offered con-
cerning it. It is generally reckoned that there are about
tivo thoufand people who keep accounts with the bank, and
allowing them to have, one with another, the value of fif-
teen hundred pounds fterling lying upon their refpective ac~
counts (a very large allowance), the whole quantity of bank
money, and confequently of treafure in the bank, will
amount to about three millions fterling, or at eleven guilders
the pound fterling, thirty-three millions of guilders ; a great
fum, and fufficient to carry on a very extenfive circulation,
but vaitly below the extravagant ideas which fome people
have formed of this treafure.

The city of Amfterdam derives a confiderable revenue
from the bank. Befides what may be called the warehoufe
rent above mentioned, each perfon, upon firft opening an
account with the bank, pays a fee of ten guilders: and for
every new account, three guilders three ftivers: for every
transfer two ftivers ; and ifthe transfer is for lefs than three
hundred guilders, fix ftivers, in order to difcourage the mul-
tiplicity of fmall tranfactions.. The perfon who negleé¢ts to
balance his account twice inthe year, forfeits twenty-five
guilders. The perfon. who orders a transfer for more than
is upon his account, is obliged to pay three per cent. for
the fum overdrawn, and his order is fet afide into the bar-
gain. ‘he bank is fuppofed too to make a confiderable
profit by the fale of the foreign coin or bullion which fome-
times falls to it by the expiring of receipts, and which is
always kept untilit can be fold with advantage. It makes a
profit likewile by felling bank money at five per cent. agio,
and buying it in at four. Thefe different emolumerg
amount to a good deal more than what is neceflary for pay-
ing the falaries of officers, and defraying the expence of
management. What is paid for the keeping of bullion
upon receipts, is alone f{uppofed to amount to a neat annual
revenue of between one hundred and fifty thowfand and
two hundred thoufand guilders. Public utility, however,
and not revenue, was the original object of this initi¢ution.
Its objet was to relieve the merchants from the inconve-
nience of a difadvantageous exchange. The revenve which
has arifen from it was unforefeen, and may be confidered
as accidental. Smith’s Wealth of Nations, vol. il. p.219°
234.

4C2 Bans

BANK.

Banxof France was firft projeéted by Mr. Law, a native
ef Scotland, with a view of paying off the public debts of
France, by drawing its creditors into the newly projected
Miffiffippi and India companies, and erected in the year 1716,
It was taken into the king’s hands in 1718, and denominated
the royal bank; and by its union with both the companies
above-mentioned, formed a bubble, which occafioned great
confufion and diftrefs in the year 1720.

Bank, Million, derived its name from king William’s
million lottery in the year 1695 ; the proprietors agreeing in
partnerfhip to purchafe tickets in this lottery. They after-
wards purchafed many reverfions of the 14 per cent. an-
nuities, and admitted many proprietors of annuities to pur-
chafe their joint ftock, which amounted to 500,000. They
were a partnerfhip by deed enrolled in chancery, in the year
1721. They divided 5 percent. till Lady-day 1728, when
they reduced their annual dividend to 4 per cent. and it was
again raifed to 5 per cent. which it continued until its diflo-
lution.

Baxx of Loan, Copenhagen, has a capital ftock, confifting
of 500,000 rix-dollars, each being of the value of about
4s. 6d. fterling. Its notes are received in payment of the
royal revenues. It lends money on pledges, not exceeding
100 rix dollars, at an intereft of 4 per cent. In 1762, his
Danth majefty direGted the bank for current bank-notes, to
exchange their 100 rix-dollar notes, for notes of 50, 10, or I

‘ yix-dollar ; and not to pay to any one perfon above one
crown in {pecie.

Bank of Rotterdam wes ereGed in 1635. It pays bills of
exchange in large money, and only ro per cent. in fhillings.

Banx of Affgnation, a new bank eftabhfhed in Ruffia
during the hoitilities againft the Turks. When copper-
money could not be coined with fufficient expedition to
anfwer the neceffities of the ftate, bank notes to the value
of 50, 75, and 100 rubles, in copper, were iffued. Thefe
notes are changed at the bank in Peterfburgh and Mofcow.
‘The former is a brick building, containing feveral vaulted
yooms, each capable of holding 400,000l. of copper coin in
bags, piled one above another, Since the year 1784, the
old bank notes were called in, and a new iffue made te the
acknowledged amount of 100,000,000 rubles, in notes of 5s
10, 15,25, and 100 rubles. On the firft appearance of this
paper, it was received, particularly in the remote parts of the
empire, not without difficulty, and the difcount againit it
was commonly about 31, and in fome places even 6 per
eent. The obvious advantages, however, over copper money,
foon recommended it to general ufe, and it was found fo
beneficial to commerce, that in 1779 the difcount in favour
of filver fpecie was only 1 per cent. and it bore a premium
of 14 per cent. overcopper money. But fo large a quan-
tity was circulated, and the loans to government fo lowered
the credit of the flate, that in 1790 the difcount againft the
paper currency was near 20 per cent.

The Loan Bank is an inttitution eftablifhed at Peterfourgh
for the benefit of the nobility and corporations. With this
view Catherine II., in 1786, made a depefit of 22 millions of
rubles for the nobility, 11 millions for the corporate towns,
and 3 millions for the province of Taurida, to be lent out
for the improvement of rural economy,’ of focial induftry,
and the benefit of civilization in general. This bank lends
only on real eftates. As the value of a landed eftate in
Ruffia is eftimated according to the number of boors upon
it, the bank takes the boors at 40 rubles per head ; fo that
the proprietor of an eftate, requiring the loan of 1000 rubles,
mult give 25 boorsas his pledge. The loan is made for 20
years; the. mortgagor annually paying 5 per cent. intereft,
and 3 per cent. om the capital, fo that after 20 years he has

paid back the whole of his loan. The loans are fubje@ to
no other limitations than what arife from the value and the
fecurity of the pledge ; every one being allowed to apply
for and receive as much money as he is capable of laying
down a lawful pledge for. The bank, however, lends no
fum under 1000 rubles, and only by thoufands, for the fake
of avoiding perplexing accounts. ‘The mortgaged property
is fubject to no fuit, to no confifcation, nor to any demands
from the crown or from private individuals, Every four
years one part of the pawn is difcharged, equal in value to
that part of the capital already paid. The bank can re-
deem eftates elfewhere mortgaged’ or appropriated to the
payment of debts ; and mortgaged eltates may be fold; but
in that eafe the purchafer takes upon himfelf all the obli-
gations which the feller was under to the bank. The mu-
nicipal magiftrate vouches for the worth of the pledge; and
mutt be refponfible for it. The intereft is paid annually.
The bank gives ten days grace ; whoever exceeds one mont

pays a ftated penalty per cent. and this likewife holds good
the fecond and third month. If payment be delayed be-
yond three months, the mortgaged eftate is taken into
charge by the noble court of wards. The intereft and fines

are paid trom the incomings of the eftate, and the remainder ~

is paid to the proprietor. The inhabitants of towns obtain
loans on their real eitates, paying only 4 per cent. intereft,
and 3 per cent. capital, and are confequently freed from
their debt in 22 years. Storch’s PiG. of Peterfb. p. 211.

Bank of Philadelphia, called the bank of the United States,
was founded in 1787, and ineorporated by act of Congrefs,
Feb. 25, 1791, under the latter appellation ; and feems to
have been fuccefsful; as it divides a profit of 81. per cent.
annually, paid half-yearly. Its capital ftock was 10 millions
of dollars. The ftock-holders are to continue a corporate
body by the aé&, until the 4th day of March, 1811; and
are capable of holding property to an amount not exceeding,
in the whole, 15 millions of dollars.

Bank of Stockholm owes its origin to Palmfhut, a mer-
chant, who carried on an extenfive trade, and pofleffed great
property in iron mines. He eftablifhed at Stockholm a
bank for the purpofe of exchanging and lending money,
divided into two departments. Such was his credit, and
fuch were his refources, that, though he was the only
banker in the kingdom, and his conneétions of courfe very
extenfive, the notes which he iffued at the intereft of 8 per
cent. for a term of ten years and upwards, were circulated
through the kingdom, and received as cafh by the trading
part of the nation. In procefs of time, by the iffue of
counterfeit notes and other unfavourable circumftances, the
bank was drained of cafh, and its credit was in danger of
finking into difrepute. In this dilemma Palmfhut applied
to Charles XI., and induced the king to take the bank
under his royal direction. Accordingly, the king appointed
Palmfhut director, and having eftablifhed the credit of the
bank, transferred the direGtion of it to the ftates of the
kingdom affembled in 1688 ; and declared himfelf and his
fucceflors prote€tors of the bank, but renounced all inter-
ference in the difpofal of the money. The ftates beg thus
declared guarantees, proprietors, and dire¢tors of the bank, fe-
veral regulations were made. The bank was permitted to lend
money on good fecurity, at the intereft of 8 per cent. but
to pay for all mgney borrowed only 6 per cent. ; the deb-
torsto difcharge intereft upon intereft, but the bank not to
pay intereft upon intereft ; all the king’s revenues were to be
depofited in the bank, without receiving intereft. The bank
was empowered to iffue notes not exceeding the value of
thirty-fix dollars copper-mint, or ten fhillings ; and it was
figally refolved, that the ftates, or thofe whom they fhould

depute,

1. ae

BANK.

depute, fhould have the power of infpecting the accounts,
oak inquiring into the nature of its conftitution, By thefe
regulations the credit and riches of the bank increafed to
fuch a degree, that towards the clofe of the 17th century,
it became the univerfal depofitary of the whole kingdom,
both as to public and private circulation, and lowered the
intereft from 8 to 7, and afterwards to 6, 4, and 3 per
cent. In return, the intereft for all money borrowed,
or depofited in the bank by way of loan, was likewife
leffened from 6 to 41, 3, and 2 per cent. The large
quantity of copper money then current in the country,
being, by its bulk and weight, extremely inconvenient, the
circulation of bank notes became advantageous to com-
merce. From 1714. to 1717, the bank fupplied Charles XIT.
with fuch confiderable fums, that the revenues arifing
from the tolls and cuftoms were infuflicient to pay the
intereft, and of courfe there was a confiderable deficiency.
Thefe fupplies lowered the credit of the bank in the
eftimation of the public; and therefore the king on the
remonitrance of the ftates, mortgaged certain revenues. of
the crown, for the difcharge of the intereft; and declared
that all the revenues then mortgaged fhould remain in the
bank till the debt fhould be fully difcharged; and alfo
promifed, that he would not, on any pretext or emergency,
recur again to the bank for money, except for fuch as
belonged to the crown. Its credit was thus in fome
meafure rettieved ; but its ftock was too far drained to
repair its former credit, until baron Goertz undefignedly
eontributed to it by a fcheme which was in every other
refpe&t detrimental to the nation. To fupply Charles
with money for his conftant wars, Goertz compelled
perfons by means of fines and penalties, and afterwards
by a {pecies of torture, to deliver up their plate; jc*vels, and
coin. In return for thefe effeéts, they received copper-
money, called ‘ Myntellen,”’ or figns of coins, each weigh-
ing only one-third of a ftiver, but pafling for a filver dollar,
of which it was only a ninety-fixth part. The public
fecretly transferred their property, confifting of plate,
jewels, and money, which was thus to be forced from them
and exchanged fora debafed currency, to the bank, confiding
in the royal promife, that the bank fhould be exempted
from the interference and infpection of the crown. Goertz
advifed the king to feize the property depofited in the bank ;
but Charles refuted to violate his promife, and prohibited
Goertz from making any propofals tending to the prejudice
of the bank. In this crifis, the bank received fuch large
fums of money, a great part of which paid no intereft, that
the profits were very confiderable. Accordingly the bank,
in this flourifhing ftate, was induced, by order of the ftates,
in 1741, to prefent the king with a donative of 100,000
filver dollars, or 8,3331. 4s., and to furnifh him with
500,000, or 41,6661. without intereft, towards carrying on
the waragainit Ruffia. Since that period it has frequently
advanced large fums of money to the crown and to the
board of manufactures, by order of the ftates. The bank
is divided into two departments ; /ene, or loan ; and qwexe/, or
exchange bank ; each keeping feparate accounts, but mutu-
ally fupplying the other as occafion requires. ‘The former
ends money on mortgages or pledges. The proprietors,
on depofiting thefe pledges in the bank, receive the full va-
lue, on paying 3 percent. annual intereft; thefe pledges con-
fift of gold and filver in block, copper, brafs, and lene bank
fedler, orcertificatesof having fentmoney tothe bank; and par-
ticularly iron, for which latter article the proprietor receives
three-fourths of its value at the intereft of 3 per cent. ; and
when he difpofes of it, it is again delivered to him on pro-
ducing a certificate from the bank that the loan is duly

difcharged. Jewels were formerly received as pledges ;
but as their value is fluctuating, and the bank was once
defrauded in that article, they are no longer admitted.
Mortgaged lands and houfes, being of a lefs certain value
than other articles, pay an intereft of 4 per cent. on the
money borrowed ; and for the purpofe of liquidating the
debt, the following regulations were adopted ; all borrowers
on lands and houfes fhall pay 6 per cent. yearly ; of this
fum 4 per cent. is the lawful intereft, and the remaining
2 per cent. is annually deducted from the capital, by which
means the original debt is gradually diminifhed.

The qwexe/, or exchange bank, exchanges and iffues
bank notes, difcounts bills, receives and afficns the money
depofited for intereft or fecurity, and difcharges the intere{t
of 2 per cent. on all money placed in their hands. Towards
the latter end of the reign of Adolphus Frederic, bank notes
were iflued in fuch numbers, and many of them at fo low
a value as rs. 6d., that fcarcely any {pecie was left in the
kingdom ; the bank was fo drained of cath as not to be able
to exchange its notes except in copper-money, and paper
was almoft the only currency. Tor preventing a total
bankruptcy, and calling in the paper currency, the ftates,
in 1766, voted a loaa of 3,000,000 rix-dollars, or 750,000 1.
to effect the realization of the bank notes, and to circulate
a fufficient quantity of fpecie. Other regulations were
alfo adopted; and in order to counteraé the efforts of
party, the diet, in 1772, committed to the king the difficult
province of realizing the bank notes, and reforming the
currency, which was happily effeted. In 1777 and 1779,
the ftates confirmed the realization, and made feveral new
regulations, for fecuring the credit of the bank, and render-
ing it full farther independent of the crown. The inde-
pendence of the bank was farther eftablifhed by the diet
of 1784. ‘The accounts were fubmitted to a committee of
revifors, which confifts of a certain number of perfons
chofen by the three houfes of nobles, clergy, and burghers,
from their refpeétive orders, who continue in office till the
meeting of anew diet, when they are either renewed or
confirmed. They affemble once every three years, and
continue fitting not more than a month. They infpe& the
general ftate of the bank, compare the accounts of the di-
rectors, and obferve that no abufes have been committed,
and that the regulations of the ftates have been obferved..
Coxe’s Travels in Sweden, &c. vol. iv. Pp. 130—139.

Bank, Agents of. See AGENT.

Banx-Bills. See Bix.

Bank, Days in. See Day.

Bank, Land, an inftitution projected during the years
1694 and 1695, by Dr. Hugh Chamberlain, for lending of
money at a low intereft on land fecurity, which was the
principal difference between this and the bank of England ;
in oppofition to which corporation, then in its infancy and
ftruggling with difficulties, this Ul-judged project was fet
up. _ It was principally encouraged by the Tory party ; and.
an act of parliament, viz. 7 & 8 W. III. c. 31. was obtained for
the purpofe. The fub{eriptions for its eftablifhment failed,
and the plan proved abortive.

Bank Notes. See Nore.

Bank, or Bench, in Law. See Banc.

Bank, Foot. See Banquetre.

Bank, in Natural Hiflory, denotes an elevation of the
ground, or bottom of the fea, fo as fometimes to furmount
the furface of the water, or at leaft to leave the water fo
fhallow, as ufually not to allow a veflel to remain afloat over
it. In thisfenfe, bank amounts to much the fame with flat,
fhoal, &c.

There are banks of fand, and’ others of ftone, called alfa

thelyes

BAN

fhelves or rocks. - In the North fea, they alfo {peak of banks
of ice, which are large pieces of that matter floating. Sce
IcEBERGS,

Vapours at fea fometimes occafion fuch a deceptio vifus,
that mariners imagine they fee land with trees, kc. They
call fuch deceptions fog-banks. For the account of a re-
markable deception of this kind, fee Dr. Hawk{worth’s
Account of the Voyages to the Southern Hemifphere, vol. 1.
p-1o. A long narrow bank is fometimes called a rid.

The dank abfolutely fo called, or the main bank, or great
dank, denotes that of Newfoundland, the fcene of the cod-
fithery. It is called the great bant,not only by reafon of itsvait
extent, being, according to the Englifh computation, two
hundred miles.long, and, according to the French, one hun-
cred leagues, or three hundred miles ; but alfo on account
of feveral leffer banks near it, where cod are alfo caught.
Thefe lait the French call banguezeaux. This is one of
thofe banks which have water enough to float a fhip, and
which, on this account, are not dangerous.

Banks are ufually diftinguifhed by a buoy, poft, or the
like. .On charts, fand-banks are ufually marked by hittle
dots, and banks of ftone by croffes. The colours. of
tae buoys are alfo varied accordingly ; fand-banks being
denoted by light-coloured buoys, and rocks by black ones.

In large rivers, as the Elbe, &c. fand-banks, by high
tides and inundations, are liable to change places; care is
therefore taken to fhift the buoys from time to time, to shew
the true channel of the river.

An exatt knowledge of the banks, their extent, and the
depth .of water.on them, makes the moft effential part of
the fcience of a pilot, and the maiter of a fhip : if the veffel
be large, and draw much water, great attention will be
neceflary to keep clear of the banks: on the contrary, if it
be fmall,.the fame banks afford a fure afylum, where it may
brave the largeit and ftouteft veflels, which dare not follow
it here. By means of this barrier, many a {mall craft has
efcaped its enemy.

Bank, in veflels which moye with oars, is ufed forthe
bench where the rowers are feated; popularly called, by
-our feamen, the thought.

In this fenfe we read of banks of gallies, of galeaffes, of
galliots, of brigantines, and the like.

The Venetian gondolas have no banks ; for the watermen
row ftanding.

The common gallies have twenty-five banks, that is,
twenty-five on each fide, in all fifty banks, with one oar to
each bank, and four or five mentoeach oar. The galeafles
have thirty-two banks on a fide, and fix or feven rowers to
a bank. See Douste-banked.

Bank alfo: denotes an elevation of earth, ftones, ftakes,
or other materials in form of a wall, or caufeway, to flop
the waters, and prevent inundations,

Thefe, on ether occafions, are denominated dams, and
fea-walls, &c. and by the ancients aggeres ; thofe on the
coafts of Holland are more particularly denominated dykes.
The beft bank, in the opinion of Dr. Hales, is that con-
trived by Dr. Wark of Scotland. A quantity of furze
is fixed to the bottom of the channel, of fuch a breadth
as is proportioned to the force which it is to refift. The
fand, or flime, will foon fettle in the furze, and when
this is covered; another bed of furze is to be laid on as
before, and fo on till the bank is raifed to a fufficient height.

Banx is alfo ufed in feveral games, for the ftock or fund
of him who undertakes the game.

Banx at baffet, a fum of money laid down by the ¢ailleur,
before the gametters, to anfwer all the winning cards that
fhall turn up in his courfe of dealing. Yet it is obferved,

BAN

that what the bankers gain per cent. of all the money ad.
ventured at pharo, is greater than that at baffet ; being
two pounds nineteen fhillings and ten-pence per cent. in the
firft, and but fifteen fhillings and three-pence in the fecond,
Vide De Moiy. Doétr. Chane. p. 93.

BANKER, in Commerce,a perfon who trafficks in money,
and remits it from place to place, and fupplies his corre-
{pondents or cuftomers with money from the ftock depofited
in his hands for bills of exchange and other fecurities. (See
Bank.) The hillory of private banks is as follows. The
royal mint in the tower of London had for fome years be-
fore the year 1640, been made ufe of as a kind of bank, or
depofit for merchants to lodge their cafh in. But king
Charles the Firft having in that year made free with their
money, the mint loft its credit. After this, the merchants
and traders of London generally trufted their cafh with
their fervants, until the breaking out of the civil war, when
it was very cuftomary for apprentices and clerks to leave
their mafters and go into the army. Whereupon, in fuch
unfettled times, merchants, not daring longer to confide in
their ayprentices, began firit, about the year 1645, to lodge
their neceflary cath in gold{mith’s hands, both to receive and
pay for them ; until which time, the whole and proper bu-
finefs of London goldfmiths was to buy and fell plate, and
foreign coins of gold and filver, to melt and cull them, to
coin fome at the mint, and with the reit to fupply the re-
finers, plate-makers, and merchants, as they found the price
to vary. This account of the matter we have from a {carce
and moft curious {mall pamphlet, publifhed.in 1676, intitled,
« The Myttery of the new-fafhioned Gold{miths, or Bank.
ers, difcovered,”’ in only eight quarto pages. ?

Bankers, on their firit eftablifhment, allowed to thofe who
entruited their money in their hands a moderate intereft for
the fame, and hereby their bufinefs was very confiderably,
increafed, and rofe to great reputation in the year 1667,
when the Dutch burnt our fhips at Chatham ; but this event
caufed a run on the bankers, which hurt their credit ; and
in the year 1672, king Charles II. fhut up the exchequer,
and feized the money which the bankers had lent him at 8
per cent. intereit, the whole fum amounting to 1,328,526.
The king was afterwards neceffitated to pay fix per cent.
intereft for this debt out of his hereditary excife, but the
principal was never paid. However, the parliament of.
12 William, cap. 12. provided for a large arrear of intereit,
and fettled an intereft of three per cent. for the future.
The debt was hereby made redeemabie, on paying one,
moiety of the principal fum, viz. 664,263 1. farther, con-
firmed by an att of 2 & 3 Anne, cap. 15. which moiety
now became the proper debt of the public ; and being re- .
duced from fix to five per cent. in 1717, was finally fub-
fcribed into the South-fea capital ftock in the year 1720.

Bankers now allow no intereft, and by invefting a certain
proportion of their capital in the funds, or laying it out on.
other fufficient fecurity, and trafficking with it in the ftocks,
in difcounts, &c. reap very confiderable advantage from it 5,
and by negociating bills, &c. on the part of their creditors,
greatly contribute to the convenience and difpateh of bufi-,
nefs. ce
When the people of any particular country, fays Dr
Smith (ubi infra), have fuch confidence ix the fortune, pro-,
bity, and prudence of a particular banker, as to believe;
that he is always ready to pay upon demand fuch of his,
promiffory notes as are likely to be at any time prefented to
him, thole notes come to have the fame currency as gold,
and filver money, from the confidence that {uch money can,
at any time be had for them. esd ie

A particular banker lends among hie cuftomers his own,

promiffory

BAN

promiffory notes, to the extent, we fhall fuppofe, of a hun.
dred thoufand pounds. As thofe notes ferve all the pur-

ofes of money, his debtors pay him the fame intereft as if

Re had lent them fo much money. This intereft is the
fource of his gain, “"Fhough fome of thofe notes are con-
tinually coming back upon him for payment, part of them
continue to circulate for months and years together.
Though he has generally in circulation, therefore, notes to
the extent of a hundred thoufand pounds, twenty thoufand
pounds in gold and filver may, frequently, be. a fufficient
provifion for anfwering occafional demands. By this ope-
ration, therefore, twenty thovfand pounds in gold and filver
perform all the funétions which a hundred thoufand could
etherwife have performed. ‘The fame exchanges may be
made, the fame quantity of confumable goods may be cir-
culated and diftributed to their proper confumers, by means
of his promiffory notes, to the value of a hundred thou-
fand pounds, as by an equal yalue of gold and filver money.
Eighty thoufand pounds of gold and filver therefore, can,
in this manner, be {pared from the circulation of the coun-
try ; and if different operations of the fame kind fhould, at
the fame time, be carried on by many different banks and
bankers, the whole circulation may thus be conducted with
a fifth part only of the gold and filver which would other-
wile have been requifite.

_ Let us fuppofe, for example, that the whole circulating
money of fome particular country amounted, at a particular
time, to. one million fterling, that fum being then fufficient
for circulating the whole annual produce of their Jand and
labour. Let us fuppofe too, that fome time thereafter,

_different banks and bankers iffued promiffory notes, payable
- to the bearer, to the extent of one million, referying in their
different coffers two hundred thoufand pounds for anfwering
occafional demands. There would remain, therefore, in cir-
culation, eight hundred thoufand pounds in gold and filver,
and a million of bank notes, or eighteen hundred thoufand
pounds of paper and money together. But the annual pro-
duce of the land and labour of the country had before re-
quired only one million to circulate and diftribute it to its
proper confumers, and that annual produce cannot be imme-
diately augmented by thofe operations of banking. One
million, therefore, will be fufficient to circulate it after them.

The goods to be bought and fold being precifely the fame
as before, the fame quantity of money will be fufficient for
buying and felling them.
may be allowed fuch an expreffion, will remain precifely the
fame as before. One million we have fuppofed fufficient to
fill that channel. Whatever, therefore, is poured into it
beyond this fum, cannot run init, but muft overflow.. One
million eight hundred thoufand pounds are poured into it.
Eight hundred thoufand pounds therefore muft overflow,
that fum being over and above what can be etiployed in the
circulation of the country. But though this fum cannot be
employed at home, it is too valuable to be allowed to lie
idle. Jt will, therefore, be fent abroad, in order to feek

that profitable employment which it cannot find-at home...

But the paper cannot go.abroad ; becaufe ata diftance from
the banks which iffue it, and from. the country in which
payment of it can be exacted by law, it will not be received
in common payments. Gold and filver, therefore, to the

amount of eight.hundred thoufand. pounds, will. be. fent:

abroad, and the channel of home circulation will remain
filled with a million of paper, inftead.of .a million of thofe
metals which filled it before. .

_ But though fo great a quantity of gold and filver is thus
feat abroad, we muft not imagine that it is fent abroad
for_pothing, or that its proprietors make a prefent of

The channel of circulation, if I.

By

it to foreign nations. They will exchange it for fo-
reign goods of fome kind or another, in order to fupply
the confumption either of fome other foreign country, or
of their own, ;

If they employ it in purchafing goods in one foreign
country in order to fupply the confumption of another, or
in what is called the carrying trade, whatever profit they
make will be an addition to the neat revenue of their own
country. It is like a new fund, created for carrying on a
new trade; domeitic bufinefs being now tranfaGed by pa-
per, and the gold and filver being converted into a fund for
this new trade.

If they employ it in purchafing foreign goods for home
confumption, they may either, firit, purchafe fuch goods as
are likely to be confumed by idle people who produce no-
thing, fuch as foreign wines, foreign filks, &c.; or, fe-
condly, they may purchafe an additional ftock of materials,
tools, and proyifions, in order to maintain and employ an
additional number of induftrious people, who re-produce,
with a profit, the value of their annual confumption.

So far as it is employed in the firlt way, it promotes pro-
digality, increafes expence and confumption, without in-
creafing production, or eftablifhing any permanent fund
for fupporting that expence, and is in every refpeét hurt-
ful to fociety.

So far as it is employed in the fecond way, it promotes:
induttry ; and though it increafes the confumption of the
fociety, it provides a permanent fund for fupporting that
confumption, the people who confume, re-producing, with
a profit, the whole value of their annual confumption. The
grofs revenue of the fociety, the annual produce of their
land and labour, is increafed by the whole value which the
labour of thofe workmen adds to the materials upon which
they are employed ; and their neat revenue by what remains
of this value, after deducting what is neceflary for fupport-
ing the tools and inftruments of their trade. Smith’s
Wealth of Nations, vol. i. p. 434, &c. '

In Italy, the employment of a banker, efpecially in repub-
lics, does not derogate from nobility ; and hence it is, that
moft of the cadets, or younger fons of perfons of condition,
undertake it. for the fupport of their family. The nobility
of Venice and Genoa were for a long time the chief bankers
in the other countries of Europe.

The ancient bankers were called argentarii, and nummula-
ru; and by the Greeks TpameCer thy xorAAUBisas, and. expryupo-
vo. ‘Their chief bufinefs was to put out the money of
private perfons to intereit ; they had their boards and benches
for this purpofe in all the markets and public places where
they took in the money from fome to lend it to. others.
The Romans had two kinds of bankers, though their office
was much more extenfive than that of the bankers among
us, theirs being that of public officers, in whom were
united.the functions of a broker, agent, banker, and notary ;
managing the exchange, taking in money, affifting in buy-
ing and telling, and drawing up the writings neceffary on all
thefe occafions. . . _

Bankers in the Court of Rome, are perfons authorized,
exclufive of all others, to folicit and procure by their cor-
refpondents at Rome, all bulls, difpenfations, and other
aéts difpatched at the papal datary, or in the legatefhip of
Avignon ;- they are difperfed in all the cities. of Fiance,
where there is a parliament, or a prefidial; and were ereGted -
into a regular and hereditary office, by an edi& in 1673.

They owe their origin to.the.Guelphs, who took -thelter
at Avignon, and in other cities within the obedience of the
pope, in the time of the civil. wars.in Italy. The favour
they were in with-the pontiffs, for having efpoufed the pa-

pal -

BAN

pal caufe, occafioned their being employed in procuring
expeditions of the court of Rome. But the heavy extor-
tions they praétifed towards their clients, foon rendered
them odious, and occafioned feveral denominations of re-
proach, as Coarcini, caturcini, caurfini, corfini, Sc. from the
city Cahors, the native place of pope John XXII. in whofe
pontificate they were in their higheft power. See CauRSINES.

Banker, in Bricklaying, apiece of timber whereon they
cut the bricks.

The banker is fix feet long or more, according to the
number of men to work at it, and nine or ten inches
fquare ; it is to be laid on two piers of timber, three feet
high from the flaor they ftand on.

Banker, in Sea Language, fignifies a veffel employed in
the cod-fifhery on the banks of Newfoundland.

BANKES, Six Jous, in Biography, lord chief juftice of
the common pleas in the reign of king Charles I. was de-
feended from a good family at Kefwick in Cumberland,
and born there in the year 1589. In 1604 he removed to
Qucen’s college, Oxford, and afterwards purfued the fludy
of the law in Gray’s inn. By his application and profi-
ciency he acquired a reputation which recommended him
to his Sovereign Charles I. who, in 1629, made him his at-
torney. In eats 1634, he was knighted, and appointed
to the office of attorney-general ; from which office he was
advanced, in 1640, to that of chief juftice of the common
pleas. In both thefe offices he aéted with wifdom and in-
tegrity, and obtained univerfal approbation. So fingular
was his merit, that, though he decidedly took part with the
king in his conteft with the parliament, it was defired by the
latter, in 1643, that he might be continued in office.
However, he foon after loft all his credit at Wettmintter ;
for he declared from the bench at Salifbury, that the a€tions
of Effex, Mancheiter, and Waller, were treafonable; and the
commons voted him and the reft of the judges who were of
this opinion, traitors. Lady Barkes manifefted extraordi-
nary fortitude in the defence of Corff Caftle in the ifle of
Purbeck, where fir John and his family refided, When it
was befieged by the parliamentary pies: fhe refufed to
furrender it, though fhe had about her only her children, a
few fervants and tenants, amounting at one time only to five
and at moft to no more than forty. When the town was
obliged to furrender, and the befiegers became remifs under
a notion that their bufinefs was completed, lady Bankes
procured a fupply of provifion and ammunition, and was
thus enabled to hold out till the fiege was raifed. Sir
John remained with the king at Oxford, in the difcharge of
his duty as a privy-counfellor, till his death, which happened
in December 1644. By his will he bequeathed, befides
other charities, an annuity of thirty pounds to the town of
Kefwick for the fupport of a manufacture of coarfe cottons,
whieh had been lately eftablifhed, and which, without this
aid, would have been loft, Sir John Bankes was diftin-
guifhed by found integrity, cool judgment, and an amiable
temper. Biog. Brit.

BANKIANA, in Entomology, a Species of PHavena
(Tortrix), named after fir Jofeph Banks ; it inhabits the
woods of England and Germany 3 is of a large fize ; and is
diftinguifhed by having the wings brown, with two fnowy
white bands, the poflerior one unidentated. Fabricius.

BANKING, in general, the making of banks to oppofe
the force of the fea, rivers, or the like, and fecure the land
from being overflowed thereby.

With refpeé to the water which is to be kept out, this
is called banking ; with refpedét to the land, which is hereby
40 be defended, imbanking.

Bawkino, ina Salt-work, the railing of a fence againft the

5

BAN

fea, whereby its waters may be kept out, excepting fo muclé
as is neceffary for the preparation of the falt.

Bankinc, in Commerce. See Bank, and Banker.

BANKOK, or Bancok, in Geography, a town of Siamy
at the mouth of the river Meinam, which difcharges itfelf
into the gulf of Siam.

BANKRUPT, in Commerce and Law, a trader, whe
fecretes himfelf, or does certain other aéts, tending to des
fraud, or injure, his creditors.

The word is formed from the ancient Latin dancus, a
bench, or table, and ruptus, broken.

Bank, we have elfewhere obferved, originally fignified z
bench, which the firft bankers had in the public places, in
markets, fairs, &c. on which they told their money, wrote
their bills of exchange, &c. Hence, when a_ banker
failed, they broke his bank, to advertife the public, that
the perfon to whom the bank belonged was no longer
in a condition to continue his bufinefs. As this prac-
tice was very frequent in Italy, it is faid the term bank-
rupt is derived from the Italian banco rotto, broken bench.

Cowel rather chufes to deduce the word from the French
banque, table, and route, veftigium, trace, by metaphor from
the fign left in the ground, of a table once fattened to it
and now gone. On this principle he traces the origin of
bankrupts from the ancient Roman men/arii, or argentarii,
who had their ¢aberne or menfe in certain public places 5
and who, when they fled, or made off with the money
that had been trufted to them, left only the fign or
{hadow of their former {tation behind him. 4 Inft, 277.

And it is obfervable, that the title of the firft Englifh
ftatute concerning this offence, 34 Hen. VIIE. cap. 4.
‘ ayainft {uch perfons as do make bankrupt,” is a literal
tranflation of the French idiom int banque route.

A bankrupt was formerly confidered merely as a criminal
or offender (ftat. 1. Jac. I. c. 15. § 17.) 3 butat prefent the
laws of bankruptcy are regarded as laws calculated for the
benefit of trade, and founded on the principles of humanity
as well as juftice; and to that end, the confer fome privi-
leges, not only on the creditors, but allo on the bankrupt
himfelf :—on the creditors, by compelling the bankrupt to
give up all his effets to their ufe, without any fraudulent
concealment ;—and on the debtor, by exempting him from
the rigour of the general law, whereby his perfon might be
confined at the difcretion of his creditor, though in reality
he has nothing to fatisfy the debt ; whereas the law of bank-
rupts, taking into confideration the fudden and unavoidable
accidents to which men in trade are liable, has given them
the liberty of their perfons, and fome pecuniary emoluments,
upon condition of furrendering their whole seat to be di-
vided among the creditors.

By the Roman law of the twelve tables, the creditors
might cut the debtor’s body into pieces, and each of them
take his proportionable fhare; though fome learned men
have doubted whether the law “ de debitore in parte fecan-
do,” is to be underitood in fo very butcherlya light. There
were alfo other laws, lefs inhuman, for imprifoning the
debtor’s perfon in chains, fubjeCting him to ftripes an hard
labour, at the mercy of his rigid creditor, and fometimes
felling him, his wife and children, to perpetual foreign
flavery * trans Tiberim ;” but this was an oppreffion that
produced many popular infurreétions, and feceflicns to the
“mons facer”? In Pegu, and the adjacent countries in
Taft India, the creditor is entitled to difpofe of the debtor
himfelf, and likewife of his wife and children; infomuch that
he may even violate with impunity the chaftity of the debtor’s

wife; but then, by fo doing, the debt is underitood to be -

difcharged. In fome places, bankrupts are condemned to
wear

~

BANK RK UP T.

wear a green cap; at Lucca, an orange cap. Our legif-
Jators, however, in framing the laws of bankruptcy, feem
humanely and wifely to have attended to the example of the
Roman law of « Ceffion,’’ introduced by the Chrittian em-
peror’s ; by which, if a debtor ceded or yielded up all his
fortune to his creditors, he was fecured from being dragged
toa gaol ; “Omni quoque corporali cruciatu femoto.” (Cod.
7.71. per tot.) Forasthe emperor juftly obferves (Init. 4.
6. 40.), inhumanum erat {poliatam fortunis fuis in folidum
damnari.”? But by a deviation into the other extreme, it
was afterwards enacted (Nov. 135. c. 1.), that if the debtor
by any unforefeen accident was reduced to low circum-
ftances, and would /wear that he had not fufficient left to
pay his debts, he fhould not be compelled to cede or give
up even that which he had in his pofleffion ;—a law which,
under a falfe notion of humanity, feems to be fertile of per-
jury, injuftice, and abfurdity. The laws of England ileer
aa thefe extremes ; providing at once againft the in-
humanity of the creditor, who is not fuffered to confine an
honeft bankrupt who has delivered up all his effects, and
at the fame time taking care that all his jult debts fhall be
paid, fo far as the effects will extend. But they are {till
cautious of encouraging prodigality and extravagance by
this indulgence to debtors; and, accordingly, allow the
benefit of the laws of bankruptcy to none but actual
traders, who, generally fpeaking, are the only perfons liable
to accidental loffes, and to an inability ef paying their debts,
without any fault of their own. ‘Trade cannot be carried
on without mutual credit on both fides; and here the con-
traGting of debts is not only juttifiable, but even neceffary.
And if by accidental calamities, as by the lofs of a fhip ina
tempett, the failure of brother traders, or by the non-pay-
ment of perfons out of trade, a merchant or trader becomes
incapable of difcharging his own debts, it is his misfortune
and not his fault. ‘To the misfortunes of debtors, there-
fore, the law has given a compafflionate remedy, but denied
jt to their faults ; fince, while it provides for the fecurity of
commerce, by enacting that every confiderable trader may
he declared a bankrupt, for the benefit of his creditors as
well as himfelf, it has alfo, with a view of difcouraging ex-
travagance, declared, that no one fhall be capable of being
made a bankrupt, but only a trader ; nor capable of receiy-
ingthe full benefitof the ftatutes, but only anindu/frious trader.
The firft ftatute made concerning any Englifh bankrupts
was 34 Hen. VIII. c. 4. when trade began frit to be pro-
perly cultivated in England: which has been almoft totally
altered by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 7. whereby bankruptcy is con-
fined to fuch perfons only as have ufed the trade of mer-
chandife, in grofs or by retail, by way of bargaining, ex-
change, rechange, bartering, chevifance, or otherwife ; or
have fought their living by buying and felling. And by
ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 19. perfons ufing the trade or profeffion
ofa {crivener, receiving other men’s monies and eftates into
their truft and cuftody, are alfo made liable to the ftatutes
of bankruptcy ; and the benefits as well as the penal parts
of the law, are extended as well to aliens and denizens as to
natural born fubjects, being intended entirely for the pro-
teGion of trade, in which aliens are often as deeply con-
cerned as natives. By many fubfequent ftatutes, but laftly
by flatute 5 Geo. II. c. 30. bankers, brokers, and factors,
are declared liable to the ftatutes of bankruptcy ; and this
npon the fame reafon that feriveners are included by the
ftatute of James I. viz. for the relief of their creditors; whom
they have otherwife more opportunities of defrauding than
any other fet of dealers ; and they are properly to be looked
sipon as pees fince they make merchandife of money, ia
Vou. III.

the fame manner as other merchants do of goods and other
moveable chattels. But by the tame act, no farmer, grazier,
or drover, fhall (as fuch) be liable to be deemed a bankrupt 5
for though they buy and fell corn, and hay, ard beaits, in the
courfe of hufbandry, yet trade is not their principal, but only
a collateral, object ; their chief concern being to manureand
till the ground, and make the beft advantage of its produce.
And, befides, the fubjeCting them to the laws of Bankruptcy
might be a means of defeating their landlords of the fecurity
which the !aw has given them above all others, for the pay-
ment of their referved rents ; wherefore alfo, upon a fimilar
reafon, a receiver of thé king’s taxes is not capable, as fuch,
of being a bankrupt; left the king fhould be defeated of thofe
extenfive remedies againft his debtors, which are put into
his hands by the prerogative. By the fame ftatute, no per-
fon fhall have a commiflion of bankrupt awarded againft
him, unlefs at the petition of fome one creditor to whom
he owes 100l. ; or of two, to whom he is indebted 15ol.; or
of more, to whym altogether he is indebted zool. For the
law does not look upon perfons, whofe debts amount to lefs,
to be traders confiderable enough, either to enjoy the benefit
of the ftatute themfelves, or to entitle the creditors, for the
benefit of public commerce to demand the diftribution of
their effects.

In the interpretation of thefe feyeral ftatutes, it hath
been held, that buying only, or felling only, will not qualify
a man to be a bankrupt; but it muit be both buying and
felling, and alfo getting a livelihood by it ; as, by exercif-
ing the calling of a merchant, a grocer, a mercer, or, in one
general word, a chapman, who is one that buys and fells any
thing. But no handicraft occupation (where nothing is
bought and fold, and where therefore an extenfive credit for
the ftock in trade is not neceffary to be had) will make aman
aregular bankrupt; as that of a hufbandman, a gardener, and
the like, who are paid for their work and labour. Alfo an
inn-keeper cannot, a3 fuch, be a bankrupt ; for his gain or
livelihood does not arife from buying and felling in the way of
merchandife, but in a great degree from the ufe of his rooms
and furniture, his attendan e, andthe like; and though he may
buy corn and victuals, to fell again at a profit, yet that no
more makes him a trader, than a fchoolmatter or other per-
fon is, that keeps a boarding-houfe, and makes confiderable
gains by buying and felling what he fpends in the houfe ;
and fuch a one isclearly not within the ftatutes. But where
perfons buy goods, and make them up into faleable commo-
dities, as fhoe-makers, fmiths, and the like ; here, though
part of the gain is by bodily labour, and nct by buying and
felling, yet they are within the itatutes of benkrupts ; for the
labour is only in melicration of the comn odity, and render-
ing it more fit for fale. 5

One fingle a& of buying and felling will not make a man
a trader ; but a repeated practice, and profit by it. Buying
and felling bank-ftock, or other government fecurities, will
not make a man a bankrupt ; they not being goods, wares,
or merchandife, within the intent of the ftatute, by which
a profit may be fairly made. Neither will buying and felling
under particular reftraints, or for particular purpofes ; ag 1f
a commiffoner of the navy ufes to buy victuals for the flect,
and difpofe of the furplus and re fufe, he is not thereby made
a trader within the ftatute. An infant, though a trader,
cannot be made a bankrupt; for an infant can owe nothing
but for neceflaries ; and the ftatutes of bankruptcy create ne
new debts, but only give a {peedier and more effectual re-
medy for recovering Fick as were before due ; and no perfor
can be made a bankrupt for debts which he is not liable at
law to pay. But a feme covert in London, being.a fale

73 8) tradey

,

BANK

trader according-to the cuitom, is liable to a commiffion of
bankrupt. ~ :

Having fhewn who may, and who may not be made a
baakrupt, the next fubjeét of inquiry Comprehends the par-
ticular aéts of bankruptcy which render a manea bankrupt.
For full fatisfaGtion on this point, it will be neceflary to con-
fult the feveral ftatutes, and the refolutions formed upon them
by the courts. Among thefe may be reckoned, 1. Depart-
ing from the realm, whereby a man withdraws himfelf from
the junfdition and coercion of the law, with intent to-de-
fraud his creditors. 2. Departing from his own houfe, with
intent to feerete himfelf, and avoid his creditors. 3. Keep-
ing in his own houfe, privately, fo as not to be feen or fpoken
with by his creditors (except for juit and necefiary caufe),
which is likewife conftrued to be an intention to defraud his
creditors, by avoiding the procefsof the law. 4. Procuring
or fuffermg himfelf willingly to be arrefted, or outlawed, or
imprifoned, without juft and lawful caufe; which is like-
wife deemed an attempt to defraud his creditors. 5. Pro-
curing his money, goods, chattels, and effeGts, to be attached
or fequeitered by any legal procefs ; which is another plain
and direct endeavour to difappoint his creditors of their fecu-
rity. 6, Making any fraudulent conveyance to a friend, or
fecret truftee, of his lands, tenements, goods, or chattels ;
which is an a& of the fame fufpicious nature with the laft.
7- Procuring any protection, not being himfelf privileged by
parliament, in order to fereen his perfon from arrefts ; which
alfo is an endeavour to elude the juftice of the law. 8. En-
deavouring or defiring, by any petition to the king, or bill
exhibited in any of the king’s courts againft any creditors, to
compel them to take lefs.than their juft debts ; or to procra-
ftinate the time of payment, originally contracted for; which
are an acknowledgement of either his poverty or his knavery.
g- Lying in prifon for two months, or more, upon arreft or
other detention for debt, without finding bail, in order to
obtain his liberty. For the inability to procure bail, argues
a ftrong deficiency in his credit, owing either to his fufpected
poverty, or ill charaéter ; and his neglect to do it, if able,
can arife only from a fraudulent intention ; in either of which
cafes it is high time for his creditors to look to themfelves,
and compel a diftribution of his effets. 10. Efcaping from
prifon after an arreft for a juft debt of rool. or upwards.
For no man would break prifon that was able and defirous
to procure bail; which brings it within the reafon of the
laft cafe. 11. Neglecting to make fatisfaction for any juit
debt to the amount of rool. within two months after fervice
of legal procefs, for fuch debt, upon any trader having
privilege of parliament. Stat. 13 Eliz. c. 7.1 Jac. I.c. Dee
2i Jac. I.c. 19. 4 Geo. III. c. 33.

The legiflature having thus by pofitive laws declared
what are the aéts which {hall be regarded as criterions of in-
folvency or fraud, on which a commiffion of bankruptcy
may be grounded, our courts of juttice will not allow of ex-
tending or multiplying a&ts of bankruptcy by any conftruc-
tion or implication. And, therefore, fir John Holt held
(Lord Raym. 625.) that a man’s removing his goods pri-
vately to prevent their being feifed in execution, was no a&
of bankruptcy. It has alfo been determined exprefsly, that
a banker’s ftopping or refuling payment is no aét of bank-
ruptcy ; and ifin confequence of fuch refufal, he is arrefted
and puts in bail, it is {till no a& of bankruptcy (7 Mod.
139.) 3 but if he goes to prifon, and lies there two months,
then, and not before, he is become a bankrupt.

The proceedings in a commiffion of bankrupt, depend
entirely on the feveral ftatutes of bankruptey ; and they are
digefted by Blackitone into the ot concife order,

Malicious petitions,

Rew Pf.

And, firft, there muft bea petition to the Jord chancellor
by one creditor to the amount of 1ool., or by two to the
amount of 150l., or by three or more to the amount of
200l.; which debts mutt be proved by affidavit ; upoa
which he grants a commiffion to fuch difereet perfoas as to
him fhall feem good, who are then ftiled commiffioners of
bankrupt. The petitioners, to prevent malicions applica-
tions, muft be bound in a fecurity or bond to the lord
chancellor of 200l., to make the party amends in cafe they
do not prove him a bankrupt. And if on the other hand
they receive any money or effeéts from the bankrupt, as a
recompence for fuing out the commiffion, fo as to receive
more than their rateable dividends of the bankrupt’s
eftate, they forfeit not only what they fhall have fo received,
but their whole debt. Thefe provilions are made, as well
to fecure perfons in good credit from being damnified by
as to prevent knavifh combinations
between the creditors and bankrupt, in order to obtain the
benefit of a commiflion. When the commiffion {s awarded
and iffued, the commiffioners are to meet, at their own ex-
pence, and to take an oath for the due execution of their
commiflion, and to be allowed a fum not exceeding 20s,
per diem each, at every fitting. And no commiflion of
bankrupt fhall abate, or be void, by the death of the
bankrupt, fubfequent to the commiflion, ftat. 1 Jac. I.
C- 15-3 nor upon any demife of the crown, ftat. 5 Geo. II.
c. 33- The granting of a commiffion of bankruptcy is not
difcretionary, but a matter of right. 1. Vern. 153. Stat.
13 Eliz. c. 7.

When the commiffioners have received their commiffion,
they are firft to receive proof of the perfon’s being a trader,
and having committed fome act of bankruptcy ; and then
to declare him a bankrupt, if proved fo ; and to give notice
thereof in the gazette, and at the fame time to appoint
three meetings. At one of thefe meetings an eleGtion mult
be made of affignees. Andat the third meeting, at fartheit,
which muft be on the forty-fecond day after the advertife.
ment in the gazette (unlefs the time be enlarged by the
lord chancellor), the bankrupt, upon notice alfo perfonally
ferved upon him or left at his ufual place of abode, muit
furrender himfelf perfonally to the commiflioners ;_ which
furrender (if voluntary) proteéts him from all arrefts till
his final examination is paft: and he muft thenceforth in
all refpects conform to the direGions of the ftatutes of
bankruptcy; or, in default of either furrender or conformity,
thall be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy, and fhall
fuffer death, and his goods and eftate fhall be diftributed
among his creditors. Stat. 5 Geo. II. c. 30.

In cafe the bankrupt abfconds, or is likely to run away,
between the time of the commiffion iffued, and the lait day
of furrender, he may by warrant from any judge or juftice of
the peace be apprehended and committed to the county
gaol, in order to be forthcoming to the commiffioners ;
who are alfo empowered immediately to grant a warrant for
feifing his goods and papers. Stat. 5 Geo. II. c. 30.

When the bankrupt appears, the commiffioners are to
examine him touching all matters relating to his trade and
effets. They may alfo fummon before them, and examine
the bankrupt?s wife, and any other perfon whatfoever, as to
all matters relating to the bankrupt’s affairs: And in cafe
any of them fhall refufe to anfwer, or thall not anfwer full
to any lawful queftion, or fhall refufe to fubferibe fuch
their examination, the commiffioners may commit them to
prifon without bail, till they fubmit themfelves and make
and figna full anfwer ; the commiffioners {pecifying in their
warrant of commitment the queftion fo refufed to be an

fwered.

a a

a i ee

“amends for all this rigour and feverity.

BANKA UP ®T.

fwered. And any gaoler, permitting fuch perfon to efcape,
orto go out of prifon, fhall forfeit sool. to the creditors.
Stat. BP ac: Tt. 19, *5"Geo. IT. c.-g0.

The bankrupt, upon this examination, is bound upon

pain of death to make a full Lirica of all his eftate and

_ effects, as well in expeftancy as poffeffion, and how he has

difpofed of the fame; together with all books and writings
relating thereto: and is to deliver up all {in his own power
to the commiffioners (except the neceffary apparel of
himfelf, his wife, and his children) ; or, in cafe he
conceals or embezzles any effeéts to the amount of 2ol. or
withholds any books or writings, with intent to defraud
his creditors, he fhall be guilty of felony without benefit of
clergy ; and his goods and eltate fhall be divided among
his creditors. And unlefs it fhall appear, that his inability
to pay his debts arefe from fome cafual lofs, he may, upon
conviction by indi&tment of fuch grofs mifconduét and
negligence, be fet upon the pillory for two hours, and have
one of his ears nailed to the fame and cut off. Stat. 5 Geo. II.
Guage ar ode. 1. Cc. 19.

After the time allowed to the bankrupt for fuch difcovery
is expired, any other perfon voluatarily difcovering any
part of his eltate, before unknown to the affignees, fhall be
entitled to 5 per cent. out of the effets fo difcovered, and
fuch farther reward as the afliznees and commiffioners hall
think proper. And any trultee, wilfully concealing the
eftate of any bankrupt, after expiration of the two and forty
days, fhall forfeit rool. and double the value of the eftate
concealed to the creditors. Stat. 5 Geo. II. c. 30.

Hitherto every thing is in favour of the creditors ; and the
Jaw feems to be pretty rigid and fevere againft the bank-
rupt; but, in cafe he proves honeft, it makes him full
For if the bank-
rupt hath made aningenuous difcovery (of the truth and
fulficiency of which there remains no doubt), and hath
conformed in all points to the dire€tions of the law; and
if, in confequence thereof, the creditors, or four parts in
five of them in number and value (but none of them
creditors for lefs than 2ol.), will fign a certificate to that
purport; the commiffioners are thea to authenticate fuch
certificate under their hands and feals, and to tranfmit it
fo the-lord chancellor: and he, or two of the judges whom
he fhall appoint, on oath made by the bankrupt that fuch
Lertificate was obtained without fraud, may allow the fame ;
or difallow it, upon caufe fhewa by any of the creditors of
the bankrupt. Stat. 5 Geo. IT. c. 30.

If no caufe be fhewn to the contrary, the certificate is
allowed of courfe ; and then the bankrupt is entitled to a
decent and reafonable allowance out of his effeéts, for his
future fupport and maintainance, and to put him in a way
of honelt induftry. ‘This allowance is alfo in proportion
to his former good behavionr, in the early difcovery of the
decline of his affairs, and thereby giving his creditors a
Jarger dividend. For, if his effe€ts will not pay one half
ot his debts, or ten fhillings in the pound, he is left to the
diferetion of the commiffioners and affignees, to have a com-
petent fum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per cent. ; but if
they pay ten fhillings in the pound, he is to be allowed
5 per cent. ; if twelve fhillings and fix-pence, then 74 per
cent ; and if fifteen fhillings in the pound, then the bank-
rupt fhall be allowed to per cent.: provided, that fuch
allowance do not in the firft cafe exceed 200l., in the fecond
250l., and in the third 3001. Stat. 5 Geo. Il. c. 30.

' Befides this allowance, he has alfo an indemnity granted
him, of being free and difcharged for ever from all debts

‘owing by him at the time he became a bankrupt ; even

though judgement fhall have been obtained againt him,
and he lies in prifon upon execution for fuch debts ; and,
for that among other purpofes, all proceedings on commif-
fions of bankrupt are, on petition, to be entered of record,
as a perpetual bar aeaintl actions to be commenced on
this account: though, in. general, the produétion of the
certificate properly allowed thall be fufficient evidence of all
previous proceedings. Stat. 5 Geo. II. c. 30.

_The certificate, when allowed, will not difcharge the
fureties of a bankrupt: but if he obtains it before his bail
are fixed, it will difcharge them: whereas if not till
after they are fixed, they will remain liable rotwithitanding
the certificate : and if the creditor prove his debt, with in-
tent to obitruct the certificate, it does not preclude him from
purfuing his legal remedies: and even if he had received
his debt or part of it, under the commiffion, {till he might
proceed to fix the bail who would be entitled to their
remedy, fo far as they are oppreffed, by audita querela,’’
or by “motion.” (1 Atk. 84. 1 Burr. 244. 2 Burr. 716.)
The certificate does not difcharge a bankrupt from his owa
exprefs collateral covenant, which does not run with the
land (2 Burr. 2443.); nor from a covenant to pay rent.
(4 Term. Rep. 94.) A bankrupt, after a commiffion of
bankruptcy fued out, may, in confideration of a debt due
before the bankruptcy, and for which the creditor agrees
to accept no dividend o- benefit under the commiiiion,
make fuch- creditor a fatisfation, in part, or for the whole
of his debt, by a new undertaking or agreement ; and
“ affumpfit” will lie upon fuch new promife or undertaking.
(1 Atk. 67.) Although a creditor of a bankrupt under
zo]. is excluded from affent or diffent to the certificate,
yet as he is affected by the confequence of allowing the
certificate, he has a right to petition and fhew any fraud
againit allowing the certificate. 7 Vin. Abr. 134. pl. 18.

No allowance or indemnity fhall be given to a bankrupt,
unlefs his certificate be figned and allowed: and alfo, if
any creditor produces a fictitious debt, and the bankrupt
does not make difeovyery of it, but fuffers the fair creditors
to be impofed upon, he lofes all title to thefe advantages.
Neither can he claim them, if he has given with any of his
children above rool. for a marriage portion, unlefs he had
at that time fufficieat left to pay all his debts ; or if he has
loft at any one time 5]. or in the whole rool. within a
twelvemonth before he became bankrupt, by any manner
of gaming or wagering whatfoever; or, within the fame
time has loft to the value of 1001. by ftock-jobbine.
Alfo to prevent the too common practice of frequent
and fraudulent or carelefs breaking, a mark is fet upon

fuch as haye been once cleared by a commiffion of bank-

rupt, or have compounded with their creditors, or have
been delivered by an aét of infolvency. Perfons who have
been once cleared by any of thefe methods, and afterwards
become bankrupts again, unlefs they pay full fifteen fhillings
in the pound, are only thereby indemnified as to the con-
finement of their bodies; but any future eftate they fhall
acquire remainsliable to their creditors, excepting their necef-
fary apparel, houfehold goods, and the tools and imple-
ments of their trades. Stat. 5 Geo. II.c. 30. 24 Geo. II,

Cr5 te
By the flatute 13 Eliz. c. 7. the commiffioners for that
purpofe, when a man is declared a bankrupt, fhall have
full power to difpofe of all his lands and tenements, which
he had in his own right at the time when he became a bank-
rupt, or which fhall defcend or come to him at any time
afterwards, before his debts are fatisfied or agreed for ; and
all lands and tenements which were purchafed by him
420) 2 jointly

BANKRUPT.

jointly with his wife or children to his own ufe (or fuch
intereft therein as he may lawfully part with), or purchafed
with any other perfon upon fecret truft for his own ufe ; and
to cavfe them to be appraifed to their full value, and to
fell the fame by deed indented and enrolled, or divide them
proportionably among the creditors. This ftatute exprefsly
included not only free, but cuftomary and copyhold, lands :
and the lord of the manor is thereby bound to admit the
aflignee (Cro, Car. 568. 1 Atk. 96.): but did not extend
to eftates-tail, farther than for the bankrupt’s life ; nor'to
equities of redemption on a mortgaged eftate, wherein the
bankrupt has no legal intereft, but only an equitable re-
verfion. Whereupon the flatute rr Jac. I. c. 19. enacts,
that the commiffioners hall he empowered to fell or convey,
by deed indented and enrolled, any lands or tenements of
the bankrupt, wherein he fhall be feifed of an eftate-tail
in poffeflion, remainder, or reverfion, unlefs the remainder
or reverfion thereof fhall be in the crown; and that fuch
fale fhall be good againit all fuch iffues in tail, remainder-
men, and reverfioners, whom the bankrupt himfelf might have
barred by a common recovery, or other means: and that all
equities of redemption upon mortgaged eftates, fhall be at
the difpofal of the’ commiffioners ; for they fhall have power
to redeem the fame, as the bankrupt himfelf might have
done, and after redemption to fell them. And the com-
miffioners may fell a copyhold entailedby cuftom. (Stone 127.
Billing 148.) And alio, by this and a former aét, all
fraudulent conveyances to defeat the intent of thefe ftatutes
are declared void; but that no purchafer dona fide, for a
good or valuable confideration, fhall be affeCted by the bank-
rupt laws, unlefs the commiffion be fued forth within five
years after the a@ of bankruptcy committed. 1 Jac. I. c. 15.

By virtue of thefe ftatutes a bankrupt may lofe all his
real eflates; which may at once be transferred by his
commiffioners to their aflignees, without his participation or
confent. See AssiGNnrEs.

The property velted in the affignees is the whole that
the bankrupt had in himfelf, at the time he committed the
firft act of bankruptcy, or that has been vefted in him fince,
before his debts are fatisfied or agreed for. And therefore,
if a commiffion is afterwards awarded, the commiffion and
the property of the affignees fhall have a relation, or refe-
rence, back to the firft and original aét of bankruptcy.
Infomuch that all tranfaétions of the bankrupt are from that
time abfolutely null and void, either with regard to the
wienation of his property, or the veceipt of his debts from
fuch as are privy to his bankruptcy; for they are no
longer his property or his debts, but thofe ot the future
affignees. Ifa banker pay the draft of a trader keeping
eath with him, after knowledge of an act of bankruptcy,
the aflignees may recover the money. (2 Term Rep. 113.
s Bro. C. R. 313.) And if an execution be fued out, but
not ferved and executed on the bankrupt’s effects till after
the a& of bankruptcy, it is void as againft the affignees.
But the king is not bound by this fictitious relation, nor
3s within the ftatutes of bankrupts; for if, after the act of
bankruptcy committed and before the aflignment of his
effects, an extent iffues for the debt of the crown, the goods
are bound thereby. As thefe aéts of bankruptcy may
fometimes be fecret to all but a few, and it would be pre-
judicial to trade to carry this notion to its utmoft length,
it is provided by ftatute 19 Geo. II. c. 32. that no money
paid by a bankrupt to a dona fide or real creditor, in a
courfe of trade, even after an at of bankruptcy done, fhall
be liable to be refunded. Nor, by ftatute 1 Jac. I. c. 15.
fhall any debtor of a bankrupt, that pays him his debt,

without knowing of his bankruptcy, be liable to account
for it again. The intention of this relative power bein
only to reach fraudulent tranfa¢tions, and not to diftrets
the fair trader.

Sale of goods by a bankrupt, after an act of bankruptcy,
is not merely void ; the contract is good between the par-
ties ; but it may be avoided by the commiffioners or aflignees
at pleafure ; fo that they may either bring trover for the
goods, as fuppofing the contrat may be void, or may bring
debt or affumpfit for the value, which affirms the contradi.
(3 Salk. 59. pl. 2. 2T. R..143. 4T. R. 216. 7.) And fo ifa -
bankrupt on the eve of bankruptcy fraudulently deliver goods
toa creditor. (4 Term. Rep. 211.) The affignees after four,
and within twelve months after the commiffion iffued, mult
give twenty-one days notice to the creditors of a meeting
for a dividend; at which time they muft produce their
accounts, and verify them upon oath, if required. And then
the commiffioners fhall dire& a dividend to be made, at fo
much in the pound, to all creditors who have before proved,
or fhall then prove, their debts. This dividend muft be
made equally, and in a rateable proportion, to all the cre-
ditors, according to the quantity of their debts ; no regard
being had to the quality of them. Mortgages indeed, for
which the creditor has a real fecurity in his own hands, are
entirely fafe; for the commiffion of bankrupt reaches only the
equity of redemption. So are alfo perfonal debts, where the
‘creditor has a chattel in his hands, as a pledge or pawn for
the payment, or has taken the debtor’s lands or goods in
execution. And, upon the equity of the ftatute 8 Ann.
c. 14. (which direéts, that, upon all executions of goods
being on any premifes demifed to a tenant, one year’s rent
and no more fhall, if due, be paid to the landlord) it hath
alfo been held, that under a commiflion of bankrupt, which
is in the nature of a ftatute-execution, the landlord fhall be
allowed his arrears of rent to the fame amount, in preference
to other creditors, even though he hath negle¢ted to diftrain,
while the goods remained on the mantles which he is
otherwife entitled to do for his entire rent, be the quantunt
what it may. But, otherwife, judgments and recognizances
(both which are debts of record, and therefore at other times
have a priority), and alfo bonds and obligations by deed or
{pecial inftrument (which are called debts by fpecialty, and
are ufually the next in order), thefe are all put on a level
with debts by mere fimple contraét, and all paid pari pafu.
Nay, fo far is this matter carried, that, by the exprefs pro-
vifion of the ftatutes, debts not due at the time of the
dividend made, as bonds or notes of hand payable at a future
day certain, fhall be proved and paid equally with the reft,.
allowing a difcount or drawback in proportion, And infur-
ances, and obligations upon bottomry or re/pondentia, bona
Jjide made by the bankrupt, though forfeited after the
commiffion is awarded, fhall be looked upon in the fame
light as debts contraéted before any act of bankruptcy.
Stat. 21 Jac. c. 19. 7 Geo. I. c. 31. 19 Geo. II. c. 32.

Within eighteen months after the commiffion iffued, a
fecond and final dividend fhall be made, unlefs all the effe&ts
were exhauited by the firft. -And if any furplus remains,
after felling his eftates and paying every creditor his full
debt, it fhall be reftored to the bankrupt. This is a cafe-
which fometimes happens to men in trade, who involuntas.
rily, or at leaft unwarily, commit a&s of bankruptcy, by,
abfconding and the like, while their effeéts are more than
fufficient to pay their creditors. And, if any fufpicious or
malevolent creditor will take the advantage of fuch aéts,.
and fue out a commiffion, the bankrupt has no remedy,.
but nauft quietly fubmit to the effets of his own impru-.

dence;

4

—

£

BAN

dence; except that, upon fatisfaction made to all the eredi-
tors, the commiflion may, be fuperfeded. This cafe may
alfo happen, when a knave is defirous of defrauding his
creditors, and is compelled by a commiffion to do them
that juftice which otherwife he wanted to evade. And
therefore, though the ufual rule is, that all intereft on
debts carrying intereft fhall ceafe from the time of iffuing
the commiffion, yet, in cafe of furplus left after payment
of every debt, fuch intereft fhall again revive, and be charge-
able on the bankrupt, or his reprefentatives. Stat. 5 Geo. [I.
ezoue ta Elig.e.\7.

The firit ftep to be taken towards procuring a commif-
fion of bankruptcy is for the petitioning creditor to make
an affidavit of his debt before a matter in chancery ; or if he
refides altogether in the country, before a matter extraordi-
nary there, to be filed in the fecretary of bankrupt’s office
in London, and exhibited to the commiffioners at their firft
meeting. When the affidavit is fworn, it is carried to the
fecretary of bankrupt’s office, where the party fuing for
the commiffion enters into the bond to the chancellor. The
clerk of the bankrupts fills up a blank petition in the name
of the perfon that makes the affidavit, and annexes the
affidavit and bond .to the petition, when he prefers the
fame to the lord chancellor. This petition is anfwered in
a few days, and the petitioning creditor has a commiffion
without any further trouble. Having got the commiffion,
he muft employ one of the meffengers to f{ummon a meeting
of the major part of the commiflioners to open the fame,
when the petitioning creditor muft come prepared to prove
his debt, and the party a bankrupt, within the ftatutes.
Upon the commiffioners’ declaring the party a bankrupt,
they iffue their warrant for feizing of his effects, and the mef-
fenger, by virtue of it feizes the effe@s, and continues to
keep poffeffion till the commiffioners have executed the af-
fignment. The application to enlarge the time for the
bankrupt’s furrender muit be by petition to the great feal,
fix days at leaft before the lait fitting appointed in the ga-
zette ; which petition may be either in the name of the
bankrupt or of his affignees. It is ufual for the commiffion-
ers to recommend, and the creditors to agree to return the
bankrupts their rings, monies, &c. particularly the jewels,
&c. of their wives. If the bankrupt does not furrender
himfelf to the commiflioners at twelve o’clock at night of
the laft day given, the meflenger warns him fo to do by a
proclamation made by him in the middle of Guildhall; the
commiffioners continuing to fit till that time. The certifi-
cate when duly figned, together with the atteftations of
fignature, muit be lodged with the fecretary of bankrupts,
and he will give the meflenger an authority to the printer
of the gazette, to infert an advertifement fignifying that

the aéting commiflioners have certified to the great feal, .

that the bankrupt hath conformed, and that-the certificate
will be allowed and confirmed, unlefs. caufe be fhewn to the
contrary within twenty-one days from the date of the faid
advertifement. ‘Ifno caufe be fhewn within twenty-one days
againit the allowance of the certificate, the lord chancellor
will allow the fame by a fub{cription upon it. Jacob’s Law
Did. by Tomlyns, art. Bankrupt.

BANKRUPTCY, the aé of becoming a bankrupt.
(See Banxrurr.) The French make this difference be-
tween a bankruptcy and a failure, that the firlt is fuppofed
voluntary and fraudulent, and the latter conftrained and ne-
ceffary, by means of accidents, &c.

BANKS’S Isianp, in Geography, an ifland.in the North
Pacific ocean, near the weft coaft of North America, about
Go. miles long and 5 broad. It is feparated from Pitt’s

5

BAN

archipelago by the canal del Principe; and its north point
is fituated in N. lat. 53° 394’. W. long. 130° 1

Banxs’s J/land is alfo an ifland of the Southern Pacific
ocean, about five leagues weft of the coalt of the northera
branch of New Zealand iflands, It is about twenty-four
leagues in compafs; its furface is irregular and elevated ;
and it may be feen at fea at the diftance of twelve or fifteen
leagues. Its fouth point is in S. lat. 43° 32’. W. long.
186’ 30%.

Banks, Port, a harbour on the north-weft coaft of Ame-
rica, fouth-eafterly from cape Edgcombe, and north-wetterly
from Sea Otter found.

BANKSAL Point, a point ofthe river of Balefore,
on the coaft of Coromandel, known by the Englifh ware-
houfes that are built on it, and by the tomb of a Dutch-
man who was there interred.

BANKSEA Speciosa, Retz.in Botany. See Costus
Speciofus.

BANKSIA, fo named by Linnzus in honour of fir Jo--
feph Banks, prefident of the Royal Society, who firft dif-
covered it in his voyage with captain Cook. Lin. gen.
Schreb. n. 1gt. Suppl. 15. Gertn..t.47. Juffl. 79. Clafs,
tetrandriamonogynia- Nat.Ord.aggregate. Protez, Jufl. Gen.
Char. Cal. perianth one-leafed, four-cleft, inferior. Cor.
one-petalled ; tuve cylindric, very fhort ; border very long,
four-parted ; parts linear, lanceolate at the tip, internally
hollowed by a little cavity, acute. Stam. filaments none ;
anthers four, lanceolate, feffile in the cavity of the parts of
the corolla. Pi/?. germ fuperior, minute; ftyle filiform,
ftiff, longer than the corolla; ftigma pyramidate, acute.
Per. capfule ovate, or globofe, woody, one-celled, two-
valved. Seeds two, obovate, convex on one fide, flat on the
other, terminated by a very large membranaceous veinlefs
wing. Qu. Is thisan Anilus ¢

Eff. Char. Ca/..four-cleft, inferior. Cor. four-parted ;
tube very fhort ;. border very long, linear-lanceolate ;, anthers
feflile in the cavity of the parts of the corollas. Cap/. two-
feeded, one or two-celled, two-valved.

Species, 1. B. /errata, ferrate-leaved bankfia.. White Voy..
223, fig. 1, 2, 3.. B. conchifera. Gertn.fru@. 221. t. 48.
f. 1.‘ Leaves linear, attenuated into the petiole, equally:
ferrate, truncate at the end with a point.?? This is the.
handfomelt fpecies of the genus ;. trunk thick and rugged ;
leaves alternate, thick at the ends of. the branches, on fhort:
petioles, obtufe, ferrate, bright green above; beneath opake
and whitifh, with a ftrong ribsrunning threugh their middle ; :
each branch terminated by a large cylindrical {pike of flow--
ers; the capfules.covered with thick down; -the flowers.
and fruits colleéted into a large globular ament; the feed:
in each cell of the capfule fingle, rather large, winged and
dark brown. 2. B. integrifolia, entire-leaved B.. B /picata.
Gertn. fru@t. 221. t.48.f.2: ‘ Leaves wedge-form, quite:
entire, white-tomentofe, underneath.”” The flowers and,
fruits are colle€ted into a cylindric.ament ; and. before they,
are ripe, are pubefcent with a nap of {nowy whitenefs ;_ cap-
fule coriaceous, orbiculate at top, turgidly lens-fhaped, and
continued at bottom into a conical, compreffed beak ; withia-
black, two-celled, and gaping at the tip. 3. B. ericefolia,.
heath-leaved B. ‘ Leaves approximating, acerofe, trun-
cate-emarginate, {mooth.”’ The leaves are very {mall, but
more abundant, than thofe of the preceding {pecies. 4. B.-
dentata, tooth-leaved.B. ‘Leaves oblong, attenuated into:
the petiole, curved, flexuofe, toothed, teeth ending in az
fpinule, white underneath.”? The flowers of this.{peciess
are {maller than in the others. 5. B.. pyriformis, pear-:
fruited B.. “ Flowers folitary ; capfules ovate, pybeleaat.ss

eaves >

BAN

leaves lanceolate, very entire, fmocth.’ The capfules are
larger than im any other known fpecies, one-celled, and
opening longitudinally on the lower fide; there are two
feeds of a rufous cinnamon colour, convex on one fide and
flat on the other, with a large membranaceous, veinlefs
wing. 6. B. gibdofa, gibbous-fruited B. B. dadyloides,
Gertn. 221. t. 47. f.2. “ Flowers folitary ; capfules ovate,
gibbous, wrinkled ; leaves columnar.” - Leaves about two
inches long, and one line in diameter, pale green, and
fmooth. Dr. Smith jays that the B. da@yloides of Gertner
and this are different fpecies. 7. B. mufculiformis, mulcle-
fruited B. <“ Flowers folitary ; capfules ovate-conical,
mufcle-fhaped, pointed, with tubercles on the outfide; leaves
obovate, emarginate.”” Leaves alternate, from fix to eight
iches long, and three broad; flowers in a fhort fimple ra-
ceme, in which only one or two fruits ripen; the capfule
from one to two inches or more in length, woody, with
roundifh tubercles, variegated brown and ruft colour, one-
celled ; the feeds are two and dark bay. 8. B. /pinulo/a,
prickly-leaved .B. ‘ Leaves linear-revolute, with a little
iharp point, and with fpinous denticulation towards the
top.” Stem woody and branched ; leaves irregularly feat-
tered, clofely covering the branches, on very fhort foot-
italks, green and {mooth above, white and downy beneath,
ending abruptly, tipped with three {mall fpines, and having
feveral hooked upwards in the margin; flowers thick fet in
a cylindrical erect fpike, coming out in pairs. It differs
from B, ericefolia, in having leaves at leaft four times as
long, obtufe, but with a fmall central fharp point from the
midrib between two other terminal points, as well as in
having a greater or lefs number of {mall fharp-hooked late-
ral teeth towards the end of each leaf. The inhabitants of
New South Wales call it «* Wattangre.”” All thefe plants
are natives of that country, except the 7th, which Rum-
phius obferved in Amboina, in 1693. This genus is nearly
allied to Protea and Embothrium in appearance and charaCter,
but fufficiently diftinguifhed from both in the fruit. It
‘boafts fome of the moit fpecious plants that have been dif-
covered in the South feas, and even in the known world.
‘Thofe with folitary flowers and one-celled capfules (5, 6,
7-) form a feparate genus, which Dr. Smith names Sa/i/-
buria; which fee.

Propagation and Culture. Some of the fpecies have flow-
ered and feeded here; they have been increafed merely by
feeds. Thefe, and the plants in general from the South
feas, are hardy, confidering their climate, and may be
treated much in the fame manner with the Cape plants ; they
covet much air, and flourifh beit near the front of the dry
itove. Martyn’s Miller.

Bawnxsia, Forfl., See Pimevea.

Banksia Abyfinica, or Cusso, fo called by Mr. Bruce
after fir Jofeph Banks, an inhabitant of the high country
of Abyflinia, and indigenous there. Mr. Bruce, who has
defcribed and given a drawing of it, and who reprefents it
as one of the moft beautiful and ufeful trees, fays, that he
never faw it in the Kollanor in Arabia, nor in any other
part of Afia or Africa. It feldom grows above 20 feet
high, and generally inclined; its leaf is about two inches
and a quarter long, divided into two by a {trong rib; its co-
lour is a deep unvarnifhed green, very pleafant to the eye,
and the fore-part is covered with foft hair or down ; it is
much indented, and refembles a nettle leaf, only that it is
narrower and’ longer. The leaves grow alternately by pairs
upon a branch terminating with a fingle leaf at the point ;
the end of the flalk is broad and ftrong, like that of a palm-
branch ; and it opens in the part that ‘is without leaves,

*
ed

BAN

about an inch and an half from the bottom, and from this
aperture proceeds the flower. ‘I'he whole clutter of flowers
has very much the fhape of a cluiter of grapes, and the
italk that fupports it retembles the italk of the grape ; the
flower itfelf is of a greenifh colour, tinged with purple ;
when fully blown, it is altogether of a deep red or purple ;
the corolla confifts of five petals, with a fhort piftil in the
middle, having a round head, and furrounded by’

rina of the fame form, loaded with yellow farinas
calyx confifts of five petals, which much refemble another
flower; they are rounded at the top, and nearly of an equal
breadth every way. The bark of the tree is {mooth, of a
yellowifh white, interfperfed with brown itreaks which pafs
through the whole body of the tree. On the upper part,
before the firlt branch of leaves fet out, are rings round the
trunk of {mall filaments of the confiltence ef horfe-hair ;
thefe are generally 14 or 16 in number, and are a very re-
markable characteriftic belonging to this tree. ‘The tree is
always planted near churches for the ufe of the town or
village; and it is very ferviceable as an antidote to a diforder
to which the Abyfiisians of both fexes and at all ages are
fubie&t. Every individual once a month evacuates a large
quantity of worms of the kind called afcarides ; and the
method of promoting the evacuations is by infufing a
handful of dry Cuffo Howers in about two Englifh quarts of
bouza, or the beer that is made from teff ; after it has been
fteeped all night, it is next morning fit for ufe. The feed
of this tree is very {mall, fmaller than the femen Santonicum ;
it is eafily fhed; ard on this account no greater quantity of
the feed is gathered, and therefore the flower is fubftituted
for it. It is bitter, but much lefs fo than the femen San-
tonicum. Mr. Bruce conceives that this plant may be found
in latitudes 11° or 12° north in the Weft Indies or Ame-
rica ; and having been found a gentle, fafe, and efficacious
medicine in Abyffinia, it is not doubted but the fuperior
fall of phyficians would turnit to the advantage of man-
kind in general, when ufed here in Europe. Bruce’s Tra-
vels, vol. v. Appendix, p. 73—76.

Banxsra, in Lntomology, a fpecies of Parii10 (Nymph.
with angulated wings ; above brown, wit 1 a yellowith dif,
and a black ocellar {pot with a double pupil. Fabricius.
This is a native of New Holland, and is the PaPitro If
mene of Cramer.

BANKSII, a fpecies of Scarazxus (Afelontha) de-
fcribed by Fabricius from a fpecimen in the mufeum of fir
Jofeph Banks.. The head and thorax are black ; wing-cafes
villoie, and with the legs taftaceous; abdomen fhort and
retufe. ;

Banxstt, a fpecies of Cimex, (Reduvius) that inhabits
India. It is rufous above, with black wings; abdomen
deep black ; border rufous. Fabricius. ’

Banxsi1, a {pecies of Corysometa that inhabits Cala-
bria. It is brafly above, beneath teftaceous. Fabricius.

Banksi1,a {pecies of CeramByx (Lamia), that is found
at the Cape of Good Hope. Itisof a greyifh colour; tho-
rax flightly fpined; wing-cafes fpeckled with ferruginous,
and marked with two cinereous bands. Fabricius.

BANLEUGA, or Bannivevea, or Banuieu, in Mid-
dle Age Writers, the territory within which the jurifdiGion
of municipal magiftrates, or ordinary judges of a city, town,
or the like, is confined.

It is thus called, becaufe within this tra&t they may make
their proclamations, prohibitions, and other aéts of juttice
and policy, comprifed under the name of Ban, or Ban-
NUM.

BANN, in Geography, a river in Ireland, which rifes a

the

.

eS ee

.

BAN

the nortliern part of the Mourne mountains, in the county
of Down, and {welled by various little brooks, foon becomes
a large ftream. It takes a ferpentine courfe to the north-
weit, having many bridges over it, till it comes to Porta-
down, where it is joined by the Newry canal, and a few
miles farther it falls into Lough Neagh at Bannfoot ferry,
after running about thirty miles. The waters of this river,
which is diftinguifhed by the name of the South or Upper
Bann, are efteemed fuperior to any other for the purpofe
of bleaching. After pafling through Lough Neagh, out
of which it breaks at Toome cattle, where is a bridge
over it, it again expands into a {mall lake called Lough
Beg, the views in which are very pleafing. Y'rom this, ftill
keeping a north-weft direction, it paffes through a country
formerly overgrown with immenfe woods, then forces its
way over a ridge of rocks called the Salmon-leap, and hav-
ing again collected its feattered waters, rufhes with an im-
petuous force into the fea at Bannhaven, a few miles below
Coleraine. It is certainly one of the fineft rivers in Ireland ;
and if we include its paflage through the lake, runs in the
whole near ninety miles, with fo pure and limpid a ftream,
that it has acquired the name of the filver Bann? The
lower or northern part of it, being the only outlet for feven
rivers and innumerable ftreams that pour their tributary wa-
ters into Lough Neagh, is broad and rapid; but notwith-
ftanding this, and the ridge of rocks already mentioned,
it is thought that it might be rendered navigable, a meafure
from which great advantages are expected. The Salmon
caught in this river is very highly efteemed, and the fifhery
is the greateft in the kingdom. (See Coreratne.) Camp-
bell’s Political Survey. Beaufort’s Memoir. Young’s Tour,
&e.

Bann, the name of a river in the north-eaftern part of
the county of Wexford, Ireland, which falls into the Slaney
near Ferna.

Bann, a townfhip in the county of York, in Pennfyl-
Vania.

Bann, or Ban, Bannum, or Bannus, inthe Feudal Law,
a folemn proclamation, or publication of any thing.

The origin of the word is uncertain: fome deduce it from
the Britifh dan, clamour, noife ; others from the Saxon pan,
a thing fpread; whence ban and band, ufed for a flag.
Braéton mentions bannus regis for a proclamation of filence
anciently made by the court, before the encounter of the
champions in a combat.

Bann is alfo ufed for a folemn convocation of the nobi-
lity of a province, to attend the king in his army, con-
formably to their feveral tenures.

Bann, in this fenfe, differs from rear-bann ; as the former
refpeéts thofe who hold mediately of him. But the words
are now confounded ; and bann and rear-bann denote a fum-
mons to all the feudal tenants, mediate and immediate, to go
to war in the king’s fervice.

Bann alfo denotes the aflembly, or body of nobility and
gentry thus convocated.

In this fenfe, they fay, the bann and rear-bann are long in
getting into the field ; the bann and rear-bann were aflembled,
&c.

The French nobility appear to have ferved the king, in
the way of bann and rear-bann, from the beginning of the
monarchy ; though the ufage was not regularly fettled till
the time of the inveftiture of feuds.

Bann is more particularly ufed to denote a profcription
or banifiment, for a crime proved; becaufe anciently pub-
lifhed by found’ oPtrumpet; or, as Voffius thinks, becaufe
thofe who did not appear at the-above mentioned fummons
were punifhed by profeription,

BAN

Hence, to put a prince under the bann of the empire, is to
declare him divefted of all his dignities.

The fentence only denotes an interdié& of all intercourfe
and offices of humanity with the offender, the form of
which feems taken from that of the Romans, who banifhed
perfons, by forbidding them the ufe of fire and water.

Sometimes alfo cities are put under the imperial bann ;
that is, {tripped of their rights and privileges.

Bann alfo denotes a pecuniary mul& or penalty laid on a
delinquent for offending againft a bann.

Banns of Marriage are certain folemn notices of matri-
monial contraéts made, in the parifh church, before the mar-
riage; that if there be any objeCtions to either party as to
prior engagements, &c. there may be an opportunity of
making them. The publication of banns {popularly called
afking in the church) wasintended as an expedient to prevent
clandeftine marriages ; but a licence or difpenfation is now
eafily procured, fo that their ufe is defeated. By the laws
of the church, banns are to be publifhed thrice, on three
diftant days, in the places where the parties live, on pain
of nullity of marriage ; and excommunications are threat-
ened againit thofe, who, knowing impediments, conceal them.
(But fee 26 Geo. II. cap. 33. and Marriace.) The ufe of
matrimonial banns is faid to have been firft introduced in
the Gallican church, though fomething like it obtained
even in the primitive times ; and it is this Tertullian is fup-
pofed to mean by trinundina promulgatio.

Bann is alfo ufed for a folemn anathema, or excommuni-
cation, attended with curfes, &c.

In this fenfe, we read of papal banns, &c.

Bann of God, bannus Dei, or the judgment of God.
Spelman takes it for excommunication.

Bann is alfo ufed for a prohibition.

In which fenfe, the ban of harveft or vintage, &c. in
the French cuftoms, imports a prohibition to reap, or ga-
ther the grapes, without the leave of the lord. i

The former is now taken away, and the peafant may
reap his corn when he pleafes; but the latter itill remains,
perfons not being allowed to open the vintage till publica-
tion is made by the officer of the place for that purpofe.

Bann-Vin, in the French Cuffoms, a privilege enjoyed
by lords, of felling the wine of their own growth, during
a certain time, exclufive of all other perfons within the
compafs of their fees or lordfhips.

The fame right, in fome places, extends alfo to other
liquors; and even to hogs, cows, and other animals.

BANNALEC, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of Finifterre, and chief place of a canton in the
dilirié&t of Quimperlé; 24 leagues north-weft of Quim-
perlé. The place contains 4750, and the canton g8go
inhabitants ; the territory includes 195 kiliometres, and four
communes.

BANNALIS Mota, or Bannal-mill, a kind of feudal
fervice, whereby the tenants of a certain diftriét_ are obliged
to carry their corn to be ground at a certain mill, and to be.
baked at a certain oven, for the benefit of the lord.

The cldeft account of fuch bannal-mills occurs in the
eleventh century. Fulbert, bifhop of Chartres, and chan-
cellor of France, in a letter to Richard, duke of Normandy,
complains, that attempts began to be made to compel the
inhabitants of a part of that province to grind their corn at
a mill fituated at the diftance of five leagues. Vid. ‘ Maxi-
ma Bibhotheca Veterum Patrum.” Lugdun. 1677, tom.
xviti. p. g. Other examples of this fpecies of fervitude, in
the tenth and thirteenth centuries, may be feen in Du Frefne.
under ** Molendinum Bannale.’”? De la Mare (Traité de la
Police, ii. p. 151.) gives an inftance, where a lord in affran-

chilling

BAN

chifing his fubje&s, A. D. 1248, required of them, in fe-
membrance of their former fubjeCtion, and that he might
draw as much from them in future as poffible, that they
fhould agree to pay a certain duty, and to fend their corn to
be ground at his mill, their bread to be baked in his oven,
and their grapes to be preffed at his wine-prefs. The origin
of thefe fervitudes may poffibly be accounted for thus: the
building of mills was at all times expenfive, and undertaken
only by the rich; who, to indemnify themfelves for the
money expended in order to benefit the public, ftipulated
that the people in the neighbourhood fhould grind their corn
at no other mills than thofe erected by them.

BANNER, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan, in the
diftri& of Coorg-wynaad, feated on the upper branch of
the Copany river. N. lat. 11° 48’. E. long. 76° 26’.

BANNAT of Temefwar, a diitrict of Upper Hungary,
in the circle on the farther fide of the Theis, bounded by
the rivers Maros, Theis, and Danube, and watered by the
Temes, which is joined by the Beg or Bey he. In.1552,
the Turks became matters of it, and retained it at the peace

derable height.

BANN-BRIDGE, a market and poft-town of the
county of Down, province of Uliter, Ireland, which takes
its name from a bridge over the river Bann. Itis a pleafant
town on the road from Dublin to Belfaft, and is remarkable
for its great linen fairs. Diftance north from Dublin 603
Irith miles.

BANNER, in Heraldry, is a {mall fquare flag with fringe,
faitened to a lance or fpear, fimilar to the ftandards now borne
by the regiments of cavalry, and was always borae in the field
before a prince, duke, marquis, earl, vifcount, baron, knight
of the garter, and knight-banneret.

Menage derives the word from the Latin Landum, a band,
or flag ; and fuppofes banniere to have been firft written for
bandiere ; which is confirmed by this, that we meet with the
word banderia, ufed, in the fame fenfe, by Latin writers of
the barbarous age.

In the reign of Henry VIII. the fize of the royal ban-
ner was an ell long, and a yard broad ; in queen Elizabeth’s
reign, the length was two yards and a half, and the breadth
two yards, befides the fringe; the complement gf men to
each banner in the field was always one hundred.

Banner, in Military Language. See Corours.

Banners of the Romans. See Sica.

BANNERETS, an ancient order of knights, or feudal
lords, who, -poffeffing feveral large fees, led their vailals to
battle, under their own flag, or banner, when fummoned
thereto by the king.

The word feems formed from banner, a {quare flag, or
from dand, which anciently alfo denoted a flag.—Bannerets
are alfo called in ancient writers, milites vexilliferi, and vex-
illarit, bannerarti, banderifii, &e.

Anciently there were two kinds of knights, great and
little, the firft whereof were called Bannerers, the fecond
Bacuexors; the firft compofed the upper, the fecond the
middle, nobility.

The banneret was a dignitary allowed to march under his
own flag, whereas the Jachelarius eques followed that of an-
other. Knights bannerets were originally entitled to difplay

BAN
their banners in the field. A knight Banneret muft bea gen-

tleman of family, and have land fufficient to enable him to: —

bring into the field fifty men at arms, with the archers and
cro{s-bowmen appertaining thereto, making in the whole’
one hundred.

Banneret, according to Spelman, was a middle order be-
tween a baron and a fimple knight; called fometimes alfo
vexillarius minor, to diftinguifh him from the greater, that is,
from the baron, to whom alone properly belonged the jus
vexilli, or privilege of the fquare flag.

Hence the banneret was alfo called banneretius, quafi baro
minor, aword frequently ufed by Englifh wniters in the fame’
fenfe as banneret was by the French ; though neither of them
occurs before the time of Edward II.

Some will have bannerets to have originally been per-
fons who had fome portion of a barony afligned them ; and
enjoyed it under the title of baro proximus, and that with the
fame prerogatives as the baron himfelf.

Some again find the origin of bannerets in France;
others in Britanny ; others in Englazd. Thefe laft at-
tribute the inftitution of bannerets to Conan, lieutenant of
Maximus, who commanded the Roman legions in England
under the empire of Gratian, in 383. ‘This general, fay
they, revolting, divided England into forty cantons, and in
thefe cantons diftributed forty knights, to whom he gave a
power of affembling, on occafion, under their feveral banners,
as many of the effective men as were found in their refpeCtive
diftri€ts ; whence they are called bannerets,

However this be, it appears from Froiffart, &c. that an-
ciently fuch of the military men as were rich enough to raife
and fubfiit a company of armed men, and had a right to do
{o, were called bannerets. Not, however, that thefe quali-
fications rendered them knights, but only bannerets; the ap-
pellation of knight being only added thereto, becaufe they
were fimple knights before.

At the ceremony of creation, the king, at the head of his
army, after a victory, is f{urrounded byall the field officers and
nobles at court, under the royal ftandard difplayed to receive
the intended knight banneret, who is led to the fovereign
by two renowned knights or valiant men at arms, having his
pennon or guidon of arms in his hand, preceded bythe heralds,
who proclaim his valiant atchievements. The king then fays
to him, ‘“¢ Advance thy banneret,’? and commands the ends
of his pennon or guidon to be tarn off, which then becomes a
banner, being fquare (on which he has his arms and fup-
porters embroidered). The new knight banneret then re-
turns to his tent, accompanied by martial mufic, and attended
by many nobles and field officers, where they are highly en-
tertained. A knight banneret has a right to difplay his
banner in the field. Neither the title nor fupporters are
hereditary. In the 28th of Edward I. the daily pay of a
knight banneret was four fhillings and their diet at court ;
they take precedence of the younger fons of vifcounts and
barons. The lait knight banneret was fir John Smith, by
Charles I. after the battle of Edge-hill, where he refcued the*
royal ftandard from the rebels.

Bannerer is alfo the name of an officer, or magiftrate of
Rome, towards the clofe of the fourteenth century,

The people of that city and throughout the territory of
the church, during the difputes of the antipopes, had formed
a kind of republican government ; where the whole power
was lodged in the hands of a magiftrate, called fenator, and
twelve heads of quarters, called bannerets, by reafon of the
banners which each raifed in his diltrict. ;

BANNER-ROLLS, in Heraldry, are {mall flags ufed at
funerals.
BAN.-

eal

ee

BAN
BANNIMUS, q. d. we danifo, from the obfolete Lannio,

‘the form of expulfion of any member from the univerfity of
Oxford, by affixing the fentence up in fome public place, as
a denunciation or promulgation of it.

BANNOCK, in Food, is an oa-cake, kneaded only
with water, and baked in the embers. ‘hefe cakes are com-
mon in J.dneafhire and fome other couuties,

BANNOCKBURN, in Geography, a village of Scot-
land, in the county of Stirling, where was fought a battle
between the English and Scots on the 25th of June 1314,
in which the Englifh were defeated with great lofs, and by
which the independence of Scotland was fecured, and Bruce
fixed on the throne of the kingdom ; and where James IIT.,
king of Scotland, was in 1487 overpowered by his fubjects,
wounded, and foon after murdered by a prieft taking his
confelfion ; two miles fouth of Stirling.

BANNOW, the name of a town which formerly exifted
in the county of Wexford, province of Leinfter, Ireland,
fituated at the fouth-eaftern extremity of a {mall haven of
the fame name, formerly called Bagganbun. This is noted
as the place at which Robert Fitzftephens, Harvey of
Mountmorres, and Maurice of Pendergaft (not earl Strong-
bow, as fome accounts erroneoufly ftate), the firlt of the
Englifh adventurers, landed in A. D. 1170. It is faid by
Giraldus Cambrenfis, to bea little creek lying in the county
of Wexford, near to Featharda fifhing town, the open fea
being on the eaft, and not far from the haven the mouth of
Waterford on the fouth. The fame writer fpeaks of it as
very unfit for a harbour, and fays that it derived its name
‘from that of one of the fhips in which the Englithmen ar-
rived. he name Bagganbun is retained in an ancient
rhyme:

«¢ At the creek of Bagganbun,
Ireland was loft and won.’’

And the place was fo noted, that fome old writers have
‘even fpoken of the whole ifland by the name of Bannow.
"Though the town feems never to have arrived at the fame
vonfequence that its neighbour Feathard did, it was made
‘a borough and continued to fend members until the union.
<< So late as the year 1626,”’ fays the writer of a letter to
Dr. W. Hamilton, “ Bannow is regiftered in the cuftom-
‘houfe books of Wexford, as having four ftreets, which paid
‘quit-rent to the crown, and fome buildings furrounding the
‘church.’? The name of one of thefe ftreets, Weavers’ ftreet,
indicates fome manufaGiure to have been carried on. ‘ The
only remains of it,’’ continues the latter writer, “ which
‘itand vilible at this day (1786) are the walls of its church.
There is not in or near the fite of the former town even one
Yolitary hut. ‘The ele€tion for the reprefentatives of the
town 1s held on the walls of an old chimney, adjoining to
the church, which tumbled down piece-meal, and forms the
council table of that ancient and loyal corporation. Towns
ie as well as men; the veftiges of Bannow are traced with
difficulty amidft-heaps of barren fand, and now the privilege
which intereited fome in its continuance having ceafed, ina
few years it may be entirely forgotten. Its diftance fouth
from Dublin is 76% Irith miles, long. 6° 50’. W. lat.
52°12’. N. Hiollingfhead. Tranfactions of Royal Ivifh
sicademy. zi

BANNUM Capitis, was a mul@ paid in cattle.

BANNUS, or Banus, a title anciently given to
the governor or viceroy of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Scla-
vonia.

Banxws Epifcopalis, was a mul& paid to the bifhop by
thofe guilty of lacrilege, or other crimes.

BANON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-

artment of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton in

the diftrict of Forcalquier. The place contains 945 and the
von. Lit.

BAN

canton 4743 inhabitants; the territory includes 330 kilio«
metres and 11 communes.

BANONCOURT, a town of France in the depart -
ment of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton in the diftrict
of St. Mihiel, 14 league north of St. Mihiel.

BANOY, in Ornithology, the name given, by the people
of the Philippine iflands, to a kind of hawk, fomewhat
larger than our {parrow-hawk, and of a yellowifh colour on
the back and wings, and white under the belly. It is the
mo{t common of all the kinds of hawk in that part of the
world, and is a very voracious animal.

BANQUET, in the Manege, denotes that {mall part of
the branch of a bridle under the eye, which, being rounded
like a fmall rod, gathers and joins the extremities of the
bit to the branch, in fuch a manner; that the banquet. is
not feen, but covered by the cap, or that part of the bit
next the branch.

Bangurt-Line, is an imaginary line drawn by the bit-
makers along the banquet, in forging a bit, and prolonged
upwards and downwards, to adjuft the defigned force or
weaknefs of the branch, in order to make it {tiff or eafy ;
for the branch will be hard and flrong if the fevil-hole
be on the outfide of the banquet, with refpeét to the
neck ; and it will be weak and eafy, if the fevil-hole
be on the infide of the line, taking the centre from the
neck.

BANQUETING-Room, or houfe. (See Xensa, Sa-
Loon, &c.) ‘The ancient Romans fupped in the atrium of
their houfes: but, in after-times, magnificent faloons cr ban-
queting-rooms were built for the more commodious and
{plendid entertainments of their guefts. Lucullus had feveral
of thefe, each diftinguifhed by the name of fome god; and
there was a particluar rate of expence appropriated to each.
Plutarch relates (in Lucullum, apud Oper. t. 1. p. 519.) with
what magnificence he entertained Cicero and Pompey, who
went with defign to furprife him, by only telling a flave who
waited that the cloth fhould be laidin the Apollo. The em-
peror Claudius,amongothers, had a {pledid banqueting-room,
named Mercury. But every thing of this kind was outdone
by the luftre of that celebrated banqueting-houfe of Nero,
called domus aurea; which by the circular motion of its
partitions and ceilings, imitated the revolution of the hea-
vens, and reprefented the different feafons of the year, which
changed at every fervice, and fhowered down flowers, ef-
fences, and perfumes on the guefts. Heliogabalus, neverthe-
lefs,is faid to have improved as much upon Nero,as the latter
had done on Lucullus. Senec. Ep. go.

BANQUETTE, in Fortification, is alittle foot-bank, or
an elevation of earth forming a path which runs along the
infide of a parapet ; by which the mufqueteers get up to
difcover the counterfcarp, or to fire on the enemies in the
moat or in the covert-way.

The banquette is generally between two and three feet
high, and three feet broad, and four feet and a half lower
than the parapet, having two or three fteps to mount it by.
Where the parapet is very high, they make a double ban-
quette one over the other. See Breasrwork.

BANSTEAD, in Geography, a village of Surry in
England, is celebrated for its paiture downs, and the delicate
mutton they produce. The fheep bred here are of a {mall
fpecies, and being fed meftly on the fhort {weet herbage
which abounds with wild thyme, juniper, &c. their flefh is
peculiarly rich, and is often fold in the London markets for
lamb. (See Suzer.}) The foil of thefe downs confiits of
chalk, flints, and athin ftratum of blackifh mould. Here is
an annual horfe-race, much frequented by the {porting peo-

Je of London.
BANSTICKLE, in Jchthyology, a name fynonymous
45 wit

BAN
with prickle-bag, prickle-back, and ftickle-back.

GasTEROsTEUS.

BANSWALEH, in Geography, a diftri& of Hindooftan,
fituated on the weft part of Malwa. :

BANSWARA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Tellingana or Golconda, twenty miles from Indelovoy.

BANSWARAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Malwa, 75 miles weit of Ougein, and 105 E.N.E of
Amedabad. N. lat.-23° 25’. E, long. 74° 25’.

BANTAM, a fea-port town in the north-weft part of
the ifland of Java, and capital ofa kingdom. It is fituated
at the bottom of the bay of the fame name, about a quarter
of an hour’s walk from the fea-fide ; and lies between two
branches of a river that defcends from the mountains, inan
extenfive plain, behind which there is a range of high and
mafly hills extending far to the fouthward. Its diftance
from Batavia is about 13 Dutch miles, each of which ig
about 34 Englifh miles. The communication between
thefe places by land is very difficult, andalmoit impraticable,
on account of the thick forefts and deep merafles which lie
between them; whereas the paflage by water, with the ad-
vantage of the landand fea-wiads, in the light Indian veffels
or proas, called flyers, is performed in four hours. The
town of Bantam is large, but has no wails or fortifications
towards the fea, nor any on the land fide, except fort Dia-
mond, in which the kmg’s palace ftands. Bantam refembles
a grove of cocoa-nut trees rather than acity. The houfes
are mere huts, walled up with reeds or canes, plaiftered with
clay, and covered with attap or leaves of palm-trees, and are
confufedly difperfed, without any arrangement of {treets ;
and round each of them is a plantation of cocoa-nut trees,
the whole being furrounded by a paling of {plit bamboo, by
which every family is wholly feparated from its neighbours,
The river of Bantam, at its mouth, is about 170 or 180 feet
wide, and is very fhallow. However, at high water and in
{pring tides, it is from five to feven feet deep. Above the
town it divides into three channels, of which that juft men-
tioned is the middle one ; the other two branches run into
the fea, about the diftance of 14 league on each fide.

The gulph or bay of Bantam, bounded by a point of the
fame name and that of Pentang, forms a commodious retreat
for fhips, where a great number may anchor in fafety.
Within this bay are feveral {mall iflands which are all unin-
habited, except Pulo-Panjang, or the Long ifland, which
is the largeit and in which fome fifhermen refide. Fifth are
plentiful ; and the inhabitants prefer one called the kaalkop
or bald-head, which has fome refemblance to our cod. This
bay was formerly famous for being the principal rendezvous
of the fhipping from Europe in the eaft. Bantam was the
great mart for pepper and other fpices, from whence they
were diftributed to other parts of the world. The chief
factory of the ' Englifh as well as Dutch Eaft India com-
pany was fettled there. The merchants of Arabia and
Hindoottan reforted to it. Its fovereigns were fo defirous of
encouraging trade, by giving fecurity to foreign merchants
againit the violent and revengeful difpofition of the natives,
that the crimeof murder was never pardoned whencommitted
againit a ftranger, but might be committed by a foreigner for
a fine to the relations of the deceafed. This place fourifhed
for a confiderable time ; but the Dutch having conquered the
neighbouring province of Jacatra, where they have fince
built Batavia, and transferred their principal bufinefs to it ;
and the Englifh having removed to Hindooftan and China,
Bantam was reduced to a poor remnant of its former opu-
lence and importance. “Other circumftances have alfo acce-
lerated its decline. The bay is fo choaked up with daily ac-
ceffions of new earth wafhed down from the mountains, as
well as by coral fhoals extending a confiderable way to the

See

BAN

eaft, that it is inacceffible at prefent to veffels of bum

A fire alfo deftroyed moit of the houfes; and few have been,

fince rebuilt. With the trade of Bantam the power of its
fovereign declined. In his wars with other princes of Java,
he called in the affiftance of the Dutch; and from that
period he became, in faét, their captive. He refides ina
palace, built in an European flyle, within a fort called the
Diamond, fituated in a large open field, denominated the
Paicebaan, where three roads, leading irom different quarters
of the town, unite to the weitward of the river, and gar-
rifoned by a detachment from Batavia; the commander
of which takes his orders, not from the king of Bantam,
but from a Dutch governor, who lives in another fort, called
Speelwyk, adjoining to the town, on the eait fide of the
river, and nearer to the fea fide. The royal palace is an
oblong fquare, 840 feet long, and nearly half as broad; it
has regular baftions at the four.corners, and feveral femi-
circular places of arms on the fides. Stavoriaus counted 66
pieces of cannon, moft of them being brais, and heavy artil-
lery, but old, and few of them fit for fervice. The Dutch
garrifon confifts of a captain, three fubalterns, and 130
privates who guard the king’s perfon, and keep him always
in the company’s power. None of his fubjeéts, nor even
his fons, are allowed to approach him without the know-
ledge of the captain of the Dutch military, who keeps up
a regular intercourfe with the commandant at fort Speel-
wyk. No Javanefe or Bantammer. is ever allowed to pafs
the night within the walls of the fort. The approach to it
is by a drawbridge, thrown over the moat ; and at the gate
of the fort an officer and 24 men mount guard night and day.
‘The walls of the king’s feraglio are raifed higher than thofe
of the fort, to guard it againft the infpe¢tion of the curious.
When the king’s fons arrive at the age of puberty they are
removed from their father, but have each their feparate fe-
raglioor harem. All the fervants of the place are women,
and even the king’s attendant guards are females. However,
when he appears in public, he is accompanied by his Bantam
life-guards, though tiey are never admitted within the gates
of the fortrefs, who belides their fide arms, which are criffes
or long daggers, are provided with pikes, having very long
and broad iron heads ; and when the king goes abroad he is
likewife attended by a guard of Europeans from the garri-
fon. Befides maintaining a body of native troops, his Ban-
tamefe majeity is allowed to keep feveral {mall armed veffels,
by means of which he maintains authority over fome part of
the fouth of Sumatra. His fubje¢ts are obliged to fell him
all the pepper they raife in either ifland at a low price,
which he has contra¢ted to deliver to the Dutch at a {mall
advance, and much under the marketable value of that com-
modity. The religion of the kingdom of Bantam is the
fame with that which prevails in the ifland of Java, or Ma-
hometan ; and the prefent king joins the f{piritual to the tem-
poral power, and is high-prieft of this ea 3 with which,
indeed, he blends fome of the rights and fuperttitions of the
aboriginal inhabitants of Java ; eeerines for initance, the
great banyan or indian fig-tree, which is likewife held facred
in Hindooftan, and under which religious rites may be con-
veniently performed ; in the fame manner as all affairs of
ftate are aCtually tranfa&ted by the Bantamefe, under fome
fhadowy tree by moonlight.
Inthe middle of the plain, or Pafcebaan already men-
tioned, is a large weringa tree, or cafuarina equifetifolia,
which, by its {preading branches, affords an agreeable fhade ;
and at the foot of it a grave, covered with a large blue
ftone, in which was buried one of the former kings of
Bantam. ‘This is regarded by the inhabitants as a very
holy place, and held in great veneration. Near this is a
building which is ufed as a place of circumcifion for the
children

|
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:
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BAN

ehildren of the king; and on fuch occafions, it is hung
round and richly decorated with coftly tapeftry and pieces
6f cloth. ‘he Pafcebaan is likewife the feene of horfe-
races and fimilar exercifes, in which the courtiers appear on
horfeback, magnificently apparelled, to contend with the
king or his fons; but they always take care to yield the
palm of viétory to their royal competitars. ‘The mofque
or temple ftands at the end of a pleafant lawn, is of a fquare
form, with five roofs above one another, decreafing in fize
and at laft terminating in a point, and furrounded by a wall.
The fpire ferves, like the minarets in Turkey,, to announce
the hours of prayer. Neither Chriflian nor Pagan may
enter this dertie upon pain of death.

The chief authority at Bantam, on behalf of the com-
pany, is vetted in a fenior merchant, with the title of com-
mandant, who manages the trade, confifting chiefly in pep-
per and fome cotton yarn. To the commandery of Ban-
tam belong the two refidences or factories which the Dutch
company poffefs in the fouthern part of the ifland of Suma-
tra; whence they derive annually a confiderable quantity
of pepper. At Bantam all heavy goods are weighed by
bhars, each containing three picols, and thefe laft are eftimat-
ed at 125]lb. Stavorinus and fome of his companions were
admitted to an audience by the Bantam king. His drefs
confifted of a long Moorifh coat, made of {tuff interwoven
with gold, and manufactured at Surat, called foesjes, which
hung down almoft to his feet, and the fleeves of which
were faftened by a row of {mall gold buttons. Under this
coat, he wore a white fhirt, and a pair of drawers reaching
down to his heels, of the fame ftuff as the coat. His head
was covered with a round and fomewhat fharp-pointed cap,
of a violet colour, laced with filver Behind his chair ftood
one of his female life-guards, armed with a large gold kris,
in a fheath of mafly gold, which fhe held in an elevated
pofition: two female flaves were feated on each fide of him
on the gun ; one held his tobacco-box and his betel-box,
both of which were of gold, and when he wanted either,
it was handed to him, wrapped in a filk-handkerchief; the
other prefented a golden-fpitting pot to his majefty, when-
ever he had occafion for it. Pipes and tobacco were pre-
fented to the guefts, as foon as they were feated, and the
table was furnifhed with ali kinds of Indian food, varioufly
dreffed. One fingular praGice is mentioned, which was
that of the king’s frequently belching during his meal, and
it was followed by all the company. _' This cuftom, which is
an etiquette of the court of Bantam, was defigned to thew
that each perfon’s appetite was good and. the food agree-
able, which was pleafing to the king. Bantam is fituated
in S. lat. 6° 20°. E. long. 105° 24’. Stayorinus’s Voyages,
vol. i. p. 57—89. Staunton’s Embafly to China, vol. r.
p, 296—298.

* BantAm-Cock, in Ornitholocy,a variety of the Puasianus
Gallus, ox the gallus pufillus, tibuis pennatis, pennis potticis
elongatis, in the Linnean fyftem. It much refembles, fays
Buffon, the rough-footed cock of France. Its feet are
covered with feathers, but only on the outfide; the plu-
mage of the legs is very long, and forms a fort of boots
which reach a confiderable way beyond the claws. It is
courageous, and refolutely fights with one ftronger than
itfelf. Its iris is red; and it is faid, that moft of this breed
have no tuft. NON .

_ Banram-Work, akind of Indian painting and carving on
wood, refembling Japan work, only more gay, and decorated
with a great variety of gaudy colours. ‘

Bantam-work is of lel value among connoiffeurs, though
fometimes preferred by che onteialy to the true Japan
Work. Formerly it was in greater ‘ufe and efteem than

BAN
at prefent ; and the imitation of it much praétifed by our
japanners.

There are two forts of Bantam as well as of Japan work ;
as, inthe latter, fome are flat, lying even with the black,
and others high, or embofled ; fo in Bantam-work, fome
are flat, and others in-cut, or carved into the wood, as we
find in many large fereens ; with this difference, that the
Japan artifts work chiefly in gold and other metals, and
the Bantam generally in colours, with a {mall f{prinkling of
gold here and there.

As to the flat Bantam-work, it is done in colours, mixed
with gum-water, proper for the thing defigned to be imai-
tated. The method of performing the carved or in-cut
kind is thus defcribed by an ingenious artift. The wood
is firfl to be primed with whiting and fize, fo often till the
primer lie near a quarter of an inch thick 5 then it is to be
water-plained, i. e. rubbed with a fine wet cloth, and fome
time after, brufhed very {mooth, the blacks laid on, varnifhed
up with a good body, and polifhed well, though with a
gentle hand. ‘This done, the defign is to be traced out
with vermillion and gum-water, exactly in the manner
where it is intended to be cut; the figures, trees, build-
ings, &c. in their due proportions. ‘hen the graver is ap-
plied, with other tools of proper fhapes, differing according to
the workman’s fancy. With thefe he cuts deep or fhallow,
as is found convenient, but never deeper than the whiting
lies ; the wood being never to feel the edge of the inftru-
ment. Lines or parts of the black are ftill to be left, for
the draperies and other out-lines, and for the diftin¢tion of
one thing from another; the rule being to cut where the
white is, and leave the black untouched. The carving
being finifhed, they then ufe the pencil, with which the
colours are laid into the cut-work. After this, the gold is
to be laid in thofe places which the defign requires ; for
which purpofe, a {trong thick gum-arabic water is taken,
and laid with a pencil on the work ; and, while this remains
wet, leaf-yold is cut with a fharp {mooth-edged knife, in
little pieces, fhaped to the bigaefs and figure of the places
where they are to be laid. ‘Thefe being taken up with a
little cotton, they dab them with the fame clofe to the
gum-water, which affords a rich luftre. The work thus
finifhed, they clear up the black with oil, taking care not
to touch the colours. 'The European workmen, in lieu of
leaf-gold, ordinarily ufe brafs-duit, which is lefs bright and
beautiful. Park. Treat. of Japan.

BANTAYAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland of the Eaft
Indies, belonging to the group of Philippimes, fituate north-
eaft of Zebu, near cape Burulaque. Itis encompafled by four
or five of a fmaller fize; and the inhabitants employ them-
felves in fifhing and making cotton hofe.

BANTEIA, or Banria, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Italy, in Apulia. Plutarch, in his life of Marcellus, fpeaks
of this place in his account of the march of this general
againft Hannibal; and Horace (Od. iv. lib. 3.) calls the
defiles in its vicinity ‘ faltus Bantinos.”

BANTELN, in Geography, a town of Germany, im the
circle of Lower Saxony, and principality of Calenberg 5 in
which is a carpet manufacture.

BANTI, Baicipa Geox, in Biography, anoperafinger
of the firft clafs. In 1777, fhe was engaged by the proprietors
of the pantheon, to fupply the place of the Agujari,;.a mea
{ure adopted merely on {peculation, upoa hearing from Paris
of the effects of her fine voice in that capital,

She was the daughter of a gondolicre at Venice, and for
fome time a pia%za performer. in that city. After this
exercife of her natural vocal powers, fhe fusig her way to
Lyons, where fhe performed in coffee-houfes for fuch {mall

4 2 donations

BAN

donations as are ufually beftowed on itinerant talentsin fuch
places. Hence, by the power of fong, fhe was conveyed to
Paris, where her voice was fo much admired, that, after
very little teaching by fome of her countrymen whom fhe
met with there, fhe was permitted to fing at the concert
{fpirituel. Here the applaufe was fo loud, that it foon
reached England, and inclined the proprietors of the pan-
theon to engage her for three feafons, at 8001. a year, upon
condition that rool. fhould be dedu@ted each feafon out of
her falary, for the payment of an able matter to cultivate her
voice. Sacchini was the firft appointed to this office ; but
foon found her fo idle and obftinate, that he quitted her as
incurable patient. She was next affigned to fignor
Piozzi, whofe patience was likewife exhaufted before fhe
became a perfect finger. In 1779, fhe returned to Italy
as ignorant of mufic as when fhe left that country ; but from
the accuracy of her ear, and power of imitation, fhe foon
improved, more by example than precept or ftudy ; and in
1783, we find in mufical records that fhe was engaged at
Florence, as firfi woman, to fing with Marchefi, then at the
zenith of his powers and favor. The next year fhe fung at
Turing then at Milan; and in 1786, fhe went to Vienna ;
thence to Warfaw in 1787; and in 1788, firft performed at
Naples, where the theatre is the largeft in Europe, and
reckoned the poit of honour among fingers. And here her
favour was fo great, that after finging at Milan with Cre-
fcentini, and at Venice with Pacchierotti, fhe was recalled
fo Naples three feveral times before the year 1793, when fhe
went to Spain ; and at Madrid fhe feems ftill to have in-
creafed in fame and favour. His Catholic majetty finding
that fhe had a large family of children, which was increafed
during her refidence in Spain, took two off her hands, and
promifed to have them educated, and to provide for them.
It is hardly credible, with a perfon and voice fo entire and
well preferved, but fhe ufed to declare, that fhe had had
children and mifcarriages to the amount of eighteen !

In 1794, on quitting Spain, fhe returned to England,
where fhe preferved her voice, increafed its powers, and her
favour with the public, every feafon, till 1802, when fhe
again returned to her own country ; and in November per-
formed at Bologna, in Antigona, an opera compofed by
Bianchi. From Bologna fhe was invited to Naples for the
fourth time ; and from Naples was invited to fing at Milan,
during the carnival of 1803.

We cannot take our leave of this admirable performer,
without declaring, that we neverheard avoice of more grateful
tone, or more conftant in tune ; or an execution (as far as
fhe attempted Jravura) more neat, brilliant, and articulate.
The low notes of her voice were mellifluous, rich, and full
to an uncommon degree; and in pathetic airs, the tones
through her whole compafs were truly touching.

Her knowledge of mufic was inconfiderable, and this the
always confeffed ; that is, fhe could not fing at fight: but
who is ever required in public to fing airs at fight? and
whether fhe was an hour or week in ftudying a part, it
was the fame thing to the audience, as fhe was always
perfect on the ftage ; fo that the inconvenience was all her
own.

ft has been faid that fhe wanted variety in her embellifh-
ments; but few female fingers are fufficiently filled in
the laws of counterpoint to invent graces themfelves, that
fhall not break the time or injure the harmony ; and we be-
lieve that compofers muit rejoice in fuch ignorance, as
mode(tly delivers their melodies unfophiftieated, difguifed,
and changed by what are vulgarly termed graces, but which
perfons of true tafte and judgment, with more propriety,
denominate ignorance and impertinence,

an

BAN

We long wifhed the Banti’s thake a little more open, but
even that wifh was gratified before her departure.

And now, quitting the finger, we fhall p2y our refpeats
to heras an a¢trefs; in which faculty fhe furpaffed in grace,
dignity, and propriety, all the flage fingers whom we remem-
ber ever to have feen ; and whoever recolleéts her perform.
ance in the opera of Semiramide, will not difpute her tran-
{cendent merit in that particular: ever attentive to the
perfons who addreffed her in each fcene, whether good
or bad fingers, friends or foes to herfelf, fhe never feemed
to think them lefs worthy of her notice than the ladies of
her acquaintance in the pit or the boxes,

Her perfon and figure were good, and her countenance,
though not handfome, was expreffive, and her features {tron
and flexible. Upon the whole, we know not whether
fhe gratified us moft as a finger or an a@trefs.

BANTON, or Baran, in Geography, one of the fmaller
Philippine iflands.

BANTRY, a market and pot town of the county of
Cork, Ireland, fituated at the bottom of the extenfive bay
called from it, on the eaft fide. It was formerly called the
Old town, to diftinguith it from a fettlement more to the
north, where general Ireton caufed a fortification to be
ereGted, but when the fort went to decay, it was entirely
forfaken. Several yearsago, Bantry was a thriving town, on
account of the pilchard fifhery, feveral thoufand pounds werth
of them having been fent to Italy, Spain, and Portugal, and
much oil made from them. In 1748 and 1749, there was
a great herring filhery, as appears from réturns made to the
Dublin fociety, but the town has fince fallen intodecay. It
was however brought into notice by the French fleet going
there, and fortifications were ereéted there to prevent a
future furprife. Whiddy ifland, oppofite the town, is re-
markable for its fertility and beauty ; and Glangariff, be.
tween Bantry and Bear ifland, is a charming place, the rocks
of which are covered with Arbutus trees, and plants of
different kinds. Bantry is 164 Irith miles S. W. from
Dublin. N. lat. 51° 39’. W. long. 9° 20’.

Bantry Bay, a large harbour in the weftern part of the
county of Cork, Ireland, which is one of the fhneft in the

world, being twenty-fix miles long, and from three to five
broad. There is

in fome parts from 30 to 40 fathom
water, and the tides move very gently right in and out
through the whole bay. There are few ftrands round ity
the coait being all high and ftupendous rocks. In this bay,
near the entrance, there was an engagement in A. D. 1689,
between the French fleet which brought James IT. to Ire-
land, and the Britith fleet, of very inferior force, under
admiral Herbert, when, after engaging fome hours, the
former got into the bay, and the latter returned to England
with very {mall lofs. In 1796, it was fixed as the place of
rendezvous for the French force deftined to invade Treland,
and fome fhips arrived there the 22d of December, which,
caufed a great alarm throughout the country, but general
Hoche, the commander in chief, with the reit of the fleet,
not arriving, they failed the 27th of the fame month, with-
out having attempted to land.

j BANUB, a town of Egypt, 52 miles W.N.W. ‘of Man-
ora,

BANVILLE, a town of France, in the department of
the Calvados, three leagues N.N.W. of Caen, and 23 E. of
Bayeux.

BANY, the name of ariver that lies on the fouth-weft
coaft of Africa. The Dead ifland is in this river; and
the coaft runs here eaft and weit from cape Fermofa.

BANYAN Tree, in Botany. Sce Ficus.
6 BANZA,

BAO

BANZA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Congo, now called St. Salvador.

BANZKOW, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, and county of Schwerin. —

BAOBAB, in Natural Hiflory, the name of an African
fruit, defcribed by Profper Alpinus. It is of the fize of a
lemon, but it refembles a gourd, and contains feveral black
feeds, whole extremities are a little crooked. Its fub{tance
alfo much refembles that of the gourd ; and, when firft pulled
Off, is moift, red, and of a grateful acid tafte. The people
of Ethiopia, where it is plentiful, are very fond of it, in
tbe fcorching heats of fummer; and the richer fort add
fugar to it, to correct its acidity. It is a great cooler, and
very agreeably quenches thirlt; and has alfo fome medi-
cinal ufe, as it is good in contagious and peltilential fevers.
The people of Cairo, where the frefh fruit is not to be had,
ufe its pulp dried and powdered ; and it is fo ufed at Sene-
gal in peltilential fevers, the dyfentery, and bloody flux. The
dofe is a drachm, taken either in common water, or in an
infufion of the plantain. .

The baobab tree, the ddan/onia digitata (fee ADANSONIA),
has been very minutely and accurately defcribed by Mr.
Adanfon, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
at Paris. It is found at Senegal in Africa; and its bulk is
fo enormous, that it has more the appearance of a foreft
than of a fingle tree.* Its trunk, which feldom exceeds
twelve feet in height, meafures between feventy and eighty
feet in circumference, and ts crowned with a number of
branches, remarkable for their thicknefs and their length,
which is from fifty to fixty feet. They moftly fhoot out in
an horizontal direCtion, and give to the trunk the ap-
pearance of an hemifphere from fixty to feventy feet high,
and about a hundred and forty feet in diameter. The
bark is an inch thick, of an afh-coloured grey, greafy to
the touch, bright, and very fmooth ; the outfide is covered
with a varnifh, and the infide is green {peckled with red; the
wood is white and foft ; the leaves are oval, pointed at the
end, and about five inches long, and two and a half broad;
feven of thefe are generally attached to one pedicle. The
tree produces flowers much larger than any hitherto known ;
the calyx of the flower coniifts only of one piece, the lower
part of which forms a fhort tube, which fpreads into the
fhape of a faucer, having its edge divided into five equal
parts of a triangular figure. The peta’s are five in number,
of the fame length with the calyx. From the fame centre,
and within the petal, rifesa cone, which f{preads into about
feven‘hundred filaments, each having a {mall fubftance in form
of a kidney at the end of it, the convex part of which opens
into two cells, whieh fhed a duit, confifting of {mall white
tranfparent particles. The piftil rifes from the centre of
the calyx, and confifts of an ovary, a ftylus, and feveral
ftigmata, in number from ten to fourteen. ‘The ovary be-
comes a very confiderable fruit. ‘The tree flowers in July,
and the fruit ripens.in OGtober and November. The bark
and leaves are dried, and powdered by the negroes of Se-
negal, and ufed like pepper and falt. Mr. Adanfon ufed it
as a prefervative from the epidemic fever of the country,
and found it of great benefit in promoting perfpiration, and
attempering the exceffive heat of the blood. The woody
bark of the fruit, and the fruit itfelf, fupply the negroes
with an excellent foap, which they prepare by drawing a
ley from the afhes, and boiling it with palm-oil that begins
to be rancid. The decaying trunks are hollowed out into
burying places for perfons moit efteemed by the negroes ;
fuch as poets, muficians, and buffoons; aid their bodies
fhut up in thefe trunks become perfectly dry, without rot-
ting, and form a kind of mummies, without the help ot
embalment. ‘This is the largett tree in Abyfinia, The

BAY

wild bees perforate the trunk, which is foft and {pongy, and
lone their honey in the holes made in it 3 and this honey is
preferred to any atherin Abyflinia. It may be*propagated
by feeds, procured from the country where it naturally
grows. Thefe muft be fown in pots and plunged in a hot-
bed ; and when in about fix weeks the plants come up, they
fhould be tran{planted into feparate pots, filled with light fandy
earth, and plunged into a Penh hot-bed, fhading them till
they have taken new root ; after which they fhould have
free air in warm weather, and be fparingly watered. Asthe
plants advance in growth, they muft be fhifted into larger
pots, and kept conftantly plunged in the bark-bed, and re-
main in the, ftove with other tender exotic plants. In three
years, many of them rife to the height of fix feet, and put
out feveral lateral branches, and their flems are proportion-
able ; but after four or five years’ growth, they are almoft at
a ftand, their annual fhoots rarely exceeding two or thfee
inches. Some feeds obtained from Mr. Adanfon have fuc-
ceeded here, and many of the plants grow upwards of twelve
or fifteen feet high. Martyn’s Miller. The African baobab
has been fometimes confounded with the American ca-
labafh.

BAOL, or Baut, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa,
in the country of Senegal, about eighty leagues long and
twenty-four wide.

BAOOM, or Aroom, one of the newly difcovered
iflands in the Southern Pacific ocean. S. lat. 16° 26’
W. long. 186° 17’.

BAONS, Les, atown of France, inthe departmynt of
the Lower Seine, 2% leagues north of Caudebec.

BAPEAUME, a town of France, in the department of
the ftraits of Calais, and chief place of a canton in the dif-
trict of Arras; three pofts fouth of Arras, and ig} north
of Paris. ‘The place contains 3145, and the canton 12,056
inhabitants ; the territory includes 1474 kiliometres and 23 ~
communes.

BAPHE, in the Writings of the Ancients, a word ufed to
exprefs that fine red colour, with which they ufed to illumi-
nate the capital letters in manufcripts, at the beginning of
chapters. It is alfo called, by fome, encau/fum facra ; and,
by others, caccus and cinnabaris. It was a very elegant co-
lour, and is faid to have been prepared of the purple
colour taken from the murex, and fome other ingredients.
It was called encau/fum from its refembling very much the
fine bright red ufed in enamels.

BAPTACA, in Geography, a town of North America
in the country of New Navarre, forty-five miles E.S.E. of
Cafa Grand.

BAPTA, in Antiquity, an effeminate voluptuous kind of
priefts at Athens, belonging to Cotys or Cotytto, the
goddefs of wantonnefs ; thus called, from their ftated dip-
pings and wafhings, by way of purification. It feems, they
were to be made very clean and pure, that they might
wallow and defile themfelves with the lefs referve ; for their
rites were performed in the night, and confifted chiefly of
lafcivious dances.

Eupolis having compofed a comedy to expofe them, inti-
tled Sax7@-, they threw him into the fea, to be revenged ;
and the fame fate is alfo faid to have befallen Cratinus, ano-
ther Athenian poet, who had written a comedy againit the
bapte, under the fame title.

Others deduce the denommation baptz, from the practice
of dyeing and painting their bodies, efpecially their eye-
brows, and officiating at the fervice of their deity with
the parade and demurenefs of women. Juvenal deicribes
them in this light. Sat. 11. ver. gt.

«© Talia fecreta coluerunt orgia teda

Cecropiam foliti bapte lailare Cotytto.”
BAPTES,

BAPTISM.

BAPTES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the
ancients to a foffile fubftance ufed in medicine ; they have
left us but very fhort: deferiptions of it. Pliny only
fells us that it was foft and of an agreeable fmell. “Hence
Agricola judges, that it was probably one of the bitu-
mens.
’ BAPTISM, in Theology; formed from the Greek Bawssca,
of Baxrw, I dip or plunge, a rite or ceremony by which per-
fons are initiated into the profeffion cf the Chrillian reli-
gion ;- or, it is the appointed mode by which a perfon
afiumes the profeflion of Chriftianity, or is admitted to a
participation of the privileges belonging to the difciples of

hrift. It was by this mode that thofe who believed the
gofpel were to be’ feparated from unbelievers, and joined
tothe vifible-Chriftian Church ; and the rite accompanying
it, or wafhing ‘with'water, was probably intended to repre-
fent the wafhing away, or renouncing the impurities of
fome former ftate, viz. the fins that had been committed,
and the vicious habits that had been contra&ted, and to
this purpofe it may be obferved, that the profeffion of re-
pentanee always accompanied, or was underftood to accom-
pany, the profeffion of faith in Chrift. That our Lord
m*tituted fuch an ordinance as baptifm, is plain from the
ecommiffion given to the apoftles after his refurre€tion, and
recorded in Matth. xxviii. 19, 20. To this rite, there is
alfo an allufion in Mark, xvi. 16. John, iii. 5- Atts, ii. 41.
viii, 12, 36—38. xxi, 16. The defign of this inftitu-
tion, which was to exprefs faith in Chrift on the part of
thofe who are baptized, and to declare their refolution of
openly profeffing his religion, and cultivating real and uni-
verfal holinefs, appears from Rom. vi. 3,jAaei Peter, im. 21.
Ephef. v.26. and Tit. iti, 5. Some have inferred from
A&s, ii. 38. xxi. 16. Tit. iii, 4—7. that God did thereby
give to believers a token of the forgivenefs of their fins,
according to the terms of the gofpel covenant ; and they
have alleged, that there is a fenfe in which baptifm may be
ealled a feal of the covenant of grace.

We find no account of baptifm as a diftin@ religious rite,
before the miffion of John, the forerunner of Chrift, who was
called ‘the “ Baptift,”” on account of his being commanded
by God-to baptize with water all who fhould hearken to
his invitation to repent. Wafhing, however, accompanied
many :of the Jewifh rites, and, indeed, was required
after contra€ting any kind of uncleannefs. Alfo, foon after
the time,of our Saviour, we find it to haye been the cuftom
of the Jews folemnly to baptize, as well as to circumcife, all
their profelytes. As their writers treat largely of the
reafons for this rite, and give no hint of its being a novel
inftitution, it is probable, that this had always been the
cuitom antecedent to the time of Mofes, whofe account of
the right of circumcifion, and of the menner of performing
it, is by no means circumftantial. Or, baptifm, after circum-
cifing, might have come into ufe gradually from the natural
propriety of the thing, and its eafy conformity to other
Jewith cuftoms: For if no Jew could approach the taber-
nacle, or temple, after the moft trifling uncleannefs, with-
out bathing, much lefs would it be thought proper to
admit a profelyte from a fate fo impure and unclean as
heathenifm was conceived to be, without the fame mode of
purification. On the other hand, it has been alleged, that
none of the wafhings which were praétifed among the Jews,
bear the leaft refemblance to Chriftian baptifm, except in
the fingle circumftance of dipping ; and this circumiftance
is a mere accident, and may as well be taken from Pagan
rituals, as fromthe ceremonies of the Jews; or, in other
words, it is fo vague and far-fetched, that it deferves,
in this point of view, no confideration at all, Accordingly,

it is maintained, there was no baptifm in the world amon

any people till John; and that the purification of a profelyte
by dipping himfelf, which is called baptifm, was a late tra-
dition, long after the time of John. The antigqnity of this
practice of profelyte-baptifm among the Jews, has been a
fubject of confiderable debate. It has been itrenuoufly
maintained by Lightfoot (Works, vol. ii. p- 120, &c.),
Emlyn (Previous Queftion in Tra@s, vol. i. P: 394, ). Wall
(Hittory of Infant Baptifm, Introd.) ; and contefted by
Dr. Benfon (On St. Paul’s Epift. vol. i. Dife. viii. p- ii.),
Gale ( Refiections on Wall), Robinfon ( Hitt. of Baptiim,
p- 37-) &c. Dr. Benfon was at firft an advocate for the Jewith
cuitom of imitiating heathen profelytes by baptifm ; but
upon further inquiry he relinquifhed this opicion ; alleging
that he had not found any inftance of one perfon’s wafhing
another by way of confecration, purification, or fanétifica-
tion; except that of Mofes’s wafhing Aaron and his fons,
when he fet them apart to the office of priefts, Levy. viii. 6. ;
and that he cannot find that the Jews do at prefent prac-
tife any fuch thing as that of baptizing the profelytes that
go over to them, though they are faid to make them wath
themfelves. He then afks, where is any intimation of fuch
a practice among the Jews, before the coming of our Lord?
If any one, he fays, could produce any clear teftimony of
that kind from the Old Teftament, the Apocrypha, Jofe

phus, or Philo, that would be of greatmoment. He adds,
in former times, profelytes coming over from Heathenifm
to the Jewifh religion, ufed to wath themfelves, which is
a very different thing from baptifm, or one perfon’s bein

wafhed by another. The genuine Targums, fay Gill ae
Gale, written about the clofe of the firit century, and the
Mifchna, written about the middle of the fecon century,
fay nothing on this fubje@. The Chriftian writers, called
Fathers, fpeak of Jewifh profelytes, and wafhings, and puri-
fications from ceremonial uncleanneffes; but nothing of
admitting profelytes into the community by baptifm. ‘The
baptifm of profelytes, it is faid, came to light through the
later Rabbies, and is chiefly to be fought in the writings of
Maimonides, who flourifhed in the eleventh or twelfth cen<
tury. In the Old Teftament there are many precedents
of admitting profelytes into the Jewith. church, as Rahab,
Ruth, and others; but not one word is faid of their being
baptized. Among the laws of admiffion given by Mofes,
Exod. xii. 48, 49, this is not mentioned. Dr. John Owen
(Theologoumena) confidérs the opinion, that Chriftian
baptifm came from the Jews, as deftitute of all robability.
On the other hand, Mr. Wall has made it uel robable,
to fay the leait, from many teftimonies of the Fewith writers,
who without one diffenting voice allow the fa@, that the
practice of Jewith baptifm obtained before and at, as well
as after, our Saviour’s time. There is alfo a {trong intima.
tion, even in thé gofpel itfelf, of fucha known praétice
among the Jews in the time of John the Baptift. John nies
The teftimonies of the Jewifh writers are of the greater
weight, becaufe the praétice, reported by them to have
been of fo ancient a date, did fil] remain among them ;_ for

if it had not been of. that antiquity to. which it pretends,

viz, before the time of Chrift, it is not likely that it would
ever have become a cuitom among the Jews afterwards,
Would they begin to’profelyte perfons:t@ their religion
by baptifm in imitation of the difciples of Jefus of Nazareth
whom they held accurfed ? And yet if this profelyte baptifm
were adopted by the Jews fince the time of Chrift, it mutt
have been a mere innovation in imitation of Chriftians, which
is not very likely. See on this fubje€t Maimon. in Mifchn,
tom. i. Ifure bia. c. 1.and c. 13. Selden de Jure Naturali,.
&e. 1. iis c. 2. - Altingius de Profelytis, diff, 7-§ 46, Vie
g sa i ain ae tyes, Bal tring.

BAPTISM.

tring. Archifynagog. ¢. 18. Curcellxi Inflit. 1. v. c. 2.
(7. Ainfworth on Gen. xxili. 12. Lightfoot ad Matt. tii. 6.
The queftion of the Pharifees to John the Baptiil, «Why
baptizeft thou??? evidently favours the fuppofition, that
fuch a cuftom exifted; and our Saviour’s queftion to
Nicodemus, ‘Art thou a matter, or teacher, in Ifrael, and
knowelt not thefe things?’ is a manifeft allufion to the
cuftom of initiating profelytes by water-wafhing or baptizing,
who after being fo wafhed or baptized, were efleemed re-
generated or born again; and therefore to a ruler in Ifrael,
who, could not be unacquainted with thefe things, our Sa-
viour’s difcourfe ought not to have appeared fo unintelligible.
Origen, in his Com. on Epift. to the Romans, c. 6. fays,
that Chrift was baptized by John, not with that baptifm
which is in Chritt, but: with that which is in the law; im-
plying, that under the law there was fuch a cuftom of
baptizing. See alfo Arrian in Epiétet. ]. ii. c. 9g. ~
Inthe primitive times, this ceremony was performed by im-
merfion, as it is to this day in the oriental churches, accord-
ing to the original fignification of the word. “However, it
is not improbable, that when great numbers were baptized
at the fame time, the water was applied by {fprinkling,
which was a practice fufficiently familiar to the Jews. The
practice of the weftern churches is, to fprinkle the water
on the head or face of the perfon to be baptized, except
in the Church of Milan, in whofe ritual, it is ordered, that
the head of the infant be plunged three times into the
water; the minifter at the fame time pronouncing the
words “/ baptize thee in the name of ihe Father, the Son, and
the Holy Ghoff ;’? importing that by this ceremony the per-
fon baptized is received among the profeffors of that religion,
which God, the Fatherofall, revealed to mankind by the minif-
try of his Son, and confirmed by the miracles of his Spirit.
It is obfervable that the baptifmal form, above cited from
St. Matthew, never occurs in the fame woids, eitherin the
book of the Acts, or in any of the Epiftles. But perfons
are required to be baptized in the name of Chrift, or faid to
have been baptized into Chrift; that is, they made a pro-
feffion of faith in Jefus, as the Chrift, and acknowledged
their obligations to him, by being baptized. Ads, ii. 38.
viii. 16. 35. 38. Rom. vi. 3. Gal. iii. 27. But though
the form which is in St. Matthew never appears elfewhere,
the thing intended thereby is always implied. Nor could
any be brought to make a profeflion of faith in Jefus, as
the Chrift, but upon the fuppofition that he had taught in
the name and with the authority of God the father, and
had proved his commiffion by miraculous atteftations which
could not be denied nor gainfaid. It is obferved that the
baptifm of Jefus was, like that of John, a reception to his
inftruction, or information in his doétrine, or concerning
him ; as appears from his own injunGtion, Matt. xviii. 19,
20; and alfo from that claufe which has been confidered as
the form of Chriftian baptifm; which ought to have been
rendered not in, but (sc) unto, into, or upon, the name of
God, of Chrift, and of the Holy Spirit. The verfion which
fome have preferred is, “baptize upon the name of the Fa-
ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit;”’i. e. receive
them to inftruction upon thefe fubjects; thus exprefling
what were to be the topics of their information, and what
the great and diftinguifhing chara&ter of the inftitution.
On the part of the baptizer, baptifm was a form of recep-
tion to inftruétion ; and on the part of the perfons coming

to baptifm, it was an acknowledgment of the truth of the

pretenfions of the perfon who baptized, an acknowledgment

of his capacity and of his authority to propofe himfelf as a

religious inftructor, and a defire of being initiated into his
{chool, for the purpofe of conforming to his difcipline.

Hence it would follow, that « to be baptized unto, or upox
Chrift,”” was a public folemn profeffion of faith in him,
However the baptifm of the Ethiopian minifter by Philip,
in a feene fo private, and before fo few, if indeed before any
witnefles, feems to be inconfiftent with the notion that bap-
tifm was a folemn public profeffion of faith in Chrift ; and
the requifition of a previous verbal declaration of fuch faith
totally overturns it. See Cappe’s Differtation on Baptifm.
in Crit. Rem. vol. ii. p: 102.

Baptifm is not to be repeated, fince it is a right of initia-
tion into Chrift’s church. However, thofe perfons might
be baptized, in the name of Jefus, as the Meffiah already
come, who had before been baptized by John and his dif-
ciples into the general expeétation of a Meffiah fhortly to
be revealed. Compare Acts, xix. 5. The Chriftians in
Abyflinia repeat their baptifm annually, on the feftival of
Epiphany. Phe naming of the baptized perfon is by no
means any part of this inftitution ; and when it is ufed, is
to be confidered as an addrefs to the perfon, calling him by
his name, rather than as the manner of giving a name to
him: though it is probable, that the cuftom of naming a
child at bapti{m might arife from the pratice of the Jews
at their circumcifion. Luke, 1. 59—63. i. 21.

A triple immerfion was at an early period ufed, and con-
tinued for a long time ; this was to fignify either the three
days that our Saviour lay in the graye, or the three perfons
in the Trinity. But it was afterwards laid afide, becaufe
the Arians ufed it; it was then thought proper to plunge
but once. (See Immersion.) Some are of opinion that
{prinkling in baptifm was begun incold countries. It was
introduced into England about the beginning of the ninth
century. At the council of Celchyth, in 816, it was or-
dered, that the prieit fhould not only fprinkle the holy wa-
ter upon the head of the infant, but likewife plunge it in the
bafon. Some have referred the introduction of f{prinkling
in the church of Rome to a canon of pope Stephen III.,
who, during his refidence in France, in 754, was confulted
by fome monks of Creffy in Britanny with regard to feve-
ral queftions ; one of which is faid to have given occafiow to
the firft authentic law for adminiftering baptifm by pouring,
which in time was interpreted to fignify {prmkling. The
queftion propofed was, whether in cafe of neceflity occafi:
oned by illnefs of an infant, it were lawful to baptize by
pouring water out of the hand or a cup on the head of the
infant ? To which Stephen replied; that if fuch a baptifm
were performed in fuch a cafe of neceffity, in the name of
the holy ‘Trinity, it fhould be held valid. \ This, fays the
learned James Bafnage (Monum. vol. i. prief. c. v. §. 4. dé
Canone Steph. III. Papz), is accounted the firft law for
fprinkling, but it doth not forbid dipping ; allowing it only
in cafe of imminent danger. He adds, that the authenticity
of it is denied by fome Catholics; that many laws were
made after this time in Germany, France, and England, to
compel dipping, and without ‘any provition for cafes of ne-
ceffity ; and therefore that this law did not alter the mode
of dipping in public baptifms, and that it was not till 557
years after, that the legiflature, in a concil at Ravenna,
in the year 1311, declared dipping or {prinkling indifferent.
It has been alleged, that this anfwer of Stephen is the true
origin of private baptifm and of fprinkling. The intro.
duction of fprinkling inftead of dipping, in ordinary cafes,
into this ifland, is faid to have been effected by fuch Eng-
lith, or more ftriGly fpeaking Scots exiles, as were difciples
of Calvin at Geneva, during the Marian perfecution ; and
it is added, that the Scots Calvinifts, who firff introduced
fprinkling in ordinary baptifm into the northern parts of the
ifland, were the importers of it into the fouthern. In the

reign

BAPTISM.

reign of kine Edward, the eftablifhed church praétifed in
ordinary cafes trine immerfion ; and pouring or fprinkling
was allowed, only in cafes of danger, in private. It 1s further
.argued by thofe who maintain that in the primitive church
there is no mention of baptizing by pouring, that the ad-
miniitration ef baptifm by fprinkling was firft invented in
Africa in the third century, in favour of clinics, or bed-
ridden people; but that even African Catholics, the leaft
enlightened and the moft depraved of all Catholics, derided
it, and reputed it no baptifm. See Jo. Andree Bofii de
Clinicis exercit. Hift. Jenz, cited by Robinfon in his « Hif-
tory of Baptifm,” p. 449. In the liturgy of the Englith
church at Frankfort, king Edward’s €rvice book was ufed,
and baptifm was adminiltered by trine immerfion. In the
Scots church at Geneva, the miniiter was dire&ted to take
-water in his hand,. and Jay it upon the child’s forehead,
which was called pouring. About 100 years after, in the
affembly of divines, Ds. Lightfoot caufed dipping to be ex-
cluded, and fprinkling declared fufficient. In the Eaftern
and Greek churches, dipping 1s faid to have been the inve-
riable mode of adminiftcring baptifm from the firit imtro-
duétion of it to this day.» See Dr. King’s Rites of the
Greek church.

There are many ceremonies delivered by eccleiia-
flical writers, as uied in baptifm, which were introduced
after the age of Juftin Martyr, but which are now difufed ;
as the giving milk and honey to the baptized, in the Eait ;
wine and milk in the Weft, &c. They alfo added unétion
and the impofition of hands. Tertullian is the firft who
mentions the figning wéth the fign of the crofs, but only as
ufed in private, and not in public worfhip ; and he particu-
‘larly defcribes the cuitom of baptizing without mentioning
it. Indeed, it does not appear to have been ufed in baptifm
till the latter end of the fourth or fifth century ; at which
time great virtue wasafcribedtoit. Lactantius, who lived
in the beginning of the fourth century, fays (Init. 1. iv.
c. 27. p- 439-), the devil cannot approach thoie who have
the heavenly mark of the crofs upon thei, as aa impregna-
Ale fortrefs to defend them; but he does not fay it was ufed
an baptifm. After the council of Nice, Chriftians added
to baptifm the ceremonies of exorcifm and adjurations, to
make evil {pirits depart from the perfons to be baptized.
“They made feveral fignings with the crofs, they ufed to light
candles, they gave falt to the baptized perfon to tafte, and
the prieft touched his mouth and ears with fpittle, and
zalfo blew and {pat upon his face. At that time alfo bap-
tized perfons wore white garments till the Sunday follow-
ing. ‘They had. alfo various other ceremonies; fome of
which are now abolifhed, though others of them remain in
the church of Rome to this day.

The Quakers (fee Quakers) affert, that water baptifm
avas never intended to continue in the churchof Chrilt any
longer than while Jewifh prejudices made fuch an external
ceremony neéeffary ; which they argue from that paflage,
in which oze baptiim is fpoken of as neceffary to Chriftians ;
Ephef. iv. 5. which, as they fay, muft be a baptifm of the
Apirit. But from comparing the texts that relate to this
inftitution, which have been already cited, it will plainly
appear that water baptifm was inftituted by Chrift in more
general terms than will agree with this explication. That
re -_* .
it was adminiftered to all the Gentile converts, and not con-
fined to the Jews, appears from Matt. xxvili. 19, 20, com-
pared with AGs, x. 47 ; and that the baptifm of the fpirit
did not fuperfede water baptifm, appears to have been the
judgment of Peter and of thofe that were with him; fo
that the one baptifm fpoken of feems to have been that
f water; the communication of the Holy Spirit being

enly called baptifm in a figurative fenfe. As for any ob}

tion which could be drawn from 1 Cor. i. 17. it is fufficiently
aniwered by the preceding verfes, and all the numerous
texts, in which, in epiitles written long after this, the
apoitle fpeaks of a// Chriitians as baptized ; and argucs
from the obligation of baptiim, in fuch a manner as we
can never imagine he would have done, if he had appre-
hended it to have been the will of God that it fhould
be diicontinued in the church. Compare Rom. vi. 3, &e.
Col: ii. 12. Gall. ni. 27.

Baptifm was alfo wholly rejeted by the Valentinians,
Manichees, Paulicians, and many other ieGs.

Several of the Socinians have maintained, that baptifm
was only to be ufed by thofe who are converted to Chrif=
tianity from a different profeffion; and that though the
children of fuch profelytes were to be baptized with their
parents, all who deicended from them were to be confidered
as baptized in them ; and they urge the pra€tice of profelyte
baptiim among the Jews in fupport of this opinion. (See
Emlyn’s Previous Queition, ubi fupra). However, it has
been alleged in reply, that the antiquity of this praétice of
profelyte baptifm among the Jews has been doubted, and
even difallowed by many ; and if it be admitted, all the rules
and circumiiances relating to it might not be known even to
the-apofties themfelves ; and it is alfo probable, that fome
of the rules of profelyte baptifm did not prevail among _
them fo early, particularly that which fuppofed that all na-
tural relations were annulled by it. Befides, although it be
acknowledged that no inftance occurs in the earlieft primi-
tive antiquity, in which the baptifm of any child of Chnif-
tian parents, whether infant or adult, is exprefsly mentioned $
yet it is certain that Chriftians in general have always been
fpoken of by the moft ancient fathers as baptized perfons ;
and the apoitles, when writing to Chriitian churches planted
many years before the date of their refpective epiftles, argue
with the members of them from the obligation which their
baptifm breught upon them, in fuch a manner as would
lead us to conclude, that they were baptized in their own
perfons ; and it is alfo certain, that as far as our knowledge
of primitive antiquity reaches, no unbaptized perfon re-
ceived the Lord’s fupper, which, neverthelefs, was an ordi-
nance none will deny that the defcendants of Chriftians par-
ticipated. It is added, that on this {uppofition, genealogies
would be of great importance in religion, contraryto what St.
Paul intimates ; nor can it be reafonably thought that our
right to Chriftian communion fhould reit on a fa, the evi-
dence of which might fometimes be fo obfcure, as the baptifin
of fome remote anceftor. See Gale’s Serm. vol. ii. N° g.
Benfon on 2 Tim. p. 134—136. Whilt. Life, vol. i. p. 367,
368.

Theological authors diftinguifh three kinds of baptifm:
1. Water baptifm, which isthat above-mentioned. 2. Bap-
tifm of fire, which is the perfeét love of God, joined with
an earneft defire to be baptized: called alfo the baptifm of
the Holy Ghoft : on occafion this may fupply the place of
water baptifm. 3. Baptifm of blood, which is the martyr-
dom of a catechumen.

Baptifm, in the primitive times, was only adminiitered at
Eafter and Whitfuntide, except in cafes of neceflity.”
Adult perfons were prepared for baptifm by abitinence,
prayer, and other pious exercifes. It was to anfwer for
them, fays Mofheim (Eccl. Hift. vol. i. p. 211.), that fpon-
fors, or godfathers, were firlt inftituted in the fecond cen=
tury, though they were afterwards admitted alfo in the bap-
tifm of infants. This, according to M. Daille, was not
done till the fourth century. Wall (Hift. Inf. Bapt. vol. i.
p- 49-) refers the origin ef fponfors, or godfathers, on the

authority

BAP

authority of Tertullian, to the commencement of the fecond
century ; who were ufed in the baptifm of infants that
could not anfwer for themfelves. (See Gopraruers.) The
catechumens were not forward in coming to baptifm : St.
Ambrofe was not baptized before he was elected bifhop of
Milan; and fome of the fathers not till the time of their
death. Some deferred it out of a tender confcience ; and
others out of too much attachment to the world; it being
the prevailing opinion of the primitive times, that baptifm,
whenever conferred, wafhed away all antecedent ftains and
fins. Accordingly, they deferred this fanétifying rite as
long as yoflible, even till they apprehended they were at
the point of death. Cafes of this kind occur at the begin-
ning of the third century. Conftantine the Great was not
baptized till he was at the laft gafp, and in this he was fol-
lowed by his fon Conttantius; and two of his other fons,
Conftantine and Conttans, were killed before they were bap-
tized. Divers of the fathers rallied this fuperititious deli-
cacy to fuch a degree, that they introduced a different ex-
treme ; the ridiculous zeal of fome people carrying them to
baptize even the dead, by proxy. Epiphanius, Chryfottom,
and Theodoret, obferve, that this cuftom prevailed in fome
places in their time. See Bafnage Hift. des Eglifes Refor-
mées, vol. i. p. 137. Pog

The opinion of the neceffity of baptifm in order to fal-
vation, is grounded on thefe two fayings of our Saviour :
*¢ He that believeth, and is baptized, fhall be faved ;” and,
¢¢ Except a man be born of water, and of the fpirit, he
cannot enter into the kingdom of God.’”? Mark xvi. 36.
John iii. 5. Inthe age immediately following that of the
apoftles, we find that baptifm and regeneration were ufed as
fynonymous terms ; and whereas, originally, the pardon of
fin was fuppofed to be the confequence of that reformation
of life which was unly promifed at baptifm, it was now ima-
gined that there was fomething in the rite itfelf, to which
that grace was annexed ; and in general it feems to’ have
been imagined that this fanctifying virtue was in the water,
and in no other part of the ordinance as admiuiftered by the
prieft. Tertullian fays, that the Holy Spirit was always
given in baptifm ; and he fays, that the fpirit of God de-
{cends upon the water of baptifm like a dove. Chryfoitom
afferts, that the water ceafes to be what it was before, and
is not fit for drinking, but is proper for fanétifying; and
that the Chriftian baptifm is fuperior to that of John, as
his was the baptifm of repentance, but had not the power
of forgiving fin. Auftin fays, that it touches the body,
and purifies the heart. Bafnage (ubi fupra), p. 138. And
it appears by a patiege in Auftin, that the African Chriftians
ufually called baptifm /a/vation, and the eucharift /if, pre-
ferring the former to the latter. Wickliffe thought baptifm
to be neceflary to falvation. ‘* The priett,” he fays, “ in
baptifm adminifters only the token or fign, hut God, who
is the prieft and bifhop of our fouls, adminifters the fpiritual
grace.”? Gilpin’s Life of Wickl. p. 64. It is alfo the lan-
guage of the public forms of the Church of England, that
bapufm is neceflary to falvation, aud that by baptifm an
infant is regenerated, becomes a child of God by adoption,
and is incorporated into God’s holy church. Similar to
this is the do€trine of the church of Scotland; for, in
their confeffion of faith, baptifm is faid to a be fign or feal
of the covenant of grace, of perfons ingrafting into Chrift,
of regeneration, of remiflion of fins, &c. As to the ne-
ceffity of baptifm, we may obferve, however, that, though
fome feem to have laid too great ftrefs upon it, asif it were
indifpenfably neceffary in order to falvation ; it muft be al-
lowed, that for any perfon to omit baptifm, when he ac-
knowledges it to be an inftitution of Chnift, and that it isthe

Vor. III.

BAP
will of Chrift that he fhould fubmit to it, isan act of difobe«

nience to his authority, which is inconfiftent with true faith.

Mr. Dodwell maintains that the ordinance of baptifm, if
adminiftered by perfons duly ordained, conveys an immor-
talizing {pirit; whereas perfons dying unbaptized are not
immortal. Mr. Hallet alfo (Notes on Script. vol. iii. p- 299
—311.), though he does not affert it in exprefs terms, feems
to intimate fomething very like it, when he fays, that cir-
cumcifion was that which gave the infant a right to immor-
tality ; and that baptifm in this refpeé& comes in the room
of circumcifion; and yet that no infants are miferable in a
future ftate.

Some have maintained that the commiffion to baptize
was addreffed by Jefus only to the apoftles; and hence
they argue that none but apottles and apoftolical men,
their fucceffors, haye any right toadminifter baptifm. But
it has been afked by others, is it a true faét that during
the lives of the apoftles, none but they baptized? Philip
the deacon baptized the Samaritans (A@s xviii. 5—I4);
there was an apoftle at Damafcus when Paul was baptized,
but he was baptized by a certain difciple named Ananias.
Adtsix. 18. Rom. vi. 4. See alfo Ads xviii. 2, &c. As
x. 5—23. It is alfo inquired further by perfons of this
latter clafs, who are the fucceffors of the apottles ? and
whether or not Jefus inftituted a priefthood or any order of
men to fucceed the apoilies ? It 1s, however, a faét which
cannot be contefted, that in the earlieft age of the Chriftian
church, the bifhop only, or the priefts by his permiffion, .
adminittered baptifm; as with his leave, they alfo performed
any other of his funétions: but it appears from Tertullian,
that in his time laymen had in fome cafes the power of
baptizing. This baptifm, neverthelefs, feemed to have re-
quired the confirmation of the bifhop, and would not be
allowed but in cafe of neceffity, as at the approach of
death, &c. Ata fynodat Elvira, in 306, it was allowed,
that a layman, provided he had not been married a fecond
time, might baptize catechumens in cafe of neceffity; but
it was ordered, that if they furvived they fhould be brought
to the bifhop for the impofition of hands. Afterwards,
when the bounds of the church were much enlarged, the
bufinefs of baptifm was left almoft entirely to the priefts,
or the country bifhops; and the bifhops of great fees only
confirmed afterwards. It feems, however, to be decent and
proper, that baptifm fhould be adminiftered only by the
teachers and minifters of the church, where their afliftance
can be had; not only becaufe it appears that thefe were the
perfons by whom it was adminiftered in the New Tefta-
ment, but becaufe, ceteris paribus, they muft be moft ca-
pable of judging who are the fit fubjects of it.

_Great doubts were raifed in early times about the validity
of baptifm as adminiftered by heretics. Tertullian, before
he became a Montanift, wrote a treatife to prove that here-
tics, not having the fame God or the fame Chrift with the
orthodox, their baptifm was not valid. Cyprian called
a fynod at Carthage, in which it was determined, that no
baptifm was valid out of the Catholic church, and therefore,
that* thofe who had been heretics fhould be re-baptized.
But Stephen, the bifhopof Rome, did not approve of this
decifion ; and by decrees his opinion, which continued
to be that of the church of Rome, became every where
prevalent. Indeed, whea fo much ftrefs was laid upon bap-
tifm itfelf, it would have introduced endlefs anxiety, if
much doubt had remained about the power of adminiftering
it. Fora further account of the fubjeGts and mode of bap-
tifm, fee Baptists, and Peposarrists; fee alfo Ana-
BAPTISTS. 4

Bartisu of the Dead; a cuftom which anciently pre-
4 F vailed

BA (P

vailed among fome people in Africa. The third council
of Carthage {peaks of it as a thing that ignorant Chrittians
were fond of. Gregory Nazianzen alfo takes notice of the
fame fuperftitious opinion prevailing among fome who delay-
ed to be baptized. In his addrefs to this kind of men, he
afks, whether they ftaid to be baptized after death? Phi-
laftrius alfo notes it as the general error of the Montanitts
or Cataphrygians, that they baptized men after death.

The practice feems to be grounded on a vain opinion,
that when men had neglected to receive baptifm in their
life-time, fome compentfation might be made for this default
by receiving it after death.

Barris of the Dead was alfoa fort of vicarious baptifm
formerly in ufe, where a perfon dying without baptifm,
another was baptized in his ftead; a practice founded on
1 Cor. xv. 29. concerning the fenfe of which paflage critics
have been much divided. Several Catholics underftand it
of the baptifm of tears, penance, and prayers, which the
living undergo for the dead, and allege it asa proof of the
belief of purgatory in the apoitles’ days. See Heinfius’s
Exerc. ad Nov. Teft. lib. vil. cap. 13.

Michaelis underftands, with Grotius and Simon, by Bzr-
micpor urep yexpwy, or baptifm for the dead, a vicarious bap-
tifm for the dead. Whether this vicarious baptifm was
practifed in the firft century, and meant by the apoftle, it is
difficult at prefent to determine; and Dr. Teller, one of
the moft fenfible expofitors of the New Teftament, candidly
confefses, that he-is unable to comprehend the meaning of
the pafflage. It is, however, certain that the cuftom was
not unknown in the fourth century, as appears from Chry-
foftom’s 40th homily to the firft epiftl: to the Corinthians;
and in the fame century it was not unufual to defer baptifm
till the approach of death, and if the patient died fuddenly,
to baptize even the deceafed. Michaelis’s Introd. by
Marth, vol. i. p. 359-

Others have fuppofed that the fuperftitious cuftom
of baptizing a living perfon as the reprefentative of one
who had died unbaptized, is more likely to have arifen
from an erroneous interpretation of this paflage than to
have been fo early prevalent. Some conceive that vexpay
is here put for vexee, and refers to thofe who were bap-
tized into the religion of Jefus, who on the hypothelis
of the adverfaries againft whom the apoftle reafons, is /f/l
dead. Sir Richard Ellys, in his ‘‘ Fortuita Sacra,” p. 137.
interprets thefe words in the following manner: ‘ what
Should they do who are baptized, in token of their embracing
the Chriftian faith, in the room of the dead, who are jutt
fallen in the caufe of Chrift, but are yet fupported by a fuc-
ceffion of new converts, who immediately offer themfelves
to fill up their place, as ranks of foldiers that advance to
the combat in the room of their companions, who have jutt
been flain in their fight.”’? Doddr. in loc. Wakefield (‘Tranf-
lation, vol. ii. p. 89,) renders the words: ‘ Befides, what
advantage above the other dead will they have, who are fub-
mitting conftantly to baptifm? Why indeed are they thus
baptized, if the dead will certainly live no more? Why
fhould we too expofe ourfelves to the danger of it every
hour ?? ‘The apottle, fays this critic, here begins a new
argument of the refurre¢tion, grounded on the practice of
the apoftles themfelves, who had been eye-witnefles of their
mafter’s revival. What contributed not a little to obfcure
this paflage, he adds, was the fecond umep rwy vexewr, a claufe
not acknowledged by the Coptic and Ethiopic verfions.
For this fenfe of baptifm, the reader may confult Matt. xx.
22. Luke xii. 50. Eufeb. Eccl. Hift. vi. 4. fin 5 and for
an illuftration of the argument, Rey. xx. 4.

Bazerism, Lay, feems to have been allowed in the rubric

B yA oP

of the Englifh liturgy, till the time of king James I, though
there were great difputes among the bifhops at the Hamp-
ton-court conference in 1603, whether the words of the
liturgy imported fuch allowance or not. The bifhop of
Worcefter allowed them to be doubtful; but that the con-
trary practice of the church, which cenfured women for
conterring baptifm, fhewed, that the compilers of the
book did not intend them as a permiflion; they had indeed
propounded them ambiguoufly, becaufe otherwife, perhaps,
the book would not have pafled the parliament. The arch-
bifhop of Canterbury infifted, that the adminiftration of
private baptifm by women and laymen was not allowed in
the practice of the church, but, on the contrary, cenfured
by the bifhops in their vifitations. He even added, that
the words of the liturgy do not infer any fuch meaning. To
which king James excepted ; urging and prefling the words
of the book, that they could not but intend a permiffion
of womenand private perfonsto baptize. Till this time it
had been cuftomary for bifhops to licenfe midwives to their
office, and to allow ees to baptize in cafes of necef-
fity, under an oath which was prefcribed to them.

At prefent, the Englith divines condemn it as invalids
and Burnet, bifhop of Sarum, was feverely handled by
fome of them, for aflerting that faith in the Trinity gives
every man a right to baptize. Collins’s Dif. on Free-
Think. p. 73. '

Barrism, Clinic. See Crinic.

Barrism is allo applied abufively to certain ceremonies
ufed in giving names to many inanimate things.

Barrism, in Sea Language, is a ceremony in long yoy-
ages aboard merchant-fhips; practifed both on perfons and
veflels which pafs the tropic, or eyuinoétial line, for the :
firft time.

That of veffels is fimple, and confifts only in the wafhing-
them throughout with fea-water ; that of paflengers is lu-
dicrous:; but neither the one nor the other is done without
making the crew drunk; the feamen on chriftening the
fhip, pretending, to a right of cutting off the beak-head,
unlefs redeemed by the matter or captain.

Bartism of Bells. See Bevv.

BAPTISMAL Fonr. See Barristery. >

BarrismaL Prefents are in ufe in Germany, made by
the {ponfors to the infant, confifting of money, plate, or
even fometimes fiefs of lands; which, by the laws of the
country, are to be kept for the child till of age, the parents
having only the truit, not the right of difpofing of them.

An anonymous author has publifhed a difcourfe exprefs
on this occafion, intitled, « De Pecunia Luttrica.”’

Barrismau Vow, or Covenant, a profeffion of obedience
to the laws of Chrift, which perfons, in the ancient church,
made before baptifm. :

It was made by turning to the Eaft, but for what myfti-
cal reafons is not well agreed.

BAPTIST, Joun, Monnoyer, in Biography, an emi-
nent painter of flowers and fruit, was born at Lifle in
1635, and educated at Antwerp. ‘The compofition and
colouring of this mafter are in a bolder ftyle than thofe of
Van Huyfum, but his pictures are not fo exquifitely finifhed.
The difpofition of his objects is fo elegant and beautiful as
to form ateft by which his compofitions may be dstin-
guifhed from thofe of other mafters. He was invited to
England by the duke of Montagu, and employed in _con-
junction with La Foffe and Rouffeau, to embellifh Monta-
gue houfe, which is now the Britifh Mufeum, and in which
are preferved fome of the fineft performances of Baptilt. A
very celebrated work of this artift is a looking-glafs pre-
ferved in the royal palace at Kenfington, decorated with a

garland

qv

=

BAP

garland of flowers, for queen Mary II. who fat by him
during the greatett part of the time whilft he was employed
in painting it. He died in 1699. His fon Anthony Baptift
was alfo a painter of flowers in the ftyle and manner of his
father. Pilkington.

Barrtist, Joun, Gasrars, a painter of hiftory and
portrait, was born at Antwerp, and was a difciple of Tho-
mas Willeborts Bofchaert. During the civil wars he came
over to England; and after the reftoration was employed by
fir Peter Lely, to paint the poftures and draperies of his

rtraits, and diftinguifhed by the name of Lely’s Baptilt.

e made defigns for tapeftry, which were accounted good,
and his drawing was generally corre. In the hall of St.
Bartholomew’s hofpital there is a portrait of king Charles
II. painted by this matter. He died in 1691. Pilkington.

BAPTISTERY, in Leclefiaflical Writers, a place or
edifice where water is preferved for perfons to be baptized
in. Anciently in the churches which baptized by immer-
fion, the baptiftery was a kindof pond where the catechu-
mens were plunged: though in many places the next river
ferved for a baptittery, which was the cafe in the time of
Juftin Martyr and of Tertullian.

About the middle of the third century, they began to
build baptiiteries ; but there were none that adjoined to
churches till the year 496, and then they ftood without the
church, and of this kind the firft was prepared for the bap-
tifm of Clovis king of France, who, with his filter Audo-
fledis was dipped three times by immerfion. But there
were none within the churches till the fixth century; and
it is remarkable, that though there were many churches in
one city, yet, with few exceptions, there was but one bap-
tiftery. This fimple circumitance became in time a title to
dominion ; and the congregation neareft the baptiftery, and
to whom in fome places it belonged, and by whom it was
lent to the other churches, pretended that all the others
ought to confider themfelves as dependent upon them.
When the fafhion of dedication was introduced, the church
that owned the baptiftery was generally dedicated to St.
John the Baptift, and aflumed the title of St. John in fonte,
or St. John ad fontes, that is the church near or at the
baptiftery. The noble and f{plendid cities of Florence, Pifa,
Bologna, Parma, Milan, and many others in Italy, had
but one baptiftery in each; and thefe baptifmal churches
were ufually built near rivers and waters, as was the cafe
with refpeét to thofe of Milan, Naples, Ravenna, Verona,
andmany more. In later times, the bifhop of the baptifmal
church, having obtained fecnlar power granted licences for
other churches to ereét baptifteries ; taking care at the fame
time to maintain his own dominion over the people.

By a baptiftery, which muft not be confounded with a
modern font, is to be underftood an oGagon building, with
acupola roof, refembling the dome of a cathedral, adja-
cent to a church, but forming no part of it. The whole
middle part of this edifice was one large hall capable of con-
taining a great number of people; the fides were parted
off, and divided into rooms ; and in fome, rooms were added
on the outfide in the fafhion of cloifters. In the middle of
the great hall was an oGtagon bath, which, ftri¢tly fpeaking,
was the baptiftery, and from which the whole building de-
rived its appellation. Some of thefe were erected over na-
tural rivulets; others were fupplied by pipes, and the water
was conveyed into one or more of the fide-rooms. Some
of the furrounding rooms were veitries, others fchool-rooms,
both for tranfacting the affairs of the church, and for the
inftruction of youth. They were large and capacious ; for
as baptifm was adminiftered only twice a year, the candi-
dates were numerous, and the {pectators more numerous

BAP

than they. In procefs of time there were baptifteries at
moft of the principal churches of Rome, as at thofe of St.
Peter, St. Laurence, St. Agnes, St. Pancras, and others.
The moft ancient is that at St. John Lateran. Baptifteries
were alfo erected feparate from the churches in all the prin-
cipal cities of Italy, as Florence, Ravenna, Milan, Pifa,
Parma, and the reft. The baptiftery annexed to the fpa-
cious and fplendid church of St. Sophia at Conftantinople,
refembled the convocation room of a cathedral; it was
very large; councils have been held in it; and it was called
pry Qarisnpicr, the great illummatory. In the middle was
the bath, in which baptifm was adminiitered ; and there
were outer rooms for all concerned in the baptifm of im-
merfion, the only baptifm of the place. The Lateran bap-
tiftery at Rome, belonging to the church of St. John Late-
ran, 1s an o¢tagon edifice, the roof of which is fupported
by eight larze polygonal pillars of porphyry ; and under
the cupola, in the centre of the floor, is the baptiftery pro-
perly fo called, lined with marble, with three iteps for de-
feent into it, and about five Roman palms, or 37% inches,
deep. Ciampini apprehends, after much inveftigation of
the opinions of antiquarians, that this baptiftery was origi-
nally a bath in the precinéts of the imperial palace ; that
it was begun to be converted into a baptiltery by the empe-
ror Conftantine; that the buildings were carried on by pope
Xyftus III.; and that they were completed and ornamented
by pope Hilary. Baptifteries were in fafhion in Italy from
the reign of Conftantine to that of Charlemagne, during a
period of about 500 years; and within this interval they
were amply adorned and endowed. The firft gifts of the
faithful were milk, honey, and wine, for the refrefhment
of the catechumens and their attendants; the next were
oils, unguents, and falts; along with thefe came cups, vafes,
plates, and utenfils, marked with the initial letters of the
name of John Baptift, I. B. or John the fore-runner,
IQAN TIPOA. which perhaps is the true origin of baptif{mal
inferiptions ; then came money for the poor, and for the
fupport of thofe who {pent thetr time in teaching and off-
ciating ; after thefe came habits, ornaments, pictures of
John holding ont his right hand, with a lamb lying in it,
being a reference to his words, “ Behold the lamb of God;’*
and thefe were followed by others more complex ; the whole
forming a large body of fuperftitious theology, glaring in
practice, but cumberfome to virtue. ;
In the baptifm of infants, it was unneceflary for the admi-
niftrators to go into the water, and therefore they contrived
cifterns, which they called fonts, in which the children were
dipped. Thefe were at firft {mall baths, ereCied ona platform,
into which thole who performed the ceremony plunged chil-
dren, without going into the water themfelves. In modern
practice, the font remains, but a bafon of water fet in the font
ferves the purpofe, becaufe it is not thought neceflary either
that the adminiftrator fhould go into the water, or that the
candidate fhould be immerfed. This in England was cuftom,
but not law; for in the time of queen Elizabeth, the go-
vernors of the epifcopal church did in effect exprefsly pro-
hibit fprinkling, by forbidding the ufe of bafons in publie
baptifm. See « A booke of certain canons, concerning fome
part of the difcipline of the churche of England,” in 1571,
by John Daye, p. 19. Fonts in parifh-churches for the
purpofe of baptizing infants were introduced foon after the
arrival of Auftin the monk; and each parifh was enjoimed
to provide fonts of wood and ftone for this purpofe. In
the old church of St. Peter at Oxford, built by Grymbald,
who was brought over from Flanders into England by
Alfred, in the year 835, there was till lately a very ancient
baptifmal font, of acircular form, and elegant {culpture,
MAD?) eleven

BAP

eleven feet in circumference, and of proportionable depth,
with the twelve apoftles reprefented in feparate niches. Af-
ter having kept its place about 500 years, it was ordered to
be removed, and another much inferior put in its place. In
the church of Bridekirk, near Cockermouth in Cumber-
land, there is a large open veffel of greenifh ftone, which
antiquaries pronounce to be a Danifh font. The chief cha-
racters on this baptif{mal font (fee Gibfon’s Camden’s Brit.
yol. ii. p. 1007.) are Runic, but fome are purely Saxon.
This is fuppofed to be the oldeft font yet remaining in this
kingdom, being of the ninth ceutury, when the Danes firlt
received the Catholic religion. “Whether the font be Danifh
or Saxon, the baptiim which it exhibits is that of the Ca-
tholics oppofed to that of the old Pelagian Britons.

There were feveral fonts and altars in each baptiftery,
becaufe then they baptized at once, all of whom received
the eueharift immediately after.

The right of having fonts was confined to parifhes alone;
and if any monafteries were found with baptifmal fonts, it
was becaufe they had baptifmal churches in another place :
though the bifhops fometimes granted them to monks, up-
on condition that they would have a fecular prieft along
with them to take care of the people; but they afterwards
found means to throw off the prieft; and make themfelves
matters of the church, and attach ‘t, with its baptifmal
fonts, to their own monaftery. For a copious account of
baptifteries and fonts, illuftrated by figures, fee Robinfon’s
Hittory of Baptifm, p. 56—131.

BaprisTery is alfo ufed for a baptifmal or parochial
church.

Barristery is alfo ufed by the Armenians, for the
feaft of Epiphany, when the anniverfary of Chrift’s bap-
tifm is celebrated.

Barristery is alfo ufed fora church-book, wherein the
prayers and ceremonies of baptifm were particularly de-
{eribed. Some take the daprifferium to have contained the
order of all the facraments, except the eucharift.

BAPTISTS, in Leclefiaftical Hiftory, from Barnto, I
haptize, a denomination of Chriftians, diftinguifhed from
other Chriftians by their particular opinions refpecting the
mode and the fubjects of baptifm.

Inftead of adminiftering the ordinance by fprinkling or
pouring water, they maintain that it ought to be admini-
sLered only by immerfion. Such, they infift, is the mean-
ing of the word Banr{w ; fo that a command to baptize is
acommand to immerfe. Thus it was underftood by thofe
who firft adminiftered it. John the Baptift, and the apofiles
of Chrift, adminiftered it in Jordan and other rivers and
places were there was much water. Both ‘the adminiftra-
tors and the fubjects are defcribed as going down into, and
coming up again out of the water. And the baptized are
faid to be buried in baptifm, and to be raifed again; which
language could not, they fay, be properly adopted on fup-
pofition of the ordinance’s being adminiftered in any other
manner than by immerfion. Thus alfo, they affirm, it was
in general adminiftered in the primitive church. Thus it is
now adminiftered in the Ruffian and Greek church; and
thus itis, at this day, direéted to be adminiftered in the
church of England, to all who are thought capable of fub-
mitting to it in this manner. With regard to the fub-
jects of baptifm, the Baptilts fay, that this ordnance ought
not to be adminiftered to children or infants at all, nor to
grown up perfons in prneral, but to adults only of a cer-
tain character and defcription. Our Saviour’s commiffion
to his apoitles, by which Chriftian baptifm was inftituted, is
to go and teach all nations, baptizing them: that is, fay
they, not to baptize all they meet with; but firft to inftruct

BAR

them—to teach all nations, or to preach the gofpel to every
creature—and whoever receives it, him to baptize in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghoft. ‘To fuch perfons, and to fuch only, baptifm ap-
pears to have been adminiftered by the apoftles, and the im-
mediate difciples of Chrift. They are defcribed as repent-
ing of their fins, as believing in Chrift, and as having gladly
received the word. Without thefe qualifications, Peter
acqu ints thofe who were converted by his fermon, that he
coul i not have admitted them to baptifm. Philip holds the
fam> language in his difcourfe with the eunuch. And Paul
treats Lydia, the jailor, and others, in the fame manner,
Without thefe qualifications, Chriftians in general think it
wrong to admit perfons to the Lord’s {upper ; and, for the
fame reafons, without thefe qualifications, at leaft a pro-
feffion of them, the Baptiits think it wrong to admit any to
baptifm. Wherefore they withhold it, not only from the
impenitently vicious and profane, and from infidels who
have no faith, but alfo from infants and children, who have
no knowledge, and who are incapable of every aétion civil
and religious. ‘They farther infift, that all pofitive infti-
tutions depend entirely upon the will and declaration of the
inftitutor; and that therefore reafoning by analogy from
previous abrogated rites is to be rejected, and the exprefs
commands of Chrift refpeéting the mode and fubjeéts of
baptifm ought to be our only rule.

The Baptifts in England form one of the three denomina-
tions of Proteftant diffenters. They feparate from the efta-
blifhment for the fame reafons as their brethren of the other
denominations do, with whom they are united ; and from
additional motives derived from their particular tenets re-
fpecting baptifm. The conftitution of theirchurches, and
their modes of worfhip, are congregational or independent :
im the exercifes of which they are protected, in common
with other diflenters, by the a€t of toleration. Before this
act, they were liable to pains and penaltics as non-con-
formiits, and often for their peculiar fentiments as Baptitts.
A proclamation was iflued out againft them, and fome of
them were burnt in Smithfield in 1538. They bore a con-
fiderable fhare in the perfecutions of the 17th and of the
preceding centuries; and, as it fhould feem, in thofe of
{ome centuries before; for there were feveral among the
Lollards and the followers of Wickliff, who difapproved of
infant baptifm. There were many of this perfuafion among
the Proteftants and reformers abroad. In Holland, Ger-
many, and the North, they went by the names of Ana-
BApTists and Mennonites; and in Piedmont and the
South, they were found among the ALBIGENsEs and
Watpenses. See the Hittories of the Reformation, and
the above articles in this Diétionary.

The Baptifts fubfift under two denominations, viz. the
Particular or Calviniftical, and the General or Arminian.
The former is by far the moft numerous. Some of both
denominations allow of mixed communion, others difallow
it; and fome of them obferve the feventh day of the week
as the fabbath, apprehending the law that enjoined it not
to have been repealed by Chrift or his apoitles. But a
difference of opiaion refpecting thefe and other matters is
not peculiar to the Baptifts ; it is common to all Chriftians,
and to all bodies of men who think and judge for themfelves.
See Pxposarrtists, under which article an account will
be given of the principal arguments in favour of infant
baptifm.

BAR, in Architedure, a long flender piece of wood or
iron, ufed to keep things clofe and faft together.

In this fenfe, we {peak of bars of windows, of doors,
and the like.

8 Bars

BAR

Bars of iron are made of the metal of the fows and pigs
as they come from the furnaces.

Thefe pafs through two forges called the finery and the
chaufery ; where, undergoing five feveral heats, they are
formed into bars. Phil. ‘T'ranf. N° 138. p. 954. See [ron,
and Force.

Bar Shot, in Artillery. See Suro.

To Bar ov firike a Vein, among Farriers, an operation

erformed on the veins of a horfe’s legs, or other parts of
Fie body, in order to flop the courfe, and Icflen the quan-
tity of malignant humours prevailing there. :

It is thus performed ; the farrier opens the fkin, after dif-
engaging the vein, ties it above and below, and then ttrikes
between the two ligatures.

{ Bar ofa Port, in Marine Fortification. See Boom.

Bar, in Geography, is ufed for a heap of fand or mud, or
a chain of rocks, which block up the mouth of a river
or port, fo that there is no entrance except at high water.

The bar of Siam is a remarkable bank of mud, gathered in
the mouth of the river, which allows not above thirteen feet
of water, when the tide is higheft.

Bar, atown of Arabia, fifty-fix miles fouth-eaft of El
Catif, near the Perfian gulph.

Bar, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Bahar, fif-
teen miles north of Bahar, and thirty E.S.E. of Patna.

Bar, Le, a town of France, in the department of the
Var, and chief place of a canton inthe diftrict of Graffe, four
miles north-eaft of Graffe ; the place contains 1143, and the
canton 6025 inhabitants ; the territory includes 1774 kilio-
metres and rr communes.

Bar fur Aube, a town of France, and principal place of
a diftri& in the department of the Aube. The place con-
tains 4000 and the canton 13,701 inhabitants the terri-
tory includes 257+ kiliometres and 23 communes. N. lat.
48° 14’. E long 4° 36’. oa

Bar fur Seine, a town of France, and principal place of
a diftri& in the department of the Aube, fituate at the foot
of a mountain, on the Seine; it has three gates, a college,
and a hofpital ; 5+leagues S.E. of Troyes. The place con-
tains 2299, and the canton 11,342 inhabitants; the ter-
ritory includes 257 kiliometres and 23 communes. N. lat.
48° 7’, E. long. 4° 16’.

Bar /e Duc, a town of France, and principal town of a
diftrié& in the department of the Meufe; and, before the
revolution, the capital of the duchy of Bar. It is divided
into the Upper and Lower town by a caftle called the Bar,
and was a kind of barrier between France and Lorraine. The
walls and towers of this cattle were demolifhedby Louis XIV.
The river Ornain runs through the lower part of the town.
Tt is feven leagues S.S.E. of St. Menehould, and 9% weft of
Toul. The place contains 9,900, and the canton 14,217
inhabitants ; the territory includes 774 kiliometres and 8
communes. N. lat. 48° 47’. E. long. 4° 4’.

Bar, Duchy of, was, before the revolution, the name of a
country of France, fituate to the weft of Lorraine, thirty-
two leagues long and fixteen wide ; the face of the country
is irregular, rele hills and plains ; and it abounds with
wood, wine, corn, game, and fifh. Its name was derived from
the caftle of Bar, and it was erected into a county by the em-
peror Otho, but the time when it was raised to a duchy is
not afcertained.

Bar, a diftri& of Swifferland, in the canton of Zug. See
Zuc.

Bar, is alfo the name of a fortrefs of Poland, in Podolia.
Bar, in Heraldry, denotes an ordinary nearly refemblin
the Fe/s : it confifts of two lines drawn horizontally pee
the field, and contains a fifth part thereof. The Bar hath
two diminutives; viz. a clofet, which is in breadth one-half ;

BAR

and a barrulet, which is in breadth one fourth of that of the
bar. When the field is divided into four,fix,cight, ten, twelve,
or more equal parts, it is then blazoned, Jarry ; and the
number of pieces are to be fpecified, e. gr. barry of fa many
pieces ; but if it contains an odd number, the field mutt be
firft named, and the number of bars exprefled ; they are then
called bars. See Prare of Heraldry.

Bars Gemel, or Bars-Gemelles, are diminutives of the
bar, and are placed in pairs, or two and two on a fhield.
They derive their name from the Latin gemelli, twins. See
Prare of Heraldry.

Bar, in a Court of Juflice, denotes an inclofure made
with a ftrong partition of timber, three or four feet high,
where the counfel are’placed to plead caufes; and where
prifoners are brought to an{wer their indiétments, &c.

This the French call barre d’audience and in fome places
auditoire. It anfwers to what, among the Romans, was
denominated cau/idica. é

It is called bar, becaufe inclofed with a barrier, called
alfo in Latin writers cancelli and caule, by a metaphor
taken from fheep-folds.

The denomination bar is alfo given to the benches
where the lawyers or advocates are feated—The appellation
arofe hence, that anciently there was a bar, or barrier, to
{eparate the counfellors and pleaders from the attorneys and
others.

Hence our lawyers who are called to the bar, or licenfed
to plead, in other countries called Jicentiati, are termed
barriflers. 24 Hen. VIII. c. 24.

Bar, or Barr, Barra, in Common Law, denotes a
peremptory exception again{t a demand or plaint.

The author of the «Terms de Ley’? defines bar, a plea
brought by the defendant in an aGtion, whereby the aétion
of the plaintiff is deftroyed for ever. And it is divided into
bar to common intendment, and dar fpecial; the former is an
ordinary or general bar, which is ufually a bar to the decla-
ration of the plaintiff; and the latter is that which occurs
upon fome fpecial cireumftance of the fa@, as to the cafe in
hand. Modern writers alfo divide bars into perpetual and
temporary: bar perpetual, is that which overthrowsthe a€tion
for ever, and bar temporary, or bar pro tempore, is that which
is allowed good for the prefent, but may fail, or be fet afide
hereafter. Plowd. 26. A plea in bar not giving a full an.
{wer to all the matter contained in the plaintifl’s declaration,
is not good. 1 Lill. Abr. 211. If one be barred by plea to
the writ, or to the a¢tion of the writ, he may have the fame
writ again, or his right action again: but if the plea in bar
be to the action itfelf, and the plaintiff be barred by judg-
ment, &c. it is a bar for ever in perfonal ations. 6 Rep. 7.
Anda recovery in debt is a good bar to aétion on the cafe,
for the fame thing ; alfo a recovery onaffumpfit in cafe isa
good barin debt, &c. Cro. Jac. 110. 4 Rep. 94. In all
actions perfonal, as debt, account, &c. a bar is perpetual, and
in fuch cafe the party hath no remedy but by writ of error
or attaint ; but if a man is barred in a real aGtion or judg-
ment, yet he may have an a¢tion of as high a nature, becaule
it concerns his inheritance ; as e. g. if he is barred in a
formedon in defcender, yet he may have a formedon in the re-
mainder, &c. 6 Rep. 7. It has been refolved, that a bar
in any action, real or perfonal, by judgment upon demurrer,
verdi& or confeffion, is a barto that a¢tion, or any aétion ot
the like nature for ever ; but, according to Pemberton, chief
juttice, this is to be underftood, when it doth appear that the
evidence in one aCtion would maintain the other; for other-
wife the court fhall intend that the party hath miftaken his
aGtion. Skin. 57, 58.

Bar to a common intentis good ; and if anexecutor be fued
for his teftator’s debt, and he pleadeth that he had no

goods

BAR

goods inhis hands at the day when the writ was taken out
againft him, that is a good bar toa common intendment, till
it is hewn there are goods ; but if the plaintiff can fhew, by
way of replication, that more goods have fallen into his
hands fince that time, then, except the defendant allege a
better bar, he fhall be condemned in the action, Plowd. 26.
Kitch. 215. Bro. tit. Barre. See Prea.

Bar of Dower. See Dower.

Bar, Trial at. See TRiAc.

Bar, in the AJanege, denotes the ridge or upper part of
the gums, between the tufhes and grinders of a horfe; the
under and outward fides retaining the name gums.

The bars fhould be fharp-ridged and lean; for fince all
the fubjection a horfe fuffers, proceeds from thofe parts,
if they have not thefe qualities, they will be very little, or
not at all fenfible ; fo that the horfe can never have a good
mouth ; for if the bars be flaty round, and infeniible, the bit
will not have its effet; and, confequently, fuch a horfe can
be no more governed by his bridle, than if one took hold
of his tail. Thefe ridges are always more prominent in
young horfes than in thofe that areold. See Lampas.

Bar, in Mufic, denotes ftrokes drawn perpendicularly
acrofs the lines of a piece of mufic, including between each
two, a certain quantity or meafure of time, which is various
as the time is triple or common.

The ufe of bars in mufic is a modera invention. They
cannot be traced higher than the year 1574, and feem not
to have been in general ufe till about the middle of the 17th
century. It is not eafy to imagine how mufic in many

parts could be compofed without bars, or how the maxima,
or large, equal to eight femibreves, could be divided into
bars of one or two femibreves in each.
and T1IME-TABLE.
ftrain.

See Barrura,
A double bar implies the end of a
When double bars are dotted on both fides, thus,

~—the dots imply a repetition of each ftrain; but if
dotted only on one fide, that ftrain only which precedes or
follows the dots, is to be repeated.

Bar-Mafler, in Mining, he who keeps the gage or difh,
to meafure all miners ore ; he, or his fervant, being always to
be prefent when it is meafured.

Bar, among Printers, denotes a piece of iron with a wooden
handle, whereby,the ferew of the prefs is turned in printing.

BARA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Italy, in the
vicinity of Brundufium. Feftus fays, that the inhabitants
of this ifland built the town of Barium.—Alfo, a port of
Afiatic Sarmatia.

Bara, in Geography. See Barra.

BARABA, in Ancient Geography, the name of a metro-
politan city of Arabia Felix, according to fome copies of
Ptolemy and Ammianus Marcellus.

Barasa, in Geography, a fteppe or moor in the Ruffian
empire, occupies the {pace between the Irtyfh and the Oby,
fouthward of the mountain, northward to the farther fide of
the Tara, and beyond the river Tuy. This extenfive region,
in length from north to fouth exceeding fix hundred vertts,
and full four hundred in breadth from weft to eaft, is one
continued flat, fcarcely interrupted by a fingle hill, though
containing many frefh water lakes, with fome of bitter, and
a few of common falt. This plain is for the moft part of a
good black foil, having the face of it enlivened by a number
of pleafant forefts of birch, All ferving to fhew, fays
Mr. Falk, that the Baraba muft have formerly been one
general bed of waters, and fince more morafly and replete
with jakes than it isat prefent. Even within the memory
of man, according to the affirmation of the Barabinzes, the
diminution of the Iakes, and the exficcation of the pools,

BAR

reed-plots, and marfhes, have been very obfervable, as well as
the acquifitions thus made by the firm land. See Tooke’s>
View of the Ruffian empire, vol. i. p. 149. j

BARABALEMO, a river on the coait of Afriea, fix
leagues ea{t from the river of St. Barbara, eait from cape
Fermofa. :

BARABENSIS, in £ntomology, a fpecies of Gayuius

Locufta) found about the pine trees in the fandy deferts of
araba. The wing-cafes are pale and f{prinkled with brown
dots; wings tranfparent and pale yellow ; veins and dots at
the margin, and tip brown. Pallas. Size of gryllus tibialis.

BARABIACO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Milanefe, fituate on the Colona, 12 miles weit of Milan.

BARABIELLO Sanp, lies at the bottom of Bengal
bay, within the river of Hughly.

BARABINIANS,a nation of the Ruffian empire. On
entering the vait region of Siberia by the weit, the firit
country we come toisthat of the Barabinians. The large
fleppe, inclofed between the Oby and the Irtyfh, and reach-
ing as far as the Altay mountains, is called Barama ; this ap-
pellation the Ruffians have corrupted into Baraba, and the
people who occupy that defert they call Barabintzi, or
Barabinians. The Barabinians, at the time of the conquett
of Siberia, had already fuffered too much from the turbulence
and ferocity of their neighbours, for being able to raife
themfelves to a numerous population ; and, remembering
nothing but their misfortunes, they have forgotten whether
they ever were governed by fovereigns of their own. At
length, fucceflively opprefled by the Kirghifes and the
Soongares, they at prefent enjoy tranquillity under the pro-
tection of Ruflia, who, in contideration of an eafy tribute,
takes charge of their defence. A mixture of feveral na-
tions is difcernible among them. They have, in general, the
Tartarian_phyfiognomy : bnt a flat face ; the long eyes and
little opened, and the hanging ears, are teftimonies that fome
of them are of Mongolian race. ‘The Soongares, their con-
querors, at different times lived among, and probably are the
progenitors of the Barabinians with Kalmuc countenances.
The idiom of the Barabiniansis a diale@& of the Tartar lan-
guage, and bears witnefs to their primeval origin. It is
corrupted, but lefs than that of the Bafhkirs. hey live,
however, in equal ignorance, and fearcely any of them
know how to read. ‘The humid vapours that arife i their
{teppe, and give a denfity to the atmofphere, render the in-
habitants fallow and phlegmatic ; their indifference and their
apathy border on {tupidity. In refpect to them we might
be tempted to adopt the expreflion of le Cat, and regard
them, not fo much as men animated by the heat of the
blood, and the {pirituous fluid of the nerves, but as hydraulic
machines. This machinal {tate correfponds with their mifery,
and enables them to endure it without pain. ‘Temperate
alike in their amoursand in their diet, with defires fo feeble
and fo confined as to be ealily gratified, they know nothing
of robbery or theft ; they are even ignorant of lying, having
no ufe for it except for covering a flight fault, in order to
gain time for repairing it. They have itationary habitations

or the winter; and fow a little barley or oats, fometimes a
{mall matter of hemp ; but their culture is always of fcanty
production ; their fteppe, poor in game, but ill requites the
fatigues of the hunter. ‘They derive a flender profit from
their flocks and herds, and a great number of fifhermen
owe their fubfiftence to the lakes. It is not uncommon in
winter for the fnow to envelope their huts in fuch manner
that they could not get out were they to negle& to make a
paflage throngh the roof. Their fummer dwellings are
covered only with mats. Their herds, by no means nu-
merous, though forming their principal wealth, confilt of
horfes and horned cattle; the humidity of the foil Kieu

allows

aS a ee

Paee

ae

BAR

allows them to rear a few fheep. A great number of them
pofiefs not a fingle head of cattle ; anda man pailes for opu-
lent who has from five to twenty horfes, with {lil fewer
horned cattle. It is not long fince the richeft man of the
nation pofleffed feventy horfes. It fhould feem that their
droves would increafe fince they have no longer to dread the
ravages of the Kirghifes ; but a mortality among their cattle
filled up the meafure of their wretchednefs, when they
thought it.drawing near to its end. Exempted from other
cares than thofe of the paftoral life, all have leifure to follow
the fifhery ; they preferve the fifh without falting, by letting
it dry on the ground. Awkward in the ufe of the bow,
they are obliged to take the game in fnares, in nets, or by
the aid of their dogs. Thefe animals are excellent courfers,
and their mafters would not truck a good dog againit a
horfe.

The women drefs the fkins of the birds that frequent the
lakes, making them into pelifles, which they fell. Thefe
peliffes are very warm, laft a long time, and are impenetrable
to moifture. Every village has a chief, and each diftrict its
yaouta, who is a fort of prince. The nation grants them
no revenue ; all they get by their elevation is the pleafure of
being refpeéted, and of feeming to be obeyed. Confulted
lefs as judges than as arbitrators, it is eafy for them to fet-
tle difputes between pleaders, to whom it is almoft the fame
thing to gain or to lofe their caufe, and they are fcarcely
capable of conceiving a defire.

It has been faid, that the Mohammedans never attempt to
make profelytes ; this feems to be amiftake. Towards the
middle of the late century, the Barabinians were {till devoted
to Shamanifm, when they were converted to Mohammedan-
ifm by the zeal of fome neighbouring Moulahs, who came and
preached in their fteppes. At prefent they have feveral huts
which they call mofques, fome men who cannot read, whom
they call priefts, and by changing their faith they have only
acquired a few additional fuperftitions. *

BARACE, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton in the diftnict
of Chateauneuf, four leagues N.N E. of Angers, and two
E.S.E. of Chateauneuf.

Barace, or Becare, in Ancient Geography, a town of India
on this fide of the Ganges, in the gulf of Canthi, according
to Ptolemy. It was fituated at the mouth of the river,
which paffed to Nelconda, according to the author of the
Periplus of the Erythrean fea. It was a more commodious
port, and better {tored with merchandife than Muziris,
from which it was not far diftant; and as the pepper of
Cottonara was brought to this place in {mall boats, it may
be concluded that Barace was within, or near to the country
of Canara, which produces the beft pepper in thofe parts at
the prefent day. Major Rennell fays, that after much in-
veftication, he cannot apply to any particular {pot thefe
ports of Muzirisand Barace; for the Malabar coaft abounds
with ports of fimilar defcription; however, from the lights
furnifhed by Pliny and Ptolemy, he conceives they were
fituated between Goa and Tellicherry, and that the modern
Meerzaw or Merjee is the Muziris of the ancients, and Bar-
celore or Baffinore, which is one of the principal pepper fac-
tories at prefent, their Barace. M. d’Anville fuppofes
Barace to be Nelcynda, which Rennell takes to be Neli-
faram. Rennell’s Mem. Introd. p. 38.

BARACK, or Barrack, Barague, a hut or little
lodge for foldiers in a camp.

The word comes from the Spanith Jarracas, little cabins,
which fifhermen make on the fea-fhore.

Thofe for the horfe were formerly called baracks ; and
rs for the foot, huts ; but barack is now ufed indifferently

r both,

BAR

Baracks are generally made by fixing four forked poles in
the gronnd, and laying fonr others acrofs them ; afterwards
they build up the walls with fods, wattles, or what the place
affords; and the top is planked, thatched, or covered with
turf, as they have convenience.

When the army is in winter quarters, the foldiers ufually
build baracks ; in the fummer they are content with their
tents.

Baracks is alfo more generally applied to buildings
to lodge foldiers in fortified towns, or others. "Thus we fay
the baracks of the Savoy, of Dublin, &c.

Baracks, when damp, are greatly prejudicial to the health
of the foldiers lodged in them; occafioning dyfenteries, in-
termitting fevers, coughs, rheumatic pains, &c. For which
reafon quarter-mafters ought to be careful in examining every
barack offered by the magiftrates of a place ; rejecting all
ground-floors in houfes that have either been uninhabited, or
have any figns of moifture. See Caserns.

Barack-dllowance, a {pecific allowance of bread, beer,
coals, &c. to the regiments ftationed in baracks.

Barack-Guard, the principal guard of a regiment in
baracks ; the officer ofwhich is refponfible for the regularity
of the men, and for all prifoners duly committed to his charge
while on that duty.

Barack-Mafler-General, a ftaff-officer at the head of the
barack-department, who has a number of barack-mafters
and depnties under him, that are ftationed at the different
baracks. He hasan office and clerks for the difpatch of bufi-
nefs ; and to this office all reports, &c. refpe€ting the barack
department are made.

BARACOA, in Geography, a fea-port town at the
north-eatt end of the ifland of Cuba, having a good harbour
for {mall veflels, but not for large fhips; diftant about feyen-
teen leagues north-eaft from St. Jago. N. lat. 21° 4’.
W. long. 76° ro’.

BARACUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the inte-
rior part of Africa, which Pliny mentions among the con-
queits of Cornelius Balbus.

BARACURA,a commercial town of India, on the other
fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

BARACUS, a river of India, in the fouthern part of the
ifland of Taprobana. Ptolemy.

BARAD, a town of Palettine, in the fouthern part of
the tribe of Juda, according to the book of Numbers.

BARADEUS, or Zanzarus, Jacozus, in Biography,
an obfcure monk of the fixth century, who revived the fect
of the Monephyfites, when it was juft expiring, to its for-
mer profperity and luftre. For this purpofe, after having
been ordained to the epifcopal office by a few captive bifhops,
hetravelled on foot through the whole eaft, eftablifhed bifhops
and prefbyters every where, revived the droeping fpirits of
the Monophyfites, and produced fuch an aftonifhing change
in their aflairs by the power of his eloquence, and by his
incredible diligence and activity, that when he died bifhop
of Edeffa, A. D. 588, he left his feét in a moft flourifhin
ftate in Syria, Mefopotamia, Armenia, Egypt, Nubia, Abyh.
finia, and other countries. This poor monk had the wifdom
to concert the means of fuccefs, as well as activity to put
them in execution ; for he almoft totally extinguifhed all the
animofities, and reconciled all the fections, that had divided
the Monophyfites ; and when their churches became fo nu-
merous in the eaft, that they could not all be comprehended
under the fole jurifdiGtion of the patriarch of Antioch, he
appointed as his affiftant, the primate of the eaft, whofe refi.
dence was at Tagritis, on the borders of Armenia. The labo.
rious efforts of Jacob were feconded in Egypt and the adjacent
countries by Theodofius, bifhop of Alexandria; and he
became fo famous, that all the Monophyfites of the eaft

4 confidered

BAR

confidered him as their fecond parent and founder ¢ and they
are to this day called Jacobites, in honour of their new chief.
Mofheim Eccl. Hift. vol. ii. p. 145. See Monopuysirtes,
and JACOBITES.

BA.RADERES, in Geograp5y, a {mall bay on the north
coait of the peninfula at the weft end of the ifland of St.
Domingo, or Hifpaniola. It is almoft land-locked, having
a {mall ifland near the bottom in the fouth-eaft corner. N.
lat. 18° 32’. W. long. 73° 37’.

BARADY, Barrapy, or Barrada, a river of Syria,
called by the ancients Chryforrhoas, or the golden river ; and
by the Syrians, Pharpar; which, rufhing from Antilibanus,
defcends to Damafcus, and is there divided into endlefs
Areams, for the fupply and decoration of that city ; but
uniting again at fome diftance from it, they lofe themfelyes
in a morafs. The rivers Abana and Pharpar, the names
of which are loft among the Arabian geographers, Maun-
drell fuppofes muft have been branches of this river Barady,
which iflues out of the rock.

BAR, in Ancient Geography, a people of India, placed
by Ptolemy near the Ganges.

BARAFAT, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Fonia, feated on a peninfula formed by the
river Gambia and two other rivers.

BARAGAZA, a town of Ethiopia, on the Red Sea,
mentioned by Pliny.

BARALIPTON, a term in Lagic, denoting the firft in-
direct Mope of the firft Ficure of fyllogifms.

A fyllogifm in baralipton is when the two firft propofitions
thereof are univerfal affirmatives, and the third a particular
affirmative; the middle term being the fubje& of the firtt,
and the attribute of the fecond.—For example:

«BA Every evil ought to be feared :

RA Every violent paffion is an evil:
LIP Therefore fomething that ought to be feared is
a violent paffion.”’
See letters A and I, and SytLocism.

BARALLOTS, Baratorrt, the name of a fe& at
Bologna in Italy, who had all things in common, even their
wives and children. They gave, it is faid, into all manner
of debauchery, and were alfo termed compliers.

BARAMATIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

BARA-MAREKA, in Botany. See Dovicnos.

BARAN, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, in the
province of Cabul, which is joined by the rivers Chugan-
ferai, Alifhung, and Alikar, in the diftrict of Kameh, and
then runs ealtward or fouth-eaftward. But it is not abfo-
lutely certain whether thefe confluent rivers join the river of
Cabul above Paifhawur, or whether they form a feparate
river, and pafs by Bijore and Sewad.

Major Rennell thinks the former to be the moft probable,
and that the confluent rivar receives the name of Kameh,

vom the diftri& in which the junétion takes place, and then
communicates it to the Cabul river, during the remainder
of its courfe. Rennell’s Mem. p. 156.

BARANCA, or St. Jaco, in Geography, a river belong-
ing to Mexico, in North America, which direéts its courfe
to the weft coaft, and falls into the Pacific ocean about ten
leagues weft by north from Xatifco bay.

Baranca del Malambo, a fea-port town of South Ame-
rica, in the country of New Caftile or Terra Firma, on the
eaft fide of the Rio Grande, at the mouth of the river
Magdelana, with a good harbour. "This is a place of con-
fiderable commerce ; as the merehandize of New Granada
is brought down hither by boats, and conveyed to the bay
about 40 miles below the town, or elfe directly to Santa
Martha, by a branch of the great river ; the chief article is

BAR

falt, which is produced in the neighbourhood of the town
It is diftant 25 miles north-eaft from Carthagena. N. lat. 1 *
4o’. W. long. 75° 30’.

BARANCAS, Las, a town of North America, in the
province of New Mexico, 45 miles S.S.E. of Santa Fé.

BARANEI-Stanitz,a town or fettlement in Siberia
on the Lena, 52 miles north-eaft of Vitimfkoi. N, lat,
54° 50’. E. long. 113° 14’. *

BARANGE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Hyrcania. Ptolemy.

BARANGI, officers among the Greeks of the lower
empire, whofe bufinefs it was to keep the keys of the city-
gates where the emperor refided. , ,

Codinus fays, that the barangi were thofe who ftood
guard at the door of the emperor’s bed-chamber and dining-
room.

Codinus and Curopalata obferve, that the name is Englith
formed from dar, to /out ; and that the barangi were Eng:
Lifhmen by country ; Anglo-Danes, who, being driven out
of England, were received into the fervice of the emperor
of Conitantinople, and made guards or proteéters of his
perfon. Whence they are called in Latin, by Cujaccius,
protedores; by others, /ecurigeri, as being armed with a
battle-ax, /ecuris. Codinus adds, that they ftill {poke the
Englifh tongue. Anna Comnena fays, the barangi came
from the ifland Thule, by which is doubtlefs meant our
ifland. Yet Nicetas makes them Germans ; a miftake eafy
to be made at that diftance, confidering the relation the.
Anglo-Saxons bore to Germany. There were barangi as
early as the emperor Michael Paphlagonius, in the year
1035, as appears from Cedrenus; but they were then only
common.foldiers, not a life-guard.

Their commander was called «xore§S-, as importing a pers
fon who always followed the emperor. ,

BARAN I, &c. Steller Kamtfs. Stepnie Baranni, J. G.
Gmel. it. Sibir. &g. in Zoclogy, names given to the Ovis
Ammon, Gmel. ; ant Capra Ammon, Linn.

BARANILLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and comtat of Molife, nine miles S.S.E.
of Molife.

BARANOW, atown of Poland, in the palatinate of
Sandomir, fixteen miles fouth of Sandomir.

BARANOWKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Volhynia; 40 miles N.N.E. of Conftantinow.

BARANZANDO, Repemrrus, in Biography, a Barnae
bite friar, was born in 1590, at Saraville, a town of Verceil
in Piedmont, and obtained eminence at the commencement
of the feventeenth century, by daring to abandon the Ari-
ftotelian method of philofophy. That he coincided in his
ideas with thofe of the illuftrious lord Bacon, appears from
a letter written to him on this fubje&, by this reftorer of
philofophy, in June 1622, and preferved in the third volume
of ‘“ Niceron’s Memoirs.’? Having taught mathematics and
philofophy at Anneci, he went to Paris, and formed an inti-
mate friendfhip with La Mothe le Vayer, who fpeaks of
him (Ocuvr. 12mo. tom, iv. p. 172.) as one of the firft wits
of theage. He adds, that this honeft Barnabite had feye-”
ral times affured him, but always with fubmiffion te the
good pleafure of God, that he would appear to him, if he -
fhould depart firft out of this world. However his promife
was not fulfilled, and he verified the fentence of a Latin
poet, Catullus, Epigr. iii.

“¢ Qui nunc it per iter tenebricofum
Illuc, unde negant redire quanquam.”?
“« He paffed the dark and dreary way
From whence there’s no return to the bright genial
ay.””
He died at Montargis in 1622. His works are “ Urano-
{copia,’””

BAR

feopia,” or the univerfal Py. of the heavens, printed in
folio, in 1617; ‘* Campus Philofophicus,” the firft part of
his Summary of Philofophy, as taught at Anneci, printed
at Lyons, in 8vo. in 1619; and “ De Novis Opimonibus
Phyficis,’’ printed at Lyons, in the fame year. Gen. Dic.

BARAO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Arragon,
two leagues from Jaca.

BARA-Pickxet, bread made of fine flour kneaded with

m, which makes it very light and fpongy: Jara being
the Welch for bread.

BARAQUICIMITO, in Geography, a town in Terra
Firma, South America, in the province of Caracas, and
in the head waters of Oronoko river, about So miles fouth
from Valencia, and 175 north-weit from Calabeza. N. lat.
8° 55’. W. long. 66° 55’.

BARASA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine,
according to Jofephus.

BARASZE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Volhynia, 36 miles N.N.W. of Zytomiers.

BARATHIER, Barrueremy, in Biography, an Ita-
lian lawyer of the 15th century, was born in Placentia, and
taught the Roman feudal law at Pavia and Ferrara, which he
ranged anew, and then formed a text book for the fchool.
The work was printed at Paris in 1611, under the title
«* De Feudis Liber Singularis ;”” and in 1695, by Schilter,
under its true title « Libellus Feudorum reformatus.”” Mo-
reri.

BARATHRUM, from 6x<¢24eo, fignifying the fame,
‘among the Ancient Athenians, a deep pit belonging to the
tribe Hippothoontis, into which condemned criminals were
caft headlong.

The barathrum was a dark noifome hole, having fharp
{pikes at the top, to prevent any efcape, and others at the
bottom to pierce and lacerate the offender.

From its depth and capacioufnefs, the name came to be
ufed proverbially for amifer, or a glutton, always craving.
In which fenfe, the word Jarathrum is ufed among the Latin
poets. Thus Horace, Epift. 1. i. ep. 15. v- 631.

« Pernicies, et tempeftas, barathrumque Macelli,
uicquid quefierat, ventri donaret avaro.””

It is alfo ufed for a common proftitute, by Plautus (Bacchid.

i. 2. 44), thus:

« © barathrum, ubi nunc es? ut ego te ufurpem libens!””

Baraturum is alfo ufed, in Phy/iology, to denote certain
baleful caverns, inacceffible on account of their fetid or poi-
fonous fumes.

Thefe amount to the
charonie. 3

BARATIER, Joun Puirip, in Biography, a learned
German, was bornin 1721, at Schwobach near Nuremberg.
Under the inftruétion of his father he is faid to have under-
ftood the Greek, Latin, German, and French languages,
when he was five years old; and he acquired alfo the
knowledge of the Hebrew in one year, fo as to be able to
read the hiftorical books of the bible ; and at the age of
nine years, he could not only tranflate the Hebrew text
into Latin or French, but alfo re-tranflate thefe verfions
into Hebrew. At this age he could alfo repeat memoriter
the Hebrew pfalter, in confequence of merely reading it
with his father. Before he had-completed his tenth year,
he compofed a Hebrew lexicon of rare and difficult words,
with curious critical remarks. In 1731, he was matricu-
lated in the univerfity of Altdorf; and in this year he
wrote a French “letter to M. le Maitre, minifter of the
French church at Schwobach, on anew edition of the bible,
Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Rabbinical,”? which letter is preferved
jn the twenty-fixth volume of the ** Bibliotheque Germa-

Vor. IIL

fame with what others call fof

BAR

nique.” In 1734, the margrave of Anfpach granted him
a penfion of fifty ftorins a year, and allowed him the free
ufe of books from the library at Anfpach. As the fruits
ofhis application to fludy, his tranflation from the Hebrew,
with hiftorical and critical notes and differtations, of “The
Rabbi Benjamin’s Travels in Europe, Alia, and Africa,
containing an account of the ftate of the Jews in the twelfth
century,’? was publifhed, in two volumes vo. at Amtter-
dam, in 17343; the author being at this time in his thir-
teenth year: and the whole work is faid to have been
finifhed in four months. Notwith{tanding the extent of
his ae purfuits, this aftonifhing youth applied to
the ftudy of mathematics and philofophy with fuch fuccefs,
that he devifed a method of finding the longitude at fea,
which was laid before the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Berlin, in a long letter, dated Jan. 21, 1735, the day in
which he completed his fourteenth year. His letter
being well received, he determined to vifit Berlin, with a
view of enforcing his project: but in his way thither he
paffed through Hall, where Ludewig, the chancellor of the
univerfity, offered to confer upon him the honorary degree
of mafter of arts. Flattered by this propofal, Baratier
immediately, in the prefence of many profeffors, drew up
fourteen thefes in philology, ecclefiaftical hiftory, and phi-
lofophy, which were printed the fame night, and which he
fupported for three hours the next day with great applaufe ;
upon which he was admitted mafter of arts in philofophy.
He then purfued his journey to Berlin; and, in the pre-
fence of the mathematical clafs, replied in French to fome
objections that were urged by M. de Vignoles, the re¢tor,
againft his fcheme ; and he then pinta: in Latin, the
plan of an aftronomical inftrument, which he offered to exe-
cute. M. Jablonfki, the prefident, reported, that he had exa-
mined Baratier, in the king’s prefence, and that he had found
him well acquainted with rabbinical learning, the oriental
languages, and ecclefiaftical hiftory ; and he was then, with
the ufual form, admitted a member of the fociety. Upon
his return to Hall with his father, he direéted his attention
to theology, and wrote an anfwer in Latin to Crellius, wha,
under the aflumed name of Artemonius, had publifhed a
Socinian interpretation of the introduction to the gofpel
ot St. John. This was intitled «* Anti-Artemonius,’’ and
publifhed at Nuremberg, in 8vo. in 1735- It was accom-
panied with a “ Differtation on the three dialogues, com-
monly attributed to Theodoret,’’ intended to invalidate
their authenticity. In 1737, he defended this piece againft
the ftriGures of the journalifts of Trevoux, in another
differtation, which was printed in the forty-eighth volume
of the “ Bibliotheque Germanique.” In the fortieth
volume of the fame journal, there is another differtation of
Baratier ‘On two works attributed to Athanafius.”” Bara-
tier being obliged to confefS his ignorance of the public
law, in reply to the inquiry propofed to him by the king
of Pruffia, was commanded by the king to go and ftudy
it, before he called himfelf a learned man.. Such was his
literary ambition, that he applied immediately to the ftudy
of it, and after fifteen months he fupported a thefis on the
fubject. with great credit. The uninterrupted exertion of
his faculties {oon impaired his conftitution, which was natu-
rally delicate and feeble ; and after languifhing in a decline
for feveral months, Baratier died at the age of nineteen
years eight months and feven days. His attainments
were furprifing ; and yet it is faid that, before he was ten
years of age, he was accuftomed to lie in bed twelve hours,
4nd ten hours from that time to his death. The fads
above adduced may feem truly aftonifhing ; but they are
founded upon ungueltionable teftimony. Some few ex-

4G amples

BpAR.

amples of a fimilar kind have occurred; however they
thould by no means be contemplated as patterns of imitation
or as models of perfection. “The poplar, which foon becomes
a lofty tree, will foon decay: the ftrong and fturdy oak,
whofe majeitic trunk ftands unimpaired through centuries,
requires a century to bring it to maturity.”? Formey’s Life
of Baratier. Nouy. Di@. Hiftor.

BARATO, Caps, ia Geography, lies on the coaft of
Italy, on the north fide of the peninfula of Piombin, and
about S.S.E. from Leghorn. It has a {mall bay on the
S.W. before which is anchorage.

BARATRUM, in Antiquity, devotes, according to
Hefychius, facred games, celebrated at Thefprotia, in which
the moft robuit of the combatants was crowned.

BARATRY, Barerry, or Barretry,in Law, figni-
fies the moving and maintaining of fuits in difturbance of
the peace; and the taking and detaining of houfes, lands, &c.
by falfe inventions. 8 Rep. 37-_ 1 Hawk. P. C. 243. The
word baratterre, in French, fignifies mifdemeanor, fraud, deceit:
it is derived from the old word Zarat, which fignifies any
impolition; whence alfo tl ey faid Laratter, ta impofe on any one.

The punifhment for this offence, in a common perfon,
is by fine and imprifonment ; but if the offender belongs to
the profeflion of the law, a barretor who is thus able as
well as willing to do mifchief, ought alfo to be difabled
from ‘practifing for the future. However it feems clear
that no general indi@ment, charging the defendant with
being a common oppreflor and difturber of the peace, and
ftirrer up of ftrife among neighbours, is good without add-
ing the words Common Barretor,”? which is a term of
art appropriated by law to this purpofe. 1 Mod. 288. 1 Sid-
282. Cro. Jac. 526. 1 Hawk. P.C.c. 81. § 9. Noman
can be a barretor in refpe& of one a@ only ; and it hath
been holden, that a man fhall not be adjudged_a barretor
for bringing any number of fuits in his own right, sg
they are vexatious, efpecially if there be any colour for
them; for if they prove falfe, he fhall pay the defendant
cofts. 1 Rol. Abr. 355 3Mod.98. A common folicitor
who folicits fuits, isa common barretor, and may be indiGed
thereof, becaufe it is no profeffion in law. 1 Dany. Abr. BAe
It is enaGed by ftatute 12 George I. c. 29. that if any
one, who has been conviéted of forgery, perjury, fuborna-
tion of perjury, or common barretry, fhall pra@tife as an
attorney, folicitor, or ageut, in any fuit, the court upon
complaint, fhall examine it in a fummary way ; and, if prov-
ed, fhall dire& the offender to be tranfported for
feven years. To this head may alfo be referred
another offence of equal malignity and audacioufnels ;
that of fuing another in the name of a fiGitious plaintiff ;
either one not in being at all, or one who is ignorant of
the fuit. This offence, if committed in any of the king’s
fuperior courts, is left, as a high contempt, to be punifhed
at their difcretion. But in courts of a lower degree, where
the crime is equally pernicious, but the authority of the
judges not equally extenfiye, it is dire@ted by ftatute 8 Eliz.
c. 2. to be punifhed by fix months imprifonment, and treble
damages to the party injured. Black. Com. v. iv. p: 134.

Baratry, ina Marine Sen/2, is the matter of a fhip, or
the mariners, cheating the owners or infurers, whether it
be done by running away with the fhip, finking her, defert-
ing her, or embezzling the cargo.

Baratry of mariners is fo epidemical on fhip-board, that
it is rare if the mafter, be his induftry ever fo great, can
prevent it, by reafon of the encouragement one knavifh
sailor gives another ; yet the law, in fuch cafes, imputes
the offences of the mariners to the negligence of the matter,
and from him the merchant is to feek for remedy for all

BAR

goods or merchandife loft, embezzled, or otherwife damnified,

By the French ordonnances, infurers are not obliged to
make good the lofs or damage accruing to a veflel, or its
lading, by the fault of the matter or crew, unlefs by the
forms of the policy, they may be made accountable for the
baratry of the patron. A matter who, without neceflity,
takes up money on the body, provifion, or tackling of a
fhip, or fells the effeéts on board, or, in his account of
average, fets down fictitious expences, fhall pay the value,
be declared unworthy of being mafter, and banithed the
port where he ordinarily refided. In fome cafes, he is
alfo fubje&t to corporal punifhment, and even to death,
where it appears he willingly threw away they fhip.

Bararry is alfo ufed for bribery or corruption in a
judge, giving a falfe fentence for money.

Baratry is alfo ufed in Middle Age Writers, for fraud
or deceit in making of contraéts, fales, or the like.

BARATTA, or Baratrua, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Lycaonia, mentioned by Ptolemy.

BARAVEL, Sr., in Geography, one of the Ladrone
iflands, lies fouth of the ifland of Guam, and was one of
thofe difcovered by Magellan, and deferibed by Pigafetta.
Befides this, there are alfo between 10° and 13° N. lat.
the iflands of Ban and Bota, and the fhoals of Santa Rofa,
N. lat. 12° 44", E. long. 142° 28”. “See Lanaauna

BARAVOE, a bay and village, on the north-eaft coaft
of the ifiand of Shetland.

BARAWNAY, a town of Hindooftan, inthe country
of Candeifh, forty miles N.E. of Burhampour, and feventy-
four S.S.E. of Indore.

BARAZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Armenia
Major. Ptolemy.

BARB, Sr., in Geography. See St. BARBARA.

Bars, in Ornithology, is ufed for the Barbary pigeon, the
CotumsBa Numipica of Moore.

BARBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of § ain, in
Betica, placed in the Itin. of Antonin, twenty tee from
Oitippo, and twenty-four miles from Antiquaria.

Bars, in Geography, a town of North America, in the
country of Mexico, and province of Cofta Rica, twenty-
two miles S.S.W. of Cartago.

Barsa Aron, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the common great houfe-leek.

Barsa Capre. See Sprrza.

Barba Jovis. See AmorpHa, ANTHYLLIs, Cyrtisus,
Esenus, and Psorarea.

BARBACAN,orBarsican,inthe i ory of our Ancient
Fortifications, was a fort of advanced work which frequently
covered the drawbridge at the entrance of a caftle.

In which fenfe, barbacan amounts to the fame with
what is otherwife called, antemurale, promurale, murus ex-
terior, or outer wall, In towns and large fortreffes the
barbacans were large and fireng, frequently having a
ditch and drawbridge of their own. (See Grofe’s Hift.
Eng. Army, II. 2.) The term is {till preferved in the ruins
of feveral of our caitles; a {mall ftone work coverin
the gate of Bodiham caftle in Suffex, is ftill called the
barbacan; and fome work of a fimilar kind undoubtedly
ave its name to one of the ftreets at the north-weft end of
ancient London. Barbacans are alfo mentioned in Framling-
ham and Canterbury caftles. For the repairing of this
work, a tax called barbacanage was levied on certain lands.
Grofe Antiq. Pref. i. 5. ;

Barsacan is alfo ufed for a fort at the entrance of a
bridge, or in the outlet of a city, having a double wall with
towers. Such is that at one end of the wooden bridge at
Rouen, which is {till called by fome Barbacana.

BarBacan

e

BAR

Barvacaw is alfo ufed for an aperture in the walls of a
city, through which to fire with mufkets on the enemy.
See Emprasure.

Barvacan, in Architefure, denotes a long: narrow canal
or opening left in the walls for water to come in and go
out at, when edifices are raifed in places liable to be over-
flowed; or to drain off the water from a terrace, or the like.

BARBACE Point, in Geography, the eat point of
€t, Pedro’s channel, at the fouth-eaft end of the ifland on
which the city of Cadiz is lituated.

BARBACOS, a river on the coatt of America, in
the Pacific ocean, nearly eaft of the iland of Gallo,
Barbacos point is fituated ten leagues from the river Teliem-
bier, in N. lat. 2° 45’. W. long. 78° 55’.

BARBADENSIS, in Conchology, a {pecies of VoLUTA
that inhabits the American ocean. The length of this fheil
is an inch and a half; fhape tapering ; colour yeddith, with
very fine tranfverfe ftrie ; aperture oblong-oval ; {pire ob-
tufe. Figured only by Lifter, t. 819. f, 33. Gmelin.

BarpabeEnsis, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Pstrracus;,
the afh-fronted parrot of Latham. ‘This bird is about the
fize of a pigeon, and inhabits Barbadoes ; the general colour
is green orbits and front cinereous; crown, chin, cheeks,
throat, and leffer wing-coverts yellow ; greater ones blue ;
many of the primary quill-feathers violet on the outfide, the
reft red from the bafe, and the reft blue. Gmelin. The
legs are afh ; claws black.

BARBADOES, in Geography, one of the moft im-

ortant of the Carribbee iflands inthe Wett Indies, ftanding
eat detached from the reft, about thirty-five degrees
from the African iflands of cape Verd. This ifland was
probably firft difcovered by the Portuguefe in their voyages
from Brazil, and from them received its prefent name. It
had then neither occupants nor claimants ; the Charaibes
or Caribbees having deterted it. The Portuguefe thought
jt not of fufficient importance fora fettlement ; and having
furrifhed it with a breed of {wine for the ufe of future navi-
gators, they left it asthey found it. The Englifh, in 1605.
finding it without inhabitants, took poffeffion of the country
by fixing a crofs on the {pot where James-town was after-
wards built, with this infcription ; “ James king of England
and this ifland;”” but they formed no {ettlement. — At this
time it was overgrown with woods; but yet it furnifhed them
with a fupply of frefh provifions. They found here pigs,
pigeons, and parrots ; and the fea abounded with fith. Some
years after this, a favourable report having been made of its
beauty and fertility by the matter and feamen of a fhip of
fir William Courteen, lord Ley, afterwards earl of Marl-
borough, obtained from king James I. a grant of the ifland
to himfelf and his heirs in perpetuity. Accordingly Courteen,

robably under the patronage of Marlborough, projected the
eftablifhment of a colony, and fent about 30 fettlers to plant
and fortify the ifland, who, in 1624, laid the foundation of
James-town; and this was the firft Enghifh fettlement on the
ifland. About this time, James Hay, earl of Carlifle, ef-
tablifhed a colony in the ifland of St Chriftopher, and ob-
tained from Charles I. a grant of all the Charibean or Carib-
bee iflands, including Barbadoes. This grant was contefted
by earl Marlborough ; but at leugth a compromife took
place ; and on the earl of Carlifle’s undertaking to pay the
annual fum of 300. to the earl of Marlborough and his heirs

for ever, the latter waved his claims ; and in 1627 the patent

of the former paffed the great feal, aud he became the fole
proprietor. However the earl of Pembroke obtained a re-
vocation of Carlifle’s patent, and a grant to himfelf in truit
for Courteen, who had projected the firft fettlement in the
jfland. ‘This grant was afterwards annulled, and the earl of

BAR

Clarlifle was reftored to the poffeffion and privileges of which
he had been for a fhort time deprived, Accordingly he pro-
ceeded to diflribute lands to fuch perfons as chofe Lo comply
with his laws; and a fociety of London merchants accepted
10,000 acres, on conditions which promifed wreat benelit to
the proprietors. Thefe merchants fent over 64 perfons,
each of whom was authorized to take up 100 acres of land ;
and thug, in 1628, they eftablifhed a new colony, which foou
overpowered the fettlement, and annihilated the intereft of
Courteen. In 1629, fir William 'Tufton was fent out by
lord Carlifle as chief governor, and he diftributed land,
amounting to 15,872 acres, into 140 grants ; and in 1630,
pafied feveral laws ; among which was one for dividing the
ifland into fix parifhes. During the civil war, the emigta
grations from the mother country was fo great, that in 1650
it was computed there were 20,000 white men in Barbadoes,
half of them able to bear arms, and furnifhing a regiment of
horfe to the number of 1000. It feems that about this
time the exifling governor granted lands to all who applied,
on receiving a gratuity for himfelf; and the claim of the
proprietor, whether difputed in the ifland, or difregarded
anidft the confufions at home, was at length tacitly re-
linguifhed.

The colony, enjoying an unlimited freedom of trade,
flourifhed in a fingular manner by its own efforts. In 1646,
the fon and heir of the earl of Carlifle, the original patentee,
revived his claims as hereditary proprietor, and by treaty
with lord Willughby of Parham, conveyed to him all his
rights by a leafe of 21 years, on condition of receiving one-
half of the profits. Lord Willughby obtained a commiflion
as chief governor ; and was received by the inhabitants, who
were warmly attached to the king’s intereft, with re{pect
and obedience, But foon after his arrival, the regal autho-
rity in England was abolifhed.

Barbadoes, in 1651, was reduced to the obedience of the
new republic, who appointed another governor. Upon the
reftoration of Charles [I., lord Willughby applied for leave
to return to his government of Barbadoes ; againft which the
inhabitants, now apprized of his conneétion and contract with
the earl of Carlifle, and apprehending that they were regarded
by thefe lords as mere tenants at will of their pofleffions, re-
monftrated. ‘They pleaded that they were the king’s fub-

jets, and folicited his majefty’s fupport and protection.

They objeéted to the claims of the earl of Carlifle, and in-
fifted that the charter granted to him was void in law. The
feveral allegations and claims of the parties ccncerned were
referred to a committee of the privy-council; and it was
finally ordered, that lord Willughby fhould repair to his
government, and demand the grant and eftablifhment by the
aflembly of a permanent and irrevocable revenue of 44 per
cent to be paid in fpecie, on all dead commodities, the
growth of the ifland, {hipped to any part of the world ; and
the money arifing fromthis revenue was to be applied towards
making provifion for the earl of Kinnoul, the legal repre-
fentative of lord Carlifle with refpeét to his rights in the Welt
Indies, who had on this condition promifed to furrender the
Carlifle patent to the crown, towards paying the annuity of
the earl of Marlborough, aud towards the difcharge of the
ereditors of both thefe noblerfen. After the extinGion of
thefe incumbrances, it was ftipulated, that the revenue, fub-
ject to the charge of 1200l. per annum to the governor,
fhould be at the difpofal of the ae With thefe inftruc.
tions, lord Willughby returned to his government in 1663.
The planters were diffatisfied, and preferred complaints,
which, however, were unavailing. At length, finding redift-
ance vain, the aflembly paffed an act for the purpofes that
were required, dated Sept. 12, 1663. Thus the proprietary

4G2 govera-

Bi Auk:

government was diffolyed, and the legiflation of the ifland
yeited in the crown,

The ifland of Barbadoes is about 21 miles in length and
14 in breadth, and contains 106,470 acres of land, mott of
which is under cultivation. The foil in the low lands is
black, fomewhat reddifh in the fhallow parts ; on the hills of
a chalky marl, and near the fea generally fandy. Of this
variety of foil, the black mould is beft fuited forthe cultiva-
tion of the cane, and, with the aid of manure, has produced
as great returns af fugar, in favourable feafons, as any inthe
Welt Indies, the prime lands of St. Kitt’s excepted. About
the year 1670, we are aflured that Barbadoes could boait of
50,000 whites, and upwards of 100,000 black inhabitants,
whofe labours are faid to have given employment to 60,000
tons of fhipping. This account may probably have been
exaggerated ; but it is certain that the inhabitants of this
ifland have decreafed with a rapidity feldom known in any
other country. It appears by authentic returns, that the
number of its whites, in 1724, amounted to no more than
18,295, and that of its negroes in 1753 was no more than
69,870. 1In1786, the numbers were 16,167 whites, 838
free people of colour, and 62,115 negroes. It appears alfo
that the annual produce of this ifland, particularly of fugar,
has decreafed in much greater proportion than in any other
of the Weit Indian colonies. Poitlethwayte ftates the crop
of fugar, in 1736, at 22,769 hogfheads of 13 ewt. which is
equal to 19,800 of 15 cwt. ; and the author of the “ Euro-
pean Settlements,” publifhed in 1761, calculates the average
crop at 25,000 hogfheads. If this ftatement be jutt, the
ifland has fallen off nearly one-half in the annual growth of
its principal ftaple. In an average of eight years, from
1740 to 1748, the exports were 13,948 hogfheads of fugar
of 15 cwt.; 12,884 puncheons of rum of roo gallons ;
6o hogfheads of melaffes ; 4,667 bags of ginger ; 600 bags
of cotton; and 327 gourds of aloes. The exports on an
average of 1784, 1785, and 1786, had fallen to 9,554 hogf-
heads of fugar ; 5,448 puncheons of rum; 6,320 bags of
ginger; 8,333 bags of cotton ; exclufively of fome {maller
articles, as aloes, {weetmeats, &c. of which the quantities are
not afcertained. The dreadful fucceffion of hurricanes,
which had occurred within the laft twelve years, has, with-
eut doubt, contributed to this great defalcation. The
eapital of this ifland was f{carcely rifen from the athes to
which it had been reduced by two dreadful fires, when it
was torn from its foundations, and the whole country made
a fcene of defolation by the ftorm of the roth of O&eber
in 1780; in which 4,326 of the inhabitants, blacks and
whites, miferably perifhed ; and the damage to the country
eflimated at 1,320,5641. 15s. fterling. In the year ‘1792,
the produce of fugar was 11,073 hogfheads, 125 tierces,
2,698 barrels ; of melafles 188 hogfheads ; of rum 5,064
hogfheads, 512 barrels; of ginger 3,046 bags and barrels ;
of aloes 515 gourds ; and of cotton 974,178 pounds. From
the great increafe in the export of {ugar in this year com-
pared with feveral of the preceding years, and decreafe in
that of the minor ftaples, it feems probable that the advanced
price of that article in Europe has encouraged the cultivation
of it in plantations which had been formerly abandoned or
appropriated to a different kind of culture. The average of
the number of negro flaves in Barbadoes for feven years,
from 1786 to 1793, was 63,271, of flaves imported 4363,
and the average amount of taxes, during the fame period,
was 9,530]. 14s. 1d. The taxes confift of a capitation tax
on negroes; a tax on fugar-mills, dwelling-houfes, and car-
riages, together with an excite, &c. on wines imported. Be-
fides which there is a parochial tax on land, amounting on
an average throughout the ifland to about two fhillings per

BAR

acre, and an affeffment in Jabour for the repair of the high.
ways. The whole is altogether exclufive of the heavy duty
of 4 per cent to the crown.

Barbadoes is divided into 5 diftri@s and 13 parifhes ; and
contains 4 towns: viz. Bridgetown, Oitins or Charles-town,
St James’s formerly called the Hole, and Speight’s-town,
Bridgetown is the capital, and the refidence of the governor,
whoie annual falary is 20001. per annum, paid out of the
exchequer, and charged to the account of the 4% per cent,
duty. The form of the government of this ifland refembles
that of Jamaica, except that the council is compofed of 12
members, and the aflembly of 22. The moft important
variation re{pects the court of chancery, which in Barbadoes
is conitituted of the governor and council, whereas in Jamaica
the governor isfole chancellor. Onthe other land, in Bar-
badoes, the governor fits in council, even when the latter are
acting in a legiflative capacity, which would be confidered,
in Jamaica, as improper and unconttitutional. It may alfo
be obferved, that the courts of grand feflions, common pleas,
and exchequer, in Barbadoes, are diftin@ from each other :
and not, as in Jamaica, united and blended in one fupreme
court of judicature. The heat of the climate is moderated
by the trade-winds, and the air is pure. Its produéts, be-
fides what we have already mentioned, are the palm, tama-
rinds, figs, bananas, cedar, mattich, cacao, papas, guavas,
and palmettoes. Barbadoes is fituated in N. lat. 2 Os
W. long. 59°. See Edwards’s Hiitory of the Welt Indies,
vol. i. p. 321—350.

Barzanors Baflard-Cedar, in Botany. See Cepreua.

Barzavors Cherry. See Marricia.

Barsapoes Flower-fence. See Poinctana.

Barsapoes Goofeberry. See Cactus Perefkia.

Barzsapoes Wild-Olive. See Bontia.

Barsapors Zar, in the Materia Medica.
LEUM Barbaden/e.

BARBADOR, Baxrsapera, or Cape Barsa, in Geo-
graphy. See Cape Bara.

BARBALIS, in Entomology, a {pecies of PuaLezna,
that feeds on the trifolium pratenfe. The antenne pectinated ;
feelers fhorter; anterior thighs with a projecting beard.
Fabricius.

See Perro-

BARBALISSUS, in Ancient Geography, Beles, a confi- _

derable town of A fia, in Syria, near the Euphrates, E.S.E.
of Hierapolis. This is the Larbariffus of Ptolemy, accord-
ing to M. D’Anville.

BARBANA, or Barspenna, a river of Illyrium, which
fprang from the Labeatid Marth, according to Livy.

BarBAna, in Geography, a town of Iitria, feven miles
N.N.E. of Pola.

BARBANO, a finall ifland in the northern part of the
Adriatic, near the coait of Friuli. N. lat. 45° 45’. E. long.
13°28.

SRARBALONA, Care, is the fouth of Smyrna gulf,
on the coaft of Alia, at the eaft extremity of the Mediter-
ranean, and nine leagues S. by W. from Porto Gero. 3

BARBAR, a province of Abyflinia, feparated from At-
bara by the river Tacazzé ; the capital of which is Gooz,
which fee.

BARBARA, in Conchology, a fpecies of Hetix, with
an oblong, coarfe, imperforated fhell, with eight wreaths,
and a fubrotund lunated aperture. This kind inhabits Al-
gira. Somewhat refembles helix pupa, but is not above half
the fize, being ufually about the bignefs of a barley-corn.
Gmel. &c.

Bareara, in Entomology, a fpecies of Formica that in-
habits Africa, and is as large as F. herculanea. It is black,
with the head, antenne, and extremity of the legs ferru-

ginous

BAR

inous; petiole with two tnbercles. Fabricius, &c, The
fead is large; firlt joint of the antenne large and black.
Barbara, Bay of St. in Geography; lies on the fouth-
weft coait of Terra del Fuego in South America, where
at two leagues S. by FE. from cape Noir, are two rocky
iflets ; but no land is feen at E.N.E. from the Cape, where
is probably the channel of St. Barbara; which opens into
the flraits of Magellan. Cape Defolation lies to the
§.E., the eiltrance is open, and it will admit a large fleet of

fhips.
Banik, St. Channel of, lies on the fouth fhore of the
ftraits of Magellan, between bay de Choifeul and Cafcade
bay. It is anos to communicate with the bay of
St. Barbara ; its entrance on that fide being oppofite to
James’s ifland. It has been thought of importance to explore
this fuppofed channel from the frait; becaufe it would
afford, if found good, a quick and fafe paffage into the
Southern Pacific ocean,

Barsara, St. Lfland, the fouthernmoft of two iflands
bearing north and fouth on the eait fide of the canal grande,
or principal channel, from cape Frio, on the coatt of Brafil,
to the bay of All Saints. 1t has two good roads ; one on
the fouth-welt, and another on the north-eaft.

Barpara, St. the chief town of New Bifcay, in the au-
dience of Galicia, in New Spain, in North America.

Barpara, Si. River, lies on the coatt of Africa, to the
eaft from cape Fermofa, and fix leagues welt from Baraba-
lemo.

Barsar, St. Canal of, lies on the north-weft of America,
near the coaft of New Albion; the north-weit point of en-
trance into which iscalled point Conception ; inN. lat. 34° 32’
E. long. 239° 54. The wefternmoft, or firft ifland, forming
this canal, is called in one Spanrfh chart St. Miguel, in
another St. Barnardo ; the next is called in one chart Santa
Rofa, in the other St. Miguel; and nearer the canal is a
third ifland, upon which is a high hill called in the Spanith
charts SantaCruz. The coaft continues in an eafterly direc-
tion about 23 miles from point Conception toa point where it
takes a foutherly turn, from whence the country gradually
rifes to mountains of different heights. In the vicinity of the
fhores, which are compofed of low cliffs or fandy beaches,
are produced fome ftunted trees and groveling fhrubs; and.
notwithftanding the dreary appearance of the coaft, it feems
to be well inhabited, as feveral villages may be perceived at
no great diftance from one another, in the fmall bays or
coves that form the coaft. The inhabitants ufe canoes of
wood, decorated with fhells; and traffic with their fith and
ornaments for {poons, beads, and {ciflars. They feemed,
fays Vancouver, to poflefs great fenfibility and vivacity, and
yet conducted themfelves with the moft perfect decorum.
Their native diale€&t was unknown. The Spanith
miffion of Santa Barbara, and alfo that of Bueno Ven-
tura, are fituated at a {mall diftance from the canal of Santa
Barbara. The fhores of the bay or roaditead of Santa Bar-
bara are for the moft part low, and terminate in fandy
beaches, with the exception of the weltern point, which is a
fteep cliff of moderate elevation, and which was denominated
by Vancouver Point Felipe. At Santa Barbara the latitude
was 32° 24’, the variation 10° 15° E. and the longitude
240° 43'- ‘The tide regularly ebbed and flowed every fix
hours, its rife and fall being about three or four feet; and it
is high water about eight hours after the moon pafles the
meridian. Vancouver’s Voyage, vol. ii. p. 456.

Barsara, in Logic, the firft mode of the firft figure of
fyllogifms.

A fyllogifm in barbara is that whereof all the propofitions
are univerfal and affirmative; the middle term being the fub-

BAR

ject inthe firfl propofition, and attribute or predicate in the
fecond.—For example:

« BAR Whoever fuffers a man to farve, whom he ought

to fuftain, is a murderer:
BA Whoever is rich, and refufes to give alms, fuffers
thofe to flarve whom he ought to fuftain.
RA Therefore, whoever is rich, and refufes to give
alms, is a murderer.”’

BARBARATA J/lands, in Geography, are fituated three
leagues weft from the river Turiano; the bay of 'Trifto lies
W.S.W. from them, on the Spanifh main; and thefe iflands
are between the main and Venezuela, nearly weft from
the latter. :

BARBAREEN. See Carrura.

BARBARESQUE, in Zoology, the name given by
Buffon to the Barbary fquirrel; /eiurus gelulus of Schreber
and Gmelin.

BARBARIA, in Ancient Geography, the name given in
the Periplus of the Erythrean fea to thekingdomof Abyffinia,
now called Ape, the coaft of which extends from the
{traits of Babelmandel to cape Gardefan, about 450 geo-
graphical miles, and contains, according to the Periplus, four
principal marts or anchorages, called by the general name
of Tapera, the precife fituation of which is not afcertained.
Abalites was fituated near the ftraits, Malao may be fixed
at Delaqna, and Mundus at Zeyla ; but the principal port .
was Mofullon, feated ona promontory, a whole degree north
of Mundus; and this fuits no other point onthe coaft but
Barbara, a town onan ifland clofe to the fhore, adjoining to
a narrow cape of confiderable extent.

BARBARIAN, in Antiquity, a name given by theancient
Greeks to all thofe who were not of their own country, or who
did not {peak the Greek language, or who did not fpeak it
fo well as themfelves. In which fenfe the word fignified
with them no more than foreigner, and did not carry that
odium with it which it does now. Strabo derives the word
BxpSepos from BeepbeepiZew, balbutire, becaufe foreigners com-
ing to Athens ufed to ftammer, or {peak coarfely ; others
derive it from @zp6x%p, a word that foreigners frequently
ftumbled on, which yet had no meaning.

The Greeks had fuch an high opinion of the pre-emi-
nence to which they were raifed by civilization and {cience,
that they feem hardly to have acknowledged the reft of
mankind to be of the fame fpecies with themfelves. To
every other people they gave the degrading appellation of
Barbarians; and, in confequence of their own boafted fupe-
riority, they afferted a right of dominion over them, in the
fame manner, to ufe their own expreffion, as the foul has over
the body, and men have over irrational animals. Extrava-
gant as this pretenfion may now appear, it found admiffion,
to the difgrace of ancient philofophy, into all the f{chools..
Ariftotle, full of this opinion, in fupport of which he em-
ploys arguments more fubtle than folid (Polit. i. c. 3—7-)
advifed Alexander to govern the Greeks like fubjects, and
the Barbarians as flaves ; to confider the former as compani-
ons, and the latter as creatures of an inferior nature. But
the fentiments of the pupil were more enlarged than thole’
of his mafter; and his experience in governing men taught
the monarch what the fpeculative fcience of the philofopher
did not difcoyer. See Plut. de Fortun. Alex. Orat. i.
Strabo, lib. i. p. 116. A.

The Greeks gave the denomination of Barbarians in a
peculiar manner, and with a contempt blended with animo-
fity, to the Phrygians, on account of the enmity that had
fubfifted between them fince the wars of Troy. Tins ap-
pears in the “ Oreftes” of Euripides, and in the fcholia
upon the * Ajax Maftigophorus” of Sophocles. The Ro-

mAs

BAR

mang alfo, in imitation of the Greeks, eafled all other peo-
ple, the Greeks excepted, barbarian ; and the compliment
was returned to them by the inhabitants of other nations.
Thus Ovid, who was confidered at Rome as a polifhed
courtier, was treated in his exile as a barbarian by the Getz,
who did net underftand his language, which was the idiom
of Rome. rift. 1. v. el. 10. v. 37-
«¢ Barbarus hic eco {um quia non intelligor ulli:
Et rident ftolidi verba Latina Getzx.’’

Under the lower empire, the appellation of barbarian be-
came almoft fynonymous with that of itranger or foreigner.
The Burgundians and Franks, who were eftablifhed in Gaul,
were there called barbarians; and in Italy this name was
given tothe Goths. The term was alfo applied by the 52d
eanon of the African church to the inhabitants of thofe
provinces which had not fubmitted to the Roman empire ;
and the denomination is frequently ex-ended by Gregory of
Tours, and alfo by other writers, to Pagans as contradiitin-
guifhed from Chriftians.

BARBARIANA, in Ancient Geography,a town of Spain,
placed in the Anton. Itin. between Atiliana and Graccuris.

BARBARIC Putrosoruy, comprehends that of all
ancient nations among whom the Greek language was not
fpoken. It has long been a fubje& of difpute, whether
philofophy firtt appeared among the Barbarians or among
the Greeks. The inhabitants of Greece, who were at an
early period remarkable fer literary and philofophical vanity,
and who foon acquired the ufe of an artificial method of
philofophifing, were unwilling to allow that philofophy had
any exiftence iu other countries, except where it had been
borrowed from them, They could not perfuade themfelves,
that the mere communication of precepts of wifdom in the
fimple form of tradition, and in languages harfh and diffo-
nant compared with their own, could deferve to be called
philofophifing. On the other hand, the barbaric nations in
their turn treated the Greeks as barbarians, and looked upon
them as childrenin philofophy. Plato, in his Timeus, intro-
duces a barbarian as inftructing the wife Solon, and faying,
«© You Greeks are always children; there is not an old man
amongft you; you have no fuch thing as grey-headed wif-
dom.” In this perfuafion they were the more confirmed,
when they underftood that the moit learned men, and the
moft ancient philofophers among the Greeks, had either
been Barbarians by birth, or inftructed by Barbarians (fee
Clemen. Alex. Stromata, 1. i. p. 302, 303.); that Pythago-
ras, for example, was a Tufcan, Antiithenes a Phrygian,
Mrpheus a Thracian, Thales a Phenician ; and that Thales,
Pythagoras, Plato, and others, had derived their knowledge
from Chaldzan and Egyptian priefts. Many of the Chrif-
tian fathers efpoufed, in this difpute, the caufe of the Bar-
barians, and maintained, with great vehemence, and with
all the learning they could command, that the Barbaric phi-
lofophy was the fountain of all the wifdom which had ap-

eared among the Greeks, except fo far as they had been
indebted, in the way of tradition, to divine revelation. This
difpute, however, was owing to the want of diftiné ideas,
and an accurate ufe of terms; and can in reality be confi-
dered as nothing more than a logomachy. For no one can
affert that the barbaric nations were wholly inattentive to
wifdom, or ftrangers to every kind of knowledge, human
or divine: and, on the other fide, it cannot be quettioned,
that they acquired their knowledge rather by fimple reflec-
tion than by fcientific inveftigation, and that they tran{mit-
ted it to pofterity rather by tradition than by demonftration,
Whereas the Greeks, as foon as they began to be civilized,
difcovered a general propenfity to inquiry, and adopted {ci-
entific rules and methods of reafoning. - Hence it is ealy to

BAR

perceive, that though the improvemenr of philofophy is to
be afcribed to the Greeks, its origin is to be fought for
among the Barbaric nations, 'T'atian, in Proem, Clem. Alex.
Strom. 1. i. p, 302. Origen adv. Celfum, l,i. Beanfobre
Hitt. du Manich. p. 2.1, 1.c.2. | Sealiger Exerc. ii. co tra
Cardan. p. 188. Bos Animady, ad Script. c. ii. p. 12. Heu-
man. Act. Phil. v. ii. p. 204. Heurnii Ant. Phil, Barb. ed.
Lugd. Bat. 1600.

The Barbaric philofophy, in the moit extenfive fenfe of
the term, and in its reference to the ftate of philofopky,
from the earlieit times to the decline of the Roman republic,
comprehends that of the eaftern nations, including the He-
BREWS, CHALDEANS, Persians, INDIANS, ARABIANS,
and Prenicians; that of the fouthern nations, or Ecyp-
Tians and E.irnioprans3; that of the weftern nations, to
which we may refer the Certs, the Errurrans, and the
Romans; and that of the northern nations, including the
northern ScytHians, Turacians, Gera, &c. among
whom Abzaris, Anacharfis, Toxaris, and Zamoixis, obtained
the praife of wifdom. See Bracker’s Hilt. of Philofophy by
Enfield, vol. i. Introduction.

BARBARICA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Burrestis,
found in Barbary. Itis a fmall infeé&t ; colour above brafly,
beneath coppery; wing-cafes very entire and flightly
{triated. Fabricius.

Barparica,a {pecies of Curysome a, ofa brafly-green,
with five red lines on the wing-cafes; wings fanguineous,
Inhabits Barbary. Sulzer. Gmelin.

BARBARICARLL, in Antiguity, a kind of artifts, who,
with threads of divers colours, exprefled the figures of men,
animals, and other things; or, as others deferibe them,
thofe whofe buiinefs was to gild and decorate fhields and
helmets with gold and filver.

The barbaricarii were fo called, becaufe they learned this
kind of painting from the Phrygians, who were particularly
denominated dartarians, in regard of their oppofition to the
Greeks; though the name is fometimes alfo written branba-
ricaril.

Barsaricartit feem alfo to have been ufed for foldiers or
officers, who wore mafks and vizards thus adorned with
gold and filver.

BARBARICUM, in Ancient Writers, is ufed for a mi-
litary fhout, taifed by the foldiers on point of engagement.
This is called barbaricum from the barbarians, in whofe ar-
mies this method of fhouting much obtained. The fame
appellation was given to a war or expedition undertaken
againft the barbarians. —“* Quou/que ad ip/um tempus quo bar
baricum extortum eft inter nos & vos.” ’

Barsaricum was alfo ufed for an armoury, or maga-
zine, wherein the Greek emperors kept the f{poils and do-
naries taken from the barbarians in the time of war or
peace.

Barsaricum, in the Materia Medica, is alfo an appella-
tion given by the modern Greeks to rhubarb. It is thus
called from the Sinus Barbaricus, by the way of which this
root was firft brought to them.

BARBARICUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of CimEx
( Reduvius), of a black colour ; thorax and wing-cafes ob-
{cure ferruginous, and a little white line on the middle of
the feutellum. A native of Barbary. Gmelin.

BarBaricus, in Ornithology, a tpecies of Raruus that
inhabits Barbary. It is ferruginous, with a black bill;
wings {potted with white; rumpwhite, ftreaked with black;
white below ; legs obfcure brown. Gmelin. This is the
Barbary rail of Latham.

Barparicus, a fpecies of Turpus, of a green colour,
with the breaft {potted with white; rump and tip of oe

ta

BAR

tail yellow. Gmelin. This is the Barbary thrufh of La-
tham, and grive baffette de Barbarie of Buffon. Inhabits
Barbary ; and is about the fize of the miffel thruth.

BARBARISM, in Grammar, denotes an offence againft
the purity of ityle or language.

A barbarifm differs, according to Ifidore, from a barba-
rous term, as the former, for inftance, is Latin, though cor-
rupt or mifufed ; whereas the latter, which this writer calls
Ber istes is a word merely foreign intruded into Latin

eech.

«a general, under barbari{ms are comprehended things
written, {poken, declined, or conjugated wrong ; or ufed
in a wrong quantity, or in an unufual fenfe; as when a word
is ufed which is foreign to the language, and not received
by the better and purer fort of writers therein, Such are
liper for liber, fyllaba for fyllaba, patri for patris, lexi for
legi, bannus for profcriptio, Kc.

Barbarifm is often charged, with great juftice, on modern
writers in the learned languages. ‘The Latin books of late
ages are full of Anglicifms, Gallicifms, Germanicifms, &c.
according to the country of the author. But what {hall
we fay to Cafp. Scioppius, who accufes Cicero himfelf of
barbarifms in his own language ?

There are great difputes among critics concerning barba-
rifms in the New Teftament.

Divers pious perfons are itartled at the apprehenfion of
any thing like a barbarifm in the infpired books, as fup-
poling it an objection to the infpiration of them; yet this
does not hinder but many of the Jews, after Abarbanel and
others, {till maintain barbarifms in the Old Teftament ; in
which they are feconded by M. Simon, Le Clerc, and others.
The latter of thefe writings abound with Chaldaifms ; and
the books of Mofes are not free from Egyptian words.

If we confider that among native eis a barbarous
idiom could only mean fuch as was not conformable to the
rules of their grammarians and rhetoricians, and to the
practice of their writers of reputation, it may be conceded
that the ftyle of the New Teftament is of this kind, with-
out derogating from the chara¢ter of the apoftles and evan-
gelifts, without impeaching their infpiration, and without
injuring the authenticity of their writings. This conceflion,
the moit learned and oratorical of the Greek fathers, as for
inftance Origen and Chryfoftom, did not fcruple to make :
and, in fuch cafes, it muft be acknowledged that a native cf
common fenfe is a much better judge than any learned fo-
reigner, Neverthelefs many have contended that the Greek
of the New Teftament is as purely claffical as that of the
Attic writers, and they have even coademned as impious he-
retics thofe who have dared to difflent. It has been afferted,
that the coatrary implies an imperfection inconfiftent with
divine infpiration, and that men capable of fuch a doétrine
were not only impious, but were guilty of the fia againit
the Holy Ghoft. And yet this doétrine was maintained by
Erafmus, Luther, Melan&thon, Camerarius, Beza, Drufius,
Cafaubon, Glaffins, Gataker, Solanus, Olearius, and Vor-
ftius ; though it has been denied by Pfochenius, Stolberg,
Schmid, Georgi, and Blackwall. See Erneiti Inititutio
Interpretis N. T. p. 41. ed. 3tia. Lip, 1775. But the
advocates for this divine purity have not only betrayed their
ignorance of the Greek language, but a high degree of
pedantry in eftimating the accuracy of language beyond its
proper value. This laft miftake has happened not only to
the warm and partial friends, but likewife to the enemies of
Chriftianity, who, from the time of Celfus to the 18th cen-
tury, have maintained, that a book written in fuch language
is neitherdivinely infpired,nor defervingattentionand refpect.
Both parties have carried their zeal and their fentiments

2

BAR

to too great a length ; and they would hardly confider an
abfolute purity of ftyle, and a total abfence of foreign
words, of fuch importance as to make the contrary a
crime, if they would condefcend to quit the language of
the fchools for that of common life, or turn theiz attention
from the language of the claflics to thofe that are in com-
mon ufe, All foreign idioms, fuch as Hebraifms in Greek,
Grecifms in Hebrew, or Latinifms in either, may be com-
prehended within the definition of barbarifm, and fome-
times even of folecif{m ; but thefe words, it fhould be recol-
leéted, have always fomething relative in their fignification ;
that turn of expreffion being a barbarifm or folecifm in one
language, which is ftrictly proper in another, and to one
clafs of hearers which is not fo to another. "The apoitle
Paul does not hefitate, by implication, to call every tongue
barbarous to thofe who do not underftand it. 1 Cor. xiv.
11. Nor does it make any difference, as appears from the
whole of the apoftle’s argument, even if what is fpoken be
{poken by the {pirit. With equal reafon we may fay of
thofe foreign idioms in any tongue, which render what is
faid unintelligible or even obfcure to the natives, that in re-
{pect of them they are barbarifms. Nor will any judicious
perfon deny, that there are fome idiomatical expreffions in
the New Teftament, which muft have puzzled thofe who
were abfolute ttrangers to the language of holy writ. Such
idioms the writers of the New Teftament would naturally
adopt. They occurred in the Septuagint, which they were
in the habit of ufing ; and thefe would co-operate towards
infecting their ftyle with the tendency, which, as natives of
Paleftine, they would derive from converfation, to intermix
Hebraifms and Chaldaifms in their writings. If we would
enter thoroughly into the idiom of the New Teftament,
we muit familiarize ourfelves with that of the LX X ; and
if we would enter thoroughly into the idiom of the LXX,
we muit accuitom ourfelves to the ftudy, not only of the
original of the Oid Teftament, but of the diale& fpoken
in Paleftine between the return of the Jews from the Baby-
lonifh captivity and the deftruction of Jerufalem by the
Romans; for this laft, as well as the Hebrew, has affeGted
the language both cf the old Greck tranflation and of the

New Teftament. : °
Befides, it is proper to confider in relation to this fubje&,
that vulgarifms and foreign idioms, which may obtain ainong
ftrangers, and thefe of the lower ranks, have no more na-
tural unfitsefs to convey the feefe which they that ufe them
intend to convey by them, than the terms aad phrafes which,
in confequence of the preference given by their fuperiors,
may be regarded as elegancies. It may be as reafonably
objected agairft our religion, that the perfons by whom it
was propagated were chefen from a clafs which men in high
life account the dregs of the people, as that the Holy Spirit
fhould accommodate himfelt to the language of thofe who
were aCtualiy chofen. Nay, language as well as drefs bemg
in faét no more thana fpecies of mode, it may with as good
reafon be maintained that the ambafladors whom Chriit de-
puted to promulgate his deétrine, fhould have been habited
like gentlemen and men of iafhion, as that they fhould have
fpoken the dialect of fuch. Should it be afked, why did
the Holy Spirit chufe to deliver fuch important truths in the
barbarous idiom of a few obicure Galileans, and not in the
polite and more harmonious ftrains of Grecian eloquence ?
The anfwer is obvious :—That it might appear beyond con-
tradiGtion, that the excellency of the power was of God,
and not of man. Moreover, the writings of the New Tef-
tament carry, in the very expreffion and idiom, an intrinfic
and irrefiftible evidence of their authenticity. They are
{uch as, in refpect of ftyle, could not have been writtea but
hy

BAR

by Jews, and hardly even by Jews fuperior in rank and edu-
cation to thofe whofe names they bear; and the argument
is ftrengthened by confidering that under their homely garb
we find the moft exalted fentiments, the clofeft reafoning,
the pureft morality, and the foundeit doGtrine, In the dif-
cuffion of this fubje&t, we fhould likewife confider the fitu-
ation and charaéter of the perfons for whofe ufe the New
Teftament was more immediately written. They were partly
either native Jews, or pious perfons who were profelytes to
the doétrine of Mofes, and who, by continuai intercourfe
with native Jews, and the conftant reading of the LXX,
were accu{tomed to Jewifh Greek. It is highly probable
therefore, that if the New Teftament had been written with
Attic purity, it would have been unintelligible to many of
its earlieft readers, who had never read the doGtrines of re-
ligion in any other diale&t than Jewifh Greek. We hall
only obferve further in this place, that a claffical or unclaf-
fical ityle has no more influence on the divinity of the New
Teftament, than the elegance or inelegance of the hand in
which it is written, and the accuracy or inaccuracy of the
pronunciation with which itis uttered. Whoever is accuf-
tomed to write a bad hand would certainly not improve it
by infpiration ; but admitting the fat, it would have this
unfortunate confequence, that no one accuitomed to the
hand would in its improved ftate believe it to be genuine.
There is no reafon to believe, that in{piration would amend
a faulty pronunciation; and the writers of the different
parts of the Bible have undoubtedly fpoken in the fame
manner, both before and after the effufions of the Holy
Ghoit. If thefe failings then are confiftent with fuperna-
tural endowments, ‘I can fee no reafon,”’ fays Michaelis,
“¢ for drawing an argument againft the divinity of the New
Teftament from its vulgarifms, or even from its grammatical
errors.”” A particular account of the writings of thofe
authors, who have engaged in the controverfy relating to
the purity of the language of the New Teftament, may be
feen in Walchii Bibliotheca Theologica, t. iv. p. 276—289,
See alfo Fabr. Bib. Gree. t. iv. p. 224—227. Michaelis’s
Introd. to the New Teftament by Marth, vol. i. ch. 4. § 4.
p- 116, &c. Campbell on the Four Gofpels. Prelimin.
Diff. vol. i. p. 13, &e. See more on this fubje& under the
articles Insprrarion, and Language of the New Testa-
MENT.

Barsarism, Barbaries, is alfo ufed for that rudenefs of
mind, wherein the underftanding is neither furnifhed with
ufeful principles, nor the will with good inclinations.

BARBARISSOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Syria, in the Chalybonitide country. Ptolemy.

BARBARIUM Promontorium, a promontory of Lufi-
tania, placed by Ptolemy fouth of the city of Olios-Hippon,
or Oliofcipon, Olefipo, or Lifbon, in 39° 45 N. latitude.

BARBARO, Francis, in Biography, a noble and
learned Venetian, was born in 1398, and diftinguifhed by
his love of literature, and his talents for public bufinefs.
Under the learned Grecian Chryfoloras, he acquired that
profound knowledge both of the Greek and Latin langua-
ges, of which he gave fpecimens in his tranflations of Plu-
tarch’s lives, of Ariftides, and Cato, and in his elegant moral
work, written in Latin, intitled “De Re Uxoria,” and
firft publifhed without his name, in 4to. at Paris, in 1515.
This work furnifhes ufefal inftructions with regard to the
choice of a wife, and the duties of wives and mothers.
He was alfo the author of fome orations and letters, which
manifeit good tafte and an amiable temper. In all the pub-
lic offices which | Barbaro fuftained, he difplayed eminent

virtues. Whilit he was govenor of Brefcia, he had occa-
fion for the exercife both of courage and diferetion. The

4

BAR

city was diyided into two violent faGtions, which he prevailed
upon to unite, and to act in concert for the public good ;
and though at the fame time it was befieged by the Milanefe
forces under the great commander Piccinino, and fuffered
much by famine and difeafe, he at length, after a protracted
fiege of three years, obliged the enemy to retire. He died
much regretted by his countrymen, in 1454, at the age of
fiity-fix years. His letters were colleéted and printed at
Brefcia in 1743. Gen, Dia.

Barsaro, Ermorao, the elder, was the nephew of the

preceding, and diftinguifhed by his early acquaintance with ,

the Greek langaage, infomuch that at twelve years of age
he tranflated many of AEfop’s fables into Latin. He was
advanced, at the age of thirty years, by pope Eugenius, to
the epifcopal fee of Trevigi; and ten years afterwards
he. was tranflated to that of Verona, where he died in
1470, aged fixty years. He left tranflations of Greck
authors.

Barzaro, Ermorao, or Hermoraus Barsarvus, the
younger, was the grandfon of Francis Barbaro, and born at
Venice, in the year 1454. In very early life he was eminently
diftingujfhed by his genius, application, and proficiency; and
at the age of fourteen years he received from the hand of
the emperor Frederic the poetic crown. At fixteen, he un-
dertook the tranflation of Themiftius, which was publithed
feven years afterwards. Having graduated in the fchool of
Padua in jurifprudence and philofophy, he returned to Ve~
nice, and devoted himfelf entirely to affairs of ftate. How-
ever, after an interval of twelve years, he refumed his ftudies
with frefh ardour ; and, particularly attached to the Greek
language, he read leétures without gratuity, in his own
houfe, upon Demoithenes, Theocritus, and Ariftotle, which
were very numeroufly attended. At the age of thirty-two
years, he was fent ambaffador to the emperor Frederic, who
conferred upon him the honour of knighthood ; and in con.
fequence of a fubfequent embafly to pope Innocent VIII.
that pontiff created him patriarch of Aquileia. This office
he accepted, though the laws of Venice had prohibited its
minifters from accepting any dignity from any foreign prince,
without the confent of the republic ; and for his oppofition
to this order, the Venetians pronounced upon hima fentence
of perpetual exile. For preventing its execution he wifhed
to relinquifh the patriarchate; but the pope refufed to accept
the renunciation. From this time, he refided at Rome; but
upon the accefs of the plague, he removed into the coun.
try, which, however, afforded him no afylum ; for he was
feized with this malady, and died in the year 1493.

Befides the tranflationof Themiftius, Hermolaus publifhed
verfions of Diofcorides, and of the rhetoric of Ariftotle ;
an abridgement of the moral and phyfical do&trine of that
philofopher; two large works upon Pliny, one intitled
“« Conititutiones Pliniane,” the other “ Conftitutiones Se-
cunde ;”? « Correétions of Pomponius Mela ;?? and an
«« Explanation of the more difficult words in Pliny.” He
boaited that he had corre@ted 5000 errors in the text of
Pliny, and 300 in that of Mela. Although he is charged
with having been too free in his conjectural emendations,
he exercifed great ingenuity and induftry in thefe labours.
The illuftrious Lorenzo de’ Medici treated him with great.
re{pect, and when he was at Florence on an embafly from.
the republic of Venice, entertained him very liberally and’
offered him the ufe of his villa and library for the profecu-
tion of his ftudies. Hermolaus is certainly entitled to
rank in the firft clafs of learned men, at a period when
claffical learning was the firft and almoft the fole objec of
attention: nor is it any depreciation of his merit as a
{cholar, whatever it may be of his character asa philofo-.

pher,

pie eet 5

BAR

her,, if the whimfical ftory be true, that, being exceed-
ingly perplexed concerning the meaning of Ariltotle’s
FviAryeiz, a term which has perhaps never been underftood,
he endeavoured, or pretended to confult the devil upon
the fubje&.”? Gefner in Bibliothee. Gen, Dict.
BARBAROSSA, fo called from the red colour of
their beard, Aruc or Horuc, and Hayradin, were the fons
of a potter of the ifland of Lefbos, or as fome fay, of a
Sicilian renegado; who, prompted by a reftlefs and enter-
prifing fpirit, forfook their father’s trade, and joined a
crew of pirates. They foon diftinguifhed themfelves by
their valour and activity, and becoming matters of a {mall
brigantine, carried on their infamous trade with fuch con-
duct and fuccefs, that they aflembled a fleet of twelve
galleys, befides many veffels of fmaller force. Of this
fleet, Horuc, the elder brother, was admiral, and Hayradin
fecond in command, but with almoft equal authority.
They called themfelves the friends of the fea, and the ene-
mies of all who fail upon it ; and their names foon became
terrible from the ftraits of the Dardanels to thofe of Gibral-
tar. Whilft they were acting as Corfairs, they adopted
the ideas and acquired the talents of conquerors. ‘hey
often carried the prizes which they took on the coafts of
Spain and Italy, to which they extended their depreda-
tions about the year 1504, into the ports of Barbary; and
enriching the inhabitants by the fale of their booty, and
the thoughtlefs prodigality of their crews, they were
welcome guefts in every place at which they touched.
The convenient fituation of thefe harbours, lying fo near
the greateft commercial ftates at that time in Chriftendom,
made the brothers wifh for an eftablifhmeut in that coun-
try. An opportunity occurred for this purpofe, which
they eagerly feized and improved to their own advantage.
Eutemi, king of Algiers, having made feveral unfuccefstul
attempts for taking a fort which the Spanifh governors of
Oran had buiit not far from his capital, fought the affift-
ance of Horuc, whofe valour the Atricans confidered as ir-
refiftible. The active corfair gladly accepted the invitation,
and leaving his brother Hayradin with the fleet, marched
at the head of 5000 men to Algiers, where, in the year
1516, he was received as their deliverer. Such a force
gave him the command of the town. ‘The ambitious con-
queror, having fecretly murdered the monarch whom he
came to affift, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed king of
Algiers in his ftead. He then proceeded to eftablith the
authority which he had ufurped, by arts fuited to the
enius of the people whom he had to govern; by un-
bounded liberality to thofe who favoured his promotion ;
and by cruelty as unbounded towards all whom he had
any reafon to diftruft. Having deteéted and defeated a
confpiracy formed againft him by the Arabs, and obliged
the king of Tunis, who marched to their fuccour with a
powerful army into the territory of Algiers, to feek refuge
in the mountams; Barbaroffa laid fiege to Tunis, made
himfelf mafter of it, and was acknowledged as fovereign.
He then attacked the neighbouring king of Tremecen,
vanquifhed him in battle, and added his dominions to thofe
of Algiers. At the fame time he continued his depreda-
tions on the coaft of Spain and Italy ; and the devaftations
which he committed obliged Charles V., at the beginning
of his reign, to furnifh the marquis de Comares, governor
of Oran, with troops fufficient to attack him. That
officer, affilted by the dethroned king of Tremecen, executed
the commiffion with fuch fpirit and fuccefs, that Barbaroffa’s
troops being defeated in feveral encounters, he himfelf was
Ahut up in the citadel of Tremecen. After defending it to
Vor. IL.

.of Tunis,

Baas

the laft extremity, he was reduced by the apprehenfions
of famine to the neceflity of attempting au eleape ky a
fubterraneous paflage ; and in order to delay the puriuit,
he feattered his treafures upon the road. At length the
Spaniards overtook him on the banks of the Huexda, ei
leagues from Tremecen; and here Barbarofla with his
Turkith followers fought for fome time with an obftinate
valour, but they were at laft totally defeated, and the con-
queror himfelf was flain, in the forty-fourth year of his age,
A.D. 1518. ~
His brother Hayradin, known likewife by the name of

Barbaroffa, affumed the fceptre of Algiers with the fz:
ambition and abilities, but with better fortune. His ign
being undifturbed by the Spaniards, who were fully em-
ployed in the wars among the European powers, he regu-
lated with admirable prudence the interior police of ‘his
kingdom, carried on his naval operations with great vigour,
and extended his conquefts on the continent of Africa.
For his greater fecurity, he put his dominions under the
protection of the Grand Signior, and received from him a
body of Turkilh foldiers fufficient for his defence againft
domeftic as well as foreign enemies. Solyman at length
A.D. 1533, offered him the command of the Turkith fleet
in oppofition to Andrew Doria, who was the greateft fea-
officer of that age. Barbaroffa, proud of this diftin&ion,
repaired to Conitantinople, and with a wonderful veriati-
lity of mind, combined the addrefs of a courtier with the
boldnefs of a corfair, and thus gained the entire confidence
of the fultan and his vizier. ‘I'o them he communicated
afcheme which he had formed of making himfelf mafter
of Tunis, the moit flourifhing kingdom, at that time, on
the coait of Africa; and as they approved the fcheme,
they furnifhed him with every thing he demanded for carry~
ing it into execution. Availing himfelf of the inteftine
divifions of the kingdom, and making perfidious ufe of the
name and intereft of Abrafchid, an exiled prince, whom he
deceived and imprifoned, he was fupported by a powerful fleet
and a numerous army. His fleet confifted of 250 veflels,
with which he failed towards Africa ; and after ravaging
the coafts of Italy, he appeared before Tunis. Having
landed his men, he announced his intention of afferting the
right of Abrafchid, whom he pretended to have left fick
on board of the admiral galley, but who was in reality
confined in the feraglio at Conftantizople, and who was
never heard of more. The fort of Goletta, which guards
the bay, foon fubmitted, and the inhabitants of Tunis
declared unanimouily in favour of Abrafchid; fo that the
gates were open to Barbarofla, whom they confidered as
the reftorer of their lawful fovereign. But as Abrafchid
did not appear, they foon began to fufpe& their corfair’s
treachery ; and with arms in their hands, furrounded the
citadel into which Barbarofla had led his troops. Their
attack, however ardent and impetuous, was of no avail ; and
they were forced to acknowledge Solyman as their fovereign,
and to fubmit to himfelf as his viceroy. Having put the
kingdom into a proper pofture of defence, he extended
his depredations to the Chriltian ftates, fo that complaints
of his outrages were conveyed to the emperor Charles by
his fubjeéts both in Spain and Italy. The emperor con-
cluded a treaty with Muley-Hafcen, the exiled king
who implored his affiftance; and made
preparations for invading Tunis. His fleet confifted of
nearly 500 veffels, and they had on board above 30,000
regular troops. The armament failed from Cagliari, and
after a profperous navigation, landed within fight of Tunis.
Barbarofla aflembled at Tunis for oppofing the imperial
4H army,

BAR

army, a force compofed of 20,c00 horfe, together with a
vatt body of foot. By the reduGtion of the Goletta, after
an obftinate defence by 60co Turkith foldiers under the
command of Sinan, a renegado Jew, the braveft and moft
experienced of all Barbaroila’s corfairs, the emperor became
mafter of the fleet, confifting of eighty-feven galleys and
galliots, together with the arfenal, and 300 cannon moitly
of brafs, that were planted on the ramparts. In thefe
circumftances, however, Barbaroffa‘neither loft his courage,
nor abandoned the defence of Tunis. But as the walls
were extremely weak as well as extenfive, he determined
to advance with his army, amounting to 50,000 men,
towards the imperial camp, and to decide the fate of his
kingdom by the iffue of a battle. Having communicated
his refolution to his principal officers, he propofed to provide
againit the danger of a mutiny among the Chriftian flaves,
during the abfence of the army, by maffacring 10,000 of
them before he began his march. ‘The barbarity of the
propofal filled his officers with horror ; and Barbarofla,
dreading their refentment, confented to fpare the lives of
the flaves. ‘The emperor’s army which fuffered inconceive-
able hardfhips in their march over burning fands, foon
eame up with the Moors and Arabs under the command of
Barbarofla, who were fo completely routed, that, notwith-
ftanding all his efforts to rally them, he was hurried along
with them in their flight back to the city. This was found
a fcene of confufion ; fome of the inhabitants were flying
with their families and effe&ts ; others were opening the
gates to the conquerors ; the Turkifh foldiers were retreat-
ing ; and the citadel was in poffeffion of the Chriftian flaves.
Barbaroffa, difappointed and enraged, fled precipitately to
Bona; and Tunis furrendered to the victorious army oi the
emperor. But the luftre of this victory was tarmifhed by
the excefles of the foldiers : who facrificed more than 30,000
of the innocent inhabitants, and carried away 10,000 of them
as flaves. Barbaroffa efcaped firft to Algiers, and then
repaired te, Conftantinople, where he was received again
into favour, and fent witha fleet to ravage Calabria. Having
perfuaded Solyman to make war on the Venetians, he
committed great devaftations in the ifle of Corfu, and after-
wards made an expedition to the coaft of Arabia Felix,
when he reduced all Yemen under the Turkifh dominion.
In a fubfequent war between the Turks and Venetians, he
took many iflands in the Archipelago. In 1538 he crofled
ever to Candia, and made an unfuccefsful attempt on
€anea. From thence he retired to the Ambracian gulf,
where he was overtaken by the Chriftian fleet under the
famous Andrew Doria. By his fkilful manceuvres he not
only avoided the danger that threatened him, but gained
fome purtial advantages, and caufed Doria to mafte a hafly
retreat to Corfu. In 1539 he recovered Caftel Nuovo
from the confederates. In 1543, Barbaroffa left Conftan-
tinople with a powerful fleet ; and proceeding to the Faro
of Meffina, took Reggio, and facked the coaft of Italy.
He then befieged and took Nice; but when Dona ap-*
proached with his fleet, Barbaroffa avoided him; and
remaining in thofe feasduring winter, he next {pring ravaged
the coafts and iflands of Italy, and then returned with
many prifoners to Conftantinople. During the remaining
period of his life, he fuperintended the naval affairs of
the grand fignior, and purfued that voluptuous courfe
to which he had been habituated, amidft a number of fair
captives ; and died at the age of eighty years, in 1547,
leaving his fon Haffan in poifeflion of the viceroyalty of
Algiers, and heirto all his property. With the ferocity of
a Turk and Corfair, Barbarofla poffefled fome generous

BAR

fentiments, and obtained a charaéter for honour and fidelity:
to his engagements. Mod. Un. Hitt. vol. x. p. 66, &en
vol. xv. p. 14, &c. Robertfon’s Hitt, of Charles V. vol. iii.
p- 97, &c. Gen. Biog. See Aveiers.

Barparossa, in Lntomology, a f{pecies of ScARABAUS).
defcribed by Fabricius as a native of New Holland. The
anterior part of the thorax is feabrous; horns of the head
recurved and fhort.

BARBAROUS, in a generalfenfe, denotes fomething
that partakes of the quality of Barsarism; and in this
fenfe, the term is applied to a nation, age, writer, word
or the like. Barbarous Latin words are innumerable :
the {fchoolmen abound with them ; the chemilts, phyficians,
and lawyers can f{carcely write intelligibly without them.
Du-Cange has given two large volumes in folio of barba-
rous Latin words, and as many of barbarous Greek words.
The modern or vulgar Greek is fometimes called barbarous
Greek, ‘*barbaro-Greca,’”’? or ‘*Greco-barbara lingua.’?
Langius has publifhed ‘Plulologia Barbaro-Greea,” “Gram
matica Barbaro-Greca,” or “Gloffarium Barbaro-Grecum.”?

BARBARUS, in L£ntomology, a fpecies of Papilio.
(Pkb. Rur.) The wings are without tails, and blueith;
beneath {potted all over with brown, and two {pots behind.
Gmelin.

Barzarus, a fpecies of Tenesrio, of a black colour,
and very gloffy; thorax orbiculated ; anterior margin’ of,
the fhield of the head elevated, This is about the middle
fize: wing-cafes joined. Brander, &c.

_Barsarus, a fpecies of CryptocerHAtus that inha-
bits Barbary. The antenne are ferrated; body hairy,.
obfcure, brafly. Found on compofite flowers. Fabricius.

Barsarus, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of SYNGNATHUS,.
found in European feas. It has neither caudal nor anal
fin; body fix-fided. Gmelin. In the dorfal fin are about.
forty-three rays ; and in the peCtoral fin twelve rays ; body
olive with faint blueish tranfverfe lines.

Barsarus, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Vuurur that
inhabits Barbary, and fome other parts of Africa. _ It is of
a blackifh brown; beneath white, inclining to brown ;
less woolly; toes lead colour; claws brown. Gmelin.
This is vultur barbatus, Brifl. Orn. and bearded vulture of
Edwards and Latham. ’

Barsarus, afpecies of Farco, called by the Englifh
writers Barbary falcon; the cere and legs are yellowish;
body blueifh, fpotted with brown; breaft immaculate;
tail banded. Gmelin. The length of the bird is feven-
pee inches, and, as its name implies, itis a native of Bar-

ary.

BARBARY, in Geography, the northern tra&t of Africa,
is one of the three diftin&t parts of North Africa, accord-
ing to the diftribution of major Rennel, and lying along the
Mediterranean. See Arrica.

Astothe origin of the name of Barbary, we have a
variety of conjeCtures. Some fuppofe, that theRomans
after they had conquered this large traét, gave it the name
by'way of contempt or diflike of the rude and barbarous
manners of the natives. Marmol deduces it from the
Arabic word “Berber,” a name given by the Arabs to the
ancient inhabitants, and which they retain to this day in
many parts of this tract, efpecially along the ridge of the
Great Atlas, where they are very numerous, and which was
given to them by their new invaders on accoust of the bar-
rennefs of their country. Leo Africanus faysthat it was
given to thefe people on account of their ftrange language,
which appeared to them an inarticulate murmur; the Arabic
word “barbar,’’ fignifying “a murmuring found or noife.””

6 Others

Ba Aw

Qthers derive it from © bar” twice repeated, which fignifies
a * defert,” which was its ancient fate ; accordingly, they
fay that the fugitive king Ifrik, from whom it is pretended
the whole African continent derived its name, when clofely
purfued by his enemies in his flight out of Arabia Felix,
and hefitating what courfe to puriue, was directed by fome
of his retinue by thefe words, “ Bar, Bar,” that is “ To the
Defert, To the Defert.”’

The hittory of the word “ Barbar,’’ fays Gibbon (Rom.
* Emp. vol. ix. p. 463:), may be claffed under four periods.
1. In the .time of Homer, when the Greeks and A fiatics
might probably ufe a common idiom, the imitative found of
« Bar-bar,”’ was applied to the ruder tribes, whofe pro-
nunciation was moit harfh, whofe grammar was mott defec-
tive. Koap:s BepBapoPwror (Iliad. ii. 867. with the Oxford
Scholiait, Clarke’s Annotation, and Henry Stephens’s Greek
Thefaurus, tom. i. p. 720.) 2. From the time, at leatt, of
Herodotus, it was extepded to a// the nations who were
itvangers to the language and manners of the Greeks. 3. In
the age of Plautus, the Romans fubmitted to the mfult
(Pompeius Fettus, 1. ii. p. 48. ed. Dacier), and freely gave
themfelves the name of Barbarians. hey infenfibly claim-
ed an exemption for Italy, and her fnbject provinces, and
at length removed the difgraceful appellation to the favage
er hoitile nations beyond the pale of the empire. 4. In
every fenfe, it was due to the Moors; the familiar word was
hersowed from the Latin provincials by the Arabian con-
‘querors, and. has juttly fettled as a local denomination (Bar-
bary) along the northern coaft of Africa.

Barbary is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean fea,
which divides it from Europe, on the eaft by Egypt, on
the fouth by Sahara, Zazra, or the Defert, and on the weit
by the Atlantic ocean. Its utmoft extent from eatt to weit,
that is, from cape Non, on the moit weitern coaft of Morocco,
to the confines of Ecypt, is almoft 37 degrees, that is from
40° W. to 264 E. long. or about 2200 geographical miles.
its breadth from north to fouth is very unequal ; in fome
paits it is not above 6 or 7 degrees; and where it is widefl,
as from cape Non to Tangier, not above 10 degrees. Some
geographers, however, have given it a much greater extent
both in length and breadth, making the former 4000 miles,
and the latter 1200, in order to which eftimate they have in-
cluded the creeks and windings, which are too precarious
and unknown to be depended upon. Others have made
the length from eatt to welt to be only 1200 miles, and
_ the breadth from north to fouth, which is very variable,
320 miles. It commences on the welt at the famous
mount Atlas. called by the Arabs Ayduacal, or Al Duacal,
and inclofesthe ancient kingdoms of Suez and Dela, now
provinces of Morocco, and extends north-eaftward along
the Atlantic coaft to the pillars of Hercules at cape Vink
terre, through the itraits of Gibraltar, and fo on by an
ealtern courie, along the Mediterranean coaft to the city of
Alexandria, which is the fouthern boundary of Egypt,
where it joins to this of Barbary. The principal kingdoms
into which it is now divided, are thofe of Morocco, Iez,
Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli; the kingdom of Telenfin or
‘Tremecen having been incorporated with that of Algiers,
and that of Barca having been reduced to a dependence on
that of Tripoli. (See-each of thefe articles.) Both the
coafts of Barbary, whether watered by the Atlantic
ocean, or by the Mediterranean, are fertile in corn and
palturage; the former being watered by a multitude of
{mall and large rivers which defcend from the great Atlas,
and empty themfelves into the ocean; and the latter ex-
tending along the declivity of a vaft ridge of mountains,
fome of which are coniiderably high, aad f{pread above

BAR

40 leagues into’ the inland, fupplying a number of rivers,
which after many windings through pleafant and fertile val-
lies, difcharge themfelves into the Mediterranean.
the temperature of the climate contributes to {ts fertility.
However the coaft and mountains along the Mediterranean
from the {traits of Gibraltar to Egypt, are rather cold than
hot, and fnow falls at certain times of the year ; and the
tops of fome mountains are covered with it through the
year. The winter in this country commences about the
middle of Oétober, and is often fevere ; the rains commonly
begin about the end of the month, and continue to the end
of January ; in February the weather becomes milder; and
in March the weft and north winds begin to blow and to
produce univerfal verdure. During the whole fpring fea-
fon, wich begins about the latter end of February, the
weather is generally ferene and pleafant, except from the
latter end of April to that of May, when refrefhing fhowers
are abundant ; which, with the concurring heat of the fun,
bring the produGtions of the earth to maturity ; fo that in
the latter end of May, they begin to gather ripe figs and
cherries in Tunis, Algiers, and fome parts of Morocco; in
the middle of July, the apples, pears, and plums are ripe,
and grapes and other later fruits are completely gathered
before the latter end of September. The fummer begins,
according to their reckoning, on the 28th of May, and
lafts till the 29th of Augutt ; during which the heats are
exceffive and dangerous ; their autumn commences on the
27th of Auguft, and ends on the 16th of November, wher
the heat abates ; and their winter begins on the 27th of
November, and ends on the 16th of February. The great-
eft cold begins on or about the r2th of December, and
the greateft heat about the r2th of June. Onmount Atlas,
and the higher lands, they reckon but two feafons, namely,
winter and fummer ; the former lafting from Oétober to
April, when great quantities of {now fall, and the latter
from April to September, when the heat in the vallies is ex-
ceffive.

The principal quadrupeds of the ftates of Barbary are the
horfe, which has of late years very much degenerated, the
afs and mule, the kumrah, produced between an afs anda
cow, the camel, the black cattle, which are fmall and flender,
the goat, and fheep, of which latter there are two {pecies
not known in Europe; the one the broad-tailed fheep, and
the other the fheep of Sahara, as tall as our fallow-deer, and
refembling them in fhape. Each of thefe kinds of quadrupeds
is very numerous and prolific. Several Arabian tribes, whe
can bring no more than three or four hundred horfes into the
field, are poffeffed of more than fo many thoufand camels,
and triple the number of fheep and black cattle. The Arabs
feldom diminifh their flocks by ufing them for food, but live
chiefly wpon bread, milk, butter, dates, or what they receive
in exchange for their wool. Among the quadrupeds that
are not naturally tame and domeiticated, we may reckon the
“‘ bekker-el-wafh,”’ or wild cattle, which Dr. Skaw fuppofes
to be the bubalus of the ancients or bos Africanus of Bello-
nius; and deer, in fize betwixt the red and fallow-deer ; the
fithtall or lerwee, feeming in fize, fhape, and other circum-
ftances, to be the tragelaphus of the ancieuts, or an animal be-
twixt a goat and a deer; the gazell or antilope, of which
there is a {pecies called hdmee, fuppofed by Shaw to be the
ftrepficeros or addace of the ancients. Among quadrupeds
of a lefs tameable nature, we may enumerate the lion and
panther; the faadh or chamus of Pliny, the lefler panther,
and the fhibeardou or Spanifh ginetta; the dubbah or hyena,
the deeb or jackall ; the fiyah-guth or black-eared cat ; the
porcupine ;. the jird, and jerboa. Befides thefe animals, Bar-
bary alfo produces the bear or dabh; the ape or fheddy; the

4H2 ichneu=

Belides,

BAR

ichneumon or tezerdea; the ferret or nimfe ; and the weefel
or fert-el-heile. The mole, likewife, the rabbit, the hare,
and the wild boar, which is the chief prey and food of the
lions, are every where numerous. Among the oviparous
quadrupeds, Dr. Shaw enumerates the land and water tor-
toife, the former being very palatable food, but the latter un-
wholfome ; the warral or guaral ; the dhab or dab; the zer-
moumeah ; the {kink or {cincus ; and the neije-daimah or
booka-fnafh. Of the ferpentine kind, befides the flow-worm
and the {fnake, which are common, the moft remarkable {pe-
cies are the thaibanne, the zurreike or jaculus, the leffah or
Gipfas. Thefe are the only fpecies of the viper kind which
Ds. Shaw difcovered; and he adds, that the northern parts of
Africa do not produce above five or fix diftin@ fpecies
ameng the many that are defcribed by Lucan and Nicander.
Among the birds, he enumerates, befides the eagle kind, the
karaburno, about the fize of our buzzard, the red-legged
crow, or pyrrhocorax; the emfeefy or ox bird ; the boo-onk
cr long-neck ; the burou-rou, one of the larger {pecies of the
horned-ow!; the yarourou ; the fhagarag ; the houbaraa or
houbaary ; the rhaad or faf-faf; the kitawiah or African
lagopus; the Barbary partridge, or red-legged quail ; the
green thrufh; and the Capfa {fparrow. The infects of this
p2rt of Africa are more numerous than curious. The moft
curious fpecies of the butterfly kind is the lappet butterfly,
about four inches from one tip of the wing to the other,
beautifully fireaked with murrey and yellow, and having
near the tail a fpot of a carnation colour. The rareft fpecies
of the lihellz or adderbolts is one, 32 inches long, broad-
tailed, of a rufty colour, with bright {potted wings. The
leaft frequent of the beetle kind, is a fpecies with one horn,
of the colour and fize of achefnut. In the hotter months
of the fummer, the cicade, +:%.£ or grafshopper, as we falfely
tranflate it, is perpetually itunning the ears with its fhrill and
ungrateful noife, from mid-day, to the middle of the after-
noon. The locuits are very numerous, firft appearing to-
wards the latter end of March, and in the middle of April
forming large fwarmis, which even darken the fun, and be-
ginning gradually to difappear in May. Of the ackrab or
{corpion there are feveral {pecies. For other particulars re-
lating to the produ@tions, commerce, cuftoms, &c. of the
ftates of Barbary: See Atciers, Morocco, &c.

The coaft of Barbary was probably firft planted by the
Egyptians. The Phcenicians afterwards fent colonies thither,
and built Utica and Carthage. The Carthaginians foon be-
came powerful and wealthy by trade; and finding the country
divided into many little kingdoms and ftates, either fubdued
or made the princes on that coaft their tributaries, who,
being weary of their yoke, availed themfelves of the oppor-
tunity of afiifting the Romans in fubduing Carthage. The
Romans remained fovereigns of the coaft of Barbary, which
indeed was almoft the whole of their poffeffion, Egypt ex-
cepted, on the continent of Africa, until the Vandals in the
&ith century reduced it under their dominion. The Roman,
or rather the Grecian emperors, having fome time after re-
covered the coaft of Barbary from the Vandals, retained the
dominion of it till the Saracen caliphs made an entire conqueft
of the north of Africa in the feventh century, and divided
the country among their chiefs, of whom the fovereign of
Morocco was the moft confiderable, poffefling the north-weft
part of that country, which, in the Roman divifion, obtained
the name of Mauritania Tingitania, from Tingis or Tan-
gier the capital; and is now ftyled the empire of Morocco,
comprehending the kingdoms or provinces of Fez and Mo-
rocco. In the eighth century, their anceftors made a con-
queit of the greateft part of Spain ; but after the lofs of
Granada, about the year 1492, they were difpoffeffed of this

BAR

country, and compelled by Ferdinand and Ifabella to re-
nounce their religion, or tranfport themfelves to the coaft of
Africa. The exiles confederated with the Mahometan
princes on the coaft of Barbary, and fitted out little fleets of
cruizers, which made depredations on Spain, brought away
many of its inhabitants, and made flaves of them. The
Spaniards affembled a fleet of men of war, invaded Barbary,
took Oran and other places on the coaft of Algiers, and were
proceeding to make an entire conqueit of the country. In
this diftrels, the African princes beiought the affiftance of the
famous Turkifh rover called Barbarofia (fee the article Bar-
BAROsSA’,again{t theChriftians. When he had repulfed their
enemies, he ufurped the government of Algiers, and treated
the people who called him to their fuccour as flaves. His
brother Hayradin purfued the fame meafures with regard to
the people of Tunis ; anda third by fimilar means obtained
the government of Tripoli. In thefe ufurpations they were
fupported by the grand fignior, whe claimed the fovereignty
of the whole coaft, and for fome time they were confidered
as the fubjects of Turkey, and governed by Turkith bafhaws
and viceroys ; but each of thele ftates, or rather the military
men, at length ele¢ted a fovereign out of their own bocy, and
rendered themfelves independent of the Turkifh empire.
The grand fignior has not now fo much as bafhaw or officer
at Algiers; but the dey aéts as an abfolute prince, and is
only liable to be depofed by the foldiery that advanced him.
At Tunis and Tripoli he has ftill bathaws, who are fome
check upon the deys, and receive a fmall tribute. All of
them, however, in cafe of emergency, claim the proteétion of
the Ottoman court, and they itill continue to prey upon the
Spaniards, having never been at peace with them fince the
lofs of Granada. They make prize alfo of all other Chrif-

- tian fhips that have Spanith goods or paffengers on board, and

indeed of allothers that are not-at peace with them. The
Turks of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripok, ate an abandoned
race, confifting of pirates, banditti, and the refufe of Turkey,
who have been forced to leave their feveral countries to avoid
the punifhment of their crimes. See Aucrers, &c. and
alfo Arrica.

Barbary is chiefly inhabited by three forts of people ;
namely, Moors, who are the original natives; the Arabs,
who have overran this country ; and the Turks, who have
fince made themfelves maiters of fome of its beft provinces,
and the feveral kingdoms of Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers,
though under a kind of tribute to, or dependence upon the
Ottoman porte. The Moors, or natives, are for the moft
part Mahometans; as there are few who have not been in-
duced or compelled to embrace Mahometanifmfiace their fub-
jection to the Turks. They are even more f{crupulous ob-
fervers of the Mahometan law than the Turks themfelves ;
and as they are generally even more ignorant, they have
adopted every abfurdity of fuperftition. Among the cor-
fairs of Barbary, no charm, or magic fpell, no expedient,
though ever fo fenfeleis, monftrous, and feemmgly diabolical,
can be invented, to which they wil! not have recourfe, pre-
ferably to any of a more rational nature and efficacy, in
fights, ftorms, or other emergenciesattending their hazardous
profeffion. Their condition is abje€ and miferable to the-
extreme, being crufhed with a heavy load of taxes, and.
treated with the utmoft cruelty by their infulting mafters, or
expofed to the continual inroads of the plundering Arabs._
Such is the ftate of thofe who live at large in the country
upon their agriculture and cattle. Acs for thofe who inhabit
the fea-ports along the coait, they are allowed’ to follow a
variety of handicraft trades and manufaétures, and even to
carry on fome commerce by land and fea. But they are no
lefs oppreffed with taxes and other exactions. he

BAR
The Arabs of Barbary are like thofe of other parts of

Africa; they follow the fame mode of living, are governed
by their own defpotic cheyks, and all of them, except thofe
of the wandering kind, and fuch as live under the dominion
of the emperors of Morocco and Fez, are in fome fort
tributary to the ‘Turks, ever fiace they have made them-
felves matters of the remainder of the Barbary coat. They
are often obliged, by the oppreflion they fuffer, to abandon
their habitations, and to feek fhelter among the moft rocky
and inaccefiible mountains, whither the Turkifh forces can-
not purfue them. Such is the condition of thofe who live
in the country, and along the ridge of mount Atlas; but
there is another and more civilifed clafs of them, who are,
like the Moors, fettled in fome of the towns and villages,
and apply themfelves to agriculture, and efpecially to the
breeding of that race of horfes fo much efleemed, known to
us by the name of barbs, for which their country has been
famous all over Europe. The wild, or wandering Arabs,
who range along the great Atlas and other parts of Barbary,
are warlike, bold, and even deiperate in all their phindering
excurfions; efpecially in their attempts on the large and
rich caravans, which go from Morocco into Egypt. The
Arabs of each clafs are addi€ted to the ftudy of aftronomy
and aitrology, to which they are difpofed by their paftoral
life, which affords much leifure, their clear fly, and natural
fuperftition. They neither fow, reap, plant, travel, buy, or
fell, nor undertake any expedition, without previoufly con-
fulting the ftars, or in other words, their almanacks, or fome
of the makers of them, whether they be Mahometans or
idolaters.

The Turks are of all the inhabitants of Barbary the
feweft in number, and in all refpects the werft of all the
three clafles; being originally no better than a wretched
crew of indigent, loofe, idle, and thievifh fellows, inlifted in
and about Conftantinople, and fent from thence once in
three years to recruit the foldiery. ‘They are wanton and
favage in the exercife of their tyranny over both the Moors
and Arabs. They make oftentatious profeflions of Maho-
metanifm ; but in practice they negle¢t and violate its pre-
cepts in the mofk licentious degree, and are fo notorious for
the diffolutenefs of their manners, that they are abhorred by
all true Mahometans.

The whole tra& of Barbary from one end to the other is
fo excellently fituated for navigation and commerce, fo fer-
tile of every aeceflary of life in its variety of foils and cli-
mates, fo rich in its mines of gold, filver, and other metals
and minerals, fo healthy, and fo populous, that it might
defy the whole foree of Europe or Afia to reduce it, were
its inhabitants as induftrious as they are indolent and knavifh,
and were the feveral nations that inhabit it, or the feveral
powers to which it is fubjeted, united in one common in-
teret. Shaw’s Travels, paflmm. Mod. Un. Hitt. vol. xi.
p- 226, &e. vol. xiv. p. 288. vol. xxxvii. p. 186, &c.

- Barpary Point, the weftern point of the entrance into
the river, &c. of Senegal, on the coaft of Africa, N. lat.
£5 38’. W. long. 15° 30’.

BARBAS, Cape, lies on the coaft of Africa, weft from
Cypriano river, and 26 leagues north from cape Blanco.
N. lat. 22° 15 30”. W. long. 16° qo’.

BARBASOTE, a fea-port town of Africa, in the king-
dom: of Fez, a little to. the weft of Ceuta.

BARBASTELLUS, Vesperriaio, in Zoology, the
tailed bat, with elevated hairy cheeks, and large ears, angu-
lated on the lower part. (Linn. Syft. Nat. Gmelin, p. 48.):
Bartaffelle of Buffon and Pennant. Its length is about two
inches from nofe to tail ;. extent about ten inches; upper
part of the body dufky-brown; under part afh-coloured ;

BAR

forehead funk ; ears broad and long, lower parts of the inner
fides touching each other, and thus concealing the face and
head when viewed in front; nofe fhort ; cheeks full; end of
the nofe flattened; found in France. Slhiaw.

BARBATA, in Entomology, a {pecies of Canruarts
that inhabits Germany. It is of a brown colour; antenne
and fhanks pitchy. Olivier. ‘The down on the body is
changeable to a golden hue.

Baxpara, a f{pecies of Crcapa (Deflexa) of a brown
colour, with greenifh abdomen, anda {nowy-white woolly
tuft at the vent. Fabricius, Gmelin.

BarpaTa, a {pecies of Puavazna that inhabits Bar-
bary. The wings are greyifh, with a brown fpot. in the
middle, and an obfolete band behind. Fabricius, &e;

Barsara, a f{pecies of Pimevia (Helops Fabr.), of a
black colour ; feelers advanced, and with the legs yellowifh.
Inhabits Saxony. Fabricius.

Barsata, in Natural Hiffory, a fpecies of Coratiina,
about three inches in length, that grows on the fhores of
Jamaica, Ellis, in his work on covralline, calls it the rofary
or bead-coralline of Jamaica; it is the bead-band ttring of
Plunknet, and corallina major, nervo craffiori fuciformi inter-
media breviora nectente of Sloane. (Hitt. Jam.) This kind
is {pecifically diftinguifhed according to Pallas, Solander,
and others, by being dichotomous, with cylindrical joints,
the extreme ones bearded at the tips.

Barbara, a fpecies of Nats, about ane third of an inch
in length, that is found in wet places, in woods, and fome-.
times adhering to the /elix planorlis and other frefh-water
{nails. The lateral briftles are difpofed in tufts, and it has
no probofcis. (Muller, Bonnet, &c.) The body is hairy
beneath, and each fegment furnifhed on both fides with four
divergent briftles: eyes two, and of a black colour ; length.
four lines.

Barzata, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Frinciiva that
lives in the mountainous parts of Chili. This bird is about
the fize of a Canary-bird; ofa pale yellow colour, with green
wings, fpotted with black and red; aud has the chin bearded.
It is faid to fing delightiuliy, and to be capable of imitating
the notes of other birds with the greateft facility. The bil
is white at the bafe, and black at the tip; head black; chin
in the young bird yellow, in a f2w months this changes
black, and appears, when full grown, bearded ; this is only
in the male bird, for the female has no beard, and is of a
cinerous colour, with afew fpots. of yellow on the wing.
Molin. Hift. Nat. Chili. Gmel. &c..

Barbara, a f{pecies of Muscicapa, of an olive-brown
colour above; beneath greenifh-yellow; crown yellow ;
rump yellow. A native of Cayenne; called by Buffon
barbichon de Cayenne ;, and by Latham the eanieaad fly-
catcher.

The length of this bird is five inches; bill broad, de-.
preffled, and fhorter than the whifkers. Female greenifh-
black, yellowifh beneath ; breaft brownifh; on the crown an
oblong yellow fpot.

BARBATED Lear, in Botany, is a leaf terminated by.
a bunch of ftrong hairs.

BARBATELLI, Bernarpino, called Pocuerrt, in.
Biography, a painter of hittory, fruit, animals, and flowers,
was the difciple of Ridolfo Ghirlandaio at Florence ; and
from his fchool he went to Rome, where he applied with
fuch affiduity, and his mind was fo engaged by the objects
of his contemplation, that he negleéted the neceflary refrefh-
ments of fleep and food. In painting the fubjects, to which
his attention was principally direéted, he not only imitated
but equalled nature. His touch was free, light, and deli-.
cate, and the colouring of his objects inexpreflibly true f

an

and. befides his merit. ia his apprepriate flyle of painting,
his hiftorical fubiects, from facred and profane authers,
i born at Florence im 1542,

were much acmired. Ele was
and died in y612, Pil
BARBATIA, in +7
towards the Tigris.
to Pliny.
BARBATINA, or Semen ccnfra, in the Alateriz
dica, a feed which is efficacions in extirpating v

Geography, a town of Afia,

belonged to the Arabs, according

cay om
the human body, to which children are chiefly lable; it

of Mufcovy. Thisfeed,
when good, is plump, of an agreeable fcert, and very

green. Special care muft be tkken that it be not dyed
green, and that the feed of fouthern-wood be not fold ir-
ftead of it.

BARBATISSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, near the weftern bank of the Euphrates, on the
fmall river Daradax, fouth-weit of Nicephorium, about

35° 40 lat. : :

BARBATO, in Geography, a river of Spain, which runs
into the Atlantic, between Cadiz and the ftraits of Gibral-
tar, about g leagues fouth of Cadiz.

Barnato, or Puerto Barbato, a {ea-port town of Spain,
gn Andalufia, on the coaft of the Atlantic, near the mouth
of the river Barbato.

BARBATULA, in Jchthyolagy, a fpecies of Cozrris
with fix cirri; head unarmed and compreffed. (Linn.) This
is the bearded loche of Englith writers; enchelyopus, &c.
lein ; cobitis fluviatilis, Ray ; fundulus, Marfd.

«The bearded loche is a native of Europe and Afia; and
is moft frequent in frefh-water ftreams and lakes in moun-
tainous countries. From its habit of lurking at the bottom
of the water, on the gravel, it has been called the ground-
jing ; but the latter name is now given to the fpiny loche, a
fith diftineuifhed from the prefent by having a forked {pine
under each eye, and is that {pecies of cobitis which Gmelin
calls tenia.

« This is a fertile creature ; it {pawns in the month of
March and April, and grows to the length of three or four
inches, but feldom larger. It feeds on aquatic infe&ts ; and,
we are told by Mr. Pennant, is frequent in the ftream near
Amefbury in Wiltfhive, where the fportimen, through frolic,
fwallow it down alive in a glafs of wine.

‘¢ The loche is found in greater abundance in France, and
other parts of Europe, than in England; and thefe fifhes are in
uch high eftimation for their exquifite delicacy and flavour,
that theyare often tranfported with confiderable trouble from
the rivers they naturally inhabit, to waters more contiguous
to the eftates of the great. This is ufually performed in
winter; and it is neceflary to keep the water in continual
agitation the whole way, as the fifh would otherwife die.
Frederic I., king of Sweden, had them brought in this man-
ner from Germany into his country, where they have been
fince naturalized ; a circumitance that leads us to conclud
they were either fcarce, or not originally natives of that
country.

*¢ In the dorfal fin of the fpecimen defcribed, are nine
rays; in the pectoral eleven; ventral eight; anal feven;
and in the tail nineteen.’? Donoy. Brit. Fifhes, vol. i.

ieee

BARBATUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of CeERamByx
tate of a large fize, that inhabits South America.

he thorax is entire; jaws ferruginous, and very hairy ;
antenne of a moderate fize. (Fabricius.) Antenne rough,
extreme joint fmooth and compreffed ; fhell pitchy ; abdo-
zen villous white ; legs black.

DBaxsatus, a fpecies of Scanasaus, that is unasmed,

comes from Perfia, and the bord

BAR

frrooth, and black ;. vert bearded. (Fabricius. )
of India.

Barsarus, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Gosrus, -with
fan-fhaped pectoral fins; twelve rays in the firft dorfal fin,
and thirteen in the fecond. Its native country is unknown.
Ginelin.

Barsatus, a fpecies of Lopuius, of a depreffed form,
with the lower jaw bearded. (Montin. ac. fuec, 1779.) In-
habits the feas in the ‘northern parts of Europe, is about
three inches and a half in length, and is extremely rapacious.
Perhaps not diftinét from Jophius Vefpertilio. Gmelin,

Barsatus, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Farco, of a
whitifh red colour, with the back brown; and a black ftripe
above and beneath the eyes. Gmelin, &c. Vultus barbatus
Linn, Vulturine eagle Aibin,

Of this bird there is a variety of a rufous colour, with the
back black ; head ard neck above rufous white; quill and
tail feathers brown. Vultur aureus Brifl. Vultur boeticus
Ray. Golden vulture Willughby and Latham. A third
variety occurs, falco magnus Gmel. It. in which the cere is
blueifh; legs and body beneath chefnut, intermixed with
white ; tail cinereous.

The firft kind inhabits the Alps; the two latter the
mountainous parts of Perfia. It is larger than the golden
eagle, meafuring rather more than four feet in length; is
very daring, flies in flocks, and will attack men as well as
animals. .

BARBE, or Bars, in Zoology and Commerce, a kind of
horfe brought from Barbary, much efteemed for its beauty,
vigour, and {wiftnefs. Barbs have a long fine neck, not
overcharged with hair, and well divided from the withers;
the head is {mall and beautiful; the ears are handfome and
properly placed; the fhoulders are light and flat; the wi-
thers are thin and well raifed; the back is ftraight and fhort;
the fiank and fides are round, and the belly not too large;
the haunch bones are properly concealed; the crupper is
fomewhat long, and the tail placed rather high; the thigh
is well formed, and rarely flat; the limbs are fine, hand-
fome, and not hairy ; the tendon is prominent, and the foot
well made ; but the paftern is often long. They are of all
colours, but generally grayifh. In their movements they
are apt to be carelefs, and require to be checked. They
are {wift, nervous, light, and make very fine hunters. Thefe
horfes appear to be the moft proper for improving the breed.
The ftature, however, is not fo large as could be wifhed.
They are feldom above four feet eight inches, and never
exceed four feet nine inches, or 14% hands. It is confirmed
by repeated experience, that in France, England, &c. they
produce foals which grow larger than their parents. Of
the Barbary horfes, thofe of the kingdom of Morocco are
faid to be the beft, and next to thefe are the Barbs from
the mountains. The horfes of Mauritania are of an inferior
quality, as well as thofe of Turkey, Perfia, and Armenia.
( Buffon’s Nat. Hift. vol.iii. p. 357.) It is a maxim, that
barbs grow ripe, but never grow old, becaufe they retain
their vigour to the laft, which makes them prized for ftal-
lions; their mettle, according to the duke of Newcattle,
never ceafes but with their lives. It is faid, they were an-
ciently wild, and ran at large in the deferts of Arabia; and
that it was in the time of the cheq Ifhmael, that they firft
began to tame them. It is alfo affirmed, that there are
barbs in Africa that will outrun oftriches ; fuch have been
ordinarily fold, according to Dapper, for 1000 dueats, or
100 camels. They are fed very fparingly, and, as Dapper
fays, with camel’s milk. It is added, that in Barbary they
preferve the genealogy of their Barbs with as much care as
the Europeans do that of their noble families; and es

ec

A native

ee

2 Seigetiaene Baer ee | Upp neers

BAR

the fale of them, they always produce their titles of nobility.
The race of horfes is much degenerated in Numidia; the
Arabs having been difcouraged from maintaining it by the
Turkilh officers, who are fure to become matters of them.
The Tingitanians and Egyptians have had the reputation of
preferving the bett breed both for fize and beauty. Some
of thefe are fixteen hands high, and all of them fhaped, ac-~
cording to their phrafe, like the antelope. The good qua-
lities of a Barbary horfe, befides the fuppofed one of never
lying down, and of ftanding itill when the rider drops his
bridle, are to have a long walk, and to ftop fhort, if re-
quired, in a full career, ‘The Barb is very lazy and negli-
gent in all his motions; he will ftumble in walking upon
the fmoothett ground; his trot is like that of a cow, and his

allop very low and very eafy to himfelf. This fort of horfe,
Picker, is for the moft part finewy, nervous, and excel-
lently winded; it is therefore good for a courfe, if not
overweighted. ‘The mountain barbs, which are the largelt
and ftrongeft, are much efteemed: they belong to the Al-
larbes, who value themfelves much upon them, and are as
fond of them as other nations are, fo that they are not ea-
fily procured. The common barbs have been ufually bought
in Provence and Languedoc in France, at a moderate price;
and many of our perfons of fafhion in England have them
from thence. Barbs, amonegtt us, fall fhort of the {wiftnefs
attributed to them in their native country; this may be ac-
counted for, partly from the fmallnefs and lightnefs of their
riders, and partly from their not being loaded with heavy
faddles and bridles, as in Europe, nor even with fhoes. An
AArab faddle is only a cloth girt round with a pair of light
ftirrups, and a fort of pummel to fuftain them.

Baflard-Barss, thofe defcending from the Englith
mares, covered by barb ftallions, are, by experience, con-
itantly found both better fhaped and fitter for the fad-
dle, and ftronger for fervice than their fires. Phil. Tranf,
N° to05.

Bare, Sr. in Geography, a town of Mexico, in New
Bifcay, in the vicinity of which are very rich filver mines;
diftant 500 miles N. W. from the city of Mexico. N. lat.
26° 10’. W. long. 110° 5’.

Barse, Sr. //lands of, lie off the mouth of Green bay,
and to the eaft of cape Den, or the fouth point of White
bay in the Marchigonis river; on the eaft coaft of New-
foundland, and to the north of cape Bonavifta.

Barse, or Barbet, inthe Miliary Art. To fire en Barbe,
is to fire the cannon over the parapet, inftead of through
the embrafures ; in which cafe the parapet muft not be more
than three feet and a half high.

Barse, or BArve, is alfo an old term for the armour of
the horfes of the ancient knights and foldiers, who were ac-
coutred at all points.

Della Crufca fays, the barde is an armour of iron or lea-
ther, wherewith the neck, breaft, and fhoulders of the horfe
are covered.

BARBEAU, in Geography, a river of Canada, which
runs into the Utwas. N. lat. 45° 15’. W. long. 76° 20’.

BARBED, in Heraldry. ‘The five petals’ or leaves which
appear on the outfide of a full blown rofe are called darbs;
and are emblazoned thus: a rofe gules barbed and feeded pro-
per, the rofe is red, the bards green, and the feeds yellow
or grey.

Barsep Arrow, fignifies an arrow whofe head is
pointed of an angular form, and jagged. See Prater of
Heraldry.

Barsep Horfe is a horfe barbed at all points, that is, a
war-horfe completely armed, furnifhed, and accoutred.

__ Barven and Creffed, a term uled in blazoning to exprefs

BAR

the comb and gills of a cock. The ufual term in the Eng-
lifh blazon is combed and wattled.

BARBE’E, or Barnep Cross, is by fome called crofs
cramponée and tournée. See PLare of Heraldry.

BARBEL, in Jchthyology. See Cyerinus Barnus.

BARBELA, or Venera, in Geography, a river of Afri-
ca, in Congo, which joins the Zaire near its mouth,

BARBELICOTA, in Lcclefaftical Hiflory, an ancient
fect of Gnottics, {poke of by Theodoret. The doétrine of
the Barbelicotz was, that one of the zons, poflefled of im-
mortality, had commerce with a virgin fpirit named Barbe-
4th, who demanded of him, firft prefcience, then incorrup-
tibility, and laftly eternal life, all which were granted to
her: that being one day in a gayer humour than ordinary,
fhe conceived, and afterwards brought forth light, which
being perfeéted by the unétion of the f{pirit, was called
Chriff; the child Chrift defired to have underftanding,
vey, and obtained it; after which, underitanding, reafon,
incorruptibility, and Chrift, united together; and from
their union arofe autogenes, avioyen. To thefe fables
they add divers others. They were alfo denominated Bar-
bariani.

BARBELLA, Emanvet, of Naples. It would be
unjuft not to beftow a few words on this pleafing and pecu-
liar player on the violin of the old {chool. The father of
this fingular but worthy and imoffenfive character, was am
eminent performer on the violin, and leader of the opera
band at Naples in the beginning of the laft century, during
the life of Corelli, when his’ {cholar Geminiani arrived in
that city from Rome. (See Coretyi, and GeminiAnt.)
On the firft hearing of the younger Barbella, he furprifed no
one who had heard Giardini and other famous violinifts of
the new {chools.. He was not young, indeed, when the
parallel was drawn, and folo playing was difregarded at
Naples, where vocal compofition and finging were chiefly
cultivated in the confervatories, and patronized by the pub~
lic, fo that teaching and orcheftra playing were Barbella’s
chief employment and fupport ; and for the latter he was ill
qualified by the foftnefs of his tone, and the fhortnefs of
his bow. He performed, however, moft admirably the fa-
mous Neapolitan air, which the common people conftantly
play at Chriftmas to the virgin. Barbella executed it with
a drone kind of bagpipe bafe, in a very humorous though -
delicate manner, But as a folo player, though his tone
was very even and fweet, it was fomewhat languid and in-
ferior in force to that of Nardini of the fame fchool, and
indeed to that of feveral others then in Italy; but he knew
mufic well, had much fancy in his compofitions, with a
tinéture of not difagreeable madnefs.

He was moft remarkable for his fweet and infinuating
manner of playing Calabrefe, Loccefe, and Neapolitan airs,
and among the refta humorous piece compofed by himfelf,
which he calls Tinna Nonna; it is a nurfery tune, or Lu/-
laby, excellent in its way, and with his expreflion, was ex-
tremely captivating.

Barbella was the moft obliging and beft-natured of mor-
tals; his temper has been faid to be as foft and {weet as the
tone of his violin. :

Ina correfpondence with the author of this article, who
had requefted of him an account of the Neapolitan {chool
of mufic; and above all, of his own ftudies ; as his anfwer
concerning himfelf was fhort and charaéteriltic, we fhall here
infert a tranflation of it.

«‘ Emanuele Barbella had the violin placed in his hand
when he was only fix years and a half old, by his father
Francefco Barbella. After his father’s deceafe he tool¢

leffons of Angelo Zaga, till the arrival of Pafquilino Bini,
a {cheles

BAR

afcholar of Tartini, in Naples, under whom he tudied for
a confiderable time, and then worked by himfelf. His firft
inftructor in counterpoint was Michele Gabbalones but this
matter dying, he ftudied compofition under the inftruGicns
of Leo, till the time of his death ; and pleafantly adds:
Non per quefto, Barbella, é un vero afino che non fa niente:
“ Yet, notwith{tanding thefe advantages, Barbella is a mere
ais, who knows nothing.”

This modeft and ingenious mufician, and true follower
of Tartini’s principles, died at Naples 1773- His worthy
difciple, fiznor Raimondi, with more force in public, has
the fame fweetnefs of tone and temper in private.

BARBER, a perfon who makes a trade of fhaving,
and dreffing the wigs and hair of other men for money.
There were no barbers at Rome before the year A. U.C.
454. Varro reports that Ticinius Mena brought them thi-
ther from Sicily. The barbers’ fhops very {oon became
the refort of idlers and goflips. To this purpofe, Horace,
in exprefling what was public and notorious, fays, that all
the barbers knew it:

«* Omnibus et lippis notum et tonforibus efle.”

Befides curling the hair, and fhaving the beard, the an-
cient barbers alfo trimmed the nails. Thus Plautus (Au-
Tul. ii. 4. 33-): “ Quin ipfi pridem tonfor ungues demferat ;??
and Tibullus (1.9. 11.):

“ Quid ungues

Artificis doGa fubfecuiffe manu ??
Anciently a lute or viol, or fome fuch mufical inftrument,
was part of the furniture of a barber’s fhop, which was
then frequented by perfons above the ordinary rank, who

reforted thither for the cure of wounds, or to undergo fome.

chirurgical operations, or as it was called to be trimmed, a
word which fignified either fhaving or cutting and curling
the hair. Thefe, and alfo letting of blood, were the an-
sient occupations of the barber furgeon. The mufical in-
ftruments in his fhop were for the amufement of waiting cuf-
tomers, and anfwered the end of a new!paper, with which
it has been ufual for fuch to entertain themfelves. The ori-
gmt of the “ barber’s pole” has been the fubje€t of various
conjectures among etymologifts. Some have fuppofed it to
have been derived from the word poll or head; but the true
intention of the party-coloured fiaff was to fhew that the
mafter of the fhop praétifed furgery, and could breathe a
vein as well as take off the beard; fuch a ftaff being to
this day, by every village practitioner, put into the hand of
a perfon undergoing the operation of phlebotomy. The
white band, which encompaffes the ftaff, was defigned to
reprefent the fillet, thus elegantly turned about it.

‘The barbers were incorporated with the furgeons of Lon-
don, but not to praétife furgery, except drawing of teeth, &c.
32 Hen. VIII. c. 42.; but feparated by 18 Geo. II. c. 15.

Barzers, Company of. See Company.

Barser Sand, in Geography, lies within the fands which
form Yarmouth roads, and parallel with the northern part
of them, and of the coait, beginning off the tewn of Caf-
tor. There is within it a good channel along the fhore, in
five, fix, or feven fathoms, till you go out north at Win-
terton Nefs.

BARBERAIN, or Barserian, an ifland off the coat
of the ifland of Ceylon, in the Eaft Indies, about 15 leagues
fouth of Columbo on the weftern fide; in N. lat. 6° Zible
and E. long. 80°.

BARBERANO, a town of Italy, ta the ftate of the
church, and province of Patrimonio; fix miles from Bieda.

BARBERINI, Marrero, in Biography. See Ursan
VIII.

BARBERINO, Francis Da, an Italian poet, was

5 BAR

born in 1264 at Barberino, a caftle of Valdeffa, and edu-
cated for the profeffion of the civil and canon law at Padua
and Bologna. Upon his removal to Florence in 1294, he
ferved two bifhops in the way of his profeffion, and made
frequent journeys to the papal court at Avignon, He was
honoured with the degree of doGor of laws by Clement V.;
and attended the general council at Vienna in 1311. Amidtt
his profeflional purfuits, he cultivated poetry, and publifhed
a work, intitled, “ Documenti d’Amore,”’ which treats of
moral philofophy, and confifts of twelve parts, each of
which has for its fubjeét fome virtue and its rewards. His
ityle is not diftinguifhed by eafe or elegance, but favours
too much of Provengal poetry; and yet the author has
been reckoned amoug the good writers and founders of the
language. This poem was firft printed at Rome in 1640,
adorned with fine figures. Another work, in verfe, on the
Manners of Women, is preferved in MS. in the Vatican.
Barberino died of the plague at Florence in the year 1348.
Gen. Dict. Nouv. Diét. Hittor.

BarBeERino, in Geography, atown of Italy, in the duchy
of Tufcany, feated on a mountain, 16 miles fouth of Florence.

Barserino is alfo a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Tufcany, fituated at the foot of the Apennines, on the fide
of the river Sieve, four miles weft of Scarperia. N, lat.
43° 40’ E. long. 12° 15’,

BARBERNOLA, or Braxc, Cape, lies on the coatt
of Afia, in N. lat. 38° 9, and E. long. 26° 27’.

BARBERRY, in Botany and the Materia Medica. See
Berseris.

BARBEREUX, in Geography, a'Pown of France, and
principal place of a diftri@ in the department of the Cha
rente. It hasa manufacture of linen cloth, and near it is
a medicinal {pring The place contains 1984 and the canton
12,720 inhabitants: the territory includes 235 kiliometres
and 21 communes. N. lat. 45° 28’. W. long. 0° 157,

BARBESOLA, or Barzesuta, in Ancient Geography,
a river of Spain, in the country of the Baituli. Ptolemy
and Pliny. ;

Barsesoua, Barbefula, or Barbeful, a town of Spain,
in the country of the Baftuli, fituated on the ftrait between
Carteia and Tranfdn@ia. Ptolemy, Pliny, and Mela.

BARBET, in Zoology. Buffon calls the water-dog of
Pennant, canis aquaticus of Gmelin, &c. le grand barbet 5
and canis minor Gmel. le petit barbet. Hitt. Nat.

Barner, in Ornithology, the Englith name of a genus of
birds in Latham’s Synopiis, correfponding with that of duc-
co, Linn. See Bucco.

BARBETICUM Jucum, in Ancient Geography, a pro-
montory of Spain, in Betica.

BARBETS, in Geography, the name of the inhabitants
of feveral vallies in Piedmont, particularly thofe of Lucern,
Angrona, Perufa, and St. Martin.

BARBEYRAC, Cuartes, in Biography, an eminent |

phyfician of France during the feventeenth century, was
the fon of a gentleman of Cerefte in Provence. He ftudied
phyfic at Aix and Montpelier, and in 1649 took his doétor’s
degree in the univerfity of the latter place, where he fettled;
and in 1658, became a candidate for the medical profeffore
fhip, but on account of his being a proteftant, he was ine-
ligible.. In the difputations on this occafion he acquired
great reputation, and his advice was fought in difficult cafes
by perfons both in his native country and alfo in foreign
kingdoms. He declined the office of being phyfician to
Mademoifelle d’Orleans, preferring liberty to the fhackles
of a court; and at Montpelier, where he refided, he was
attended in his vifits by many ftudents to whom he gave
clinical inftruétions. His praétice was diftinguifhed by its

8 fimplicity,

BAR °

fimplicity and energy; and he introduced many valuable re-
forms into the ftate of medicine in that country. He was
no lefs eminent for his condefcenfion and liberality than for
his medical reputation, and he alike vilited the poor and
the rich... The celebrated Mr. Locke was particularly ac-
quainted with him at Montpelier, and teftified to his honour,
that he never knew two men more fimilar in their manners
and opinions than Barbeyrac and his friend Sydenham.
After an uninterrupted courfe of praétice for 50 years, he
died of a fever in 1699, in his 7oth year, leaving a fon of
his own profeffion, and two daughters. The only works
he publifhed were “ Traités nouveaux de Medicine, conte-
nant les Maladies de la Poitrine des Femmes, et quelques
autres Maladies felon les nouvelles Opinions,”” 12mo. 1654;
and « Queftiones Medic duodecim,” gto. 1658. A work,
intitled, «‘ Medicamentorum Conititutio, &c.”’ publifhed in
1751, is afcribed to him upon uncertain authority, accord-
ing to the editor M. Farjon. Haller. Bibl. Med. Pract.
Gen. Biog.
e»Barseyrac, Joun, the nephew of the preceding,
was born in 1674 at Beziers, whence he withdrew to Lau-
fanne in 1686. His father defigned him for the profeffion
of theology, but his own inclination led him to the itudy of
jurifprudence; and he became eminent in that particular
ranch of it which comprehends the law of nature and na-
tions. After teaching the Belles Lettres in the French col-
lege at Berlin, he was appointed in 1710 to the new pro-
fellorihip of law and hiitory founded at Laufanne by the
magiltrates of Berne, which he occupied feven years. In
1717 he was removed to the chair of law at Groningen,
and this ftation he long occupied with general applaute.
His works are numerous and valuable. His French tranfla-
tion of Puffendorf’s «* Law of Nature and Nations,’’ and
his treatifes «* On the Duties of a Man and a Citizen,”’ and
on “ Grotius on the Rights of War and Peace,’’ were en-
riched with learned prefaces and notes, which enhanced the
value of the originals. He alfo tranflated two difcourfes of
Noodt, ** On the Power of the Sovereign,’’ and “ On Li-
berty of Confcience ;’’ a treatife of Bynkerfhoek “* On the
civil and criminal Powers of Ambafladors ;?’ fome of « Til-
lotfen’s Sermons ;?? and Cumberland’s Latin treatife « On
Natural’ Laws.””? Barbeyrac was alfo the author of feveral
original works. But that which excited the greateft atten-
tion was his “* Treatife on the Morality of the Fathers,”
gto. 1728, in reply to the Benedictine Ceillier’s « Apology
for the Fathers,”? occafioned by Barbeyrac’s free itnctures
on them in his preface to the tranflation of Puffendorf. His
s¢ Treatife on Gaming,” in two volumes, 8vo. was printed
in 1709; his ** Defence of the Rights of the Dutch Eatt
India Company againit the Pretentions of the People of the
Auftrian Netherlands,’’ in 1725; and The Hiftory of an-
cient Treaties difperfed in Greek and Latin authors to the
time of Charlemagne,” fol. in 1739. He alfo inferted lite-
rary and critical remarks in different journals, and pubhithed
fome academical difcourfes. He clofed a hfe of learned la-
hour and moral worth about the year 1747. Nouv. Dict.
Hittor. ~

BARBI, in Natural Hiflory, afpecies of Ecuinoruyn-
cHus, of an ovate fhape, yellow colour, fafciated ; neck
long, white, cylindrical ; and cyatliform (glafs or pot-
thaped) at the end, found in the inteftina of the barbel,

BARBICAN. See Barzacan.

Barsican, in Ornithology, the name of the Gmelinian
bacco dubius, or doubtful barbet, in Buffon’s Hitt. Birds.
Barbu is alfo a name given by that writer to all the birds of
the bucco genus, which he defcribes.

BARBICANAGE, Barzicanacivm, in our O/d Writ-

Vou. ITI.

BAR

ers; money given for the maintenance of a barbican, or
watch-tower ; or a tribute towards repairing or building a
bulwark. m

BARBICON (Barsicon pe Cayenne), in Ornitholozy,
the name of the Mu/cicapa barbata of Gmelin in Buffon’s
Hitt. of Birds.

BARBICORNIS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Bren-
tus that inhabits New Zealand. It is cylindrical, with
the beak very long and bearded beneath: Wwing-cafes elon-
gated and clevated. Gmelin. This is Curcutio barbicor-
nis of Fabricius Spec. Inf. 171.

Barsicornis, a fpecies of Cerameyx, with the thorax
{pinous; four firlt joints of the antenne bearded with
black ; body teitaceous, variegated with black. Linn. A
native of Afia.

Barzicornts, a {pecies of Cimex (Reduvius) that in-
habits Sierra Leone. This is of a black colour, with the
thorax and bafe of the abdomen olive. Fabricius. Oby/.
‘The thorax is fometimes, though rarely, black, and the an-
tennz in one fex is bearded.

Barsicorntis, a fpecies of Tripura, of a black colour;
antennz plumofe, awd fimple at the tip. Inhabits Europe.
This is a {mall {pecies. Gmelin.

BARBIER D’Aucour, John, in Biography, a coun-
fellor, and man of letters, was bora of meaa parentage, in
1641, at Langres, and educated at Dijon. On his removal
to Paris, he was entered at the bar, and became a counfel-
lor of the parliament of Paris. He diftinguifhed himfelf by
the excellence of his * faQums” or written pleas ; but being
obliged, either through want of prefence of mind or failure
of memory, to ftop at his firft public pleading, he renounced
the practice of his profeffion. In 1677 the mizifter Col-
bert appointed him preceptor to his eldeft fon, and in 1683,
he was eleGted into the French Academy. Colbert con-
ferred on him fome lucrative employments; “but, on his death,
he was under a neceflity of returning to the bar, and gained
great reputation by the defence of Le Brun, the domettic
of a lady of Paris, who had been falfely accufed of mur-
dering his miftrefs. He was foon after carried off by an
inflammation of the lungs in 1694. His circumftances were
fo reduced, that when he was vilited, im his Jaf illaefs, by
a deputation from the academy, which exprefled concern at
finding him fo ill lodged, he replied, ** It is my confelation,
and a very great one it is, that I leave no heir to my
wretchednefs.’? When the abbé Choifi, who was one of
them, faid, ¢* You leave a name that will never die;”’ “Alas!
(replied D’Aucour) I do not flatter myfelf in that refpe&;
if my works have any intrinfic value, I have been wrong in
the choice of my fubjeéts; 1 have employed myfelf in cri-
ticilm, which has no long duration ; for if the work that is
criticized, fhould fall into contempt, the criticiim fails with
it, fince it is immediately perceived to be ufelefs; but if, in
{pite of the criticifm, the book maintains its ground, the
criticifm is equally forgotten, becaufe it is thought to be
unjult.”” Barbier was in early life embroiled with the Je-
fuits, who by way of contempt called him < Sacrus,”’ in
confequence of his having inadvertently ufed that word in-
ftead of * Sacer,”’ in his reply to one of them. Refenting
this offence, he made the fociety and its writers the objeGs
of his attacks; and he gained great credit as an ingenious
writer by a work, intitled, “ Sentimens de Cleanthe fur les
Entretiens d’Arifte et d’ Eugene, par le Pere Bouhours, Je-
fuite,”? 12mo. 2 vols, 1671, 1672. This work has been
often cited as a model of refined criticifin, equally juft and
witty ; and Bouhours could ‘not fupport himfelf againft

it. Some other pieces of this author againft the Jefuits,
abounding with coarfe raillery, did him no honour. In his
41 two

BAR

two fatires, written in verfe againft Racine, he was unfuc-
cefsful. Befides his «¢ faGtums”’ for Le Brun, he publifhed
fome others. Nouv. Dia. Hittor.

Barpier, Mary ANNE, was a native of Orleans, and
rauked among the dramatic writers of France. Her trage-
dies, aud a comedy in verfe, were reprefented at Paris, and
printed in one volume, 12mo. The fubjeéts are well chofen,
but the charaéters, and thofe of the men efpecially, are
without force, and the flyle is diffufe and profaic. Mad.
Barbier was intimate with the abbé Pellegrini, who is faid
to have beftowed, at leaft, corre€tion on her works. She
died in an advanced ‘age at Paris, about the year 1745.
Nouv. Di&. Hiflor.

Barger, Miflre/s, fix appeared as anew Englifh finger,
on the revival of the opera of Al/mahide in 1711, while
gueitions were afked in Italian, and anfwered in Englith,
and e¢ contra. Her timidity on firft appearing on the ftage,
gave birth to an admirable Spe€tator (No. 131), in which
Addifon apologizes for, and commends, diffidence and
ity with a fympathetic zeal and fenfibility. It is well
known, that this excellent writer, with all his learning and
abilitics, was never able to perform his part in public asa
fpeaker, when he was fecretary of ftate and in parliament,
long after this paper was written; and here, by a kind of
precognition, he extenuates his fault before it was committed.
With refpe& to Mrs. Barbier’s diftrefs on her firft facing an
audience on the ftage, Mr. Addifon has put it in the moft
amiable light poflible: ‘ this {udden defertion of onefelf,”’
fays he, “ fhews a diffidence, which is not difpleafing ; it
implies at the fame time the greateft re{peét to an audience
that can be: it is a fort of mute eloquence, which pleads
for their favour much better than words can do ; and we
find their generofity naturally moved to fupport thofe who
are in fo much perplexity to entertain them. I was ex-
tremely pleafed,” continues he, ‘ with a late inftance of
this kind at the opera of Almahide, in the encouragement
gives to 3 young finger, whafe more than ordinary concern
on her firft appearance, recommended her no lefs than her
agreeable voice and juft performance.” This lady was a
native of England, who continued to fing at the opera fe-
veral years, and afterwards was a favourite concert and play-
houfe finger, till the year 1729.

In the year 1717, it feems as if fhe hada little vanquifhed
her bafhfulnefs in private, however it may have incommoded
herin public; for fhe had muttered courage fufficient to elope
from her father’s houfe with a perfon that was /u/pecdled to
be of a different fex. During her abfence, Mr. Hughes
wrote the following pleafant verfes :

«© O yes !—hear all ye beaux and wits,
Muficians, poets, ’{quires, and cits!
All, who in town or country dwell,
Say, can you tale or tidings tell,
Of Tortorella’s hafty flight?
Why in new groves fhe takes delight ;
And if in concert, or alone,
The cooing murmurer makes her moan ?

Now learn the marks by which you may
Trace out and ftop the lovely ftray.

Some wit, more folly, and no care,
Thoughtlefs her conduét, free her air ;
Gay, {cornful, fober, indifcreet,

In whom all contradi@ions meet,

Civil, affronting, peevifh, eafy,

Form’d both to charm you and difpleafe you ;
Much want of judgment, none of pride,
Modith her drefs, her hoop full wide ;

Brown fkin, her eyes of fable hue,

Angel when pleafcd, when vexed a fhrew.

5

meade

BAR

Genteel her motion when fhe walks,
Sweetly the fiags, and loudly talks ;
Knows all the world, and its affairs,

Who goes to court, to plays, to prayers,
Who keeps, who marries, fails, or thrives,
Lead honeft or difhonett lives ;

What money match’d each youth or maid,
And who was at each mafquerade ;

Of all fine things in this fine town,

She’s only to herfelf unknown.

By this defcription, if you meet her,
With lowly bows and homage greet her ;
And if you bring the vagrant beauty
Back to her mother and her duty,

A fk for reward a lover’s blifs,

And, if fhe’lldet you, take a kifs;
Or more, if more you with and may
Try if at church the words fhe’ll fay,
Then-make her, if you can—obey.

BARBIERI, Giovanni Francesco, called Guercina
Da Cento, an em nent hiftorical painter, was born at Centos
a village near Bologna, in 1590; and was at firft the dif-
ciple of Benedetto Gennari, but afterwards ftudied for fome
time in the {chool of the Caracci. He preferred the ftyle
of Caravageio to that of Guido or Albano, and conceived
it impofible to imitate nature truly, without the affiftance
of ftrong lights and fhadows; and on this principle, his
light was admitted into his painting room from above. By
this oppofition of his ftrong lights and fhadows he unquef-
tionably gave fuch force to his pictures, that few, thofe of
Caravaggio excepted, equal them in their effect. His prin-
cipal attention was employed in acquiring perfection of co-
louring, from a perfuafion that few perfons are qualified to
difcera the elevation of thought which eontlitutes the ex-
cellence of a compofition, or are perhaps capable of examin-
ing even the corre€tnefs of any part of a painting ; whereas
every eye, and even every imperfect judge of a picture, may
be fenfibly affected by the form and beauty of the colouring.
His talte of defign was natural, eafy, and often grand, but
without any extraordinary fhare of elevation, correctnefs, or
elegance. The airs of his heads are often deftitute of dig-
nity, and his local colours of truth: neverthelefs his colours
poffefs great union and harmony, although his carnations
are not very frefh ; and in all his works there is a powerful
and pee imitation of life, which will for ever render
them eftimable. Towards the decline of life, obferving
that the clearer and brighter ftyle of Guido and Albano
had attraéted the admiration of all Europe, he altered his
manner even againft his judgment. But he apologized for
this conduét by declaring that he had formerly painted for
fame, and with a view of pleafing the judicious; but he
now painted to pleafe the ignorant, and to enrich himfelf,
The moft capital performance of Guercino is the hiftory
of St. Petronilla, which is confidered as one of the orna-
ments of St. Peter at Rome. He died in 1666, Pilk-
ington.

Barsiert, PAavto Antonio, Da Cento, the father of the
preceding artift, was born at Cento in 1596, and felected
for his fubjeéts fruits, flowers, infeéts, and animals, which
he painted after nature with a lively tint of colours, with
great tendernefs of pencil, and a ftrong charaéter of truth
and life. Pilkington. .

BARBILLON, in Jchthyology, a name given by Brouf-
fonet, (AG. Parif.) to the Sqarus Cirratus of
Gmelin. :

BARBING is fometimes ufed in Ancient Statutes for
fhearing. Cloth is not. to be exported till it be barbed,
rowed, and fhorn. 3 Hen. Vil.c. 11.

BAR..

BAR
BARBIROSTRIS; in Entomology, a fpevits of Cur-

cuxto, found in China and fome other parts of Afia. It
is black ; fnout bearded; anterior legs tridentated. Fabri-
cius. Donov. Inf. China, &c.

BARBITANI Montes, in actent Geography, moun-
tains of India, on this fide the Ganges, in which accord-
ing to Ammianus Marcellinus, are the {prings of many ri-
vers that flow into the Indus.

_ BARBITON, an ancient mofical inftrument, of which
nothing is known but the name ; and Rouffeau has not even
ventured to give us that. Complaints are frequently made
of the darknefs in which critics, commentators, and hifto-
rians leave the fubject of ancient mufic; which none have
more caufe to Jament than thofe who have {pent the moft
time aud labour in its iavefligation. But as no record or
memorial has been found, which afeertains the invention,
form, or fpecies of inftrument called the Zerditen, would mere
conjecture fatisfy the complainants? Meffrs. Framery and
Cattilhon, more courageous than the citizen of Geneva, have
told us, inthe new Encyclopedie, all that is pretended to be
known about it; though the former bewins by telling us that
it is an iuftrumeat about which nothing is known, The an-
cients and moderns have frequently confounded it with the
lyre. Dacicr conjeftured that it was a ftringed inftrument ;
andderivingits name from darumiton, which implies thick irings
of flaxen thread, he concludes that it was an inftrumeat with
thick itrings. It is certain that flax was in ufe for flrings to
rufical (ae before the art was knows of making
them of the bowels of animals. Horace calls this initru-
ment Lefbian, Le/boum barbiton, ode i. lib. 1 5 and 32 of
the fame book, Le/bio primum modulate civi, ‘* Thou, O bar-
biton, firft touched by a citizen of Lefbos,’”? meaning Al-
cus, to whom he afcribes the invention. But, fays M.
Caftelhon, we may conclude from what Mufonius afferts
‘of this inftrument, in his treatife « De Luxu Grecorum,”
that they made a kind of concert with the pedis of the
Lydians. (See Pacris.) He affures us that Terpander was
the inventor of it. Julius Pollux alfo calls it barbiton ba-
rumiton. Athenzus relates that they likewife called it Jer-
mus, and attributes the invention to Anacreon. We hepe
the grumblers will be perfectly enlightened by this clear,
confiftent, and fatisfadory account.
' BARBLE, or Barset, in Jchthyolscy. See Barsus.

Barsces, inthe Aanege, knots of fuperfluous fleth grow-
ing in the channels of a horfe’s mouth ; that is, in the inter-
cad which feparate the bars ; and obftruct his eating.

Thefe are alfo ealled dardes ; and obtain in black cattle
as well as horfes.

For the cure, they caft the beaft, take out his tongue,
and clip off the barbles with a pair of {ciffars, or cut them
with a fharp knife ; others choofe to burn them off with a
hot iron.

BARBONI, in Jchthyology, a name formerly given by
many to the Muutus Baasarus ; which fee.

BARBONNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
‘department of the Marne, and chief place of a canton in
the diftri& of Sezanne, 14 league fouth from Sezanne.

BARBORA, an ifland pac, oppofite to the king-
dom of Adel, fo called after a town of the fame name upon
‘the neighbouring continent. This ifland, which is almeft
contiguous to the Terra Firma, is very fertile, and produces
plenty of corn, fruits, and cattle. ‘The inhabitants are ne-
groes clothed in the fafhion of the natives of Adel, induf-
trious in trade, and great breeders of cattle, for which the
‘foil affords excellent pafturage. The produce of this iflaad
is exported into other conntries. The city of Barbora lies

BAR

at the bottom of a convenient bays and was for a long
time a kind of rival in commerce with Zeila, and no lels
the place of refort for foreign merchants. It is fituated
over againft the city of Aden, and made once a confiderable
figure, bunt was plundered and burnt by the Portuguefe
fleet in the year 1518; but the inhabitants, being previoully
apprized of their defign, conveyed themfelves and their mott
valuable effects away.

BARBOSA, Axtas, or Ayres, in Biography, a native
of Aveiro in Portugal, and one of the reftorers of claffical
literature in his own country and in Spain. Having com-
menced his education at alata under many difideans
tages, he purfued his ftudies, particularly that of Greek,
which he cultivated with great ardour, at Florence, under
Angelo Politiano. After his return to Salamanca in 1494»
he taught there for 20 years, in connection with Antony de
Lebrixa, who, with Andrew de Refenda, was alfo ove of
the principal promotei® of ufeful learaing in Spain. —Bar-
bofa dire&ted {pecial attention to poetry, and publifhed a
fmall volume of Latin poems, which were commended for
the harmonious ftru€ture of the verfe. He was afterwards
employed for feven years as preceptor to the two p-+inces of
Portugal, Alphonfo and Henry ; and then retired to do-
meitic life, in which he died at an advanced age in 1540.
Befides the poems abovementioned, Barbofa publifhed {fe-
veral works, which contributed at the time to the progrefs
of literature, but are now forgotten ; {uch as, « Commens-
taries on the poem of Arator,’? “* Quodlibetice Quettio-
nes,”’ ** De Profodia,” &c. Moreri. Nouv. Dict. Hif-
tor.

Barwosa, Perse, a celebrated lawyer, was born at
Viana, in Portugal, and became firit profeffor in the uni-
verfity of Coimbra. Although he occupied feveral impor-
tant itations, and was appointed by Philip II. of Spain,
when he became mafter of Portugal, one of the four coun-
fellors of the council of ftate, and afterwards chancellor of
the kingdom, he profecuted his profeffional. ftudies ; and,
in 1595, he publifhed an ample commentary on the article
in the * Digeits,’? on the recovery of dowry after the dif-
folution of marriage. In 1613, the works left by him in
MS., which were commentaries on the ‘ Digetts,’’ art.
“ On Judgments,’ were publifhed by his nephew, and fo
well received, as to be reprinted at Frankfort in 1715.
Other pofthumous treatifes were publifhed at Lyoas ia
1662. Moreri. Nouv. Di&. Hittor.

Barzsosa, EmManven an eminent Portuguefe lawyer,
was born at Guimaranes, and was king’s counfellor for the
province of Alentejo. In 1618, he publithed a treatife res
lative to contracts, laft wills, and crimes, according to the
Spanifh and Portuguefe law. In 1.638, he publifhed a work,
“ De Poteflate Epifcopi ;”? and in that year he died, aged
near ninety years. Moreri. Nouy. Dict. Hitt.

Barsosa, Avcustin, fon of the preceding, ftudied
civil and canon law under his father, and afterwards at
Rome, with inceffant affiduity, fearching libraries in the day,
aud compofiag in the night. It is related of him, that he
received a fcrap of manu{cript wrapping fome falt fish, which
he purchafed, and that he refcucd the remainder from 4
fimilar ufe ; and thus formed the work * De Officio Epif-
copi,” which he corrected and publifhed in his own name,
A prejudice was thus conceived againft_ him, and feveral of
his treatifes on the canon law were afcribed to his father.
He was, however, a very ftudious nian; and on his return
to Spain in 1632, he purfued the fame kind of life whick
he had paffed at Rome. His fkill in ecclefiaftical caufes oc»
cafioned his promotion, in 1648, to the bifsopric of Ugen-

412 tax

BAR

to, in the territory of Otranto, Having been confecrated
at Rome in the following year, he returned to Ugento with
a view of performing the duties of his office, but died
there within a few months. His works were numerous,
and were printed at Lyons in 1716 and the following year,
in 16 tomes folio. Moreri. Nouv. Di&. Hiftor.

BARBOSTHENES, in Ancient Geography, a mountain
of Greece in the Peloponnefus, 10 miles from Lacedemon.
Livy. :

BARBOT, Penn.; Barsora, Rondel ; in /chthyology,
fynonymous names of the {pecies of Gavus called Lora
by Linnzus.

BARBOTES Rocks, in Geography, -are two rocks
which are about half a league N.N.W. from the Calmar-
diers, and appear every tide.

BARBOTINE, a feed otherwife called /emen_fanionicum,
and femen contra vermes, in Englith wormfeed.

BARBOULT Poinrt, lies within the fouth-weft point
of the bay of Cancale, to the eaft of St. Maloes, on the
coaft of France.

BARBOUR, or Barzer,Jonn, in Biography, an eminent
divine, liftorian, and poet, was born in the city of Aberdeen,
as fome fay, about the year 1330, but according to others, in
1326. Having received a learned education, he entered
iato holy orders, and was promoted by king-David II. to
the archdeaconry of Aberdeen, A.D. 1356. Such was his
love of learning, that he continued to profecute his ftudies
after his promotion ; and with this view he prevailed on his
own fovereign, David Bruce, with whom he was in great
favour, to obtain permiflion from Edward III. to ftudy at
Oxford. The grant for this purpofe was dated at Wett-
minfter, Aug. 13th, A.D. 1357. He was alfo appointed
by the bifhop of Aberdeen, one of the commiffioners for
the ranfom of David II. king of Scotland; and he obtained
permiffion from Edward III. A. D. 1365, to travel through
England to St. Dennis, near Paris, with fix horfemen as
his attendants. Barbour was not only famous for his ex-
tenfive knowledge in the philofophy and divinity of thofe
times, but ftillmore admired on account of his admirable
genius for Englith poetry ; in which he compofed, as he
tells us, in 1375, a hiftory of the life and glorious aétions
of Robert Bruce king of Scotland, at the defire of king
David Bruce, his fon, who granted him a confiderable pen-
fion for his encouragement, which he generoufly beftowed
on an hofpital at Aberdeen. This work is not only re-
markable for a copious circumftantial detail of the exploits
of that illuftrious prince, and his brave companions in arms,
Randolf earl of Moray; and the lord James Douglas, but
alfo for the beauty of its ftyle, which is not inferior to that
of his contemporary Chaucer. This poem pafied through
about twenty editions in Scotland fince the year 1616, in
which the firft edition, that can be difeovered, was printed
at Edinburgh, in 12mo. But thefe editions were all mo-
dernized. An edition of this moft ancient production of
the Scottifh mufe extant, in the language and orthography
of its author, from a MS. written nm 1489, and preferved
in the advocates’ library at Edinburgh, was printed by
Mr. Pinkerton, under the title of “ The Bruce,’”’ with notes
and a gloffary, in 17g0, in 3 vols. 12mo. The following
verfes, diftinguifhed by their foftnefs, afford a fpecimen of
the author’s talent at: rural defcription, and also of the
ftate of the Englifh language in his time.

«© This was in midft of month of May,
When birdis fing on ilka f{pray,
Melland their notes, with feemly foun,
For foftnefs of the fweet feafoun.

BAR

And leavis of the branchis fpreeds,

And bloffomis bright, befide them, breeds,

And fieldis ftrawed are with flow’rs

Well favouring of feir colours ;

And all things worthis, blyth, and gay.”
Barbour is faid to have died at an advanced age in 1296,
but the time and cireumftances of his death are not fatif
factorily afcertained. Henry’s Hiftory, vol. viii. p. 249.
Pinkerton, ubi fupra. Wharton’s Hilt. Eng. Poetry vol. i.

- 318. c

BARBUDA, or Bersupa, in Georraphy, one of the
Britith Caribbee iflands in the Weft Indies, is a fmall ifland,
about 20 miles long and 12 broad, and lies about 15 miles
north-eaft of Montferrat. This ifland was planted foon
after the English had fettled upon St. Chriftopher’s, in
1628, and called “ Dulcina” from its beautiful appearance.
It is the property of the Codrington family, whofe ancef-
tor Colonel Codrington obtained a grant of it for his import-
ant fervices to the crown of England in the Weft Indies,
and is fatd to yield above soool. a year. Upon his death
in 1710, he bequeathed two plantations in Barbadoes, and
part. of Barbuda, valued at 2000]. per annum, to the fo-
ciety for propagating the gofpel for the inftru€tion of the
negroes in Barbadoes and the other Caribbee iflands in
the Chriftian religion, and for ereéting and endowing a
college in Barbadoes, This is the only proprietary govern-
ment of all the Enelifh Caribbee ifles; and the appointment
of a governor is in the Codrington family. The land lies
low, but is fertile; and the inhabitants are chiefly employed
in breeding black cattle, fheep, kids, fowls, and all kinds
of domeftic ftock ; in planting Indian corn, and in other
parts of hufbandry; and they fupply the neighbouring iflands
with thefe articles. The ifland, however, is capuble of yield=
ing, by cultivation, citron, pomegranates, oranges, raifins,
Indian figs, maize, cocoa-nuts, cinnamon, and pine-apples,
with various kinds of wood and drugs, fuch as brafil, ebony,
pepper, and indigo. There are fome large ferpents upon
this ifland, which, not being poifonous, are ufeful in deftroy-
ing rats, toads, and frogs ; and others fo venomous, that
their bite proves mortal, unlefs an antidote be applied in the
{pace of two hours. The coaft abounds with rocks: but
on the welt fide of the ifland there is a well-fheltered road,
and there are two fhoals, which run more than two leagues
into the fea, from the north-weft and fouth-weft points. The
inhabitants are computed to be about 1500. N. lat. 17°
49' 45". W. long. 61° 50’. 7

BARBUE, Ruiviere-a-va, a river of North America,
empties itfelf into lake Machigan, from E.S.E. between
Raifin and Marame rivers. Its mouth is 60 yards wide,
and lies 72: miles N. by W. from fort St. Jofeph. This is
alfo the name of a river, which difcharges itfelf into lake
Erie, from the N. by E. 40 mjles W.N.W. from the extre-
mity of Long point, in that lake, and 22 E. by S. from
Tonty river.

BARBUL A, in Botany, a name given by Pliny to the
femi-flofeuli,

BARBUS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Cyprinus, hav-
ing feven rays in the anal fin; beards four; fecond ray of
the firft dorfal fin ferrated on both fides. Linn. Muf. Ad.
Fr. &c.

This is the Zarde/ of the Englifh; a common inhabitant of
mott frefh waters in Europe, and eafily diftinguifhed from the
other {pecies of carp, or cyprinus genus, to which it belongs,
by the upper jaw being advanced far beyond the lower one,
and in having the four beards appendant, from which the
appropriate name of barbus or barbel is derived. This fifh,

during

‘allt ol

aw

APPAR ANION AIS. So Pree Ma SED

" BAR

during the fummer, prefers the rapid currents and fhallows
of rivers, and retires at the approach of winter to the more
fall and deeper places. They live in focieties ; lurking in
holes along the fides of the water under thelter of the tteep-
ett baaks, and feed on {maller ffh and worms and fleth of
ail kinds, for whichethey dig in the banks like fwine. In
the day-time they love to lurk occafionally among weeds,
and between the {tones in retired parts of the river, and
wander out at night in fearch of prey. They {pawn in
‘April, and begin to be in feafon in May and June.

‘The fleth oi the barbel was never in great efteem for the
table. ~ Mr. Pennant quotes a paffage in Aufonius, which,
as he obferves, is no panegyric on its excellence, for he lets
‘us know it loves deep waters, and that when it grows old,
it is not abfolutely bad:

« Laxos exerces larde natatus
Tu melior pejore evo, tibi contigit uni
Spirantum ex numero non inlaudata fene@us.”?
And he adds himfelf, that “ they are the worft and coarfeft
of frefh-water {ifh, and feldom eat but by the poorer fort of
people, who fometimes boil them with a bit of bacon to
ive them a relifh.”’

« The barbel,’? fays old Walton, “ though he be of a
fine fhape, and looks big, yet he its not accounted the beft
fish to eat, neither for his wholefomenefs nor his tafte, but
the male is reputed much better than the female, whofe
{pawn is very hurtful.”

Again, when {peaking of Rondeletius, he makes this re-
mark on the fpawn, ‘“ we agree with him, that the {pawn
-of the barbel, if it be not poifon, as he fays, yet that it is
dangerous meat, efpecially in the month of May; which is
fo certain, that Gefner and Gaffius declare, it had an ill
effe& upon them even to the endangering of their lives.’?
Sir John Hawkaiag, in his Annotations, inclines to the fame
opinion, and gives an initance of his fervant being taken
dangeroufly ill after having incautioufly eaten of this fith.
-M. Bloch, and fome other ichthyologilts, contend that this
is a vulgar and moft abfurd prejudice. M. Bloch in parti-
cular obferves, that himfelf and all his family have eaten
the {pawn of the barbel, and never experienced the flighteft
ill effets from it. Donov. Brit. Fithes.

The time for taking this fifh is very early in the morning,
or late in the evening: the place fhould be baited with
chopped worms fome time before ; and no bait is fo good
for the hook as the fpawn of the falmon, or fome other
~fith: in defect of thefe, lob-worms will do; they mutt be
very clean and nice, and the hook carefully covered, other-
wife he will not tonch them. Old cheefe fteeped in honey
is alfo avery fine bait. The beft feafon for angling for
this fith is from May to Augutft.

' BARBY, in Geography, a {mall bailiwick of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, forms a part of the circle of
Wittenberg, and was granted in 1748 and 1765, to the
count of Reufs, and the fociety of united brethren, or Mo-
ravians.

Barsy, is alfo the name of a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, feated on the Elbe, near the
mouth of the Saale, in which is a Moravian academy for
the initrution of youth, 14 miles N.W. of Deffau, and 14
8.S.E. of Magdeburg. N. lat. 51°37’. E. long. 11° 51’.

BARBYLA, in Botany, a name by which ‘Theocritus,
and others of the early writers, have called the common
dama{k prune. j

BARCA, in Geography,an extenfivedefert country, fituate
on the fouth coaft of the Mediterranean, between Tripoli
and Egypt, and forming fat of the great defert, or Sahara.

BAR

Tt extends in length from weft to eaft from about the 39th
degree of longitude to the 46th degree, and in breadth from
north to fouth about 30 leagues, though its confines oa the
fouth fide are very imperfeétly afcertained. It is, in general,
a dry and barren fand, whence the Arabs have called it
“ Sahart,”’ or Ceyrart Barka,”’ that is the Defert,”
or © Road of Whirlwinds and Hurricanes.”? Water is
fearce ; and, except in the neighbourhood of its towns and
villages, if they may be fo called, where the ground produces
fome grain, fuch as corn, millet, and maize, it is quite fterile
and uncultivated. The articles which the poor inhabitants
produce they are obliged to exchange with their no lefs in-
digent neighbours for dates, fheep, and camels. ‘Thiscountry
forms part of the ancient Cyrenaica and Marmarica (fee Cy-
RENAICA and Marmarica) ¢ in the moft defert and dan-
gerous diflrict of it flood the temple of Jupiter Ammon.
(See Ammon.) This {pot, though in fome refpects plea-
fantly fituated, is furrounded by quick and burning fands,
which are very pernicious to travellers, and fometimes over-
whelm whole caravans. A gainit this temple Cambyfes, and
an army of 50,000 men, marched from ‘Thebes in Upper
Egypt; but their fate is uncertain, as they never returned
either to Egypt or to their own country. (See Ammon).
This country is indeed fo defert, that there is no travelling
through it without the aid of a compadfs, or the direGtion of
the ftars; and though it was once the thoroughfare for cara-
vans from Barbary and Morocco to Mecca, yet it has beea
infefted with wild Arabs to fuch a degree, that they are
obliged to fteer 50 leagues about to avoid being plundered,
The French geographers divide the country of Barea into
two parts; one called the kingdom, and the other the de-
fert; the former hath, according to their ftatement, fome
conliderable perts, towns, and villages, and is under the pro-
tection of the Porte, governed by a cadi, who is the bafhaw
of Cairo, and refides at Tripoli; but for this they have no
fuflicient authority. According to Sanfon and Baudrand,
the other part, which extends along the eaftern coaft, called
by them the eaftern fhore of Tripoli, reaches from the port
of Solomon or Solyman, to the gulf of Sydra ; but this coaft
is commonly diftinguifhed by the name of Derna, one of the
moft confiderable of its towns and ports ; befides which it
has feveral others, and the ruins of maay more, which are
now reduced to poor villages. The moft remarkable are the
cape Raccallino, ftyled by Ptolemy Cherfonefus, becaufe it
forms a peninfula; and the furtheft towards Egypt is the
townof Angela or Onguela. (See Ancexra.) Between thefe
two, are many others diferently placed and named, as the
erto Tabarca, formerly Batrachus, Batracha, and Patri-
archa, cape de Lucco or Loco, anciently Promontorium
Carylonium, Porto Mefulman, the havenof Salonef or Salona,
fuppofed by fome to be the ancient Portus Pasormus, and
Galinus, and by others the Portus Catabathmus, which our
lateft geographers place on the mott eaftern verge of the
Barean coatt, next to the confines of Egypt. ‘To which
may be added the large valley of Carto Sappires, the ancient
Catabathmus, ‘extending quite to Egypt, oppofite to the
fpot where the temple of Jupiter Ammon ftood. From
thele we proceed to Porto Albertene, orthe Sultan’s port ;
that of Caguxi, formerly ‘Trifachi; the cape and haven of
Raxa, anciently Paretonium ; and, laftly, the city of Barca
or Barce, which gives name to the whole province, and lies
farther inland, on the eaftern coait of the gulf of Sydra.
This was the capital or the Barczi, and is mentioned by
Strabo, Pliny, Scylax, and Ptolemy ; and is faid by the two
former to have occupied the fpot on which Ptolemais was
afterwards built ; but the two latter are of a different opi-
nion.

BAR

fiion. It feems to have ftood to the weft of Cyrene, and
had a port near the Greater Syrtis. As it was a maritime
city, it is moft probable that it ftood by the port of the
Barcei, and not where Barce ftood; more efpecially as that
capital was 100 ftadia from the fea, according to Scylax.
Herodotus fays, that Barca was built by the brothers of Ar-
cefilaus III. king of Cyrene, more than a generation before
the beginning of the reign of Cyrus; but it 1s more probable,
that it was ot Pheenician, if not of Egyptian or Libyan ex-
traction; for Barca was a Pheenician name, well known in
thofe parts of Africa, as we learn from Silius Italicus, and
others. Servius intimates, that its citizens came originally
from Carthage, which would lead us to coaclude, that
Barea, Dido’s brother, who attended her into Africa, with
fome of his countrymen, fcttled here. It fufficiently ap-
pears from Virgil and Silius, that the Barcei {pread them-
felves over feveral confiderable parts of Libyay and, accord-
jng to Servius, their metropolis made the greateft figure of
any city in this region, except Cyrene. St. Jerom confirms
thefe laft authorities, when he afferts that this town «vas
fituated ina defert: and that its inhabitants, or at leaft their
defcendants, difperfed themfelves over feveral diftricts, lying
as far to the weflward as Mauritania, and the eaftward as
India. The Barewi learned (fays Stephanus) the art of
managing horfes from Neptune, and of driving chariots from
Minerva. The modern kingdom and defert of Barca un-
doubtedly cerived their name from the Barczi; and we
may hence infer, that thefe people formerly held a confider-
able rank among the various nations of Libya. _

What is the prefeat condition of the towns of Barea, what
is their commerce, and how they are governed, we have ro
authentic documents for afcertaining. "The maritime towns
are, probably, under the protection of the Porte; but it is
not certain whether they are under the government of the
bathaw of Egypt or Tripoli, or they have formed themfelves
into free {tates like thofe of Algiers and Tunis. This how-
ever is certain, that the inhabitants of the maritime towns
fre more civilized than thofe within land. The firft profefs
Mahometanifm, and have imbibed forme notions of humanity
and juitice; but the latter, and efpecially thofe of the defert,
who have neither religion nor any appearance of worfhip
among them, are altogether brutifh and favage, and live
wholly upon theft and plunder, like all other wild Arabs.
By them this tra&t, which was before a barren defert, was
firt inhabited. Deftitute and indigent in the extreme, they
are faid alfo to be the uglieft of all the Arabs; their bodies
being meagre, their faces grim, aud afpeét fierce and ra-
venous; their garb, which is commonly {tripped from the
pafiengers and pilgrims, tattered wirh long wearing; whilft

the pooreft of them want rags to cover their nakednefs.
They are likewife reported to be refolute and expert rob-
bers and plunderers; but deriving a fcanty fupply from their
own neighbourhood, they are compelled by neceflity to ex-
tend their excurfions as far as Numidia, Libya, and other
fouthern parts, where they commit many atrocious a&ts of
cruelty. So indigent and famifhed are thefe Barcans, that
they commonly let, pledge, and even fell their children, for
procuring the neceflaries of life, to the Sicilians, and other
‘neighbouring Chrittians, from whom they have moft of their
corn, efpecially before they fet out on any long expedition.
The chief towns of Barca are Derna, the capital and refi-
dence of the fangiac, Tolometa or Ptolometa, and Grena
or Carea, Anc. Un. Hitt. vol. xvi. p. 181. Mod. Un. Hitt.
vol. xv. p, 196, Ke.

Barca, a {mall port on the coaft of Peru, about S.
tar. 11° 20', where fhips may anchor, but obtain no fupply.

BAR
- BARCALAO, a Spanifh word, which the French pro.

nounce éaccala or baccaliau. By this laft name the Bafques
moft commonly call the fifth which we ftyle cod; and thofe
people call alfo the ifland which we call Newfoundland, the
ile of Baccaliau (Cod [ffand), becaufe of the great plenty
of cod catched there. There is, however, a league to the
weft of that large ifland, another {mall one, which is more
particularly called Baccaliau. ; :

BARCALON, an appellation given to the chief miri-
fter of the emperor of Siam, to whom belongs the care of
trade both within the kingdom and out of it, the fuperin-
tendency of the royal magazines, the receipt of the revenues,
and the management of foreign affairs.

BARCA-Lonaa, a large Spanith fifhing-boat, navi
with lug-fails, and having two or three mafts.
very common in the Mediterranean. See Bark. :

BARCANTI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
the vicinity of Hyrcania. They are placed by M. D’An-
ville, on the eaft of the Cafpian fea, near one of the mouths
of the Oxus. :

BARCAROLLA, in Mi/ic, a kind of fong in the Vene-
tian language, fung at Venice by their gondoliers or water-
men, in their boats or barks. Thefe airs ie Rouffeau)
are compofed for the common people, and often by the gon-
dolieri themfelves. ‘They have fo much melody, and fuch
an agreeable accent, that there is not a mufician in all Italy
who does net pique himfelf on knowing fome of them. The
being admitted gratis into a gallery appropriated to them in
all the theatres, enables gondolieri to form their ear and tafte,
without trouble or expence, fo that they compofe and fing
their airs, without altering their natural fimplicity, in the
flyle and expreffion of perfons not ignorant of the refine-
ments of mulic. The words of thefe fongs are commonly
jocofe, and more than natural, like the converfation of thote
that fing them; but fuch as the faithful picture of the man-
ners of a people can pleafe, and fuch as are likewife partial to
the Venetian diale€t, foon become paffionately fond both of
the words and mufic of thefe airs, chiefly known in England
by the title of Venetian ballads, of which travellers into Italy
make colleétions. J

The late earl of Leicefter, one of the fubferibers to the
royal academy of mufic in 1720, ufed to fay, that at the firit
eftablifhment of operas in England, the nobility and gentry,
in imitation of the Venetians, fuffered their fervants to have
admiffion, gratis, into the upper gallery, with a view to im-
prove the national tafte in finging; but inftead of profitix
or deriving pleafure from this privilege, they became fo noify
and infolent, that about 40 years ago, like our firft parents,
they were driven out of paradife.

We mutt not forget (fays Rouffeau) to remark, for the
glory of Taffo, that moft of the gondolieri know the chief
part of his poem “ Gierufalemme liberata,”’ byheart, andfome
the whole; that they pafs their f{ummer nights in their gondo-
las, finging it alternately from bark to bark; that the poem
of Taffo is an admirable barcarolla; that Homer only had the
honour of being thus fung before him; and that, fince his
time, no other Epic poem has been thus diftiaguifhed.

BARCAROTA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
Eftramadura, 4 miles from Almendrolejo.

BARCE, in Ancient Geography. See Barca.

Barce, a town of India, built by Alexander, on the fea-
coaft, in memory of his exploits, and where, according to
Juftin, he erected altars. * Seite

BARCELONA, in Geography, a rich and frong city
and fea-port of Spain, in the province of Catalonia, of which
itis the eapital, and the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of the arch-

bithop

ted

Thefe ave

i i aaaag ate a ap OH ENN Te oy

a

aj

.

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bifhop of Taragona. It was originally founded by Hamil-
car Barcas, the father of Hannibal, and from him calied
« Barcino,”? about 250 years before Chrift. It was reduced
by the Romans, and continued fubjeé& to them till the king-
dom of Spain was overrun by the Goths and Vandals, and
afterwards by the Saracens and Moors. At the beginning

* of the ninth century it was poffefled by the Moors, under

the government of Zade. This governor having abufed the
clemency of Charlemagne, and by his perfidious beliaviour

rovoked his fon, Lewis king of Aquitaine, Barcelona was
invefted, and the generals who were intrufted with the com-
mand of the fiege had orders not to abandon it till Zade
was delivered into the hands of Lewis. The Moor made
an obftinate refiftance; but finding that it was impoffible to
preferve the city any longer, after a defence of mary months,
he determined to throw himfelf upon the emperor’s mercy,
and was condemned to perpetual exile. At length, however,
the city furrendered, and the king of Aquitaine, appointed
one Bera, count of Barcelona. The city continued fub-
je& to him and his fucceffors, who were dittinguifhed by the
title of “Counts of Barcelona,’? from the year 802 to
1131; when it was united to the crown of Arragon by the
marriage of Don Raymond V. count of Barcelona, with
Donna Petronilla the daughter of Don Ramiro the monk,
and heirefsof Arragon. In confequence of the revolt by
the Catalonians, in 1465, Barcelona was befieged by Don
Juan II. king of Arragon, in 1471. The fiege was pro-
fecuted for a confiderable time with vigour, but without ef
feét ; however, in 1472, it capitulated on its own terms ;
and the king, upon his public entry into the city, confirmed
allits privileges. In 1640, the Catalans, having fhaken
off the yoke of the Spaniards, calledin the French to their
fuccour; and they continued matters of the capital till 1652,
when, after a fiege of fifteen months, it furrendered to Don
Juan of Auftria. In 1697, it was again taken by the French
under the command of the duke of Vendome, but reftored
the fame year to the Spaniards by the peace of Ryfwick.
Although the inhabitants of Barcelona had taken the oath
of fidelity to the king of Spain, Philip V. and received from
him a confirmation of their privileges, they invited the Eng-
lth and Dutch, and tke governor was obliged to furrender
the town to the allies in 1705, when Charles, afterwards em-
peror, was received and proclaimed king. In the following
year, Philip, affifted by the French, affailed the city, and
took the fortrefs of Montjoui; but the fleet of the allies ad-
vancing to the relief of the befieged, he was compelled to
abandon the enterprife and to retire from the place, May 12th
1706. By the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, the troops of the
emperor evacuated Catalonia; but the inhabitants of Bar-
celona perfifted in their revolt, and would not acknowledge
Philip for their king. Accordingly they fuffered blockade
fora year, which was followed by a terrible bombardment ;
and at length, after a fiege of fixty-two days, from the
opening of the trenches by the duke of Berwick, the town
was taken by aflault on the 11th of September 1714. By
the moderation of the conqueror, the city was faved from

illage, but the inhabitants were deprived of their privileges ;
they have fince, however, been re-eftablifhed, and in 1715 a
citadel was erected to keep them in awe.

Barcelona is now one of the largeft and handfomeft cities
in Spain, and is reckoned the third moft confiderable cit
inthe kingdom. It is fituated on a plain by the fea-fide,
open to the fouth-eaft, but proteGted by hills on the north
and‘ weft, fo that it affords a healthy and delightful refi-
dence ; however it is fubje& to a fog brought on by the eait
wind. The city is furrounded by a good brick wall, round
which is another, with fourteen baftions, horn-works, ram-
parts, and ditches. The ramparts are high and fpacious,

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and a great number of carriages may be feen every evening
driving upon them for pleafure. ‘The city is divided into two
parts; the old and the new, which are feparated from each
other by a wall and a large ditch. The ttreets are narrow
and crooked, and the churches rather rich than beautsful.
Barcelona contains feveral confiderable edifices ; that called
the Terfana, or the arfenal, is of large extent ; anda prodi-
gious gallery, containing twenty-cight forges, has been
ereCted im it within a few years. ‘he other mott remarkable
buildings are the cathedral adorned with two high towers,
the church of Notre-Dame, the palace of the bifhop, the
exchange, the palace of the governor, that where the nobi-
lity of the couutry aflemble, called ¢ La Cafa de la Deputa-
tion,”? and that of the inquifition. The hofpicio contains
about 4400 imduftrious poor ; and inthe houfe of correétion
are fometimes found women of rank, who have been guilty
of drunkennefs, or other low vices. The harbour 1s fpa-
cious, deep, and fecure, and defended on one fide from the
winds by a mountain cailed Montjoui, which rifes in the mid--
dle of the plain near the city, runs into th in the form

of a promontory; is covered with vineyards, gardens, and
groves of trees, and a {trong fort for defending the city, and

furnifhes a quarry of fine hard free-ftone ; and
fide by alarge mole; having a light-houfe with a
and garrifon at the extremity. Into this harbour 1000 vet-
fels are fuppofed to enter during peace, and of thefe 5co
are Spanifh, 120 French, 100 Englifh, and 60 Danes. Bar-
celona is a place cf great trade, on account of the conve-
nience of its harbour; although none but fmall yeflele can
enter within the mole. - Its chief manufactures are ilk, evi-
ton, and wool, and excellent fire-arms and cutlery: its chief.
imports are corn, fifh, aud woollen goods; and its exports-
wine, brandy, cloth, and leather. Silks from Lyons, ftock-
ings from Nifmes, feveral kinds of ftuffs and cottons although
they are prohibited, and particularly dried cod, an article for
which Spain is faid to pay annually to the Englith three
millions of piaftres, pafs into Catalonia through this port.,
About twenty years ago, a very large cannon foundery was
eftablithed in this city, under the direétion of M. Maritz, a:
Swifs; and it has feveral glafs-houfes. The inhabitants are
induftrious and ative, and their number is faid to exceed:
100,000; they are hofpitable to ftrangers; the women are
as handfome as any in Spain, lively in their converfation, and
lefs reftrained in their conduét than in other parts of the coun-
try. Barcelona was erected into a county by Charlemagne,
and became an independent fovereignty in the year 873 0r884.
The king of Spain is called the count of Barcelona. The
diocefe contains 213 parifhes, befides 8 in the city. It is dif-
tant 13 leagues E.N.E. from'Taragona, and 92 E.N.E. from,
Madrid. N. lat. 41° 26’. E. long. 2° 13’.

BARCELONETTA, or Cumanyorto, a town, of:
South America, in the country of ‘Terra Firma, and prin.
cipal place of a diftri&t im the province of Cumana,

BARCELONETTE, a town of France, and princi-
pal place of a diftriét in the department of the Lower Alps.
It anciently belonged to Piedmont, and was ceded to FE rance
by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Itis fituated on the right:
bank of the Ubaye, ina valley of: excellent, pafturage, four
leagues S. of Embrun, and 8; N.N.E. of Digne. The
place contains 2182 and the canton 8460 inhabitants ; the
territory includes 290 kiliometres and nine communes. N.
lat. 44° 23’. E. long. 6° 4o!.

Barcetconerre De Vitrolle,.a town of France,
in the department ofthe Lower Alps, and chief place:
of a canton in the diftri& of Sifteron;. the place con-
tains 617 and the canton 1017 inhabitants ; the territory in-
cludes 62! kilometres and two conimunes.

BA RCELONNE, a town of France, in the department

of

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ef the Gers, and chief place of a canton in the diftri& of
Nogaro, feated onthe Adour, containing about 2000 inha-
bitants; three leagues S.W. of Negaro, and 9} W.N.W.
of Mirande.

BARELORE, a fea-port town of the Eaft Indies, on
the coaft of Malabar, between Goa and Mangalore, in a
diftri& ceded to the Britith by the treaty of 1799. Jt basa
good harbour, and the Duteh had formerly a factory in this
place, which carried on aconfiderable trade in pepper. N.
lat. 13°36’. B. long. 74° 45'.

BARCELOS, atown of Portugal, with the title of a
duchy, in the province of Entre Dueroe Minho, not far
from the fea, on the river Cavado, 2ight miles W. of Braga.
N. lat. 41° 20. W. long. 7° 0’.

BARCES, or Bercues, were formerly a kind of fhip
guns, not unlike fakers, only-fhorter, thicker in metal, aad
wider bored. r

BARCHIN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the

rovince of Kerman, 120 miles 5.1. of Sirgian. .

BARCHOCHEBAS, or Caziz, in Biography, a falfe
Mefliah of the Jews, who taking advantage of the animo-
lity excited among his countrymen by the profanations of
the emperor Adrian, when he founded his new city of Atlia
on the ruins of Jerufalem, about the year 134, aflumed the
name of Barchocab, or child of the Star, in allufion to a
prophecy of Balaam (Numb. xxiv. 17.) and pretended to
be the long-expetted deliverer of his nation, He chofe for
his precurfor the famous Akiba; and colleGting together an
army of 200,coo men from among the banditti, who then
infefted Judza, took poffeffion ef the frong town of Bither,
called by St. Jerom, Bethoron, between Cxfarea and Diof-
polis, which he fortified as the place cf his retreat and the
capital of his newly-projected kingdom. Here he was
anointed king, and caufed money to be coined in his own
name, by which he proclaimed himfelf the Meffiah and prince
of the Jewifh nation. However he deferred declaring war
againft the Romans, till Adrian had quitted Egypt, fo that
it did not break out till the 17th year of that emperor’s
reign. Adrian feemsat first to have neglected this new re-
volt; but when he perceived that it was likely to become
formidable, he fent Tinnius Rufus with a ftrong reinforce-
ment to quell it. This force being infuflicient to reftrain
the depredations of thefe banditti, who maffacred all the
Romans and Chriftians that fell in their way, Julius Severus
was recalled from Britain, and fent at the head of an army
againft the impoitor. This general laid fiege to Bither,
which was refolutely defended, till Barchochebas was {lain.
‘The town was then carried by itorm, and this event, which,
according to Eufebius, happened in the 18th year of Adrian,
was followed by a moft dreadful flaughter of the Jews.
Crevier’s Rom, Emp. vol. vii. p. 188, &c. Bafnage, Hitt.
des Juifs, I. vii.c. 12. Mod. Un. Hitt. vol. x. p. 437, &c.
See Asta.

BARCAUL, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
country of Granada, five leagues from Guadix.

BARCHUSEN, or Barxuausen, Joun Conrave,
in Biography, a learned phyfician-and chemiit, was born at
Horne in the county of Lippe, 1666. After a liberal
education, anda courfe of travelling through the principal
cities of Germany witha view to his improvement in phar-
macy and chemiftry, he became phylician to the Venetian
general in his expedition to the Morea in 1694; and on his
return fettled at Utrecht, where he obtained permiffion to
teach chemiftry, in which employment he continued till the
time of his death in1717. His charaéterwas diltinguifhed
by integrity and zeal for public good, as well as by indefati-
gable affiduity in the purfuit of knowledge; without pof-
fefling any very extraordinary fhare of genius or folidity of

7

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judgment. His works are ‘ Synopfis Pharmaceutica,’”
Frankf, 1690, and Utrecht, 1696, 8vo.; ‘ Pyrofophia,”’
Leyd. 1698, 4to. enlarged and publifhed at Leyden in
1771, under the title of ** Elementa Chemie” &c. ** Acroa-
mata ad Jatrochymiam et Phyficam Speétantia,”? Utr.
1703, Svo.; *¢ tHiftoria Medicinz,”? Amit. 1719, Syo.¢
peblithed with enlargements under the title of “ De
Medicine ortu et progreflu Differtationes,” Utr. 1723,
4to. in which work anaccount is given of all the fects and
theories of medicine from the earlieft times to the author’s
own age, but with lefs accuracy, efpecially in relation to
the ancient writers, than thofe of Le Clerc and Freind ;
Synopfis Pharmaciz,”’ Leyd. 1712, 4to; ‘* Compendium
Ratiocinii Chemici,’’? Leyd. 1712, 4to; “ Collecta Medi-
cine Practice Generalia, et Dialogus de optima Medico-
rum jeéta,”? Amit. 1715, 8vo. Haller Bib. Med. Pra.

BARCINO, in Ancient Geography, atownot Hifpania
Tarraconenfis, and capital of the Laletani; now Barce-
LONA.

BARCLAY, Barcrey, or Barxiay, ALEXANDER,
in Biography, anelegant Britifh writer of the 16th century,
was a native either of England or Scotland, but probably of
the latter country. About the yeat 1495, he came to Oriel
college, Oxford, and having diftinguilhed himfelf by his
parts and learning, he travelled on the continent and acquired
a competent knowledge of the languages {poken in Hol-
land, Germany, Italy, and France. On his return to
England, he became one of the priefts of St. Mary Ottery
in Devonfhire, and afterwards a monk of the monaftery of
Ely. After the diffolution of this monaftery in 1539, he was
prefented fucceflively to feveral livings, the laft of which
were thofe of Baddow Magna in Effex, and of Allhallows
in London. He was honoured with the degree of doétor in
divinity. He died at a very advanced age at Croydon in
Surry, in June 1552. Different accounts have been given
of his charaéter. Bale, the proteftant, treats his memory
with indignity, and charges him with being a fcandalous
adulterer, whilft he led a iingle life; but Pitts, the papift,
affures us that he directed his ftudies to the feryice of reli-
gion, and employed his time in reading and writing the lives
of the Saints. Thefe accounts, however, are not altogether
incompatible. Asan improyer of Englifh literature, his
merits are acknowledged ; and his induitry in enriching our
language with many tranflations, written in aftyle more pure
and fluent than that of his contemporaries, entitles him to
grateful commemoration. Some of the principal of his works
of which there is no complete catalogue, are the ‘ Mifere
Curialium,”? or ‘ Eclogues on the Miferies of Courtiers,’’
compiled by /Eneas Silvius; the ‘ Eclogues of Baptiit
Mantuan ;” the “ Caitle of Labour,”? from the French; a
treatife “* Of Virtues,” by Mancini; feveral “ Lives of
Saints ;”? the “ Jugurthine war”? of Sallult; a ‘ Treatife
againit Skelton,” who.was poet laureat, and a great enemy
to priefts; and the moft popular of all his works, the ¢¢ Na-
vis Stultifera’? or ‘ Ship of Fools,’? which is a free tranfla-
tion, with confiderable additions, from a work under the
fame t tle, by Sebaftian Brantius ; this is a fatirical work,
adorned with many pictures printed from wooden cuts; it
paffed through feveral editions, and was firlt printed at Lon-
don by Richard Pynfon, in 1509, in {mall folio,again in 1519,
andin 4to.in 1570, Gen. Dict. Biog. Brit.

Barcray, Wirtiam, a learned civilian, was bornin
Aberdeenfhire in 1541, and defcended from one of the beft
families in Scotland. After the captivity of Mary queen
of Scots, by whom he was favoured, he retired to France
about the year 1573, and then by clofe application became
a proficient in the knowledge of the civillaw, fo that he
obtained a profefforfhip in that {cience in the univerlity of

Ponta»

’

' beginning of the reign of James I.

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*Pontamouffon, founded by the duke of Lorrain; he was
alfo appointed by this duke counfellor of ftate, and matter
of requeits. In 1581, he married a lady of Lorrain, by
whom he had a fon, who was the caufe of his conteift with
the Jefuits, by whofe influence he was reduced to the ne-
ceffity of quitting Lorrain. He then came to England,
and was offered a place in the council of James I. with a
confiderable penfion, on condition of his embracing the efta-
blifhed religion ; but ene the offer, he returned to
France, and accepted the profefforfhip of civil law in the
univerfity of Angers, where he taught for fome time with
reputation. Here he died as fome fay in 1605, according
to others in 1609, or 1611. The chief of his works are
«De Regno et Regali potentate, adverfus Buchananum,
&c.”? publifhed at Paris in 1600; “ De poteftate Papz, an
et quatenus in reges et principes feculares jus et imperium
habeat,”” Francof. 1609, 1613, 1629. Hannoy. 1612, 8vo.
Lond. in Englifh, in 1611, 4to ; “ A Commentary upon the
title of the Pandects, de rebus creditis et de jurejurando ;”
Paris, 1605, 8vo.; and “ Premetia in vitam Agricolz,”
Paris, 1599, 2 vols. 8vo. Gen. Dié&. Biog. Brit.
Baxcray, Joun, the fon of the preceding, was born at
Pontamonffon in 1582, and diftincuifhed himfelf betimes as
a proficient in polite literature. T’he Jefuits withed him to
enter into their fociety ; but his father incurred their refeut-
ment by preventing it, and taking him to England, at the
He had already, viz. in
3601, publifhed a commentary on the Thebaid of Statius.
He alfo prefented to James, a Latin poem upon his corona-
tion ; and in 1603, publifhed the firft part of his “ Satiricon
Euphormionis,’”’ which was dedicated to the king. He
accompanied his father to Angers, with whom he continued
till the death of the latter, and then removed to Paris, In
4606, he came over to England, where he obtained confider-
able employments under king James, and was made gentle-
man of the bed-chamber. He is {aid to have affifted this
rince in acontroverfial work, which occafioned fome un-
founded fulpicions of his orthodoxy. Having finifhed his
<‘Euphormio,” he publifhed an apology for it in 1610.
Upon his return to Paris, he printed in 1612, a work in-
titled ‘‘Pietas,” being a vindication of a performance of
his father againft the power arrogated by the popes over
crowned heads, which had been attacked by Bellarmine.
Neverthelefs, he was invited to Rome by Paul IV., and re-
fided there during the latter part of his life, carefled by
Bellarmine, and poflefling fome lucrative employments, in
return for which he wrote a work of controverfy, intitled,
«Parenefis ad Sectarios.”” Whilft he was employed ia fu-
perintending the firft edition of his principal work, inti-
tled the “Argenis,”” he died of the ftone at Rome, in
1621. The difpofition of Barclay was of a melancholy
eait; his mornings were uninterruptedly employed in ftu-
dy, and the afternoons were devoted to his garden. His
reputation, both asa fcholar and a writer, was extremely
high in his own times; but his works were not of a na-
ture, calenlated to command lafting attention. His La-
tin flyle was much admired by fome, and feverely cenfur-
ed by others. Petronius was his model, but he fome-
what partakes of the florid affeCiation of Apuleius in his
profe, and of the bombaft of Lucian in his verfe. His
s¢ Euphormio,” and “ Argenis,”” both works of imvention,
affed through fevera! editions in various languages. The
Pie is a kind of political allegory, exhibiting a picture
of the vices and revolutions of courts, with real charaéters
under fititious names. It difplays great ingenuity
‘and learning, and-abounds with lively imagery and ele-
Yated fentiments, bat with too much parade. It was
eVox. Il.

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read with avidity whilft the fubje&ts were recent; and a

tranflation of it in Englifh by a lady appeared in 1772,

age attracting much notice. Gen. Dia. Biog.
rit.

Barcray, Roser; the famous apologift for the Quak.
ers, was the defcendant of an ancient family in Scotland,
and the fon of colonel David Barclay of Mathers. He was
bora at Gordonftown in the fhire of Murray, in 1648, whi-
ther his father had retired, after quitting the army; and
was fent for education to his uncle at Paris, who was at
that time principal of the Scots college. Pains were taken
to profelyte him to the catholic religion; and he acknow-
ledged that they were not altogether unfuccefsful. He ree
turned home, however, in his 17th year, and was diftinguifh-
ed by his accomplifhments in literature, and particularly by
his knowledge of the Latin and French languages. At
home he extended his acquaintance, by diligent application,
with the Greek and Hebrew ; and being of a grave difpo-
fition, directed his inquiries towards theological fubjects.
His father, having in 1666 become a convert to Quakeri{m,
was foon followed by his fon ; whofe zeal, though generally
under the control of a fedate temper and found judgment,
was not altogether free from enthufiafm ; for he conceived
himfelf obliged by divine command to pafs through the ftreets
of Aberdeen clothed in fackcloth and afhes, and he adtually
yielded to this impulfe. But he ferved the caufe, to which
he was attached from conviétion, much more effedtually by
his powers of reafoning in its defence. His firft publication
to this purpofe, intitled “¢ Truth cleared of calummies,” &c.
was a reply to a work of W. Mitchell, a preacher near
Aberdeen, and dated at his father’s houfe at Urie, in 1670.
This was followed by an appendix and additional treatife,
exhibiting a confiderable portion of controverfial acrimony,
but it had the effect of filencing his antagonift. In 1673
he publithed, with a view of conciliating the good opinion
of Proteftants, a fyflematic expofition of the doétrines of
his fe@, under the title of “A Catechifm and Confeffion of
Faith, approved of and agreed to by the general affembly
of the Patriarchs, Prophets, and Apoftles, Chrift himfelf
chief Speaker in and among them,’’ &c. The defign of
this work was to prove, that Quakerifm wasthe perfection
of the reformed religion, and that Proteftants, as they re-
ceded from it, were fo far inconfiftent with themfelves, and
approached to Popery. His fundamental principle was, that
the fcriptures alone were to be regarded as the foundation
of faith, and that Chriitians ought to receive no doétrines
which were not capable of being proved by the expreifs
words of feripture. This work excited very general atten-
tion, and removed many prejudices that were entertained
againit the fociety. His next treatife, intitled ““The Anar-
chy of the Ranters and other Libertines, the Hierarchy of
the Romanifts, and other pretended churches, equally refufed
and refuted,’”? &c. was intended to mark the diftinétion
between the rationalifts of his feét, and the enthufiafts; -
but fome fentiments concerning church difcipline, which it
contained, involved him in difputes with fome of his own
brethren, and drew upon him attacks from fome members
of the univerfity of Aberdeen, and from other quarters.
He perfifted, however, in his endeavours for forming a
clear, methodical, and rational fyftem of Quakerifm; and in
the year 1675, he was diligently employed in compofing
the moft famous of all his writings, which is his “Apology
for the true Chriftian divinity, as the fame is held forth
and preached by the people in {corn called Quakers.”” This
was introduced by his “Thefes Theologice,” written in-
various languages, and addreffed to the clergy of all deno-
minations throughout Europe, requelting their examina-

ak tion

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tion and judgment. Two copies of the Apolegy”
were tranfmitted to each of the minifters plenipotentiary
then aflembled at the congrefs of Nimeguen. It was printed
in 1676, at Amfterdam ; and two years after, the author
publifhed an Englifh tranflation oft. It wasalfo tranflated
into other languages, and excited very general attention.
The “Apology” is a learned, fcholattic, methodical per-
formance ; and it is regarded as the firft authority for the
principles of the fect. The fociety derived confiderable
reputation from it; and whilft it contributed to remove
prejudices againit this fe@& both at home and abroad, it
gave them a refpeétable rank among the reformed churches.
The dedication is no lefs remarkable than the apology it-
felf. Tt is addreffed to king Charles II. ; and {peaks to
him in fo plain and forcible a manner re{pecting the events
of his own life, and pleads the caufe of religion, and of
the author’s own fociety, with fuch a manly fpirit, that it
has ever been admired as a model in its kind. Let the
following paflage ferve as a fpecimen: Thou haft tafted
of profperity and adverfity ;* thou knoweit what it is to
be banifhed thy native country, to be over-ruled as well as
to rule and fit upon the throne; and being oppreffed, thou
haft reafon to know how hateful the oppreffor is both to
God and man.”? This addrefs did not avail, as Voltaire
aflerts, to reitrain the perfecution which then raged againft
the Ouakers; for Robert Barclay himfelf, after his return
from Holland and Germany, which he vifited in company
with the famous William Penn, was, in 1677, imprifoned
in Aberdeen, together with his father and many other
Quakers, at the inftigation of Sharp archbifhop of St. An-
drew’s, with whom he remonttrated by an excellent letter
on the occafion. By the interpofition of Elizabeth the
princefs palatine of Rhine, who refpeéted the Quakers and
correfponded with both Pean and Barclay, he was foon
liberated; and he even acquired the favour of the court,
fo that in 1679, he obtained a royal charter for erecting
hiis lands at Urie into a free barony. In 1682, he was
eleted governor of eaft Jerfey, in North America, by
the proprietors of the province ; but he declined accepting
the appointment, and was fatisfied with naming a deputy
governor, Whilit he was in prifon at Aberdeen, in 1677,
he publifhed a treatife on “ Univerfal Love,’? intended to
fhew that this principle prevailed more in his church than
in any other. In the fame year he addreffed a Latin
letter to all <¢ the ambaffadors and deputies of the Chriftian
princes and {tates, met at Nimeguen to confult the peace
of Chriftendom,”’ urging them to promote that good work,
and pointing out the true caufes of war, and its incompari-
bility with Chriftian principles. He had alfo written, in
1676, a Latin letter concerning ¢ the Poffibility and Ne-
ceffity of an inward and immediate Revelation,’? to Adrian
Paets, a perfon of diftinGtion in Holland; and in 1686 this
letter was tranflated into Englifhand publifhed. This was
- the laft, and has by many members of the fociety, been
reckoned among the moft important of his performances.
His time was very much occupied in journies for the benefit
of the fociety, with a view both of promulgating its doctrines
and proteCingits membersfromoppreflion, Barclay and Penn
were on terms of intimacy with James II. ; who, fenfible
that he and hisparty neededtoleration, affectedto be the great
patron of liberty of confcience. The non-refitting princi-
ples of the Quakers in civil matters, might probably give
him a predilection for their religious opinions above thofe
of other Proteftants. Barclay was engaged in a private
conference with the king in the year 1688, juit as the wind
became fair for bringing over the prince of Orange, and on
that occafion urged his majefty to make fome conceflion for
2

BAR

fatisfying his people ; but his advice was of no avail. Robert
Barclay did not long furvive the revolution. He died

after a fhort illnefs, in his houfe at Urie, in Odtober 169@,
in his forty-fecond year, leaving feven children, all of whom
were living fifty years afterwards. The moral charatter of
this eminent perfon correfponded to the great employment
of his life, which was that of promoting what he conceived
to be the caufe of religious truth. He was amiable and
refpetable ; nor did the gravity of his purfuits infufe any
rigour or fournefs into his converfation and manners. He
governed his houfe with great prudence and difcretion, and
preferved a ferene mind under ali the changes of his fortune,
Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

Barcray Fort, in Geography, is the weft point of the
entrance into Englifh harbour, on the fouth fide of the
ifland of Antigua; the eaft point alfo has a battery, from
which it is diftant only about 300 yards.

BARCONE, in Navigation, a {hort broad veffel, of amid-
dle fize, ufed in the Mediterranean for the carriage of corn,
wood, falt, and other provifions, from one place to another.

BARD, is ufedin the Culinary Art, for a broad flice of
bacon ufed to cover fowls before they are roafted, baked,
or otherwife drefled.

BARDA, or Partua, in Geography, a town of Ger-~
many, in the circle of Upper Saxony and circle of Leiplick,
2 miles S.W. of Grimma.

BARDANA, in Botany. See Ancrium.

Barpana, in the Materia Medica. See Arctium
Lappa. ,

BARDANA, in Entymology, a {pecies of Curcurio,
ofa cylindrical form, downy, greyifh; anterior legs elongated.
About the fize of C. parapledicus, and not unlike it in ap-
pearance. Inhabits Europe. ;

BARDARIOTA, in Antiquity, were a kind of ancient
guard attending the Greek emperors, armed with rods,
wherewith they kept off the people from crowding too near
the prince, when onhorfeback. Their captain, orcommander,
was denominated primivergius. The word was probably
formed from the darde or houfings on their horfes,

BARDE. See Bare.

BARDED, in Heraldry, is ufed in {peaking of a horfe
that is caparifoned.

He bears fable, a cavalier @’or, the horle arded, argent.

BARDELLE, in the AZanege; denotes a faddle made in
form ef a great faddle, but only of cloth ftuffed with
ftraw, and tied tight down with packthread, without either
leather, wood, oriron. Bardelles are not ufed in France ;
but in Italy they trot their colts with fuch faddles: and
thofe who ride them are called cavalcadours, or /cozone.

BARDESANISTS, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, a {eé& thus
denominated from their leader, Bardefanes, a Syrian of
Edeffa in Mefopotamia, in the fecond century. Bardanes
was a man of acute genius and profound erudition, and
wrote feveral works which procured him reputation. He
was eloquent in the Syriac language, and well acquainted
with the Greek. His thirft for knowledge induced him to

travel into the eaft, in order to converfe with the brach- ~

mans and other philofophers of that country. He was
heldin high eftimation by Abgarus, who reigned in Edefla
from the year 152 to 187. A work written by him, “ upon
Deftiny,”? againit Abydas the aftrologer, was valued by
the ancients ; and a fragment of it is quoted by Eufebius,
in his Prep. Evang. :

Bardefanes adopted the oriental philofophy concernin
the two principles; maintaining that the fupreme Gol
is free from all evil and imperfection, and that he created
the world and its inhabitants pure and incorrupt ; that in

procefe

ae

> BF tgif

BAR

procefs of time the prince of darknefs, who is the fountain
of all evil and mifery, enticed men to fin; in confequence
of which, the fupreme God permitted them to be divefted
of thofe etherial bodies with which he had endued them,
and to fall into fluggifh and grofs bodies formed by the
evil principle: and that Jefus defcended from heaven,
clothed not with a real but aerial body, in order to recover
mankind from that body of corruption which they now
¢arry about them; and that he will raife the obedient to
mantions of felicity, clothed with aerial vehicles, or celettial
bodies. It is faid that Bardefanes at length renounced
the more chimerical part of his fyftem. Enufebius denied
that he ever returned to the Catholic faith. His feé fub-
fifted for a long time in Syria, to which his 150 hymns
written in elegant Syriac very much contributed; as they alfo
did to the propagation of his opinions. Mofheim’s Eccl.
Hit. vol. i. p. 220. Lardner’s Works, vol. ii. p. 299, &c.

BARDEWICK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Lower Saxony, on the Ilmenau, fuppoted to
be one of the moft ancient towns in Germany.. It was ina
very profperous ftate, and the fee of a bifhop in 1189, when
Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Brunfwick, took
and razed it to the ground, becaufe the inhabitants would
not acknowledge him after he had been proferibed by the
emperor Frederick I. The bifhopric was then remoyed to
Verden; and the city of Luneburg received the advantages
of trade and population: 4 miles N. of Luneburg.

BARDEWISCH, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and county of Delmenhorit; 6 miles N. of
Delmenhortt.
~ BARDI, a town of Italy, in the Parmefan, feated on a
rock near the {mall river Ceno, and capital of a marquifate,
to which it gives name; 26 miles W. of Parma.

BARDIN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan,
go miles W.S.W. of Zareng.

BARDIS, a town of Egypt, and refidence of a fcheik,
whofe authority extends a confiderable way along the Nile,
6 miles fouth of Girgé.

BARDISTAN, Caper, lies on the coaft.of Perfia, in the
Indian ocean. N. lat. 28° o'. E. long. 52° 0o'5

BARDO, a town of Piedmont, in the duchy of Aofta,
feated on the Doria Baltea; 17 miles S.E. of Aofta.

BARDONACHE, a town of Piedmont, in a valley, to
which it gives name; 10 miles north of Sezanne, and 6
W.N.W. of Exilles.

BARDOP, a river of England, which runs into the
Read, 6 miles N.W. of Ellfdon, in Northumberland.

BARDS, Baro1, in Antiquity, ancient poets among the
Gauls and Britons, who detfcribed and fung in verfe the
brave actions of the great men of their nation; with defign
to inculcate and recommend virtue, and even fometimes to
put an end to the difference between armies at the point of
engagement.

Bochart derives the word from parat, to fing. Camden
agrees with Feitus, that bards originally fignifies @ finger :
and adds, that the word is pure Britifh. Others derive the
word from Bardus, a druid, the fon of Dryis, and the fifth
king of the Celte.

Amidit this uncertainty with regard to the etymology
of tke appellation dards or beird, we may add that feme
have derived it from éér, which fignifies fury, and which
bears, without doubt, fome analogy to that poetic fury or
enthufiafm with which the poets fancied themfelves, or
might feign to be infpired. Among the Welfh, we are
told by others, bard is preferved as an indigenous term,
having an abitraét fignification, and denoting one that
makes confpicuous, or caufes to be revealed. By another

BAR

author we are informed that the word bard being a ptimitive
noun, neither derived nor compounded, it can neither he
traced to its root, nor refolved into its parts. It fignified
one who was a poet by his genius and profeflion, and who
employed much of his time in compofing and finging verfes
on var:ous fubjeéts and occafions.

The bards, it is faid, differed from the druids, in that the
latter were priefts and teachers of the nation, but the for-
mer only poets and writers.

Larrey, Bodin, and Pafquier, indeed, will have the bards
to have been priefts, as well as philofophers ; and Cluverius,
orators too; but without much foundation in antiquity.
Strabo divides the feéts of philofophers among the Gauls
and Britons into three, viz. the druids, bards, and evates.
The bards, adds he, are the fingers and poets; the evates,
the priefts and natural philofephers; and the druids, to
natural philofophy add alfo the moral. Hornius however
reduces them to two fects, viz. bards and druids; others
to one, and make a druid a general name, comprehending
allthe others. Cluverius will have it, that there were bards
alfo among the ancient Germans; becaufe Tacitus makes
mention of their fongs and poems, which contained, their hif-
tory. Some have diltributed the ancient Britith poets into
two claffes; the firft clafs comprehendin, their facred poets,
who compofed and fung their religious hymns, and were
called in Greek Eudbates, in Latin Yates, and in their own
language Faids; the fegond comprehending all their fecular
poets, “ who fung of the battles of the heroes, or the heaving
brea{ls of love,” according to the defcription of Offian, and
they were called bards. The principal bufinefs of thefe bards
was to celebrate the praifes of the gods and departed heroes,
in odes and verfes, and to fing them to their harps, at their
religious affemblies, public feftivals, and private entertain-
ments. Thefe men were, in fact, the heralds, the chrono-
logers, and the hiflorians, as well as the poets of the land, for
they kept up the memory of illuttrious tranfaCtions, and, by
their compofitions, which tradition handed down to potterity,
they tran{mitted from age to age the names and charactera
of patriots and warriors. It is remarkable that fuch a
clafs of perfons fubfifted in almoit all nations. They. derive
their origin from remote antiquity, and were ever held in
high eftimation. Mankind have been early led to poetical
compofitions. Agreeable founds itrike at firll every ear,
but poetry was neceffary to give thofe founds a lafting
effect. Werfe has therefore been made ufe of to preferve
the memory of remarkable events and great actions. The
relisious ceremonies of nations, their manners, and rurak
labours, were alfo recorded in numbers. Hence it was
that Greece could boaft of a Homer, a Hefiod, and of other
poets, fome ages before an hiftorian had written in profe,
Amongit the Gauls alfo, and other Celtic nations, there
were poems compofed on various fubjeéts from the earlieft
ages. Diodorus Siculus is the firit author among the an-
cients, who mentions the bards as the compofers of verfes
which they fung to the found of an inftrument not unhke a
lyre (1. v. § 31-). Ammianus Marceilinus informs us (1. xii.
¢. 9.), that the bards celebrated the brave actions of iluf-
trious men in heroic poems, which they fung to the fweet
founds of the lyre. This account of thefe Greek and Latin
writers is confirmed by the general {train and by many par-
ticular paffages of the poems of Offian. ‘ Beneath his
own tree, at intervals, each bard fat down with his harp ;
they raifed the fone and touched the ftring, each to the
chief he loved.?? But this union between poetry and mufic
did not fubfitt very long, in its-greatetl ftricticls, perhaps,
in any country. The muticians foon became very nume-
rous, and thofe of them who had not a genius for com.

4K2 poling

.

BARDS.

pofing verfes of their own, affifted in finging the verfes of
others to the mufic of their harps. Many of thofe fong-
fters, or parafites (as Atheneus, 1. vi. c. 12. calls them),
which the Celtic princes took with them when they went to
war, were mere muficians, and the fongs which they fung
were compofed by thofe among them who had a poetical
genius, and were called bards. Offian, however, excelled as
much both in vocal and inftrumental mufic as he did in
poetry, and he feems to have had no idea of playing on an
iifirument without fingine at the fame time. Whenever his
bards touch the ftring, they always raife the fong.

The bards conftituted one of the moft re{pected orders of
men in the ancient Britifh ftates; and many of the greatett
kings, heroes, and nobles, efteemed it an honour to
be enrolled in this order. They enjoyed, by law and
cuftom, many honourable diftinétions and valuable pri-
vileges. Kings and princes made choice of bards
to be their bofom-friends and conftant companions:
indulged them with the greateft familiarity, and gave them
the moft flattering titles. Their perfons were held facred
and inviolable; and the moft cruel and bloody tyrants dared
not to offer them any injury. The bards, as well as the
druids, were exempted from taxes and military fervices, even
in times of the greateft danger; and when they attended
their patrons in the field, to record and celebrate their great
actions, they hada guard afligned them for their protection.
At all feftivals and public aflemblies they were feated near
the perfon of the king or chieftain, and fometimes even
above the greateft nobility and chief officers of the court.
Nor was the profeffion of the bard lefs lucrative than ho-
nourable. For, befides the valuable prefents which they oc-
calionally received from their patrons, when they gave them
uncommon pleafure by their performances, they had eftates
in land allotted for their fupport. Nay, fo great was the
veneration-which the princes of thefe times entertained for
the perfons of their poets, and fo highly were they charmed
and delighted with their tuneful ftrains, that they fome-
times pardoned even their capital crimes for a fong. It may be
reafonably fuppofed that a profeffion, which was fo honour-
able and advantageous, and to which were annexed fo many
flattering diftinétions and defirable immunities, would not
be deferted. Accordingly, the accounts we have of the
numbers of the bards in fome countries, particularly in Ire-
Jand, are hardly credible. In the poems of Offian we often
read of 100 bards belonging to one prince, finging and
playing in concert for his entertainment. Every chief bard,
who was called Allah Redan, or door in poetry, was al-
lowed to have 30 bards of inferior note conttantly about his
perfon ; and every bard of the fecond rank was allowed a
retinue of 15 poetical difciples. But it is probable that
the bards of Britain and Ireland were not fo numerous at
an early period as they became afterwards; nor were they
then guilty of thofe crimes by which they at length for-
feited the public favour. In this moft ancient period, the
Britifh bards feem to have been in general men of genius
and virtue, who merited the honours which they enjoyed.
Though the ancient Britons of the fouthern parts of this
ifland had originally the fame tafte and genius for poetry
with thofe in the north, yet none of their poetical compo-
fitions have been preferved; and this may be eafily account-
ed for. After the provincial Britons had fubmitted quietly
to the Roman government, yielded up their arms, and had
Joft their free and martial f{pirit, they could take little plea-
fre in hearing or repeating the fongs of their bards, in ho-
nour of the glorious atchievements of their brave anceftors.
The Romans too, if they did not praétife the fame barba-
rous policy which was long after practifed by Edward I, of

putting the bards to death, would at leaft difcourage them,
and di{countenance the repetition of their poems for very ob«
vious reafons. Thefe fons of the fong being thus perfecuted by,
their conquerors, and neglected by their countrymen, either
abandoned their country or their profeffion; and their fongs,
being no longer heard, were foen forgotten. But fo satu-
ral was a taite for poetry to the original inhabitants of
this ifland, that it was not quite deftroyed by their long
fubjection to the Romans, but appeared again in the poi-
terity of the provincial Britons, as foon as they recovered
their martial fpirit, and became a free, brave, and indepen-
dent people. Nennius, who wrote in the ninth century,
and in the reign of prince Mervyn, is the firft of the Bri-
tifh hiltorians who mentions the bards. He fays, that
Talhaiar was famous for poetry: that Aneurin and Talie-
fin, Llywarch-hen and Chian, flourifhed in the 6th century.
Of thefe bards, the works only of three are extant; thofe
of Aneuryn, Taliefin, and Llywarch-hen. Befides the
bards already mentioned, there were others who flourifhed
during this period; of whom the moft eminent was Merd-
din Wyllt, who compofed a poem called Afallenau, or the
orchard. From the fixth to the tenth century it is difficult
to meet with any of the writings of the bards, owing pro-
bably to the devaftations of war, and to the civil diflenfions
among the Welfh.

Such was the refpeét in which the bards were held, that
by a law of Howel Dha, whoever ftruck any one of this
order muit compound for the offence by paying to the
party aggrieved one-fourth more than was neceflary to be
paid to any other perfon of the fame degree.

The eletion of the bards was made every year, in an af-
fembly of the princes and chieftains of the country, in which
they were afligned precedence and emolument fuitable to
their merit; byt the bard moft highly diftinguifhed for-his ta-
lents was folemnly chaired, and had likewile a badge given
him of a filver chain. This congrefs of the bards was nbeally
held at the royal refidence of the prince of Wales; the fo-
vereign himfelf prefiding in that aflembly. The bards, pro-
perly fo called, were diitinguifhed from the Druids and Eu-
bates or Ovates, by the colour of their drefs; they were
clad in fly-blue garments, whilft the Druids wore white, and
the Ovates green. Their difciples were arrayed in yarie-
gated garments of thefe three colours united. They held
their meetings in circles of unwrought itones, aftronomically,
placed as indexes of the feafons, in the open air, and when the
fun was above the horizon, or as they exprefled it, in the
face of the fun, and in the eye of the light. They had four
principal meetings in the courfe of the year. The firft was
on the winter folitice, called A/ban Arthan, which was the
beginning of their year; the fecond on the vernal equinox,
or Alban Eilir; the fummer folitice, or Alban Hevin, was,
the third ; and the autumnal equinox, or d/ban Elved, was.
the fourth folemn convention. ye x?

It appears, upon a clofe examination of its principles,
that one of the primary intentions of bardifm was, that it
fhould be a regular fyftem for preferving authenticated,
records and various kinds of knowledge in the national me-.
mory, as it were, by means of oral tradition. And, in or=
der that nothing fhould have currency without due confi-
deration, whatever was intended to be received into fuch a
public record, whether the hiftorical and aphoriltical triad,
or the dida&tic fong, was always laid before the grand
meetings. There it was difcufled with the moft feruti-.
nizing feverity; if then admitted, it was re-confidered:
at the fecond meeting; if then approved of, it was re-
ferred to the third meeting; and being approved of by,
that, it was ratified or confirmed; otherwife it was re-

ferred, _

————— a a ee ee

PE RS RR I

BARDS.

ferred to the triennial fupreme convention for ultimate con-
fideration. At this national meeting, all that had been con-
firmed at the provincial aflemblies were alfo recited; and the
difciples, who there attended from every province, were en-
joined to learn them, in order that they might become as
widely diffufed aspoflible. What was thus folemnly fanctioned
was to be recited for ever afterwards, annually at leait, in
addition to the former bardic traditions, in the fecondary
meetings of diitri¢ts, and alfo at one or other of the four
grand meetings. Such being the bardic eftablifhment, by
which tradition became formed into a well-combined fei-
ence, we may rely on its triads for the beft illuftration of its
principles.

The three cultivators of fong and imagination among the
nation of the Cymry were Gwy zon Ganhebon, who was the firlt
jn the world that compofed poetry ; Hu the mighty, who
firft applied poctry to preferve memorials and compofition ;
and Tydain Tad Awen, or Tydain father of the mufe, who
firft reduced poetry to an art, and eftablifhed rules for com-
pofition. And from what thofe three perfons executed,
originated bards and bardifm, as conflituted with privilege
and cuftom by the three inftitutional bards, namely Plenuyz,
Alon, and Gwron. They eftablifhed the privileges and
cuftoms which appertain to bards and bardi{m, and there-
fore they are called the three inftitutors. Neverthelefs there
were bards and bardifm before their time; but they were not
under the regulation of inviolable tranfit ; and they had nei-
ther privileges nor cuftoms, except what were obtained
through civility and courtefy, under the prote¢tion of the
country and nation, before the time ot thefe three. Some
fay that they were contemporary with Prydain, fon of Aez
the Great ; but according to others, they lived in the time
of Dyunaval Moel Mud, hisfon, who, in fome of the old
books is called Dyvnvarth, fon of Prydain. For a further

‘account of thefe inftitutional bards, and of the triads that

exhibit their chara¢ter, office, and privileges, and that illuf-
trate their theology, we muft refer the curious. who with
for further information on this fubjeét, to Williams’s Poems,
lyric and paitoral, in 2 vols. 8vo.. London, 17943; and to
Owen’s Heroic Elegies of Llywarch-hen, in 1 vol. 8vo.
London, 1792. According to the latter of thefe writers,
the bards were divided into Bards Braint, who were the
civil magiftrates ov judges; and Bards Druid, who were
the priefts of the community.
From the triads above referred to the reader may deduce
a correé outline of bardifm; and as to the detail of its va-
rious parts, he may be furprized to be told that they are
fill preferved in various memorials of the ancient Britons,
and in the meniory of its initiated ; though it is generally
fuppofed that this extraordinary fyftem, known to the world
under the name of Druidifm, has perifhed above fifteen hun-
dred years paft, except the few hints civen of it by Greek
and Roman writers. Loft it certainly would have been but
for its extraordinary means and precaution for felf-preferva-
tion ; efpecially in the middle ages, when it had to with-
ftand the perfecutions of the popifh church in the fulnefs of
its power. Here it may be worthy to remark that bardif{m
contains a great many things to induce a conviction of its
being’ the parent of free-mafonry ; and fome of the princi-
les taught in both are the fame in expreffion; and
indeed. it is very remarkable, that artifan, or mafon, is ex-
aédy the meaning of ovyz, or ovate, the name of the third
olafs of bards ; and im this chara&ter only could the bards
meet under cover. Free-mafons do fo now: but they pre-
ferve a traditionary memorial of their meeting anciently on

the tops oftheir hicheft hills, and in the bottoms of the

loweft vales, and when the fun was in its due meridian.
Thus bardifm, whofe principles were to. be diffufed in the

face of the fun and in the eye of the light, for the fake of
truth and felf-prefervation, had the means of becoming even
more feeret than mafonry veiled in the darknefs of night.

Therewere three different claflesof this order in Wales: the
firft was called “ Beirdhs,”’ and they were the compofers of
verfes and odes in various meafures; they were likewife the
recorders of the arms of the Welfh chieftains, and the repo-
fitories alfo of the genealogies of families. This clafs was
accounted the moft honourable, and was high in the public
eftimation. The fecond clafs, called ‘* Minftrels,”’ were per-
formers upon inftruments, chiefly the harp and the crwth.
The third were thofe who fung to mufical inftruments in
general, and were called <¢ Datgeiniaid.”

The talents of the Welth bards were not folely employed
in preferving the defcents of families, in the praife of heroes,
or in recording their illuftrious aétions; they fometimes in
plaintive numbers mourned over the tomb of the fallen
wartior.

When tyranny ereéted her banner in Wales, by the cruel.
policy of Edward in the maflacre of the‘bards, that ancient
feat of mufic and poetry was deferted bythe mufes, and confe-
quently was deprived of thofe fafcinating arts which foftened,
at the fame time that they invigorated, the genius of the peo-
ple. During the fpirited, and for a while the profperous
infurreétion of Owen Glendwrdwy, the mufes revifited their
native feats, encouraged by the munificence of that leader,
and animated by the tranfitory ray which had dawned upon
freedom. When the Welfh had made the laft effort for
their expiring freedom, they funk into a ftate of flavery the
moft deep and fevere. The bards were prohibited by law
from making their annual progrefs, and from holding pub-
lic affémblies ; which privileges were called by the natives
“ clera” and ‘ cymhortha.”? During this period, and the
conteft between the houfe of York and Lancaiter, the ge-
nius of poetry was nearly extinguifhed, or was only em-
ployed in foothing the mifery-of the times, by ob{cure predic-
tions of more profperous days. A brighter profpect opening
on this nation in the reign of Henry VII. a feries of bards
arofe from that time; and thefe bards, being fupported in
the families of the Welth chieftains, afcertained and preferved-
their genealogies ; and as the caufes of reciting warlike ex-
ploits had ceafed, they celebrated the civil virtues of their
patrons, their magnanimity, their hofpitable {pint, their ta-
lents, aud the graces of their perfons. They likewife,
amidit other duties, had the mournful office of compofing
an elegy on the death of the chieftam in whofe family they
refided, which was fung to the furviving relations in honour
of the dead, reciting the noble families from which the de-
ceafed had fprung, and the great.aétions performed by him--
felf or his anceitors.

Since the reign of queen Elizabeth,. there has not been
any regular affembly of the bards.. The motives to emula--
tion having ceafed, and the fpirit of ancient freedom being
extinguifhed, the poetic fire, for which the Welfh nation
had been fo renowned, gradually declined. But a fpark of
that ancient’ fire {till remains in the genius of the Welth,
which, in the feafons of their feftivity, breaks out into.a fin-
gular kind of poetry, called pennyil.”? Even at-this day
fome vein of the ancient minftrelfy furvives: among the
Welth mountains. Numbers of perfons affemble, and fit
round the harp, finging alternately “ pennillion,” or ftanzas:
of ancient or modern compofitions. Often, like the mo-
dern improvifatore of Italy, they fing extempore verfes 5.
and a perfon converfant in this art readily produces a ‘¢ pen-
nyll”? appofite to the laft that was fung. Many have their”
memories ftored with feveral hundreds, perhaps thoufands of
« pennillion,”” fome of which they have always ready for-

aniwers to every fubjeét that can be propofed, or if thein-
3 recol--

BA

recolleétion fhould fail them, their invention fupplies them
with fomething pertinent and proper for the occation.

Bards have been found in many countries ; and continued
in Ireland and Scotland, as well as in Wales, to our own days.
The genealogical fonnets of the Irifh bards are ftill the
chief foundations of the ancient hiftory of Ireland.

Spenfer, the poet, in his view of the ftate of Ireland in
the reign of queen Elizabeth, obferves that he caufed feveral
compoiitions of the bards to be tranflated ; ** and furely,”
he adds, “* they favoured of fweet wit and good invention,
but {killed not of the goodly ornament of poetry ; yet were
they {prinkled with fome pretty flowers of their natural de-
vice, which gave good grace and comelinefs unto them ; the
which it is great pity to fee fo abufed, to the graceing of
wickednefs and vice, which with good ufage would ferve
to adorn and beautify virtue.” ; :

The fongs of the Irifh bards, fays Warton in his * Hif-
tory of Englifh Poetry’’ (diff. i. vol. i.), ave by fome con-
ceived to be ftrongly marked with the traces of Scaldic
imagination ; ard thefe traces are believed {till to furvive
among a {pecies of poetical hiftorians, whom they call « Tale-
Tellers,” fuppofed to be the defcendants of the original Irith
bards. The Irifh hiftorians inform us that St. Patrick,
when he converted! Ireland to the Chriftian faith, deftroyed
300 volumes of the fongs of the Irifh bards. Such was
their dignity in this country, that they were permitted to
wear a robe of the fame colour with that of the royal fami-
ly. They were conftantly fummoned to a triennial feftival ;
and the moft approved fongs deliveted at this affembly were
ordered to be preferved in the cuitody of the kiag’s hiftorian
orantiquary. Many of thefe compofitions are referred to by
Keating, as the foundation of his hiftory of Ireland. Ample
eflates were appropriated to them that they might live in a
condition of independence and eafe. The profeflion was
hereditary ; but when a bard died, his eftate devolved not to
his eldeft fon, but to fuch of his family as difcovered the moft
diftinguifhed talents for poetry and mufic. Every principal
bard, as we have already obferved, retained thirty of inferior
note as his attendants; and a bard of the fecondary clafs
was followed by a retinue of fifteen. They feem to have
been at their height in the year 558. None of their poems
have been tranflated.

In the highlands of Scotland there are confiderable re-
mains of many of the compofitions of their old bards {till
preferved. But the moft genuine, entire, and valuable re-
mains of the works of the ancient bards, and perhaps the
_ nobleit fpecimen of uncultivated genius, are the poems of
Offian, the fon of Fingal aking of the Highlands of Scot-
land, who flourifhed in the fecond or third century, lately
colleGed by Mr. Macpherfon, and by him tranflated from
the Erfe or Gaelic language into Englith. Dr.” John-
fon, indeed, has fuggefted his doubts concerning the exift-
ence of any fuch ancient MSS. as thofe from which the
poems of Offian have been tranflated. But this is nota
place for difcuffing this fubje& of controverfy. Admitting,
however, their genuinenefs upon the whole, whatever addi-
tions may have been made to them, they afford an admirable
fpecimen of what might be the conceptions of ancient bards.
Thefe poems, fays Warton (ubi fupra), notwithflanding the
difference between the Gothic and the Celtic rituals, contain
many vilible veftiges of Scandinavian fuperftition. The al-
lufions in the fongs of Offian to fpirits who pretfide over the
different parts, and direét the various operations of nature,
who fend ftorms over the deep, and rejoice in the fhrieks of
the fhipwrecked mariner, who call down lightning to blaft the
foreft or cleave the rock, and diffufe irrefiftible pettilence
among the people, beautifully conduéted and heightened
under the Qgilful hand of a mafter bard, entirely correfpond

RDS.

with the Runic fyftem, and breathe the fpirit of its poetry. |
Had Offian found it convenient to have introduced religion
into his compofitions, not only a new fource had heen epen-
ed to the fublime, in defcribmg the rites of facrifice, the
horrors of incantation, the folemn invocations of infernal
beings, and the like dreadful fuperititions, but probably
many ftronger and more characteriftical evidences would
have appeared of his knowledge of the imagery of Scan-
dinavian poets.

The remains of Taliefin, and other Welth poets, affiit us
in forming a competent judgment upon this fubjeét. See
Evans’s Differtation de Bard:s. Jones’s Muiical and Poeti-
cal Relics of the Welfh Bards.

It is not improbable, fays Warton (ubi fupra,) that the
Welth bards might have been acquainted with the Scandi-
navian Scalds, at. leait before their communication with Ar-=
morica. The bards flourifhed moft in thofe parts of Bri-
tain which moft ftrongly retained their native Celtic cha-
raGer. The profody of the Welfh bards depended much
on alliteration ; hence they feem to have paid an attention
to the Scaldic verfification. The Iflandic poets are faid to
have carried alliteration to the higheft pitch of exaétnefs m
their earlieft periods ; whereas the Welth bards of the fixth
century ufed it but fparingly, and in an imperfect degree:
from this circumftance we may deduce a proof-of imitation,
or at leait of emulation. There are, moreover, ftrong
traces of conformity between the manners of the two na-
tions. Befides, the Scandinavian Scalds were well known:
in Ireland; and there is fufficient evidence to prove that the
Welfh bards were early connected with the Infh. Even fo
late as the eleventh century, the praCtice continued among the
Welth bards of receiving inftruétions in the bardic pr on
from Ireland. The Welth bards were reformed and regulated
by Gryffyth ap Conan, king of Wales, in the year 1078. ©
At the fame time he brought over with him from Ireland
many Irifh bards for the information and improvement of
the Welfh. In Ireland, to killa bard was highly criminal;
and to feize his eitate, even for the public Sexvied and in
time of national diftrefs, was deme an ad of facrilege.
Thus, in the old Welth laws, whoever even flightly injured
a bard, was to be fined 6 cows and 120 pence. ‘The mur-
derer of a bard was to be fined 126 cows. Moreover, an
intercourfe was neceflarily produced between the Welfh and
Scandinavians from the piratical irruptions of the latter. It
may be added, that the Welfh, although living in a Sac
and detached fituation, and fo ftrongly prejudiced in favour
of their own ufages, yet from neighbourhood and unayoid-
able communications of various kinds, might have imbibed
the ideas of the Scandinavian bards from the Saxons and
Danes, after thofe nations had occupied and overfpread alk
the other parts of ourifland. (See Scatps.) The effe&t of
an intercourfe with Armorica is perceived in the compofi-
tion of thofe Welth bards who flourifhed after the native
vein of Britifh fabling had been tin@ured by the “ fairy
tales” which had been propagated by the Arabians in Ar-
morica, and which the Welth had received from their con-
neétion with that province of Gaul. It is eafy to collec
from the Welfh odes, written after the tenth century, many
fignatures of this exotic imagery. See Scanpinay14, and
ARMORICA. i

BARDSEY-Iste, in Geography,anifland of Wales, called
in Welth 2+ Ynis Enili, or the ifland in the current, fromthe
fierce current which runs between it and the main land; and.
Bardfey, probably from the bards who retired here. It °
forms the north point of Cardigan bay, and is fituated op-
pofite to it, within the county of Caernarvon. At Aberdaron
bay there is good anchorage; but the entrance for large
fhips is very difficult. It was to this place that Dubritius,

a

BAR

archbithop of Cacrleon, retired after he had refigned his fee
to St. David, and here he is faid to have died in 612, Bard»
Sey Abbey, of which the remains are confiderable, was found-
ed in the year 516. A fingular oratory belonging to it,
confilts of a long arched edifice, with an infulated {tone al-
tar near the eaft end. The ifland forms a remarkably fertile
and well cultivated plain of about two miles in compafs, It
contains a few inhabitants, and is rented from lord Newbo-
rough, It was granted by Edward VI. to his uncle fir
Thomas Seymour, and after his death to the earl of War-
wick. he late fir John Wynn purchafed it from the late
Rey. Dr. Wilfon of Newark. It is 10 leagues N.E. by
N. of Caernarvon bar, and 12 leagues N. by W. of Holyhead
in the ifle of Anglefea, N. lat. 52° 58’. W. long. 5° 5’.

BARDSTOWN, a town of Kentucky, inthe United
States of North America, and chief place of the county of
Nelfon, onthe Beech Fork river; about 25 miles from the
Ohio, N. lat. 37° 48’. W. long. 86° 13’ 30”.

BARDT, or Barrtu, a polt-town of Germany, in the
duchy of Pomerania, fituatedin a {mall bay on the Baltic,
fix leagues weit from Stralfund, . It belongs to Sweden.
N, lat. 54° 20’. E. long. 13° 20’.

BARDUBITZ, or Parpvusirz, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Chrudim, celebrated for its manufactures ;
feated on the Elbe; fix miles north of Chrudim.

BARE, ina general fenfe, fignifies not covered. Hence
* we fay bare-headed, bare-footed, &c.

The Roman women, in times of public diftrefs and mourn-
ing, went bare-headed; with their hair loofe.

Among Greeks, Romans, and Barbarians, we find a
feait called nudipedalia, at which perfons were to attend
bare-footed.

The Abyffinians never enter their churches but bare-
footed ; not on account of Mofes, who was commanded to
put off his fhoes on mount Sinai, but in reverence of the
place; as isalfo done by them in entering the palaces of
kings and great men.

Sagittarius has a diflertation on thofe who went bare-
footed among the ancients, ‘* De Nudipedalibus Veterum ;”
wherein he treats of fuch as went bare-footed in journies or
otherwife, either out of choice or neceflity; allo of bare-
footed religious mourners and penitents, who went bare-
footed ; and, laftly, of the /eviri.

Bare, in refpect of Manufadure. A cloth is faid to be
bare or naked when the nap is too fhort, as ‘having been
fhorn too near, or not being fufficiently covered with wool
by the teazel.

Bars is alfo ufed for a fort of bowling ground, not co-
vered with green fwarth.

Bare-Poot CarmMeE ites, and Auguflines, are religious
of the order of St. Carmel, and St. Auguftin, who go
without fhoes like the Capuchins.

There are alfo bare-foot fathers of mercy. Formerly
there were bare-foot Dominicans and bare-foot nuns of the
order of St. Auguttin.

Bare-Footed Trinitarians. See TrintTARIan.

Bare-Poles, under, in Sca Language, exprefles the flate
of afhip, when fhe has no fail fet.

Bare-Pump. See Pump.

Bare, in Geography, an ifland in the Southern Pacific
ocean, near the eaft coaft of New Ireland. It is high land,
not fertile, but inhabited; fituate in S. lat. 39° 57’, and
$.S.W. from cape Kidnappers.

Bare Haven, lies on the coatt of Nova Scotia, in North
America, about three leagues S.W. from cape Canfo. It
is fheltered by an ifland off the point called White point.

BAREA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,

BAR

Ayes the Iberian fea, in the country of the Baftuli, Pto»
emyen oy

BAREE, in Geography, a province of Hindooftan, in
the country of Lahore, between the rivers Rauvee, Beyah,
and Setledge.

BAREGE Waters, inthe Materia Medica, ave cele-
brated thermal waters, fituated in and near the vi lage of
Barege, on the French fide of the Pyrenées, at the foot of
thefe lofty mountains. There are four principal hot {prings
in this place, which differ, however, very confiderably in tem-
perature, the higheit being about 120° Fahr. and the loweft
about 73°. This variety of heat gives every convenience,
for bathing, drinking, and topical application. Chemical
analyfis fhews in this water a quantity of fulphur, in the
form of fulphurated hydrogen, united to a {mall portion of
foda, a little common falt, anda kind of flimy bituminous
matter. The fulphur and the foda, together with the
heat, may be confidered as the ative ingredients, but the
quantity of them is very fmall; as the water fcarcely ex-
ceeds diftilled water in f{pecific gravity.

The waters of Barege are remarkable for a {mooth foapy
feel, and they give fupplenefs and fmoothnefs even to dead
{in that is immerfed in them. They are ufed chiefly as a
difeutient and detergent bath, in refolving indolent tumours
and rigidity of the joints left by gouty or rheumatic affec-
tions. They are alfo of great advantage in cutaneous dif-
eafes. Internally taken, the water gives relief in diforders
of the ftomach, heartburn, indigeftion, colic, and alfo in
feveral calculous affections of the urinary organs, Saunders
on Mineral Waters. ,

BAREITH, Bareturu, or Bayreurna,in Geography,
a town of Germany, in Franconia, in the margravate of
Culmbach. It is the capital of the principality, and often
called the principality of Bareuth. Its palace, which was
burnt down in the year 1753, was again rebuilt in a beauti-
ful ftyle. It has one Calvinift and two Lutheran churches, a
Roman catholic chapel, a public fchool, a foundling hofpi-
tal, and an academy, founded in 1722 by the margrave Fre-
deric, befides the college. In 1430, this town was burnt
down by the Huffites. It belonged to a prince of the houfe
of Brandenburg, the laft of whom dying in r78z, it defcend-
ed tothe king of Pruffia. Near the Fichtelburg, Bareuth
produces a variety of beautiful marbles, and fome curious mi-
nerals. ‘The principality of Bareuth is alfo known by the
name of Culmbach; and with Onolfbach, forms the chief
power in Franconia, now annexed to the fovereignty of
Proffia, N. lat. 50°0’. E. long. 11° 50’,

BARELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the province of
Oude; 41 miles S.S.E. of Lucknow.

BAREN, a river of Germany, which runs into the Roer,
near Schwiert, in the county of Marck, and circle of Wett-

halia.
: Baren, a town of Swifferland, in the Valais, 25 miles
eaft of Sion.

BARENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Media, near Ecbatana. Steph. Byz.

BARENFELS, in Geography, atown of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Erzgeburg, two
miles weft of Altenberg.

BARENSTEIN; or Bernstein, a town of Germany,
in the circle of Upper Saxony, and margravate of Meiflen,
17 miles fouth of Drefden.

BARENT, Dretericx, in Biography, a painter of
hiftory and portrait, was born at Amfterdam in 1534; and
having received early inftruétion from his father, travelled ta
Venice, where he was admitted into the fchool of Titian,
and became the favourite difciple of that inimitable maf-

ter

BAR

ter. With Titian he continued feveral years, and painted
a portrait of him which gained him great reputation 5
and he was fingularly fuccefsful in imitating the touch,
the manner, and the ftyle of colouring, peculiar to that
excellent genius. Upon his return to his own country, he
was very much employed in works that added to his ho-
nour; but the compofition which contributed more than
any other to eftablifh his fame, was the picture which re-
prefented the fall of Lucifer, containing a number of fi-
gures, naked, well contrafted, and excellently coloured.
He died inr582. Pilkington.
BARENTIN, in Geography,a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Seine, 3 leagues N.W. of Rouen.
BARENTON, a town of France, in the department
of the Channel, and chief place of a canton in the dif-
tri& of Mortain, feated at the fource of the Ardée, dif-
tant feven leagues E.S.E. from Avranches, and 13 S.E. of
Mortain. The place contains 3117 and the canton 9982
inhabitants; the territory includes 147} kiliometres and
four communes. _
BARESUND, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the pro-
~ vince of Eaft Gothland, between Nordkioping and Soder-
kioping. i
BARETTI, Joserx, in Biography, was the fon of
an architeét of reputation, and born at Turin about the
year 1716. He received a good education, but fquander-
ed his patrimony in gaming. Being of a rambling and
defultory difpofition, he was frequently reduced, notwith-
ftanding his talents and literary charaéter, to circumftances
of diftrefs. In 1748, he was employed at Venice in
teaching the Italian language to fome Englifh oe:
and in 1750, at the initigation of lord Charlemont, he
vifited England, which was the place of his fuiure refi-
dence. Poffeffing a wonderful facility in acquiring the
knowledge of languages, as well asa critical acquaintance
with his own, his talents were well adapted to the profef-
fion of a teacher of languages, in which he engaged. In
1753 he wrote a treatife in Englifh, which was “ A De-
fence of the Poetry of his native country againft the cen-
fures of Voltaire.?? About this time an acquaintance com-
menced between Baretti and Dr. Johnfon, which was kind
and cordial on the part of the latter, and refpectful in the
higheft degree on the part of the former. Ass he had ac-
quired reputation by fome works which he had publifhed
on the Italian language and literature, he availed himfelf
of his friend’s Englifh diétionary to compile a diCtionary
of the Italian and Englith languages, which firft ap-
peared in 1760, and which maintains its fuperiority
over all other works of the fame kind. In this year
he vifited his native country, with fome profpects of
preferment, in which he was difappointed ; but on his ar-
rival he publifhed at Venice a periodical work, intitled
« Frafta Literaria,”” under the character of an old complain-
jing foldier who was returned to his country after long ab-
fence. His criticifms, however, in this work, which met
with great fuccefs, were fo fevere, that he was obliged to
Jeave the country ; and after an abfence of fix years, he
returned through Spain and Portugal to England. In 1768
he publifhed « An Account of the Manners and Cuftoms
of Italy,” intended chiefly as a reply to the fevere ftriGures
of Mr. S. Sharp;‘thefurgeon, in his “ Letters from Italy.””
By Dr. Johnfon he wasi oduced into the family of Thrale
both as a teacher and a literary guefl. In 1769, he vifited
Spain, probably intending to complete his account of a
tour in that country. Soon after his return, an accident

occurred, which was followed by very diftreffing confe-
quences. Having engaged in an angry altercation with a

woman of the town in the Hay-market, he was accofted by

BAR

three men, who'infulted and joftled him. Alarmed for his
life, Baretti took outof his pocket a French defert knife
and attacked one of the affailants; and unfortunately pur.
fuing the conteft and repeating the blows, he inflidted wounds
which proved fatal. He was arrefted and tried for murder
at the Old Bailey. In this trial the public were much in«
terefted; and a number of men of the firtt literary eminence
appeared to bear teftimony to Baretti’s charaGter ; amon
whom were Johnfon, Burke, Garrick, Gold{mith, Rey-
nolds, and Beauclerk. ‘The event was the acquittal of
Baretti; but the charge very materially affected his reputa-
tion. In 1770 he publifhed his “ Journey from London
to Genoa, through England, Portugal, Spain, and France,”
4 vols. 8vo. which was defervedly well received; and he
continued publifhing introdu€tory works for the ufe of
ftudents in the Italian and fome other modern languages.
Although he had been .dometticated in the family of
Mr. Thrale, he left it in 1776, in difeutt, and by this fudden
{tart of whim or ill-humour, involved the latter part of his
life in many inconveniences and difficulties. His attempt,
in 1779, for introducing to the public a claflical entertain-
ment, which was the “* Carmen Seculare’? of Horace fet to
mufic, failed of fuceefs. Reduced to a ftate of precarious
fubfiftence, he obtained under lord North’s adminiftration a
penfion from government of 8ol, a year, but during the
urgency of public wants this fell into arrear, and Baretti
could {earcely preferve himfelf from abfolute indigence.
His latt performance was publithed in 1786, and was inti-
tled « Tolendron : Speeches to John Bowle about his edition
of Don Quixote; together with fome account of Spanifh
literature.”? Opprefled by anxiety and uneafinefs of mind,
and with a conititution impaired by fits of the gout, he
died on May. sth, 1789: Baretti, although he had a
rough and fomewhat cynical appearance, was formed for
fociety, and his converfation was inftructive; particularly
to young perfons, with whom he had much intereourfe,
Having lived much in the world, and having had no op-
portunity in early life of acquiring fixed principles, | he
indulged a confiderable Jaxnefs and freedom of opinion,
However his integrity was unimpeached, his morals were
pure, and his manners were correct. His charity had no
bounds, and by the imprudence with which he exercifed
it, he was himtelf involved in difficulties. His literary ta-
lents, though not-of the higheft order, were ufeful and
agreeable. ‘I know no man,’’ faid Dr. Johnfon to Bof-
well, “ who carries his head higher in converfation than
Baretti; there are {trong powers in his mind; he has not;
indeed, many hooks, bue with what hooks he has he grapples
very forcibly.”’ Bofwell’s Lite of Johnfon, Europ, Magy
for 1789. Gen. Biog,

BAREUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a can«
ton in the diftri&t of Mauleon, 5 miles S.E. of Mauleon,

BAR-FEE, in Law, a fee of 20 pence, which every
perfon acquitted of felony pays the gaoler, ; ‘

BARFLEUR, in Geography, a {ea-port town of France,
in the department of the Channel. It had formerly a good
harbour and a confiderable trade; but in confequence of
neglect, the harbour is choaked with fand, and the trade
decayed. . Cape Barfleur is fix leagues eatt from Cherburg,
in N, lat. 49° 40’. W. long. 1° 177, ‘

BARGA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany,
on the river Senchio, two leagues from Lucca. eet

BARGAIN, in a General Senfe, a contra& either for the
fale, purchafe, or exchange of athing. ‘The word is formed
fromthe French barguigner, to darter or haggle. THe that
fells is the darzainor, and he that buysthe dargainee. —

Barcain and Sale, in Law, is properly a contract made

of

!
i

BAR

of manors, lands, and other things, Pasi the property
thereof from the dargainor to the bargainee, for a contidera-
tion in money: or, it is an inftrument by which the property
of lands and tenements is for valuable confideration granted
and transferred from one perfon to anotlier, It is called a
real contract upon a valuable confideration, for pafling of
lands, tenements, and hereditaments, by deed indented and
enrolled. 2 Inft. 672.

It is a good contraé for land, and the fee paffes, though
it be not faid in the deed, to have and to hold to him and his
heirs, and though there be no livery and feifin given by the
vendor, fo it be by deed indented, fealed, and enrolled,
either in the county where the land lies, or in one of the
king’s courts of record at Weitminiler, within fix mgnths
after the date of the deed.

This mannerof conveying lands was created and eftabiifhed
by the 27 Hea. VIII. c. 10. which executes all ufes raifed ;
and as this introduced a more fecret way of conveying than
was known to the policy of the common law, therefore the
enrolment of the deed of bargain and fale was made neceflary
by the 16th chapter of that ftatute. The objeéts of this
provifion evidently were, firft, to enforce the contracting
parties to afcertain the terms of the conveyance by reducing
It into writing ; fecondly, to make the proof of it eafy, by
requiring their feals to it, and confequently the prefence of
a witnefs; and laftly, to prevent the frauds of fecret convey-
ances, by fubftituting the more effeCtual notoriety of en-
rolment, for the more ancient one of livery. But the lat-
ter part of this provifion, which, if it had not been evaded,
would have introduced almoft an univerfal regifter of con-
veyances of the freehold, in cafe of corporeal hereditaments,
was foon defeated by the invention of the conveyance by
leafe and releafe, which fprung from the omiflion to extend
the ftatute to bargains and fales for terms of ycars: (See
8 Co. 93. 2 Ro. Abr. 204. 2 Inft. 671.) and the other
parts of the dtatute were ueceflarily ineffectual in our courts
of equity, becaufe thefe were {till left at liberty to compel
the execution of trufts of the freehold, though created
without deed or writing. The inconveniences arifing from
this infufficiency of the ftatute of enrolments, are now in
fome meafure prevented by ftat. 29 Car. II. c. 3. which
provides againft conveying any lands or hereditaments for
more than three years, or declaring trufts of them, other-
wife than by writmg. 1 Inft.. 48a. n. 3. See Blackit. Com.
vol. ii. p. 338. Jacob’s Law Di&. by Tomlyns, Art. Bar-
gain and Sale.

BarGains, in Commerce, are of divers kinds: verbal,
thofe made only by word of mouth, and giving earneft ;
qritten, thofe where the terms are entered in form on paper,
WOes

At Amfterdam they diftinguifh three kinds of bar-
gains. ; f

Barcains, Conditional, for goods which the feller has
not yet in his poffeffion ; but which he knows have been
bought for him by his correfpondents abroad, and which he
obliges himfelf to deliver to the buyer, on their arrival, at
‘the price and the conditions agreed on.

Barcains, Firm, thofe wherein the feller obliges himfelf
‘to deliver to the buyer a certain quantity of goods, at the
price and in the time agreed on.

Barcains, Optional, thoie wherein a dealer obliges him-
felf, in confideration of a premium received in hand, cither to
deliver or fake a certain quantity of goods at a fixed price,
and within a time limited ; but with a liberty, neverthelefs,
of not delivering or not receiving them, if they think proper,
upon forfeiture of their premium.

Barcains, Forehand, are thofe,wherein goods are bought
: Vou. Il.

BAR

or fold, in order to be delivered at a certain time afterwards,
{ome part of the price being advanced.

BARGASA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Caria, feated at the bottom of the gulf called Ceramicus.

BARGAZAR Pont, in Geography, a cape on the coaft
of Iceland. N. lat. 66° 18. W. long. 16 33’.

3ARGE, in Navigation, a kind of fate, or pleafure-
boat, or large lugpage-boat, ufed chiefly in the navigation
of rivers which lead to great citics.

Barges are of various kinds, and acquire various names,
according to the variety of their ufes and ftructure: as,

A company’s barge, A Severn trow,

A row barge, A Ware barge,

A royal barge, 4 licht horfeman,

A fand barge, A Wefi-country barge.

A barge differs from a bark, as being f{rmaller, and ufed
only on rivers ; whereas the latter goes out to fea.

There are alfo barges, belonging to men of. war, ferving
to carry generals, admirals, and chief commanders.

Sailing barges are velfels with one maft, and fometimes
abowfpnt. Thofe that have boom-fails, are rigged like
floops; but, having few hands on board, the boom and
gaff are more eafily hoifted or topped, the power beiig
increafed by the addition of blocks. Sailing lighters or
barges, with a f{prit-mainfal, rig with a fprit-yard at «the
head of the fail, hanging diagonally to the maft. Some
large barges have vangs like a fhip’s mizen, and a down-
hauler at the peek-end of the fprit-yard. Large barges
have a fore-fail, jib, crofs-jack-yard, and top-fail, fimilar to
floops.

Barce, or Barges, in Geography, a town of Piedmont,
ii the diftrict of the four Vallies, 74 miles fouth of Pine-
rola.

Barce-Prune, in Ornithology, Bufton’s name of the dufky
{nipe ; /colopax fufca, Gmelin.

Barce Blanche, is likewife a name affligned by Buffon to
the white avofet, recurvirofira alba, Gmelin.

Barce’ le Chatel, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Ain, and chief place of a canton in
the diftrict of Pont-de-Vaux, 44 leagues W.N.W. of Bourg-
en-Breffe. N. Jat. 46° 19. E. long. 4° 49’.

BarceE-Couples, in Architeé@ure, a beam mortifed into ano-
ther, to ftrengthen the building.

Barce-Courfe is ufed by workmen to fignify a part of
the tiling, which projects over the gable of a building, and
is made up with mortar.

BARGEMON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Var, and chief place of a canton in the
diitri@ of Draguignan, 2 leagues N.N.E. of Draguignan.

BARGH,, 1s ufed in fome places of England fora fteep
horfe-way up a hill.

It feems to come from the German bargh, a hill.

Barcu-Majter, Barmer, or Bar-Mafler, in the Royal
Mines, the tteward or judge of the barghmote.

The word is formed of the German éerg-meifler, q. d.
mafler of the mines.

The bar-mafter is to keep two great courts of barmote
yearly, and every week a {mall one, as occafion requires.

BARGHMOTE, or Barmors, a court which takes
cognizance of caufes and difputes between miners.

Some fuppofe it thus called from a dar, at which the
fuitors appear; others, with more probability, derive the
word from the German berg, a mine.

By the cuftom of the mines, no perfon is to fue any miner
for ore-debt, or for ore, or for any ground in variance, but
only in the court of barmote, on penalty of forfeiting the
debt, and paying the charge at law.

4L BARGI-

BAR
BARGIACIS, in Ancient Geography, 2 town of Hif-

pania Tarraconenfis, fituated in the imer part of the coun-
try, and in the termitory of the Vacceans. Ptolemy.

BARGIE, in Geography, the name of a barony in the
fouthern part of the county of Wexford, province of Lein-
fier, Ireland, which, with the adjoining one of Forth, was
peopled by the followers of earl Strongbow. The lan-
guage ufed there is faid to be a broken Saxon, more like
Flemifh than Englith, and net one in a hundred knows any
thing of Irifh. “ They are evidently,” fays Mr.Young, “‘a
diftinct people, and I could not but remark that their fea-
tures and cait of countenance yaried very much from the com-
moa native Irifh. ‘Vhe girls and women are handfome, hav-
ing much better features and complexions. Their induitry
is fuperior to ‘that of their neighbours; and their better
living and habitations are alfo diftinGtions not to be forgot-
ten. The poor have all barley bread and pork, herrings,
and potatoes. On the coaft there is a conliderable fifhery
of herrings.’? Both menand women wear ftraw hats, which
give them a comic appearance. The inhabitants are rec-
koned more induitrious and cleanly, and better farmers than
ja any other part of Ireland ; but Mr. Young found their
fyftem very defective. The farms were in general from 20
to So acres at an average rent of a guinea per acre. ‘The
foiljis hght, and being extremely well tilled, produces large
quantities ox barley. Young’s ‘Tour, and Latocnay’s Ram-
bles through Ireland.

BARGOSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
which was the country of the philofopher Zarmanochegas,
who committed himfelf to the flames in the prefence of
Auguitus, according to Strabo.

BARGOTA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Na-
varre 6 leagues from Eftella.

BARGULIA, or Bareutus, in Ancient Geography, a
place of Illyria, in the neighbourhood of the people deno-
minated Parthini, which Philip ceded to the Romans by a
treaty, 204 years before the vulgar era.

BARGUS, a river of Illyria, both fides of which were
inhabited by the Scordifei; it difcharged itfelf into the Ifter,
according to Strabo. Pliny fays, that a river of this name
flowed into the Hebrus.

BARGUSII, an ancient people of Spain, to whom en-
voys were fent from Rome to foligit the Spaniards to take
part with the Romans rather than with the Carthaginians.
They inhabited the interior of Spain, on the other fide of
the Ebrus; and were fubdued by Hannibal. Livy, 1. xxi.
€. IQ, 23. .

BARGUSIN, in Geography, a town of Siberia, in the
provinceef Nertfhinik, inthe government of Irkutik, formerly
an oftrog, now a circle-town, on the right bank of the river
Bargufin, 20 verfts above where it falls into the Bargufinian
bay of the Baikal, 53° lat. 127° long. 524 verits north-eaft
from Irkutfk. It is chiefly remarkable on account of the
baths in its diftri@. They were difcovered in a waite re-
gion, at the diftance of eighty verfts from any habitation.
M. Grand, furgeon to a regiment quartered in thofe parts,
having fuccefsfully preferibed the ule of thefe baths to fe-
veral patients, M. Von Klitfha, the governor of Irkutfk,
in 1779, caufed fome buildings to be erected there. They
have proved of great benefit to perfons afflicted with rheu-
matilm, fcurvy, phthifis, and other complaints of a like
nature. The water is drank either pure, or, on account of
its naufeous taite refembling that of rotten eggs, mixed with
milk. It promotes perfpiration, does not quench thirit, and
may be drank in Jarge portions, When boiled, it isof a very
agreeable talte, and is particularly good with tea.

“BARGYLA, Barcyiia, or BarGirEea, in Ancient

BAR

Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria, near Jafos
aud Mindos, It is mentioned by Pliny, Strabo, and Pto-
lemy. It was fituated near the Meander, fouth of Miletus.
M. d’Anville places it north-eaft of Halicarnaflus, on the
gulf called Taflius. ; '

BARGYLUS, a mountain ef Pheenicia, on the confines
of Syria, on the way towards Antiochene. — It was fituated
north of mount Libanus.

BARH-NAGASH, in Geography.
GASH.

BARI, a fea-port town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na
ples, on the coaft of the Adriztic ; once the capital of a
province of the fame name, and fee of an archbifhop. It
is well built, populous, and has a good trade. The har-
bou* was almoit deftroyed by the Venetians; 120 miles
E.N.E..of Naples. N. lat. 41° 31’. Evxlong. 17° 40% It
contains, fays Swinburne, about 6000 perfons.

Bari, or Terra di Bari, a province of Naples, deriving
its name from its capital. It is bounded on the north and
north-eait by the fea, on the eait and fouth-eaft by the pro-
vince of Otranto, on the fouth by the Bafilicata, and on
the weft and north-weft by the Capitanata. It is about
62 miles long, and its mean breadth is rather more than 20
miles. It produces corn, wine, oil, cotton, faffron, and
fruits ; and the coaft is guarded againft the corfairs by fix-
teen towers. Its fea-ports are Barletta, Trani, Bari, and
Molfetta ; its mountains are Sanazzo, Femina Morta, Lu-
pulo, Franco, and St. Agoftino ; and its riversare Ofanto
and Cane. The extent, according to Swinburne, 1s $69,097
moggie, 5 moggie being equal to 4 Englifh acres: and he
ttates the number of its) inhabitants to be 281,048. The
city of Bari is the ancient Barium; and coins ftruck by its
principal magiftrates itil exit. The Lombards, Greeks,
and Saracens difputed the poffeffion of this city in the ninth
century. Inthe tenth, it rofe to diitinétion on becoming
the retidence of the Greek catapan or viceroy, and of a me-
tropolitan bifhop. The book of conititutions, compiled
for the juridical government of the province, and ftill in
we, is a refpectable voucher for the importance and policy
of Bari, during the middle ages. About the year 1000,
Bari became the fcene of confpiracies and revolutions. Melo
confederated again{t the Grecian emperor in this place; but
it retained its fubjeCtion to the eaitern emperor, and was
one of the laft and firmeft fupports of his dominion. In
1067, Robert Guifcard invefted it by feaand land, and en-
clofed it by a femicircle of fhips joined together by chains
and booms, in order to:preyent its obtaining fuccours. This
blockade lafted four years. Earl Roger afterwards joined
his brother with a ftrong fleet, defeated the Imperial
{quadron fent for the relief of the city, aud made its ad-
miral prifoner ; upon which Bari opened its gates to the
conquerors. A citadel was ereéted by king Roger for fe-
curing the allegiance of this town, but it was hardly finifhed
when Lotharius razed it tothe ground. At this time, Bari
was a populous and {trong place.
with great feverity by William the Bad, who levelled the
dwellings of the inhabitants who joied in the grand pai
lion againft him to the ground. The city, however, mu
have rifen fpeedily out of its ruins, as the emperor Frede-
rick eftablifhed an annual fair here in 1233 ; but in 1248,
he ordered the town to be deftroyed, by way of punifhing
the inhabitants for treafonable practices. Bari requently
changed its proprietors, till it was fettled by Alphonfus the
fecond upon the family of Sforza, in contideratian of the
marriage of his daughter [fabella with the duke of Milan.
According to treaty, thefe eftates became the property of
Bona, queen of Poland, at whofe death this duchy returned

9

See Bauarna-

It was afterwards treated °

aw ge ag

“Sa5

BAR

to the crown, to which it has ever fince remained annexed.
Swinb. Travels, vol. ti. p. r, &c.

BARJAC, atewn of France, in the department of the
Gard, and chief place of acanton,iv the diitrict of Alais. The
place contains 1383 and the canton 4280 inhabitants: the ter-
ritory includes 167% kiliometres and 8 communes.

BARIANA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Alia, in
Mefopotamia. Ptolemy. ,

BARIARED, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Kerman, 19 leagues S.W. of Sirgian.

BARJEL, or Barnacvre Pont, isthefouth-eaftern limit
of Wiathorp’s bay on the north-eaft coaft of Antigua ifland,
and onthe weit fide of the channel into Parham harbour.

BARILLA, or Barizua, is the term by which the
impure mineral alkali from the coaits of Spain and fome
other parts of the Levant is known in commerce. That
from Alicant and the coaits of the province of Murcia is
the moft efteemed. It is brought over in the form of hard
brown fpeckled porous mafles almoft without fmell, and
tailing ftrongly alkaline. It is procured by burning to afhes
feveral plants growing on the fea-thore of the {pecies of
Saijola and Kali. For the particulars of this manufacture,
fee the article Sopa. The term Briti/h barilla is alfo applied
fometimes to Keir, a much more impure foda, and fome-
times, though improperly, to pear-/a/b, or the athes of plants
containing pot-a/s, the vegetable alkali. See Carznonar
of Soda.

BARILLARIUS, an ancient officer in monafteries and
great houfholds, who had the care of the cafks and veffels of
wine, &c. in the cellars.

» BARILLOVITZ, in Geography, a town of Croatia, on
the River Korana, 10 miles fouth of Carlitadt.

BARIN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Natolia, 12 miles fouth of Amafiah.

BARING oF Trees, in Agriculture.
ATION.

BARJOLS, in Geography, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Var, and chief place of a canton inthe diftri&
of Brignolles. The town is populous, andfituated in a plea-

> fant country; 9 leagues north of Toulon. The place con-
tains 3025 and the canton8079 inhabitants; the territory in-
cludes 250 kiliometresand 11 communes. N. lat. 43° 35’. E.
long. 5° 23’.

BARIQUISEMETO, a river of North America, in
the country of Terra Firma, which runs into the Oroo-
noko.

BARISSOGLEBSK, or BorrssoGressk, a town
newly erected by Catharine II. in the province of Yaroflaf,
is fituated on the Volga, 57° 39! lat. 57° 9/ longit. has 4
brick, and 417 wooden houfes, 2076 inhabitants, and a
brick church. The trade of this town coniifts in the pro-
duce of the fifhery and feveral manufactories of hardware,
chiefly pots and kettles. "The home and foreign trade to-
gether amount nearly to 60,000 rubles. There is alfo a {mall
town of the fame name, fituate 59° 50’ lat. and 60 longit.
on the Khoper, in the government of Tambof, confifting
of 400 timber-houfes, and 894 male inhabitants, feveral of
whom are fhop-keepers. It has two timber churches. The
merchants a few years fince infcribed themfelves in the re-
gilters as poffefling a capital of only 13,326 rubles. Here
isa confiderable diftillery.
~ BARITONO, in Mufic, a voice of low pitch, between
atenorand bafe. The term is formed of two Greek words
Caevsy grave, and 700, tone. But thofe whoare not partial
to bafe voices, rather choofe to derive the word from the
Italiaa verb darire, to bray. a

BARK, in Vegetable Anatomy, isaterm by which is com-
monly underitood the exterior part of vegetable bodies;

See ABLAQUE-

BAR

which is feparable from the other parts of the plantiwithout
much difficulty, during the feafon of vegetation ; but at éthet
periods requires maceration in water, or boiling, aad’whed
detached by any of thefe ineans, the finer connetidiia which
unite it to the wood are neceflarily deftroy

When bark is thus feparated, and fur}
pic examination, it exhibits parts differing: n in ftrué
and ufe. Thefe have been divided by anatomifls into fhe
epidermis or cuticle, the cellular en velope or parenchyma, aud
the cortical layers and liber. p ,

The Epidermis is fituated moft externally, and frives a cos
vering to every part of the vegetable body, except the am:
thers and piltils of flowers. Its texture is varied not only ace
cording to the {pecies of plant to which it belongs, but alfo by
the different parts of the fame plant ; thus, it is ftrong, drt,
and unyielding, upon the roots and trunks of trees ; com-
monly fmooth, gloffy, and flexile upoa leaves and flowers ;
andfometimes it is villous, or covered with fine projecting pro-
ceffes like hairs.

The moft ufual colour exhibited by the epidermis is that
of green upon the younger branches, and an afh-colour up-
on thofe parts of the plants which are moft aged; it is hows
ever white and fhining in the birch, red aud filvery ia the
cherry-tree, and brown upon the horfe-chefnut and apple-tree,
&c. The epidermis is notwith{tanding, in all cafes, a trani-
parent membrane, and derives its colour from the fubitance
which is placed immediately behind it, in the fame manner
as the colour of the fin of animals is produced by the exift-
ence of the mucous membrane.

In order to examine the epidermis of veretables with fuc-
cefs, it is neceffary to detach it from the cellular tiffue, upon
which it is immediately applied. This is not difficult to per-
form, when the plant is full of fap, at which time the epi-
dermis may be removed by a fine knife or lancet; but at
other periods it muft be fubmitted to a previous maceration
in-water before it will feparate. When a portion of the vege-
table cuticle is thus obtained, it fhould be infpeéted under
water or {pirits, and if viewed with a lens of moderate
power, it exhibits the appearance of a plexus or net-work, of
which the mefhes are not vacant, but filled by- a fine pellu-
cide membrane, as may be feen in Fig. 1. of Plate 1. in Ve-
getable Anatomy ; and the fibres compofing the reticulatic:
peat more condenfed in fome places than others, as repre-
{ented in the letters @ a. Hill deicribes the cuticle of plants
as a triple membrane, or three plexufes laid the one upon the
other.’ He obferved, by employing high magnifying pow-
ers, that thefe plexufes were of regular forms; that what
appeared as fibres in the perpendicular directions were longi-
tudinal veffels, and the {paces left between thefe veifels were
oblong cells, clofe at their bottom, but open at the top ; and
that the junétion of the cells occaifioned the appearance of
tranfverfe lines ; and thus the reticulation was rendered com-
plete. He even profeffed to have injected thofe vetfels, by
procuring an abforption of a folution of the ceruffa acetata,
or fugar of lead, and afterwards making it vilible by adding
a mixture of lime and ointment ; and in other initances he
filled the longitudinal veffels by the abforptign of the tinc-
ture of cochineal. ‘The defcription, which has been given’
of the epidermis by Hill, does not appear, however, to de-
ferve much attention, as it differs fo much from that of
other writers. It is indeed true, that Du Hamel and others
have obferved a fecond epidermis under the firit, which ap-
peared more green, frefh, and fucculent ; and that on thofe
trees which frequently caft the cuticle, as the birch, cherry-
tree, &c. there is a fucceffion of layers; but this does not
prove that the epidermis is not a fingle membrane when firlt
formed, and that where there are more layers than one, each
is a perfect cuticle, proceeding in its turn to be exfoliated -

4L2 or

ed to microfeo-

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or caft off. This mode of reparation refembles what takes
place in animals, efpecially in fomereptiles, which havethe new
cuticle perfectly formed, before the old one is parted with.
Upon the trunks of moft trees which are dicotyledons, the
fucceffive layers of epidermis continue to adhere together ;
each of thefe cracks, and gives way as the tree increafes in
thicknefs, and hence the deep clefts which always appear
inthe bark of trees of any age. The feveral lamin, which
are in this manner left furrounded by the cracks, are larger or
have more extent, the nearer they approach to the wood, 1n
confequence of themott external epidermis having firft yielded
to the growth of the tree.

Nofubject has occafioned greater controverfy amongitvege-
table anatomifts, than the mode in which the cuticle of plants
is formed. It was the opinion of Malpighi and Grew, thatthe
epidermis was produced by the lait velicles of the cellularenve-
lope, in confequence of their expofure to the air; but if the
cuticle was formed by the deficcation of the cellular tiffue, it
would not admit of that extenfion which takes place i all
circumitances toa certain degree, and which is fo remarkable
in the cuticle covering leaves, flowers, and fruits, and all parts
of which the growth is rapid.

Several other circumitances might be mentioned to fhew
that the epidermis can be produced by the drying of the
cellular fub{tance; thus when it is wounded or deftroyed, and
the part perfectly fecluded from the action of the air, a
new epidermis is foon produced without any exfoliation.
The cuticle is in fome inftances formed, and in others
continues to grow, under circumftances entirely beyond
the agency of heat and evaporation, as may be obferved in
the fetal plant, and its appendages, and the internal fur-
faces of buds, &c.; butalthough the epidermis does not
appear to be the cellular tiflue fimply dried by expofure, it
is fufliciently plain that it is the continuation of the fame
membrane which forms the cellular envelope.

Accordingtothe lateft obfervations made on this fubje& by
Mirbel, who is one of the moft ingenious vegetable anatomilts
of the prefenttime, thelines which give the reticulated appear-
ance to the epidermis, correfpond in figure with the celis of
the parenchyma, and are really the termination of the fepta of
thefe cells in the cuticle. (See fig. 2. Plate 1. Vegetable Ana-
tomy.) he tubular tiffue, which in fome cafes is perceived
upon the fuperficies of plants, enters alfo into the compofi-
tion of the epidermis, as reprefented in fig. 3. Plate I. Ve-
getable Anatcmy. 'Thefe {mall tubes are, however, upon clofe
infpection, found to be compofed of cells very much elong-
ated, from whence it would appear, that the cellular fub-
ftance is alone fitted for producing the epidermis of vege-
tables. The manner in which the cellular tiffue is converted
into cuticle, is probably beyond the reach of inveftigation ;
but that it is not the mere refult of expofure to the air, is
{ufficiently plain from the fats already noticed. Like many
other of the changes and operations of organic matter, we
are unable to difcover its immediate efficient caufe, and in
fuch cafes, we muft be content with obferving the phenome-
non, and ftating it as the effe&t ofa law of the fyftem.

The growth of the cuticle is fubjct to confiderable vari-
ety, according to the plant to which it may appertain, or
the different parts of the fame vegetable: thus, on leaves,
flowers, fruits, &c. we do not meet with the fucceflive
Jayers of dead epidermis thai exift upon trunks and
branches. Some vegetables again have greater accumula-
tions of dead cuticle than others; fome get rid of thefe by
repeated exfoliations; the plantane cafts its cuticle every
year ; the epidermis of herbaceous plants and thofe which
are not perennial, is always moft delicate in its ftru€ture.

The epidermis prefents no peculiarities in the monocoty-
ledons, or thofe plants with one feminal leaf,

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The vfés of the external or cuticular portion of the barl
have been much contefted, although many of thefe are exe
ceedingly obvious; it is evident that it ferves as a dee
fence to the whole furface of the vegetable ; and accord-
ingly we find its compofition and ftrength dependent upon
the functions which each part of the plant performs, and
the injuries to which it is hable; on the roots it is tough
and flexible ; on the trunk rough, thick, and unyielding ;
on the leaves, flowers, and fuch parts as are only to poflefs
temporary exittence, and which at the fame time exercife im=
portant functions, the cuticle is thin, delicate, and foft.
The epidermis ferves to guard the plant againtt the effects
of meteors ; it likewife afiills to moderate the operation of
heat and cold, and thereby contributes to the maintenance
of the equality and independence of vegetable temperature ;
it regulates the action of light upon the cellular tiffue, and
thus co-operates in the fixation of that {ubtle matter; but
the moft important, perhaps, of all its ufes is the giving
paflage both to the fluids abforbed for the nutrition of the
plant, and thofe expelled by tranfpiration, &c. Befides
thefe known offices of the cuticle, others are afcribed to it.
Many authors imagined that}it reftrained the growth of the
whole tree ; this however is difproved by the fimple experi-
ment of removing a portion of the cuticle, when it has been
found that no bur or fwelling took place ; thofe trees alfo
which are moft diftinguifhed for the cracks of the cuticle,
are not obferved to grow fatter than others. For a further
account of the funétions of the cuticle of vegetables, fee
Epipermis, Leaves, Ertovrarion, TRANSPIRATION,
Inuavation, and Pores.

The cellular envelope. "This was the name given by Du
Hamel to the cellular fubftance immediately under the cu-
ticle, in confequence of its extending over every part of
the plant; by Grew it was called parenchyma; and Mirbel,
whofe abilities have been already mentioned, has with pro-
priety made a diftir€tion between the cellular tiffue imme-
diately next the cuticle, and that which is continued into the
cortical layers; the firft he terms the herbaceous tifue, the
other the parenchyma.

The herbaceous tive isacompofition of cellsof an hexagonel
figure, fo applied to each other that each of the fides affitts
in forming the parietes of the adjoining cell, precifely like
the conftru€tion of a honey-comb. ‘The membranes com-
pofing thefe cells are extremely fine and tranfparent. Sce
Jig. 4. Plate 1. of Vegetable Anatomy, in which the cellular
{tructure ishighly magnified, and alfo fome foramina or pores,
which eftablith a communication between the feveral apart-
ments. Thefe pores are not above the 300dth part of aline
in diameter. In fome inftances, the cells are elongated,
elpecially in the parenchyma of the monocotyledons, which is
exhibited in fg. 5. of Plate I.; and itis remarkable, that in
proportion as the veficles become elongated the pores of
communication are more frequent and regular. In fome
cafes, where the cells are! very much elongated, they are
arranged in rows fucceeding each other by intervals, which
are perfectly regular. (See Granps, and Pores.) The
cellular tiffue has been defcribed, by fome writers, as
compofed of a number of fibres, interwoven like the texture
of felt. Hill faysit. only differs from the epidermis in having
its parts more diltinét ; and Malpighi believed the cellular
fubftance to bemade up of diftinét velicles, colle&ted together,
which he called utricles, but, as we have already faid, this is
not the cafe; the whole being one continuous membrane,
every part of which enters into the conftruétion of two cells.
Grew compared the cellular fubftance to the bubbles ob-
ferved upon the furface of fermenting liquors, which is a
very happy fimilitude, inafmuch as it conveys a very perfect
idea of its appearance when only examined with a ieee

8

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Jens; but when the higheft magnifying powers are employed,
the hexagonal figure of the cells becomes evident, ‘The
herbaceous tiffue 1s the immediate caufe of the colour of the
epidermis, and its own colour, pris depends upon that of
the fluid contained in the cells, which is ufually green, but is
fometimes brewn, red, yellow, &c. This juice is of a re-
finous nature, which circumftance would appear, as well as
the colour, to be the effect of its continual expofure to the
light. It is probable that the fap is originally “depotited in
the cells, in the ftate in whichit is abforbed, that is, confilting
of water and carbonic acid gas, and that there, by the agency
of light, it undergoes a decompofition; the oxygen contained
in both the water and fixed air being difcharged by the pores
of the cuticle, the carbon of the carbonic acid, and the hydro-
gen of the water producing the oils and the refins. A number
of confequences arife from this operation, mot only to plants
themfelves, but to the animal world, which make it the
moft important proces carried on in the vegetable fyftem.
See ErroLation,LicutT, OxyGen, and TRANSPIRATION.

Parenchyma. This part is compoled of cells like thofe
decribed in the herbaceous tiffue; indeed, the only differ-
ence which exits between thefe two parts of the cellular
fubftance, is in the cotour of their contained fluid; the oue
being ufually green, in confequence of its expofure to the
light ; whilft the other, not being fituated fo fuperficially, is
generally found tranfparent. In other refpects, they agree
in ftru€iure, and appear to be formed of the continuation of
the fame membrane. ‘

The parenchyma of Mirbel correfponds with the tiffue
cellulaire of Du Hamel, the utricles of Malpighi, and the
parenchymatous fubftance of Grew ; whilit the herbaceous
tiffue is more ftri@ly the envelope cellulaire of Du Hamel.

The parenchyma is not confined to the fuperficies of
vegetables ; it paffes between the fibres of the cortical and
ligneouslayers,and formsthe pith or medulla; the pulpinefsof
leaves and petals depends upon its exiftence ; fruits, feeds,
and the embrio plant, are almoit entirely compofed of it ;
bulbous, and other fucculent roots, owe their bulk to it ; no
other ftru@ure is obfervable in the fungi and fuci: in fhort,
the cellular tiffue is the firft and fimpleit ftate of vegetable
organization, and ferves as the connecting medium between
all the parts of the plant. :

There is, ftrictly {peaking, no circulation of the juices
contained in the cellular tiffue ; fluids, however, being ad-
mitted into any of the cells, cafily pafs mito the neighbouring
ones, by means of the {mall pores of communication, already
deleribed.

The texture of the cellular fubftance is very fpeedily
broken down by maceration, or boiling in water; which cir-
cumiftance fhould be recollected in preparing the parts
‘of plants for examination; otherwife the natural con-
nections, whichare produced by the cellular tiffue, may efcape
obfervation.

The Cortical Layers and Liber. When the epidermis and
the cellular envelope have been removed, the remainder of
the bark appears to be made up of a number of reticulated
fibres, containing cellular fubitance in their interfpaces; this
appearance of the cortical fibres is plain to the naked eye,
etpecially if the cellular tiffue, which paffes amongtt them, be
at all deltroyed by maceration, or other means; but if exa-
mined by the microfcope, thefe fibres become very diftinét;
their arrangement is then perceived to be fingular, and diffi-
cult to deferibe, The fibres in their courfe, although longi-
tudinal with refpeét to the plant, are not parallel with each
other; each makes a flight curve, and thus comes into con-
tae wich the one adjoining, with which it ufnally becomes
incorporated or united, and thus produces.a plexus or net-
work, which was called by Du Hamel the cortical plexus ;

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fometimes thefe fibres merely touch cach other, and then fo
off again, to compofe another mefh in the plexus, fee fie. 6
Platel. of Vegetable Anatomy ; aaa point out the mtivalation
produced by the fibres, and 444 the mefhes, or {paces left
between them. The mefhes are not vacant in the recent ve-
getable, but filled with cellular tiffue, which admits of the
tranfverfe motion of the fluids in plants. Du Hamel ftates
that upon examining thefe fibres by a high a YT
power, each appeared to be a fafciculus, the fibres of which
could be again refolved into fibres, and thefe again could be
divided into others, until they became too minute for obferv-
ation 5 he, however, as well as other authors upon the
fubje&t, fuppofe the cortical fibres to be veffels. See
VESSELS. *

The cortical layers, as the term implies, are not fingle
but confift of a number of concentric laming, placed upon
each other in fuch a manner that the mefhes of one plexus
are fituated oppofite to thofe of another. Fig. 7. Plate I.
exhibits this circumftance as it has been reprefented by
Du Hamel. The cellular tiffne paffes through all thete
mefhes, and thus produces a kind of intertexture, which Mal-
pighi compared to cloth, calling the longitudinal fibres the
warp, and the tranfverfe the weft.

Vhe mefhes of the teveral net-works are fmaller, the more
internally they are fituated ; the gradation in this refpect is
regular from the external layer to the wood, as may be per-
ceived in fig. 8, 9, 10. in Plate 1. of Vegetable Anatomy. In
the moit internal plexus, Ag. 10, the longitudinal fafciculi are
nearly parallel, and fo clofe to each other that the inter~
{paces are almoit obliterated.

The cortical layers, or net-works, are found to increafe in
number according to the agz of the part which fuftains them.
Thus Du Hamel reckoned only five er fix plexufes upon the
upper branch of the linden-tree, and feventeen at the bafe of
the trunk of the fame tree.

The fame difpofition of fibres does not exift in all plants ;
in the lagetto, or the lace bark tree, for inftance, the cortical
plexus exhibits a texture like gauze or lace. See fig. 112
Plate \. of Vegetable Anatomy. 5

Much confulion may be obferved in the defcriptions
which authors have given of that part of the bark called
liber. The name would appear to have taken its origin from
the likenefs which the cortical plexuies, when partially fepa-
rated, bear to the leaves of a book; and, conformably ‘to this
idea, Grew and others have confidered all the cortical layers
as belonging to the liber; whilft, on the other hand, Mal
pees given this name to the innennott layer only. The
iber 1s, however, generally allowed to be the moft important
part of the bark, and is that fubltance for which the cor-
tical layers are formed. When the bark is ftripped off a
tree in a ftate of full vegetation, in a very fhort time a
gelatinous fubftance is obferved to exude upon the furface
of the wood; this fubftance acquires organization, and is
converted into a new bark. It was termed cambium by
Du Hamel; the manner in which it is produced, and ite
compofition, are both unknown, but its high utility in the:
vegetable economy is proved by fome pai experiments,
This formative or De alma fubftance is conftantly renewed
during the period o _vegetation, and immediately produces
the liber, which is infenfibly converted. into the layers of
bark, and the alburnum, or white imperfeét wood, which is
next the bark ; and hence the acceffions of bulk in perennial.
vegetables, which are made every year, and indicate the age
of the tree. That the liber is the immediate fource of both
the wood and the bark, or the central point or fountain of or-
ganization, is proved by two: very elegant experiments made
by Du Hamel. He feparated a portion of the bark of a,
plum-tree, and made fure that it poffeffed the inner cortical:

isyers

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layers or liber; he then removed a fimilar portion of bark
from a peach-tree, and replaced it with the piece taken from
tne plum-tree. The graft perfectly fucceeded ; and upoa a
future examination he found, that not only the engrafted
bark continued to grow, but that a correfpondimg portioa
of wood was produced, which was very diftinguifhable from
the xeit of the tree, as it pofleffed the red colour of the wood
of the plum-tree, from which the bark had been removed.
‘The other experiment is equally decifive ; he paffed feveral
filver wires through the bark of a tree, in the feafon of full
vegetation, fome of the wires: only went through the paren-
chyma, whilit others were inferted into the liber; thofe
which had only penetrated the. cellular tiflue; obeyed the
excentric progrets of the bark, and as the tree grew came
nearer the furface; but the wires which had paifed through
the liber, were carried towards the centre, and after fome
years, were found covered with many layers of wood.

The conclufion which Du Hamel drew frem thefe expe-
riments was, that the bark produced the liber, the alburnum,
and the wood; but it is Mirbel’s opinion, that the wood in
giving origin to the cambium, produces the liber, which is
jmally converted into both the bark and wood. For the
further difcuffion of this fubje@, fee Camsium, Lisgr,
and Woop.

It fhould be obferved, that the period of vegetable exitt-
ence depends upon the power of the plant to produce the
cambium, and confequently, the liber ; accordingly, in herbs,
moit of which do not durvive one or two years, the fuc-
ceffive leyers which characterife the wood of trees, are not to
be feen.

Hitherto we have been defcribing the arrangement of the
cortical layers, in the dicotyledons ; in thofe plants, how-
ever, which are called monocotyledons, or having one feminal
leaf, the difpofition of thefe parts is very different ; only the
cuticle and cellular fubitance are found on the furface of
thefé vegetables; there are no concentric layers of either bark
or wood; the interior of the plant is filled with parenchyma,
in which are contained the woody fibres, {cattered at irregu-
lar diftances ; the cambium is depofited round each fibre, and
there produces the tubular and cellular tiffue; the tubular
tiffue forms firft the porous wood or alburnum, which con-
tra&s in thicknefs, elongates and is infenfibly converted
into the perfect wood, and in contraéting 1s detached
from the parenchyma and leaves a vacancy which is pre-
fently filled up by a new cambium ; each of thefe fibres,
therefore, might with propriety be confidered as a dif-
tinct vegetable, inafmuch as it has the means of an inde-
pendent growth. See Camu1um, Woop, MonocoTyLepon,
and Dicorytepon. It hasalready been obferved, that fome
of the more fimply organized vegetables, fuchasthe fungi and
fuci, do not poflels in any of their fubftance either cortical or
woody fibres, butare altogether compofedof the cellular tiffue.

After the account which we have given of the different
parts entering into the ftructure of the bark, it is unnecef-
fary to infift upon its ufes in the vegetable fyftem ; in it re-
fide almott all the powers and energies of the plant ; wounds
only are healed by it; upon the exact contact of the libers
of two trees depends the whole of the fuccefs in engraft-
ing; and in the bark are prepared not only all the juices and
fecretions which are required for the fultenance and increafe
of the plant, but thofe peculiar fublances which are appli-
cable to fo many of the purpotes of common life and of me-
dicine. See Vesseis, Succa Proprra, and SECRETION.

Bark, Peruvian, Cortex Peruvianus. The high import-
ance in medicine of the Peruvian bark has appropriated to it
exclufively the term of the bark. We thall deferibe it under
the botanical and now official name of Cincuona.

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Bark, m Agriculture, a fubfance frequently employed
by cultivators asa manure to particular kinds of land.

‘The bark of trees in general, and particularly that of the
oak, becomes an ufeful manure after it has been employed
by the tanner in the preparation of leather. One load of
oak bark laid ina heap and rotted after having been thus
ufed, it is faid, will do more fervice to {tiff cold land, and its
effects will laft longer, than two loads of the richeft dung,
Mr. Miller in his Di¢tionary obferves, that it is much better
for cold ftrong land than for light hot ground, if it be ufed
alone as taken from the tan-yard; becaufe it is of a warm
nature, and it will loofen and feparate the earth fo effectually,
that, by only employing it two or three times, a ftrong foil,
not ealfy to be wrought, may be rendered perfectly light
and looie ; but by mixing it with earth of a nature contrary
to that which it is intended to correét, and in a proportian
fitted to the nature of the foil on which it is to be laid, it
will prove a good manure for almoft any fort of land.

And Mortimer has even afferted that it will alter and
change the very nature of the foil, and turn it into a rich
black mould. As it abounds with vegetable matter derived
from the tree to which it belonged, and is ftrongly impreg-
nated with animal materials by the length of time which it
has remained in the tan vats, in contact with the fkins and
hides of animals, it muft neceffarily prove beneficial as a ma-
nure where judiciouily applied. : :

When laid on grafs-land it has been recommended to be
{pread out over it foon after Michaelmas, that the winter
rains may wafh it into the ground to the roots of the grafles,
as when laid on in the f{pring, it is apt to burn the grafts, and,
inftead of improvingit, todo confiderable injury for that feafon.
But when employed on arable land it fhould be applied and
{pread before the laft ploughing, in order that it may be turned
down lightly into the foil fo as the fibres of the cornmay eafily
reach it in the {pring; when it lies too near the furface, it
has however been fuppofed to forward the growth of the
crop at too early a period, and to be nearly confumed in the
fpring, when the nourifhment is chiefly wanted for its fupport.

In his work on gardening and agriculture, Mr. Bradley
fays, he advifeda gentleman to whom a confiderable quantity
of bark was left, upon the expiration of the leafe of a tan
yard, to lay fome of it upon a piece of ftubborn four land;
which he did with fuch fuccefs, that his product was admired
by all the gardeners and farmers in the neighbourhood:
For fuch foils, he thinks, it fhould be mixed with a fandy
mould or earth ; and that one-third of bark to two-thirds of
fuch materials will be a fuiicient proportion for clays in gene-
ral, laying on about one hundred and fitty cart loads upon the
acre.

Worlidge remarks, that the barks or rinds of other trees,
though not of fo high avalue as that of the oak, which is
the fort principally ufed by tanners, mutt of neceffity enrich
either corn or palture grounds, if broken into {mall pieces,
and laid upon them.

It has been found from experience, that by mixing cauftic
lime with tanner’s bark, in the proportion of about two parts
of the latter to one of the former, the converfion of the
bark into vegetable mould may be greatly promoted, and that
the compofition when employed as a top drefling for either
turnips or grafs proves an excellent manure, promoting the
growth of the crops ina rapid manner. ¥

Bark, in Gardening, comprehends the exterior parts or
coverings of trees, plants, and vegetables, and alfo fuch
fubftances in their dead ftate after being feparated from
them, and employed for different purpofes.

The bark of trees, &c. is in itfelf of a hard porous tex-
ture, and adheres loofely to the /ider, or inner bark. As ia

ated

BAR
ftated by Dr. Darwin, in his podolephy ek Gardening and

Agriculture, that the barks of the trunks of trees are fimi-
Jar to thofe of their roots, and may be efteemed a part of
them, as they conlilt of an intertexture of the veflels which
defcend from the plume of each individual bud to the radi-
cle of it, and conititute its caudex. The bark of the root
js neverthelefs, he fays, furnifhed with lymphatics to abforb
water and nutritious juices from the. earth, and is covered
with a moiftened cuticle, while the back of the {tem is fur-
nifhed with lymphatics to abforb moiiture from the air, and
is covered with a drier cuticle; the latter refembling the ex-
ternal fin of animals and the lymphatics which open upon
jt; and the former, the mucous membrane of the ftomach,
and its lacteals.

The interior barks of fome trees, like the alburnum or
roots defcribed above, contain, he thinks, much mucilagi-
nous or nutritious matter; as the bark of elm (ulmus),
and of holly (ilex), and probably of all thofe trees or
fhrubs which are armed with thors or prickles, which are
defigned to prevent the depredations of animals on them,
as the hawthorn, goofeberry, and gorfe, crataegus, rides,
grafularia, ulex. ‘Che taternal barks of thefe vegetables
may, he thinks, be conceived to be their alburnum lefs indu-
rated, and might probably all be ufed as food for ourfelves
or other animals in years of {carcity, or for the purpofe of
fermentation; as he doubts not but the inner bark of elm-
trees, detracted in the fpring by being boiled in water,
might be converted by the addition of yeaft into {mall
beer, as well as the alburnum of the maple and birch (acer
and éetula), all which are now fuffered to be eaten by in-
fe€ts, when thofe trees are felled. For the fugar, which is
extracted from the vernal fap-juice of the maple and birch,
as well as that found in the manna ath (jraxinus ornus),
feems, he obfervyes, to refide during the winter months in
the root or alburnum, rather than in the bark properly fo
called, and to become liquefied by the warmth of the {pring,
or diffolved by the moifture abforbed from the earth and
conveyed to the opening buds; but refides folely in the
roots of perennial herbaceous plants: and in the economy of
graffes, and he fuppofes of the fugar-cane, it is depofited
at the bottom of each joint, which is properly at the root
of the ftem above it.

Of the above plants, continues he, the bark of the holly
not only yields a nutritious mucilage, and thus fupplies
much provender to the deer and cattle in Needwood forett,
by the branches cut off and ftrewed upon the ground in fe-
yere feafons of froft and fnow, but contains a refinous ma-
terial, which is obtained by boiling the bark and wafhing
away the other parts of it. This refinous material poffeffes
a great adhefivenefs to feathers and other dry porous ho-
Gies, and has hence obtained the name of dird-lime, and
much refembles the caoutchcuc or elattic refin brought from
South America, and alfo a foffil elaftic bitumen found near
Matlock in Derby fhire, both in its elafticity and inflamma-
bility. Hollies may, he therefore fuppofes, be worth cul-
tivating for this material beiides the ufes of their wood ; as
the doctor was informed, that thirty years ago a perfon
who purchafed a wood in Yorkfhire, fold to a Dutch mer-
chant the bird-lime, prepared from the bark of the numer-
ons hollies, for nearly the whole fum givea for the wood ;
which, if it could be hardened, might probably, he fays,
be fold for the elaftic refin above mentioned. Whether
this refembles the nutritive refinous material found in wheat
flower, when the mucilage and ftarch are wathed from it,
might, he thinks, be alfo worth inquiry.

Other barks contain bitter, refinous, aromatic, or acid
materials, which fupply the fhops of medicine, as Peruvian
bark, cafcarilla, cinnamon, and were defigned by nature, he

BAR

fuppofes, to prote& thofe vegetables from the depredetions
of quadrupeds or infeéts. Ilence, fays he, many trees, and
even the wood of them, after it is dried and made‘into ds-
meitic furniture, is never devoured by worms, as the ma-
hogany, cedar, cyprefs; and hence many plants, as the fox-
glove (digitalis), hounds-tongue ( cynoglofium ), hen-bane (by-
ofcyamus ), and many trees, are not devoured by any animals,
as their juices would be poifonous to them, or much difagree
with their ftomachs, if their difguiting flavours to the nofe
or palate did not prevent their eating them. The fame de-
fence of the vegetable kingdom from human digeftion, ex-
cept thofe which have, in long proce(s of time, been feleéted
aud cultivated, appears, he remarks, from the relation of fome
unfortunate fhipwrecked travellers, who have pafled fome
hundreds of miles along uninhabited countries almoft with-
out finding an efculent vegetable production.

Other barks contain reftringent or colouriag particles,
employed in the arts of dyeing and tanning, as that of thé
barberry, oak, and afh (berberis, quercus, fraxinus.) The
art of tanning confiits in filling the pores of the animal
mucous membrane with thefe refiringent particles found in
fome vegetables, which are believed to poflefs a quality of
fhortening animal fibres. Thus, when a long hair is im-
merfed fome time in a folution of the bark of oak, or of the
galls produced on ics leayes by the punctures of infeéts, the
hair is faid to be fhortened. Whether this procefs be ocea-
fioned by the chemical coagulation of the mucus, of which
thefe fibres totally or in part confift, or by capillary attraGtion
tending to diftend thefe fibres in breadth, and thus to fhorten
them, as a twilted ftring is fhortened by moiiture, has, he
fays, nct yet been well inveftigated. By thus impregnating
the pores of animal fkins with vegetable particles they be-
come lefs liable to putrefaction, as confifting of a mixture of
animal and vegetable matter, as well as much better adapted
to many domeitic or mechanical purpofes.

The art of dyeing confilts likewife in impregnating the
pores of dry fubftances with a folution of the colouring
matter extracted from vegetables by the capillary attraction:
of thefe pores to the coloured folution ; and, fecondly, by a
chemical change of thofe colouring particles after they have
been imbibed, and the water of the folution exhaled, by
again fteeping them in another folution, which may chemi-
cally affect the former.. ‘Thus, fays he, as green confifts of a
mixture of blue and yellow, it may be beft produced by boil-
ing the material defigned to be dyed, firft in a decoétion of
one of thefe colours, as of indigo, and then im that of another,
as of the bark of barberry. And as a folution of iron be-
comes black, when mixed with a decoétion of oak-galls, by
being in part precipitated; it is probable that the particles
of this combination, of a folution of iron with reftringent
matter, may be larger than either of thefe particles fepa-
rately; and, therefore, that if a dry porous fubftance be im-
merfed, firlt in a deco¢tion of oak-galls, and, after being fuf-
fered to dry, is then immerfed in a {olution of iron, the black,
tinge will penetrate into minuter pores, and thus become
more intenfe than if the fubftance had been immerfed in the
black dye already prepared.

Other barks are, he adds, ufed for apparel, paper, cordage.,
and for many mechanical purpofes, owing to the {trength and
tenacity of their fibres, or to the finenels of them; as hemp.
(cannabis), flax (linum), for the purpofes of fpinning and
weaving. ‘The bark or leaves of the papyrus, a flag of the
Nile, was, he fays, firft ufed for paper; and the bark of the
mulberry tree is {till made into cloth at Otaheite, and other
fouthern iflands. ©

The art of feparating the fibres of the bark of plants, as
they confift of the caudexes of buds,‘or the connecting veilels
between the plumules and the radicles of them, is, he

Gi obferves,

BAR

-ebferves, performed by foaking them fome weeks in flar-
nant water, till the mucous membranes, which conne@
thefe fibres, are deftroyed by putrefa@ion; and after-
wards by drying them, and beating off with hammers what
may {till adhere.

Thefe fibrous parts of the barks of trees, as they contain
no faccharine matter, like the alburnum, are, he obferves,
much lefs liable to decay than the fap-wood, or perhaps than
any part of the timber. Maupertuis, he adds, who went to
Lapland to meafure a degree of the meridian, fays, that
among the numerous trees which lay upon the ground, de-
itreyed by age, or blown down by the winds, many birch
trees appeared whole, owing to the undecayed ftate of their
bark, but crumbled into powder on being trod upon; and
that the Swedes took the practice from this of covering their
houfes with this unperifhable bark, on which they fometimes
day foil, and thus poffefs aerial gardens.

To increafe the quantity of bark, it muft, the do€or re-
marks, be remembered, that the leaf-buds, or viviparous off-
{pring of trees, as they form new buds, acquire new cau-
dexes extending down into the ground, and thus increafe the
bark of the ftem in thicknefs; but the flower-beds acquire
no new-caudexes, but die as foon as they have ripened their
feed, and confequently do not increafe the thicknefs of the
bark. Whence one method of increafing the quantity of the
bark is to increafe the number or vigour of the leaf-buds, in
contradiction to the fiower-buds, which may be done by
pinching off the flowers as foon as they appear; and as the
bark becomes gradually changed into wood, this may be
one method, alfo, he thinks, of forwarding the growth of
timber-trees.

It is added, that the methed of preferving the bark of
trees from mofs coniifls in rubbing off that parafite vegetable
iu wet weather, by means of a hardith brufh; which is faid
to be ufed with advantage on the apple-trees in the cyder
countries; and may, at the fame time, give motion to the
vegetable circulation, or forward the afcent of their juices
zbiorbed by the radical or cortical abforbents. In dry wea-
ther, the bruth fhould be frequently dipped in water. Wath-
ing the barks of wall trees by a water-cngine, may alfo faci-
litate the protrufion of their buds in dry-ieafons; and might
poffibly prevent the canker, if applied to dwarfs or efpalier
apple-trees. Other parafite vegetables muil be occafionally
dettroyed where they occur; as the lichens, fungi, mifletoe,
with the ivies and other climbers, as fome kinds of Jonicera,
ek matis, and fumaria, woodbine, virgins-bower, and fumi-
tory.

itis further remarked, that when a wound is made in
the bark of a tree, fo as to expofe the alburnum to the
alr, the upper lip of the wound is liable to grow fatter
downwards than the lower one is to grow upwards, owing
to the former being fupplied direGly with nutritive juices
fecreted from the vegetable blood after its ventilation, and
confequent oxygenation in the leaves; whereas the lower lip
only receives thofe juices laterally by the inofculation of
veflels. Over thefe wounds the cuticle is liable to project,
and to fupply 2 convenient hiding-place for infe@s, which
either eat the new fibres of the growing bark, and perforate
the alburnum ; or by their moiftare, their warmth, and their
excreinents, contr.bute to the decay of the alburnum, and
prevent the healing of the wound. Thefe dead edges of the
projecting bark or cuticle fhould therefore, it is faid, be
nicely cut off, but not fo as to wound the living bark.

It is remarked, that plaiters of lime or of tar with fub-
limate of mercury, have been recommended to preferve the
wounded parts from the air, and from moifture, and from
iufects ; but as all thefe thaterials are injurious to the fibres

BAR

of the living bark, they fhould be ufed with caution, fo as
not to touch the edges of the wound, but only to cover the
alburnum; for this purpofe, white lead and boiled oil, mixed
into a thick paint, or with the addition of fublimate of mer-
cury, or of arfenic, or of {pirit of turpentine, may probably
anfwer the purpofe; and may be of real utility on the wounds
of thofe trees whofe wood contains lefs acrimony, and is
therefore more liable to be bored into and eaten by a large
worm or maggot, almoft as thick as a goofe-quill; which
the doétor has feen happen to a pear-tree, fo as to con-
fume the whole internal wood, till the tree was blown
down.

In refpe& to the caution neceffary to be obferved in not
touching the living edges of the wounded bark with fuch
materials as may injure the tree by their abforption, he re-
members feeing feveral young elm-trees which died by their
holes having been covered, as he
lime, mixed with cow-dung, to prevent their being injured
by horfes; and he has feen branches of peach and neétarine
trees deitroyed by {prinkling them, when in leaf, with a
light folution of arfenic, and others with {pirit of turpentine.

The compofition recommended by Mr. Forfyth, in his
‘¢'Treatife on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees,”
which is conftituted of cow-dung, effete lime, wood-afhes,
and river fand, feems however to have heen made ufe of in
thofe cafes with much advantage, and without any incon-
venience having been experienced in this way. : '

It is further itated, by thefauthor of Phytologia, that a
more curious method of cure is faid to have iucceeded,
where the bark of a tree has recently been torn off, even to
great extent; and this is, by binding the fame piece of bark
on again, or another piece from the fame tree, or from one
of a fimilar nature, nicely adapting the edges of the bark
to be applied to the edges of that which furrounds the
wound of the tree, which, it is faid, will coalefce, in the
fame manner as the veffels of the bark of an ingrafted fcion,
unite with thofe of the bark of the ftock ingrafted on ;
which is fti@ly analogous to the union of inflamed or‘
wounded parts of animal bodies, as in the cure of the hare-
lip, or the infertion of the living tooth from one perfon inte
the jaw of another. :

If the bark, over the cankered parts of apple-trees, adds
the doctor, could be thus renewed by paring the edges of
the mortified bark to the quick, and then nicely applying a
piece of healthy bark, from an apple-tree of inferior value,
and fecuring it with an elaftic bandage, as a fhred of flan-
nel, it would bea very valuable difcovery. Another method,
where a branch of a valuable tree is in the progrefs of bein
deftroyed by canker. might, he obferves, be by inclofing the
cankered part, and fome inches above it, in a garden pot
of earth previoufly divided, and fupported by aes and
tied together round the branch, which might then ftrike
roots in the earth of the garden-pot; and, after fome months,
be cut off, and planted on the ground, and might thus be
preferved, and produce a new tree; which experiment (the
doctor fays) he has tried on two apple-trees, and believes
it will facceed.

Bark, in its dead ftate, after having been employed
in the vat of the tanner, is found to be a material of
great utility for the purpofe of conftituting thofe hot-
beds in ftoves and pits conftruéted for them, that are
ufually denominated Jark-beds, and which from their
being much more regular and durable in the temperature
of their heat, than thofe formed from dung, become a great
deal more convenient and ufeful for different purpofes of the
gardener; and are of courfe employed with much adyan-
tage in the growth and culture of various tender and curious

exotic

was informed, by quick. .

A

Tass

seep >

”

-*akind of ropes.

BAR

exotics that require the aid of an uniform degree of jarti-
ficial heat in this climate. See Barx-Bep, and Barx-
Pir

Barxsiof Trees, (Chemical Analy/is of). Since the time
that chemifts have introduced a. contiderable degree of
minutenefs and comparative accuracy in the analyfis of vege-
table matter, many of the general claffifications of medical
chemiftry have been found inconvenient and liable to error.
This is particularly the cafe when vegetable fubitances, de-
fiened for chemical examination, are clafled anatomically, or
according to the ufes which they fulfil in the economy of
the plant, rather than the properties which they exhibit
under the hands of the chemit. ‘Thus, in the inftance of the
harks of trees, \carcely any common chemical charaéter can
be affigned to them, as their compofition varies in almoft
every order of plants, and as they partake largely of the
qualities of the common juice which circulates in the vege-
table. If there is any principle common to all barks, it is

befides water, an invariable ingredient in vegetable matter),
the ligneous fibre or infoluble woody part, but even in this
refpeét fome very important differences occur in the feveral
fpecies which cannot be neglecied by the chemift. ‘The
fubftances which render many barks peculiarly interefting
in the arts and in medicine are, T'annin, or the principle
which caufes feveral of them to be employed in the art of
tanning ; Extract, a {ubftance varyine confiderably in pro-
perties, and much ufed in medicine; andthe Gattic Acip,
the bafis of many of the black dyes and pigments when in
iconjunétion with iron. Thefe principles, however, are not
-peculiar to barks, but they are all fcund in other parts of
vegetables. We have an example of an excellent analyfis of
the bark of the Cincuona, by M. Fourcroy, te which arti-
‘cle we fhall refer the reader who may with to have a good
{pecimen of the chemical analyfis of vegetables.

Barks, general obfervations relatingio. From the experi-
‘ments of M. Buffon, it appears, that trees {tripped of their
bark through the whole length of their ftems, die in about
three or four years. But itisremarkable, that trees ftripped
in the time of the fap, and fuffered to die, afford timber
heavier, more uniformly denfe, flronger, and fitter for fer-
‘vice, than if the tree had been cut down in its healthy ftate.
Something of a like nature has been obferved by Vitruvius
and Evelyn.» Mem. Acad. Scienc. 1738.

As animals are furnifhed with a panniculus adipofus,
ufually replete with fat, which invefts and covers all the
flefhy parts, and icreens them from external colds, plants
‘are encompailed with a bark replete with fatty juices, by
means whereof the cold is kept out, and, in winter-time,
the fpicule of ice prevented from fixing and freezing the
juices in the veffels: whence it ts, that fome fort of trees
remain ever green the year round ; becaufe their barks con-
tain more oil than can be fpent and exhaled by the fun, &c.
Ray’s Wifd. of God, &e. part i, p. 103.

The bark has its peculiar difeafes, and is infected with
‘infects peculiar to it. Wounds of the bark often prove mor-
tal. See Canker. i
+ There are a great many kinds of barks in ufe in the
feveral arts : fome in medicine, as the quinquina, or jeluit’s
bark, macer, chacarilla, &c. others in dyeing, asthe bark of
‘the alder; others in {picery, as cinnamon, caflia linea,
» &c. the bark of oak in tanning ; others on other occafions,
“as that of cork ; that of a kind of birch is ufed by the In-
diaas for canoes capable of holding twenty-four perfons.

* Of the bark of willows and lindentrees is ordinarily made
The Siamefe make their cordage of the
‘bark of the cocoa tree, which is alfo the cafe in moft
of the Afiatic and African nations. In reality, flax and
Vor. Ul.

BAR

hemp, with all their toughnefs, are only the fap-veflela, or *
ligneous fibres of the bark of thole plants.

The ancients wrote their books on barks, efpecially thofe
of the afh, and tilia or lime-tree ; not on the exterior or
outer bark, but on the inner and finer, called philyra; which
are of fo durable a texture, that there are manufcripts on it,
ftillextant, athoufand ycars old.

In the Eaft Indies they manufature the barks of a cer-
tain tree into a kind of {tuff or cloth. It is {pun and dreffed
much after the manner of hemp. ‘The long filaments fepa-
rated from it, upon beating and fteeping it in water, com-
pofe a thread, of a middle kind between filk aud common
thread: neither fo foft nov bright as filk, nor fo hard or
flat as hemp. See Neuman’s W/orks, p. 428, note. Some
of thefe ftuffs ave pure bark, and are called pinaffes, biam-
bonnes, &c. In others they mix filk with the bark, and
call them ginghams and nillas: the tountalungees too are
part filk, part bark, and are only diftinguifhed by being
{triped. The Japanefe make their paper of a fpecies of
mulberry tree. (See Morvs.) In the ifland of Otaheite,
the natives make their cloth, which is of three different forts,
from three difierent kinds of bark; that of the mulberry tree,
that of the bread-fruit tree, and that of the cocoa tree. That
made of the mulberryis thefinefk andwhiteft, and wornchiefly
by the principal people. It is manufa¢tured in the follow-
Ing manner. When the trees are of a proper fize, they are
drawn up and {tripped of their branches ; after which, the
roots and tops are cut off; the bark of thefe reds being
then {lit up longitudinally is eafily drawn off ; and when a
proper quantity has been procured, it .is depofited in fome
running water to foak, and kept down by heavy ftones ;
when it is fuppofed to be fufficiently foaked, the women
go down to the brook, and, ftripping themfelves, fit
down in the water to feparate the inner bark frem the
green part on the out-fide; for this purpofe, they place
the under fide upon a flat fmooth board, and with a kind
of fhell fcrape it very carefully, dipping it continually in
the water, till nothing remains but the fine fibres of the
inner coat. Being thus prepared in the afternoon, they are
fpread out upon plantain leaves in the evening, and placed
in lengths of about eleven or twelve yards, one by-the fide
of another, till they are about a foot abroad, and two or
three layers are alfo laid one upon the other; care is taken
that the cloth fhall be in all parts of an equal thicknefs, fo
that if the bark happens to be thinner in a particular part
of one layer than the reft, a piece that is fomewhat thicker
is feleSted to be laid over in the next. In this ftate 1t re.
mains till the morning, when a great part of the water
which it contained, when it was laid out, is eitherdrained off
or evaporated, and the feveral fibres adhere together, fo
that the whole may be raifed from the ground in one piece.
It is then taken away and laid upon the {mooth fide of a long
piece of wood, prepared for the purpofe, and beaten by the
women. he inftrument ufed for this purpofe isa {quare
wooden club, having each of its four fides or faces marked,
lengthwife, with {mall grooves or furrows of different degrees
of finenefs ; thefe on one fide being of a width and depth
fufficient to receive a fmall packthread, and the others finer
in a regular gradation, fo that the laft are not. more than
equal to fewing filk. They beat it ‘firft with the coarfelt
fide of this mallet, keeping time like our fmiths ; it fpreads
falt under the ftrokes, chiefly, however, in the breadth, and
the grooves in the mallet mark it with the appearance of

-threads ; it is fucceflively beaten with the other fides, and

laft of all with the fineft, and it is then fit for.ufe. - OF this
cloth there are feveral forts, of different degrees of finenefs,

in preportion as it is more or lefs beaten ; and the other cloth
4M alfe

BAR

alfo differs in proportion as it is beaten, and the feveral
cloths differ als from one another in confequence of the
different materials of which they are made. The bark of
the bread-fruit is not taken till the trees are confider-
ably longer and thicker than thofe of the mulberry ; the
procefs afterwards is the fame. Of the bark of a tree
which they call “ poerou,” the * hibifcus tiliacens’? of
Linneus, they manufacture excellent matting ; both a
coarfe fort on which they fleep, and a finer which they
wear in wet weather. Of the fame bark they alfo make
ropes and lines, from the thicknefs of an inch to the fize of
a imall packthread.

Bark, Jndian, Thuris cortex, a medical bark, brought
from the Eait, rolled up like cinnamon, of a rufty colour,
a warm aromatic, bitter tafte, and pleafant {mell ; fometimes
ufed in fumigation againft fits of the mother.

Bark-Mills. See Mirx.

Bark, Grafting in.

Bark, in Navigation, denotes a little veffel for the fea,
ufually with pointed ortriangular fails, innumber two, orthree
at the moft. The term is nfually appropriated by feamen
to thofe fmall fhips which carry three mafts without a
mizen top-fail. Our northern mariners in the coal-trade,
apply the term to a broad-fterned fhip, which carries no
ornamental figure on the ftern or prow. Bark is alfo
a Mediterranean veffel, with three mafts and no bow-
fprit ; the foremoft rakes much forward and carries a lat-
teen fail; the main-maft is a pole-maft, and carries three
{quare fails, like the polacre; the mizen-maft is {mall
and carries a mizen and a top-fail. Fifhing-barks are
{inall veffels with one maft, ufed for fifhing, &c. by the
Spaniards: on the maft they carry a {quare main-fail, with
a jib upon the bowfprit. Japanefe barks are veffels fimilar
to junks, 80 or go feet long on one deck, which have only
one maft, that carries a f{quare-fail, and forward-one or two
jibs made of cotton. ‘They only ufe fails, when the wind is
large. Barks of Cracaloa and ftraits of Sunda are yeflels with
flufh-decks, high fheer, and fharp forward. They have one
matt, and the fail is fimilar to the Caracores, being long and
narrow. Thefe veffels are kept from upfetting by a fort of
beams crofling the veffel and bending downwards at the
ends which faften to a long round or flat piece of tim-
ber. Bombay-barks are called Dincas. See Prates of
Suips.

The word Bark is derived by fome from the Latin barca ;
by Fournier, from Barce, a city in Africa; and by Tolena-
tus, from Barcelona.

Some authors ufe the word bark for any veffel that has
no matts.

Bark, Armed, a kind of fire-fhip filled with foldiers,
ufed both for making fallies, and to ‘attack galleries, and
bar the paflage over them.

Barx, Long, is a {mall veffel without deck, longer and
lower than the common barks, being fharp before, and
commonly going both with fails and oars. It is built after
the manner of a floop, and in many places is called a double

loop.
f Ree Water, are little veffels ufed in Holland for the
carriage of frefh-water to places where it is wanting, as well
as for the fetching fea-water to make falt of. They havea
deck, and are filled with water up to the deck.

Barx-Bed, in Gardening, that fort of hot-bed which is
either wholly or principally conftituted of tanner’s bark.
This fort of bed, from its preferving the moft uniform and
regular degrees of heat, is found by much the moft ufeful
in the propagation and culture of all kinds of tender exotic

See ENGRAFTING.

BAR

plants that are brought from warm climates, and which
ftand in need of the continued affiftance of artificial heat in
this part of the world. Beds of this nature, with a little
trouble in the management of them, are found fometimes to
fupport a pretty uniform and regular temperature for a con-
fiderable length of time.

Thefe are the kind of hot-beds that are generally em-
ployed in hot-houfes, being formed in pits or cavities con-
ftructed for the purpofe in them, frequently the whole
length of the houfes, fix or feven feet in width, and three
in depth, being inclofed by means of brick-work. See
Barx-Pit.

In thefe beds, the pots of fuch tender exotics as have
been mentioned, are plunged and fupported ; and they at
the fame time afford affiftance in fupplying fuch houfes or
ftoves with thofe degrees of heat that may be proper for
the growth and fupport of various other plants that do
not require to be plunged into the beds, the heat of the
furrounding air, produced in this way, being fufficient for
their growth and prefervation. Thus, by the aid of
bark-heat, and that of fire during the feverity of the
winter feafon, the gardener is enabled to imitate, withia
the hot-houfe, the temperature of diftant climates, and not
only to cultivate and bring to perfection the Bromelia
Ananas, or pine-apple, but alfo various other tender plants
from different quarters of the globe, both of the herbaceous
and woody kinds, and to exhibit them in their moft healthy
and beautiful ftates in this country.

Bark hot-beds are likewife occafionally formed in pits
conftructed for them, in the open ground, feparately and de-
tached from the hot-houfe. Thefe are walled round with
bricks chiefly above the furface of the ground, having a
frame or coping of wood upon the top on which glafs lights
are fixed fo as to flide with facility. See Barx-Pit.

In thefe pits the bark-beds are made to the depth of
three feet or more, in order to afford an uniform and lafting
heat, for the purpofe ofraifingand propagating different forts
of tender plants from feeds, fuckers, layers, cuttings, &c.
both of the ftove and green-houfe kinds, as well as thofe of
the natural ground. Such beds are of courfe of great
utility where there are large collections of tender exotic
plants, and as nurfery-pits for young pine-apple plants to
fupply the ftove or pinery annually. See Stove.

Beds formed of bark are alfo employed with fuccefs in
raifing various forts of early productions of other kinds,
as early ftrawberries, melons, peas, French beans, &c.
which by the regular and moderate heat which they afford
are moftly brought forward in the greateit perfection.
They are likewife made ufe of in forcing different forts
of curious flowers, both of the bulbofe, tuberofe, and
fibrous rooted kinds, into early bloom; as hyacinths, dwarf
tulips, narciffus, jonquils, anemones, ranunculufes, pinks,
&c. alfo many flowering plants of the fmall fhrubby kind,
as rofes, hypericums, &e.

Bark-beds are alfo employed with great advantage in
forcing frames for the purpofe of producing early fruit of
the apricot, peach and grape kinds. See Forcinc Fram ESp
and Hot-Wa ts. :

Hot-beds conttituted of bark, from the flow-and regular
manner in which the heat is in common evolved, are not fo
liable, as thofe of dung, to injure the plants by their fteam
they are therefore to be preferred for all the more important.
purpofes of forcing where the material can be obtained.

The heat of them may be perpetuated for a great length
of time, by having recourfe occafionally to the practice of
forking or turning them over, adding in fuch operations
about a third part of new tan qr bark, The beds are how-

eveD

BAR

ever to be wholly, or ina great part, renovated every autumn
or {pring.

here are different forts or fizes of bark made ufe of for
the conitruétion of thefe beds, as coarfe, middling, and {mall.
The firft kind is the longeft in taking on heat, and is apt
to heat violently at the beginning, but is of the longeft dur-
ation. The fecond fort heats fooner, is more regular, and
pretty durable in its effeéts. But the laft kind heats the
quickelt, yet is the weakelt, and fooneit becomes earthy,
confequently the leaft proper for the purpofe. Where there
is a choice of the material, the middle fort, or a mixture of it
and the coarfe, fhould conftantly be preferred, admitting as
little of the fmall as poffible; and care fhould be taken that
it be perfectly freth from the vat of the tanner. When thie
bark is wet after being brought home, it is a good practice
to throw it up into heaps or ridges for a few days, in order
that it may be drained and rendered more dry, as without
fuch precaution the procefs of fermentation may be too
much retarded.

The periods of making beds of this nature mutt be regu-
lated by circumftances; but where they are intended for
pine-apple plants, they fhould be prepared about the latter
end of September or beginning of October, in order that
they may afford a good heat during the winter feafon: but
when the raifing of plants from feeds, cuttings, &c. or the
forcing of culinary vegetables, and fruits or flowers, are the
principal obje&s, the {pring may be the moft fuitable time,
as in January or March. For particular ufes they may,
however, be made at any period.

In forming the beds, the tan or bark, prepared as above,
is thrown into the pits that are conftructed for it; and where
there is old, the new bark well mixed and blended with it, by
means of the tan-fork, quite to the bettom; then it is the

ra€tice to begin at one end and carry them on to the full
Peailth and depth, without treading upon them, as that would
render the bark too folid for the proce!s of fermentation. It is
neceflary tora fe the furfaces of the beds about three or fourin-
ches higher than the tops or copings of the beds or pits, in or-
der to allow for the fettling that may take place. In the mak-
ing of this fort of hot-beds for the purpofe of railing pine-
apples, the author of the “*Scotch Forcing Gardeney,” in
order to avoid the danger of too much bottom heat, never
admits of the tan being fifted, or of more than one eighth
part of new tan being added, which is introduced by f{lam-
ming off a portion of the old tan from the furface; by this
means the new tan is not fuffered to come within a foot of
the furface of the bed, and of courfe the pots are entirely

lunged in the old tan. It is his general practice to depofit
half of the quantity of new tan that may be added, in.the
bottom of the trench, and blend the other half equally with
the old, till within a foot of the top of the bed. And in trench-
ing over the beds, it is his cuftom to throw the fides to the
middle, aud the middle to the fides, in order that the old tan
may be incorporated in an equal manner with the new.

It is contended, that in this manner of preparing the beds,
they will be “of a mild and equal temperature from the
firit, and continue much in the fame flate for three or four
‘months;”? and that after the firft filling, they will be at-
tended with but little expence for new tan. It is obvious that
the filling of the pits of new pineries, in the above intention,
fhould either be performed fome time before the plants are
to be introduced, or the tan be well fweated down and re-
duced by frequent turning over in an open fhed or other
convenient place; and in thefe cafes it is even advifed not
‘to plunge the pots more than half their depths into the
beds for the firft two or three months after they have been
filled.

BAR

The new bark or tan that is to be added fhould conftantly
be thrown up into heaps for eight or ten days before it is
employed, in order that it may drain and fweeten; as when
uled while wet from the tan-pit, it is apt not ouly to cake
in the beds, but fometimes to heat violently.

It is neceflary, as foon as the beds have been made, to
thruit fticks into the bark in different parts, in order that
they may be drawn up occalionally to afcertain the heat of
them.

The beds, in the firfk method of making them, will in
general be of a proper temperature for the reception of
plants in about ten days or a fortnight, as the examination
of the fticks will thew. If they be intended for pines or
other plants that require pots, they mutt be plunged imme-
diately into the bark, no earth being neceflary as in other
forts of hot-beds; and in performing this bufinefs, it is of
utility to have a board placed acrofs the beds or pits to
{tand or kneel upon, and thereby prevent the bark from
being trodden too clofe.. The pots containing the plants
mautt be placed to fuitable depths, according to the differences
in the degrees of heat in the beds, in order to be ultimately
let dewn to their rims. When the heat of the beds is
fhewn by the trying flicks to be on the decline, it will be
proper to reftore it by ftirring up or turning over the bark,
which, when of the large or middle fort, will feldom re-
quire any increafe of new tan.

In accomplifhing this bufinefs, it may be performed
either in the manner direéted above, or, after remoying the
pots, by beginning at one of the ends, and forking up the
whole of the bark to the bottom, afterwards breaking the
lumps and turning all the bark over, the pots with the plants
being dire€tly reftoved. The fame operation is to be re-
peated as often as the decline of heat may render it neceflary,
and fuch additions of frefh bark be made as may be required,
but in common, not more than two or three turnings are
requifite. The additions of frefh tan fhould moftly be
made about the beginning of March or April, the crumbly
earthy parts of the old bark being cleared away. i c

The making of new beds is moftly performed, as has been
feen above, in the autumr, about September or OGtober, as
after they have remained ten or twelve months, the bark is
much exhaufted both in heat and fubftance, and becomes
earthy. This earthy part is to be now feparated by means of
the fereen, and new bark added, the whole being well blended
together with the fork. When the whole of the old tan
appears earthy, it is the beft method to clear the pit out en-
tirely, and make the bed up altogether of new bark. See
Hor-Houvuse.

Bark-Bound, a difeafe which has been fuppofed common
to fruit and other trees, and to be capable of being cured by
making a flit or opening through the bark, ina longitudinal
direction, from the top of the tree or bough to the bottem,
about Iebruary or March; and if the gaping be pretty con-
fiderable, to fill it up with cow-dung, or fome other fimilar
compotition. This is probably not fo frequently a difeafe as
has been believed by gardeners, as the imperfeCt growth of
trees often caufes fuch appearances.

Barx-galling, is when trees are galled by thorns or by
being bound to ftakes, &c. It is cured by clay laid on the
galled place, and bound on with hay ropes.

Barx-Pit,a pit or cavity of along, fquare, or ether form, a
yard or more in depth, appertaining toahot-howfeoritove, &c.
and being formed internally, or detached externally, in which
to make tan or bark hot-beds, commonly called bark-bede.
The dimenfions are four, five, or fix feet in width, or more,
haying length in proportion te that of the hot-houfe, &c.
and when in detached pits, fuch as may be required. Ia

: 4M2 bots

BAR

both methods they are formed by a low furrounding brick
wall, about a yard in height in the internal pits, and in the
exterval ones three or four feet-in front, by four or five in
the back wall. Thefe different forts of pits are indifpen-
fably neceflary, where bark-beds are intended, to make the
beds in, as the fhort loofe nature of the tan will not admit of
being formed into compaét regular beds, without the aid of
fuch kinds of inclofed pits to confine it-clofe together within
the limits that are requifite in the formation of the beds.

For various purpoies, bark-pits are neceffary in all hot-
houfes or ftoves, and occafionaily in forcing houfes, &c.
And detached bark-pits, diftinét from the hot-houie, are
likewife very ufeful in ail extenfive gardens on many occa-
fiohs, being of great fervice in the culture of many forts of
tender exotics; and in raifing various kinds under different
methods of propagation; as well as for railing and nhuriing
thofe of fimilar kinds in: their young and tender growth;
alfo occafionally for forcing and raifing early productions
of feveral forts of hardy plants in the greateit perfection.

The bark-pit of ahot-heufe, &e. is an eflentially neceffary
interior compartment, and which, as before obferved, is the
ipternal cavity wherein the tan or bark hot-bed is made, ex-
tending lengthways, an d occupying almott the whole bottom
{pace of the houfe, except about two feet on each fide and
ends; which is referved for an alley or walk round, between
the outward wall and that of the pit, which fhould be but
very little funk below the general furface of the floor of the
furrounding walk, and formed by a thin wall of brick-work,
generally raifed, the greater part, three feet high above the
furface, the bottom being paved with brick or ftone, &c.
and in which the bark-bed being made to the whole width,
length, and depth, ferves both to plunge the pots of the more
tender exotics in, fuch as the pine-apple, &c.in order that they
may receive the kindly moift heat thereof immediately about
their roots; and, atthe fame time, to diffufe a peculiar be-
neficial warm vapour for heating the internal air, aflifted by
fire-heat inthe flues in winter; but fufficient alone in fum-
mer and autumn; producing, from May till October, an
effeGtual temperature of internal heat, for the prefervation
and growth of various tender exotic plants of the ftove kind,
natives of different parts of the hot regions of South Ame-
rica, Afia, and Africa. See Barx-Ged, Hor-Hovse,
and Srove.

Hot-houfes, or ftoves of the common width, have in
general only one pit; extending lengthways of them as de-
fcribed above; but if they are of confiderable extent in
length, ‘the pit is fometimes divided in the middle by an in-
tervening paflage, to render it more convenient in perform-
ing the neceflary culture of the plants.

Some hot-houfes, however, of very great width, have two
internal bark-pits ranging parallel lengthways with an alley
or paflage extending between them, which renders them more
commodious in giving the requifite culture to the plants
that are plunged in the beds, than if the whole was in one
extremely wide pit, in which it would often be very incon-
venient to come at the plants placed towards the middle of
them ; fo that two parallel pits, four or five feet wide each,
become more eligible than one of eight or ten feet, and by
having an intervening paflage, give a larger fcope and af-
ford a better current of air, for the growth of the plants in
the beds, as well as admit of viewing them to greater ad-
vantage and effec.

Detached or external bark-pits are exterior erections, fe-
parate and diftiné from the hot-houfe or ftove, but in fome
manner connected with, or appertaining to them, being, on
many cccafions, employed for fimilar ufes, as well as for
various other purpoles, where occafional artificial heat is

I

BAR

wanted, They are, as has been obferved, four, five, or fix
feet wide, having fuch length as may be required; formed
by a furrounding wall of brick-work, three or four feet high
in the front, by four, five, or fix behind, where fometimes
flues for winter fire-heat are ereéted in the upper part; the
whole being covered at top with moveable glais framesy
floping fouthward te the full fwa, and in which, a bark-bed
being made to the whole width, length, aud depth, becomes
an ufeful appendage to the itove; aflifting in the culture of
various tender exotics of that repofitory, efpecially im the
way of a nurfery-pit,.for railing and preferving them to fome
advanced flate of growth; allo occationally in the propaga-
tion and protection of the more tender kinds of green-houfe
plants, or any particular, curious, or tender exotic plant,
of the full ground, as being always ready and prepared with
a continuing growing heat, wherein to plunge the pots,
where artificial heat is required, or eflentially neceffary in
raifing {uch tender plants more etlectually and expeditioufly.

Thefe kinds of bark-pits alfo prove exceedingly ufeful in
railing many forts of tender exotics from feed, fuckers, cut-
tings, flips, &c. and in retaining and forwarding them in
their growth for fume time. Bark-pits of the fame kind
are likewife particularly ufeful aud neceffary inthe culture of
young ananas or pine-apple plants, in) rearing and nurfing
them till of a proper age and fize, to be placed in the fuc-
ceflion-houfe, fraiting-{Love, or pinery. See: Bromeria
Awnanas, and Stove. :

A fimilar kind of detached bark-pit is likewife occafion-
ally ufed with advantage iu the work of planting or tranf-
planting, or fhifting tender or curious plants in pots, for
plunging the pots which contain them, as foon as re-planted,
into, which much expedites their taking frefh root, and
brings them up at firit into a free and vigorous growth.

Bark-pits, of the fame kind, are alfo fuccefsfully em-
ployed in the work of forcing and raifing early productions,
fuch as melons, kiduey-beans, peas, ftrawberries, &c. and for
many forts of flowers, both of the bulbous, rooted, and
herbaceous kinds, as well as for {mall flowering fhrubs.
And if the dimenfions of them. were increafed, efpecially in
height, in the back parts they might have feveral forts of
dwarf-fruit trees in pots for the production of early fruit,
placed in'them. See Forcinc-FRame. tnd 5

Detached bark. pits fhould always be ereéted in warm dry
fituations, in a foutherly afpet, and be conftantly ranged
lengthways in the direction of eatt and weft, or nearly fo, in
order to have the whole front incline fully to the fouth fun,
in a floping manner, on which to place the glaifes in the
fame polition, being generally itationed either contiguous to.
the hot-houfe or itove, but at a proper diftance in front of it,
as the fituation and convenience of the place may admit,
Or they may be erected at one or at both ends, extending in
a line with it, but feparated by a paflage between them.

But detached bark-pits are fometimes formed with ridged.
tops, like the roofs of houfes, the glafles floping to both
fides, being ranged lengthways north and fouth, in order to
have the benefit of the fun equally on both fides, and ufed
for the fame purpofes as the others; though the common
fouth-fronting pits, extending eaft and welt, are more gene+*
rally adopted, being lefs expenfive in glafs-work, &c. and,
in general, more convenient for different purpofes of the
forcing kind.

They fhould be conftruéted, as has been. obferved, with
walls of brick work, forming the upright fides and ends nine
inches thick; and where fire-flues are intended, the back
wall fhould be of a proper thicknefs from the bottom, to
admit of having flues in the upper parts, a fire-place being
contrived externally at‘the bottom at one end; or, in con=

fiderably.

oe

ee".

BAR

fiderably extended pits, a double fire-place may be formed in
the middle, behind, or one at each end, either endways or
in the back part, as may be thought the molt convenient.

Some detached pits are formed of wood-work only, by
means of pott and planking, ferving for particular occafions,
where no fire-heat is required, as flues for that purpofe
cannot be admitted in fuch kinds of pits; where ad-
ditional heat is occafionally neceflary, in tack pits, it is ef-
fe&ted by applying a ftrong lining of hot dung to the out-
fides ; by which a good conitant heat may be fupported.
In thefe bark-pits, fometimes the younger pine-apple plants
are depofited and nurfed for the firft year; they are likewife
occalionally ufed forthe purpofesof propagating, raifing, and
nurfing tender plants in {pring and fummer, &c. ; alfo for
forcing early eettene crops, flowers, &c.

The principal detached bark-pits fhould, however, be
formed with brick-work walls ; as being the moit effeciual
for general ufe, and of the greateft duration.

At fg. 1. Plate l.in Gardening, is the reprefentation of a
bed or pit of the moft common kind, which may be made
ufe of either with bark or dung.

Fig. 2. exhibits a view of a bark-pit upon a larger feale.

Fig. 3. is the plan and fection of two nurfing pits, as given
by Mr. Nicol in the “Scotch Forcing Gardener,’’ adapted
equally to the purpofe of ftriking young pine plants, and
the forcing of afparagus, cucumbers, melons, {trawberries,
French-beans, fallads, flowers, &c. Inthe plan they appear
confiderably funk below the ground level for the convenience
of fhifting. But in wet fituations this fhould not be the
cafe, but a bank of earth raifed againft them in a floping
dire€tion all round, as by this contrivance the front flues
may be ufeful in raifing early fallads, by having the front
borders properly prepared. ‘The furnaces are placed behind,
eommunicating firft with the front flues, but returning in
the back fingly. . The furface of the bark-bed is level with
the bottom of the flues all round, to prevent the danger of
burning; and at the diftance of two feet from the wall of
the pit. The inner wall of the flue is formed a brick on
edge, and the outer one a brick in bed, for the purpofe of
ftrength. The divifions of the plan are only each thirty feet
in length, but they may be extended to forty, and be
wrought by the Same furnaces.

One length of fafh is fufficient, as they are worked in the
manner of the common hot-bed, having faitenings at top to
prevent their flipping down. :

Fig. 4. is the plan and fection of a fingle pitted pine ftove
on an improyed conftruétion, as turnifhed by the fame author
for a fruiting or fucceflion houfe, It is wrought by two
fires, having a fhed behind it which may be converted to
various ufes. ,

The bottom of the bark-bed is level with the furface of
the ground, but the furface muchrelevated, that the fun and:
light may be, admitted more freely to the plants.

Trellifes for vines may be placed againit the brick-wall
and upright fafhes in front. rie

Two lengths of fafhes are here neceffary in the roof.
The under ones fhould be made to move either up or
down.

Fig. 5. is a bark-pit for fucceffion.pine-apple plants.

BARKARY denotes.a tan-houfe, or place to keep bark
in, efpecially for tanners.

It is otherwife called a heath-houje in old writers.

BARKING of Trees, in Rural Economy, the operation of
ftripping off the bark or rind, which, when taken from fome
kinds of trees, as the oak, elm, &c. is made ufe of by the
tanners, and of courfe becomes an article of profit to she
proprictor~

BAR

It is the moft ufual in this climate to perform the opera.
tion in the month of May, as, at that feafon, the bark, by
the rifing of the fap in great quantity, is the mofk eafily
feparated from the wood. This, however, renders it necef-
fary to fell the trees in that month ; by which the timber is
of much lefs yalue than it would be if they were cut down
after the falling of the leaf. :

It is remarked by Dr. Darwin, in his ¢ Phytologia,” that
as the fap-juice rifes in all deciduous trees during the vernal
months to expand their foliage, though probably in greater
quantity in fome trees than in others; it muft confift, not
only of fugar and mucilage, as in the maple and birch, but
of various other ingredients in different trees, which have not
been attended to; as appears from the tafte of their young
leaves, as of oak or afh. Andas fome of thefe materials re- ,
fide in the roots and {ap-wood, or alburnum, fo others of
them may perhaps refide in the bark, where they have beea
depofited during the preceding fummer, and become liquefied
by the warmth of the {pring, or diffolved by the moiiture
abforbed from the earth and air, asd conveyed upwards to
the opening buds; whence it is evident, he thinks, that the
barks of trees fhould be taken off for ufe in winter, or in
early fpring, before their buds begin to expand; as then a
portion of thefe nutritious juices, or of the other materials
which are required for medicines, orin the arts of dyeing
and tanning, is in part expended on the young leaves, which
generally poffefs the tafte and qualities of the bark, though
in a lefs degree. It may nevertheléfs be obferved, he fays,,
that all theie aftringent or other materials may refide in the
alburnum of the trunk or roots of all perennial vegetables, as
well as in their barks; becaufe the young leaves, which
pullulate on decorticated oaks, have the fame bitter flavour
as the leaves on thofe which have not been decorticated ;-
which may in part be derived from the bark of. the root,
which is {till in the ground, and be carried up the veffels of
the fap-wood to the new buds. Hence the Bark of oak-
trees fhould be taken off during the winter; but when the
fap juice, refiding or afcending in the veffels of the al-
burnum, becomes more liquefied by the warmth of the
{fpring, oris mixed with moilture, and puthed up with great
force by the abforbent veffels of the roots, it oozes out in
fome degree between the alburnum and the bark ; and thus
the bark becomes fo much more readily feparated from the
fap-wood ; whence this bufinefs, as has been already ob--
ferved, is generally done early in the: fpring, and. fhould
always be performed as {eon as this facility. of detraéting the
bark appears ; becaufe this procefs of the germination of the
buds continues to injure the bark, whether the tree be cut
down or not ; as the buds expand their foliage on new felled
trees, while they lie on the ground..

It is obferved by Mr. Marfhall,. in his “ Rural Economy
of Yorkfhire,”’” that the peeling of oak timber in that
country is generally done: hy the day, the labourers being,
he believes, invaciably employed by the timber-merchant,

“not by the tanner; practices which are, he conceives, pro-

dudtive of a confiderable faving of bark. Men, fays he,,
working by the ton or quarter, or tanners paying by weight
or meafure, will not inducethemto peelthe boughs fufficiently
near; as it is again{t their intereft to do it. But it is the in-
tereft of the timber-merchant, or of the tanner, if he pur-
chafes by the grofs, or by the ton of timber, to peel fo far-
or fo long as the bark will pay for the labour. This, he
thinks, accounts for the {mallnefs of the twigs which are
peeled in that county ; if the bark run freely, twigs not
much thicker than the finger are frequently {itvipped of their

bark.
The tool commonly made ufe of for this purpefe in moft®
countries,,

BAR

«countries, is made either of bone or iron. If of the former,
the thigh or fhin-bone of an afs is preferred, which is formed
into a two-handed inftrument for the {tem and larger boughs,
with a handle of wood fixed at the end. The edge once
given by the grinding-ftone, or rafp, keeps itfelf fharp by
the wear that afterwards takes place in the operation.

The method of drying bark in the above county is gene-
rally the common one of fetting it ina leaning pofture againit
poles lying horizontally on forked ftakes. But in a wet
feafon, or when the ground is naturally moitt, it is laid acrofs
aline of top-wood, formed into a kind of banklet, raifing the
bark about a foot from the ground. By this praétice no
part of the bark is fuffered to touch the earth, and itis per-
haps, upon the whole, the beft praétice in all feafons and
fituations. ‘The bark is then put in ftacks or houfes, and
generally fhaved or chopped ready for the tan-pit, and af-
terwards fold to the tanner at fo much the quarter. This
cuftom, however, appears to be founded ona falfe bafis; the
tanner is the beft judge of the mode of preparation, and the
operation, ought, therefore, to pafs under his immediate in-
{pection.

The practice of grinding bark does not feem to have yet
got fuflicient footing in the diftri¢t mentioned above ; when-
ever it does, Mr. Marfhall obferves, it will of courfe bring
the preparation of it into its proper channel.

The price of chopped bark varies confiderably, according
to the quality and the circumftances under which it is placed.

Malicioufly barking of apple-trees, or other fruit trees, is
made felony by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 6.

By the Trench laws, all dealers are forbid to bark their
wood while growing, on the penalty of 500 livres. This
law was the refult of ignorance ; it being now found, that
barking of trees, and letting them die, inéreafes the force
of timber.

Barkinc is alfo a name given to the cry of dogs and
foxes.

The termis alfo applied to certain quaint noifes, made by
fick perfons in fome difeafes.

In cynic fpafms, and epileptic fits, the patient fometimes
fnarls, howls, and barks, with all the notes of a dog. But
at isin the hydrophobia that barking has been ofteneft ob-
ferved; perfons leized with this, are apt to rave, bite, fnarl,
and make a harfh noife in their throats, which is called
barking.—Vide Phil. Tranf. No. 280. No. 323. No. 207.
aad No. 242.

Barxine, in Geography, a market town in the county
of Effex, feven miles from London, is fo called from a
creek on which it is fituated. The town is of confiderable
extent, and chiefly inhabited by fifhermen, from whom the
fifh-markets of London are frequently fupplied. The
parifh is divided into the four wards of Barking, Great Il-
ford, Chadwell, and Rippleward, abounding with fertile
lands and beautiful profpects. It was to this place that
William the Conqueror retired, fhortly after his coronation,
till he had ereéted fuch caitles in London as might awe the
people whom he governed; and here the great barcns Ed-
win and Morcar came and fw re fealty. Very lately the
remains of an intrenchment were vilible at this place ; but
the plough has nearly cbliterated the whole. Much land in
the parifh has been feeovered from the rivers Thames and
Roding. The fecond nunnery of the Saxons was founded
at Barking by Erkinwald, fourth bifhop of London, in
666, for Benedictines ; the bifhop placing his fifter Ethel-
burga (aftcrwards canonized) as the firft abbefs. She was
conitituted lady paramount in all the manors within the half
hundred of Becontice, and held of the king an entire barony,
a privilege granted to only three other religious foundations

BAR

in England, thofe of Wilton, Shaftefbury, and Winchefler-
At the diffolution, the revenues of Barking abbey were
eftimated at 862]. 12s. 53d. A gateway and a great
part of the wall of this magnificent ftructure {till remain
adjoining the church-yard. In the townfhip of Great II-
ford is an ancient hofpital for lepers. The parifh church is
a large handfome ftru€ure, which formerly belonged to the
abbey, but is now in the gift of the warden and fellows of
All Souls college, Oxford”

The market is held on Saturday,and a fair on O&ober 22d
for horfes; another fair is held yearly on and round a famous
oak denominated Fairlop, concerning which the following
fummary may be acceptable. Many years fince, Mr. John
Day, a worthy but whimfical chara¢ter in Wapping, ufed
annually to dine with his friends on beans and bacon under
the fhade of this famous oak; hence arofe the fair. Jair
lop oak has {uftained its dignity in the foreft of Hainault for
many ceuturies, and though it has very materially fuffered,.
itil maintains a majeftic appearance peculiar to itfelf. About
a yard from the ground, where its rough fluted. ftem is
thirty-fix feet in circumference, it divides isto eleven yait
arms, not in the horizontal manner of the oak, but rather
in that of the beech. The fair held beneath its fhade, which
overfpreads an area of 300 feet in circuit, has been inju-
rious to the parent ftem, by means of fires which the vilitors
have occafionally kindled ia the cavities forn ed by the de-
cayed roots of the tree. Mr. Forflyth’s compofition, how-
ever, has in fome degree remedied the decay; and a clofe
fence five feet high, with a board on which is painted, ** All
good forefters are requeited not to hurt this old tree, a plaif-
ter having been lately applied to his wounds,”’ will, it is
hoped, preferve Fair/op oak from further deftru@tion.

BARKOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw; 48 miles W.N.W from Braclaw.

BARKU, avillage of Africa, in the country of Agon-
na, where the Dutch havea fort. See Aconna. Little
Barku lies zbout a league anda half from the former.

BARKWAY, a populous and flourifhing village of
Hertfordfhire, in England, is fituated in the hundred of
Edwinttree, three miles from Royfton, 19 from Cambridge,
and 34 north from London. This is a confiderable tho-
roughfare in the road to Lynn, and has feveral good inns.
At the time of the conqueft, the lands here were divided
between four great lords into as many manors.

Barkway was anciently a market town, privileged by
Edw. I. to keep a market on Tuefday, and an annual fair
for fix days. The market was altered in the reign of Eli-
zabeth to Friday, and at laft difcontinued on account of its
proximity to Royfton. The church is a handfome fpacious
building, and the vicarage is in the gift of the Chefter fami-
ly ; within the building are feveral fine monuments and fome
curious painted glafs. This village was greatly damaged
by fire in 1748. Its houfes amount to 147, and its inha-
bitants to 699.

BARKLAAM, in Biography, a learned monk of St. Ba-
fil, flourifhed in the fourteenth century, and was born at
Seminara in Calabria. Having in his youth vifited Greece
for the purpofe of learning the Greek language, he fettled
at Conftantinople in 1327, where he obtained by his exten-
five erudition the favour of the emperor Andronicus the
younger, and alfo that of his confidential domeftic John
Cantacuzene, in whofe houfe he refided. He was employed
in teaching the languages and belles lettres; and in 1331,
was made abbot of the monaftery of the Holy Ghoft. Bar-
laam is defcribed by Petrarch and Boccace as a man of a di-
minutive ftature, though eminent for his learning and genius;
of a piercing difcernment, though of a flow and painful

elocution.

BAR

elocution. Having vifited the monks of mount Athos, he
engaged with them in a controverfy concerning the place of
the foul and effence of God. 'Thefe fanatical afcetics, in
their mental abitractions, pretended to fee the light of mount
Thabor, which had been manifelted to the difciples in the
transfiguration of Chrift, on the region of the navel, con-
ceived by them to be the feat of the foul; and this light
was adored by them as the pure and perfeét eflence of God
himfelf. Nor were thefe fimple folitaries inquifitive, how
the diyine eflence could be a material fubftance, or how an
immaterial tub{tance could be perceived by the eyes of the
body. Barlaam ridiculed thefe- monks, and accufed them
of herefy and blafphemy. His attack induced the more
learned of the monks to renounce or diflemble the fimple
devotion of their brethren; and Gregory Palamas, who
took a lead in this difpute on the part of the monks, intro-
duced a {cholaftic diftin@tion between the effence and opera-
tion of God. This diftinétion, however, did not elcape
the reproach of polythei{m; and Barlaam charged the ad-
herents of Palamas with holding two eternal fubfances, a
vifible and an invifible God. The difpute was violent, and
Barlaam’s life was in danger. However, he fecured him-
felf by a timely retreat; and Andronicus, who, with a
view of obtaining the aid of the weitern princes againft the
Turks, wifhed to reconcile the Greek church with the fee
of Rome, fent Barlaam, in 1339, to conduc this negoti-
ation at the court of pope Benedict XII. at Avignon.
Here he formed an intimate conneétion with Petrarch, whom
he inftruéted in the Greek language; and Barlaam is faid
to have been the firft who revived, beyond the Alps, the
memory, or at leaft the writings of Homer. Being com-
pelled, however, to relinquifh a fruitlefs embafly, he return-
ed to Conftantinople, and his difpute with the monks of
Athos was renewed ; and the cenfure of a council, held in
1341, obliged him to quit the eait. After a feparation of
three years, he renewed his acquaintance with Petrarch in the
court of Naples ; and by his reconimendation Bazlaam was
finally fettled in a {mall bifhopric of his native Calabria at
Hieracium, now Gerace, where he died about the year
1348. He defervedly incurred the charge of inconftancy
in religion; becaufe, when he was a Greek monk, he wrote
againit the Latin communion, which he vindicated after
having been made a Latin bifhop. Having adopted the
Sentiments and precepts of the ftoics, with refpeét to the
obligations of morality and the duties of life, he digefted
them into a work entitled ** Ethica ex Stoicis.”? He alfo
wrote a work on arithmetic, and fome letters and orations.
Moreri. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. xi. p. 388. vol. xii. p. 66.
320. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. ili. p. 305. 368.
BARLAAMITES, in Church Hiflory, the followers of
the Calabrian monk mentioned in the preceding article.
They are the fame with thofe otherwife denominated dcin-
dynites.
RARLEUS, Gaspar, in Biography, an eminent Latin
poet of the 16th century, was born at Antwerp in 1584, and
educated for the miniftry at Leyden, where he afterwards fet-
tled in the exercife of his profeffion, and alfo as fub-principal
and profeffor of logic. But in confequence of having joined
the Arminian party, he was deprived of all his employ-
ments, and devoted himfelf to the ftudy of medicine, for
which purpofe he took a doétor’s degree at Caen. In the
practice Gh phyhds he made no great progrefs ; but refum-
ing the office of a teacher, delivered leGures in philofophy
and the belles lettres to young perfons at Leyden. From
hence he was invited in 1631 to be profeflor of philofophy
in the public fchool founded at Amfterdam, where, on ac-
count of his attachment to Arminian principles, he was the
ebject of jealoufy to the orthodox, by whom he was un-

BAR

kindly treated, and unjuftly charged with Soc'nianifm. At
length he fell into the hypochondriac maladies incident to
literary men, and died in 1648. Barleus wasa man of eru-
dition as well as genius; and he principally diftinguifhed
himfelf by his Latin poetry, in which he has been oes
to rival the ancients, and at leaft to be upon a par with
Claudian. His “ Poems,” printed at Leyden in 1628 and
1631, contain three books of heroic pieces, two of eleg’es,
and one of mifcellanies, confifting of iambics, epigrams, &c.
His Latin harangues, on various fubjects, were admired.
Every great event that occurred called forth his exertions 5
and he celebrated moft of the greateft men of his age.
His * Relation of the Tranfaétions in Brafil under the go-
vernment of count Maurice’? was publifhed in 1647 5 and
his ‘* Letters’? were colleéted after his death, and printed in
two volumes. He alfo publifhed feveral controverfial pieces
againit the adverfaries of Arminius. Gen. Dict.

Barraus, Lambert, the brother of the preceding, was
born at Bommel in Guelderland in 1595, and became pro-
feffor of Greek in the univerfity of Leyden. His inaugural
oration * De Grecarum Literarum Preftantia ac Utilitate’’
was pronounced in 1641. In 1652, he publifhed the « Ti-
mon of Lucian,’? with notes; and after his death, which
happened in 1655, his «¢ Commentary upon the Theogony
of Hefiod”? was printed in 1658. Gen. Did.

BARLAIMONT, or Bartemont,in Geography, a town
of the Netherlands, in the county of Hainaut; 4 leagues
fouth-eaft of Le Quefnoy.

BARLAND, Anvrian, in Biography, a writer of the
fixteenth century, was born about the year 1488 at Barland,
a village of Zealand, whence he took bis name. iiaving
ftudied at Ghent and Louvain, he bed2me firft a private
teacher at the latter place, and afterwards profeffor of elo-
quence in the univerfity ; in which ftation fh» continued till
his death in 1642. His works, which were all writtuz 11 La-
tin, were numerous. Some of the principal are ** Notes on
Terence, Virgil, Menander, and Pliny the younger;” “ An
Abridgment of Univerfal Hiftory, from the birth of Chrift
to 1532;” “On the Doges of Venice ;”’ ‘“‘ Chronicle of
the Dukes of Brabant ;’’ ‘* Hiftory of the Counts of Hol-
land ;”? “¢ Life of Charles, Duke of Burgundy ;”? “ Cata-
logue of the chief towns of Lower Germany ;” “ De lite-
ratis Urbis Rome Principibus.’’ Several of his hiftorical
works were publifhed together at Cologne, in 1603, 8vo.
Moreri.

BARLENGA, in Geography, a {mall ifland, is the
principal of a clufter in the Atlantic ocean, about 3 leagues
from the weft coaft of Portugal, with a fortrefs. Thefe
iflands are called ‘* Borlings’’ by the Englifh feamen, and
moft of them are merely rocks. N. lat. 39° 20’. W. long.
Sian. 5

BARLERIA, in Botany, a genus of plants interme-
diate between Ruellia and Ju/ficia, named by Plumier in
honour of James Barrelier, a Parifian phyfician and bota-
nift. -Lin. g. 785. Schreb. 1051. Plum. 31. Juff. 103.
Gertn. t. 54. Clafs, didynamia angiofpermia. Nat. Ord.
Perfonate. Acanthi, Juff. Gen. Char. Ca/. perianth four-
parted, permanent ; two oppofite leaflets larger. Cor. mo-
nopetalous, funnel-form, quinquefid, fubequal, the fifth di-
vifion deeper than the others. Sam. filaments four, filiform,
two very fhort, capillary; anthers oblong, two lower wi-
thered. Pi/?. germ ovate ; ftyle filiform, the length of the
ftamens ; ftigmabifid. Per. capfule acute, flat-quadrangnu-
lar, two-celled, two-valved, gaping elaftically at the claws ;
partition contrary. Seeds two, compreffed, roundifh.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. four-parted. Stam. two far lefs
than the others. Cap/. quadrangular, bilocular? bivalvular,

elaftic without the claws. Seeds two. :
3 Species,

BAR
cel

Species, 1. B.lgigifolia. Anchufa. Pluk. Alm. 30. t.133.
¥. 4. Morr. 3. f. 11. t. 27. £5. “ Spines of the whorls {ix-
fold ; leaves enfiform, very long, feabrous.” The ftem is
ereCi, rough, obtufely quadrangular; leaves oppofite, lan-
ceolate-{word-fhaped, entire, thrice the length of the inter-
nodes ; flowers in whorls, axillary ; three [pines on each fide
of the item of thelength of the whorls. A native of the
“ait Indies. Introduced here by fir J. Banks, in 1781. 2.
B. folanijolias Plum. g. 31, 43. f. 2. “ Spines axillary; leaves
lanceolate,tcoth-letted.”’? Stems ere€t, fquare, three feethich,
awi-h two oblong entire leayes at every joint, above which
the flowers ftand in whorls, furrounding the ftalks, and un-
der each whorl are fix fharp {pines as long as the calyx ; the
flowers are blue, and more completely labiated than the
other fpecies of the genus. 3. B. Ay/rix. hyftrix frutex.
Rumph. 7.22.13. ‘ Spines axillary, twin, fimple; leaves
entire, lanceolate-ovate.’? Stem wand-like, notfirm; branches
fearcely angular; leaves {mooth on both fides; axillary
{pines twin, fimple, feffile, horizontal. A native of the Eait
Indies. 4. B. Prionitis. Coletta-Veetla. Rheed. Mal. 9. 77.
41. ** Spines axillary, pedate, fourfold; leaves entire, lanceo-
Jate-ovate.”’ Stem herbaceous, round, {tiff ; leaves oppofite,
running down the petioles, pubefcent underneath ; between
the brauch and leaf a fptne, with four tharp rays from the
«entre; calyxes acuminate-{piny. - A native of the Eaft In-
dies. 5. B. buxifolia. Carafchulli. Rheed. Mal. 2. 91. 47.
*¢ Spines axillary, oppoiite, folitary; leaves roundifh, entire.”
Stalks fhrubby, five or fix feet high, with ftrong fpines under
the leaves ; flowers in whorls towards the upper part of the
ftalt ; feed-veflls fhort, containing three or four flat feeds.
A native of Jamaiea wid the Eat Indies. 6. B. nodiflora.
« Spies axillary, branching; leaves lanceolate, entire, cufpi-
dated ; brates ovate, feariofe ; tube elongated.”” Flowers
blue, refembling thofe of B. buxifolia, but longer, and ex-
panding during the night ; brates fmooth, Obferved near
Tanjour by Koenig. 7. B. criffata. Melampyro cognata,
&c. Mor. Hilt. 3. 429. f. 11. t.23. £7. ‘¢ Leaves oblong,
entire; two leaflets ot the calyx broader, ciliated, and two
linear, acute.””? Stem round; leayes oblong-ovate, fharp at
both crds; flowers axillary, feffile; two leaflets of the ca-
lyx ovate, acuminate, ferrate-{piny ; two alternate, fhorter,
linear, acute, entire, {preading ; corolla blue, with ovate
lobes. 8. B. coccinea. Plum. ¢. 31. 43. f. 1. * Unarmed;
Jeayes-ovate, tooth-letted, petioled.’? Stems fmooth, four
feet high ; flowers fearlet, in wherls at the joints, and ap-
pearing from July till September. A native of South Ame-
rica.. 9. B. pungens. ‘* Unarmed; leaves ovate, acute, pun-
geat; bractes ciliated.”? Found at the Cape of Good Hope
by Thunberg. 10. B. longifora. Gertn. Fru&t. 253. Un-
“armed; leaves ovate, filky ; braftes cordate, feariofe ; co-
rollas very long.”? An underfhrub, with oppofite filky

“branches ; leaves oppofite, entire, on ftalkg; flowers termi-
pal; brates two or bivalve, feffile, nearly as large as the
leaves, and below thefe four other brates difpofed crofs-wife,
linear, fpreading, filky, as long as the leaves; capfule
pointed at each end, quadrangular; feeds much flatted,
covered with waved’bundles of oppreffed hairs. Found on
the mountain of St. Thomas in Malabar by Koenig. 11. B.
procumbens. Lour. Cochinch. 377. ‘ Unarmed; leaves lan-

“ceolate, crenate, hifpid ; heads terminal.” This is a procum-
bent twilted rough underfhrub ; leaves oppofite, broad-lan-
ceolate 5 flowers yellow; braétes acuminate, ciliate ; feg-
meats of the calyx fubulate, hairy ; capfule oblong, angu-

‘Jar, with orbicular feeds. A native of China, near Canton.

Propagation and Culture. All the fpecies of this genus re-
quire the proteétion of a bark-ftove. The fecond, fourth,
ith, and cighth were cultivated by Miller, but the others

BAR

have not yet been introduced here. The fecond is ‘to be
propagated by feeds, which will fow themfelves in the-pots
which are near them in the ftove, when the plants are once
obtained ; but where the feeds are received from abroad,
they muft be fown ona hot-bed on the {pring ; and-whea the
plants are fit to remove, they mutt be each planted in a fe-
parate pot, plunged into a hot-bed of tannevs’ bark, where
they mutt conftantly remain, and be managed in the fame
manner as other tender exotics from the fame countries ;
giving them water frequently in fummer, and allowing them
frefh air every day in warm weather. They flower from
June till November. The fourth has flesible perennial flalks,
which, if cut off during the f{ummer months and madeinto
lengths of fix or eight inches, and planted in pots, plung-
ing them into hot-beds, and duly watered and fhaded from
the fun, will foon put forth roots, when they may be each
planted in a {mall pot and plunged into the tan-bed in the
{tove, where they are found to grow better than in the dry
flove. his fpecies’ rarely produces flowers in England.
The fifth: and eighth forts will produce feeds which are to
be treated in the fame manner as the former. See Martyn’s
Miller’s Dia. :
BARLETTA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Italy,
in the kingdom of Naples and country of Bari, on the

Adriatic, tour miles weft of Trani. The infide of this city is.

maguiticently built, though it has from without a ruinous
afpe&, and is thiniy peopled. Frequent changes of matters,
bad adminiftration, and decay of commerce, have blatted its
profperity. Its ftreets are wide and well paved, and its
houfes large and loity. The ftyle of building fixes their
date at the firit emergence of the arts out of the chaos of
barbarifm ; many of the houfes ftill retaining poited arches,
fhort twifted columns, and other remains of Saracenic tafte;
while others are decorated with pillars, entablatures, and
members chara¢teriftic of the ancient Grecian archite&ture.
The city owes its embellifhments to the policy of the Arra-
gonian kings, who refided here to fecure the allegiance of
the Pugliefe. In the cathedral, which is remarkable for its
antique granite columns, Ferdinand I. was crowned. In
the market-place ftands a coloffal bronze ftatue, feventeen feet
three inches high, reprefenting, as it is fuppofed, the em-
peror Heraclius, who began his reignin 1610. The citadel
1s fpacious, and commands the port, coniilting of feveral ir-
regular piers, but without any fhelter from the north wind,
which {weeps the whole bafon. ‘The exports from this
place are falt, corn, almonds. and liquorice, which latter grows
{pontaneoufly in the f{wamps. During the hot months the
air ig accounted unwholefome. Barletta is faid to have de-
rived its name from a tower, or drinking-houfe, fituate on
the road to Canna, having for its figna barrel, * barilletta;”’
and when the cities of Cannz and Canofa fell to decay, and
the advantages of trade drew people to the coaft, a nume-
rous colony gathered round this tower, and in 484, pope
Gelafius confecrated a church for the fettlers, which became
the cathedral of the united fees of Nazareth, Canne, and
Monteverde. The emperor Frederick added greatly to
Barletta, and has been by fome called its founder. Others
fuppofe it to have been the Barduli of the Itineraries. In
the fifteenth century, Barletta was efteemed one of the four
ftrongeft fortreffes in Italy ; the other three being Fabriano
in the Marca, Prato in Tufcany, and Crema in Lombardy.
Swinb. Trav. vol. i. p. 275. N. lat. 41° 30’. E. Jong. 16°

he :

BARLEY, in Botany, a gramineous, frumentaceous
herb, whofe feeds are of the larger fort, being covered with
a hufk, growing ina {pike, and the grains bearded. See
Horpeum. a

Pearl

BAR

Pearl Barrey, and French Baruey, are barley freed
from the hufk, and rounded by a mill; the diftinétion be-
tween the two being, that the pearl barley is reduced to the
fize of {mall fhot, all but the very heart of the grain being
ground away. In mills appropriate to this purpofe, the
mill-{tone is rough-hewn round its circumference ; and in-
ftead of an under ftone, has below it a wooden cafe, in
which it revolves, and which, on the infide, is lined with
a plate of iron pierced like a grater, with holes having their
fharp edges turned upwards. The barley is thrown upon
the itone, which, as it runs round, draws it in, frees it from
the hufk, and rounds it ; after which, it is put into fieves,
and fifted. ‘The firft kind of barley-mills is a German in-
vention. In Holland, the firft was ereéted at Saardam, not
earlier than the year 1660. This mill, which was at firft
called the Pellikaan, fcarcely produced in feveral years pro-
fit fufficient to maintain a family ; but in the beginning of
the laft century, there were at Saardam fifty barley-mills,
which brought confiderable profit to their proprietors.

Barvey, in Agriculture, a well-known kind of crain from
which malt is made. Miller enumerates four different forts
of this ufeful grain: /pring barley, long eared barley, /prat-
barley, and winter barley.

The /pring barley has a double row of beards or awns
ftanding erect. This is the fort principally cultivated in the
fouthern and eaftern diftri€ts of both England and Scotland,
and which the farmers diftinguifh into two different kinds,
the common and the rath-ripe barley ; but the two forts are
in reality the fame, as the rath-ripe is only an alteration of
the common barley, occafioned by being long cultivated
upon warm peels foils. "The feed of this, when fown
on cold or itrong land, will, the firft year, ripen nearly a
fortnight earlier than that taken from ftrong land, and
therefore the farmers in the low diftri¢ts generally purchafe
their feed barley from the warm or gravelly lands; for
when cultivated in the vales two or three years, it, be-
comes full as late in ripening as the common barley of
their own produce: onthe other hand, the farmers on warm

velly lands are obliged to procure their feed barley from
the ftrong lands, otherwife their grain would degenerate in
bulk or bites, which by this change is prevented. ‘This
fort of barley is eafily diftinguifhed as above, and befides
the rind is much thinner, and of courfe it is eiteemed better
for making malt,

The long-eared barley is likewife cultivated in many parts
of England, and is a good fort ; but fome cultivators ob-
ject to it, becaufe from the ears being long and heavy they
think it more apt to lodge. In this fort of barley, the
grains are regularly ranged in a double row, lying over each
other, Jike the tiles of a houfe, or the fcales of fifh. It
has no beards or awns; and its tindgis very thin, and there-
fore it is efteemed for making malt.

The /prat-barley, which is fometimes alfo called Bartledore,
Fulham, and Putney barley, from great quantities being cul-
tivated in the neighbourhoods of thofe piaces, has fhorter
and broader ears than either of the former forts ; the awns
or beards are longer, which tend greatly to preferve it from
the birds, and the grains are placed together. It feldom,

however, grows fo tall as the other kinds; the ftraw is

generally coarfer, and therefore not fo good as fodder for
eattle.
The winter barley, which is called alfo /guare barley, bear
barley, and big, is feldom cultivated in the fouthern parts of
England ; but in the northern counties, and in Scotland, it
is the fort generally fown, as being much hardier than the
others. There are two kinds of this barley, the one with
four rows of grains, and the other with fix, the latter of

Vou. III.

LEELA:

which is commonly diftinguifhed by the name of barley big.
The grain is large and plump; but the rind and chaff of
it being thicker than that of either of the preceding forts,
it is lels efteemed for making malt.

Barley, from its being that fort of grain which is confi-
dered next in value to wheat, is very generally cultivated.
On dry, light, mellow, foils, the thinneft-rinded and largeft-
bodied barley, which is always efteemed the beft in quality,
is produced. Even light poor foils, when dry, and from
nature and fituation warm, yield barley which is fuperior in
quality to that which is commonly reaped from the itrongeft
land when cold or of a moift nature.

In the correéted report of Middlefex it is obferved, that
the tender nature of this plant, in its infant ftate, unfits it
for cold and compaét foils. It thrives beft in a foil that is
moderately dry and light, as a loamy fand, and is efteemed
rather a clean crop. Ass, for this crop, the foil is generally
well tilled late in the fpring, it reduces the weeds very much ;
and from its occupying the ground only four months, they
have not time to recover themfelves and perfeét their feed.
This grain ‘may and frequently is, the writer fays, fown
after every kind of crop, but always fucceeds beft after
iene peafe, beans, or others of an ameliorating qua-
ity.

In the preparation for this grain, the foil fhould invariably
be well pulverized and rendered light, firft by a thin plough-
ing and then by harrowing, which fhould be followed at as
great a diftance as the feafon will admit by amore deep
crofs ploughing, harrowing, and rolling. The feed fhould
then be ploughed in with a very {mall furrow, and immedi-
ately afterwards clover feed harrowed in with fhort-tined
harrows, which leayes the land as light as poffible. The
next thing to be done is, with one horfe to draw a very
light roll over the Jand, in order to prefs the mould gently:
on the feeds. Thefe operations promote a more certain,
{peedy, and equal vegetation than can be procured by har-
rowing in the feed. Harrowing in the feed is, however,
the more ufual method, and is, he thinks, the caufe of much
grain being loft, and alfo of the crop being often of two
or three growths. Many farmers poftpone the laft rolling
until the firft leaves of the feeds are up, but, it is believed,
more from the hurry of the feafon than from choice. This
perfeét tillage feldom fails to fecure a good crop of barley,
and a plant of clover.

In the event of land-fprings, or exceffive rains, it may be
advifable not to plough the land flat, but into ridgelets of
about eighteen inches wide. Thefe will drain themfelves
dry in any weather, at leaft fo much fo, that two or three
dry days will prepare the foil for harrowing previous to the
fecond ploughing ; and if the feafon fhould ftill continue
favourable, the land on fuch fecond ploughing might be
laid up ina fimilar manner till fowing-time ; when two or
three days more of fine weather would render it fit to be
harrowed or feuffed down, and for ploughing in the feed:
otherwife a third ploughing may be given, and the feed be
harrowed in; which latt is confidered the better practice,
where the foil is not quite fo dry as could be wifhed. Scuf-
fling the land, initead of the fecond ploughing, would in
fine feafons difpatch the work, and be a faving of experce.
In the cleaneft foil it would be equal to crojs ploughing,
and in foils not quite free from root-weeds it would be
much more ufeful by bringing them within reach of the
harrows. It will perform more than double the quantity of
work with the fame number of men and horfes, and leaye
the land equally ready for the harrow and roller before fow-
ing the feed.

The author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry obferves, how-

4N ~ ever,

BAR. eA

ever, that it Is improper to fow clover among barley on
rich land, becavfe the natural fertility of the foil haftens on
the vegetation of the grafs, which will before harveft have
advanced to a confiderable height among the corn, and will
occafion a longer time to be neceflary for drying the fwath ;
and thus, by lying abroad longer than would otherwife have
been required, a total deftru€tion of the crop may enfue; but
in thofe lands, where there is not the danger of fo luxuriant
an increafe, clover, trefoil, and other grafs-feeds may, he
thiaks, often be fown among barley; and ifa favourable time
can be procured for harvefting it, the ftraw may be greatly
improved by the mixture of the clover or other grafles, and
become then a valuable fodder in the winter; but barley-
itraw fimply is, he fays, the moft ordinary cattle-food of any.

Where barley fucceeds turnips, the land is fometimes
only once ploughed ; but the author of modern agriculture
fays that it is a much better method to plough it twice, firft
early in the f{pring, and again before fowing the feed. This

laft is the pra¢tice in Norfolk, where that {pecies of grain.

is cultivated in a more perfeét manner and to a greater ex-
tent after turnips, than perhaps in any other diftrict. But
when barley is fown after peafe, beans, or oats, the land is
commonly firft ploughed in autumn; and the attentive far-
mer always takes care on this occafion to plough in fuch a
manner as to expofe as great an extent of furface to the in-
fluence of the air and froft as poffible, and at the fame time
to form the ridges in fuch a wayas to prevent the field from
receiving any damage from exceflive rains during winter.
The fecond ploughing is given immediately after the oat-
feeding is finifhed. ‘This ploughing is intended to anfwer
two purpofes ; in the firlt place, to loofen the couch-grafs
and other root-weeds where they abound, fo that they may
be eafily taken out by the harrows, which are immediately
afterwards applied; and in the fecond place, to reduce the
foil toa finer tilth, whereby the feed-weeds are encouraged
to vegetate, and which the fubfequent ploughing and har-
rowing at feéd-time effe@ually deftroy.

This fort of grain is alfo frequently fown after wheat,
when the fame mode of culture as juft mentioned is adopted.
But however common this rotation of cropping may be in
fome diitri€ts, there is no good reafon, he fays, why it
fhould be recommended to the general notice of farmers.
Por two white corn crops fucceeding each other is undoubt-
edly an erroneous method, both for profit and improvement.
Befides, it moftly happens, that where barley fucceeds
wheat, the crop is in fome meafure blighted, many of the
ftalks becoming white about the month of July ; and where
there are any grains in the ears, they are fhrivelled and
never come to maturity, though the foil may be well fuited
to the production of this fort of grain.

The author of the Survey of Middlefex indeed thinks,
from the nature of corn crops, that barley ought not on any
account to be fown after either wheat, 1ye, or oats; a
much better practice being to fow it after turnips, potatoes,
carrots, tares, &c. and in fome cafes, after hemp, flax, and
rape. The land fhould net receive any further manure than
what was laid on for the preceding crop, together with the
dung and urine depofited by cattle during the time they are
eating the green crops off the lands.

The feed feafon for barley begins, in moft of the fouth-
ern counties, about the firft week of March, and terminates
in the more northern ones, towards the middle of June.
But from the middle of March to the end of April may be
reckoned the chief barley feed feafon, as within thefe
periods by much the greateft proportion of that fpecies of
grain is put into the ground.

The writer juft mentioned obferves, that barley, though
ufually fown during the months of March, April, and
May, has fucceeded when put in the firft week in June;
but it ought to be fown as early as the foil is fufficiently
dry and in condition to receive it, and the prior at-
tention which is due to the oat, tare, and other crops will
permit. Let it always be kept in mind, fays he, that bar-
ley will bear late fowing much better than thofe crops.
Both the four and fix-rowed kinds of barley are frequently
fown in the autumn nearly at the fame time with wheat,
not only in temperate climates, but alfo in very cold coun-
tries; their hardinefs being fuch as to bear the feverity of
the winter feafon even in the mountainous parts of the
northern countries. /In hot countries they are moftly fown
in January, February, and March.

All the other forts are fown in the {pring of the year in
a dry time, as has been already feen; when this fort of
grain is fown late on ftrong clayey foils, if the feafon does
not prove very favourable, it is very late in autumn before
it is fit to reap or mow, unlefs it be the early or rath-ripe
fort, which is often ripe in nine weeks from the time of
fowing.

In the feventh volume of the Annals of A
Mr. Young gives the following experiments by Mr. Macro,
on early and late fowing of barley; on Nov. 16, 1785,
he began his experiments by fowing two bufhels of barley,
which he harrowed in on clover land that hac been folded
the fame as for wheat ; the firft fowing, therefore, had only
one earth. The barley came up about a week fooner than
the wheat by the fide of it, which was fown the fame day,
and was exceedingly flourifhing till the firft fharp froft fet
in, which damaged the blade, but did not feem to affe& the
root. As near the middle of December as the weather
would permit, he fowed two bufhels more, on exaétly the
fame quantity of ground, and fome about the middle of every
month, till the month of May 1786. This and every fow-
ing after, it had two earths ; one cait, or half the feed, was
pe in, and the other half harrowed in; all the land
was folded alike in the month of November. The fecond
fharp froft killed fome of this fowing, and a good deal of
that fown in November ; but they both, with that fown in
January, feemed to fuffer ftill more by the fharp cutting
winds in che month of March, when there was no fnow to
cover the blade, and it was injured by the froft The fow-
ings in February and March loft few, if any of their plants,
and, what was fomewhat remarkable, were both forward
enough to be harvefted on the fame day with the three
preceding fowings. That fown in April was full a fort-
night later ; and that fown in May, there not being any fo
late fown in the neighbourhood, was entirely deftroyed by
vermin. +

As he fome years before intended trying the fame experi-
ment, but was difappointed of knowing the event by the
ftupidity of his workmen, he determined this time to prevent
any miftakes by mixing the different parcels in the barn, to
threfh enough of the different fowings in the field to fatisfy
himfelf which was the moft profitable crop, and accordingly
attended the threfher the whole day himfelf. As it was not
at all neceffary for the experiment to threfh the whole crop,
he took three fwwaths of each fowing twelve yards inlength,
on the loweft part of the land, where he thought the foil
was the moft equal for the purpofe of the experiment, which,
he fhould have obferved before, were by the fide of each
other on the fame piece of land. He had every parcel
dreffed and put into a fack by itfelf as foon as threfhed, and
the account itood thus ; oN

From

iculture,

B ASR AL Y.

: ; afte |w le
eB if Hanon 2\e (aie
Ciallin Bi ne a = a a
A | OQ | Oo }A |e
From that fown a
in November 3 co it ie De |
72 {q. yards. B
December aa Vol er ecuied a) Alacer ie rljatics
January al hea eo | 13
Yebruary 739 bet alae? on ra Ps
March Py Rael jae ro} 3 | 32/2
April 2 2 lige haal| ead
May o | 0 )|"0 eo lfoloj|o

The faft fowing, as obferved above, was entirely deftroyed
by the rooks; he believes it had not been fown more than
three days before they began to f{crape and pick it up, and
completely devoured it. It was the fame with the very
early fowings, but that he expe@ted, and was guarded
againft. It may however ferve he thinks, as a leffon to
young farmers, that although early fowing may in moft
cafes be profitable, yet it will not anfwer in large open
fields, where the lands are intermixed, unlefs neighbours fow
at the fame time; for, if only one farmer fows early, he
muft have as many keepers as he has pieces of land.
The barley of all the fowings was of the Zealand ftock.
On the fame piece of land on which he tried the above
experiments, which was a deep fand, value about fix
or feven fhillings per acre, he tried two others, one about
ten years fince, with chalk from different pits, fome
of which was a dry chalk, and others greafy; he carried
only one load of each fort, and laid it about the
thicknefs of feventy loads to an acre. Neither of them did
the leaft good, for he could not tell by any of the crops
fince, without looking at the foil, where they were laid,
The other was by deep ploughing, in the autumn of 1785,
when he fowed part of the piece with wheat, by going with
a fecond plough after the firit for one fleatch only, and
raifing about three or four inches of foil that had never been
turned up before; on viewing it about midfummer he could
not find where it was by any apparent difference in the
crop, nor could he fee that the barley fown in January was
the beft crop. By the fame rule, when he began to try the
experiment before, that fown in February was the beft, and
it appeared fo on view, he remembers, all the fummer.

The quantity of feed barley allowed to the acre varies very
much; and depends not only on the quality of the land and
the feafon, but on what was the preceding crop, and alfo on
the condition of the land for receiving the feed. When bar-
ley fucceeds turnips, the land being then in the beft flate
for the feed, a lefs quantity is neceflary than if it were to be
fown after two or three fucceffive white corn crops. The
ufual allowance to the acre is from three bufhels and a half
to five; but four bufhels and a peck may be confidered as
the general average, fo large a quantity as five bufhels
being never fown but on lands exhaufted and worn out by
improper cropping.

Mr. Middleton remarks (in his Survey of Middlefex) that
early fowing requires lefs feed than late; but on a medium
foil in proper condition, fown broad-caft, in March three
and a half, in April four, and in May four and a half
bufhels per acre are fufficient. A rich foil makes fuch
a great difference, that it can hardly be fown too thin; even
one bufhel and a half early fown, has produced as much as
could ftand; whereas had three or four buthels been fown,
the crop would have been lodged, and of a very reduced value.

It isob erved by Mr. Donaldfon, that if a flatement of

the average returns of barley by the acre was confined to
England and the fouth of Scotland, it might be rated at
thirty-two bufhels; but when Wales and the north of
Scotland are included, where, owing to the imperfect modes
of culture ftill praétifed, the crops are very indifferent,
the general average over the whole will not probably ex-
ceed twenty-eight bufhels the acre. 'he author of the
Agricultural Report of Middlefex flates it as varying in
England from fifteen to feventy-five bufhels per acre.
The average produce of the county of Middlefex, he
fays, is about four quarters of corn and two loads of
itraw per acre. The {traw ufually fells at about a guinea
a load delivered in, which, with chaff and thin grain, is
equal to one fhilling and fixpenee per buthel on the corn;
and as the corn has averaged three fhillings, together they
produce four fhillings and fix-pence per bufhel, or feven
pounds four fhillings per acre.

The ultimate deftination of barley to be converted into
beer and fpirits, he fays, raifes the value of this crop to
more money per acre than that of any other grain. Tor
after the farmer has difpofed of it, the maltfter, brewer,
diftiller, reCtifier, and viétualler, fucceffively draw the
wages of labour and profit from it before it comes to
the confumer. Includng a revenue of five millions and
one quarter a year, which it nets to government, but
which cofts the fubje& between fix and feven millions,
its entire expence to the confumer at this time is not
lefs than thirty pounds an acre. He underftands that por-
ter is brewed in the ratio of 162 gallons from one quarter
of malt: and is fold by the retailer after the rate of one
fhilling and two-pence per gallon, which produces nine
pounds nine fhillings; deduét the value of the hops, and
there remains upwards of a guinea a bufhel for the malt, or
full thirty pounds an acre. In the article of fpirits, he
thinks, it muft neceffarily yield much more. According to
Mr. Donaldfon, barley is applied to various ufes. In Wales,
Weltmoreland, Cumberland, and in the north, as well as in
feveral parts of the weft of Scotland, the bread ufed by the
great body of the inhabitants is made chiefly from barley.
Large quantities of the barley cultivated in England are
converted into beer, ale, porter, and what is called Britith
{pirits, as Englith gin, Englifh brandy, &c. The remainder,
beyond what is neceffary for feed, is made into meal, and
partly confumed in bread by the inhabitants of the above
diftriéts, and partly employed for the purpofe of fattening
black-cattle, hogs, and poultry. There is a much greater
fhare of the Scotch barley confumed in diftillation in pro-
portion to the quantity cultivated, than there is in England.
Exclufive of what is ufed for feed, the Scotch barley is
either converted into beer or ale; or made into pot barley,
or into meal, for the ufe of the inhabitants in the more re-
mote and lefs cultivated parts of the kingdom; or, laftly,
into whifkey.

In the Report of Middlefex it is alfo flated, that much of
the moft ordinary barley is given to poultry ; the reft is fold
to the maltfters, except fo much as is referved for feed.

In refpe€t to pearl barley it is obferved, that a mill to
manufa€ture it cofts about twenty pounds. A ton, or 160
ftone, of pearl barley fells for twenty three pounds, which is
rather under three {hillings a ftone, or thirteen fhillings and
four-pence a bufhel. Twenty-three ftone and a helf of
common barley produces five {tone and a half of pearl bar-
ley by the common method of manufaéturing it; but by an
addition to the mill, which would only coft two pounds, the
barley corn would be fplit, and then the fame quantity
would yield nine ftone of pearl barley. This is ftated on

4Nz2 the

BAW

the authority of evidence before a committee of the Lon-
don Society of Arts. : ;

With regard to the choice of feed barley, it is neceffary to
obferve that the beft grain for fowing is that which is free
from blacknefs at the tail, and is of a pale lively yellow co-
lour, intermixed with a bright whitifh caft: and if the rind
be a little fhrivelled, it is fo much the better, as it fhows
that it has fweated in the mow, and is a fure indication that
its coat is thin. The hufk of thick-rinded barley being too
fff to fhrink, will lie fmooth and hollow even when the
infide flour has fhrunk from it.

The neceflity of a change of feed from time to time, by
fowing that of the growth of a different foil, as has been
obiferved, is in no initance more evident than in the culture
of this grain, which otherwife becomes coarfer and coarfer
every year. But in this, as well as in all other grain, the
utmoit care fhould be taken that the feed be full bodied.

It is eafy to fuppofe that barley, like wheat, may be bene-
fited by being tteeped before itis fown. For as rain cannot
always be depended upon foon after the fowing of {pring
corn, there is furely an equal reafon for extending the prac-
tice to thefe forts of grain as well as thofe which are fown
in autumn. Liming indeed may hurt barley in fome cafes,
but a little {prinkling of foot bids fair for improving it, at
leait it may prevent infects from preying upon the feed.

Mr. Middleton indeed remarks, that the feed is never
fteeped, and yet the farmers are continually complaining of
its coming up at different periods, thus producing two
crops which do not become ripe at. the fame time, and are
injurious to the fample. Steeping the feed a proper num-
ber of hours, which might be afcertained by experiment,
feems (he fays) to be as well calculated to fecure an uniform
vegetation and prevent this complaint, as poifoning the
feed appears to be to keep it from vermin.

According to Miller, the common method is to fow the
barley-feed with a broad-caft at two fowings; the firft be-
ing harrowed in at once, but the fecond not until the feed is
buried. ‘The common allowance of feed is four buthels to
an acre: but (fays he) if the farmers could be prevailed
upon to alter this practice, they would foon find their ac-
count in it; for if a third part of that quantity be fown,
there will be a much greater produce, and the cora will be
much lefs liable to lodge, as he has many times experienced;
for when corn or any other vegetable ftands very clofe, the
ftalks are drawn up weak, and thence incapable of refifting
the force of the winds, or fupporting themfelves under
heavy rains; but when they are at a proper diftance, their
ftalks will be more than twice the fize of the other, and
therefore are feldom laid: He fays he has frequently ob-
ferved in fields where there has been a foot-path through
their middle, that the corn which has ftood thin on each
fide of the path has ftood upright, when all the reft on
both fides has been Jaid flat on the ground ;"and whoever
will give himfelf the trouble to examine thefe roots near the
path, will find them tiller out, that is, have a greater num-
ber of italks, to more than four times the quantity of the
other parts of the field. He has feen experiments made by
fowing barley in rows acrofs divers parts of the fame field,
and the grains fown thin in the rows, fo that the roots were
three or four inches afunder in the rows, and the rows a
foot diftant; the intermediate {paces of the fame field were
at the fame time fown broad-caft in the ufual way. The
fuccefs was this: the roots which ftood thin in the rows,
tillered out from ten or twelve to upwards of thirty ftalks
on each root; the ftalks were ftronger, the ears longer, and
the grains Jarger, than any of thofe fown in the common
way; and when thofe parts of the field where the corn was

I

LEY;

fown in the ufual way have been lodged, thefe parts fown
thin have fupported their wpright polition againit wind and
rain, though the rows have been made not only lengthways
but acrofs the lands in feveral pofitions, fo that there could
be no alteration in regard to the goodnefs of the land, or
the fituation of the corn. Where therefore fuch experi-
ments have been made, and always attended with equal fuc-
cefs, there can be no room to doubt which of the two me-
thods is moft eligible, fincezif the crops were only fuppofed
to be equal in both, the faving two thirds of the corn fowa
is a very great advantage, and deferves a national confider-
ation, as {uch a faving in farce times might be of very great
benefit to the public. This faving of feed-corn (fays he)
mutt be underitood to regard fuch.as is fown broad-caft;
for if it be fown in drills, an eighth part of the feed ufually
fown will be fufficient for an acre of land, and the produce be
greater; for all forts of corn are naturally inclined to fend
out feveral ftalks from each root, which they rarely fail to
do where the roots are at a proper diftance and have room;
nor do the ftalks grow in this cafe near fo tall, but are much
{tronger than when they are near together, when they
rarely have more than two or three ftalks, whereas thole
roots which have proper room feldom have lefs than ten or
twelve. He has had eighty ftalks upon one root of barley,
which were itrong, produced long ears, and the grain was
better filled than any he ever faw grow in the common
method of hufbandry, and the land on which this grew wae
not very rich; but he has frequently obferved on the fides
of hot-beds in the kitchen gardens, where barley ftraw has
been ufed for covering the beds, that fome of the grains
left in thé ears have dropped out and grown, the roots
have produced from thirty to fixty {talks each, and thofe have
been four or five times larger in fize than the ftalks ever ar-
rive at in the common way. But to this, he knows, it may
be objected, that although upon rich ground in a garden
thefe roots of corn may probably have fo many ftalks, yet
in poor land they will not have fuch produce; therefore,
unlefs a greater quantity of feeds be fown, the crop will not
be worth ftanding ; which is (he fays) one of the greateit
fallacies that can be imagined; for to fuppofe that poor
land can nourifh more than twice the number of roots in the
fame {pace as rich land, is fuch an abfurdity as one could
hardly fuppofe any perfon of common underitanding guilty
of: and yet fo it is; for the general practice is to allow a
greater quantity of feed to poor landythan for richer
ground; not confidering that where the roots itand fo
clofe, they will deprive each other of their nourifhment,
and confequently ftarve themfelves, as is always the cafe
when the roots ftand clofe, which any perfon may at firft
fight obferve in any part of the fields where the corn hap-
pens to fcatter when they are fowing it: or in places where
by harrowing the feed is drawn in heaps, thofe patches
will ftarve, and never grow to a third part of the fize as the
other parts of the fame field; and yet, common as this is,
it is little noticed by farmers, otherwife (ars he) they
furely would not eontinue their old cuftom of fowing. He
has made many experiments for feveral years in the pooreit
land, and has always found that all crops which were fown
or planted at a greater diftance than ufual, have fucceeded
beft upon fuch land; and he is convinced, if farmers would
be prevailed upon to quit their prejudices and make trial of
the method of fowing their corn thin, they would foon fee
the advantage of this hufbandry.

The experiments of Mr, Young, however, lead us to a
different conclufion. On April 25th,,1791, upon a land
of moift loam on a wet mar! bottom, worth about fixteen
fillings an acre, he marked four beds, each eight ai

s

BAR YE Y,

long by three feet broad, and dibbled them with four-
rowed barley.
No. 1, 91 holes, and four feeds in each hole.

2, 198 ditto, three feeds in each,

3, 198 ditto, one feed in each.

4, 198 ditto, two feeds in cach,
No hoeing given; but before they ripened a net was fuf-
pended over the whole, to guard the barley from the ra-
yages of birds.

On Sept. gth he reaped them, and clipping off the ears,

weighed them.

No. 1, 284 ounces.

Zs 43 le
3» 205
4) 24.

In No. 1, 13 grains of feed give one ounce produce.
2, 1g grains of feed, one ounce produce.
3, gf ditto, ditto.
4, 16% ditto, ditto.

In No. 1, 15 grains of feed per fquare foot.
2, 24, ditto, ditto.
3, 8 ditto, ditto.

16 ditto, ditto.

?

It Rene (fays he) remarkable, that comparing No. 1 and
4, the feed are nearly the fame, yet the crop is different,
and yery confiderably in favour of the feed being crowded
together in clufters, rather than fpread much more equally
over the ground. ‘This (continues he) is a moft fingular
circumttance ; it coincides very much with the modern
practice of dibbling wheat, which has been changed gra-
dually from one grain ina hole, to two, three, and even
four, and this clufter-fowing has been found to anfwer bett.
But upon what principles? and owing to what caule?
Theory would feem to tell us, that plants ftanding fingle
would have regular {paces for the roots to feed in, without
ftruggling with each other for nourifhment : but there muft
be fome other circumftance which more than balances this
advantage. The farmers fay that the plants affift each
other: but how? Ts it by fhelter? is it by an accelerated
fermentative motion from additional warmth? Very ob-
feure all this, but highly deferving further repeated and
varied experiments. [Mere quantity of feed appears to have
much effect; No. 2, the mott feed, has of all the greateft
crop.

it is a common practice in fome parts, to {catter the
dung of pigeons, poultry, &c. over barley and other grain
after they are fown; but if this method be purfued, care
fhouldbe taken to fcatter fuch dungs on immediately, becaufe
then the fhoot will eafily make its way through; but when
laid on later, it is apt to burn up and deftroy the blades of
the young plants.

It often happens, on the more {tiff foils, from unfavourable
weather andan extremely dry fpring, that itis impoffible, by
the common method, to break the clods and prepare the

round fufficiently for fowing barley ; in whichcafeit hasbeen
the ufual method to break the clods witha large beetle, called
from its ufe a clotting-beetle: but this being a very expenfive
and tedious method of preparing land, induced the ingenious
Mr. Randall of York to conftruét an inftrument, which he
calls a /pity roller, by the affiftance of which a large quantity
of land may, in fuch a dry feafon, be foon reduced to an
exceeding fine tilth, with very little trouble. See Srixe
Rover.

After the barley is fown and harrowed in, the ground
fhould be rolled after the firft fhower of rain, to break the
clods and lay the earth {mooth, which will render it eafier
to mow the crop, and alfo caufe the earth to lie clofer to the

roots of the corn, which may be of great fervice to it in dry
weather ; and alfo when the barley has been up three weeks
or amonth, it may be a good method fometimes to roll it
over with a weighty roller, which will again prefs the earth
clofe to the roots of the corn, and thereby prevent the fun
and air from penctrating the ground in dry feafons ; and
this rolling of it before it flalks, may likewife caufe it to-
tiller out into a greater number of ftalks; fo that if the
plants fhould be thin, it‘may caufe them to fpread fo as to
fill the ground, and likewife flrengthen the ftems.

If the corn fhould grow too rank, as is fometimes the
cafe ina wet f{pring, mowing is then much better than feed-
ing it, becaufe the f{cythe takes off only the rank tops, but
the fheep feed upon all indifferently ; nor fhould they even
in any cafe be left upon it too long, becaufe, being particu-
larly fond of the fweet end of the ftalk next the root,
they bite fo clofely as to injure the future growth of the
plant.

Barley is ripe when the red roan, as the farmers term it
(a reddifh colour on the ear), is gone off, or when the ears
droop and fall as it were double againft the ftraw, and the
ftalks have loft their verdure. If it be full of weeds, it
mutt lie in the fwath till they are dry. It is not apt to
fhed, but in wet weather it will be apt to f{prout or grow
mufty ; and, therefore, every fair day after rain it fhould be
fhook up and turned; and when it is tolerably dry, let it
be made up into fhocks: but be careful never to houfe it
till thoroughly dry, left it mow-burn, which will make it
malt worfe than if it had {pired in the field.

Barvey, Cauftic Indian. See VerBascum Sevadilla.

Barvey Water (Decodum Hordei P. Lond. S Ed.) It
is of fome confequence that the preparations which generally
fall under the care of the nurfe, fhould be made with as
much attention as thofe of the apothecary. Barley water,
either by itfelf or with a variety of additions, forms an agree-
able and valuable drink for the fick room. When prepared
in the following manner, it is fmooth, uniform, and palatable.
Take of pearl-barley two ounces, water five pounds: firlt
wath the barley from the mealy matter that adheres to it,
with fome cold water ; then boilit a little with about half a
pound of water to extract this colouring matter; throw this
away, and put the barley thus purified into five pounds of
boiling water, which is to be boiled down to one half, and
ftrained.

Barley Water Compound. ( Decoétum Hordei Compofitum P.
Lond.) Take of the preceding barley water two pints ;
fliced figs two ounces; liquorice root, fliced and bruifed,
half an ounce ; raifins, {toned, two ounces ; water one pint ;
boil to two pints, and ftrain, This decoétion is more taite-
ful than the former, and is very palatable; it forms a
good demulcent liquor in fore throats of every kind, and is
very confiderably nourifhing. It is apt, however, to cloy
the ftomach if taken in large quantity ; lemon juice, or any
other acid, may be added to it with advantage.

Baruny-lird, in Ornithology, a name given in Suffex to
the Si/kin.

Barvey-corn is ufed to denote a long meafure, contain-
ing in length the third part of an inch, and in breadth the
eighth.

The French carpenters alfo ufe barley-corn, grain d’orge,
as equivalent to the line or the twelfth part of an inch.

Barver-corn, grain d’orge, is alfo ufed, in Building, for a
little cavity between the mouldings of joiners’ work, fery-
ing to feparate or keep them afunder; thus called be-
caufe made with a kind of plane of the fame name,

Barxey-fugar. See SuGar.

Barxer-cove, in Geography, acreek on the oe Bae

won

BAR

eoaft of Ireland, between Mizen-head, the Notium of Pto-
lemy, and Browhead in the county of Cork. N. lat. 51°
24'. W. long. 9° 40’.

BARLOWE, Wittr1an, in Biography, was a defcen-
dant of the ancient family of the Barlowes in Wales, and born
in the county of Effex. He was at firft a monk in the
Augnuiftine monaftery of St. Ofith in Effex ; and having
commenced his education in this place he tinifhed it at Ox-
ford, where he obtained the degree of dotor in divinity.
He afterwards became prior of the canons of his order at
Bifham in Berkfhire, and at the diffolution of the monafte-
ries he refigned his houfe, and prevailed on many abbots and
priors to follow his example. In 1535 he was appoint-
elbifhop of St. Afaph, and in 1536 tranflated to St. Da-
vil’s, where he formed the unfucceisful proje& of removing
=ae epifcopal fee to Caermarthen, asbeing fituated more in the
centre of the diocefe. He was a favourite of king Henry
VII., and was employed by him in the matter of his di-
vorce ; and he was ailo much efteemed by lady Ann Boleyn.
In 1547, he was tranflated to Bath and Wells; but as he
was attached to the proteftant religion, he was deprived of
his bifhopric in 1553, upon queen Mary’s acceflion, on
pretence of his being married, and committed to the Fieet
prifon. Having made his efcape from confinement, he re-
tired with many others to Germany ; where he remained in
a poor and dijtrefled condition till the happy inauguration
ef queen Elizabeth. On this occafion he returned to his
native country, and in 1559 was promoted to the fee of Chi-
chefter, where he died in 1568. He was reckoned a learned
prelate ; but appears, notwithftanding his profeifion of the
proteftant religion, not to have poffefied the f{pirit of a mar-
tyr. Befides other pieces which he wrote, he was concern-
ed in thecompilaticn of the treatife entitled “The Godly and
Pious Inftitution of a Chriftian Man,’’? commonly called the
“¢ Bifhop’s Book,”’ printed at London in 15373 and in the
reign of Edward VI. he is faid to have tranflated into Eng-
lifh the “ Apocrypha” as far as the book of Wifdom.
He had five daughters, all of whom were married to bifhops.
Biog. Brit.

Bartowe, Wirutam, fon of the former, was born in
Pembrokefhire, and in 1560 entered at Baliol college. He
afterwards travelled, and became fkilful in navigation. On
his return he took orders in 1573,- and obtained feveral pre-
ferments in the church, the tat of which was that of the
archdeaconry of Salifbury, to which he was promoted in
1614. He died at Eafton near Winchetter in 1625. In
his acquaintance with the nature and properties of the load-
ftone, he feems to have preceded Dr. William Gilbert, and
wrote upon this fubje€t twenty years before Gilbert’s book
was publifhed. He was the firft that made the inclinatory
inftrument tranfparent, and to be ufed hanging with a glals
on both fides and a ring at the top; and he alfo contrived
to hang it inacompafs box, and to adapt it for ufe at
fea. He was alfo the firft perfon that difcovered the
difference between iron and fteel, and their refpeétive tem-
pers, for magnetical purpofes. He alfo fhewed the right
method of touching magnetical needles, and fhewed how
to piece and cement load-ftones. Moreover he explained
the reafon why a load-ftone being double capped, takes
up fo great a weight, On thefe fubjecis he wrote the
following books, viz. ‘‘ The Navigator’s Supply, &c.”” gto.
Lond. 1597; ‘* Magnetical Advertifements, &c.”’ ato.
Lond. 1616; and « An Anfwerto Dr. Ridley’s Animad-
verfions on this work.”? Biog. Brit.

BARLOW, Tuomas, a learned Englifh bifhop of
the 17th century, was born at Langhill in the parifh of
Orton in Weftmoreland in 1607, and educated at Queen’s

BAR

college in Oxford. In 1635, he was appointed reader of
metaphyfics in the univerfity, and his lectures were pub-
lifhed. On the furrender ot Oxford to the parliament in
1646, he retained his fellowfhip, and in 1652 was appoixted
keeper of the Bodleian library, In 1657, he was chofen
provott of his cellege. Upon the reftoration he contrived
to be chofen one of the commiflioners for reftoring the
members that had been wrongtully ejeGed in 1648, and
in 1660 was created do€tor of divinity and Margaret pro®
feffor in that department. In this year he wrote “ The
Cafe of a Toleration in Matters of Religion,” which he
extended farther than any divines of that age. As he
was diftinguifhed for his fkill in the civil and canon law,
he was often applied to as a cafuift; and in 1671, he wrote
Mr. “ Cottington’s Cafe of Divorce.” In 1675, he was
promoted, notwithftanding the oppofition of archbifhop
Sheldon, to the bifhopric of Lincoln; and after his ad-
vancement wrote feveral pieces particularly againft popery,
which ferved to found the alarm with refpeét to the danger
of a popifh fuccefflor. However on the acceffion of James
II., he was one of the moft forward in procuring thanks to
the king for his declaration in favour of liberty of con-
{cience, and he vindicated the regal power of difpenfing
with penal laws; which conduct fome have cenfured as ma-
nifefting an unwarrantable accommodation to the times, and
others have afcribed to his love of toleration. With the re-
volution he adopted its principles, and avowed his allegiance
to the fucceffors of James. Asto his fentiments, he was in
theology a rigid Calvinift: and in philofophy a ftri€ Arif-
totelian, and an enemy to the new mode of experiment en-
couraged by the Royal Society. As a bifhop he negle&ed
his duties in his cathedral and diocefe, and refided conttantly
at his manor feat at Bugden; neverthelefs his tolerating
fpirit and oppofition to popery feem to have produced in
the author of the ‘ Confeffional’’ a fingular predile€tion in
his favour. He died at Bugden in 1691, in the 85th year
of his age ; and he was eminently diftinguifhed by his learn-
ing and liberality. ‘The works of this bifhop, printed after
his death, were a volume of “ Cafes of Confcience,” re-
folved by him, 8vo. 1692; and his ‘* Genuine Remains,’?
8vo. 1639. Biog. Brit.

Bartow, Francis, a painter of birds, beafts, and fifh,
was bornin Lincolnfhire, and excelled in drawing every {pe-
cies of animals with great corre€inefs; but his knowledge
of colouring was very imperfect. This artift died in 1702.
Pilkington.

BARM, otherwife called yeait; the head or workings
producing by the fermentation of ale or beer. It is the
froth that forms on the furface of beer or wine of grains
during their fermentation; which, mixing with ae
raifes it more quickly and better than leaven, and makes
the lighteft bread. See Leaven, and Yeast.

BARMACH, in Geography, a lofty mountain of Perfia,
in the province of Schirvan near the Cafpian fea.

BARMANCOTTY, a town of Afia, in the country of
Thibet, five miles fouth of Sirinagur, and thirteen north of
Deuprag. ‘

BARMEA Haven, isa large bay, fituated about four
miles S.W. by W. from cape Machicaco, two leagues N.E.
by N. from Placentia, and four from Bilboa.

BARMEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia and duchy of Berg, fituate in a fertile valley to
which it gives name, five miles north of Launep. ;

BAR-MINE denotes fuch mine or orejas is adjudged at
a court of barghmote.

BARMOUTH, in Geography, is a {mall watering place in
the parifh of Llanaber, Merionethfhire, North Wales. The

7 houfes

BA

houfes are fingularly placed at the bottom and on the fide
of a fteep hill which overlooks a narrow winding valley to
the fouth, and the bay with St. George’s channel on the
wet. The fituation of the houfes affords matter of afto-
nifhment to moft travellers ; fome being placed on the fands
clofe to the beach, and others at fuch varied heights on the
rocks, that in fome of the winding paths a perfon may look
into the door of one houfe on his right hand,-and down the
chimney of another on his left. This place is at the mouth
of the river Mawddach, which at high tide forms a bay of
about one mile over; but the entrance is rather unfafe on
account of the fand banks. ‘The Welfh call it Aber-maw,
i. e. the mouth or confluence of the river Maw. Barmouth

is much frequented as a convenient bathing place during”

the fummer by many genteel families. Here are a few ba-
thing machines for the ufe of ladies, but the gentlemen
commonly bathe from the coaft. ‘This place is the port of
_ Merionethfhire, and great quantities of flannels and hofe are
» anaually exported hence. Mr. Pennant ftates that forty
' thoufand pounds’ worth of the former and ten thoufand
pounds’ worth of the latter have been fhipped from this port
inone year. About one hundred veflels belong to this
place, fome of which fail up the river nearly to Dolgelly.
Not far from Barmouth, the river Mawddach divides into
two arms, and forms a {mall ifland called Yays y Brawd, or
the friar’s ifland. The number of houfes in this parith is
317, and its inhabitants amount to 1463. Bingley’s Tour
round North Wales.
| BARN, in Rural Economy, a covered building conftruct-
ed for the purpofe of laying up and preferving all forts of
grain, hay, ftraw, &c. Arable as well as. hay farms
fhould in general be provided with barns proportioned to
| the quantity of grain or hay they produce; though fince
the practice oi ftacking hay and grain and of threfhing
_ by mills has become more general, there feems to be much
lefs need of large baras.

Buildings of this fort fhould have a dry, rather elevated
fituation; and be placed on the north or north-eaft fide of
the farm yard, but nct by any means contiguous to the
houfe or {uch offices as are connected with it.

Barns may either be conftructed on wooden frames and
: «covered on the outfides with weather bearding, or built of
h brick or ftonc, which ever the country affords in the great-

-eft plenty ; but in either cafe, there fhould be fuch vent-holes

or openings in their fides or walls as may be fufficient to
afford free admiffion to the air, in order to prevent the
rmouldinefs that would otherwile from the leaft damp lodge
in the grain. The gable ends of fuch buildings are proba-
bly always beft formed of brick or ftone, on account of their
greater folidity ;thewholemay be roofed with either thatchor
tiles as can be moft conveniently procured. They fhould have
two large folding doors facing each other, one on each fide
of the building, for the convenience of carrying in or out a
cart or wagpon load of corn in fheaves or any other fort of
buiky produce: and thefe doors fnould be of the fame
' breadth with the threfhing floor, to aiford the more light and
air; the former for the threfhers, and the latter for the pur-
pofe of winnowing the grain. Over the threfhing floor,
‘and alittle above the reach of the flail, poles are often laid
_ acrofs from one beam to another, toforma kind of upper
_ floor, upon which the threfher may throw the ftraw or
_ haulm, to make an immediate clearing till he has time to ftow
it properly elfewhere ; and on the outfide over the great
_ doors, it is fometimes convenient to have alarge pent houfe,
made to project fufficiently to cover a load of corn or hay,
_ im cafe a fudden ftorm fhould come on before it can be

RN.

houfed, and a'fo to fhelter the poultry in the farm yard
from too great heat or bad weather of any kind.

It was formerly much the caftom in countries that
abounded in corn to have feparate barns for wheat, for
{pring-corn, fuch as barley and oats, and for peas, tares,
clover, faintfoins, &¢. but where the grain, hay, and other
fimilar produce can be ftacked, the heavy expence of fo
many buildings of this kind may be avoided, and at the
fame time the different articles be preferved with equal
fafety and convenience. In the corn barns it was formerly alfo
much the cuftom to have bays or large feparate chambers
formed in their fides or ends for the purpofe of containing
the grain when threfhed out, ftraw, and other articles ;
but thefe at prefent are not fo much in ufe. The hay
baras fhould conttantly be conftru€ted of wood and not made
too clofe. They are fometimes formed in fuch a manner
as to be capable of being moved to different places by hav-
ing low wheels or rollers fixed on the bottom frame. In
grazing farms that do not afford a fupply of ftraw for
thatching the ftacks with, moveable roofs ereéted on ftrong
upright pofts of wood, or what are fometinies termed Dutch
barns may be ufeful; as they may be raifed or lowered at
pleafure by ferews or levers fo as to accommodate them-
felves to the quantity of hay, either in proportion to the
crop or its confumptions ; while at the fame time they are
cheaper, more airy, and lefs troublefome in cafe of heating,
than clofe barns.

It is obferved in the fixteenth volume of the Annals of
Agriculture, in fpeaking of the conftruétion of barns, that
the underpinning fhould be or brick or ftone, two feet high
above ground, and the fides boarded; the roof of the
barn is beft covered with reed or ftraw, and thofe of the
ftables on its fides with flate or glazed tile ; becaufe they
mutt be more flat, and the water which runs from the root
of the barn would injure moft other coverings. At each
end of the barn, and over the back door, {mall doors four
feet {quare fhould be fixed at the height of twelve feet from
the ground ; the two former for putting corn inat the ends,
and the latter for filling the middle of the barn after
the bays are full, All the bays fhould have a flcor
of clay or marle, and the threfhing floor be made with
hard bricks, which will be fufficient for all forts of
grain except wheat and rye; and for threfhing them it
will be good economy to have planks of oak or red
deal well fitted tozether and numbered, to be laid down oc-
cafionally and confined by a frame at their ends. A barn
built on fuch a plan would hold a great deal of corn and be
filled moft conveniently ; and if the itacks of corn were built
at each end, they might be taken in without any carting. If
more buildings are requifite, two may be added on the back
fide like the ftables in front; otherwife if doors are made
under the eaves on the back fide, as directed at. the ends,
and ftacks be placed oppofite to them juft far enough to
avoid the eaves dropping, by placing a waggon betweea
them and the barn by way of a flage, thefe itacks may be
taken in without carting; which method {pares a great
wafte of corn and much trouble. The {pars of the roofs of
the ftables reft upon the upper cills of the fides of the barn,
and the outfide wall of the ftables is eight feet high; the
barn fupplying the highett fide and one end of each ftable,
and the ftables in return are buttreffes to the barn and
ftrengthen it greatly.

It is remarked by the author of the Agricultural Survey
of the county of Somerfet, that the practice lately introdu-
ced of placing barns on a declivity cannot be too much re-
commended ; as a warm commodious range of ftalls for cat-
tle, covered by the fame roof, is by that means obtained.

Befides,

BARN.

Befides, the barn-floor, by being thus elevated, is ren-
dered mote durable, aad iefs fubject to vermin ; the grain
is kept more dry and {weet than on a ground floor, and
cannot flip through it without difeovery. The plan is indeed,
in his opinion, almott unexceptionable. Barns, when built in
this way, fhould have a fouthern afpe€t, the arches of the
cattle-fialls facing that way. Mr. Marfhall, in the “* Rural
Economy of Yorkthire,”’ alfofpeaks highly of the advantages
of barns formed in this maaner.

In refpect to the fize of barns, the fame writer has ob-
ferved, that in Glouceiterthire fifty-two by twenty feet in
the clear, and from fixteen to twenty feet in height to the
plate, is confidered a good barn; thefe dimenfions admit-
ting of four bays of ten feet each, with a floor in the
middle.

The advantage of having buildings of this fort conve-
niently fituated, is extremely great both in regard to the
feeding of cattle, fheep, and hogs, and likewife in the eco-
nomy of labour, and the preventing of watte in different kinds
of fodder.

The invention of threfhing machines has, in fome meafure,
varied the conitruction of barns, as where they are made
ufe of they fhould be contrived chiefly with a view to the
diftribution of the ftraw ; the machines being built in the
centre, with the grain itacks adjoining them, in fuch a
manner as that they may be fupplied without the afliitance
of carts or horfes. The barns in thefe cafes need not be fo
large, but they fhould have granaries provided in them,
which may probably be moit conveniently placed over the
floors. In mof old barns, threfhing machines may be
erected without much inconvenience or trou le.

But, notwith{tanding the fuperiority of ftacking grain in
the open air has been fully fhewn by different writers, and of
courfe the neceility of large barns in a great meafure ob-
yiated, there are itill many agricultors attached to the me-
thod of houfing corn in the ftraw ; it may therefore be pro-
pe to givea few plans and deferiptions of fuch as appear to
be the beit calculated for that purpole.

Atfig.t. Platel. of Agriculture, are given the elevation and
ground plan of a {mall common barn ufed in mott parts of the
k ngdom for the {maller kindsof farms. The threfhing-floor is
in the middle; on one fide of which a crofs wall is fometimes
raifed to the height of about three feet, in order to keep the
threfhed corn from being mixed with that which is un-
threfhed: ¢ isa place for containing the threfhed grain till it
be cleaned, or a large quantity be accumulated for that pur-
pofe. It is about three feet in height, being covered over
with boards, and only open en the fide next the threfhing-
floor of the barn. ‘

At fig. 2, the elevation and ground plan of a double barn
with two threfhing floors are feen. In this fort of barn a
wall is fometimes raifed acrofs in the middle. Thefe barns are
often built of large dimenfions, but poffefs few cenvenien-
cies, except for piling up the grain while in the ftraw.

. At fig. 3, the elevation and ground plan of an improved
barn are given, in the middle of which is the threfhing floor,
and on one fide near the end a place for depofiting the
threfhed corn, with ftairs up to a fmall granary, below
which is a place for putting potatoes, &c.; and on the
other a divifion that may be made ufe of for different pur-
pofes, fuch as the rearing of calves, preferving implements,
&e.

And at fig. 4, the elevation and ground plan of an open
improved barn are fhewn, the threfhing floor of which is
placed towards one end. And on each fide of it below are
Aivifions for a great variety of different purpofes ; the corn
being kept above in the ftraw till threfhed out. In this

_granary

barn much expence is faved in mafonry by the great number
and largenefs of the openings in ghe upper part, and at the
{ame time the air is admitted more freely.

Fig. 5, is the reprefentation of a Dutch moveable barn
which has many conveniences, and at the fame time is ca-
pable of being made to cover the parts of fuch hay ftacks as
are cutting. It moves on fix wheels cach two feet in dia-
meter, and cofts, when complete, about fixty pounds.

Some degree of art, which mutt be the refult of practice,
is neceflary in placing and piling up the fheaves in barns 5
and it may not be ufelefs to obferve, that it is always necel-
fary to prefs them as clofe to the walls of the barn as
poffible, fo as not to afford the leaft room for rats or other
vermin to creep in between them, for if they once get
admittance, they will foon penetrate farther, lodge them-
{elves in the mow, and do prodigious damage to the grain.
Where this misfortune happens, the only remedy is to take
down the mow, deftroy the vermin, and pile it up anew in a
more careful manner. .

Asthe introduétion of threfhing machines has made con=
fiderable alteration in the conftruétion of barns, it may not
be improper to give a few plans or reprefentations by which
the manner of their attachment to them may be rendered
more clear and comprehenfible. Thefe machines may be
wrought by different powers, as water, wind, or animals ;
but the firft, when it can be obtained, is by much the beit
and moft regular.

At fig. 1, Plate Il. of Agriculture, are given afront and end
elevation, with the plan, of a {mall barn adapted fora two-
horfe threfhing ‘machine. The barn is only fifty feet in
length within the walls, and fixteen in width. The walls
are ten feet in height, which admits of a granary or room
thirty feet long above the machine, as is fhewn by the dot-
ted line in the elevation, which denotes the extent of the
as well as the height of the floor from the ground.
The floor is not continued the whole length, in order that
there may be more room left inthe other endforcontaining the
unthrefhed grain, whichis introduced ata, figs. 2and 3. At b, —
fig-2, is feen thefpace occupied by the machine withinthe barn,
which is only ten feet by feven, including the diftance from
the wall; c, d, figs. 2 and 3, fhew the horfe beam or lever ;
which is twenty four feet in length, and which gives motion
by a laying fhaft through the wall, to the machine within.
In this there is no fhed or cover over the herfe path and —
parts on the outfide of the barn, as is ufual, except g, 4, fig. 2
which is clofely boarded to proteé the wheels of the firit
movement from the effects of weather, a part of one fide
being fixed with hinges for the purpofe of opening to
apply greafe. The expence of a machine on this plan will —
be from thirty to forty pounds, according ‘to the ftrength
and manner of its being put together.

And at fig. 4, are feen the front and end elevations, with
the plan, of a barn and horfe threfhing machine upon a much
larger fcale, being intended for three or four horfes or other
forts of cattle ; and defigned to winnow or clear the grain at
the fame time that it is threfhed out. It may likewife be
fo contrived as to hoift it up to the granary above, to fplit —
beans, cut ftraw, and perform several other operations, fuch —
as churning, pumping, grinding, &c. Such a barn and
machine will fuit a farm of almoft any extent. The fhed
over the horfe-path and firft movements is moftly made with |
a conical roof merely for the purpofe of covering them but —
as the expence is confiderable, it is here made to an i
other ufes. It is fquare, as fhewn at fig. 5, by a; 4, ¢s ds
the dotted circle is the horfe-path, in the corner 0 which
ftands the upright axle ¢, fig. 6. Above this, by raifing the —
pillars to a proper height, may be obtained a are tae

place

ce el nine a i Re Os a «a

, ees Scio.

BARN.

place cither for putting corn in the raw till threfhed out,
or for keeping ftraw or hay, oras a granary. But in either
cafe the floor muft be fo conflrued as to fupport the weight
upon it without finking in the middle. A communication
with the bara may be made near the threfhing machine aif,
Jigs 5, which will afford an eafy accefs to the machine in
cafe grain be depofited there to be threfhed. In this barn,
the machine is ereéted on a floor raifed feven or eight feet
above the ground-floor, in order that there may be fuflicient
room for the fanner or winnowing machine below. This
floor may be extended the whole breadth of the barn and
fifteen feet or more towards i, from the back part of the
machine at f, by which, and being properly partitioned be-
low, avery neceffary and ufeful divilion fg 4 i, will be ob-
tained for containing the grain till hoifted up to the granary.
‘The doors of this place may be locked by the farmer, if
thought neceflary, during the time of threfhing. ‘The {pace
& will contain the chaff blown by the fanners. ‘There is a
door through at g to render the communication more eafy
and expeditious from the part 4, where the unthrefhed grain
is depofited ; as it may be proper to look often below
while the machine is at work: there might likewife bea
door in the partition at 4; but this is not fo very neceflary,
as the farmer can eafily fee what his fervants are about at m,
where the ftraw goes, by {landing on the threfhing floor, to
which there fhould be iteps up at x. ~This machine may
alfo be fo coaftruéted as to rake away the ftraw, and throw
it down to »; which faves the labour of a perfou in raking
from the machine.

The expence of a machine on this plan, when made to
wlean the grain and rake away the ftraw only, will amount
to about fitty pounds exclufixe of flooring, &c. ; and when
made fo as to hoift up the grain, fplit peafe or beans, and
cut flraw, from fix to tei pounds tu additign for each,

Other more powerful machines of this kind will be de-

feribed under the article Turesuine Muchine.

Barn Floor, ia Rul Eccnomy, the {pace or floor on
which the grain is threfhed out-by the flail. It is for the
molt part made ia the middle of the bara, and fhould be fo
formed as to be perfectly clofe, firm, aud ftrong. It is
fometimes termed threfhing-floor. In conftruéting thefe
floors, various forts of materials are employed; {uch as com-
pofitions of earthy kinds, ftones, bricks, and wood. The
lait, when properly laid and put together, is probably the
beit and mot fecure from fuch cauies as are liable to injure

rains The floors of barns, when made.of wood, are
Frais fo contrived as to be moveable at pleafure, which
is a great convenience in many cafes. Barn floors are
made of different dimenfions, but from twelve to four-
teen by eighteen or twenty feet may be confidered as good
fizes. : ‘
As the floor or threfhing-place, is the principal part of
every*bara, the greateft care ought to be taken in making
it. In order to this, in fome places the furface of the in-
tended thefhing-place is dug away to the depth of about
fix inches ; and the earth thustaken out, when of a proper
kind, after being well cleared of ftones, is mixed with the
ftrongeft clay that can be procured, and with the dung of
cattle. This mixture is then worked together with water
till it is of the confiftence of fiff mortar, and the compott
thus made is fpread as fmooth and even as poflible with a
trowel upon the {pot from whence the earth was taken. As
it cracks in drying, it muft frequently be beaten down with
great force, or rolled with a heavy roller, until all the
crevices are filled up ; and this mutt be continued till it is
quite folid, hard, and firm. Earthen floors are not how-
ever to be recommended, except where the materials are ex-

Vou. II.

tremely good, and the method of forming them well under-
ftood, which is but feldom the cafe.

The beft barn floor, both for threfhing upon, and for
keeping corn, is that which is the drieft, {mootheft, moft
completely folid, and confequently the molt free from cracks
and holes in which infeéts and vermin may fhelter themfelves *
and breed, ‘I'he ancients were remarkably careful in this
lait refpeét, as is evident from the writings of Cato, Varro,
and Columella. The laft of thefe relates particularly the
great pains they took, firlt to dig up the ground to fome
depth, in order to moiften it with freth lees of oil, but not
with any that had faline matters in them; then to mix it
thoroughly with chaff, and ram it down as clofe as poffible ;
afterwards, as it dried, to ftop all the cracks and crevices
that appeared; to continue beating it down with great force
to render it quite level ; and, laftly, to {trew it again with
chaff, which they trod in, and then left it to be completely
dried by the fun, All of them agree, that the lees of oil
thus ufed prevent the growth of weeds in the floors, and
contribute to preferve the corn from being plundered by the
mice andants. In this they were, however, probably mif-
taken. Their barns were always feated high, and as dry as
poflible. A floor made in the above manner, though not
good, was probably preferable to either ftone or the earthen.
floors formerly common in many parts of this country, from
which fuch dampnefs has been communicated to the corn,
as has rendered wheat, for example, fixpence ora fhilling a
buthel worfe either for keeping or exportation. Bricks,
when hard and well laid, may form a tolerable floor for
many purpofes ; but, from their attraGting moilture, are not
by any means to be recommended where grain is to remain
much upon them. And mott forts of ftone are liable to the
fame objection.

Wood is by much the beft for this ufe. Boarded threth-
ing floors, made of found, thick, well-feafoned planks of oak,
are excellent for threfhing upon, will laft a long time, and
may be converted into good floorings for rooms, by. planing
them down after they are become too uneven for the pur-
pofe originally intended.

There are various ways of laying and conftruGting barn-
floors, when made of wood. ‘The moft common method is
that of nailing the planks, after their edges have been fhot
true and well joined, down to wooden fleepers firmly placed
onthe ground. But in the midland counties another method
is followed, which, Mr. Marfhall fays, is that of firft having
the floors laid with bricks, and then covering them over
with the planks, without any other confinement than that
of their being doweled together, or ploughed and tongued
and their ends let into fills or walls placed in the ufal man-
ner on each fide of the floors. The advantages of this me-
thod of making the floors are, that when the brick work is
well executed and made perfectly level, vermin cannot be
concealed underneath them, nor damp air be communicated ;
befides, floors formed in this way are found to wear better
than thofe laid fimply upon fleepers. The planks employed
in this way fhould, however, always be well feafoned. It is
evident, notwithltanding, that where barn floors can be made
hollow, they muft be much better for the purpofe of threfh-
ing upon than fuch as are either placed on brick work or
the ground, from their greater elafticity ; the grain is of
courle threfhed out with more eafe and certainty. But in
whatever manner thefe floors are conftructed, they become
expeniive, and do not laft any great Jength oftime. Such
as are laid on the common ground, upon three fills, with
two-inch oak planks, will in general cof from eighteen to
twenty pounds, and only laft fifteen or twenty years; and
fuch as are made hollow, and placed wholly on brick work,

40 ar

BAR

or only on brick quoing, with two-inch and half oak planks,
are &:4 confiderably higher, being often from twenty-five
to thirty-five pounds or more, and not much more durable.
Beech floors, which were lately introduced inflead of oak,
have been found not to Jaft more than feven or eight years ;
confeguentiy to be by no means advantageous,

In order therefore to obviate the continued heavy ex-
pences of thefe floors, as well as the great confumption of
timber in the conftrution of them, and alfo to guard againft
the great watte of grain in threfhing upon them after they
begin to decay, another kind of barn floor has been in-
vented by Mr. Upton of Petworth in Suffex, which has
been found on trial to prevent thefe inconveniences in a
great meafure, and at the fame time to afford other great
advantages, fnch as thofe of being more eafily drawn upon
by loaded waggons or carts ; providing, when down, com-
fortable fhelter for hogs; and, when turned up, being ca-
pable of being employed as a ftable, ox-ftall, hovel, or cart-
houfe. This is the moveable barn floor, which, it is faid,
can be placed er difplaced in a few minutes by two perfons.

This new-conftru@ed hollow floor, is compofed of oak
planks five feet eight inches in length, and one inch and an
half in thicknefs, and cofts from twenty-three to twenty-
four pounds. By thefe dimenfions being confiderably lefs
than thofe ufed in common barn floors, much advantage is
gained in refpe@ to timber 3; befides, planks of deal, beech,
or elm, may be made ufe of, as they will not be liable to
decay from there being little or no dampnefs, and in this
way the expence be leffened ; and when timber from the
eftate is employed, it may be {till further diminithed, as thefe
floors may be compofed of ftuff of {mall {cantlings, which
may be had from {hort timbers of but little value in com-
parifon to thofe made ufe of in other kinds of barn floors.
It is fuppofed that floors conftruGed in this method will
laft an hundred years, or as long as the barns ; as they are
perfectly free from damps, from their being fo much raifed
from the ground when down; alfo from their being moveable;
when there are more barns than one in the fame yard, they
may be conveyed from one to another, and by that means
fave the expence of having different floors.

At jig. 7. Plate Il. of Agriculture, may be feen the repre-
fentatioa of a barn floor of this kind ; one part of which
affords a view of the flooras laid down for threfhing upon,
and the other part is raifed up, with racks for feeding cattle,
&c.: arack boards, 4 flip boards for admitting air, c wooden
floor fills for the flip boards 4 to reft upon, d moveable floors,
to one part of which are wooden legs ferving to fupport it
when it is neceflary to put the difplaced timbers into the
recefse 3 ea recefs for receiving the threfhed grain before
it is winnowed or for containing the moveable timbers ; fan
iron hook to lift the floor up with when not ufed for threth-
ing upon; there are two of thefe hooks employed in the
barn ; g the moveable timbers that fupport the floor, having
grooves along their furfaces to prevent the lofs of grain;
two of thefe timbers are reprefented larger at gg; one being
the crofs piece with a leg and tenon for fixing in the ftone
mortifes, the other intended to lie lengthwife, and level
with the floor of the barn; in the ground are fixed ftones
with mortifes in them to receive the tenons of the timbers
defcribed above: 4 the ground, which fhould be made of
materials fufficiently hard to prevent the horfes, carts, or
waggons from making depreflions in it ; i pofts with iron
halps, to fupport the floors when out of ufe; é racks for
feeding cattle at, when the barn is applied to other purpofes
than threfhing upon. When the floor is not wanted for
threfhing upon, the floors may be firft turned up and fixed
with the iron pins, bolts, and hafps; then the middle tim-

6

BAR

bers be taken out and placed on the ground, on the fide oppo
fite to the recefs where they were to be depofited whea out
of employ ; afterwards that part of the floor which has leas
to fupport it muit be let down, putting the timbers into the
recefs, and turning the floor up again,

Though floors of this kind may be highly convenient and
ufeful in particular inftances of large barns, where much
threfhing by the flail is required, yet from their complexity,
and their requiring much room when out of ufe as floors,
they do not feem well calculated for thofe of the fmaller
kinds,

Barn, or White, Ozw/, in Ornithology, is in England the
common name of that f{pecies of Staix, which is found
about barns and out-houfes, and which is fpecifically called
flammea by Ginelin, and fome other naturalifts.

BARNABAS, Saint, in Biography, a teacher of
Chriftianity cotemporary with the apoitles, was a Levite
of the country of Cyprus. His original name feems to
have been *"Jofeph;’? and the appellation of « Barnabas,”?
fignifying “¢ Son of Confolation or of Exhortation,”’ was con-
ferred upon him by the apoftles. He was one of thofe
Chriftians who, foon after the refurreétion of Chrift, fold
their property and laid the money at the apoftles? feet,
Ads, iv. 36, 37. By him St. Paul was prefented to the
other apoitles three yearsafter his conveffion, or aboutthe year
37 of the vulgar zra; and he was appointed a miflionary
to Antioch, in order to confirm the difciples. From thence
he went to meet Paul at Tarfus, and they refided together
a year at Antioch; and were afterwards entrufted with the
conveyance of alms to the Chriftian brethren at Jerufalem.
A. D. 44. Here he was declared joint apoftle of the Gen-
tiles with Paul, whom he acccmpanied to various places and
with whom he co-operated in preaching the gofpel. At
length a diffenfion occurring between then: with refpect
to Mark, whom Paul refufed to accept asa companion,
they feparated, probably in friendihip and mutual good will,
and Barnabas with Mark as his affeciate went to Cyprus.
St. Luke bears this hovourable teftimony to Barnabas,
that he “ was a good man, and full of the Holy Ghoft, and
of faith.” Such is the fubftance of the account given of
him in the New Teftament. Some of the ancients, how-
ever, have fuppofed that he was one of Chrift’s feventy difci-
ples, whom he employed during his miniftry as a preacher
in the land of Judea. It has been faid that he fuffered
martyrdom, being ftoned to death by the Jews of Cyprus at
Salamis ; that he was buried by Mark in a cave near that
city, and that his body was difcovered in this ifland in
the reign of the emperor Zeno about A.D. 488, with the
gofpel of St. Matthew written in Greek with his owa hand,
upon his breaft. Lardner’s works, vol. ii. p- 11, &c.

_ DARNABAS, Epi/ile of, in Ecclefiafiical Hiffory, anepiftle
ftill extant, afcribed to St. Barnabas. It confifts of two
parts; the firft being an exhortation to conftancy in the
belief and profeffion of the Chriftian doérine, particularly
as to its fimplicity without the rites of the Jewith law,
and the fecond part containing moral inftru@ions. Learned
men have differed with regard to the genuinenefs of this
epiftle. It is cited by St. Clement of Alexandria and by
Origen. Eufebius reckons it among thofe books that are
{purious, meaning probably by the term, contradi&ed. St.
Jerom fays, that it was read for edification among the apo-
cryphal feriptures. Amongit the moderns, Pearfon, Cave,
Du Pin, Wake, Dr. Clarke, and many other learned men,
fuppofe it to be a genuine epiitle of Barnabas the compa-
nion of Paul. Some are doubtful, a5 Cotelerius, who in-
clines to think that it was not written by Barnabas. The
objections againft the genuinenefs of it are ftrongly urged by

Bafnage,

a.

BAR
Bafnage, and alfo by Mr. Jeremiah Jones. To this purpofe

he alleges that it is not in any of the ancient catalogues of
facred books ; that it is not cited in feripture by any of the
fathers; that it was not read in the affemblies of the primi-
tive Chriflians; that it contains contradi€tions, notorious
falfehoods, and grofs miftakes; and alfo many things that
are trifling and filly.

Motheim fays that it was the produ€tion of fome fuper-
flitious Jew, whofe attachment to Jewith fables, as well as
mean abilities, thew that, notwith{tanding the uprightnefs
of his intentions, he mutt have been a very different perfon
from the true Barnabas who was St, Paul’s companion. Mr.
Jones fuppofes that it was written by a perfon who had
been originally a Gentile or Pagan.

Dr. Lardner thinks it moft probable, that it was written
by Barnabas, foon after the deftruction of Jerufalem by
Titus, inthe year of our Lord 71 or 72; and that it was
addreffed not to Jews, as archbifhop Wake fuppofes, but to
Gentiles, or perhaps rather to Chriftians in general, and in-
tended to abate their refpect for the peculiar rites and infti-
tutions of the Jewith laws and to fhew that they were not
bindmg upon Chriftians. It was written in Greek; but the
four firft chapters or fections, anda part of the fifth, are
wanting in the Greek copies. It is however entire in an
ancient Latin verfion. This epiftle hasno infcription, as it
is not directed to the Chriltians of any particular place ;
and on this account it has been fometimes called a Catholic
epiltle. Lardner’s works, vol. il. 12, &c. Jones’s New
and Full Method of fettling the Canonical Authority of
the New Teftament, vol. ii. p. 500, &c. Mofheim’s Eccl.
Hift. vol.i. p. 113. f

BarnaBas, Sr., Go/pel of, a {purious gofpel mentioned
by pope Gelafius, in his decree againft apocryphal books.
The Turks have a gofpel under this name, in which there
are many things injurious to Chrift and honourable to Ma-
homet. It was compofed in Arabic, as M. de la Crofe
thinks, under the emperor Frederic IJ., A D. 1211 to
1245, and was tranflated into Italian about the middle of
the 15th century. Profeffor White has given extraéts from
this gofpel at the end of his ‘ Sermons at the Bamptou
Le€tures.’’ -

Bdrnasas’s St., Day, in the Calendar, a Chriftian
feftival celebrated onthe 11th of June.

BarnaBas, Cape, in Geography, lies in the north-wett
of America, in N. lat. 57° 13’, between Trinity ifland and
Cape Greville.

BARNABE, Sr. J/land, is fituated at the mouth of
a {mall river of this name which falls into the river St. Lau-
rence, and moit remote to the north-eaft on the fouthern or
ftarboard fhore in coming dowa from Quebec.

BARNABITES, in Ecclefiaftical Hiflory, an order of
religious thus called from the church of St. Barnabas
at Milan, where they were firft eftablifhed, and which was
beftowed upon them in the year 1545; and not as fome
have imagined becaufe St. Barnabas was their patron: in
reality, St. Paul is the patron of the Barnabites.

The Barnabites are regular priefts of the congregation of
St. Paul. Their habit 1s black, and the fame with what
they wore when firft eftablifhed, in 1533, by the exprefs
bulls of pope Clement VII. and afterwards confirmed by
Pazl Til. Their office is to inftrud, catechize, and ferve
in miffion.

BARNACA, in Geography, a {mall ifiand near the weft
eoalt of Ireland, fituate in Black Sod Bay.

BARNACIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpa-
mia Tarragoneniis,in the territory of the Carpetani. Ptolemy.

BARNACLE, or Bernacre, in Concholacy, is the
SS

BAR

common name of the fpecies of Leras called Anatifera ;
and is applied alfo in a general manner to all che fhells which
belong to the Lepas genus.

Barnacve-Goosr, oY Bernacre-Goofe, in Ornithology,
the common Englifh name of that kind of goofe which
was deemed the offspring of the Lepas Anatifera in the fix-
teenth century. See Anatirera, and Anas Eryruropus,
the latter being the Linnzan name of the Barnacle goofe.

BARNADESIA, in Botany, a thrub fo named by Mu-
tis, from Michael Barnades, a Spanifh botanift. Linn.
Gen. Schreb. 1260. Supp. 55. Jufl. 178. Clafs, fungenefia
polygamia equalis, Nat. Ord. Compofite difcoidea—Corym-
bifere Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Gal. common, fomewhat ventricofe, fpreading
at the tip, imbricate; fcales numerous, gradually longer from
the bafe to the tip; the inferior or exterior, ovate, clofely im-
bricate, fharp, pungent ; the fuperior or interior, fubulate,
flat, {preading, pungent. Cor. compound, rayed; corollets
hermaphrodite, tubular, very few (three or four), remote, in
the difk ligulate, ina fimple feries, in the ray. Proper to the
former, funnel-form; tube very fhort; border hairy,
five-parted ; parts converging. Proper to the latter,
ligulate, lanceolate, f{preading at the bafe, incurved at
the tip, and fplit, outwardly very hairy ; tube longer than
the calyx. Stam. filaments five; anthers cylindric, tubular.
Pifl. germ ovate; ftyle filiform, longer than the flamens ;
ftigma bifid; clefts fpreading, ovate-rounded. Per. none ;
calyx converging ; feeds very many, ovate, hairy; hairs re.
verfed. Down of the flowers of the difk briftly ; rays fubu-
late, ftiff, broken backwards, naked or covered with minute

- hairs; of the radial flowers long, ereét, fpreading, many-ray-

ed, feathery, foft. Recept. flat, villofe, without chaff.

Eff. Gen. Ch. Cal. naked, imbricate, pungent. Cor
radiate ; down of the ray feathered, of the difk briftly,
broken backwards.

Species. Barnadefia /pinofa is a fhrub with very fmooth
branches, fet with a-pair of thorns at their origin, which
at firft were fitpules; they are petalous, brown, fmooth 3
leaves alternate, fimple, ovate, entire, fharp, flat, veined,
fomewhat hairy on both iides, whitifh underneath ; petioles
very fhort; ftipulesin pairs, fmall, fubulate ; flowers in pa-
nicles, terminating ; calyx pubefcent. The flower is fingular
in haying two forts of down. This, which is the only fpe-
cies of this genus, is a native of South America, where it
was difcovered by Mutis.

BARNARD, or Brernarn, Joun, in Bingraphy, was
born at Caftor in Lincolnthive, and educated at Queen’s
college in the univerlity of Cambridge. In 1648, he was
admitted, by order of the vilitors appointed by parliament.
fellow of Lincoln college at Oxford. After the reftoration,
he conformed, and was promoted to be prebendary in the
church of Lincoln. He died at Newark, ona journey to the
Spa, in 1683. He was in good repute for his learning and
orthodox principles, and was author of the following books;
viz. * Cenfura Clerior, againit Scandalous Minitters, &c.”
4to. 1660; ‘ Theologo-Hilloricus, or the Life of Dy.
EHeylyn,” whofe daughter he married, 8vo. 16833 “An
Anfwer to Baxter’s falle accufation of Heylyn ;” and a
“Catechifm’’ for the ufe of his parifh, Bioo. Brit.

Barnarp, Sir Joun, a patriotic citizen and diftingnifhed
magiftrate of I.ondon, was born at Reading in Berkshire,
in 1685, of parents who were quakers, and educated at a
fchool belonging to perfons of this perfuafion at Wand{worth
in Surry. In early life he was diftinguithed by the integrity
and candour of his mind, fo that all differences among his
{cheol-iellows were fubmitted to his decifion. In the fit
teenth year of his age, his father, who was now fettled -in

402 London

BAR

London in the wine trade, introduced him into his own
butinels ; and his conduét was fuch as fully to juftify the
confidence that was repofed in him. Amidit other avoca-
tions that occupied his thoughts and time, he direéted his
particular attention to religion ; and without doubt from
conviction, renounced the profeffion of his parents, and be-
came a, profelyte to the eftablifhed church. Accordingly
he was baptifed by Dr. Compton, bifhop of London, after
feveral previous conferences, at his chapel in Fulham, in
1703. It was the uniform pra@tice of Mr. Barnard, from
his earlieft youth, to affociate with perfons of riper age
than his own, and with fuch as were diltinguifhed by their

talents, learning, and religion: and his improvement in.

knowledge andvirtue corre{ponded to the feleétion he made
of his companions and friends. In this conrfe of fedulous
application to mental culture as well as to fecular employ-
ment, My. Barnard perfevered till he had attained the thirty-
fixth year of his age; and he was ouly known in private
life by the excellencies of his chara@ter. About this time
a billthat materially affe€ted the wine trade had pafled the
commons, and was depending in the upper houfe. The
merchants that were likely to be injured by the operation
of this bill, appointed Mr. Barnard to ftate their objec-
tions before the lords ; and fuch were the abilities which he
manifeited on this occafion, and fuch was the fuccefs
that attended his exertions, that in 1721 he was propofed,
without his knowledge, as a candidate to reprefent the city
of London at the next election, which took place in the
following year. The conteft was as warm as any that had
ever been known in the city; but Mr. Barnard, though he
declined all perfonal folicitation, fucceeded by the zeal and
activity of his friends. His parliamentary condué, during
a period of forty years, was in the higheft degree indepen-
dent and refpeGable; and he derived from his charaéter as
well as talents fingular influence. He diftinguifhed himfelf
by his oppofition to the meafures of admimitration, then
conducted by fir Robert Walpole, and particularly to the
extenfion of the excife, which he condemned both in a
commercial and political lixht, and which, by his vigorous
and afliduous efforts, he induced the minilter at length to
abandon. Heedlefs of popularity in meafures which in his
judgment concerned the good of his country, he attempted
to reduce the intereft of the national debt from four to,three
per cent.; and by his endeavour incurred a temporary
odium. In 1732 he had obtained the honour of knight-
hood, on occafion of prefenting a congratulatory addrefs to
king George II. ; and in 1737 he was raifed to the dignity
of the chief magiftrate of the city of London; an office which
he executed with fingular reputation to himfelf and advan-
tage tothe public. So attentive was he to the duties of
this office, that he would not fleep a fingle night in his
houfe at Clapham, left any perfon fhould be injured by his
temporary abfence. No magiftrate was ever more vigilant
in his attention to the internal police of the city over which
he prefided ; and blended lenity with feverity in the adminif-
tration of it with fo much difcretion. He would never
fuffer any perfon to be committed to prifon for a fingle
night, till the accufation againft him had been fairly heard;
for he well knew the danger to which unguarded youth
would be expofed even bya fhort abode in thole receptacles
of infamy. The ftate of our gaols had been the objeé&
of his particular inveftigation, and he-was fully apprized of
*thofe abufes that needed corre¢tion and reftraint. In 1745
fir John Barnard took the lead in figning an agreement to
take bank notes in lieu of cafh, and in thus fupporting
public credit at a period of peculiar danger. In 1749, he
kecame the father of the city; and the London merchants

3

‘London, and 26 from Durham.

BAR

had previoufly, vr. in 1747, teftified their veneration of
him by ere¢ting his ftatue in the Royal Exchange. This
token of refpeét, however, he difapproved ; as he thought
that no chara¢ter was entitled to it, till its perfeverance
in integrity had been fealed by death; and fuch was his
modefty, that he never after tranfacted bufinefs within this
edifice, In 1754 he was for the laft time, without folici-
tation and in oppofition to his own wifhes, elected a repre-
fentative of the city; but his infirmities increafing, he
thought proper, in 1758, to refiga his alderman’s gown.
After fome years of honourable retirement, he died at Clap-
ham in 1764, leaving one fon (diftinguifhed by his tafte in
the polite arts, and by his admirable collection of pictures)
and two daughters. Few perfons ever fuftained a charaGter
fo uniformly refpeCtable as fir John Barnard. *He was not
only blamelefs, but eminently exemplary in the various rela-
tions and offices of life. ‘Po the faithful and aGtive dif-
charge of the perfonal and focial duties, he added a moft
devout fenfe of religion. The firft hour, at leaft, of every
day was employed in the exercife of deyotion and the
ftudy of the feriptures. He attended public worfhip twice
on a Sunday, and was conftant in receiving the communion.
He had fuch a high reverence for the bible, that he always
exprefied a great diflike of any attacks which were made
upon its facred original and authority. Although he re-
linguifhed the profeffion of his youth, he retaed, in a
confiderable degree, that fimplicity of manners and plainnefs
of drefs which diftinguifh the refpe€table body to which
his family belonged. But though he was modeft in his
deportment, he was firm and fearlefs in the difcharge of
his duty. His language was clear, concife, and unaffeéted ;
and his wifdom and knowledge were recognized by perfons
of the firft charaéter in his time; infomuch that he was
urged in 1746, by king George the fecond, to accept the
office of chancellor of the Exchequer, which he refufed.
Lord Granville and Mr. Pulteney frequently confulted him
on affairs of moment ; and lord Chatham, when Mr. Pitt,
has been known to ftile him the great commoner, The
mufe of Pope, by exhibiting him in contrat to worthlefs
wealth and title, has immortalized his name.
« Barnard in fpirit, fenfe, and truth abounds ;
Pray then what wants he? Fourfcore thoufand

pounds.”” Biog. Brit.

Barnarp, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in
Windfor county and ftate of Vermont, containing 673 in-
habitants. It gives rife to the northern branch of Water-
queche river, and is diftant 65 miles N.E. from Benning-
ton. ;

BARNARD CASTLE, or Castre Bernarp, a
town of Durham, in England, 246 miles N.N.W. from
The town is about a
mile in length, and confifts of feveral ftreets; the prin-
cipal of which is upwards of forty yards in width, and is
moftly filled with handfome modern buildings. ‘The air of
this part of the country is remarkably falubrious, the mar-
ket is abundantly fupplied, and the fituation poffefles every
advantage to render it pleafant. The woollen manufactory
has deciied of late from the great ufe of cotton goods ;
much bufinefs is done by the tanners ; and the ftocking trade
is particularly flourifhing. ‘This town is mentioned as ex-
ifting foon after the conquefl; though it was then probably
but an infignificant place, as it derived its chief confequence
as well as its name from the magnificent caftle founded here
by Bernard Baliol about the year 1178. This fortrefs is
fituated on the fummit of a high rock to the weftward of
the town, and was anciently of much importance ; maintains
ing a number of officers, and being veited with high privi-

leges

Pane Np eee

falls a het i dct all

BAR

Ieges by its different poffeffors, We find the names of
John Baliol father to the king of Scotland, the celebra-
ted Guy Beauchamp earl of Warwick, and Richard duke of
Gloucetter afterwards Richard I1I., occur among the pro-
prietors of the cattle. The latter founded a college fora
dean, 12 fecular priefts, 1o clerks, and 6 chorifters ; but it
is prefumed that his intentions were in part fruflrated by
the fubfequent troubles of his reign, as no traces of this
foundation are now difcernible, In the reign of Charles I.,

this caflle, after being feveral years in the pofleffion of the

crown, was purchafed by an anceftor of the prefent earl of
Darlington, and gives a title to his lordfhip’s eldett fon. In
the year 1699, it was created a barony by king William III.
The prefent remains cover about fix acres of ground. The

arts of chief ftrength itand on the brink of a fteep rock
about eighty perpendicular feet above the river 'I'ees, and
every way command a mott beautiful profpe&t. Many frag-
ments of the ruins have the arms of Richard the third, who
is f{uppofed to have confiderably contributed to this building.
‘Though we can readily afcertain from the above that this for-
trefs muit have beena place of great ftrength and extent, yetit
is not poflible to form any competent idea what it was in its
original and perfec ftate. Leland in particular mentions
parts of which there are not the leaft remains. The envi-
rons of the town are remarkably beautiful ; the vale of the
Tees abounding with a great variety of piCturefque, pafto-
ral, and auguit fcenery. From the caftle cliffs northward,
the river is bordered by a hanging foreft of oaks on one
hand, and on the other by fine meadow land. 'The extended
battlements, the circular tower and the moft ftately partsman-
tled with ivy, the brown rocks fringed with brufh wood, the
brighter yellow towers, and the ES ‘and fhaded battlements,

are contrafted by the azure lake on whofe furface they are _

refleGted. Near the path on the margin of the river is a fine
new bridge of one arch, lately ereéted by Saurey Morrit,
efq. of Rokeby Park. The number of houfes in the town-
fhip is 312, and its inhabitants 2966. Hutchinfon’s Hiftory
of Durham, vol. iii. 4to.

BARNARDO Istanps, are five iflands on the north
coaft of South America, laid down in modern charts off the
north point of the entrance into Morofquillo bay. They lie
S.S.W. from the harbour of Carthagena, in the dire¢tion
of the coait. To the weft of fouth from them is the open-
ing into the gulf of Darien, which is the limit between North
and South America. ‘Phefe iflands form a large bay and
harbour in N. lat.°9° 35’, and W. long. 77°20’. The outer-
mott ifland is called St. George’s, the innermoft is St. Gif-
bertus, and Goeree ifland lies between them. ‘The river
Cheau isto the weft of thefe iflands.

BARNASNE, mountains of Ireland, in the county of
Kerry, 8 miles S. W. of Killarney.

BARNAUL, a town of Siberia, on the weft fide of the
Oby, 100 miles S.S.E. of Kolyvan. It is fituated on the
Oby, in the government of Kolyvan,. famous for its filver
and copper mines, which alfo produce gold. Thefe mines
are much more productive than thofe of Nertfhinfk ; for the
pits hitherto opened in the latter have no continued or fleady
veins, ar2 never powertul, and feldom terminate in large nefts,
are always poorer as they proceed in depth, and change their
contents at every fathom. The mines of Barnaul belong to
the crown. About 48,000 boors earn their capitation tax
in working at them, over and above the miners and other
workmen properly belonging to them. The quantity of
gold produced at Barnaul and the Shlangenberg from 1745
to 1780, amounted to 686 pood, 16 pounds, 49 folotniks
of pure gold.

BARNEGAT Inver, called in fome maps New Julet,

‘ over at leifure hours.’’

BAR

is the paflage from the fea into Flat-bay found, on the fouth-
eaftern coatt of New Jerfey, 68 miles N.E. from cape May.
N. lat. 39° 47! 30". W. long. 74° 13/.

BARNER, James, in Biography, born at Elbing, in

* Welt *Pruffia, in 1641, applied himfelf early to the itudy of

chemiftry, in which he made fuch progrefs, that in 1670
he was engaged to give leétures in that art at Padua. After
refiding fome years in that univerfity he went to Leipfic,
where he practifed medicine with fuccefs. Retiring at
length to Elbing his native country, he died there in 1686.
Barner left feveral works on the fubje&t of chemiftry, but
that by which he is principally known is his « Chymia phi-
lofophica, cum doétrina falium, medicamentis fine igne
culinari parabilibus 5”? publifhedat Nuremburg 1689, three
years after his death, a work rather curious than ufeful.
Haller Bib. Med. Eloy Di&. Hittor.

BARNERA, in Geography, a {mall ifland of Scotland,
near the weft coaft of Lewis, feparated from the main land
bya ftrait, called Loch Barnera, about a mile wide. N. lat.
58° 25', W.long. 7° 3’.

BARNES, Josuua, in Biography, an Englifh divine and
claffical fcholar, was born in London in 1654, and educated
in grammar-learning at Chrift’s hofpital, where he was diftin-
guifhed by his proficiency in Greek, and by fome Latin and
Englifh poems. In 1671, he was admitted a fervitor of
Emanuel college in Cambridge ; and in 1678, he was elected
a fellow of the fame college. In his numerous writings,
which were critical, poetical, and hiftorical, he difplayed
more induftry and fancy than tafte and judgment. His
memory was fingularly retentive, fo that he could write and
converle in the Greek tongue with great readinefs ; though
Dr. Bentley farcattically remarked of him, that he underitood
as much Greek as a Greek cobler. But if he excelled in
tenacioufnefs of memory, he was ,notorioufly deficient in
folidity of judgment; and therefore fomeperfon recommended.
this pun to be infcribednponhismonument:.

«¢ Jofhua Barnes,
“ Felicis Memoriz, Judicium expeétans.”?

The enthufiafm of his temper was manifelted in various fin-
gularities of opinion and condu&. Believing that charity
never fails in this life of obtaining due recompence, he has:
given his only coat to a common beggar; and he ufed to
recite ftrange ftories of fome unexpeCted remuneration which
he had derived from charities of this kind. Of his talents
and learning, and particularly of his acquaintance with the
Greek language, he was vainand boaftful ; and at the fame
time he was prone to depreciate and abufe others. Of his
works the moft refpectable were his editions of the Greek
claffics ; and thefe he dedicated, without much appropriate,
feleétion, to perfons of high rank. In 1695, he was ele¢ted
Greek profeflor of the univerfity of Cambridge. In 1700,
he married a widow witha hand{fome jointure, who is faid to
have made the firft advances ; and, with a view to her amufe-
ment, and in order to-induce her to fupply him with money
towards defraying the expence of his edition of Homer, he
wrote a copy of Englifh verfes, defined to prove that Solo-
mon was the author of the poems under Homer’s name.
He died in 1712, and was buried at Hemingford in Hunting-
donfhire, where a curious monument was erected to him by
his widow, with an infcription partly in Latin and partly in
Greek Anacreontics. The following memorandum is an-
nexed: ‘ Mr. Barnes read a {mall Englifh bible, that he
ufually carried about him, one hundred and twenty-one times
Of his numerous publications, the
principal are the following: “A Poetical Paraphrafe on the
Hiftory of Efther,”’ intitled, “ Avaimoxerorle,” or “ The
Cuurtier’s Looking-glafs, &c.”? The tory is ei in

reek .

BAR

Greek verfe, with a Latin tranflation in the oppofite page
and Greek fcholia; to which is added, “ An Homeric
Parody on the fame Story.”? “ The Hiftory of that moit
vitorious monarch Edward III. &c.;’? Camb. fol. 1688.
This hiftorical work, for which the author’s talents feem to
have been very ill.adapted, abounds in falfe inferences and
tedious digreflions; and in long and elaborate {peeches, after
the manner of Thucydides and other ancient hiftorians, which
feem to be the refult of hisown imagination; the whole dif-
playing neither the judgment of a politician, nor the tatte
of a good writer. ‘ Euripidis que extant omnia, é&c.”’
Camb. fol. 1694. Befides a correction of the text of Euri-
pides, this edition contains a preliminary diflertation on the
ancient Greek tragedy, and another on the life and writings
of Euripides. « Anacreon Teius, &c.’? Camb.1705. In
this edition, the poems of Anacreon are corrected, and much
enlarged by the addition of feveral whole pieces and frag-
ments. The life of Anacreon is annexed; and in the Pro-
legomena, the author treats of the antiquity and invention of
lyric poetry, and the peculiar chara¢ter and metre of that
poet. The dedication to the duke of Marlborough is fol-
lowed by a Greek Anacreontic ode upon the viétory at Blen-
heim. The editor has alfo fubjoined the epigrams of the
ancients and moderns upon Anacreon, and fome odes of his
own compoiition under the title of «* Anacreon Chriftianus.””
«¢ Homeri Ilias et Odyflea, &c.;’? 2 vols. gto. Camb. 1710.
This edition is furnifhed with an exaét Latin tranflation,
with the ancient Greek fcholia, many notes upon the text
and fcholia, and various readings; to which are fubjoined
the ‘ Batrochomyomachia,” the “« Hymns and Epigrams,”’
the “ Fragments,” and “ Two Indexes.” ‘This edition
of Homer has been generally efteemed as correct and com-
plete ; though in the Acta Eruditorum for Jan. 1711, there
are fome objections againtt it, which have been aferibed to
Dr. Bentley. Barnes’s editions of the Greek claflics have
of late years been finking into difrepute; and modern critics
place little confidence in his judgment or fagacity. He
has beeen charged, in fome of his various readings, by the
learned Dr. Clarke, with audacity and unfkilfulnefs.

As for his other works, both in profe and verfe, it would
be tedious to enumerate even their titles; and this is the
lefs neceflary, as they are now configned to total oblivion.
Biog. Brit. :

BARNET, denominated alfo High and Chipping Barnet,

in Geography, a town of England, fituated in the hundred of.

Caifho and county of Hertford, 11 miles north of London.
Jt has a market on Mondays, which has exifted fince
Henry II.; and here are alfo three fairs annually. At this
town, which is a great thoroughfare, the north road divides
for York and Liverpool. Being fituated upon an eminence,
the profpeéts are extenfive and agreeable ; but there are no
public buildings worth notice, except the church and a
grammar fchool. The latter was founded by queen Eliza-
beth, and afterwards endowed by alderman Owen of the
Filhmongers’ company of London, for the education of nine
children gratis. There are likewife alms-houfes for widows,
founded by James Ravenfcroft Efq. and his wife, in 1672.
At the twelfth mile ftone beyond the town, is erected a
pillar to commemorate a fignal battle fought on that {pot
on Eaiter day, April 14, 1471, between the houfe of York
headed by Edward IV., and that of Lancafter conducted
by the ftout earl of Warwick, who, with many of the nobi-
lity and nearly 10,000 men, were flain. ‘This was a decifive
victory for the Yorkifts, as it firmly eftablifhed Edward TV.
on the throne; although in afubfequentbattleat Tewkefbury,
the queen of Henry VI. and her fon were taken prifoners.
Barnet is governed by a magiftrate, high conftable, and

BAR

other officers; and a court leet is held at Eafter.
town are 225 houfes, inhabited by 1258 perfons,
Hiftory of Hertfordfhire.

Barner, atownthip of America, in Caledonia county,
and flate of Vermont, containing 477 inhabitants, and diftant
112 miles N. E. from Bennington.

BARNEVELDT, Joun-Oxpen, in Biography, a mi-
nifter of Holland, eminently diftinguifhed by his a ilities and
patriotifm, was born in 1547, In his early negociations on
behalf of the ftates general with France, Fring aes and the
neighbouring powers, he gave great fatisfa¢tion to thofe
who employed him, and gained equal credit and efteem in
the judgment of Henry IV. and queen Elizabeth. As grand
penfionary of the ftates of Holland, he obtained extenfive
influence ; and firmly attached to the liberty of his country,
he obferved the growing power of the houfe of Orange, di-
rected by the warlike and afpiring prince Maurice, with
jealoufy and apprehenfion. Amiditt the collifion of different
parties, he was regarded as the leader of the oppofition to the
meafures of that prince. The authority of Maurice de-
pended in a great meafure, on the continuance of the war
with Spain, and Barneveldt was very defirous of terminating
it. By his zealous endeavours to effe& this purpofe under
the mediation of the king of France, he incurred the violent
odium of the adverfe party. “At length, however, he fuc-
ceeded by obtaining, in 1609, a truce for 12 years; the firft
article of which recognized the independency of the united
ftates. Soon after this event, the difputes between the Ar-
minians and Calvinifts, or Remonftrants and Contra-remon-
ftrants, furioufly agitated the Dutch provinces. Barneveldt,
inclined to the former, and the advocate of toleration, exerted
himfelf in procuring for the Arminians or Remonftrants that
liberty of conf{cience to which they had an equitable claim.
Prince Maurice placed himfelf at the head of the other party,
which was the moft numereus; and probably took pleafure in
the oppofition and calumny encountered by Barneveldt in his
endeavours to promote the caufe of religious freedom and
moderation. At this time, notwithitanding the fufpicions
excited againft Barneveldt, as if he wifhed to fubjecét his
country again to the yoke of Spain, he was effentially ferv-
ing it by negotiating with James I. the reftoration of the
towns of Flufhing, Rammekens, and the Brille, which had
been put into the hands of Elizabeth as fecurity for the
money which fhe had lent to the ftates. Barneveldt’s
fuccefs in this negotiation added James to the number of his
enemies.

The religious difputes, which had been appeafed in the
province of Holland by the influence of Barneveldt, pre-
vailed fo much in the other provinces, that a national fynod
was aflembled at Dordrecht in 1618 in order to bring them
to atermination. To this fynodthe kings of England and
France, and moft of the Proteftant ftates of Europe, fent
deputies ; and the Arminians, who did not comply with the
citation to appear before this affembly, incurred a formal
condemnation. On this occafion, Barneveldt, Grotius, and
other Remonttrant chiefs of the anti-Orange party, were
arre(ted and imprifoned in the caftle of Louvenitein. Bar-
neveldt, however, was the devoted vi€tim. Many accufa-
tions were alleged againtt him, as the fomenter of the difturb-
ances that had occurred at Utrecht, and as an enemy to the
public liberty; and being tried by a court, compofed chiefly
of his enemies, and admitting inadequate proofs, he was
capitally condemned. Prince Maurice, to whom application
was made from various quarters in his favour, remained in-
exorable; as he would only promife a pardon upon con-
dition of its being folicited by the family of Barneveldt: but
they refufed to do an act, which would imply the guilt of

. their

In the
Salmon’s

ee. Sd

Se

~.

a eS

a i

BAR

their venerable chief. TBarneveldt prepared for death, and
without afking any favour for himfelf, merely folicited
the protection of his children. On the morning of exe-
cution, Barneveldt proceeded to the fcaffold with a fe-
rene countenance; but being fomewhat difturbed on his
arrival, he exclaimed, with uplifted eyes to heaven, «* O
God! what is man!”? Having prayed with the mini-
fter who attended him, he rofe from his knees with com-
pofure, declared his innocence to the {petators, and de-
fired the executioner to perform his office. His head
was itruck off at a blow, in his 72d year, May 13th
1619. The popular hatred foon fubfided; his memory
was revered as that of the pureft of patriots, and molt
refpeétable of men, and his death left a ftain on the cha-
racter of prince Maurice, which all his great qualities and
fervices were not fufficient to efface. ‘The ftates of Hol-
land, in the regifter of his death, added thefe words,
which may ferve as a teftimony to his chara€ter; ‘* He was
a man of great condu&, induitry, memory, and prudence;
yes, fingular in all. Let him who ftandeth, take heed
fet he fall. God be merciful to his foul! Amen.” ‘&Ne-
ver (fays the French ambailador De Maurier) was there fo
wile and virtuous a man as M. de Barneveldt. He hada
majeftic prefence, and faid much in few words, with a grave
and fuccin& eloquence.” Barneveldt left two fons in con-
fiderable employments ; who being deprived of them by
prince Maurice, engaged in a conf{piracy againft his life.
One was beheaded, and the other made his efcape. When
the mother of him, who was taken and condemned, fell at
the feet of Maurice fupplicating his life, the prince ex-
reffed his furprife that fhe who had refufed to afk her huf-
and’s pardon, fhould condefcend to intercede on behalf of
her.fon. ‘I did not afk pardon for my hufband,”’ faid the
mother with a noble fpirit, ** becaufe he was-innocent. I
afk it for my fon, becaufe he is guilty.” Mod. Un. Hitt.
Gen. Biog.

Barnevert’s Iflands, in Geography, are two {mall flat
iflands, clofe to each other, on the weft fide of Terra del
Fuego, partly furrounded by rocks, and 24 leagues diftant
from the ftraits of Le Maire. S.lat. 55°49’. W. long.
66° 58

BARNEVILLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Channel, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&
of Valognes, 54 leagues S.S.W. of Cherburg. The place
contains 840 and the canton $576 inhabitants ; the territory
includes 215 kiliometres, and 19 communes.

BARNFIARD, in Ornithology, is an aquatic bird, of
which Oviedo {peaks in his ‘“ Hilt. des Indes,’? book 14,
¢. 2; but which it is impoffible to afcertain from what that
author has faid of it. :

BARNSLEY, in Geography, a fmall market town of
England, in the weft riding of Yorkfhire, 15 miles from
Doncafter, and 176 north-weit from London. It is fituated
on the fide of a hill, and about five furlongs inextent. The
town, though well built of ftone, is called Black Barnfley ;
probably from its {moaking furnaces, or rather from the footy
foil of the n:oors with which it is furrounded. The land is
very prolific in wheat and other grain, and coal is alfo ex-
ceedingly plentiful. The abundance of itone, timber, iron-
ftone, &c. and the cheap living neceflary for population, ren-
der this place very appropriate for any kind of trade. At
prefent its wire works are fuppofed the beft in the kingdom:
and the wire is of two forts; the hard, made.into teeth for
cotton and wool cards, the foft for ftocking-frame needles.
Procefles of a leffer kind are weaving of linen, in which
500 looms are employed, and a glafs manufactory of black
bottles. Barnfley has a well built church, which is a
chapelry under Silxefton, a free grammar f{chool, a mar-

BAR

ket on Wednefday, and three fairs: the population of”
this townfhip confiits of 722 houfes, inhabited by 3606
erfons.

BARNSTAPLE, a very ancient corporate town and
fea-port in the county of Devon, is fituated in a broad and
fertile vale on the eaftern bank of the river Taw, and
bounded by a femicircular range of hills. It is one of the
neate{t and moft reputable towns in the north of the country ;
the ftreets being {pacious and regular, and the buildings re-
fpe&table. Before the conqueli, Barnitaple was a royal de-
mefne; and king Athelftan is reported to have conftituted it
a borough, and to have ereGted a caftle near’the confluence of
the rivers North Yeo and Taw: no remains, however, of
this fortrefs continue, except a high artificial mount.- In
Domefday book it is no:iced as containing “ forty bur-
geffes within the borough, and nine without ;” and ghe inha-
bitants were exempted from ferving on any expedition or
being otherwife taxed, but in equal proportion with Exeter
and Totnefs. The town was reincorporated by Henry I.
but ftill retaining fome of its ancient feudal privileges, which
250 of the common burgeffes at this day poflefs; namely,
aright to vote with the corporation for two members of
parliament.

The corporation is compofed of a mayor, high fteward
(at prefent earl Fortefcue), two bailiffs, two aldermen, a re-
corder, twenty-two common-council men, and other officers.
King James I. ratified and confirmed the privileges of
the town by a charter in the eighth year of his reign ;
and we find by authentic documents, that the firft re-
turn for members to parliament was made in the 23d of
Edward I.

Refpeéting the trade of Barnftaple, its harbour is fo fhal-
low that veflels of more than 200 tons cannot enter; yet
the baize, filk-itockings, and waiftcoat manufa€ories ftill
give life to the place, and in a great degree compenfate the
lofs of its former woollen trade; added to this, the beautiful
fcenery and pleafantnefs of the neighbourhood, and the
cheapnefs of living, have induced many independent families
to make it their fole refidence. Ra *

A noble quay along the river is terminated by a handfome
portico, over the centre of which is placed a ftatue of queen
Anne. Over the river isa ftone bridge of fixteen arches.
The church isa ftately building, with a handfome {pire and a
good organ; formerly it contained feveral chantries. We
find alfo that in the town Judhall de Totnefs founded a priory
for Cluniac monks, which, at the diflolution, was valued at
123]. 6s. 7d. perannum.

The grammar fchool is famous for having upon its founda-
tion feveral eminent characters ; bifhop Jewel and his oppo-
nent profeffpr Fiarding, the poet Gay, Dr. Mufgrave, &c.
For the ufeful education of the lower clafs of inhabitants, a
charity fchool is ereted over the north gate; near which is
a pleafant walk, denominated Northern Hay, from the
fine profpeéts it commands, as well as an agreeable pro-
menade.

The number of houfes in the whole parifh is eftimated at
653, and the inhabitants at 3748. N. lat. 51° 15’.. W. long.

ele
; Bees Bay, is an opening in the Briftol channel,
formed by the union of the rivers Taw and Towridge.
This is the common bay or road to the town of Barnitaple
and Biddeford, on their refpective rivers.

BarNstTaPrLe, a county of America, lying upon the
peninfula, the point of which is cape Cod, the fouth-eaftern
point of Maffachuffett’s bay, oppofite cape Ann. This
county is about 65 miles long, and in various parts from 3
to Gand g miles broad. It contains 11 townfhips, and the

plantation of Marfhpee, having 2343 houfes, and 17,354
inhabitants.

BAR

inhabitants. Barnftaple was made a fhire in 1685. See
Cape Con.

Barnstapve,the Mattacherfe or Mattacheefet of the an-
cient Indians, is a port of entry and poft town, and the hire
town of Baraitaple county in North America! It extends
acrofs the peninfula, and is wafhed by the fea on the north
and fouth, having Sandwich and the diftri@ called Marth-
pee or Mafhpee on the welt; and is about 5 miles broad
and g long; 67 miles S. E. from Bofton. Sandy-neck on the
north fhore, running eait almoft the whole length of the
town, forms the harbour, and embofoms a large body of
falt-marfh. The harbour is about a mile wide and four
long ; and the tide rifes in it from 8 to 14 feet. Its bar,
running off N. E. from the neck feveral miles, prevents the
entrance of large fhips; but {mall veffels may pafs any part
of it at high water. There is another harbour on the fouth,
called Lewis’s bay. Its entrance is within Barnftaple, and
extends almoft 2 milesinto Yarmouth. This harbour is
commodious and fafe, and is completely land-locked. In
Barnftaple there are but 20 or 30 ponds. The land here
produces about 25 bufhels of Indian corn to an acve, and rye
and other grain in proportion. Wheat and flax are cul-
tivated; the latter with fuccefs. From 12 to 18,000
bufhels of onions are raifed for the fupply of the neighbour-
ing towns. The fifhery, which is annually increaling,
employs about 100 men. The people who are in number
about 2610, are generally healthy ; and many inftances of
longevity occur. Many of the farmers are occafionally fea-
men, and mavy mariners and matters of veffels, who fail
from other parts, are furnifhed by this town, N, lat.

Io 43)
5 BARNSTEAD, a townfhip of America, in Strafford
county, New Hampfhire, containing 807 inhabitants ; 32
miles N. W. of Portfmouth, and 16 E. by S. from Canter-
bury on Conneéticut river.

BARNSTORF, or Beanporr, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Weltphalia, and county of Diepholz, 8 miles
north of Diepholz.

BARNTRUP, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weiltphalia, and county of Lippe, 4 miles N. E. of Blom-
berg.

BARNWELL, a village fituated about half a mile
north-eaft of Cambridge, in England, was formerly of creat
confequence from its ancient priory, which, ’at the diffolu-
tion, was valued at 351/. 15s. 4d. The village has fuf-
fered very much by fire. Barnwell has a fair kept in its
neighbourhood, commencing annually on Midfummer-day,
and continuing a fortnight. This fair derives its origin
from a cuftom of the children in the neighbourhood affem-
bling on Midfummer-eve at Barn’s-well. A number of ped-
lars reforted to the fpot, and expofed their merchandize
for fale, fo eatly as the reign of Henry I.: the articles brought
being moftly pottery, the feftival obtained the appellation of
Pot Fair, It appears, however, to have affumed its legal
form inthe reign of Henry III. by whom it is faid to have
been chartered and granted to the priory. The fair is ftill
proclaimed on Midfummer-eve, and the field in which it is
held, is called Midfummer Green. But Barnwell is moft
famous for the great aflemblage of merchandize annually
held in a large meadow, called Sturbridge Fair ; the origin
of which Dr. Stukely was induced to aferibe to his hero
Caraufius: it is however evident that King John granted the
whole for the ufe and maintenance of an hofpital for lepers,
who had an ancient chapel here; and the chaplain claimed the
dues, till Hen. VIII. in confideration of 1coo marks paid
by the corporation of Cambridge, gave them the grant of
the fair, which was confirmed by Elizabeth. The field in
ahich it is held is about half a mile fquare, having the rivers

BAR

Cam and Sture on its northern and eaftern fides. The
booths are built in regular order, each row being particularly
named, as Ironmoager’s row, Bockfeller’s row, &c.; the
centre is called the Duddery, and chiefly occupied by
drapers, mercers, and wholetale dealers in cloaths. Stur-
bridge fair is folemnly proclaimed on the 18th of Septentber,
by the vice-chancellor, pro€tors, and other officers of the
univerfity ; and afterwards by the mayor and aldermen,
The ftated time for its continuance is fourteendays. Dra-_
matic exhibitions are forbidden within nine miles of the uni-
verlity, except during this fair, and the week preceding.
This was formerly the greateft mart in England; but its
bufinefs declining, owing to the circulation of commerce
throughout the country, its confequence is very much
diminifhed. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii.

BARO, or Baron, Perer, in Biography, a profeffor of
divinity in the univerfity of Cambridge, was born at Eftampes
in France, aud educated for the law at Bourges; but driven
from his country to England by the perfecution of the Pro-
teftants in the reign of queen Elizabeth. By the recom-
mendation of lord Burleich, he was cleGted profeffor at Cam-
bridge in the year 1574. He was attacked by the rigid
Calvinifts on account of the reputed laxnefs of his fentimeats
concerning ihe doétrines of predeflination and juftification ;
and a complaint was preferred againft him as an encourager
of the {pread of Pelagianifm in the uniyerfity, to archbifhop
Whitgift in 1595, which produced the Lambeth ARTICLES,
that were made ufe of to lence him. But as he continued
to preach his former doCtriaes, he was cited before the vice-
chancellor, and feveral articles were exhibited againft him.
The proceedings againft him, however, were prevented by
the interference of the chancellor, lord Burleigh, and he was
recommended by his learning and chara€ter to the protec-
tion of the archbifhop Whitgift. At length wearied by the
perfecution of his enemies, he retired from the uniyerfity to
London, where he died three or four years afterwards. A
collection of his theological works in Latina was publithed
at London in 1579, fol. ; as were alfo fome detached pieces
in that language, and fome fermons, &c. in Englith. Biog.
Brit.

BAROACH, Broacu, or Barun, the ancient Bary-
gaza,in Geography, atown of Hindooftan, in the country of
Guzerat, lying in the route from Surat to Amedabad, and
feated on the great river Nerbuddah, about 25 miles from its
mouth. Baroach has been, in different ages, a port common
both to Nehrwaleh, the capital of Guzerat, and Tagara,
fuppofed to be the modern Dowlatabad. The former wes
eight journies, the latter ten, from Baroach. It is fituated
about 217 Britith miles north from the Plithana of Arrian,
or the modern Pultanah ; and all kinds of mercantile goods
throughout the Deccan were anciently brought to Tagara,
and from thence conveyed on carts to Baroach or Barygaza
acrofs the Balla~Gaut mountains. Baroach is famous for its
manufaCture of very fine bafts and other cottons ; and the
water of the river Nerbuddah is faid to have a peculiar pro-
perty for bleaching of cloth to a perfect whitenefs. Agates
are likewife an article of trade in this place; which are
brought from the mountains near Brampour, and are moftly
difpofed of at Cambaya. The fortrefs of Barcach is large
and f{quare, ftanding upon a hill, which is the only emineace
for many miles, and might be made very ftrong. The
Dutch faGtory was eftablithed here in 1617, but is ina low
ftate. N. lat. 21° 45°. E. long. 72° 58’,

BARROCCIO, Freperick, in Biography, an eminent
painter of hiftory aad portrait, was born at Urbino in 1528,
and inftruéted in the principles of paintiug by Battiita Vene-
tiano, ‘and in thofe of perfpective by his uncle Bartolomeo
Genga. Having availed himfelf of thefe iene

. 290

BAR

zoth year, he removed to Rome, and purfued his fludies with
fuch afliduity and fuccefs, that he became one of the mott
eraceful painters of his time. At Rome he was particularly
encouraged by the prote¢tion of cardinal della Rovere, and
by the commendation of Michael Angelo. On his return
to Urbino he gained great applaufe by feveral pictures, and
more efpecially by that of a St. Margaret, which induced
pope Pius LV. to invite him to Rome, and to employ him,
in conjunction with Federigo Zucchero, in the decoration
of his palace of Belvedere. It has been faid that his fupe-
rior merit excited the jealoufy of his brother artitts to fach
adegree, that they gave him poifon at an entertainment,
Whether this be true or not, his health declined; and for
the recovery of it, he was under a neceflity of recurring to
his native air, and of intermitting his labours. However,
-by due attention, his life was prolonged to the advanced age
of 84 years. His genius principally inclined him to the
painting of religious fubjects; and his works evince that it
was his chief ambition to imitate Correggio in his colouring,
and Raphael in his manner of defigning. It is eafy to ob-
ferve, that he endeavoured to refemble the former illuftrious

artift in the fweetnefs of his tints, in the harmony of his |

colouring, in the graceful airs of the heads, in the difpo-
fition of his draperies, and the forms of his Bambinos,
though he fometimes exprefled the mufcular parts of the
human body too ftrongly. He feldom painted any hifto-
rical figure without having either modelled it in wax, or
placed fome of his difciples in fuch attitudes as he wifhed to
reprefent : his fifter was the model for the Madonnas, and
her child for his Bambinos. He is faid to have employed
feven years in painting at Affife, the birth-place of St. Fran-
cis, a picture called the ‘ Pardon,”’ in which the figure of
the faint kneeling, by the force of fhade, feems to rife from
the canvas. The works of this maiter are numerous; the
principal of which are at Rome, in the Belvedere, and feveral
churches; at Urbino, Affife, Cortona, Arezzo, and other
towns in Italy: in the gallery of Florence; the Efcurial ;
and the duke of Orleans’s collection. Baroccio engraved
four of his own pieces with peculiar fpirit, and more than
thirty more have been publifhed by different engravers.
Pilkington and Strutt.

BAROCHE, La, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Orne, and chief place of a canton in
the diftri&t of Domfront; 4 miles 5.5.E. of Domfront.

BAROCO, in Logic, denotes the fourth mode of the
fecond figure of fyllogifms.

A fyllogifm in bareco has the firft propofition univerfal
and afhrmative, but the fecond and third particular and
negative ; and the middle term, the attribute or predicate
-in the two firit.—For example:

«BA Every virtue is attended with difcretion:
RO Some kinds of zeal are not attended with
difcretion:
CO Therefore fome kinds of zeal are not virtues.’?
«“ BAR Nullus homo non eft bipes:
OC Non omne animal eft bipes:
O Non omne animal eft homo,’’

BAROLITE, in Afineralogy. See WirnERitE.

BAROMETER, compounded of Pxpe:, weight, and
perpov, meafure, an initrument for meafuring the weight of
_the atmofphere and its variations, in order chiefly to deter-
_ minethe changes of weather, andthe heightsof mountains, &c.

The barometer is frequ ntly confounded with the baro/cope,
though fomewhat improperly; the latter, in ftri¢tnefs, be-
ing an initrument that barely fhews an alteration in the
weight of the atmofphere: but it is one thing to know that
the air is heavier at one time than another, and another to

Peavor. It.

BAR

meafure how much that difference is: which is the bufine!s
of the barometer,

The barometer is founded on the Torricellian experiment,
as it is called from its inventor Torricelli, who, in con-
fequence of the previous fuggettion of Galileo, with regard
to the afcent of water in a pump, upon drawing up the
pifton, proceeded, in 1613, to fill with mercury a glafs tube,
hermetically fealed, or clofe at one end, the other end being
open and immerfed in a bafon of ftagnant mercury. Judg-
ing that, in the former cafe, the water was fuftained in the
pump by the preffure of the air on the water in the veffel, in
which its open end was fmmerfed, and that it was the mea-
{ure of this preffure, he hence concluded that mercury would
in like manner be fupported by it in the tube, and at a
height which was alfo the meafure of the aix’s preflure, or
about 13 times lefs than water. His experiment was com-
pletely verified; for he obferved that the mercury defcended
in the tube, and finally fettled at the perpendicular height
of 294 Roman inches, whether the tube was vertical or in-
clined, according to the known laws of hydroftatical preffure.
This famous experiment was repeated and diverfified in va-
rious forms, with tubes filled with other fluids, fuch as
water, wine, oil, &c.; and the refult being the fame, the
weight and preflitre of the air were eltablifhed beyond con-
tradiétion or doubt. 'Thofe who had any remaining doubts
~were completely fatisfied by a beautiful experiment exhibited

by M. Azout. He provided a fmall box or phial
EFGH (Plate UX. Pneumatics, fig. 74.) into which he in-
ferted two glafs tubes, A B, CD, each three feet long,
in fuch a manner that they were firmly fixed at one
end, and reached nearly to the other end. The tube AB
was open at both ends, and C D was clofed at D. This
apparatus being completely filled with mercury, by unfcrew-
ing the tube A B, and filling the box and the tube C D, and
then {crewing in the tube AB and alfo filling it, was in-
verted, whilft a finger was held on the orifice A, and fet up-~
right in the manner exhibited in Jig. 75, immerfing the
orifice A of Fig. 74, or a of Fig. 75, in a {mall veflel
of quickfilver. Upon this, the mercury ran out at the ori-
fice a, till its furface mn within the phial defcended to the
top of the tube a. The mercury began alfo to defcend in
the tube de (Fig. 75.) correfponding to DC in Fig. 74, and
flowing over into the tube da, efcaped at a, till that m de
was very nearly ona level with mn. In ba, the mercury
ftood at 4, 29} inches above the furface op of the mercury
in the ciltern, as in the Torricellian tube. Indeed, this
whole apparatus may be firft confidered as a Tovrricellian
tube of an uncommon form, from which the mercury would
flow out at a. But when any of it efeaped, a vacant {pace
would be left above mn, and the mercury in the tube dc
would alfo defcend, and running over into bu, fupply its
watte, till d¢ became almoft empty, and could no longer
fupply da. The inner furface being therefore deprefled as
much as poffible, till it became level with 4, no more mer-
cury could enter into 4, and yet its column being too heavy
to be fupported by the preffure of the air on the mercury im
the ciftern of, it muft defcend in ba, till it finally fettled at
the height £c, equal to that of the mercury in the Torricel-
lian tube. In this ftate if a fmall hole g wére made in the
upper cover of the box, the external air would ruih in by its
weight, and prefs oa the mercury in the box. This preffure
would immediately caufe the mercury to rife in the tube de

to /, 29% inches above mn. __ It likewile prefles on the mer-
cury at £ in the tube a, balancing the preflure of the air on
the mercury in the ciftern. The mercury in the tube,
therefore, muft defcend to the bottom by its own weislit.

By this experiment the Sonne of the gravity and prefiure

= 4 of

BAROMETER.

of the air is decifively eflablihed. See A1r, Weight of, and
Experiments with the Air-Pump.

Notwithftanding the fatisfatory demonftration of the
air’s. preflure, afforded by the Torricellian experiment,
fome attempts were made by the advocates of a ple-
num for evading it, and for explaining the phenomena
of this experiment by fome other hypothefis. Accord-
ingly Linus contended, that in the upper part of the
tube there 1s a film, or “rope of mercury,” whence his hy-
pothefis was ca!tzd “ the funicular hypothefis,” which ex-
tended through the feeming vacuity ; and that, by means
of this rope, the reft of the mercury was fufpended, and
kept from defcending into the bafon. In frocf of this ab-
furd and ridiculous hypothefis he alleged the following ex-
periment. Take, fays he, a fmall tube, about 20 inches
long, open at both ends; fill it with mercury, and ftop the
Tower orifice with your thumb. ‘Then clofing the upper
end with your finger, immerfe the lower end in ftagnant
mercury ; and upon the removal of your thumb, there will
be a fenfible fu€tion of the finger into the tube; and both
the tube and mercury will adhere to it fo, clofely, that
they may thus be carried about the room. Hence he in-
fers, that the internal cylinder of mercury in the tube is not
fuftained by the preffure of the external air; for this, he
argues, would not account for the ftrong fudtion, and the ad-
hetion of the tube to the finger. If the tube be not quite
filled with mercury, but a {mall interval of air left at the top,
after the tube is immerfed in ftagnant mercury, a confider-
able fu€tion will be perceived. From thefe experiments,
which a€tually furnifh evidence of the air’s preffure, the
funicular hypothefis of Linus derived fupport for fome
time; but it has been long fince exploded. When it was

erceived that the mercury on the top of a high mountain
fubfided, and ftood at a lower height than on a plain, and
that in the vacuum of an air pump it defceaded to the
bottom of the tube, this hypothelis could have no advocates.
However, am experiment mentioned by Mr. Huygens, in
which mercury well purged of its air remained fufpended in
a tube at the height of 75 inches, fuggefted a more confider-
able difficulty, which has been varioufly folved. See an
account of it, under the article TorricELLian. ‘Yor an
explication of the phenomenon of a fiphon, which dif-
charges water under the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump.
See S1pHoNn.

Barometer, Common, the Confirudionof it.—A glafs tube
(AB, Plate 1X. Pneumatics, fig. 76.) open at one end, and
hermetically fealed at the other A, having its diameter about
one-third or one-fourth of an inch, and its length thirty-three
or thirty-four inches, is filled with mercury fo juitly as not
to have any air over it, nor any bubbles adhering to the
fides of the tube; which is beft done by means of a imall
paper or glafs funnel, with a capillary tube. If a {mall
bubble nite be moved backwards and forwards in the tube,
it will help to clear the mercury ; which will appear, when
pure, like a polifhed red of fteel. The orifice of the tube,
filled after this manner, fo as to overflow, is then clofely
prefied by the finger, fo as to exclude any air between it and
the mercury, and thus immerged in a veffel of a convenient
diameter, fo however as not to touch the bottom: at the
diftance of twenty-eight inches from the furface of the mer-
cury are fixed two plates, C E and D F, divided into three
inches, called «¢ the fcale of variation,” and thefe again fub-
divided into any number of {mall part-.s Laitly, the tube is
inclofed in a wooden frame, to prevent its being broken ;
the bafon, though open to the air, fecured from duft ; and
the barometer is complete. As the loweft itation of the
mercury in this country is about 28 inches, and-the higheit

about 31 inches above the furface of the mercury in the ba-
fon, the former point is the loweft in the feale of variation,
and in the common barometers, called ‘ weather-glaffes,”?
it is marked /formy ; and the latter is marked on one fide
very dry for the fummer, and on the other very bard frof
for the winter. To the next half-inch below this higheit
point are annexed /ét fair on the one fide, and fet fro/f on
the other. Atthe height of 30 inches, the word fair is
marked on one fide, and frof ou the other; at 294 is
marked the term changeable both for fummer and winter; at
29 are inferibed on the one fide rain, and on the other fuow ;
and at 284 inches are the words much rain on one fide, and
much fnow on the other. Each of thefe larger divifions is
ufuilly fubdivided into ten parts, and by meaus of a’ fmall
fliding index adapted to the inftrument, the aicent or defeent
of the mercury may be afcertained for any number of diyi-
fions. Each of theie tenths is again fometimes divided into
ten more, or hundredths of an inch, by means of a fliding
piece of brafs, with a feale called Nonius and Vernier;
for the ufe of which fee thefe terms, and the fequel of this
article.

As the common barometer is the beft, and moft to he de-
pended upon in accurate obfervations, it may be proper to add
{ome directions for preparing it : they are colleéted chiefly
from the publications of Muichenbroek, Defaguliers, and De
Luc on this fubje&t. It appears from many experiments, that
the mercury ftands higher in tubes of a Jarger, than in thofe
of a narrower bore; and therefore when obfervations are
made with different barometers, fome regard fhould be paid
to the difference of their diameters, and it would be defirable
to have them conftrncted of tubes of the fame diameter,
The bore of the tube fhould be large, in order to preveat
the effe&s of the attraction of cohefion ; not lefs than one
fourth of an inch ; but if they are one-third of an inch dia-
meter, they are better. If a ciftern*be ufed as a refervoir
for the flagnant mercury, it fhould be large in proportion
to the diameter of the tube, at leaft ten times greater; that
the addition or fubtraétion of the mercury, contained be-
tween the greateft and leaft altitudes, may not fenfibly affe&
its depth ; for the numbers marked on the fcale annexed to
the tube, fhew their diftance from a fixed point, and cannat
truly indicate the height of the column above the mercury
in the ciftern, unlefs its furface coincide with this point,
and be immoveable. In order more effe€tually to preferve
the lower furface at the fame height from divifions on the
fcale affixed to the inftrument, the father of the late Mr.
Georgé Adams firft applied t6 the barometer a floating gare,
by means cf whith the fame fcrew that renders the barome-
ter portable, regulates the furface of the mercury in the
ciftern, fo that it is always at the place from whence the di-
vifions on the feale commence. See Portable Barometer.

The tube fhould be preferved free from duft till it is
ufed; and for this purpofe it may be hermetically fealed at
both ends, and one end may be opened with a file, when
it is filled. If this precaution has not been obferved, the
infide fhould be well cleanfed, by wathing it with alcohol
highly re@ified, and rubbing it with a little pifton of fham-
my leather faftened toa wire. The mercury fhould be pure ;

and may be purged of its air, by previoufly boiling it in a

glazed earthen pipkin covered clofe ; and when the tube has
been uniformly heated and rendered eleétrical by rubbing it,

the hot mercury fhould be poured into it in a regular cur- —

rent, through a glafs funnel with a long capillary tube, fo

that the air may not have room to pafs between the parts of

the quickfilver. M. De Luc direéts, as Mr. Orme had prac-
tifed many years ago in the contruction of his improved di-
agonal barometers, that the mercury fhould iden.

: “tubes,

4
:
t
J

BAROMETER.

tube, asthe moft effectual method of purging it of its air
and moifture. The procefs is briefly this: he chufes a tube
of 24 lines or 3 lines bore, and not exceeding half a line in
thicknefs ; he fills it with mercury within two inches of the
top, and holds it with the fealed end lowelt in an inclined
ofition over a chafing difh of burning charcoal, prefenting
firit the fealed end to the fire, and moving it obliquely over
the chafing-difh. As the mercury is heated, the air bub-
bles appear like fo many ftuds on the inner furface of the
tube, and gradually running into one another, afcend to-
wards the higher parts of the tube, which are not heated ;
here they are condenfed and almott difappear; and after fuc-
ceflive emigrations, they acquire a bulk by their union,
which enables them at length to efcape. When the mercury
boils, its parts {trike againft each other, and againft, the
fides of the \ube, with fuch violence, that a perfon unac-
cultomed to this operation is ready to apprehend their force
to be fufficient to break the tube. The mercury is thus
freed from all the heterogeneous particles contained in it,
together with their furrounding atmofpheres, and the air
which lines the infide of the tube, which cannot be eafily
expelled in any other way, is difcharged; when this lait-
mentioned fkratum of air is thus expelled, the tube may be
afterwards emptied, and filled even. with cold mercury, and
will be found nearly as free from air as before. The mer-
cury in the tubes thus prepared by a determinate quantity
of heat, will rife higher than in thofe of the common fort,
and the barometers will more nearly correfpond with each
other ; whereas there will be a difference of fix or eight
lines in the afcent of the mercury in common barometers.
When this operation is completed, the mercury generally
remains fufpended at the top, and will not defcend to its
proper level without fhaking the tube to bring it down.
The tubes, which fhould be chofen not lefs than three feet
Jong, may now be filled to their proper length.
‘ Be acters of this kind rofe uniformly in a heated room ;
whilit the mercury in thofe that had been prepared in the
common way defcended, and in different proportions. When
the room cooled, the former defcended uniformly, and cor-
refponded with each other; the latter rote with the fame
irregularity with which they had before defcendad, nor were
they found, at the clofe of the experiment, to ftand at the
fame relative heights as they did at the beginning of it.
The reafon of which is obvious, from the effects of heat on
the air remaining in unequal quantities ia the tubes in the
one cafe, and on the purer mercury 1n the other. :

~ Anoiher circumftance that requires attention In the con-
flruétion and ufe of barometers is the temperature of the air;
for unlefs this remains the fame, the dimenfions of a given
quantity of mercury will be variable; and the altitude of the
mercury will be an uncertam meafure of the weight of the at-
mofphere, becaufe it is dilated by heat, and contracted by
cold, when probably its weight and preflure are unchanged.
M. De Luc attended particularly to this circumftance, and
contrived to eflimate the effects of heat on the quickfilver in
the barometer, when it is ufed for accurate obfervations, by
means of a thermometer; the fcale of which is divided in
fuch a manner as to indicate, with little labour of calcula-
tion, the correction to be made on account of heat. As
an increafe of heat that is fufficient te raife the mercury m
the thermometer from the point of melting ice to that of
boiling water, will lengthen the column of mercury in the
barometer fix lines, he divides each line in the feale of the
barometer into four parts, each of which may be eafily, fub-
divided into four lefler parts, or fixteenths of aline. The
feale of the thermometer marking the interval between the
freezing and boiling points, and anfwering to the fix lines

of the barometer, is divided into ninety-fix equal parte;
each of which will correfpond to the fixteenth of a Sine in
the motion of the mercury in the barometer dilated by heat
which mutt be added to or fubtraéted from the height of the
mercury in the barometer, for every degree of the yariattoa
of the thermometer fo graduated. A feale of this kind,
continued above boiling or below freezing water, is annexed
to his Portable Banomeres and Tuermometer. M. ce
Luc prepared two barometers with their refpective thermo-
meters graduated in the manner above explained; he placed
one pair in the cellar of one houfe, and the other pair ia
the upper room of another houfe in a lower fituation, {fo
as to be exaétly ona level with the cellar: he found that
the thermometer in the room rofe nine degrees, and the ba-
rometer .%, of a line higher than thofe in the cellar; whenee
he thews, that without allowing for the effe&t of heat, the
difference in the heights of thele two barometers would have
indicated a difference of about forty-five fect in the heights
of thefe two places, though they were exaétly on the fame
level. M. De Luc’s Recherches, &c. vol. 1. p. 193—199+
See Armospuerr, and the fequel of this article.

M. Prins, an artift in Holland, has made an improvement
inthe refervoir of the fimple barometer, by means of which
the mercury, contained in it is conftantly kept at the fame
level ; but the confiruétion is difficult, and therefore it has
not been generally adopted. De Luc’s Recherches, &c.
vol. 1. p. 35-

The common barometer is a kind of chamber barometer,
and ferves for obferving in a fixed place the changes of the
atmofphere ; but is not adapted for removal from one place
to another, and in this refpeét differs from the portable ba-
rometer. It is fometimes combined with a thermometer,
and fometimes alfo with a hygrometer, and in this form pre-
pared by the mathematical inftrument makers. An inftrnment
ofthiskind conftruéted by Meffrs. Jones, opticiansin London.
isexhibited in fig. 8;, and confifts of a barometer d, ther-
mometer a a, and hygrometer c, al! in one mal ogauy frame.
The thermometer or hygrometer of this appara.us may be
conveniently feparated from the frame, and oceafionally ufed
apart, if it be neceflary. The thermometer is feparated by
means of twofcrews aa; andthe hygrometer, by unfcrew-
ing a brafs pin at the back of the frame. The index of the
hygrometer is fet at any time, merely by moving with the
finger the brafs wheel feen at c ; and the two fliding indexes
of the barometer and thermometer are moved by rack-work,
{et in aétion by the key g placed in the holes4 andi, ‘The
divifions of the barometer plate J are in tenths of an inch
from 28 to 31 inches; and thefe are fubdivided into hun-
dredths, by the Nonius or Vernier {cale, placed ona fliding
flip of brafs, fimilar to that of the common barometers.

This Vernier (fig. 85.) is divided into ten equal parts, all
of which are equal to eleven of thofe on the f{cale of inches
or toeleven tenths. By this artifice, the height of the me:-
cury at E is evident merely by infpeétion to the one hun-
dredth part of aninch. Yor underftanding this, it fhould
be confidered that |! th part of ,!,th of an inch is the oo thy
part of aninch. But every tenth of an inch in the {cale
B is divided into ten equal parts by the fip or Vernier A ;
for fince ten divifions on that exceed ten on the fcale by one
divifion, than is, by one tenth of an inch, one divifion on
the Vernier will exceed one divifion on the fcale by one
tenth part, and two divifions on the Vernier will exceed two
on the {cale by two tenths, and fo on; therefore every divi-
fion on the Vernier will exceed the fame number of divifions
onthe Scale by fo many tenths of a tenth, or by fo many
hundredth parts of an inch. Confequently the ten equal.
diyifions of an inch on the fcale B mutt be cenfidered as fo

4 Pz many

BAROMETER.”

many ten hundredth parts of an inch, and numbered ac-
cordingly, 10, 20, 30,40, &c. parts of an inch; then the
Vernier gives the unit to each ten, thus: fet the index very
accurately to the top of the furface of the mercury E; and
if af the fame time, the beginning of the divifions at C co-
jacide with ane of divifioa in the feale B, then it fhews
the altitude of the mercury in inches and tenths of an iach
exaQtly. But if the igdex line C of the Vernier fall between
two divifions or tenths on the feale B, then there will be a
coimcidence of lines in both at that number of the Vernier,
which fhews how many tenth parts of that tenth the index
of the Vernier has pailed the laft decimal divifion of the
feale. E. G. Suppofe the index of the Vernier were to
point fomewhere between the fixth and feventh tenth above
30 on the feale; then, if by looking down the Vernier, you
obferve the coincidence at number 8, this fhews that the al-
titude of the mercury is 30 inches, and 68 parts of a hun-
dredth of ajother inch, or jimply thus, 30,68 inches. See
Vernirr. The {crew f, in fy. 84. ferves to prefs the mer-
cary up into the tube, when the inflrument is to be moved,
and thus to render the inftrument a portable barometer.

The barometer belonging to the houfe of the Zoyal So-
ciety is of the ciftern kind; and the Hon. Mr. Cavendifh
prefers this form to that of the fyphon kind, becaufe both
the trouble of obferving and the error of obfervation are
lefs, as in the latter we are liable to an error in cbferving
both legs. Moreover he remarks, that the quickfilyer can
hardly fail of fettling more exactly in.the former than in the
latter ; for the error in the fettling of the quickfilyer can
proceed only from the achefion of its edge to the fides of
the tube. In the latter the adhefion may take place in two
legs, but in the former only in one; and befides, as the air
has neceffarily accefs to the lower leg of the fyphon baro-
meter, the adhefion of the quickfilver in it to the tube will
moit probably be different according to the degree of dry-
nefs or cleannefs of the glafs. It is true, as M. De Luc ob-
ferves, that the ciftern barometer does not give the true
preflure of the atmofphere ; the quickfilver in it being a
little depreffed on the fame principle as in capillary tubes.
But it appears by calculation, that in the barometer of the
fociety, the error arifing from the alteration of the height
of the quickfilver in the ciftern can fcarcely ever amount to
fo much‘as ;$.th of an inch. In this barometer, the
height of the quickfilver is eftimated by the top of its con-
vex furface, and not by the edge where it touches the
glafs; the index being properly adapted for that purpole ;
and this manner of oblerving is more accurate than the other.
Phil, Trani. vol. Ixvi. p. 381.

Ais foon as it was difcovered that the different heights of
the mercury indicated. by the barometer were in fome degree
conneéted with the ftate of the weather, and that it might
be applied to the purpofe of a “weather glafs,”? many at-
tempts were made to render the changes in it more fen-
fible, and fo to meafure the variations of the weight of
the atmofphere more accurately ; and thefe attempts have
given rife to a great number of barometers of different
firuGures, deviating from the fimplicity of the common ba-
rometer, and at the fame time lefs aceurate. Hence the
wheel barometer, diagonal barometer, horizontal barometer,
pendant barometer, &c.

s Des Cartes fuggelted the firft method of increafing the
apperent fenfibility, or enlarging the fcale of variation, of
the barometer, though he did not live to execute it. He pro-
pofeda tube A B( Plate UX. Pneumatics, fig. 77.) abouttwen-
ty-feven inches long, terminating in a cylindric veflel CD:
one half of which veflel, conne¢ted above with a long tube
ef a very fmall bore, fealed at top, and exhautted of its air,

was to be filled with water extending up into the fmall tube s

the other part of the veflel, and the lower part of the tube,”
were to be filled with mercury. Whenever the mercury rofe-

in the cylinder, it would force up a proportional quantity~
of water into the narrow tube, where it would have a’
confiderably larger range than that of the Mercury in
the cylinder: negle€ting the weight or prefiure of the
water, the motion of the water and of the mercury

would be in the inverfe ratio of the {quares of the diameters”

of the veffels containing them. But the water prefies on
the mercury according to its height; and therefore if the”
whole range of the mercury in the cylinder, or in a common
barometer, were fuppofed to be two inches, the fpecific gra-
vity of water to that of mereury as 1 to 14, and the dif-
ference between the diameters cf the cylinder and tube a
maximum or infinite, then the entire feale of variation in
this inftrument would be twenty-eight inches ; or the extent
of this feale would be to that of the common barome--
ter in the inverfe ratio of the fpecific gravity of water to”
that of mercury. It is evident that in prattice it would be
fomewhat lefs than twenty-eight inches. Huygens con-'
ftruGted a barometer of this Kind; but here, though the®
column fufpended was larger, and confequently the variation’
greater, yet the air imprifoned in the water Setting loofe-
by degrees, filled the void fpace in the top, and fo ruined”
the machine.

Huygens then thought of changing theconftru@ion of the’
barometer, and of placing the mercury at top, and the water>
at bottom, in the following manner: ADG (fg. 78.) is 2°
bent tube hermetically fealed in A, and open in G; the
cylindric veffels BC and FE are equal, and about twerity-=
nine inches apart ; the diameter of the tube is about a line,
that of each yeffel fifteen lines, and the’ depth of the ne ti
fels is about ten; the tube is filled with mercury (the com--
mon barometer ftanding about twenty-nine inches) which.
will be fufpended between the middle of the veflel F E, and.
that of the veffel BC; the remaining fpace to A being
void beth of mercury and air: laftly, common water, tinged -
with 2 fixth part of agua regis to prevent its freezing, is.
poured into the tube FG till it rifes a foot above the mer--
cury in DF,

When the mercury rifing above the level of tha ee
tained in FE, through the oe AD, becomes wheatene
the weight of the atmofphere ; as the atmofphere increafes
the column of mercury will increafe, confequently the water
will defcend; as the atmofphere again grows lighter, the.
column of mercury will defcend, and the water afcend. This-
double barometer, as it was called; which is nearly the fame
with that of Dr. Hooke, will therefore difeovermuchminuter-
alterations in the air than the common one ; for, inftead of
two inches, the fluid will here vary two feet ; and by en-.
larging the diameters of the cylinders, that variation may
be itill increafed; but it has this inconvenience, befides -
others, that the water will evaporate, and fo render the al--
terations precarious ; though the evaporations be in fome.
meafure pieteied bya arp of oil of {weet almonds fwim-
mung at top: the column of water will likeyife ;
affeGted tee te and cold. rarer

The double barometer of Dr. Hooke was invented in the
year 1668, and is defcribed in the Phil. Tranf. N° 185,
The invention was claimed by Huygens and De la Hire =
but it fufficiently appears, that Hooke was the original ine
yentor. (See De Luc’s Recherches, vol. i. p. 18.) This
confiits of a compound tube ABCDEFG (fiz. 79-), of
which the parts AB and DE are equally wide, and EFG
as much narrower as it is propofed to enlarge the feale.
The parts AB and EG are made as cylindrical as.poffible..

5 The

|

BAROMETER.

The part HBCDLis filled with mercury, having a vacuum
above in AB. IF is filled with a light fluid, and FG with
another light fluid, which will not mix with that in If.
The ciftern G is of the fame diameter with AB. It is plain
that in this inlrument the range of the feparating furface
at F mutt be as much greater than that of the furtace I,
as the area of [ is gyeater than that of I; and this ratio
may be felected at pleafure. This barometer is the belt of
thofe with an enlarged feale; it is mot delicately move-
able, and is the beft adapted to a chamber for the purpefe of
amufement, by obfervations on the changes of the atmo-
{pheric preffure. It rifes or falls by the flighteft breeze, and
is continually in motion. The moft accurate method for
gvaduating fuch a barometer would be ‘to make a mixture
of vitriolic acid and water, which fhould have 4; of the
denfity of mercury. Then, let along tube ftand vertical
in this fluid, and connect its upper end with the open end of
the barometer by a pipe with a branch to which the mouth
may be applied. By fucking through this pipe, the fluid
will rife both in the barometer and the other tube ; and the
rife of ten inches in this tube will correfpond to a defcent of
one inch in the common barometer. ‘Thus every point of
the feale may be adjufted in due proportion to the reft.
But nothing except actual comparifon can determine what
particular point of the feale correfponds to fome determined
inch of the common barometer. When this is done, the
whole becomes equally accurate. It is hable, however, to
feveral inconveniences. Although the heichts of the con-
tained fluids are always the fame in a con{tant temperature,
neverthelefs their weight or preflure on the bafe is not al-
ways the fame on account of the diilerence of their {pecific
gravity ; and though there be no fenfible difference in the
adtion of thefe fluids againtt the fides of the tube, yet there
is a continual a€tion, and therefore the movements of this
barometer cannot be fo free as thofe of the fimple barome-
ter. Thefe differently coloured liquors mingle with one
another, and form a depofit on the fides of the tube, fo
that their refpective boundaries cannot always be afcertained
with precifion. The fluid of this barometer is alfo fubje&
to evaporation ; and heat acts upon the fluids which it con-
tains. Qa account of thefe and fuch defeéts, others have
had recourfe to an

Horizontal or reangular barometer ABCD (fig.80.); the
tube whereof is bent in form of a fquare BCD: at the top
of its perpendicular leg it is jomed to a veffel or ciftern AB;
and its variations accounted on the horizontal leg CD.
Now here the interval, or fpace of variation, may be made
of any extent at pleafure, and fo the minuteft change
in the air become fenfible. For the diameter of the tube
CD being given, it is eafy to find the diameter of the vwef-
fel AB, fo as that the fcale of defcent in the tube DC fhall
have any given proportion to the f{cale of afcent in the veflel
AB; the rule being that the diameter of the veffel is to
that of the tube in a fubduplicate reciprocal ratio of their
feales.

The diameters then of CD and AB being given, toge-
ther with the fcale of afcent of the mercury in the veflel,
the fcale of mercury in the tube is found thus: asthe fquare
of the diameter of the tube is to the fquare of the diameter
of the veflel, fo reciprocally, is the {cale of mercury in the
weflel, to the {cale of mercury in the tube.

Caffini was the firft inventor of this kind of barometer,
though the fame conftruétion had been thought of, and
firft publithed by M. J. Bernouilli, in the year 1710.

This and the preceding contrivance of Huygens are
‘founded on a theorem im hydroftatics; viz. that fluids,
having the fame bafe, gravitate according to their perpen-

dicular altitude, not ateording to the quantity of their
matter ; whence the fame weight of the atmofphcre fup-
ports the quickfilver that fills the tube A CD, and the
cittern B, as would {upport the mercury in the tube
alone.

This aft, however, with its excellencics, has great defects:
for, by reafon of the attraétion between the parts of the
glafs and of the me reury (which Dr. Jurin has fhewn to be
confiderable), with the length of the feale (confequently
the quantity of motion), and the attrition againtt its fides
efpecially in fudden rifes and defcents, the mercury breaks,
fome parts of it are left behind, and the equability of its
rife and fall ruined. Some therefore prefer the

Laclined barometer, or diagonal, of fir Samuel Moreland,
where the {pace of variation is confiderably larger than in
the common one, and yet the rife and fall more regular
than in the others. —Its foundation is this; that in a Torti-
cellian tube BC (fg. 81.) inclined at any angle to the hori-
zon, the cylinder of mercury equivalent to the weight of
the atmofphere, is to a cylinder of mercury equivalent to
the fame in a vertical tube, as the length of the tube BC ty
the perpendicular height DC.

Hence, if the height DC be fubtriple, fubquadruple,
&c. of the length of the tube, the changes in the diagonal
barometer will be triple or quadruple, &c. of the changes
in the common barometer. This barometer will fearce
allow its tube to be inclined to the horizon at.a lefs angle
than 45°, without undergoing the inconveniency of the hori-
zontal one,

Mr. Orme, in order to obviate fome of the objeftions to
which the diagonal conftruGtion of the barometer is liable,
purified the quickfilver from its drofs and earthy particles
by diftillation ; and when the tube was filled with a cere
tain quantity of mercury, difcharged the remaining air by
an intenfe heat fufficient to make the mercury boil; and
he continued this operation for four hours. In the pro-
cefs, an innumerable quantity of fmall particles were emit-
ted, and when uo more bubbles rofe in the tube, the mer-
cury appeared extremely bright, but funk lower in the tube
than when it was firft put in, by two inches. Phil. Tranf.
Abr. vol. viii. p. 455.

The qheel barometer was a contrivance of Dr. Hooke, in
1668, to make the alterations in the air more fenfible ; the
foundation of this is the common vertical barometer, with a
large ball above, and turned up at the lower end, with the
addition of a couple of weights A and B (fig. 82.) hanging:
ona pulley, the one of them playing at liberty in the air,.
the other refting on the furface of the mercury in the in-
verted tube, and rifing and falling with it.

Thus is the motion of the mercury communicated, by
means of the pulley, to an index which turns round a gra-
duated circle ; and thus the three inches of vertical afcent
are here improved to five, fix, or more, at pleafure.

But the fri€tion of the axis of this index, and more:
efpecially when it has contracted fome ruft, generally ren-
ders this fort of barometer ufelefs ; and, at beft, the gra-
duation of inches on the circle can only be confidered
as a {cale of motions of the mercury inits tube; for the great
variation of the height of the furface of the mercury in the
tube below will perpetually fallify the inches and tenths
upon the plate above. In ajuft or ftandard barometer, the
inferior furface of the mercury in the ciftern or tube below -
fhould either be invariable, or reducible by a prefling ferew
to a fixed or determinate gauge point.

The wheel barometer has lately been obtruded upon the
public by the {trolling Italian hawkers in our ftreets ; but
the imperfect manner in which thefe barometers-are con--

Rructed, ,

.

BAROMETER.

ftruGted, as well as their defeétive principle, renders them
mere mechanical pictures, and not fcientific inftruments, in
the parlour.

An inftrument of this kind, with confiderable improve-
ments, has been conftruéted. by Mr. Fitzgerald, F. R.S.
It is furnifhed with two pulleys that move on friction-
wheels; each of which turas an index on the centre of a
graduated circle. The fmaller circle is four inches in
diameter, and divided into three equal parts, each of
which is again fuodivided decimally ; and the changes
correfponding to the rife or fall of the mercury from 28
to 31 inches, are marked on the margin of it, as they are
on the feales of common barometers. The larger circle is
divided into 300 equal parts; and being about 30 inches
in circumference, the index belonging to it will mark dif-
tin@ly the 6ooth part of an inch in the rife or fall of the
mercury. On the centre of this circle two regifters are
fixed, which are placed along the index when the inftru-
ment is adjufted; one of them is carried round with the
index, and left behind on its return; fo that their diftance
will determine the limits of the variation from one obferva-
tion to another. _ Phil. Tranf. vol. lii. parti. No. 29.
Tbid. vol. lx. No. ro.

The pendant barometer, invented by M. Amontons, in
1695, is a machine rather pretty and curious than ufeful
(fg. 83-) It confifts of a cynical tube, placed vertically,
its upper and f{maller extreme hermetically fealed ; it has
no vefle! or ciftern, its comeal figure fupplying that defect ;
for when filled, like the reit, there will be as much mercury
fuftained as is equivalent to the weight of the atmofphere ;
and as that varies, the fame mercury tukes up a different
part of the tube, and fo becomes of a different weight.

Thus, when the weight of the atmofphere is increafed,
the mercury is driven up into a narrower part of the tube,
by which means its column is lengthened, and for the
reafon juft given, its weight increafed. Again, the at-
mofphere decreafing, the mercury finks into a wider part of
the tube; by which means its column is again fhortened,
and its preffure accordingly weakened. Thus, the fame
mercury is ftill a balance to the atmofphere under all its
variations. The inconvenience ia this barometer is, that
to prevent the mercury and air from changing places, the
bore of the tube muft be very {mall ; which {mallnefs of
the bore renders the fri€tion fo fenfible as to impede its
playing.

The marine barometer is acontrivance of Dr. Hooke, in
1700, to be ufed at fea, where the motion of the waves
renders the others impracticable; it refembles that of Amon-
tons invented in 1705. ‘This is nothing more than a double
thermometer, ora couple of tubes half filled with fpirit of
wine; the one hermetically fealed at both ends, with a
quantity of common air inclofed ; the other fealed at one
end, and open at the other. -

Now the air, we know, is able to att on the {pirit of
wine, and raife it, two ways; partly by its gravity, as in
the Torricellian tube; and partly by its heat, as in the
thermometer. If then the two tubes be graduated, fo as
to agree with each other at the time when the air is inclofed,
it will eafily follow, that, wherever the two agree after-
werds, the preffure of the atmofphere is the fame as at the
tine when the air was inclofed. If in the thermometer
open to the air the liquor ftand higher, confidering at the
fame time how much the other is rifen or fallen from the
other caufe of heat or cold, the air is heavier ; on the con-
trary, when it is lower, compared with the other, the air is
lighter than at the time when the inftrument was graduated.
Here the {paces anfwering to an inch of mercury will be

greater or lefs, according to the quantity of the air inclofed,
and the {mallnefs of the tubes; and they may be incieafed
almoit in any proportion. But it muft be remembered, that
the denfity and rarity of the air, on which this machine is

founded, do not only depend on the weight of the atmo-~

{phere, but alfo on the ation of heat and cold. This,
therefore, can never be a juft barometer; but may properly
enough be called a manofcope, or inftrument to fhew the
denfity of the air. See ManomeETER.

: Neverthelefs, the inftrument is faid to be of good ufe in
giving notice of all bad weather at fea, as alfo of veerable
winds, and of the neighbourhood of ice. Phil. Tranf.
No. 429. p. 133. :

Inproved marine barometers. In the belt of thefe baro-
meters, Mefirs. W. and S. Jones apply a {mall ivory floatmg
gage, or index, to an aperture in the ciftern of mereury be-
low ; the index floats.on the mercury ; a mark is cut on its
ftem, and another on the focket in which it moves; thele
two marks are brought to a coincidence by turning the
{crew below ; and thus the furface of the mercury in the
ciftern is made to be juit to the divifions of the plate above.

Mr. Nairne, an ingenious artift in London, conftruéted a
marine barometer for captain Phipps, in his voyage to the
north pole; the upper part of which was a glafs tube,
about three-tenths of an inch in diameter, and four inches
long, to which another glafs tube was joined, with a bore
about ..th of an idch diameter. Thefe two glafs tubes
formed the tube of this barometer, which was filled with
mercury, and inverted into a ciitern of the fame. The in-
ftrnment was fixed in gimbals, and kept in a perpendicular
pofition by a weight faftened to the bottom of it, and was
not liable to the inconvenience attending the common baro-
meter at fea. Voyage tothe North Pole, p. 123.

The marine barometer, a3it is commonly conftru@ted, dif-
fers from the common one merely in having the bore of the
tube fmall for about twe feet in its lower pat, but above
that height it is enlarged to the common fize. Through
the fmall part of the inftrament the mereury is prevented
from afcending too haftily by the motion of the fhip, and
the motion of the mercury in the upper wide part is con-
fequently leffened. Much-depends upon the proper fufpen-
fion of this inftrument ; and Mr. Nairne has found by ex-
periment the point from which it may be fufpended fo as not
to be affected by the motion of the thip. ‘ ;

We fhall here fubjoin the defcription of two kinds of
marine barometers, which are conftruéted by Mefivs. W. and
§. Jones of London, and which feem to be well adapted to
marine purpofes. In Plate X. fig. 86. one of thefe barometers
is reprefented as {upported on its ftand ia the cabin of a fhip,
ready for obfervation ; a/c are the folding mahogany legs;
about three fect each in length ; 4 is a circular brafs plate,
with two hollow brafs tubes fixed perpendicularly upon it ;
a gimbal brafs ring with its axis is made to turn between
thefe tubes; and on two fpiral ‘{prings placed in the tubes,
the axis of the gimbal ring aéts. The barometer frame B
is attached inwards to this ring by an axis anid'two ferews,
in a pofition at right angles to the axis inthe uprights, »yet
left free to move ; the three legs are {crewed downto the
floor of the cabin. Whatever heave or motion the fhip
may receive, the barometer, by its a€tion on the gimbal, on
the fprings in’ the tubes, and on its axis, wilbalways tend
to keep its vertical pofition, and as fpeedily as poflible attain
toa ftate of quiefcence; dis a ferew that ferves to move
the fliding Nonius feale upon the plate above ; ¢ is a fmall
mahogany door that is fut over the tube and plate, to de-
fend them when this initrument is not in ufe. On the top of
the frame there is a pendent brafs ring g, by which theba-

rometer,

so

Ne el gl,

BAROMETER.

rometer, without the ftand, may be hung on a neck againtt
the wall of a room or fide of a cabin: the fevew f at the
bottom of the frame lerves to comprefs the mercury in the
ciftern, in order to force it up to the top of the tube, as in
the common barometers. By the barometer’s being move-
able from its ftand, and the ftand folding up into a {mall ex-
ten‘, the whole apparatus may be packed up in a convenient
narrow deal cafe for carriage.

The principal inconvenience that has been found to attend
this barometer has been the ground occupied by the feet in
the cabin when the inftrument is in ule, ‘this being fome-
times more than a mariner can {pare ; and befides, it is lia-
ble to be tumbled againft by a heedlefs by-ftander. To
obviate this inconvenience, another principle of mounting
has been adopted (fee fig. 87.) The barometer in this f-
gure is in every refpect the fame as the preceding, but its
mode of fufpention is as follows: on the tides of the frame,
at its centre of gravity, are fixed two iron centres ; as an
axis to thefe there is fixed a brafs frame a, and brafs pillar ;
one end of this pillar is framed on a vertical joint, having
only one motion upwards, and checked by a brafs focket
fhoulder below, to keep the pillar and arm in an horizontal
polition ; thus caufing the barometer to be fufpended in a
vertical direétion. ‘The length of the pillar and arm toge-
ther is about 14 inches ; the joint focket at the end of the
pillar is attached to a {trong round brafs plate 4, about 3
inches diameter, with four counterfunk holes for receiving
{crews, by which the whole inftrument may be ferewed
fecurely to the fide of a cabin, in any convenient or fafe fitu-
ation, When the initrument is in a {tate of fufpenfion for
objervation, it will be about 15 inches from the fide of the
cabin, and being alfo free to act on its axis of fulpenfion at
a, it is evident that notwithftanding any common motion
or reel of the fhip, the barometer will tend to keep a ver-
tical pofition, or to recover it after having been agitated.
The only circumftance to be apprehended is the poflibility
that, by a violent motion, the bottom of the barometer
fhould ftrike againit the fide of the cabin, and endanger the
glafs tube; but this is eafily avoided by fixing a temporary
leathern cufhion againft that part of the cabin againit which
alone it could ftrike. When the inftrument is not wanted
for any obfervation, while the fhip is in motion, it may be
moved upwards upon the joint, and it will clofe to the fide
of the cabin or wall, and may be buckled falt by a leather
ftrap and buckle, ¢, attached for that purpofe (fee fig. 86.),
and thus be out of any danger from any perfon fuddenly or
unguardedly coming to it; and it will anfwer the purpole
of the common chamber barometer.

M. Paffement, an ingenious artift at Paris, accommo-
dates the barometer to nautical ufes, by twifting the mid-
die part of the common barometer into a fpiral, coniifting of
two revolutions: by this contrivance, the impulfes which the
mercuryreceives from the motions of the fhip, are deftroyed by
being tranfmitted in contrary directions.. De Luc’s Recher-
ches, &c. vol. i. p. 34.

The flatical barometer, ox barofcope, ufed by Mr. Boyle,
Otto de Gueric, &c. confifted of a large glafs bubble,
about the fize of a large orange, and blown fo thin as to
weigh only 70 grains. This being balanced by a brafs
weight, ina nice pair of fcales, that would turn with the
3oth part of a grain, was found to aét as a barometer; for this
obvious reafon, that the furface of the bubble was oppofed
to a much larger portion of air than that of the brafs weight,
and confequently was liable to be affected by the varying
Specific. Bees of the atmofphere ; fo that when the air

became {pecifically light, the bubble defcended, and wice.

werfd. ‘Thus (fays Mr. Boyle) he could perceive variations

of the atmofphere no greater than fuch as would have been
fufficient to raife or deprefs the mercury in the comnion ba-
rometer an 8th part of an inch. . Neverthelefs, the two bo;
dies being of equal gravity, but unequal bulk, if the mediuna
in which they equiponderate be changed, there will follow a
change of their weight ; fo that if the air grows heavier,
the greater body, being lighter in f{pecie, will lofe more of
its weight than the lefier and more compact ; but if the
medium grow lighter, then the bigger body will outweigh
the lefs.

The barometer of Mr. Cafwell, deferibed in the
phical T'ranfactions, has been much commended for its ac-
curacy; the ftruéture of it is as follows: fuppole 74 BCD
(fig. 88.) a bucket of water, wherein is the barometer
xrezyosm, confillng of a body x7ram, and a tube
ezyo. The body and tube are both concave cylinders,
communicating with each other, and made of tin, or rather
glafs. The bottem of the tube sy has a lead weight to
fink it, fo that the top of the body may juit fwim even
with the furface of the water, by the addition of fome grain
weights on the top. The water, when the inftrument ts
forced with its mouth downwards, gets up into the tube to
the height yo. There is added on the top a {mall concave
cylinder, which we call the pipe, to diftinguifh it from the
other at bottom which we call the tude : this pipe is to fuf-
tain the inftrument from finking te the bottom; m dis a
wire, mS and de two threads oblique to the furface of the
water, performing the office of diagonals. Now, while the
inftrument finks more or lefs by the alteration of the gravity
of the air, there where the furface of the water cuts the
thread is formed a {mall bubble, which afcends up tle
thread as the mercury of the common barometer afcends,
and wice ver/a. :

This inftrument, as appears from calculation which the
author gives, fhews the alterations in the air more accurately
than the common barometer, by no lefs than 1200 times.
He obferves, that the bubble is feldom known to ftand ftill
a minute; that a finall blaft of wind that cannot be heard
in a chamber will make it fink fenfibly, and that a cloud
always makes it defcend, Ke. i

Mr. Rowning,(Phil. Tranf. N° 427. and Syftem of Philo-
fophy, part ii. diff. 4.) has defcribed a barometer, in which
the {cale of variation may be infinitely extended. 4 BC D
(fg 89.) is a cylindrical veffel, filled with a fluid to the
height W, in which is immerged the barometer S P, confift-
ing of the following parts: the principal one is the glafs
tube 7’ P (reprefented feparately at tp), whofe upper end
T is hermetically fealed; this end does not appear to the
eye, being received into the lower end of a tin pipe G A,
which in its other end G receives a cylindric rod or tube
ST, and thus fixes it tothetube 7 P. This rod ST’ may be
taken off, in order to put in its ftead a larger or a lefler as
occafion requires. Sis a ftar at the top of the rod ST’;
and ferves as an index by pointing to the graduated f{eale
LA, whichis fixed to the cover of the vefil ABCD. MN
is a large cylindrical tube made of tin (reprefented feparately
at mn), which receives 1n its cavity the {maller part of the
tube 7 P, and is well cemented to it at both ends, that nene
of the fluid may get in. The tube TP, with this apparatus,
being filled with mercury, and plunged into the bafon A7P,
which hangs by two or more wires upon the lower end of
the tube JZN, mutt be fo poifed as. to float in the hquor
contained in the veflel ABCD; and then the whole machine
rifes when the atmofphere becomes lighter, and vice ver/d.
Let it now be fuppofed that the fuid made ufe of is water 5
that the given variation in the weight of the atmofphere is
fuch, that by prefling upon the furface ee the water at if

'

*hilofo-

BAROMETER.

the furface of the mercury at X may be raifed an inch
higher (meafuring from its furface at P) than before ; and
that the breadth of the cavity of the tube at X, and of the
bafon at P, are fuch, that by this afcent of the mercury
there may be a cubic inch of it in the cavity X more than
before, and confequently in the bafon a cubic inch lefs.
Now, upon this fuppofition, there will be a cubic inch of
water in the bafon more than there was before, becaufe the
water will fucceed the mercury to fill up its place. Upon
this account the whole machine will be rendered heavier than
before by the weight of a cubic inch of water; and there-
fore will fink, according to the laws of hydroftatics, till a
cubic inch of that part of the rod WS, which was above
the furface of the water at //7, comes under it. Then if we
fuppofe this rod fo fmall that a cubic inch of it fhall be 14.
inches in length, the whole machine will fink 14 inches
Jower into the fluid than before ; and, confequently, the
furface of the mercury in the bafon will be preffed more
than it was before, by a column of water 14 inches high.
But the preflure of 14 inches of water is equivalent to one
of mercury ; this additional preffure will make the mercury
afcend at X as much as the fuppofed variation in the weight
ef the air did at fir. This afcent will give room, for a fe-
cond cubic inch of water to enter the bafon ; the machine
will therefore be again rendered fo much heavier, and will
fubfide 14 inches farther, and fo on in infinitum. If the rod
was fo {mall that more than 14 inches of it were required
to make a cubic inch, the variation of this machine would
be negative with refpeét to the common barometer, and in-
ftead of coming nearer to an equilibrium with the air by its
afcent or defcent, it would continually recede farther from
it: but if lefs than 14 inches of rod were required to make
a cubic inch, the feale of variation would be finite, and might
be made in any proportion to the common one.

The fame author has alfo contrived a compound barometer,
in which the feale of variation fhall bear any proportion to
that of the common one. 4B C (fig. go.) is a compound
tube hermetically fealed at 4, and open at C ; empty from
A to D, filled with mercury from thence to B, and from
thence to £ with water. It appears from the nature of a
fiphon, that if 17, B, G, be in the fame horizontal line, the
column of mercury D H will be in equilibrio with the co-
Jumn of water GE, anda column of air of the fame bafe,
and will therefore vary with the fum of the variations of
thefe. He has fubjoined a calculation, whence it appears,
that if thetubes 4 F and F C are of an equal bore, the vari-
ation in this is lefs than that of the common barometer, in
the proportion of 7 to-13; but if the diameter of 4 F be
to that of # Cas 5 to 1, the variations will be to thofe in the
common barometer, as 175 to 1; but if the proportion of
the diameters be greater, the variations will be infinite in
refpeét to thofe of the common barometer. Of the prac-
tical utility of this con{truction the author had no experi-
ence. Rowning’s Nat. Phil. part. ii. diff. 4.

Another contrivance for enlarging the fcale of the baro-
meter is exhibited injig. gt. 4 B is the tube of a common
barometer, open at B, and fealed at 4, fufpended at the
end of a lever which moves on the fulcrum £. D isa glafs
tube fixed, and ferving for a ciftern, which is wide enough
to admit the free motion of the barometical tube 4 2#.
4 B, when filled with mercury, is nearly counterbalanced by
the Jong end of the lever. When the atmofphere becomes
lighter, the mercury defcends in the long tube, and the fur-
face of the mercury rifing in the ciflern, pufhes up the tube
A B, which caufes the lever to preponderate, and to point
out by its index moving along a circular are, the moft mi-
nute variations, This apparatus, however, is fubje& to the

inconvenience of the friétion as well as weight of the lever,
when put in motion by the rife or fall of the tube 4 2B,

Whilft fome have endeavoured to enlarge the variations of
the barometer, others have endeavoured to make it more
convenient, by reducing the length of the tube. M. Amon-
tons, in 1688, firft propofed this alteration in the ftruGure
of barometers, by joining feveral tubes to one another, al-
ternately filled with mercury and with air, or fome other
fluid ; and tbe number of thefe tubes may be increafed at
pleafure: but the contrivance is more ingenious than
ufeful.

M. Mairan’s reduced barometer, which is only three
inches long, ferves the purpofe of a manometer in dilcovering
the dilatations of the air in the receiver of an air-pump;
and initruments of this kind are now generally applied to
this ufe. See Air-Pump, and Gace.

For an account of a felf-regiftering barometer by the
Rev. Arthur M’Gwire, fee Irith Tranfaétions, vol. iv. p. 14.1.

The barometer lately invented by Alexander Keith, Efq.
F. R.S. and F. A. S. Edinb. marks the rife and fall of the
mercury from two different times of obfervation. This in-
{trument confifts of a glafs tube 4 BC D (jig. 92.) bent in
the manner reprefented in the figure, open at D, and her-
metically fealed at_4. The length from 4 to Bis S inches,
and its calibre about 3 of an inch; from B to C itis 314
inches long, and about 4 inch calibre ; and from Cto D 44
long, and 4 inch calibre. The tube is filled with mercury,
the length from 4 to £ being 291 inches. When the tube
is hung perpendicularly, the mercury will fall from B towards
£, leaving a vacuum from 4 to B. When the atmofphere
becomes heavier, the mercury falls in the tube DC ; and
when lighter, it rifes. The range of the feale is about 3
inches, being equal to that of a common barometer of the
beft conftruction, which has a bafon with a very broad fur-
face.! This inftrument moves in a direétion contrary to that
of the common barometer, the one rifing while the other
falls. The tube DC is reprefented on a larger feale in

Sig. 93-3 F is the float, having the foat-wire fixed to it, tere
minating ina knee at a right angle between the indexes Z L,
where it embraces a very {mall wire ftretched along the feale,
and thereby raifes or lowers them as the mercury rifes or
falls in the tube DC. The barometer is prepared for ob-
fervation, by bringing down the one and raifing the other
index, till both touch the knee of the float-wire. When
next obferved, the upper index will point out the greateft
depreffion of the mercury, or lightnels of the atmofphere ;
and the lower the greateft rife of the mercury, or weight of
the atmofphere fince the feale was prepared. By thefe
means, the variations of the atmofphere are more truly
pointed out than by the common barometer ; for it often
happens that during tempeftuous weather, or before it, the
mercury both rifes and falls within a few hours, or during
the night time ; which variations cannot be noticed by any
of the barometers now in ufe. The fudden fall and rife, or
even the rife and fall of the mercury, always denote an ex-
traordinary agitation in the atmofphere. In a common ba-
rometer the mereury may be at the fame height in the
morning that it was the night before ; which leads to a
conclulion that as there has been no agitation of the mer-
cury, there will be calm or fettled weather: but this new
barometer will often fhew in fuch cafes, that the one float
has been raifed ;2,, and the other deprefled as much ; which
initead of indicating calm weather denotes that tempeftuous
weather may be expected.

The weight of the atmofphere at great heights might be
difcovered by fufpending this inftrument to an air balloon.
Edinb. Trani, vol. iv, 1798, } ar uay,

The

rd

BAROMETER,

The portable barometer is fo contrived, that it may be
sarried from one place to another without being difordered ;
and fince it has been applied to the menfuration of altitudes,
it has undergone many improvements in its conftru@tion and
appendages. The molt common inftrument of this kind
coulits of a tube of a proper length accurately filled with
mercury; the lower end of the tube is glued to a wooden re-
fervoir, the bottom of which is formed of leather; the fu-

erfluous mercury defcends into this refervoir, and the air,
by prefling upon the flexible leather, keeps the mercury fuf-
pence at its proper height. This refervoir is concealed
rom the eye by a neat mahogany cover or box; through
the bottom of which pafles a {crew, having upon its end a
round plate, which preffes upon the leather bag and forces
the mercury to the top of the tube, fo that it is prevented
from fhaking or breaking the tube by dathing againft the
top of it when the inftrument is removed from one ftaticn
to another. This apparatus is placed in a frame, having on
its upper part a filvered brafs plate with a {cale of inches
and tenths reckoned from the {urface of the mercury in the
eiftern ; and clofe to the line of inches is a flit or groove for
fliding the nonius fcale up and down. On the left hand
fide of the plate are engraved the words fair, changeable,
and rain. When this barometer is ufed, the fcrew at the
bottom of the frame is to be fo turned that the mercury
may fall to its proper height, and indicate the correfponding
changes in the weight of the air. The upper edge of the
index is adjufted fo as to coincide with the furface of the
mercury in the tube, and then the nonius {cale will thew the
height of the column. Before every obfervation, the frame
fhould be gently track with the knuckles in order to difen-
gage the quickfilver from the tube. This barometer does
not admit of being adjuited in fuch a manner, that the divi-
fions on the fcale may be at that height from the mercury
in the ciltern, which is expreffed by the numbers affixed to
them; becaufe the mercury as it fails in the tube rifes in the
referyoir, ard when it rifes in the tube it finks in the refervoir;
and thus its diltance is perpetually varying from the divifions
on the fcale. Befides the tenfion of the leather occafions a
confiderable refiftance to the preflure of the atmofphere.
The portable barometer has of late received a variety of
improvements, the principal of which are here recited.

The portable barometer of Mr. Ramfden is conftruéted with
his ufual accuracy. The principal parts of this inftrument are a
fimple ftraight tube, fixed into a woodenciftern, which for the

convenience of carrying is fhut with an ivory fcrew ; and that.

being removed, it is open when in ufe. Fronting this aper-
ture is diftinly feen the coincidence of the gage-mark with
a line on the rod of an ivory float, {wimming on the furface
of the quickiilver, which is raifed or depreffed by a brafs
{crew at the bottom of the ciftern. From this, as a fixed
point, the height of the column is readily meafured on the
icale attached to the frame, always to ~15th part of an inch,
by means of a nonius moved with rack’work. A thermo-
meter is placed near the citern, whofe ball was ufually in-
clofed within the wood work; but that defe@& has been
fince remedied. ‘The three-legged fland, fupporting the in-
itrument when in ule, ferves as a cafe for it when inverted
and carried from place to place. ‘Two of thefe barometers
after the quickfiver in them hath been carefully boiled,
being fuffcred to remain long enough in the fame fituation,
fo as to acquire the fame temperature, ufually agree in
height, or rarely differ from each other more than a few
thoufandth parts of aninch, which are to be allowed for in
calculating altitudes, as well as in ellimating the rate of
expanfion.
The next inftrument of this kind which we fhall mention
and minutely defcribe, is that of M.de Luc. This portable
Vou. Ile

barometer confifts of a tube compofed of two picces, or of
two tubes (fee fiz. 94.): one of thefe tubes is thirty-
four French inches in length, and ftraight from the top
but bent at the bottom in form of a fiphon; the other
tube is eight inches long, open at both ends, of the
fame diameter with the former, and communicating with
its open end by means of a cock. When this barome-
ter is carried from one place to another, it is inverted
very flowly to prevent the intrufion of any air; the
quickfilver retires into the long tube on which the key
of the cock is turned; and to preferve the cock front
being too much prefled by the mercury, the barometer
is conveyed in this inverted pofture. When an ob-
fervation is to be made, the cock is firlt opened; the
tube is then turned upright very flowly, to prevent, as
much as poffible, fuch vibration of the mercury as would
difturb the obfervation ; and according to the weight of
the atmofphere, the mercury will fall in the longer
branch, and rife up through the open cock into the
fhorter. ‘The cock is wholly made of ivory, except
the key; and is compofed of two {mall ivory cylinders
a and J, open through their whole length, and admitting
the free paflage of the tube, and of a fquare piece of
Ivory c, thirteen lines long, as many broad, and nine
lines thick, having two holes, one for receiving the key
f de, and the other in a vertical direGtion with two fhort
tubes, 4, i, at its extremity, adapted to the holes in the
{mall ivory cylinders above mentioned. The moft ef-
fential part of the cock is the key, which ferves to open
and clofe the communication between the two glafs tubes.
The part of the key that turns within the cock and
pafles through the opening in c to f, 1s formed of cork,
and the outward part or handle de, is made of ivory.
The cork is firmly faftened to the ivory by means of
a broad thin plete of fteel, which cuts both the ivory
and cork, lengthwife, through the centre, and reaches
within to the hole of the key. This plate ferves to
counteraét the flexibility of the cork, and to make it
yield to the motion of the handle, although it is com-:
prefled in a very confiderable degree by the ivory, in
order to preferve it tight. But that this compreffion
may not contract the diameter of the hole of the key,
it is lined with a thin hollow ivory cylinder of the
fame diameter with the tubes. The extremities of the
tubes are wrapped round with the membrane empleyed.
by the gold-beaters covered with fifh-glue in order to
fix them tight, the one in the lower, and the other in
the upper end of the vertical canal of the cock. Or
the upper end of the fhorter tube is fixed, during the
intervals of obfervation, a kind of funnel, with a {mail
hole in it which is fhut with an ivory topple. This
is intended for keeping the tube clean, for replacing
the mercury that may have efcaped through the cock
in confequence of any dilatation; and alfo for replacing
the mercury taken out of the fhorter tube, after fhut.
ting the cock,*when any obferyation is completed ; be-
caufe when the mercury is left expofed to the air, it
contraéts on its furface a dark pellicle that fullies both
itfelf and the tube. The fhorter tube fhould be cleanfed
occafionally, by a little bruth of fponge fixed to the end
of a wire adapted to the purpofe.

The barometer thus conftru@ed, and defcribed more
in detail by the author . { Recherches, vol. ii. p. 6, &c.y
is placed in a long box of fir, the two ends of which
are lined within with cufhions of cotton covered with
leather. This box may be carried on a man’s back like
a quiver in its natural pofition, though the inverted po-
fition is to be preferred, either walking or riding; and;

4Q fhould

BAROMETER

fhould be defended from the rain by a cover of wax-cloth.
In order to prevent its being unduly affe&ted by heat, it
fhould be kept at a diftance from the body of the man
who carries it, and be pro*eted from the fun by an um-
brella, when it is near the place of obfervation. To the
apparatus a plummet fhould be annexed, in order to af-
certain its vertical pofitios, and a three-legged frame or
tripod will ferve to keep it firm in that pofition at the
time of obfervation. “The feale of this barometer is an-
nexed to the long tube; it commences at a point on a
level with the upper end of the fhort one, and rifes in
the natural order of the numbers to 2t inches. Below
the above point, the feale is transferred to the fhort tube
and defcends upon it in the natural progreffion of the num-
bers to 7. The interval of 27 inches, comprehended be-
tween the point marked 20 in the upper tube, and that
which correfponds to 7 in the lower, is divided into 27
parts, which are inches. Thefe inches are again divided
into lines, fourths, fixteenths, and even thirty-fecond parts
of lines. The adhefion and fri&tion cf the mercury in the
tubes will not allow of a more minute fubdivifion. As the
mercury falls in the one tube, it will rife in the other; and
therefore thé total altitude will be found by adding that
part of the fcale which the mercury occupies in the long
tube, to that part of it which the mercury does not occupy
in the fhort one. In eflimating, however, the total fall or
rife in the long tube, every fpace muft be reckoned twice ;
becaufe in barometers of this kind, half the real variation
only appears in one of the branches.

One of the thermometers, exhibited in fiz. 95, is defigned
for afcertaining the correGions that are to be made in the
height of the mercury on account of any variation in the
temperaiure of the air by heatand cold. For this purpofe it
js placed near the middle of the longer tube, that it may

artake as much as poffible of its mean heat. The ball is
nearly of the fame diameter with that of the tube of the ba-
rometer, that the dilatations or condenfations of the fluids
contained in them may more exaétly correfpond ; and this
ball fhould alfo be enclofed in wood that it may participate,
as well as the barometer, of the heat of the bottom of the
box. The fcale of the thermometer is divided into 96 parts,
between the points of boiling water and melting ice. M.
de Luc, having found that an increafe of heat, fufficient to
raife the thermometer through this interval, augmented the
height of the mercury in the barometer, when it was at 27
French inches, precifely fix lines, was led to divide it into
96 equal parts; fo that one of thefe parts correfponded
to ith of a line in the height of the barometer: and this
quantity therefore mult be added to or fubtraéted from the
faid height, for every degree of variation of the thermometer
thus graduated. He placed the term 0, one eighth part of
the above interval above the lower point: fo that there are
12 degrees below, and 84 above it; becaufe as 27 French
inches exprefs the mean height of the barometer, fo the 12th
degree above freezing is nearly the mean altitude of the ther-
mometer. Hence by taking thefe two points, the one for the
mean altitudeandtheotherforthe mean heat, there wil! be few-
ercorrectionsneceflary forreducing all obfervations to the fame
Rate, than if any higher cr lower points had been taken.
The divifions above o ur zero, are confidered as pofitive and
denoted by +,andthofe below as negative and exprefled by —.

If the barometer remains at 27 French inches, and the
thermometer at 0, according to the above explained gradu-
ation, no correGtions are neceflary. But if, while the ba-
rometer continues at 27 inches, the thermometer fhould rife
any number of degrees above o, fo many fixteenths of a line
muft be fubtra&ted from the 27 inches, in order to obtain
the true height of the barometer produced by the weight of

the atmofphere, and to reduce this ob‘ervation to the ftate
of the common temperature. On the other hand, if the
thermometer fhould fall any number of degrees below 0,
while the barometer remains at 27 inches, fo many fixteenths
muft be added to that height in order to obtain the
true altitude. Thefe correétions are very fimple and
eafy when the height of the barometer is at or near 29 inches.
But if it fall feveral inches below this point, as the port-
able barometer frequently muft, according to the ftations in
which it is placed for the purpofe of meafuring altitudes,
the dilatations will no lorger correfpond with the degrees
of heat, after the rate of 4th of a line for every degree
of the thermometer; becaufe the columns of mercury bemg
fhortened, the quantity of fluid to be dilated mult be dimi-
nifhed ; and, according to a general {tatement, the quantity
of dilatation for the fame degree of heat will be as much di-
mintihed as the column is fhortened. If, ther, it fhould be
{till found convenient to reckon the dilatations by fixteenths
of a line, thefe fixteenths muft be counted on a feale, of
which the degrees fhould be as much longer than the de-
grees of the firit feale, as the fhortened column of mercury
is lefs than 27 inches, the height to which the length of
the degrees of the firft fcale was adapted. E. G. Let
the mercury defcend, in confequence of the elevation of the
barometer, to 132 inches, or half the mean column, and Jet
the thermometer afcend ten degrees above the mean heat ;
then according to the rule 42ths fhould be deduGted from
the mean column for this temperature; but ten half-fix-
teenths only or +5.ths muft be fubtraéted from the column
of 13+ inches, becaufe the fum of dilatations will be half
that of the former; the quantities of fluid being to one ano-
ther in that proportion. As it would occafion confiderable
embarraffment to fubdivide the fixteenths of corre@tion inta
fmalier fra€tions proportional to every half inch of defcent
in the barometer, the fame end may be obtained in a much
more eafy manner by reckoning the correétions on different
fcales of the fame length, with the degrees longer as the co-
lumns of the barometer are fhorter. E.G. The degrees of
correétion on a {cale applicable to the column of 13+ inches
will be double in length to thofe of the fame degrees adapted
to the column of 27 inches, and confequently the number of
corrections will be reduced to likewife one half. M. de
Luc conftruéted, in the manner which he has minutely de=
{cribed (Recherches, vol. ii, p. 26, &c.), on a piece of vel-
lum, feales with thefe properties for no lefs than 23 columns
of mercury, being all thofe between 28 inches and 29 in-
clufive, reckoning from half inch to half inch, within which
extremes every practical cafe will be comprehended. This
vellum he wrapped ona fmall hollow cylinder, including
a fpring, like a fpring curtain, and he fixed it on the right’
fide of the thermometer. The vellum was made to pafs
from right to left, behind the tube of the thermometer, and
to move along its furface. The obferver, in eftimating the
neceflary correGtions, draws out the vellum till the feale cor-
refponding to the obferved altitude of the barometer, touches
the thermometer, and he counts them on that fcale. The
vellum is then let go, and it is gently furled up by the ferew.

M. de Luc, having provided the neceflary apparatus for
the accurate menfuration of heights, proceeded to eftablifh by
experiment the altitudes correfponding tothe differentdefcents,
of themercury ; and hemade choice of Saleve,a mountain near
Geneva, about 3000 French feet high, for the fcene of his
operations. The height of this mountain was twice mea-
fured by levelling, and the refult of the menfuration, at the
interval of fix months, gave a difference of only 10% inches.
On this mountain he feleéted no lefs than 15 different ftae
tions, rifing at the rate of nearly 200 feet one above another;
and here he propofed to make fuohanumber of obfervations as

would

a

BAROMETER.

would ferve either to eftablifh a new rule of proportion be-
tween the heights of places and the defcents of the mercury,
or to juftify the preference of fome one of thofe that had
been ae difcovered.

Soon after he had commenced his obfervations, an unex-
pected phenomenon occurred. Having obferved the baro-
meter, at one of the {tations (Recherches, vol. ii. p. 49, &c.)
twice in one day, he found the mercury higher in the fecond
obfervation than in the firft; and this variation he naturally
afcribed to a change in the weight of the atmofphere, which
mutft have affected his other barometer {tationed on the plain
‘in the fame manner. But he was not a little furprized when,
on examining the {tate of the latter barometer, be found that
it had purfued a contrary courfe, and that it had fallen while
the other rofe. As this difference couid not proceed from
any inaccuracy inthe obfervations, it was fo confiderable as
to difcourage his progrefs and todifappoint his hape of fuc-
cefs, unlefs he fhould be able to explore its caufe, and to
make due allowance for its effets. The experiment was
carefully repeated at different periods. An obferver ou the
mountain, and another on the plain, tock their refpective
flations at the rifing of the fun, and continued to make
their refpetive obfervations, both of the barometer and ther-
mometer, every quarter of an hour till the fun fet.~ Jt was
found, that the lower barometer gradually defcended for
the firft three quarters of the day ; after which it re-afcend-
ed, till in the evening it ftood at nearly the fame height as
inthe morning, But the higher barometer afcended for
the firft three quarters of the day, and then defcended, foas
to regain likewife about fun-fet the altitude of the morning.
The following theory feems to afford a fatisfactory fe-
lution of this phenomenon. When the fun rifes above
the horizon .of any place, his beams penetrate the whole
feGiion of the atmofphere of which that horizon is the
bafe ; but falling very obliquely on the greater part of
it, they communicate little heat, and confequently produce
little dilatation of its air. As the fun advances, his rays
become more direét, and the heat and _ rarefaction of
courfe increafe. However, the greateft heat of the day is
not felt when the fun is in the meridian and his rays are
moft direét, but it increafes after mid-day while the place
receives more heat than it lofes; jult as the tide attains
not its higheft altitude till the moon has proceeded a con-
fiderable way to the welt of the meridian. Befides the heat
of the atmofphere is greateft at the furface of the earth,
and feems not to afcend to any great diftance above it;
and therefore the dilatations of the air occafioned by the
fun will be found principally, if not folely, near the earth.
A motion of the adjacent air, in all dire€tions, mutt take
‘place in order to allow the heated air to expand itfelf.

“he heated columns, extending themfelves vertically, will
become longer, and aifo {pecifically lighter in confequence
of the rarefaGtion of their inferior parts. As the motion
of air, till it rifes into wind, is not rapid, thefe length-
ened columns will take fome time to diffipate their fum-
mits among the adjacent lefs rarefied columns that are not
fo high; at leaft they will not do this as {peedily as their
length is increafed by the rarefaction of their bafes

In order to apply this theoryto the folution of the phe-
Nomenon above mestioned, it fhould be confidered, that
the barometer on the plain begins to fall a little after morn-
ing, becaufe the column of air that fupports it becomes ipe-
cifically lighter on account of the rarefaétion occafioned by
the heat of the fun. It continues to fall during the three
firft quarters of the day, becaufe the heatand confequent
sarefaction are continually increafing. After this period it
nifes again, becaufe the cold and condenfation coming on,

the fpecific gravity is augmented by the rufhing in of
the adjacent air. Thus the equilibrium is deftroyed;
and the mercury returns to the altitude of the morning.
The barometer on the eminence rifes after morning, and
continues fo to do for three fourths of the day, for two rea-
fons. The denfity of the columns of air is greateft near
the earth, and decreafes as the diftance from it increafes.
The higher therefore we afcend in the atmofphere, we find
air fpecifically lighter, But by the rarefaction of the bafe
of the column that fupports the mercury of the barometer
on the eminence, the denfer parts of that column are raifed
higher than they would raturally be if left to the operation
of theirown gravity. On this account, the higher baro-
meter is preffed with a weight nearly as great as it would
fultain, if it were brought cown in the etmofphere to the na-
tural place of that denfer air now raifed above it by the pros
longation of the bafe of the column. T'he other reafon is,
that as the rarefa@lion does not take place at any great difs
tance from the earth, little change ts produced in the fpeci-
fic gravity of the portion of the column that preffes on the
higher barometer, and the fummit of that column diffipates
itfelf more flowly than it increafes. Thus we fee how this
barometer muft afcend during the firft three fourths of the
day, and purfue a courfe reverfe of that on the plain. The
condenfations returning after this time, the denfer air fub-
fides, the equilibrium takes place, and the mercury defcends
to its firlt pofiticn.

This phenomenon fuggefted to M. De Luc (Recherches,
vol. 11. p. 54, &c.) the idea of a f{econd pair of thermemeters,
in order to meafure the mean heat of the column of air in-
tercepted between the barometers. Thefe thermometers
are extremely delicate and fevfible, their tubes being the
fineft capillary, the glafs very thin, and the diameters of the
balis only three lines ; the balis are infulated or detached
from the feales, which are fixed to the tubes only by liga-
tures of fine brafs wire covered with fil: by this contri
vance the air has free accefs to the balls on ali fides; and if
the direct rays of the fun be intercepted at fome diftance by
aferap of paperor by the leaf of atree, the thermometers
will quickly mark the true temperature of the air, For the
neceffity and utiliry of thefe appendages to the author’s ap-
paratus, fee the fequel of thisarticle.

A new kind of portable barometer for meafuring heights
has been invented by Dr. J. A. Hamilton, and defcribedin
the tranfactions of the Royal Ivith Academy (vol. v. p. gg).
Inftead of the leather bag which confines the mercury in
the common portable barometer, Dr. Hamilton fubttitutes
acylindiical ciltern of ivory, about two inches long and
upwards of one inch in diameter, with aferewed bottom
and open top, fomewhat contracted into a fhoulder that
receives internally a found, clean and porous cork, about
2 of an inch m length, and one in diameter, through which
the glafs tube is nicely inferted and puthed down midway.
The couftru€ticn depends upon this principle, that fpongy
cork affords a ready paflage through its pores to the parti-
clesof air, but prevents the efcape of quickfilver, unlefs a
very powerful preflure be applied. Neverthelefs, as it is
not through the pores of that fubftance, but through the
minute interftices between the cork and the infide of the
ivery cylinder, that the air infinuates itfelf, fome caution ~
and experience are requifite to prevent the ftopper from
being fitted too tight : nor can the obferver be always affu-
red, that the confinement of the cork wiil occaifion no ins
accuracy in the refults; for it will evidently require a con-
fiderable time, through the extremely flender communica
tions, to reftore the balance between the external and in-
ternal air, if ever that balance can rigoroufly obtain. Dr.

4Q2 Hamile

BAROMETER.

Hamilton gives very copious and circumftantial directions,
together with an annexed engraving, for the conftruétion,
adjultment, and application of this inftrumeut. AB (fig 96.)
reprefents a feGtion of the barometer longitudinally, when
put together and ready for ufe. F the ivory cylinder, CD the
feale, with a vernier that flides fo as to cover the aperture
when the infirament is put by. E the attached thermome-
ter in its cafe, and GG the brafs caps that fecure the ends.
AB (fig. 97-) reprefents a feGtion of the ivory cylinder
with its cork C, and its tube T'; SS is the furface of the
mercury; M itsmais; EE the fhoulders that keep the cork
C inits place; and FF is the bottom that ferews in tight.
Dr. Hamilton remarks, that mercury is belt cleanfed by
fhaking it repeatediy in a phial with frefh portions of water ;
and the remark deferves attention. For correting the
errors of altitude caufed by the flutuation of the furface of
the mereury in the bafon, he recommends the computation
ef tables from the proportion which the aperture of the
tube bears to that of the cylinder. His paper contains
practical precepts for calculating heights from obfervations
of the barometer, in a form adapted to praCtice; and he
propoies to delineate vertical feGtions of a country, by
means of a feries of fuch obfervations, made during fettled
weather. In the fame volume (p.117, &c.) we have re-
marks and hints for the further improvement of barometers,
by Dr. H. Hamilton, dean of Armagh, occafioned by the
preceding communication. He obferves, that the pores of
cork may in time become choaked with duft or moilture 5
and he therefore propofes, that inftead of cork the box
fhould bave a top of ivory with a hole to drop in a floating
gage, which might be occafionally ftopped with a peg or
fcrew, to render the inftrument fafely portable: or, which
would be better, to havea cover ferewed over the top of
the box, and a hole in it correfponding with that in the
box. When thefe two holes are conneéted, the box is
open; and it is fhut, when the holes are removed from
each other by turning the cover and ferewing it tight to
the top of the box ; andif there be a plate of foft leather
between them, it will be fufficient to k-ep in the mercury
when the inftrument is agitated by carriage. The dean
had a barometer made in this form, and found it to anfwer
all the purpofes of an open and of a portable one. Inftead
of making tables for correcting the error occafioned by the
variation of the level of the mercury in the bafon, he thinks
it would be more convenient to contraé proportionally the
divifions of the fcale. This obvious plan is illuftrated at
length. It is fuggelted, that thefe clofe barometers would
ferve juft as well at fea as on land ; and the hint merits at-
tention, asa marine barometer is flill an important defideratum.
Various improvements in the conftruétion and ufe
of the portable barometer. with its annexed apparatus, have
been fuggelted by fir George Shuckburgh and Gen. Roy;
and they have been adopted by feveral inttrument-makers in
London. An inftrument of this kied, poffeffing all the
advantages of thof= by Mr. Ramfden and M. de Luc, and
from its principle free from fome inconveniences and error
to which theirs is liable, is conftruéed by Mr. William
Jones, an ingenious artilt in Holborn. It is reprefented in
(Pl. XIL. fiz. 100.) as inclofed in its mahogany cafe bymeans
“of three metallic rings, 4, 4, 2. This cafe is in the form of a
hollow cone divided into three arms or legs from @’to c, and
is fo carved in the infide as to contain fteadily the body of
the barometer ; and the arms, when f{eparated, form three
firm legs or fupports for the barometer, when it is ufed
for making obfervations. (See jig. 101.) The mitrument
is fufpended at the part g of the cafe, by a kind of improved
gimbals, and thus, by its own weight, it will be fufficiently

fteady when expofed to the weather, In that part of the
frame where the barometer tube is vifible, ae, there isa long
flit or opening, fo that the altidude of the mercury may be
feen againft the light, aed the vernicr piece a brought
down to coincide with the edge of the mercury to the
greatelt poffible exaGtnefs. When the initrument is placed
cn its fupport, the ferew f is to be let down, that the mer-
cury may fubfide to its proper height; and alfo a peg at p
mult be Joofened, to give admiffion to the aGtion of the
external air upon the mercury contained in the box 8. The
adjuftment, or mode of obferving what is called the zero, or
QO, divifion of the column of mercury, is by means of a
{mall floating ivory index or flem that rifes up through the
brafs box from the ciftern below in a hole made fer that
purpofe. This wall rife and fhew itfelf direG@ly under a {mall
plate and (crew fixed over as a cover, and is unferewed to’
move upwards. With one eye even with the upper furface of
the box, the hand at the regulating ferew at the bottom
of the frame muit fo turn the ferew till the top of the index
is very exactly even with the furface: thus will the adjuft-
ment for reading off be made after the ftations. “Whe
vernier piece at a that determines the altitude of the column
of mercury is to be brought down by the hand toa near
conta&t, and then accurately adjufed by a {mall adjutting
fcrew attached tothe top of this vernier feale. This baro-
meter has ufualiy two dsfferent forts of feales inferted on it =
that on the right at ae is a fealeof French inches from 1g
to 31, meafured from the furface or zero of the mercury
in the box 6 below. divided into twelve parts or lines, and
each line fubdivided by the vernier into ten parts, fo that
the height of the columnof mercury may be afcertained to
the 120th part of a French inch. The feale which is
on the other fide, or the left of obfervation, is of the fame
length ; but divided into Englifh inches, each of which
is fubdivided into 2oths of an inch, and the vernier fub-
divides each 20th into 25 parts; fo that the height of the
mercury is thus afcertained to the 5codth part of an En-
glifhinch (viz. 20x 25=500). But this vernier is figured

. double for the convenience of calcvlation: the firft 5 divifions

are marked 10, the 20 marked 40, and the 2¢ marked 50:
then each exa& divifion is reckoned as the two thoufandths
of an inch, which amounts to the fame ; for <3, is the fame
in value as 2,,; of an inch. A thermometer is always at-
tached to the barometer, and indeed it is indifpenfibly necef-
fary: it is faltened to the body at c, counterfunk beneath
the furface of the frame, which makes it lefs liable to be
broken; the degrees of the thermometer are marked on two
{cales, one on each fide; viz. that of Fahrenheit and Reau-
mur, feales generally known; the freezing point of the
former being at 32, and the latter ato. On the right hand
fide of thefe fcales there is 2 third, called a feale of correc-

tion : it is placed oppofite to that of Fahrenheit, with the-

words add and fubira@ ; and it ferves as a neceflary correc-
tion to the obferved altitude of the mercury at any given
temperature of the air fhewn by the thermometer. ‘There
are feveral other valuable appendages to this inftrument
that cannot be diftin€lly reprefented in the figure: but its
nature and ufe may be apprehended from the above ftite-
ment. In complete obfervations, fuch as thole to which
we now refer, the obferver fhould be provided with two
barometers, orrather three, for fear of danger, and two or
three feparate thermometers. See the fequel of thisarticle.
By very fmall additional contrivances this in{trument
may be rendered equally ufeful for making obfervations at
fea with any marine barometer that has hitherto been in-

vented.
The editor has been furnifhed with the following deferip-
tloa

BAROMETER,

tion of the cifkern, &c, of the portable barometer, according
to the conftruétion of Mr, Hawes, lately an eminent in-
ftrument-maker in London. A fe@tion of the ciltern is re-
prefented in Plate X11. of Pueumatics, fig. 102. AAAABB
is the ciltern : the part AAAA, which contains the quick-
filver, is made of wood, with a bottom of leather C, glued
on the wooden ring DD, and prefled clofe againft the
wooden cylinder by means of the {crew at EE, which fcerews
on the brafs cover or collar FF that covers the cylindric
ciltern AA. This collar hasa ftep at the top, as feen at G,
to prevent its flipping, while it prefles the ring DD again’
the wooden cylinder AA, When ferewed tight, the quick-
filver TLE is prevented from efcaping. IT is part of the
tube of the barometer, drawn nearly to a point, and covered
with an ivory cap KK for defending it againtt injury. LL
is afcrew with a broad circular top Q, by means of which
the leather C forces up the quickfilver fo as to fill the tube,
when the inftrament 1s carried from one place to another,
Tn order to prevent the ofcillations of the quickfilver from
breaking the tube by fudden jerks, a pin a with a head 4

affes’ through the ferew LL; this pin has on the under
fide of the head a fpiral fpring to counteraét the violence ofa
fudden motion. The two nuts M,N, are ufed to raife or
deprefs the ferew LL, and confequently the quicktilver ;
the proper height of which is indicated by the floating gage.
OO, the top of whofe item P correfponds to the top and
outfide of the ciltern. When the barometer is not in ufe,
the gage and aperture are covered by the plate e, which
effectually confines the quickfilver, the under fide of ¢ being
covered with leather. ‘lhe lower end of the fcrew LL is
flit up as high as c, and carries a crofs pin d pafling through
the bottom of the pin ad to prevent it from rifing too high.
Fig. 103. reprefents a {quare frame to be fcrewed on the
part BB fig. 102, and conneéted by wires from the angles to

the legs as {een in the perfpeétive view in fg. ro1. This is
ufed to prevent the barometer from vibrating.
The nonius is exhibited at large in fg. 104. A isa

{crew with amilled head tapped into the piece B, and alfo
let into and moveable in the piece C in the manner reprefented
at D in fig. 105. whichis a fide view.

Band C in fiz. 106. are horizontal feGions of B and C,
Jig. 104: The {pring 2 of the piece B is confiderably
itrongerthan that of C; fo that it requires much greater
force to make it flide up and down, whillt C, which {lides
very eafily, is moved by turning the milled head E; and
thus the lower furface of C is made to coincide with the
upper furface of the mercury at F; and, befides, both the
piece B and the nonius C may be depreffed or raifed at

leafure as occafion requires, for a due adjuftment of the
nonius. Behind the plate a 4, in the refpeCtive view fy.
zor. hangs a pendulum fufpended at the point a which ferves
for fetting the in{trument vertical ; and when it is brought
into this pofition, a mark on the bob coincides with another
on the plate, as feen at 2. When the inftrument is not in
ufe, a fork connected with the {crew cis pufhed up, and pre-
vents the pendulum from fhaking.

In order to adapt the portable barometer more completely
to the purpofe of meafuring heights, in which ufe of it pe-
culiar accuracy of obfervation is neceflary, it fhould be fur-
niihed with two microfcopes or magnifying glafles, one of
which fhould be placed at the beginning of the feale; and
either this fhould be moveable, fo that it may always be
brought to the furface of the mercury in the ciltern ; or the
ciftern fhould be fo contrived thatits furface may always be
brought to the beginning of the feale. By this glafs the
eoincidence may be accurately perceived. The other micro-

_ fgope mult be moveable,fo as to be fet oppofite to the furface

ofthe mercury in the tubes and the fcale fhould be furnifhed
with a vernter, which divides an inch into 1000 parts, and
conttruéted of materials, the expanfion of which is precifely
afcertained. Lor an account of many ingenious contrivances
to make the barometer accurate, portable, and commodions,
the reader may confult Mayellan’s ‘* Diff de Diverfes Inftr.
de Phyf? Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. vol. Ixviii. Journ. de
Phyf. xvi. 392. xviii. 395. xix. 308. 346. xxi. 436. xxii. 390.
Sulzer, AG. Helvet. iii. 259. De Luc, Recherches, &c.
ubi fupra. Cardin. de Luynes, Mem. Par. 1768. Van
Swinden’s Pofitiones Phyfice. Com. Acad. Petrop. i. Id.
Nov. 11. 209. viii.

Mr. Magellan, in his edition of “ Cronftedt’s Minera-
logy,” has {hewn that great errors may arife in barometrical
meafurements for want of due attention to the {pecific
gravity of the mercury with which barometers are filled.
If two barometers each 30 inches high, and in every other
re{pe&t fimilarly circumitanced, be filled with mercury of
different fpecific gravity, that of the one being 13,62, and
that of the other 13,45, the error in the refult would be
no lefs than 327 feet: becaufe the heights of the mercurial
column in each barometer mutt bein the inverfe ratio of their
{pecific gravities; viz. 13,45 : 13,62 :: 30 : 30,379. But
the logarithm of 30 is 4771,21, and that of 30,379 is
4825,73, neglecting the indices, and their difference ts 54,52,
which fhews that there is a difference of 54,52 fathoms or
327 feet in the altitudes of the two places, where the baro-
meters fhould have been ftationed, though in reality they
were on the fame leve]. But if the fpecific gravity of the
mercury in the two barometers were according to the
different ftatements of Bergman and Fourcroy, the one
14,110 and the other 13,0co, (and this may happen to be
the cafe, as the heavieft is commonly reputed to be the pureft
mercury,) the error mult have amounted to 355,76 toifes,
or 21344 feet, becaufe 13;coo : 14,110 :: 30: 32,565.
But the logarithm of 30 is 4771,21, and that of 32,501 is
5126,97, and the difference, or 355,76, fhews that the error
{hould amount to fo many fathoms, or 2134,5 feet. See
the fequel of this article.

Barometer, Phenomena of the. Thefe are the variations
of height in its mercurial column, for afcertaining which
many contrivances in the ftru€ture of the barometer have
been propoted; the principal of which have been detailed ir
the preceding articles; and the fubjeét will be further purfued
in the fequel. The ufes to which thefe phenomena have
been fubtervient, are the prediétion of the weather from the
variable weight of the atmofphere, indicated by the rife and
fall of the mercury in the barometer, and the meafurement
of altitudes, to which they have been lately applied with firs
gular afliduity and fuccefs.

The phenomena of the barometer, confidered as a.
“ weather-glafs,” have been very differently ftated and ex-
plained by various writers; and they are fo precarious, that
It 1s extremely difficult to form any fixed and general rules
concerning them. Although we have reafon to believe, that
the barometer never fails to indicate a ftorm, or any very
great change of weather, for fome hours before it occurs;
yet its variations afford no indications or prognoftics that
are abfolutely certain, with refpeét to thofe lefs confiderable
changes, to which the weather is fubje& in our variable
climate. With certain reitrictions, they afford fome ground
for probable conjecture; and thefe reftriGtions are to be
determined merely by the fagacity of long-continued ob-
fervation and experience. Strictly {peaking the height of
the mercury in the barometer hath no immediate and nee
ceflary connection either with rain or fair weather. That
its variable height is the immediate confequence of the

variable

BAROMETER.

variable preffure of the atmofphere, is a fa& that admits of
no doubt; but the caufes of this variable preffure have not
yet been fully and fatisfactorily afcertained; and how far
the ftate of the weather, in all its minute and fudden changes,
depends upon it, is a queftion that {till remains to be de-
_ termined. M. Pafcal was one of the firft perfons who par-
ticularly obferved the variations of the barometer, and referred
them to correfponding changes in the weight of the air; but
he acknowledges, that it is very difficult to explain both
the one and the other, as well as the conneétion that fub-
fifts between them. He obferves, in general, that the mer-
cury is commonly higheft in winter and loweft in fummer;
that it is leaft variable at the folftices, and moft variable at
the equinoxes: and he adds, in dire& contradi@tion to later
experience, that the mercury ufually fails in fine weather,
and that it rifes when the weather becomes cold or the
air is loaded with vapours. M. Pafcal was followed by
Perrier, Beal, Wallis, Garcin, Garden, Lifter, Halley,
Gertten, Dela Hire, Mariotte, Le Cat, Woodward, Leibnitz,
De Mairan, Bernouilli, Mufchenbroek, &c.; all of whom
have given different folutions of the phenomena of the
barometer.

The principal obfervations, that have been made’ on the
variations of this inftrument, are fummed up by Mr, Kirwan
{Irth Tranf. vol. ii. p. 46, &c.) in the following parti-
-culars.

I. The more confiderable elevations and depreffions of
the mercury in the barometer happen at a very fhort interval
of time in places very remote from each other. This cor-
refpondence was obferved by Mr. Derham in 1699 between
the heights of the mercury at Upminfter in Effex, and
Townly in Lancafhire; asd afterwards by Mr. Maraldi
between the variations at Paris and Genoa, at the
diftance of nearly four degrees of latitude, who adds, during
thefe variations different winds prevailed at thefe places.
But Mr. Kirwan obferves, that where there is a confi-
derable difference of longitude, the like agreement is not
found.

II. The deviations of the mercury from its mean annual
altitude are far more frequent and exteniive in the neigh-
bourhood of the poles than in that of the equator. At
Pcterfburgh, in 1725, the mercury once ftood at the ftu-
pendous height of $1,59 inches, if we may credit Mr,
Confett ; and yet it has been feen fo low as 28,14 inches. In
the northern parts of France the variations are gteater than
inthe fouthern: at Naples they fcarceily exceed one inch.
In Pern, under the equator, and at the level of the fea, they
amount oniy to two or three tenths of an inch ; but in other
parts, within a few degrees of the line, on the approach of
the rainy feafon or of hurricanes, the barometer falls an inch
or more.

IIL. The variations without the tropics are greater and
more frequent in the winter than in the f{ummer months.

IV. The variations are confiderably {maller in very
elevated fituations than on the level of the fea. Thus M.
Bouguer obferved, that on the coaft of Peru the variations
extended to 3 of an inch: at Quito, elevated 9374 feet above
the fea, they comprehend only 0,083 ofan inch. M. Savffure
made fimilar obfervations in Sayoy, as did Mr. Lambert in
Swifferland.

V. The mean height of the barometer on the level of the
fea in moft parts of the globe hitherto examined, is about
30 inches. M. Bouguer, under the line, obferved it at
29,908 inches; but as his barometer was not purged of air
by fire, it ttood lower thanit fhould have done. Sir George
Shuckburgh (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. p. 586.), on a mean of

feveral obfervations on the coaits of Italy and England,

found it at 30.04, when the temperature of the mercury was
55°, and that of the air 62°. The mean height of the baro-
meter in London, upon an average of two obfervations in
every day of the year, kept at the houfe of the Royal
Society, for. many years patt, is 29,88 ; the mean temperature
or height of the thermometer, according to the fame, being
58°. The greateft height obferved by fir G. Shuckburgh,
Dec. 26, 1778, in London, was 30,948 inches, the thermo-
meter being at 47°; and reduced to the heat of 50°, it was
39,957: and this, he fays (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixix. p. 370.), is
the greateft height, which, as far as he has been able to
colleé, it has ever been feen to ftand at in any country, where
obfervations have been made and recorded, fince the firft in-
vention of this inftrument. In the proximity of the poles,
fays Mr. Kirwan, the annual mean haghts of the barometer
differ much more from the above ftandard than in the more
fouthern paris of our hemifphere

In eftimatizg the connection of the variations of the ba-
rometer with the weather, Dr. Halley has propofed the
following rules:

1. In calm weather, when the air is inclined to rain, the
mercury is commonly low.

IL. In ferene and fettled weather, and alfo in calm and
frofty weather, the mercury is generally high.

III. Upon very high winds though not accompanied
with rain, the mercury finks loweft, regard being had to the
point of the compafs from which the wind blows.

1V. The greateft heights of the mercury are found upon
eafterly and north-eafterly wincs, other circumftances being
ahke: to which it may be added, that under a foutherly
wind it is commonly low. The above four obfervations
made by Dr. Halley in England, feem to be moft univerfal,
as they were found by Mr. Melander (Schewed. Abhand
1773, S. 255) to apply tolat. 39°, and by M. de Luc to
lat. 46°.

V. After very great ftorms of wind, when the mercury
has been very low, it generally rifes again very falt.

VI. The more northerly places have greater alterations
of the barometer than the more foutherly.

VIL. Within the tropics, and near them, there is little
or no variation of the mercury inall weathers. At St. Helena
it is little or nothing; at Jamaica |3,ths of an inch ; whereas
in England it amounts to 23 inches, and at Peterfourgh to
3} nearly.

Dr. Beal, who adopted the opinion of M. Pafcal, obferves
that, ceteris paribus, the mercury is higher in cold weather
than in warm; and ufually in the morning and evening higher
than at mid-day: that, in fettled and fair weather, it is higher
than either a little before or after or in the rain ; and that it
generally defcends lower after rain than it was before it,
And he afcribes thefe effe€&ts to the vapours with which the
air is charged in the former cafe, and which are difperfed by
the falling rain in the latter. If it chance to rife higher
after rain, tt is generally followed by a fettled ferenity. He
adds, that there are frequently great changes in the air,
without any fettled alteration in the barometer.

Aningenious author obferves, in relation to this ufe of
barometers, that, by their means, we may regain the know~
ledge, which ftill refides in brutes, and which we have for
feited by not continuing in the open air as they generally
do, and by our intemperance corrupting the crafis of our
organs of fenfe. d

Mr. Patrick’s rules for judging of the weather by the rife
and fall of the mercury in the barometer, have been much
approved, and are to be accounted for on the fame principles
with thofe of Dr. Halley. They are as follow :—1. The

rifing of the mercury prefages, in general, fair weather 3
and

BAROMETER.

and its falling, foul weather; as rain, fhow, high winds,
and ftorms.

2. In very hot weather, the fall of the mercury indicates
thunder,

3. In winter, the rifing prefages froft ; and in frofty wea-
ther, if the mercury falls three or four divifions, there will
certainly follow a thaw: but in continued froft, if the mer-
cury rifes, it will certainly fnow.

4. When foul weather happens foon after the falling of
the mercury, expect but little of it: and on the contrary,
expect but little fair weather, when it proves fair fhortly
after the mercury has rifen.

5- In foul weather, when the mercury rifes much and
high, and fo continues for two or three days before the foul
weather is quite over, then expect a continuance of fair wea-
ther to follow.

6. In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and low,
and thus continues for two or three days before the rain
comes ; then expea great deal of wet, and probably high
winds.

7. The unfettled motion of the mercury, denotes uncer-
tain and changeable weather.

8. Youare not fo ftriatly to obferve the words engraved
on the plates (thongh for the moft part it will agree with
them), 2s the mercury’s rifing and falling ; for if it ttands.at
much rain, and then rifes up to changeable, it prefages fair
weather, although not to continue fo long as it would have
done, if the mercury were higher: and fo, on the contrary,
if the mercury {tood at fair, and falls to changeable, it pre-
fages foul weather, though not fo much of it, as if it had
funk down lower.

From thefe obfervations it appears, fays Mr. Rowning
(Nat. Philof. part ii. diff. 4.), that it is not fo much the
height of the mercury in the tube that indicates the wea-
ther, as the motion of it up and down: wherefore in
order to pafs a right jedgment of what weather is to be
expeGted, we ought to know whether the mercury is ex-
a@tly rifing or falling, to which end the following rules are
of ule:

1. If the furface of the mercury is convex, ftanding higher
in the middle of the tui. ‘han at the fides, it is generally a
fign that the mercury is then rifing.

2. If the furface of the mercury is concave, or hollow in
the middle, it is finking. And,

3. If it is plain or level, or rather if it is a little convex,
the mercury is ftationary; for mercury being put into
aglafstube, efpecialiya {mall one, will naturally have its
furface a little convex ; becaufe the particles of mercury at-
traGt each other more forcibly than they are attra€ted by
glafs. Farther,

4. If the glafsbe fmall, fhake the tube; and if the air be
growing heavier, the mercury will rife about half the tenth
of an inch higher than it ftood before; if it is growing
lighter, it will fink fo much. This proceeds from the mer-
eury {ticking to the fides of the tube, which prevents the
free motion of it, until it is difengaged by the fhock. There-
fore, when an obfervation is to be made by fuch a tube, it
ought always to be fhaken firft ; for fometimes the mercury
will not vary of its own accord, until the weather it ought
to have indicated be prefent.

To the preceding rules we may fubjoin the following,
deduced from the later and more accurate obfervation of the
motions of the barometer, and the confequent changes in
the air of this country:

5. In winter, fpring, and autumn, the fudden falling of
the mercury, through a large interval, denotes high winds
and ftorms; but in fummer it denotes heavy fhowers, and
‘often thunder ; and it always finks lowelt of all for great

a

winds, though not accompanied with rain ; though, however,
it falis more for wind and rain together, than for either of
themalone. Alfo, if, after rain, the wind change into any
part of the north, with a clear and dry fy, and the mercury
rife, it is a certain fign of fair weather.

2. After very great ftorms of wind, when the mercory
has been low, it commonly rifes again very falt. In fettled
fair and dry weather, except the barometer fink much, ex-
pe@ but little rain ; for its {mall finking then is only fora
litle wind, or a few drops of rain ; and the mercury foon
rifes again to its former ftation.. In a wet feafon, fuppofe
in hay-time and harveft, the {malleft finking of the mercury
mutt be regarded ; for when the conttitution of the air 18
much inclined to fhowers, a little finking in the barometer
then denotes more rain, as it neverat this time flands very
high. And if, in fuch a feafon, it rifes fuddenly, very falt,
and high, expeét not fair weather more than a day or two,
but rather that the mercury will fall again very foon, and
rain immediately follow. The flow gradual rifing, and keep-
ing onto do {fo for two or three days, are molt to be de-
pended upon for a weck’s fair weather ; and the unfettled
ftate of the quickfilver always denotes uncertain and change-
able weather, efpecially when the mercury flands any where
about the word changeable onthe feale.

3. The greateft heights of the mercury, in this country,
are found upon eatterly and north-eafterly winds; and it
may often rain or fnow, the wind being inthefe points, and
the barometer may fink but little or not at ail, or it may even
bein arifing ftate, the effe& of thofe winds counteracting.
But the mercury finks for wind, as wel! as for rain, in all
the other points of the compa!s; but it rifes as the wind
fhifts about to the north or caft, or between thofe points :
but if the barometer fhould fink with the wind in that quar-
ter, expect it foon to change from thence ; or elfe, if the fall
of the mercury fhould be confiderable, a heavy rain is likely
to enfue, as it fometimes happens.

Barometer, Caufe of the Phenomena of the. Thofe
which have been enumerated, are the chief phenomena of
the barometer; to account for which, the hypothefes that
have been framed are almoft innumerable. It would far ex-
ceed our limits to detail them all ; we muft content ourfelves
with briefly reciting fome of the principal, and refer the
reader who is defirous of further information to De Luc’s
“ Recherches,”’ vol. 1: ch. 11.

Some, as Pafcal, Beal, Wallis, and Garcin, have accounted
for the change inthe weight of the air by the augmentation
of the atmofphere in confequence of the introduction of va-
pours, and its diminution by their fall; others, as Perrier,
Garden, Le Cat, and De Mairan, have afcribed it to the
variations of heat; and others, as Garden, to the alterations
of the {pecifie gravity of the air; and Dr. Halley refers it
to the accumulation or difperfion of the air by contrary
winds. Wallis, Halley, and De Mairan have fuppofed that
there isa difference in the vertical preflure of the air, when
in motion and at reft. Wallis, and fome other phlofophers,
have conceived that the height of the barometer depends
upon the variations that occur in the elafticity of the air,
and that it is dire@tly proportional to thefe variations. Some
have alfo had recourfe to the contractions and dilatations of
the mercury itfelf, as Wallisand Lifter; others, as Gerften,
fuppofe vibrations produced in the particles of air by the
winds. De la Hire and De Mairan imagine that airis re-
moved from the fouth to the north, and from the north to
the fouth: Mariotte fuppofes that the inclination of the
winds to the furface of the earth is fometimes greater and
fometimes Jefs. Woodwardand Hamberger conceive that
there is a fhock of vapours again{ft the air, when they rife,
and that this ceafes when they are at reft. Leibnitz ae

poss.

BAROMETER.

pofes that there is a diminution in the weight of the air when
rain falls ; and De Mairan apprehends, that an agitation of
the air is occafioned by vapours; and Bernouilli is of opi-
nion, that an augmentation of the atmofphcre is produced
by a dilatation and difcharge of the air inclofed within the
bowels of the earth, and that there is a diminution of it when
the contrary happens. To thefe feveral caufes ating feparate-
ly or conjointly, and to feveral circumftances attending their
different operation, the vibrations of the barometer have
been attributed. But thefe caufes may all be reduced to
three general clafics: viz. variations of temperature ; the
velocity and other qualities of different winds; and the
agency of vapour.

Dr. Lifter accounts for the changes in the barometer from
the alterations of heat and cold. This, he fays, he has often
obferved, that in ftorms, &c. when the mercury is at the
loweft, it breaks, and emits fmall particles, which he callsa
kind of fretting; and.argues, that in all times of its defcent,
it is more or lefs on the fret. In this diforder, he thinks,
its parts are contraéted, and brought clofer together ; and
for that reafon, defcend : befides, in the fretting they let go
little particles of air, before inclofed in them, and thefe
rifing into the top of the tube, the mercury muft fink, both
from the column’s being fhortened by their efcape, and by
their lying upon it. Mercury therefore, he adds, rifes cither
in very hot or very cold weather, between the tropics, &c.
as being then in its natural ftate ; and again, in the interme-
diate degrees of heat and cold it falls, as being contrac ed,
and asit were convulfed, and drawn together. Phil. Tranl.
N° 165. But his account, however ingenious, yet comes
far fhort of accounting for the phenomena; nay, in fome
re{pects it contradicts them.

The changes in the weight of the atmofphere, therefore,
mutt be laid down as the caufe of thofe in the barometer ;
butthen, the caufe of that caufe, or whence thofe altera-
tions arife in the atmofphere, it will be no eafy matter to
determine; there being, perhaps, no one principle in nature
that willaccount for fuch a variety of appearances, and thofe
too foirregular. It is probable the winds, as driven this or
that way, havea great fhare in them; fome fhare too, va-
pours and exhalations, rifing from the earth, may have ;
fome, the changes in the air of the neighbouring regions ;
and fome, the flux and reflux occafioned in the air by the
moon ; and alfo fome chemical caufes operating between the
different particles of matter.

Dr. Halley thinks the winds and exhalations fufficient ;
and, on this ground, gives us a rationale of the baro-
meter. ‘The fubflance of what may be faid on that head, is
as follows :

fi, then, The winds muft neceffarily alter the weight of
the air in any particular country; and that, either by
bringing together and accumulating a greater quantity of
air, and fo loading the atmofphere of any place ; which
will be the cafe, as ofttnas two winds blow at the fame
time, from oppofite points towards the fame point: or
by {weeping away a part of the air, and removing fome
of the load, and thus giving room for the atmofphere to
expand itfelf; which will be the cafe when two winds
blow at the fame time, and from the fame point, oppofite
ways: or laltly, by cutting off the perpendicular preffure
ef the atmofohere; which happens as often asany fingle
wind blows brifkly any way; it being found, by experi-
ment, that a ftrong blaft of wind, even made by art, will
render the atmofphere lighter; and accordingly, the mer-
eury, ina tube under which it paffes, as wellas in another
ata diftance from it, will fubjide confiderably. See Phil.
‘Tranf, N° 292.

2\ly, Thecold nitrous particles, and even air itfelf cons
denfed in the northern parts, and driven ellewhere, muft
load the atmofphere, and increafe its preffure.

3dly, Heavy dry exhalations from the earth muft increafe
the weight of the atmofphere, and heighten its elattic force,
as we find the {pecific gravity of menitruums increafed by
diffolved falts and metals.

4thly, The air being rendered heavier from thefe and the
like caufes, is thereby the more able to fupport the vapours 5
which being likewife intimately mixed with it, and f{wim-
ming every where equably through it, make the weather
ferene and fair: again, the air being made lighter, from the
contrary caufes, it becomes unable to fupport the vapours
wherewith it is replete; thefe, therefore, precipitating, are
gathered into clouds, and thofe in their progrefs, coalefce
into drops of rain.

Thefe things obferved, it appears pretty evident, that the
fame caufes which increafe the weight of the air, and make
it more able to {upport the mercury in the barometer, do
likewife occafion a ferene fly, and a dry feafon; and the
fame caufes which render the air lighter, and lefs able to
fupport the mercury, do likewife generate clouds and rain.
Hence, ft, When the air is Itghtelt, and the mercury in
the barometer is lowe't, the clouds are very low, and move
fwiftly ; and when. after rain, the clouds break, and a calm
fky again fhines forth, being purged of the vapours, it ap-
pears exceedingly bright and tranf{parent, and affords an eafy
profpeét of remote objects.

23ly, When the airis heavier, and the mercury ftands
hicher in the tube, the weather is calm, though fomewhat
lefs clear, becaufe the vapours are difperfed every where
equally ; if any clouds now appear, they are very high, and
move flowly ; and when the air is beavielt of all, the earth
is frequently found enveloped in pretty thick clouds, which
appear to be formed out of the grofler exhalations, and
which the air is then able to fultain, though a lighter atmo-
{phere could not.

gdly, Hence it is, that with us the mercury ftands higheft
in the coldeft feafons, and when the wind blows from the
north or north-calt corner: for in that cafe, there are two
winds blowing towards us at the fame time, and from op-
polite corners ; there being a conftant welt wind found in
the Atlantic ocean, at the latitude corre{ponding to our’s.
To which we may add, that in a north wind, the cold con-
denfed air of the northern partsis brought hither.

4thly, Hence in the northern regions, the variation of ;

the mercury is more fenfible than in the fouthern ones; the
winds being found more ftrong, more frequent, more vari-
ous, and more oppofite to each other in the former, than
in the latter.

Laftly, Hence it is, that between the tropies, the variation
of the mercury is fearcely fenfible; the winds there being
extremely gentle, and ufually blowing the fame way.

But this account, however well adapted to many of the
particular cafes of the barometer, feems to eome fhort of
fome of the principal and moft obvious ones; and is, befides,
liable to feveral objections,

For ift, If the wind were the fole agent in effeGting thefe
alterations, we fhould have no alterations without a fenfible
wind, nor any wind without fome alteration of the mercury +
both which are contrary to experience. '

2dly, If two winds be fuppofed blowing from the fame
place, viz. London, oppofite ways, viz. N.E. and S.W. there
will be two others, blowing from oppotite points, viz. NW.
and S.E. to the fame place; which two lalt will balance
the firft, and bring as much air towards the point, as the
others {wept from it. Or thus, in proportion as the air

=

3 i8

a

Se rs +

Sages ~

BAROMETER.

is carried off N.E. and S.W. the adjacent air will croud in
from the other points, and form a couple of new currents in
the direction N.W. and S.E. to fill up the vacancy, and re-
ftore the equilibrium. This is a neceflary confequence from
the laws of fluids.

gdly, If the wind were the fole agent, the alterations in
the height of the mercury would only be relative, or to-
pical; there would be ftill the fame quantity fupported at
feveral places taken collectively : thus, what a tube at Lon-
don loft, another at Paris, or at Pifa, or at Zurich, &c.
would at the fame time gain. But we find the very con-
trary true in fa&; for from all the obfervations hitherto
mae, the barometers in feveral parts of the globe rife énd
fall together; fo that it mult be fome alteration in the abe
folute weight of the atmofphere that accounts for the rife
and fall of the mercury.

Laftly, Setting afide all objeGions, thefe popular pheno-
mena, the mercury’s fall betore, and rife after rain, feem
to be inexplicable on the ground of this hypothiefis: for fup-
pofe two contrary winds {weeping the air from over Len-
don, we know that few, if any, of the winds reach above
a mile high ; all, therefore, they can do, will be to cut off
a certain part of the column of air over London: if the con-
fequence of this be the fall of the mercury, yet there is no
apparent reafon for the rain’s following it. The vapours
indeed may be let lower, but it will only be till they come
into an air of the fame fpecific gravity with themfelves; and
there they will be fulpended as before.

M. Leibnitz, about the year 1710, in a letter written to
the abbe Bignon, endeavoured to fupply the defeéts of this
hypothefis with a new one of his own. The new prin-
ciple, upon which Leibnitz’s hypothelis is founded, was il-
luftrated by M. Fontenelle in the Hiftory of the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris for the yeer 1711.’ He afferts,
that a body immerfed in 2 fluid only weighs with that fluid
while it is fuftained by i* , fo that when it ceafes to be fuftain-
ed, i. e. when let fall, its weight ceafes to make a part of that
of the fluid, which by this means becomes lighter. Thus,
adds he, the watery vapours, while fultained in the air, in-
creafe its weight; but when let fall, they ceafe to weigh
along with it. Thus the weight of the air is diminithed ;
and thus the mercury falls, and rain enfues,

But M. Leibnitz’s prizciple, notwithftanding the experi-
ment he brings to confirm it, is falfe, as has been evidently
made appear by a counter experiment of Dr. Defaguliers.
(See his Courfe of Exp. Philof. vol. i. p. 282, &c.) Fora
body, whether {pecifically equal or lighter or heavier than a
fluid, while it is immerged in it, whether it be at reft, or in
motion, adds to the fluid a weight equivalent to that of an
equal bulk of the fluid; as follows from that law in hydro-
flatics, that fluids gravitate according to their perpendicular
altitudes. However, were M. Leibnitz’s principle true,
yet it is defeGtive; and that in the fame refpe@t with Dr.
Halley’s; nor would it account for the phenomena more
than the other. For, fuppofing the vapours by being con-
denfed, to be put in a motion downwards, and fo cezfing to
gravitate with the atmofphere; they will therefore fall, till
they reach a part of the atmofphere of the fame {pecific
gravity with themfelves; and there they will hang as before.
If the mercury fall, it will only be during the time of that
defcent ; for thefe once fixed, the former gravity is retrieved;
or, were it not retrieved, yet no rain would f{ucceed the fall
of the mercury.

The hypothefis, propofed by Mr. Chambers, is fome-
what fimilar to that of Leibnitz, and liable to the fame
objection. It is as follows: fuppofe any number of
watery veficles floating in any part of the atmofphere,

Vou. ITT.

over any determinate portion of the globe; if the upper
veficles be, condenfed by the cold of the fuperior regionss
their f{pecific gravity will be increafed, and they will de-
feend; where meeting with other veficles not yet precipi-
tated, they will coalefce, or run into larger veficles, by the

known laws of attraétion. Or, if we rather choofe to have
the wind a@, let it drive either horizontally or obliquely,
fome veficles will be driven againft others; by which means
likewife wiil the particles coalefce, and form new and larcer
veficles as before; fo that their number, which before was,

fuppofe a million, will now be reduced, v. gr. to a hundred
thonfand.

But by the fame coalition whereby their number is dimi-
nifhed, their fpecific gravity, if we may fo cail it, is in-
creafed, 1. e. they come to have more matter in the fame
{pace, or under an equal furface; as may be ealily proved
from principles of geometry: for in augmenting the mals
of any homogencous body, the increafe of furface does not
keep pace with that of the folidity ; but that of the former
is as the fquare cf the diameter, and that of the latter as
the cube of the fame.

But fince the fame quantity of matter is now in a lefs
{pace or under lefs dim-nfions, it will iofe lefs of its weight
by the refiftance of the medium. This is evident; for a
body immerfed in a fluid lofes nothing of its weight but by
the friction of its parts againft thofe of the fluid; but the
friction is evidently as the furface; therefore, when the fur-
face is leffened, the refiftance mutt be fo too. Confequently,
the veficles, whofe gravity before the coalition was equal to
the refiftance of the medium, now that refiftance is dimi-
nifhed, will defcend; and that with a velocity in the ratio
of the increafe of the mafs to the increafe of the furface.

In their defcent, as they arrive at denfer parts of the at-
mofphere, thcir mafs and furface again wiil be increafed by
new coalitions; and thus, by conftant frefh acceffions, more
than equal to the conftant refiftances, they will be enabled
to purfue their journey through all the ftages of the air,
till they reach the earth; their maffes exceedingly magnified,
and in the form of rain.

Now that the vapours have got down, let us confider how
the barometer muft have been affected during their paffage.

Before any of the veficles began to fubfide, either from
the a@tion of the cold, or of the wind, they all floated in a
certain portion of the atmofphere, and all gravitated to-
wards the centre. Here now, each refpe@tively refiding in
a part of the medium of the fame {pecific gravity with it-
felf, wili lofe as much of its weight as is equal to that of
a part of the medium of the fame bulk with itfelf, i. e.
each will lofe all its weight. But then, whatever weight
each lofes, it communicates to the medium, which now
preffcs on the furface of the earth with its own weight and
that of the veficles conjointly. Suppofe then this united
preffure keeps up the mercury in the barometer at thirty
inches: by the coalition of the veficles from the caufes
aforefaid, their furfaces, and confequently their friétion, are
leffened ; therefore, they will communicate lefs of their
weight to the air, 1, e. lefs than the whole; and confequently
they will defcend with the excefs, i. e. with a velocity equal
to the remainder, as before obferved. Now, as the veficles
can aét no otherwife on the furface of the earth but by the
mediation of the interjacent air, in proportion as their a¢tion
on the medium is lefs, their aGtion on the earth will be lefs.
Tt is alfo evident, that the furface of the earth muft be now
lefs prefled than before; and that in proportion as the
veficles referve more of their weight uncommunicated to
the medium, to promote their own defcent, i. e. in pro<
portion to the velocity of the falling veficles; which is

4R again

BAROMETER,

again in proportion to their bulks. Thus, as the veficles
defcend, the bulks continually increafing, the friGion, and
therefore the preflure on the earth, and laftly the height
of the mercury, will continually decreafe, during the whole
time of the fall—lHence we fee, both why the veficles,
when once beginning to fall, perfevere; why the mercury
begins to fall at the fame time; ard why it continues and
ceafes to fall together with them; which were the great de-
fiderata in the philofophy of the barometer.

There is one objection that evidently lics againft this the-
ory, viz. that the velicles being put in motion, and ftriking
again{ft the particles of the medinm and one another with
fome moment, will mect with a confiderable refiitance from
the vis inertic thereof; by which means their defcent will
be retarded, and the preflure of the atmofphere retrieved ;
the impetus of the moving veficles being fuppofed to com-
penfate for their lofs of furface. Thus a heavy body ful-
tained in a fluid by a hair, and moved up and down therein,
prefies more on the bottom than when held at reft; which
additional preflure will be the greater as the velocity of the
falling veficles is greater; a greater impulfe being required
to break through the wis of the contiguous particles
in a lefs time than in a larger.

But it is alleged, that we have both reafon and experi-
ment againit this objection; for the velocity of the veficles,
in thefe circumftances, muft neceflarily be very f{mall, and
their impulfe inconfiderable ; befides, the wis inertie of the
air muft be exceedingly weak, by reafon of its extreme fub-
tility; and it muf be a very improper vehicle to convey an
impulfe to a diftance by reafon of its elatticity; we alfo
find that a piece ut lead, which is a ponderous body, falling
with great moment, gravitates confiderably lefs, in its de-
fcent through water, which is a grofs unelaltic mediym,
than when fuftained at reft therein; in which the feveral ex-
periments of Reaumur, Ramazzini, and Defaguliers, ail agree.

M. de Lue ( Recherches, &c. vol. i. p. 138.) fuppofes that
the changes obferved in the weight of the atmofphere are
principally produced by the prefence or abfence of vapours
floating in it. Others have attributed the effet to vapours,
but have given a different explication of it. It is his opinion,
that vapours diminifh the fpecific gravity, and confequently
the abfolute weight of thole columns of the atmofphere into
which they are received, which, notwithftanding this ad-
mixture, remain of an equal height with the adjoining co-
lumns that confilt of pure or dry air. He afterwards more
largely explains and vindicates this theory, and applies it to
the folution of the principal phenomena of the barometer,
conneéted with or produced by the varying denfity and
weight of the atmofphere.

Dr. James Hutton, in his ‘¢ Theory of Rain” (fee Rain),
printed in the Edinburgh Tranfaétions, vol. i. p. 41, &c.
fuggelts feveral plaufible reafons in favour of his opinion,
that the diminution of the weight of the atmofphere by the
fall of rain is not the caufe of the fall of the barometer;
but that the principal, if not the only cavfe, is to be fought
for in the commotions of the atmofphere that are chiefly
produced by fudden changes of heat and cold in the air.
«<The barometer,” he fays (p. 78.), ‘is an inftrument ne-
ceffarily connected with motions in the atmofphere; but it
is not equally affected with every motion in that fluid body.
The barometer is chiefly affe&ted by thofe motions by which
there are produced accumulations and abftractions of this
fluid, in places or regions of fufficient extent to affect the
preflure of the atmofphere upon; the-furface of the earth.
But as every commotion in the atmofphere may, under
proper conditions, be a caufe, for rain, and as the want of
commotion in the atmofphere is naturally a caufe of fair

t

;
©

weather, this inflrument may be niade -of great importance
for the purpofe of meteorological obfervations, although
not in the certain and more fimple manner in which it has
been, with the increafe of {cience, fo fuccefsfully applied
to the mealuring of heights.”

In the * Encyclopedia Britannica,’”? art. BAROMETER,
we have andther theory of changes in the barometer, as de-
pending on the heat in the atmofphere, not as producing
commotions in it, but as altering the fpecific gravity of the
air by the variations of heat and cold. The preliminaries-to
this hypothefis are: 1. That vapour is formed by an in-
timate union between the elements of fire ard water, in-eon-
fequence of which the fire or heat is fo totally enveloped,
and its action fo entirely fufpended by the watery particles,
that it not only lofes its properties of burning and of giving
light, but becomes incapable of affe€ting the moft fenfible
barometer, in which cafe, it is faid by Dr. Black, the au-
thor of this theory, to be in a latent ftate. . 2dly. Ifthe
atmofphere be afic&ted by any unufual degree of heat, it
thence becomes incapable of fupporting fo long a column of
mercury as before, for which reafon the barometer finks.

From thefe primary principles or axioms it is inferred, —

that as vapour is formed by an union of fire with water,
whether by an eleétive attraGtion or a folution of the water

in the fre, the vapour cannot be condenfed till this union, -

attraction, or folution be at an end. Hence it follows that
the commencement of the condenfation of the vapour, or
the firit figns of approaching rain, mutt be the {eparation of
the fire which is latert in the vapour. This» may at firft be
flow and partial, or it may be fudden and violent; in the firft
cafe the rain will come on flowly, and after a confiderable in-
terval; in the other it will come oa very quickly and in a great
quantity. But Dr. Black has proved, that when fire quits
its latent ftate, however long it may have lain dormant and
infenfible, it always re-aflumes its proper qualities. and af-
feéts the thermometer as if it had never been abforbed. The
confequence of this muft be, that in proportion as the la-
tent heat is difcharged from the vapour, thofe parts of the
atmofphere into which it is difcharged, will be fenfibly af-
fected by it; and in proportion to the heat communicated
to thofe parts, they will become fpecifically lighter, and of
courfe the mercury will fink. When the feparation between
the fire and water is gradual and flow, the barometer may
indicate rain for a confiderable time before it happens; or
if the fenfible heat fhould be abforbed by the colder parts
of the atmofphere, or by any means be preverted from af-
fe€ting the {pecific gravity of the air, the barometer will
not be affeCted ; and yet the water, deprived of the heat
that is neceflary for fuftaining it, muft defcend in rain; and
hence it happens, that the indications of the barometer are
not always jult. Hence it alfo appears, that though the
{pecific gravity of the air is diminifhed, unlefs this diminu-
tion proceeds from a difcharge of the latent heat contained
in the vapours, no rain will follow; and thus the finking
of the barometer may prognofticate wind as well as rain, or
fometimes no change at all.
mercury in the barometer between the tropics in the time
of hurricanes, noticed by Dr. Halley, is afcribed, as to its
probable caufe, to a great commotion in the electric fluid,
by which the air is internally agitated, and its gravitation in

part fufpended. g ihe
In the fourth volume of the ‘* Memoirs of the Literary
Society of Manchetter,” we have a curious paper on this
fubject, viz. ‘* Meteorological Obfervations made on differ=
ent parts of the Weitern Coaft of Great Britain ;” ar-
ranged by T. Garnett, M.D. ‘The materials of this pa-
per were furnithed by feveral obfervers; but thofe of Mr.
5 Copland,

The great defcent of the

_—

eae ee eee ee ee

-

P

Copland, furgeon at Dumfries, are of peculiar. importance.
This gentleman is of opinion that the changes of the baro-
meter indicate approaching cold and hot weather, with
~ much greater certainty than dry and wet. * Every re-

_ markable elevation of the barometer, he fays, when it is of

4 any duration, is followed by very’warm or dry weather, and

moderate as to wind, or by all of them; but heat feems to
| have moft influence and conneétion ; and when it is deficient,

the continuance of the other two will be longer and more

% remarkable ; therefore the calculation muft be in “a com-

pound ratio of the excefs and deficiency of the heat and of

___ the drynefs of the weather in comparifon of the medium of

the feafon ; and with regard to the want of {trong wind, it

appears to be intimately connected with the laft, as they
fhew that no precipitation is going on in any of the neigh-
bouring regions.”

~ Anhis 14th and 15th remarks, he had faid,

©igth, That the barometer being lower, and continuing
fo longer than what can be accounted for by immediate
fails, or ftormy weather, indicates the approach of very cold
weather for the feafon ; and alfo cold weather, though dry,

_ is always accompanied by a low barometer, till near its ter-
mination.’

_» “agth, That warm weather is always preceded and
molly accompanied by a high barometer; and the r-fing of
the barometer in the time of broken or cold weather, is a fign

_ of the approach of warmer weather: and alfo if the wind is
in any of the cold points, a fudden rife of the barometer in-
dicates the approzch of a foutherly wind, which in winter
generally brings rain with it.’

_ Inthe two following remarks Mr. Copland had explained
certain phenomena from a principle fimilar to that on which

Dr. Darwin has fo much infifted. (Botanic Garden, I. notes

B79, &e.) ;

_ < That the falling of the barometer may proceed from a
decompofition of the atmofphere occurring around or near
that part of the globe where we are placed, which will occa-
fion the electricity of the atmoiphere to be repelled upwards
in fine lambent portions; or driven downwards or upwards
in more compacted balls of fire ; or laftiy, to be carried along
with the rain, &c. in an imperceptible manner to the furface
of the earth; the precipitation of the watery parts generally
very foon takes place, which dimisifhes the real gravity of
_ the atmofphere, and alfo by the decompofition of fome of

the more active parts, the air lofes part of that elaftic
and repulfive power which it fo eminently “pofleffed, and will
therefore prefs with lefs force on the mercury of the baro-
meter than before, by which means a fall enfues.

‘That the caufe of the currents of air, or winds, may alfo
be this way accounted for: and in very {evere ftorms, where
great decompofitions of the atmofphere take place, this is
particularly evident, fuch as generally occur in one or more
of the Weit India iflands at one time, a great lofs of real
Bravity, together with a confiderable diminution of the

ing of the air immediately enfues; hence a current com-

ences, firft in that direction whence the air has mott

y, oris moft difpofed to undergo fuch a change; but

cing foon relieved of its fuperior weight or {pring on that

, by the decompofition going on as faft as the wind
yes in the ifland, it immediately veers to another point,
which then rufhes in moftly with an increafe of force; thus
it goes on till it has blown more than half wey round the
_ points of the compafs during the continuation of the hurri-
cane. For in this manner the Weft India pkenomena,

as well as the alteration of the wind during heavy rains in

_ this country, can only be properly accounted for.’ See re-

nark, No. 4. ;

r

‘

BAROMETER.

Mr. C’s 4th aphorifm is, ¢ That the heavicft rains, when
of long continuance, generally begin with. the wind blow-
ing ealterly, when it gradually veers round to the fouth; and
that the rain docs not then begin to ceafe till the wind
has got to the welt, or rather a little to the northward. of
it, when, it may be added, it commonly blows with fome
violence.’

Mr. Kirwan, in an elaborate paper on this fubje& (fee
Irith Tranfaétions, vol. ii. p. 49, &c.) examines the different
caufes to which the phenomena of thé barometer have heen
afcribed. Fle begins with the influence of different tempe-
ratures, It appears, he fays, by obfervation, that a vari-
ation of the mals of the atmofphere is not a neceflary con-
fequence of an alteration of the temperature ; for the mer-
cury is often at the fame height at different feafons, and at
different places in the fame feafon3 and even when the
height of the mercury changes fimultancoufly with the tem-
perature, the change is often direétly contrary to that
which the change of temperature would-lead one to expect.
Bsfides, great changes of temperature take place only in
the lower atmofphere; but in the higher regions they are
inconliderable. Any increment or decrement of the mafs
of the lower atmofp!:ere that can be.aferibed to a change of
temperature, 1s too {mall to preduce any confiderable altera-
tion in the height of the barometer; for in winter the height
to which aay confiderable variation of tempsrature may. be
fuppofed to’extend, fcarcely exceeds 5000 feet, as we learn
from the teftimony of , aeronauts, and the height of the
clonds ; and indeed the winds that prevail on the {nrface of
the earth, and which are the primary agents in producing
a change of temperature, feldom reach higher, and. in the
more northern regions not fo high. This caufe, the effe&
of which is eftimated by calculation, and compared with the
2tual variation, though not abfolutely inefficient, on the
fuppofition that the whole mafs of the fuperincumbent cd-
lumn is increafed by the acceflion of new air in proportion
to the condenfation, is neverthele{s inadequate to the effe&
produced. .

Mr. Kirwan next examines the efficacy of winds in pro-
ducing the variations of the baromever; and thefe are fuch
as reign in the lower regions of the atmofphere. If, ac-
cording to Dr. Halley’s theory, the rife of the barometer
above its mean altitude were owing to the accumulation of air
over the place of obfervation, occafioned by two contrary
winds blowing towards that place, we fhould always have a
calm when the mercury ftands higheft; but it is notorious,
that the greateft mercurial heights are accompanied by an
ealterly or northerly wind, as Halley himfelt has obferved.-
Nor can that equality of barometrical heights, which takes
place in very diitant countries, where very different winds pre-
vail, be explained by this hypothefis. ‘This hypothefis af-
cribes the defcent of the mercury below its mean altitude to
the rarefaGtion of the atmofphere over the place of obferva-
tion, which rarefaction is owing to its exhanftion by two
contrary currents ; for inflance, over England, if it fhould
biow a welterly wind on the German, and aa eafterly wind
onthe Irifh fea. But Mr. Kirwan thinks, that a rarefaction
in fuch circumftances from fuch a caufe is impoffible ;, for
if fuch currents tock place, the northera or fouthern air
would flow in to maintain the equilibrium in the fame pro-
portion ; or if this did not happen, and that four contrary
currents took place, the higher air fhould defcend, and
caufe a fenfible cold, which yet is feldom obferved in Eng-
land, when the mercury is low; on the contrary, a2 warm
fouth wind commonly frevail , to whofe temperature never=
thelefs the rarcfaGtion canzot “be afcribed. Dr. Halley’s
explication of the defcent of the mercury on high winds in

4R 2 florms

BAROMETER.

ftorms appears to Mr. Kirwan to be unfatisfa@tory. <* The
region of the earth,”? fays Halley, * wherein thofe winds
yage. not extending round the globe, the ftagnant air left
behind and that on the fides cannot rufh in faft enough to
reftore the evacuation made by fo fwift a current, fo that
the air mult be attenuated where the faid winds continue to
blow.”’"—*: Add that the horizontal motion being fo quick
may take off fome part of the perpendicular preflure.’”
This lat reafon feemed to acquire fome confirmation from an
experiment made by Mr. Hawkfbee; for having paffed a
ftrcam of air through a box in which the lower fhank of a
barometer was inferted, he obferved the mercury to fall
while the current paffed through the box; as alfo in ano-
ther barometer which communicated with the box, over
which the current of air did not flow. Allowing this, the
phenomenon is not fufficiently explained; for Mr. Kirwan
obferves, that not only during the ftorm, but feveral hours,
if not days, before it, the mercury defcends confiderably, as
Halley timfelf, and all who recommend the marine baro-
meter, atteft; otherwife this inftrument would be ufelefs.
Mr. Cafwell obferves (Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. viii. p. 458.),
that two days before the great ftorm of January 1734-5,
the mercury fell =, of an inch below 28 inches. | But if
the fall wer: concomitant with the ftorm, Dr. Halley’s rea-
fons would not prove their conneétion. In order to a bo-
dy’s moving through air with fuch a velocity as to leave a
vacuum behind it, there is a neceffity that it fhould move
at the rate of 11 or 1200 feet per fecond, as appears by
the obfervations of Mr. Brice and many others. (See Phil.
Trenf. for 1706, p. 266.) The infufficiency of the fecond
reafon alleged by Dr. Halley has been clearly fhewn by M.
de Luc; nor is the experiment of Mr. Hawkfbee conclu-
five, as it appears that part of the air already confined in
the boxes was forced out by the blaft of air; and befides,
Mr. Derham obferved that during the greateft vechemence of
fiorm, the mercury rifes inftead of falling lower. (Phil.
Tranf. Ab-. vol. iv. pt.2. p. 77.) Mr. Kirwan made the
fame obfervation on the 25th of February 1785, in Lon-
don.

The third hypoth: fis is that of thofe who afcribe the va-
riations of the barometer to the prefence or abfeace of va-
pours in the atmofphere; but Mr Kirwan infers, from a
view of the nature of vapours, and the change they pro-
duce in the weight and elatticity of the atmofphere, that
this theory does not fully account for the phenomena.
If we fuppofe, favs he, the atmofphere perfeétly dry, the
barometer at 30 inches, and the thermometer at 65, and
then a column of it to be faturated with moifture, its elaf-
ticity being increafed =|, which, according to his computa-
tion, would be the cafe, it will contain +. of its volume
lefs air than before faturation, fince the increafe of its elaf-
ticity arifes from the introduction of a new elaftic fluid
amounting to J, of its bulk; and fince the weight of the
whole volume was at firft equal to that of 30 inches of
mercury, its weight will now be leffened by 2, of 30 inches,
that is nearly 0.59 of an inch. But on the other hand, it

ained 1. of its volume of vapour, and therefore its real
Pfs of weight will be the difference of the weight of 4. of
air, and of 4; of vapour; but the weight of air is to that of
vapour as I2 to 10, therefore the gain here is 0.49 of an
inch, which deducted from 0.59 the lofs, leaves the lofs
+, of an inch. Accordingly, this is the variation which
the barometer fhould undergo by the paflage of a column
of air from abfolute drynefs to complete faturation; a cir-
cumftance which never takes place, as the atmofphere is
never abfolutely dry; and yet previoufly to heavy rains, we
often obferve the barometer to fali 3, 4, or 5 tenths of aa

a

inch; a fall which, from the above calculation, cannot ori-
ginate from the faturation of the atmofphere with vapour.
Nor is there any proportion between the afcent of mercury
after heavy rains, and the weight of vapour condenfed ; for
in fuch cafes, the mercury frequently rifes 3 or 4 tenths of
an inch; and yet the heavieft rain feldom produces one
cubic inch of water, and the weight of a cubic inch of
water is not equal to that of even one tenth of a cubic inch
of mercury.

Mr. Kirwan, having examined the caufes to which the
variable weight of the atmofphere and height of the baro-
meter have been ufually referred, and controverted their
fufficiency, proceeds to explain that which alone feems to
him adequate to the effets produced. ‘This, in his opinion,
is the accumulation of air over thofe parts of the globe in
which the mercury exceeds its mean height; that is, the
height fuited to its fituation; and the diminution or fub-
traction of the natural quantity of air over thofe regions in
which the mercury falls beneath its mean height. 1n order
to trace the origin of this accumulation and diminution, this
ingenious author confiders what may be called the natural
ftate of the atmofphere, and how that ftate may be difturbed.
The natural {tate of the atmofphere is that in which the ba-
rometer on the Jevel of the fea would ftand at 30 inches in
ferene weather, conformably to the fifth obfervation above
mentioned. For producing this ftate, the weight of the
atmofphere muft be every where equal at the furface of the
fea; and as its weight proceeds from its denfity and height,
in order to obtain this equality of weight, it fhould be
loweft where its denfity is greateft, and higheft where its
denfity is leaft; and thefe extremes of denfity take place in
the equatorial and polar regions. Hence it follows, that if
the height of the mercury be 30 inches under the equator
and under the poles, the atmoiphere mutt be higheft under
the equator and loweft under the poles, with feveral interme-
diate gradations. (See Figure af the ATMosPHERE.) But
though the equatorial air be lefs denfe to a certain height
than the polar, yet at certain greater heights it muft be
more denfe ; for the mercurial heights at the level of the
fea being equal, the maffes of the correfponding atmofpherie
columns mutt be equal. The fame obfervation applies to
the extratropical columns with refpe& to each other, where
great differences of heat prevail. Fred ic follows, that in
the higher regions of the atmofphere, the denfer equatorial
air, not being fupported by the collateral extratropical co-
lumns, gradually flows to the north and fouth. If the af-
fluence ot the northern and fouthern air to the equator by
the trade winds kept pace with the effluence of the fupe-
rior air, fome degree of equilibrium might fill be manta’ned.
But the trade winds move osly at the rate of about $ miles
an hour; whereas without the tropics, or at leat beyond
latitude 30°, the currents of the upper acmofphere are in-
comparably more rapid. ‘The mean heat of the whole {pace
between latitude 0° and latitude 30° being only feven des
grees lefs than the mean heat under the equator, the difs
ference of denfity is not fo great as to caufe any rapid col-
lapfion of the fuperior columns within that fpace; but from
latitude 30° to !atitude 60°, a much {malier pace, the mean
annual heat over the ocean differs from thet of latitude 30°
by nearly fourteen degrees; and, theretore, the rapidity of the -
upper current towards the polar regions is much greater, and
will occalioinfrequent interruptions, during which the weight
of the air will be diminifhed. Hence, notwithitanding the
hizh winds that frequently preveil between the tropics,
the barometer inconfiderably and but feldom varies; whereas,
without them, the variations are freq :ent and cont:derable,
nearly in proportion to the diltance from the equator: a

thus

BAROMETER.

thus the fecond obfervation is fufficiently explained, Dur-
ing the fummer of the northern hemifphere, when it is win-
ter inthe fouthern, the denfity of the equatorial air becomes
fuperior to that of the fouthern air at a much lower height
than that at which it becomes fuperior to the northern,
which is expanded by the prefence of the fun in the northern
tropic ; the exuberance will therefore be poured on the fouth-
ern regions, anda {maller quantity will flow over the north-
ern; confequently the variations of the barometer are
{maller with us in the fummer feafon. In winter, on the
contrary, the fuperior current is chiefly dire&ted to the
northern hemifphere,and hence the greateft mercurial heights
are found in this feafon; and thus the third obfervation is
illuftrated and confirmed. This accumulation takes place
where the columns of the inferior air are coldeft and fhortett,
as over that part of Afia beyond latitude 35°, and eaft of the
Cafpian fea to the Frozen ocean, and over the continent of
North America; and hence the barometer ufually ftands
higher in North America, and varies lefs than with us even
in Hudfon’s bay, latitude 59%. Accumulations are alfo
found in the fouthern parts of the old continent ; and
when the rarefaGtion in the northern parts of Europe is fre-
quent and confiderable, the fouthern air flows from thefe
traéts to reftore the equilibrium, and while this current lafts,
the barometer mutt fall in the intermediate regions ; fo that
the defcent of the mercury is never the effe@t of a foutherly
wind, but both it and this wind are the concomitant effeéis
of a rarefaGtion in the northern parts. On the other hand,
the mercury generally rifes under a northerly or eafterly wind,
becaufe the fuperior atmofphere is accumulated chiefly in
thofe parts ef our hemifphere from whence thefe winds iffue,
and this accumulated air paffes with them to the fouthern
regions. Inthe fame manner, when the mercury falls t efore
a ftorm, both the ftorm and this fall proceed from a great
rarefaction of the airin the quarter towards which the ftorm
blows, and this rarefaétion is occafioned by the diminution
or deftruétion of the fuperior atmofphere. As the fuperior
accumulation is derived to us chiefly from North America,
hence it is that the variations of the barometer generally
begin to the weftward with us in Europe, and are thence
gradually propagated eaftwards. In fpring the current of
fuperior air begins to flow to the fouth, and in autumn to
return from it; hence the equinoétial ftorms and frequent
variations of the barometer in thofe feafons. ‘The quantity
of equatorial air devolved on our hemifphere in different
years is variable, and fo is the quantity confumed in the
northern regions; and hence the mean barometrical height
is different in diff-rent years. In fome years, the accumu-
lation refting on the mountainous countries of the fouth of
Afia and Europe, and the northern part of Africa, is greater
than in other years ; owing perhaps to a greater or earlier
fall of fnow; when this is the cafe, the northern air is
lighter, and the fouthern colder than ufual, and fouth winds
principally prevail, which in the northern parts mult feem to
be comparatively warm ; and hence, when the winter is re-
markably icvere in the fouth of Europe and Afia, it 1s often
as remarkably mild in the northern parts, and the barometer
low. Alt>ouzh clouds anda difoolition to rain trequently
follow the defcent of the mercury, thisdefcent is not the
immediate confequence of either clouds or rain; on the
contrary, the mercury frequent-y rifes during rain. But the
yarcsa¢tion of the atmofphere, which produces the defcent
of the mercury, and which arifes from the removal of the
fuperior accumulation, 18 faveurable to the produétion of
clouds; as a heavy atmolvhere, though it iupports vapours
once formed, obftrséts evaporation; when therefore its
weight is dimensilied, and evaporation increaed, 1t foon be-
comes faturated in the higher regions, and clouds are formed.

But rain feems to arife from a fubtraction of the ele“rical
fluid, which, when the air abounds with vapours, is eafily
conducted to the earth. In ferene and fettled weather the
mercury is generally high, becaufe the jreateft difturbances
of the atmofphere are conneGted with its rarefied ftate, which
is commonly pretty diltant when the fuperior accumulation
is confiderable.

That the variations of the mercurial heights fhould be
greater at the level of the fea than at great elevations above
that level, is very natural. For fuppofing the mercury at
the level of the fea to ftand at 30 inches, and at a certain
elevation above that level at 25 inches, then if the weight
of the atmofphere be diminifhed one hundredth part, the mer=
cury at the level of the fea fhould fall one hundredth part of
30 inches = 0.3 of an inch, but that on the elevation fhould
fall one hundredth of 25 inches, = 0.25 of an inch. But
it has been obferved, that the variation on high mountains
is beyond all proportion {maller than on the level of the fea;
and this proceeds from a property which they feem to pof-
fefs of condenfing and accumulating the air incumbent upon
them in a greater degree than the air incumbent over plains is
condenfed at equal heights; and hence when the barometer
on the plains falls, and that on the mountain alfo, it will be
found, after allowing for the difference of temperature, that
the fall is proportionably greater in the inferior than in the
fuperior barometer; and, on the contrary, if the mercury
afcends in both barometers, the afcent will be proportionably
greater in the fuperior than in the inferior. To this purpofe
general Roy, found, om the 7th of Auguft 1775, at 9 o’clock,
the correct height of a barometer on Caernarvon quay
30.075, and on the peak of Snowdon 26.418 inches; at 12
o’clock, that on the quay fell to 30.043, and that on the
peak to 26.405; the fall of the mercury on the plain was
therefore +1, of the whole, and the fall on the mountain
was only 55, of its original height. On the other hand,
at 2 o’ciock, the barometer on the quay rofe to 30.045,
while that on the peak rofe to 26.415 inches correé&t height;
therefore that on the quay afcended only ,3,, of the
whole, and that on the peak afcended ,7, th part of its
height. Yet as the defcents of the mercury beneath its moft
ufual mean height are much more frequent and confiderable
than its afcents above it, the variations on mountains are
upon the whole proportionably fmaller than at the furface
ofthe fea. Fora more particular iluftration of the theory
of Mr. Kirwan, and the collateral obfervations which he
deduces trom it, we mutt refer to his paper, ubi fupra. See
Atmosruere, and Aurora Lorealis. For other prognof-
tics of the weather, befides the variations of the barometer,
fee WEATHER.

Another important purpofe to which the variations of the
barometer have been applied, is the *‘ meafur-ment of alti-
tudes.’”” Whilft M. Pafcal and M. Perrier were profecuting
experiments for afcerta:ning the weight of the air by means
of the baromete:, as early as the year 1648, they found thar
the mercurial heizhts varied according to the fituations, either
more elevated or more depr. fT-d, in which the barometer
was placed ; and hence they concluded, that this inftrument
might jerve to determine how much one place was higher
than another. M. Psfcal was not unacquainted with the
dilatability of the air, and he was therefore apprized of
one of the difficulties that have attended experiments of
this nature. ‘The firft perfon who cftimated the height of
the atmofphere on thcfe principles was Kepler; but hav-
ing, from ill-conduted experiments, very erroneous ideas of
the proportional fpecific gravities of mercury and air, he
ftated it at only two or three Englifh miles. The Honours
able Mr. Boyle, deducing from experiments the proportion
of the ipec fic gravity of mercury to that of wir to be aa 1 to

I4O0004

BAROMETER,

14030, and fuppofing the atmofphere to be equally denfe,
eftimated its height to be twice as great as Kepler’s meafure
o: atleaft 35000 feet. But when the elatticity of the air
was found to be ia an inverfe ratio of the fpace which it
occupied, or that its cordenfation was proportional to the
weight that compreffed it, and of courfe that its dilatations
were in the iaverfe proportion of thecompreffing weights, a
property firlt difcovered by Mr. Richard Townley, and de-
monttrated by Mr. Boyle, the height of the atmofphere was
more accurately afcertained. Mr. Boyle’s experiments to
this purpofe were publifhed in 1661, inhis ‘* Defenfio Doc-
trine de Aéris Elatere contra Linum,”’ and exhibited the
preceding year before the Royal Society. The law of the
dilatation of the air was difcovered alfo by M. Mariotte;
and he publifhed an account of his experiments for afcer-
taining it, in 1676, in his ‘ Effai fur la Nature de l?Air,”
and ‘ Trairé des Monvemens des Eaux.?? This law was
generally admitted by philofophers, and it was confirmed by
obfervation in all climates and at all altitudes. ‘To this pur-
pofe, M. Bouguer (Mem. Acad. Roy. Sc. 1753-) gives us
the refult of the experiments made by himfelf and M. de la
Condamine in America; and he fays that he found, without
any exception, that the elafticities of the fame mafs of air
exa@ily’correponded to the ratio of the denfities: M. Ma-
riotte applied this general law to the, inveftigation of the
total height of the atmofphere. With this view, he collected
many objervations of the barometer made at {mall heights;
and he was the firit perfon who fuggeited the ufe of loga-
rithms in eftimating heights by the deicent of the mercury
in the barometer, thovgh this method has been generally af-
cribed to Dr. Hailey; and Halley indeed firtt employed tables
of logarithms in the calculation of atmofphericel altitudes.
See Phil. Tranf. No. 181, or Abridg. vol. op. 14. Dr.
Hailey, affuming the fpecific gravity of the air to watcr,
when the barometer ftood at 30 inches, and in a mean {late
of heat and cold, to be as 1 to 800, and that of mercury
to water as 134 to 1, (fo that the weight of mercury to air
is as 10800 to 1, or a cylinder of air of 10300 inches or
goo feet is equal to an inch of mercury,) inferred ‘rom thefe
premifes, that if the air were of equal denfity, like water,
the whole atmofphere would be no more than 5.1 miles
high; and that for an alcent of every 900 feet, the baro-
meter would fink an inch. But the expanfion of the air m-
creafing in the fame proportion as the incumbent weight of
the atmofphere decreafes, the upper parts of the air are
much more rarefied than the lower, and each fpace corre-
fponding to an inch of quickfilver is graduaily enlarged, and
therefore the atmiofphere mult be extended to a much
greater height. As thefe expanfions of the air are recipro-
cally as the heights of the mercury, they may be reprefented
for any given mercurial height by means of the hyperbola and
itsafymptotes. Thns,in Plate X1. Pneumatics fig. 98, the rec-
tangles A BCE, AKGE, ALDE, &c. arealwaysequal; and
con{cquently the fides CB, KG, LD, &c. are reciprocally
asthe fides AB. AK, AL, &c. (See Hyrrrpora.) If
then AB, AK, AL, &c. be fuppofed equai to the heights
of the mercury, or the correfponding preflures of the atmo-
fphere, the lines CB, KG, LD, &c. anfwering to them,
will be as the expanfions of the air wider thofe preflures, or
the bulks which the fame quantity of air will occupy; and
if thefe expanfions be taken infinitely numerous and infi-
vitely fmell, their refpeGive fums will give the {paces of
air between the {everal heights of the barometer; 1. e. the
fum of ail the lines between CB and KG, or the area
CBKG, will be proportional to the diftance or interval in-
tercepted between the levels of two places in the air, where
the mercury would itand at the heights reprefented by the
lines AB, AK; and, therefore, the {paces of the air anfwere

ing to equal parts of mercury in the barométer are asthe
areas CBKG, GKLD, DLUMF, &c.; but thefe areas are
proportional to the logarithms of the numbers exprefling the
ratios of AK to AB, of AL to AK, of AMto AL, &e.

Thus, by the common table of logarithms, the heightof

any place in the atmofphere, having any afligned height of
the mercury, may very eafily be found; for the line CB in
the hyperbola, the areas of which reprefent the tabular
logarithms, being 0.0144765, we fhall have the following
proportion: as0.144765 isto the difference of the loga=
rithms of 30 and of any leffer number, fo is the {pace an+
f{wering to an inch of mercury, if the air were equally preffed
with 30 inches of mercury, and every where alike, or 900
feet, to the height of the barometer in the air, where it will
ftand at that lefler number of inches. By the converfe of
this propofition, the height of. the mercury may be found
correfponding to the given altitude of the place. It fhould
be obferved, that the number 0.0144765 is the mean’ be-
tween 0.0147232, the difference of the logarithms of 30
and 29; and 0.014204, the difference of the logarithms
of 30 and 3r. The firft difference reprefents the mean
denfity of the air between the heights of 30 and 26 inches
indicated by the barometer; and the’ fecond difference re-
prefents the mean denfity between 30 and 31; and the den-
fity of the air at 30 inches is the mean between thefe two
denfities. This calculation of Dr. Halley is founded on
the fuppofition of equal and uniform gravity; but fir Ifaac
Newton refolved the problem more geverally (Princ. Phi-
lof. Nat. Math. 1. ii. §5.); and extended it to the true
{tate of the cafe, where gravity is as the fquare of’ the
diltance inverfely ; and he fhewed, that when the diftances
from the earth’s centre are in harmonic progreflion, the
denfities are in geometric progreffion. He alfo fhews, in
general, what progreffion of the diltances, on any fuppofi-
tion of gravity, will produce a geometrical progreflion of
the denfities fo as to obtain a feries of lines which will be
1 garthms of the denfities. See alfo Cotes’s “* Hydroflati-
cal LeGures,”’? and ‘“ Harmonia Menforarum,” and thear-
ticie Height of the ArmosPHEReE, and Atmofpherical Loca-
RITHMIC in this diGionary. By thefe rules Dr. ree

var

culated toe tollowing tables: 3

Heights of the

sven Heights cl] ariudes. ~ |) Given Altitudes.
the Mercury H Nercury.
I:.ches Miles. Feet} Feet. Inches
a? == fe} f —_—-—|
| 29 —— |—_ 915 ||1000 —
25 ———— 186 }i20.0
27 ————_|-
Ii 3863}4900
25 4922)|5090
20 1094.7||Mules
15 15715
10 29662
5 48378
i ——/|—_ 91831
o5 ee eakd)|
Q.25 — ey
QL ———!|29 or 154000)
0.01 41 or 216169)
0.001 53 or 278335)

Upon thefe fuppofitions it appears, that at the height of
41 miles, the air is fo rarefied as to take 1p 3000 times the
{pace it occupies here; and at 53 miles high it would be

expanded

N

‘il

of matter weighing half a grain.

-

BAROMETER;

expanded above.36,009 times: but it is probable, fays Dr.
Halley, that the utmoft power of its {pring cannot exert
itfelf to fo great an extenfion, and that no part of the atmo-
{phere reaches above 45 miles from the furface of ‘the earth,
However, it follows, from the principles above ftated, that
the air has a finite denfity at aninfimte dillance from the
centre of the earth, or fuch as would be reprefented by an
ordinate drawn through the centre. But at great diftances
its rarity would he fo great, that its refiftance would be in-
fenfible, though the retardation occafioned by it has been
accumulated for ages. At the moderate diltance of 500
miles, the rarity is fo great that a cubic inch of common
air expanded to thet degree would occupy a {phere equal to
the orbit of Saturn; and the whole retardation fultained by
this planet, after fume millions of years, would not exceed
what would be occafioned by its meeting with one particle
Hence it may be reafon-
ably inferred, that the vifible univerfe 18 occupied by air,
which, by its gravitation, will accumulate itfelf round every
body in it, in a proportion depending on their refpeive
quantities of matter; the larger bodies attraéting more of
it than the {mall ones, and thus forming an atmofphere
about each.

Dr. Halley obferves, that as the weight of the atmo-
fphere is different at different times, its lower parts will be
unequally prefled, and confequently its fpecific gravity will
be alfo variable. This variation he partly aferibes to the
effe& of heat and cold, and alfo to the influence of other
caufes; but he was of opinion, that the condenfation and
rarefation, occafioned by cold and heat, and by the
various mixtures of aqueous and other vapours, compen-
fate one another; for he fays, that whenthe air is rare-
fied by heat, the vapours are molt copioufly raifed; fo

that though the air, properly fo called, be expanded and

confequently becomes lighter, yet, its interitices being
crouded with vapours and other matter f{pecifically heavier,
the weight of the compound may continue much the fame.
He alleges an experiment of Mr. Cafwell upon the fummit
of Snowdon hill to prove, that the firft inches of mercury
have their portions of air fufficiently near to what he has de-
termined; for the height of the hill being nearly 1240
yards, Cafwell found the mercury to have fubfided to 25,6
inches, or 4 inches below the mean altitude of it at the
level of the fea, and by his own calculation the fpace an-
{wering to 4 inches fhould be 1258 yards.

M. De Luc has given an hiltorical and critical detail, in
his ‘* Recherches,” vol i. p. 159, &c. of the attempts that
have been made, and of the rules that have been propofed,
by Maraldi, Scheuchzer, I. Caffini, D. Bernouilli, Horre-
bow; and Bouguer, as well as thofe of Pafcal, Perrier, Ma-
riotte, and Halley, for applying the motion of the mercury
in the barometer to the meafurement of altitudes, But the
fubje& has been further purfued, and with a peculiar degree
of accuracy, by De Luc himfelf, fir Geo. Shuckburgh,
and Gen. Roy, as we fhall thew in the fequel of this article.

From the experiments of Boyle, Mariotte, Amontons,
and others, it was inferred that the elalticity of the air
is very nearly proportional to its denfity; and this principle,
denominated the ‘* Boylean law,’’ was aflumed by almoft all
writers on this fubjeét. Thefe experiments, however, were
Not very nice; nor were they extended to any great degrees
of compreffion, as the denfity of the air was not quadrupled
in any of them. By the later and more accurate experi-
ments of Sulzer (Mem. Berlin, vol. ix.), Fontana (Opufe.
Phyfico-Math.), M. De Luc, fir George Shuckburgh, and
Gen. Roy, it has been found that the elaiticity of the air doeg
Not increafe quite fo fait. as its denfity. From the Berlin
experiments it appears, that the elaflicity of the air of the

temperature 55°, or the compreffing force, increafes fo
much more flowly than the denfity, that if the comprefling
force be doubled, the denfity will exceed the double by
about a.tenth part, &e. The law of this variation is ex-
preffed with tolerable exaétvels, by fuppofing that if D be
the denfity of the air, and F the force compreffing it, then
1D a RSE NS being a very fmall fraétion, nearly .OO15.
But new experiments are wanting to afcertain the law of
this inequality with precilion. Neverthelefs, the general re-
fult has been, that the elalticity of rarefied air is very nearly
proportional to its denlity; and thé Boylean law may in
general be affumed in cafes of the greatett pra&tical im-
portance, or when the denfity does rot much exceed or fall
ae of that of ordinary air. See Exasticity of the
ir.

If we fuppofe the air to be of the temperature of 32° of
Fahrenheit, and the mercury to ftand in the barometer at
30inches, we mutt allow =. th of an inch for its defcent if it
be elevated 87 feet; and, accordingly, if the air were equally
denfe and heavy every where, the height of the atmofphere
would be 30 x 10 x 87 feet, or about 5 miles. But as
the air is an elaftic uid, whofe denfity is always propor-
tional to the comprefling force, the altitude of the atmo-
{phere will be much greater; and the method of eftimating
it by Dr. Halley and others, admits of a familiar illuftration.
Suppofe then that a prifmatic or cylindric columa of air,
reaching to the top of the atmofphere, were divided into an
indefinite number of layers or ftrata of very {mall but equal
thicknefs, and that every one of the particles of air that
form thefe ftrata were of the fame weight at all diftances ”
from the furface of the earth 3 it is plain, that the quantity
of air in each ftratum’ is as the denfity of the itratum,
oras the comprefling force, that is, the weight or quantity of
matter of the fuperior and incumbent ftrata; confequently the
quantity of air in each ftratum is proportional to the fuper-
incumbent air; but the quantity in each ftratum is the difs
ference between the column on its bottom and on its top,
and, therefore, thefe differences are proportional to the
quantities of which they are the differences. But in a fe-
ries of quantities proportional to their differences, the quan-
tities themfelves and their differences will be in continued
geometrical progreffion: e. g. let a,b, ¢ be three fuch quan-
tities; then b:¢ :: a—b:b—c; and, by alternation,
b:a—b::c:b —cs and, by compoflition, bia::¢: 5,
anda:::b:c. Hence it appears that the denfities of
the ftrata decreafe in a geometrical progreffion; that is,
when the elevations above the centre or furface of the earth
increafe, or their depths under the top of the atmofpliere de-
creafe, in an arithmetical progreffion, the denfities decreafe
in a geometrical progreflion, This principle may be ap-
plied to the purpofe of meafuring atmolpherical altitudes in
the manner of Dr. Halley above ftated, or by means of that
{pecies of logarithmic curve, called from this application aad
ufe of it the “ atmofpherical logarithmic.” (See Logarith-
mic Curve, and Atmofpherical Locaritumic.) Let
ARQ (fg. 99.) reprefent the feion of the-earch by a
plane pafling through its centre O, and let mOAM bea
vertical line, and 4£, perpendicular to OA, will be an hori-
zontal line pafling through 4, a point on the furfa¢e of the
earth. Let 4£ reprefent the denfity of the air at 4; and
let DH, parallel to4#, be taken in proportion to 4Z, as
the denfity at D is to the denfity at 4; and hence it is evi-
dent, that if a logiftic or logarithmic curve EH be drawn,
having WV for its axis. and pafling through the points E
and #7, the denfity of the air at any other point C, in this
vertical line, will be reprefented by CG, the ordinate to the
curve in that point; becaufe it is the property of this curve,
that if portions 4B, AC, AD, of its axis be taken in arith-

metical

BAROMETER.

wetical progreffion, the ordinates 4Z, BF, CG, DH, will
be in geometrical progreflion. It is another fundamental
property of this curve, that if ZX or HS touch the
curve in £ or H, the fubtangeat AK or DS is a conftant
quantity. Moreover, the infinitely extended area J7AEN
is equal to the re@tangle KAZL of the ordinate and fub-
tangent; and the area MDHWN is equal to SD x DH,
or to Kd x Di; and, therefore, the area lying beyond
any ordinate is proportional to that ordinate. Thefe pro-
perties are analogous to the principal circumftances in the
conttitution of the atmofphere, on the fuppofition of equal
gravity. The area MCGWN repreferts the whole quantity
of aerial matter above C, for CG is the denfity at C, and
CD is the thicknefs of the ftratum between C and D, and,
therefore, CGHD will be as the quantity of air in it, and fo
of all the others, and of thcir fums, or of the whole area
MCGN ; end as each ordinate is proportional to the area
above it, fo each denfity, and the quantity of air in each
ftratum, is proportional to the quantity of air above it; and
as the whole area MAEN is equal to the re@angle KALL,
fo the whole air of variable denfity above 4 might be con-
tained in a column AA, if, inflead of being compreffed by
its own weight, it were without weight, and comprefled by
an external force equal to the prefiure of the air at the fur-
face of the earth; and, in this cafe, its uniform denfity
would be expreffed by “Z, the meafure of the denfity at
the furface of the carth, and it would form what may be
called the homogenous atmofphere. Hence it follows,
that the height of this atmofphere is the fubtangent of that
curve, whofe ordinates are as the denfities of the air at dif-
ferent heights, on the fuppofition of equal gravity. In or-
der to determine this fubtangent, we may compare the den-
fities of mercury and air; for a column of air of uniform
denfity, reaching to the top of the homogenous atmo-
fphere, counterbalances the mercury in the barometer.
From the beit experiments it is inferred, that when mercury
and air are of the temperature of 32° of Fahrenheit, and
the barometer ftands at 30 inches, the mercury is nearly
10440 times denfer than air; confequently the height of
the homogenous atmofphere is 10440 X 30 inches =
313200 inches = 26100 feet = 8700 yards = 5 miles
wanting 100 yards. Or we may find this height by ob-
ferving the variations of the barometer at known altitudes,
thus; when the mercury and air are of the above tempera-
ture, and the barometer on the fea-fhore ftands at 30 inches,
an afcent of S83 feet will caufe it to fall to 29 inches.
Moreover, in all logarithmic curves having equal ordinates,
the portions of the axes intercepted between the correfpond-
ing pairs of ordinates, are proportional to the fubtangents ;
and the fubtangent of the curve belonging to our common
tables is 0.4342945 ; and the difference of the logarithms of
30 and 29, which 1s the part of the axis intercepted between
the ordinates 30 and 29, or 0.0147233 : 0.4342945 :: 883
: 26046 feet = 8680 yards = 5 miles wanting 120 yards,
differing from the former refult 20 yards. This difference
refults from the difficulty of accurately afcertaining the re-
{pective denfities of mercury and air, and alfo of duly efti-
mating the elevation which caufes a fall of one inch in the
barometer. This inveftigation, however, proceeds upon the
fuppofition of equal gravity ; whereas it is well known, that
the weight of a particle of air decreafes as the fquare of its
diftance from the centre of the earth increafes. In order,
therefore, that a fuperior ftratum may produce an equal
preflure at the furface of the earth, it muft be denfer, be-
caufe a fingle particle of it gravitates lefs; confequently, the
denfity at equal elevations muft be greater than on the fup-

pofition of equal gravity, and the law of its diminution muft
be different.

Make 0D: 04 :: OA: Od;

OG.: OA OA Oc

OB: OA ::,04 ; Ob, &c: fo that
Od, Oc, Ob, OA, may be reciprocals to OD, OC, OB, OA;
and through the points 4, b, c, d, draw the perpendiculars
AE, bf, eg, dh, proportional to the denhties in 4, B, C, Ds
and let CD be fuppofed exceedingly imall, fo that the den-
fity may be fuppofed uniform through the whole ftratum.
Then we ‘hall have, OD x Od = OA? = OC x Oc; and
Oc: Od:: OD : OC; and Oc : Oc — Od::0D: 0D — 00,
or Oc: cd:70D: DC, and cd: CD :: Oc: OD; or bes
caule OC and OD are ultimately in the ratio of equality,
we have cd: CD :: Oc: OC :: OA? : OC?, and cd = CD

Of
OG? but CD x

OA y,
xX OG andcd x cg = CD x eg x
Om. :

Oa 83s the preffure at C arifing from the abfolute
weight of the ftratum CD ; for this weight is as the buik,
as the denfity, and as the gravitation of each particle joint-

ly. But CD expreffes the bulk, cg the denfity, 0G

the gravitation of each particle. Confequently cd x eg is
as the preflure on C€ arifing from the weight of the ftratum
DC; but cd x eg is evidently the clement of the curvilineal
area AmnE tormed by the curve Efghn, and the ordinates
AE, bf, cg, ah, &c. mn. Therefore the fum of all the ele-
ments fuch as cdhg, that is the area cmng below cg, will be
as the whole preflure on C, arifing from the gravitation of
ail the air above it; but by the nature of air, this whole
prefflure is as the denfity which it produces, that is, as og.
Hence it appears that the curve £gn is fuch, that the area
lying below or beyond any ordinate cg is proportional to
that ordinate; and this being the property of the logarithmic
curve, £gn isa curve of this nature. Befides, this curve is
the fame with EGN ; for let B continually approach to 4,
and ultimately coincide with it. It is evident that the ulti-
mate ratio of BA to 4b, and of BF to Bf, is that of equa-
lity ; and if EF K, Ef2, be drawn, they will contain equal
angles with the ordinate 4£, and will cut off equal fubtan-
gents 4K, dé. The curves EGN, £gn, are, therefore, the
fame in oppofite pofitions. Moreover, if 0.4, Ob, Oc, Od,
&c. be taken in arithmetical progreffien decreafing, their
reciprocals 0.4, OB, OC, OD, &c., will be in harmonical
progreffion increafing (fee ProGression): but, from the
nature of the logarithmic curve, when 0.4, 0, Oc, Od, &c.
are in arithmetical progreffion, the ordinates 4E, bf, cg, dh,
&c. are in geometrical progreffion. Confequently, when
04, OB, OC, OD, &c. are in harmonical progreffion, the
denfities of the air at 4, B, C, D, &c. are in geometrical
progreffion; and thus the denfities of the air at all eleva-
tions may be difcovered. Thus, to find the denfity of the
air at X, the top of thc homogeneous atmofphere, make OK
: OA :: OA: OL, and draw the ordinate LT; LT is the
denfity at KX.

The correétion for the diminifhed gravity of the air ftated
by profeffor Playfair (Edinb. Tranf. vol. i, p. 118.) is a
third proportional to the femidiameter of the earth, and
the height as computed by the ordinary rule; and for dif-
ferent mountains, this correCtion is in the duplicate ratio of
their heights. Dr. Horfley finds (Phil. Tranf. vol. lxiv.),
that in a height of 4 Englifh miles, the diminution of den-
fity or volume from the accelerative force of gravity would be
only ~3oth part of the whole, or about 48 feet ; and this ef-
fe&, being in the duplicate ratio of the heights, becomes at
one mile high only three feet. Below the furface of the
earth, it is but half the quantity; gravity within the earth
being fimply as the diltance from the centre. r

$

eg xX

and ——

q

BAROMETER.

As the heights of the mercury in the barometer in all
acceffible elevations indicate the denfities of the air at thofe
elevations, the method of taking heights by this inftrument
may be illuftrated in the following familiar manner.

It has already been obferved, that if the mercury in the
barometer ftand at 30 inches, and the air and mercury be of
the fame temperature of 32° VFahrenheit, a column of air
87 feet thick has the fame weight with a column of mercury
yy of an inch thick : and therefore if in afcending the mer-
eury finks to 29.9 inches, the interval of afcent is 87 feet.
Suppofe the mercury at a higher elevation to fland at 29.8
juches, and it be required to know the height to which the
barometer has been carried. The ftratum through which it
has been raifed, as the air is lefs compreffed and rarer, mult
of courfe be thicker. The denfity of the firft itratum may
be called 300, eftimating the denfity by the number of tenths
of an inch of mercury which its elafticity proportional to its
denfity enables it to fupport. In the fame manner the
denfity of the fecond ftratum muft be 299. But when thie
weights are equal, the bulks are inverfely as the denfities ;
and when the bafes of the {trata are equal, the bulks are as
the thicknefles. In order therefore to obtain the thicknefs
of the fecond flratum. fay 299: 300:: 87: 87.29, which
denotes the thicknefs of the fecond ftratum ; and therefore
the whole interval of the elevaticn of the barometer has
been 174.29 feet. When the barometer at a higher ele-
vation, fhews the denfity to be 298, fay 298: 300:: 87:
87.584 the thicknefs of the third ftratum, and 261.875
will be the whole afcent. By this method may be com.
puted the following table, in which the firft column is the
height of the mercury in the barometer, the fecund column
is the thicknefs of the ftratum, or the elevation above the
preceding ftation, and the third column is the whole elevation
above the firlt (tation. :

Bar. | Strat. Elev.

30 60.000 00.000
29.9 | 87.0co §7.coo
29.8 | 87.291 174.291
29.7 | 87.584 261.875 }
29.6 | 87.879 | 349-754
29.5 | 88.176 437-930
29.4 | 88.475 | 526.405
29.3 | 88.776 615.151
29.2 | 89.079 704.260
29.1 | 89.384 | 793-044
29 89.691 883.335

ee

Tn order to meafure any elevation within the limits of this
table, obferve the barometer at the lower and at the upper
flations, and write down the correfponding elevations; {ub-
trad the one from the other, and the remainder is the
height required. E. G. Suppofe that at the lower ftation
the mercurial height was 29.8, and that at the upper ftation
it was 29.1.

793-044
174 291

; 619.353the elevation required.
Without the aid of the table, let m reprefent the medium
of the mercurial heights, and d their difference in tenths of
aninch; then fay, asm is to 300, fo is 87d to the height
Vor. Ill.

300% 87d __ 26100d

required h; or b = Thus in the

m m
preceding example, m is 20.45, and d = .7; and therefore,
Ipc SOOO. Lee 620.4, differing only one
29-45 29-45

foot from the former value. The whole error of the eleva.
tion 553 feet 4 inches, the extent of the table, eftimated in
either of thefe methods, is only 3'* of an inch. It is need-
lefs however to recur to approximations, when the {cientific
and more accurate method firlt pra@ifed by Dr. Halley is
equally eafy. Upon the fuppofition of equal gravity, as we
have already fhewn, the denfities of the air are ag the
ordinates of a logarithmic curve whofe axis is the line of
elevations. It has been alfo fhewn; that, in the true theory
of gravity, if the diftances from the centre of the earth in-
creafe in an harmonic progreflion, the denfities will de-
creafe in an arithmetical progreflion; but if the greatett
elevation above the furface be but a few miles, this harmonic
progreflion will fearcely differ from an arithmetical one.
Thus if 4b, 4c, Ad, are 1, 2, and 3 miles, the correfpond-
ing elevations 4B, AC, AD, will be fenfibly in arith-
metical progreffion alfo ; for the earth’s radius AC, is
nearly 40co miles. Hence it follows that BC—AB is

———__— = -___——- of a mile, or ,4, of an inch,
4509 X 4001 10004000
which isa quantity altogether infignificant. We may there-
fore affiume, that 1n all aceeffible places, the elevations in-
creafe in arithmetical progreffion, while the denfities decreafe
ina geometrical progreffion. Confequently the ordinates
are proportional to the numbers which are taken to mea-
fure the denfities, and the portions of the axis are pro-
portional to the logarithms of thefe numbers. Hence it
follows, that we may take fuch a feale for meafuring the
denfities, that the logarithms of the numbers of this {cale
fhall be the portions of the axis, that is, of the vertical line
in feet, yards, fathoms, or any other meafure; and we may,
on the other hand, chufe fuch a fcale for meafuring our
elevations that the logarithms of our feale of denfities fhall
be parts of this feale of elevations; and either of thefe {cales
may be found {cientitically. For it is a known property of
the logarithmic curves, that when the ordinates are the
fame, the intercepted portions of the ab{ciff are proportional
to theirfubtangents. But the fubtangent of the atmofphe-
rical logarithmic is known; it is the height of the homoge-
neous atmofphere in any meafure we pleafe, e. g. fathoms ;
and we find this height by comparing the gravities of air
and mercury, when both are of fome determined denfity.
Thus in the temperature of 32° of Fanhrenheit, when the
barometer ftands at 30 inches, it is known, asthe refult of
many experiments, that mercury is 10423.068 times heavier
than air; therefore the height of the counter-balancing: co-
lumn of homogeneous air will be 10423.068 times 30 inches,
that is, 4342.945 Englifh fathoms. It is alfo known that
the fubtangent of our common logarithmic tables, where
1is the logarithm of the number 10, is 0.4342945. Con-
fequently the number 0.4342094.5 is to the difference D of
the logarithms of any two barometric heights as 4342.945
fathoms are to the fathoms F contained in the portion of
the axis of the atmofpherical logarithmic, which is in-
tercepted between the ordinates equal to thefe barometrical
heights; or that 0.4342945 : D :: 4342.945: F, and
0.4342945 :4342.9045 :: D:F; but 0.4342945 is the ten
thoufandth part of 4342.945, and therefore D is the ten
thoufandth part of F.
Thus it accidentally happens, that the logarithms of the
48 den&tics,

BAROMETER,

denfities meafured by the inches of mercury which their
ela{ticity fupports in the barometer, are juft the ten thou-
fandth parts of the fathoms contained in the correfponding
portions of the axis of the atmofpherical logarithmic.
"Therefore if we multiply our common logarithms by 10000,
they will exprefs the fathoms of the axis of the atmofpherical
logarithmic. Our logarithms contain the index or charac-
teriftic, which is an integer, and a number of decimal places.
Let us then remove the integer’place four figures to the
right hand; thus, the logarithm of 60 is 1.7781513; mul-
tiply this by roooo, and we obtain 17781 $23..

This reafoning may be eafily applied to practice, thus ;
obferve the heights of the mercury in the barometer and at
the upper and lower ftations in inches and decimals; take
the logarithms of thefe, and fubtract the one from the other ;
and the difference between them, accounting the four firlt
decimal figures as integers in the manner now propofed, is
the difference of elevation in fathoms.

EG:
Mercurial height at the lower ftation 29.8 -
At the upper ftation z9 1 -

1.4.742163
1.4635930

Difference of logarithms X 190000 - - ©60103.233
or 103 fathoms and 433, of a fathom, which is 619.192

Tooo
feet or 619 feet 43 inches, differing from the approximated
value before found about 4 an inch. We have thus availed
ourfelves of the familiar and very intelligible illuftration of
the method cf meafuring heights by means of the barometer
propofed and reduced to pratice by Dr. Halley, given by
an ingenious anonymous writer in the ‘ Encyclopedia
Britannica,”’ art. ‘* Pneumatics.”? By this method it was
* found that when the temperature of air and mercury was 32°
of Fahrenheit, the difference of the logarithms of the mer-
curial heights was precifely equal to the number of fathoms
of elevation; and it was verified upon the whole in praétice,
by geometrical furveys and meafurements.

The utility of it, however, was of very limited extent; and
it was feldom adopted, till M. De Luc firft, and after him
fir George Shuckburgh and general Roy, introduced in con-
fequence of numerous obfervations and well-conducted ex-
periments fuch improvements. and correCtions as were found
to be neccflary for expediting the practice of it and render-
ing the refult of it accurate.

M. De Luc’s apparatus of portable barometers, and their
annexed thermometers, with which he made his obfervations,
hath been already defcribed. In the confcruétion of his
barometers he guarded as much as poffible again{t the im-
perfections and faults to which thofe of the common fort
are fubj2&. The error arifing from the repulfion of the
mercury by the glafs tubes he remedied by fubitituting a
fiphon barometer inftead of the fimple upright tube, fo that
the repulfion of the two legs of the fiphon might countera@
itfelf. Another error refulting from air and moiture in the
barometrical tube he obviated by boiling the mercury in the
tube, and by other precautions. And he alfo fhews how to
correct miftakes in the eftimation of heights that are owing
to variations of the denfity of the mercury, and alfo of the
air, occafioned by heat and cold, by means of allowances
depending on two thermometers, one attached to the frame
of the barometer itfelfand the other expofed to the open air
for fhewing its degree of heat; and thefe thermometers are
to be noted both at the top and bottom of the hill, From
the ule of this apparatus in a great variety of obfervations
he deduced a rule for calculating the heights of places,
which he verified by numerous experiments. Dr. Mafke-
lyne and bifhop Horfley have reduced his rule from the

qk

French to the Englifh meafure, and adapted it to the there
mometers of Fahrenheit’s {cale. M. De Luc (fee Recherches)
&e. vol. i, p. 362—364) in the winter feafon, heated the
air of his room to as great a degree as poflible, and obferved
the rife of the barometer occafioned by the diminution of
its denfity or fpecific gravity by heat; and he alfo noted the
height of the thermometer, both before and after the room
was heated. Hence he deduced a rule that when the
barometer is at 27 French inches, which was the cafe in
this experiment, an increafe of heat from freezing to that of
baltae water will raife the barometer 6 lines, or 2th part of
the whole. But when the barometer is higher than 27
inches, this variation muft increafe in the fame proportions
or it will be always th of the height of the barometen
Confequently if the height be called B, the rife of the ba-
rometer cerre{ponding to an increafe of heat from freezing to
boiling water, will be ——; and as it willbe lefs for a lefs
5:

difference of heat, if the number of degrees marked on the
thermometer between freezing and boiling water be called
K, and the rife of the thermometer from any given point
oe called H, the correfponding rife of the barometer will be
>

eee aes a by the increafe of heat from the given point
54

by the number of degrees HH. With a decreafe of heat, 7
would fignify the degrees of decreafe, and the barometer

#7. .Phenfixed temperature of

would fink by —— x

54
heat to which M. De Luc reduced his-obfervations of the
barom:ter is ¢th of the interval from freezing to boiling
water above the former point; and if the thermometer was

higher than this degree, he Fuberatiede x =e if it was
lower, he added this quantity to the obferved height of
the barometer; and he thus obtained its exaét height, or fuch
as it would have been, if the denfity of its quickfilver had
been the fame zs anfwers to the fixed degree of temperature.
He thus correéted the height of both his barometers, that
at the bottom and that at the top of the hill, for the parti-
cular degree of heat, indicated by a thermometer attached
to the barometer at each ftation. TThefe correéted heights
of the barometers were thofe which he ufed in his calcula-
tions. Then, calling thefe two altitudes of the barometer:
at the lower and at the upper ftations, B and 4, and ufing
log.-B, and log. 2 for their logarithms, teken out of the
common tables, and aflumin, the four firft places of figures
after the index as integers, and the three remaining figures as
decimals, and putting C for the mean height of a thermo-
meter, expofed tothe air at the top and bottom of the hill,
the freezing pomt being 0, and the point of boiling water at
80, he found by his experiments that the height of the hill
would be given in French toifes, when C.was 163, by merely
taking the difference of the logarithms of the heights of

the barometer, or log. B — log. 6; and in any other de- —

gree of heat, would be greater or lefs in proportion as the
rarity of the air was greater or lefs than in the fixed tempe-
rature; or greater or lefs, by ={<th part of the whole,
for every degree of the thermometer reckoned from the
fixed temperature 163: and confequertly the height of
the place would be exprefled generally in French toifes

by this formula, viz. log. B — log. + log. B — log. 6

Gop: 16% Slog. Blog. b x fee ae 16% Thee
caro 215
duction of this formula to Englifh meafure and to the feale

of

—

BAROMETER.

of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, is performed by the aftronomer
royal (Phil. Tranf. vol. lxiy. p. 162), in the following man-
ner. The French foot is to the Englith foot as 1.06575 to
x (Phil. Tranf. vol. lviii. p. 326); and the Fahrenhecit’s
point of freezing is 32, and that of boiling water 212, hav-
ing an interval of r80 degrees. But M. De Luc’s point of
boiling water or 8o was marked when the barometer was at
27 French inches, that being its mean height at Geneva ;
but our Englith workmen mark the fame point on Fahren-
heit’s feale, when the barometer ftands at 30 inches, which
is equal to 28 inches 1.8 lines French meafure, or 13.8 lines
higher than M. De Luc’s barometer, when he adjuited the
point of boiling water on his thermometer ; and it is well
known, that the heat of boiling water varies with the
weight of the atmofphere. M. De Lue from his experi-
ments inferred, that an increafe of one line in the height of
the barometer raifes the mercury of the thermometer, placed
in boiling water, ~1,;th part of the interval between the
freezing point and that of boiling water, though the rule
will not apply to large variations of the barometer occafion-
ed by very great heights above the carth’s furface. The
change of the boiling point in Fahrenheit’s feale correfpond-
ing to a change of one line in the barometer, will be 789,
= 0.16; and therefore 13,8lineswill produceo.16 x 13.8=2.2
degrees of Fahrenheit’s fcale; and a thermometer, whofe
point of boiling water was marked 212, when the barometer
ttood at 30 Englifh inches = 28 inches 1.8 lines French
meafure, will, when the barometer defcends to 27 French
inches, fink 2.2 degrees in boiling water, or to 209.8 or in
round numbers to 210 degrees, which is diltant only 178
from 32 the point of freezing. Hence it appears that an
extent of 80° of M. De Luc’s thermometer corre{ponds to
an extent of 178 of cur Fahrenheit’s thermometer; and put-
ing # for the degrees of this thermometer, correfponding
to C of M. De Luc’s, we fhall have C: F—32 :: 80: 178,

and G = F—32 x 38% which, fubftituted in M. De Luc’s

On re OO ee =

yrs ees C—162
formula, gives log. B — log. x 1 + Saga log. B
Ras se Lees ee) ai
—log.d x 1 spate 3g - ce, Oe g. B—log.d
rs oe te

I a ae o7 — 128 16.75 =log. B — log. 4

= log. B — log 6 x 1 +

To reduce thefe to our En-

a i in French toifes.

478.3
glith fathoms of 6 feet each, multiply the above expreflion
by 1.06575, and we fhall have

P= 69.27
Log. B — log. x t+ 778.38

0657
4oy.1t + F cst =

478-3

Log. B — log. b x

409.11 + F
_ 445.87
se

or, in round numbers,

Log. B — log. x

log. B — log. 6 xX 1 +

— log. 4 x

sd , which expreffes the height between the two fta-

449
4jons in Englith fathoms.
In thefe expreflions B and 4 denote heights of the baro-

meter, at the lower and higher ftations, corrected for the
difference of heat between a fixed temperature, viz. jth of
the interval between freezing and boiling water, and the
prefent heat, indicated by the thermometer attached to the
barometer at each ftation: but it will be fufficient, and
more convenient, to correct one barometer for the difference
of the heat of the two. Suppofe then the upper barometer
is to be correéted, to reduce it to the temperature of the
lower one, and that 4 fignifies the height of this baro-
meter, as obferved and not correéted ; the correétion, from
what has been already faid, if we call D the difference of
height of the thermometer attached to the barometer at
the two ftations, e. g. at the top and bottom of the hill, will
Dé

be = ak? 3° the thermometer ftands higheft at the lower
or upper ftation; and the upper barometer corrected, in-

ftead of 4, willbe 6+ ae which fubftituted in the for-

mula, gives log. B—log. (6 + ara xI +

the correction, on account of the difference of heat of the
barometer at the two ftations, may be reduced to a more
eafy expreffion, in which the variable quantity 4, the height
of the upper barometer, fhall not appear. The fluxion of a
logarithm is to the fluxion of its natural number as the
modulus of the fyftem to the natural number; and 4343
is the modulus of the common: logarithms, when the
four places, next the index or chara¢teriftic, are
taken as whole numbers, inftead of decimals, which is
meant to be done in the ufe of the preceding formula.

being very {mall with refpe& to

54K
b, we fhall have variation of log, &: variation of 6 =
D
(- d ):: 4343 : & very nearly, and hence variation of log.
ve Do D
— a NC ic Nema ie Din std base
b= ai ge ae Fale (putting K = 178)
+ 0.452 D. Hence long. ( 6+ K
which, being fubftituted in the above formula, will give the
difference of height of the two {tations, in Englith fathoms,
in a more convenient expreffion, viz. log. B—log.d $ 0.452
FA,
Dxi+ xe
449 aia
ufed, when the thermometer of the barometer is higheft at
the lower ftation, and the lower fign, +, is to be ufed,

when the faid thermometer is loweft at the lower ftation.
When F, the height of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, is lefs

Confequently

)=log.6t0.452D;

; where the upper fign, —, is to be

than 407, --——

4
muft be accordingly applied in the calculation. In the
foregoing formula, B denotes the obferved altitude of the
barometer at the lower ftation, and 4 that at the upper
ftation; log. B and log. b denote their Icgarithms taken
out of the common tables, by affuming the four firft figures,
next following the index, as whole numbers, and con-
fidering the three remaining figures to the right hand,
as decimals ; D fignifies the difference of height of Fahren-
heit’s thermometer, atteched to the barometer at the top
and bottom of the hill; and F fignifies the mean of the two
heights of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, expofed freely for a
few minutes to the open air in the fhade, at the top and
bottom of the hill.

The

40

becoming negative or fubtractive
> >

482

BAROMETER,

The formula, for the meafure of heights, may be adapted
to thermometers of particular {eales, for the convenience of
ezleulation ; but the feales will be different from thofe of
M. De Luc. The thermometer attached to the barometer,
will be beft divided with the interval between freezing and
boiling water, confifting of 81.4 degrees (=180x.452) ;
the freezing point may be marked o, and the point of boil-
ing water will be 81.4; for then, if the difference of height
of this thermometer, at the two ftations, be called d, we
fhall have d=0.452 x D, for d: D :: 81.4: 180::
© 452 : 1, and the number of degrees exprefled by d will
fhew immediately the correGion for the difference of heat
of the two barometers. If the thermometer, defigned to
fhew the temperature of the air, be divided with the inter-
val between freezing and boiling water = 2v0, and the
freezing point be marked — 9, and the boiling point + igt,
and the heights of this thermometer, at the two ftations,
be called G and [, we hhall hate se SES “

449 2x5c0 | I[o00
For F—40 = F—32—S is the height of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, reckoned fromeight degrees above freezing,and

. F—32—8
449 : §00:: 180: 200:: 8 : 9, and the fragion ———__——
449

increafing both the numerator and denominator in the

F—32—8 x 529

ratio of 449 to 500, will become —

500
F— 32599— G+I G+I 5
cee a ee becaule ete +9
500 2 X 500 10e

= F—32 x ee Hence, if the thermometer of the baro-
meter has the freezing point marked o, and the point of
boiling water 81.4, and the difference of its height, at the
two ftations, be called d; and the thermometer jor meafur-
ing the temperature of the air be divided with the interval
of 200 between the freezing point end that of boiling wa-
ter, and the firft be marked —g, and the latter + Igl,
and the degrees, fhewn by this, at the two ftations, be
ealled G and 1; the formula that will give the height of
the upper ftation above the lower one, in Englifh fathoms,
G+lI
1600
by 6, will give the height in Englith feet. It is to be ob-
ferved, that + d, or — d, is to be ufed, as the thermometer,
attached to the barometer, is higheft at the lower or upper
ftation ; and if-G and I fhould happen to fail below o of
the fcale, or to be {ubtraGtive, they mult be applied accord-
ingly in the calculation.

The rules, expreffed in the above formula, will be in com-
mon language as follows :

T. The rule adapted to Fahrenheit’s thermometer is this.

Take the difference of the tabular logarithms of the ob-
ferved heights of the barometer at the two ftations, confider-
ing the four firft figures, exclufively of the index, as whole
numbers, and the three remaining figures to the right as
decimals, and fubtraé or add (45 %th part of the difference of
the altitude of the Fahrenlieit’s thermometer, attached to
the barometer at the two lations, according as it was higheft
at the lower or upper ftation: thus you will have the
heicht of the upper {tation above the lower in Englifh
fathoms nearly. This is to be correGted in the following
manner: fay, as 449 is to the difference of the mean alti-
tude of Yahrenheit’s thermometer, expofed to the air at the
two ftations, from 40°, fo is the height of the upper flation

will be log. B—log.b Fd x t+

, which multiplied

found nearly to the correétion of the fame: which, added
or fubtraéted, according as the mean altitude of Fahren-
heit’s thermometer was higher or lower than 40°, will give
the true height of the upper ftation above the lower, in
Englifh fathoms, and multiplied by 6 in Englith feet.

II. The rule adapted to two thermometers of particular
{cales is as follows. Take the difference of the tabular lo-
garithms of the obferved heights of the barometer, at the
two ftations, confidering the four fir figures, exclufively of
the index, as whole numbers, and the three remaining figureg
to the right as decimals; and fubtract or add the diflerence
of the thermometer of a particular fcale, attached to the
barometer, at the two ftations, according as it was hig heft
at the lower or upper ftation, and you wiil have the height
of the upper ftation above the lower one, in Englith fathoms
nearly ; fubjeét to the following correGtion : fay, as 1000
is to the fum of the altitudes of the thermometer of a parti«
cular feale, expofed to the air at both ftations, fo is the
height of the upper ftation above the lower, found nearly,
to the corre&tion of the fame; which, added or fubtra@ed,
according as the fum of the altitudes of the thermometers,
expofed to the air, is pofitive or negative, wil, give the
true height of the upper ftatton above the lower ia Englith
fathoms, and multiplied by 6, in Englith feet. Dr. Horf-
ley, the prefent bifhop of St. Afaph, has givena compa-
rifon of M. De Luc’s rules with theory, reduced them to
Engitfh meafures of length, and adapted them to Fahren-
heit’s feale of the thermometer, and added tables and pre=
cepts for expediting the praétical application of them in
the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixiv. p. 214. See Atmifpherical Lo-
GARITHMIC, and Fixed Points of THERMOMETERS.

The fcene of M. De Luc’s firft obfervations was mount
Saleve, near Geneva. Here he feicéted 15 ftations at dif-
ferent elevations; and the following table abftraGed and
abridged from his minute details (Reckerches, &c. vol. ii,
p: 213, &c.) fhews the refult of his operations :

Stations. Heights hy Number of Mean heights by
Levelling. Obfervations. the barometer,
feet. inches: feet.
To) 216 De Joy ae =" = (2303
Bah 428 Or a BRON ines es
aan a tei 20 ie See
4 - 728 Ss) es hair = Sa
ees pay bk: ~ “gies
6 - 1218 Orewa 27 = Sey ogee
7 = 1420 are = = 1p1837
8 - 18c0 OF Pee iy ="8 Seige
9 "1965." 3 3) TG ee
HO) Ey ails = - + 22107
II - 2333 "Nes gt hears
12 = 2582 AP Kos tO ~ = 2585382

The lateft and moft accurate experiments and obferva-
tions relating to this fubject, are thole of fir George Shuck«
burgh, and general Roy. In order to render the method of
meafuring altitudes by the barometer more perfe&, it is
neceflary to afcertain byappropriate ex perimentstaeexpanfion
of mercury by any increafe of temperature, and alfo the
expzrfion of air by the fame, or by any change of tempe-
rature; and alfo the variations to which its elafticity is fubjeet.

It has been already ftated, that M. De Lue eftimates the
expantion of quickfilver, between the temperatures of melt-
ing ice and boiling water, to be exa@ly 6 French lines, or
-532875 decimal parts of a Engliih inch. But he fuppofed
the barometer to {tand at 27 Fr. inches, er 29.77525 Eng.
inches ; whereas, if it nad Hood at 30 inches, it would have

been,

_

.

BAROMETER,

been 555556, becaufe the expanfion is proportional to the
length of the column, It has alfo been hewn, that M. De
Luc’s boiling point is 2.2° lower than that of Engiilh ther-
mometers, reducing it to 209.8 of Fahrenheit, and making
the interval between freezing and boiling only 177.5 degrees.
Hence the expanfion .555556 mult be augmented in the
proportion of 177.8 to 180, which gives for the total
+5624297 or 56243, on a difforence of temperature of 180°.
Thus the expantion for each degree, fuppoling it to be
arithmetical, or uniformly the fame in all parts of the feale,
will be .oo312461. But from information communicated
by M. De Luc to general Roy, it appears that the differ-
ence of temperature in his experiments amounted to about
31° of Reaumur, or 72° of Fahrenheit, above freezing 5
and therefore .00312461 xX 72 = .225 nearly will denote
the rate of expanfion, from which he deduced that for
180°. a

The experiments of general Roy for afcertaining the ex-
panfion of mercury are minutely detailed in the Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixvii. p. 659—C€82. He expofed 30 inches of mereury,
fuftained in a barometer by the atmefphere, in a nice ap-
paratus, by which it could be made of one uniform tempe-
rature, through its whole length; and he noted the expau-
fions of it in decimals of aninch. The refult appears in the
following table; of which the fir column expr-ffes the tem-
perature by Pahrenheit’s thermometer, the fecond column
exprefics the bull of the mercury in confcquetice of its ex-
peniion, and the third column thews the expanfion of one
inch of mercury for an increafe of one degree in the adjoin-
ing temperatures.

Tare I.

Temp.| Bulk of 8 | Expan. for 1°

212°] 30.5117 | 0,0000763
202 | 30.4888 | 0,0000787
192 | 30.4652 | o.cooo8ro
152 | 30.4409 | 0.0009833
17 30-4159 | 0.0000857
162 | 3¢.3902 | 0,0000880
152 | 30.3638 | c.0000e903
142 | 30.3367 | 0.0000923
132 | 39.3090 | 0.c000943
122 | 30.2807 | 0.ccoo0g63
II2 | 30.2518 | 0.0000933
102 | 30.2223 | 0.0001003
92 | 30.1922 | 0.co01023
52 | 30.1615 | 0.0001043
72 | J0.1302 | 0.0001063
62 | 30.c954 | 0.0001077
52 | 30.0661 | 0.0061093
42 | 30.0333 | 0.000!8110
32 | 30.c000 | 0.0001 1247
22 | 20.9662 | 0.00011 43
12 | 29.9319 | o.0c01i60
2 | 29.8971 | 0.0000177
Q | 29.8901

Sees

By this table the obferved height of the mercury may
be reduced to what it would have been if it were of the
temperature 32. Suppofe that the mercurial height is ob-
ferved to be 29.2, and that the temperature of the mercury

is 72°; fay 30.1302 : go #1 29.2: 29.0738, which would
be the true meafure of the denlity of the air of the flandard
temperature. In orderto obtain the exaGt temperature of the
mercury, the obfervation fhould be made by a thermometer
attached to the frame of the barometer, that it may warm
and cool along with it. his, however, may be done, with
fufficient accuracy, without a table; as the expanfion of an
inch of thercury for one degree decreafes very nearly ~2,th.
part in each fucceeding degree. If therefore we take from
the expanfion at 32° its thonfandth part for each degree
of awty range above it, we obtain a mean rate of expanfion
for that range. When the cblerved temperature of the
mercury is below 32°, this correction mutt be added, in
order to obiain the mean expanfion. his rule will be
more exaét if we fuppofe the expanfion at 32° to be
0.0091127, as in the table. Then, by multiplying the
mercurial height by this expanfion, we obtain the correétion
to be fubtraded or added as the temperature of the mercury
was above or below 32°, Thus, in the former example of
72°, take 40, the excefs of 72° above 32°, from 0.00011275
and we have 0,0901087. Multiply this by 40, and we
have the whole expanfion of one inch of mercury =
0.004345. Multiply the inches of mercurial height, viz.
29.2 by this expanfion, and we have for the corre@ion
0.12696 ; which, fubtra&ted from the obferved height,
Ieaves 29.07304, differing from the exaét quantity lefé tham
the thoufandth part of an inch. This correétion may be
made by another procefs, ftill more fimple ; or by multiply~
ing the obferved height of the mercury by the difference
of its temperature from 32°, and cutting off four cyphers
before the decimals of the mercurial height: and this me-
thod will feidom err one hundredth of an iach. Having
thus correéted the obferved mercurial heights by reducing
them to what they would have been if the mercury had
been of the ftandard temperature, the logarithms of the
corrected heighte are taken ; and their difference, multiplied.
by 10000, will give the difference of elevations, in Englifh
fathoms. Another method of applying this correction,
more expeditious, and not lefs accurate, is as follows. As
the difference of the logarithms of the mercurial heights is
the meafure of the ratio of thofe heights, fo likewife the
difference of the logarithms of the obferved and correéted
heights at any {tation is the meafure of the ratio of thofe
heights ; and, therefore, this laft difference of the logarithms
is the meafure of the correétion of this ratio. But the ob-
ferved heizht is to the correfted height as 1 to £.9001023
and the logarithm of this ratio, or the difference of the loga-
rithms of 1 and 1.co0102, is 0.0000444. ‘This is the cor-
re€tion for each degree by which the temperature of the
mercury differs from 32. Therefore multiply 0.0000444 by
the difference of the mercurial temperatures from 32, and
the produéts will be the correétions of the refpective loga-
rithms. ‘The following method of applying the logarithmic:
correction is more eafy than the former. The correétion
wil only be neceffary, when the temperatures at the two
{tations are different, and it will be proportional to this-dif-
ference. Therefore, if the difference of the mercurial
temperatures be multiplied by o.coco444. the produét will
be the correction required on the difference of the loga-
rithms of the mercurial heights. Moreover, fince the dif-
ferences of the logarithms of the mercurial heights are alfo-
the ciHerences of elevation in Englith fathoms, it follows,
that the correétion is aifo a difference of elevation in. Eng-
lih fathoms; or that the correction for one degree of
difference of mercurial temperature is ,444, of a fathom
== 32 inches = 2 feet 8 inches. This coireétion of 2.8 for
every degrce of difference of temperature mult be aie

tracted:

BAROMETER.

tracted from the elevation found by the general rule, when Tasxe II,
the mercury at the upper ftation is colder than that at the
lower. For in this cafe the mercurial column at the upper
ftation will appear too fhort, and the preffure of the atmo-
{phere too {mall; fo that the elevation in the atmofphere

: Temp. }] Log. diff.
will appear greater than it really is. Confequently the |
|
|
i

112° © 00004.27
yo2 0.00C0436 436
92 0.0000444. 444,

rule for this corretion will be to multiply o.oco0444 by the
“degrees of difference between the mercurial temperatures at
the two ftations, and to add or fubtraét the produ from

the elevation found by the general rule, according as the 82 S.0000453 “453
mercury at the upper {tation is hotter or colder than tHat at pz 0.090460 Pe
the lower. If the expanfion be confidered as variable, the 62 9.0000468 408
logarithmic difference correfponding to this expantion for og 0.000475 “475
the mean temperature of the two barometers may be taken. 42 0.0000452

Thefe logarithmic differences are contained in the following 32 9,0002489 459
table, carried as far as 112°, beyond which it is not pro- ee O:0900427 “497
bable that any obfervations will be made, The number for a 0,0000504 5Ce
each temperature is the difference between the logarithms of 2

30 inches, of the temperature 32, and of 30 inches expanded

a cee a
Sir George Shuckburgh has given the tollowing table
by that temperature. eer ait : Bn B

for the expanfin of mercury by heat.

Tascre IIT.

Height of the Barometer in inches.

25

wv
AU Ws

OuHRHOKFAO BAY

SOG b
HUW ONO RC A OW DEY HUH QA

.
O O%: =

ee

v

Sa vb OWMWAL YN

to
OTN w Hh DOV
— CONF
WwW NWN HH Se we
“IR oe
mM

RON mR ee
‘ons

LO us 1 Onb DOR QOW~a ¢

RO™NM YN ONTN Bb ON

WW bh NN
0 PAF &O
Om WwW ee
Ho AF =

Onmrk LPO Of & WAL

Piri oO 3 (ol

.
-

CAG Sea teed today aCe SLI tT
uO

Win bP f WH & GW OWN

NEE ey SO ESO) nt AM SSI
COO ~& Bh OOO 4+ wh O~

2. ete
On~I Ww

in On eB Bh Oo 2 8
thd + DOW HO Af &
03800 Ha DI~

ODA OPAL ®

ADNAOHUUt FEAR GOWSH OW DH
OwWO AS Os -

PIT ANA Ah
Crt ISI AD
Mr wr O

=

Hr O~
@~7 HAO &w OV

Ata uiatin # pf fw
~Y
2

0 PAE © O* ies . Sag; NT :
oo Oo Go~a I NADDHAMaphEWOWH HH EDK HHO
20 CO Con
SOUN
min © MU vO
oo & Cony sT
COW & Cli
AKnHO FO W&

108.5 r '
111.7 ! ' ;
T14.7

117.6

o
+A

Rly ee

BAROMETER

Sir George Shuckburgh, in his barometrical obfervations,
reckoned the equation for the expanfion of mercury
= .00323 of an inch for every degree of Fahrenheit’s ther-
mometerin a column of 30 inches, inftead of .c0312 ufed by
M. De Luc: but this difference, he fays, will not occation
an alteration in the refult of any one of his obfervations of
more than 5 inches; and he confiders it as’ of no account.
In another part of the fame paper (Phil. Tranf. vol, xvii.
Pp: 567), he eftimates this equation, allowing .o2042 for the
effet of the expanfion of glafs for 1° upon a column of go
inches, at .00304 of an inch for each degree, when the
barometer ftands at 30 inches. He adds that there is
ground for the fufpicion, that the expanfion of mercury is
not dire€tly as‘the heat fhewn by. the barometer, but in a
ratio fomewhat different ; owing, as he conceives, to fome
of the mercury being converted into an elaftic vapour in the
vacuum that takes place at the top of the Torricellian tube,
which preffes upon the column of mercury and thus coun-
teraQs in a {mail degree the expanfion from heat. It does
not, however, appear to bea conliderable quantity, not
amounting to above ;4th of the whole expanfion ina range
of 40° of temperature. General Roy was incommoded in
his experiments by the alternate expanfion and condenfation
of the elaftic vapour contained in the upper part of his tube.
Lord Charles Cavendifh found the difference between the
expanfion of mercury and glafs, from 180° of heat, to be
.469. And taking into the account Mr. Smeaton’s dila-
tation of glafs, the total expanfion of jo inches of mercury,
fays general Roy, will be .544, which gives a rate of ex-
panfion of only .oo3022 for each degree. Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixvii. p. 671. 673. 678.

After all, there will be a difference in the {pecific gravity
of the mercury that is ufed, which wili occafion irregulari-
ties that are not eafily obviated. Mercury has been thought
fufficiently pure for a barometer, when it is fo far cleared
of all calcinable matter as not to drag or fully the tube.
Neverthelefs in this ftate it may contain a confiderable por-
tion of other metals, particularly of filver, bitmuth, and tin,
which will diminifh its {pecific gravity. It has been ob
tained by revivification from cinnabar of the fpecific gravity
of 14.229, and it is thought very fine if it be 13.65. The
fpecific gravity of the mercury in the baremeters ufed by
fir George Shuckburgh was 13.61 with 68° of neat; but
it is feldom found fo heavy. Thefe variations mult affect
the ultimate refults; and in order to obtain precifion, it
is abfolutely receflary to know the denfity of the mercury
that is employed. The fubtangent of the atmofpherical
logarithmic, or the height of the homegeneous atmofphere,
will increafe in the fame proportion with the denfity of
the mercury ; and the elevation correfponding to +4, th of an
inch of barometric height will vary in the fame propor-
tion.

Another circumftance which demands attention in this
bufinefs is the temperature of the air; asthe change that
is produced by heat in its denfity 1s of much greater moment
than that of the mercury. The relative gravity of the two,
on which the fubtangent of the logarithmic curve depends,
‘and confequently the unit of our fcale of elevation, is
much more affected by the heat of the air than by the heat
of the mercury. M. De Luc was led from his obfervations
to conclude, that a certain temperature, marked + 163 in
his feale, nearly 69°4 of Fahrenheit’s, the difference of
the lovarithms of the heights of the mercury in the baro-
meter, atthe upper and the lower ftations, give the height
of the former of thofe {tations above the latter in roooths
of a French toife; but that at every other temperature
above or below 69°4, a correction of .00223 of the whole

was to be added or fubtra&ed for every degree pf the
thermometer. By obfervations ftill more accurate, it has
been found, that the temperature at which the difference of
the logarithms gives the height in Englith fathoms is 32°,
and that the correction at other temperatures i3 .00243 of
that difference for every degree of the thermometer. The
manner of eftimating the temperature of the air, adopted
in al! thefe obfervations, was the fame; an arithmetical mean
was taken between the heights of the thermometer, at the
upper and lower ftations. and was fuppofed to be uniformly
diffufed through the column of air intercepted between them.
M. De Luc, however, was apprized of the inaccuracy of
this fuppofition ; and general Roy, too, has obferved, that
one of the chief caufes of error in barometrical ,omputa-
tion proceeds from the mode of eflimating the temperature
of the column of air from that of its extremities, which
mu‘t be faulty in proportion as the height and difference of
temperatureare great. Indecd ic feldom or never happens,
that any particular ftratum of aris uniformiy of the fame
temperature. - It is commonly much colder above; and it
is alfo of différent conftitutions. Below it is warm, loaded
with vapour, and very expanfible ; above it is cold, much
drier, and lefs expanfible both by its drynefs and its rarity.
Currents of wind, alfo, are often difpofed in ftrata, which
retain their places for a confiderable time; and as they
come from different regions, are of ciffcrent temperatures
and conftitutions. It is neither certain that the whole
intermediate ftratum expands alike, nor that the expanfion
Is equal in the different intermediate temperatures. Rare
air expands lefs than that which is denfer; and there is a
particular elevation at which the general expanfion, inttead
of diminifhing the denfity of the air, increafes it by the
fuperior expanfion of that which is below., But no general
rule has been eftablifhed by which we can obtain a more
accurate corre€tion than by taking the expanfion for the
mean temperature.

Sir George Shuckburgh has exhibited the refult of
feveral experiments on the expanfion of air by a change of
temperature in the following table; where is feen the in-
creafe in bulk of 1000 parts of air of the temperature of
freezing and preflure of 304 inches, by an addition of i
degree of heat in Fahrenheit’s thermometer.

Tasre IV.

: Number of de-|Expanfion for
Obfervations. grees the air |1° in 1oooths
was heated. of the whole

2.30 al
(ex 14.6 2.43 {
2 32.2 2.48
| 3| 40.3 2.45 Mean from
With the 2 4 46.6 2.48 the firft mano-
firftmano- + 5 49-7 2.51 meter 2.44.
meter, | Co) ame yin: 2.36
Ahn ey 2.24
l 8 1K 2.38
22.0 2.50
With ano- be 28.0 2.34 | Mean from
therma- < 11 21.5 2.44 the fecond ma-
jometer, | 12 30-1 2.44 nometer 2.42,
13 22.6

The mean of thefe two forts of obfervations, made with
different inftruments, is 2.43, viz. 1000 parts of the air at
freezing become by expanfion from 1° of heat equal 1002.43

parts or 1002.385 parts with the ftandard temperature BOs
3 Whereas

BAROMETER.

Whereas M. De Luc’s experiments reduced, give this 212°, and the fourth fhews the mean expanfion for each
quantity equal 1002.23 parts. General Roy compareda degree.

mercurial and an air thermometer, each of which was gra-
Guated arithmetically; that is, the units of the f{cales were
equal bulksof mercury, and equal buiks of air. Their pro-
grefs is exhibited in the following tabie.

Tasre VI.

Denfity | Expanfion Expanfion

Barom. | of Air | of 1000 p"™ Lane
examined.| by 212°. ¢ Pi

29.95 31.52 | 483.89 2.2825
39.07 | 39.77 482.10 2.29485
29.48 29.90 450.74 2.2676
29.90 30.73 4.55.86 2.2918
29.96 30.92 489.45 2.3087
20-40 | 30.55 | 476.04 2.2455
29.95 30.60 | 487.55 2.2998
20.07 30.60 482.80 2.2774
29.48 30.00 489.47 2.3087
Mean 30.62 484.21 2.2840

TABLE V.

| Mere. |Diff| Air. | Diff. |
212 | 29 | 212.0} 17.6 |
192 | 20 | 194.4] 18.2
172 | 20 | 176.2} 18.8
152 | 20 | 157-4] 19.4
132] 20 | 138.0} 20.0
112 | 20 | 118.0} 20.8
gz | 20 |- 97.2| 21.6
72} 20] 75.6) 22.6
52 |(20)| « §3:01) 21.6
32 | 20 | 31.4] 20.0
12 Ti.4 |

ee ll

As equal increments of heat produce equal increments in
the bulk of mercury, the differences of temperature are ex-
prefled by the fecond column, and may be confidered as
equal ; and the numbers of the third column expre(s the
fame temperatures with thofe of the firit. ‘They directly
exprefs the bulks of the air, and the numbers of the fourth
column exprefs the differences of thefe bulks. Thele are
evidently unequal, and they thew that common air expands
mot of all when the temperature is 62 nearly. In order to
determine what was the actual increafe of bulk by fome
known increafe of heat, general Roy took a tube of a
narrow bore, with a ball at one end. He meafured the
capacity of both the ball and the tube, and divided the tube
into equal fpaces, bearing a determined proportion to the
capacity of the ball. ‘This apparatus was placed in a long
cylinder filled with frigorific mixtures cr with water, which
might be uniformly heated to the boiling temperature, and
it was accompanied by a nice thermometer. The expan-
fion of the air was meafured by means of a column of mer-
cury, which rofe or funk in the tube. The tube being of
a {mall bore, the mercury did not drop out of it ; and the
bore being chofen as equal as poffible, this column remained
of an uniform length, whatever part of the tube it chanced
to occupy. By this contrivance he was able to examine
the expanfibility of air of various denfities. When the
column of mercury contained only a fingle drop or two,
the air was nearly ofthe denfity of the external air. ‘If he
withed to examine the expanfion of air twice or thrice as
denfe, he ufeda column of 30 or 60 inches in length ; and
to examine the expaifion of air that is rarer than the external
air, he placed the tube with the ball uppermoft; the open
end paffing through a hole in the bottom of the veflel con-
taining the mixtures or water. By this pofition the columa
of mercury was hanging in the tubes fupported by the pref-
fure of the atmofphere ; and the elafticity of the included
air was meafured by the difference between the fufpended
column and the common barometer.

The following table fhews the expanfion of rooo parts of
air, nearly of the common denfiry, by heating it from o to
212. The firft column fhews the height of the barometer ;
the fecond thews this height augmented bya fmali column
of mercury in the tube of the manometer, and therefore ex-
preffes the denfity of the air examined in inches ; the third
contains the total expanfion of 1000 equal parts of air by

Tf this expanfion be fuppofed to follow the fame rate that
was obferved in the comparifon of the mercurial and air
thermometer, we fhall find that the expanfion of a thoufand
parts of air for one cegree of heat at the different interme-

diate temperatures will be as in the following table.

Taste VII.

Tem Total Expanfion

P+ | Exparfion.{ by 1°
212 484.2ro 2.0099
192 444.011 2.0080
172 402.452 21475
2 359-593 Seb)
132 315-193 2.2840
112 269.513 2.3754
g2 222.006 2.4211
82 | 197-795 | 2.5124
72 172.671 2.5581
62 147.090 2.6937
2 121.053 2.5124
42 95-929 | 2.4211
bie 71 718 2.3297
22 48 421 2.2383
12 26.038 2.1698

In order to have a mean expanfion for any particular
range, as between 12° and 92°, which is the moft likely to
comprehend all the geodztical obfervations, we need only
take the difference of the bulks 26.038 and 222.co6=
195.968, and divide this by the interval of temperature, 80°,
and we obtain 2.4496, or 2.45, for the mean expanfion
for 1°.

This table, which in its prefent form fhews the expanfi-
bility of air originally of. the temperature o, mey be eafny
adapted to a mals of 1000 parts of air of the ftandard tem-
perature 32°, by faying (for 212°), 1071-718: 1484.21032
yooo : 13489; and fo of the reft. Thus the following
tableis conftructed.

Taser

et

BAROMETER.

Tanre VIII.

Temp. | Bulk. | Differ. | ExPa)!
212 13549 ' 18.7
192 13.474 305 19.3
172 13087 a PAs
152 12685 BA nae
132 12272 tee 31.3
112 11846 the aki
a si 226 22.6
z 235 2355
z | roe | 238 | aed
52 10461 a ae
oe eh loa i246
z 4 217 21.7
a] ga] 2] 8
& 0331 243 20.2

Hence we have the mean expanfion of 1000 parts of air
between 12° and 92° = 2.29.

The following table thews the refult of general Roy’s ex-
eriments on airs much exceeding the common denfity.
he firft column contains the denfities meafured by the

inches of mercury which they will fupport when they are of
the temperature 32°; the fecond column fhews the expan-
fion of 1000parts of fuch air by being heated from 0 to 212°5
and the third column is the mean expantion of 1°.

Tasue IX.
Denfity. Pepe Expantion

or 212. for 1°.

oa 451-54 2.130

9°-3 423.23 1.996

80.5 412.09 1.944

545 439.87 2.075

49°7 443-24 2.091

Mean 45.7 434 py

General Roy made many experiments on air much below
thecommon denfity, and he found, in general, that their ex-
panfibility by heat was analogous to that of air of ordinary
denlity, being greateft about the temperature of 60°. He
alfo found, that its expanfibility with heat decreafed with
its denfity ; but he was not able to alcertain the law of gra-
dation. When reduced to about 4th of the denfity of com-
mon air, its expanfion was as follows.

Tasie X.
IMRiynank
Temp. Bulk. Difference. erat
212 141.504 ae oe
~ 75 0.354
Ig2 1134-429 y 5
He 11226165 12 264 oO
152 1108.015 14.150 0.70
; 14-15 0.708
132 1093.564 a8 enilt
112 1079 636 eee f
92 1064.699 14-937 0-747
2 1043-788 Se ag 7045
52 {017.945 ood 2m
32 100.000 17.845 0.892
Mean exparfion 0.786
Vou. ill.

From the experiments to which we have above referred
it appears, that the expanfibility of air is greateft when the
air is about its ordinary denfity, and that in fmall denfities it
is greatly diminifhed. It appears upon the whole, that
there is little difference in the aétual expanfion or elaftic force
of air, preffed with an atmofphere + or — one third part ;
yet, when it is rendered extremely rare, its elaflicity is won-
derfully diminifhed. It fhould {eem, indeed, that the elattic
force of common air is greater than when its denfity is con-
fiderably augmented or diminifhed by an addition to or fub-
traction from the weight with which it is loaded ; and this
obferved difference contradifts the experience of Boyle,
Marriotte, &c. It alfo appears that the law of compreffion
is altered; for in the preceding {pecimen of the rare air half
of the whole expanfion happens about the temperature of
g9°, but in air of ordinary denfity at 105°. As this is the
cafe, the experiments of M. Amontons, in the Memoirs of
the Academy at Paris for 1702, &c. are not inconfiftent
with thofe of general Roy. Amontons found that what-
ever was the denfity of the air, at lealt in cafes where it was
much denfer than common air, the change of 180° of tem-
perature increafed its elafticity in the fame proportion; for
he found, that the column of mercury which it fupported,
when of the temperature 50, was increafed 4 at the tem-
perature 212; and hence he haftily inferred, that its ex-
panfibility was increafed in the fame proportion ; but this is
by no means the cafe, unlefs we are certain that in every
temperature the elafticity is proportional to the denfity ;
which ftill remains to be decided. EC

From another clafs of experiments made by ‘general Roy,
we learn that the elaltic force of moift air is greatly fuperior
to that of dry air; and that a very uniform increaling pro-
greffion is perceived to take place from the zero of Fahren-
heit, as far as 152° or 172°, and even tothe boi.ing point.
From the mean refult of thefe experiments, which are ar-
ranged in a table, it appears, that the expanfion of air, how-
ever moift, having that moifture condenfed or feparated from
it by cold, differs not fenfibly from that of dry air. Thus
the rate for 32° below freezing 2.22799 is nearly the fame
as in dry air; but as foon as the morture begins to diffolve
and mix with the air, by the addition of 20° of heat, the
difference is perceptible ; for inftead of 2.46675, the rate
for 20° above 32° in dry air, we have 2.588 for that which
is moift. In the next flep of 20°, the rate for dry air is
2.5809; whereas that for moift-is 2.97. In this manner
the progreflion goes on continually increafing, fo as to give
7.80854 for the mean rate or each degree of the 212°,
which is near 3% times the expanfion of dry air. And,
laftly, the rate for the 20° between 192° and 212° is twice
and one-half the mean rate, and about nine times that which
correfponds to the zero of the fcale, but the comparifon
being drawn from the mean of fome particular experiments,
as being probably neareft the truth, the total expanfion of
moift will be more than four times that of dry air; and the
rate for the temperature at boiling will be nearly 15 times
that which correfponds to the zero of Fahrenheit. This
circumftance will prebably account for the deviations from
the rules eftabl:thed for determining heights by the baro-
meter, which take place in the province of Quito in Peru,
and at Spitzbergen, within 10 degrees of the pole. In the
former fituation, which is at a great elevation above the level
of the ocean, the heights obtained by thefe rules tall con-
fiderably fhort of the real heights; and at the latter place
they confiderably exceed them, Near the furface of the
earth there 4s a greater degree of humidity and heat in the
air than there is in the higher regions of the atmofphere ;
and the elalticity or expanfion of the lowermoft fection of

4 T every

BAROMETER.

every column of zir, whether long or fhort, will confequently
be ereater than the uppermoft frétion of it. For the heat,
by diffolving the moifture, produces a vapour lighter than
air, which, mixing with its particles, removes them farther
from each other, increafes the elaiticity of the general mals,
aud diminishes its fpecific gravity comparatively more than
it doth that of the fection immediately above it, where there
is lefs heat and lefs moifture. Hence general Roy infers,
that the equation for the air, in any affigned vertical, will
gradually decreafe as the e'evation of the place above the
fea increafes, and that it will vanifh at the top of the atmo-
{phere. Between the tropics there is a great degree of hu-
midity in the air; and, on the contrary, the polar atmo-
{pheres are very dry. The heat and moiiture being greateft
at the equator, there the clafticity or equation will hkewifle
be the greateft at the level of the fea; and the zero of the
feale will neceffarily defcend to a lower point of the thermo-
meter,than that to which it correfponds in middle latitudes.
As the elafticity of the air at the level of the fea, or equal
heights above it, with the fame degree of heat, will always
be proportionable to the quantity of moiilure d:ffolved m it,
it will therefore gradually decreafe from the equator towards
the poles; that is, the zero of the feale will afcend in the
thermometer, coiacide with the 32d degree in the middle ja-
titudes, and in its motion upwards, will give the equation
to be applied with the contrary fign, in high latitudes. At
Spitzbergen, it would feem that the fpccilic gravity of air
to mercury is about r to 10224, and in Peru about 1 to
13100. This difference is with great probability aferibed
to the greater drynels of the circumpolar air; fo that the
denfity of the air was greater than could have been inferred
merely from its compyefilon and its temperature.

From the above acccunt of the expantion of air, it is
plain that the height through which we muf rife in order
to produce a given fall of the mercury in the barometer, or
the thicknefs of the ftratum of air equiponderant with a
teath of an inch of mercury, mui increafe with the expan-
fion of air; and hence, if .o0229 be the expanfion for one
degree, we muft multiply the excefs of the temperature of
the air above 92° by 0.00229, andthe prodv& by 87, in or-
derto obtain the thicknefs of the ftratum where the baro-
meter {lands at 30 inches; or whatever be the elevation in-
dicated by the diitcrence of the barometrical heights, upon
the fuppolition that the airis of the temperature of 32°,
we mult multiply this by .o0229 for every degree that the air
is warmer or colder than 32. The produét muit be added
to the elevation in the firlt cafe, and fubtraGed in the latter.
Sir George Shuckburgh deduces .0924 from his experiments
as the mean expanfion of air in the ordinary cafes; and this
is probably near the truth; becaufe general Roy’s experi-
ments were made on air, which was more free from damp
than the ordinary air in the helds; and it fufiiciently appears
from his experimests, as already fated, rhat a very {mall
quantity of damp increafes its expanfibility by heat in a
prodigious degree. We fhail now refer for a more particu-—
jar account cf the fubject of this article to the papers of
the aflronomer royal and of Dr. Horfley, Philof. Trauf.vol.
Ixiv. p. 158, &c. Id. p. 214, &c. and for the papers of
fir George Shuckburgh and general Roy to the Phil. Tranf,
vol. Ixvit. p. 513, &c. and p. 653, &c. and alfo to profeffor
Piayfair’s paper on the caufes which affe@t the accuracy of
ba-ometrical meafurements in the Edinb. Tranf. vol.i. p. 87,
&c.: and fubjoin in one view a fummary of the moit ap-
proved and eafy rules for the practice of this mode of mea-
{urement illuftrated by examples.

The firft is M. De Luc’s method already given in another
form.

7

1. Subtra& the Jogarithm of the barometrical height at
the upper {tation from the Jogarithm of that at the lower,
and count the index and four firft decimal figures of the ree
mainder as fathoms, the reft as a dec’mal fraction. Call this
the elevation.

2. Notethe different temperatures of the mercury at the
two flations, znd the mean temperature. Multiply the lo-
garithmic expanfion correfponding to this mean temperature
(in Table IT.) by the difference of the two temperatures,
and {ubtra& the produ from the elevation, if the barome-
ter has been coldeft at the upper flation; otherwife, add it.
Call the difference, or the fum, the approximated elevation.

3. Note the difference of the temp+ratures of the air at the
two ttations by a detached thermometer, and alfo the mean
temperature and its difference from 32°. Multiply this dif-
ference by the expanfion of air for the mean temperature,
and multiply the approximated elevation by 1 + this pro-
du& according as the air is above or below 32°. The pro-
du is the correé elevation in fathoms and decimals.

Example.

Suppofe that the mercury in the barometer at the lower
ftation was at 29.4 inches, that its temperature was 50°, and
the temperature ct the air 45°; and let the height of che
mercury at the upp-r {tation be 25.19 inches, its tempera-
ture 46, and the temperature of the air 39. Here we have
Mere. heights Temp. merc. Mean Temp. air. Mean

29.4 50 8 45
25-19 46 ee 30 ee
1. Log. of 29.4 - - - 1.468 3473
Log. of 25.19 - - - 1.4012282
Elevation in fathoms —- - 671.191
2. Expaniion for 48° - =) 472
Multiply by 4 - = 4 1.892
Approximated elevation . 669.299
3. Expanfion of air at42. = 0.00238
Mult. by 42 x 32 = 10° 10
0.0238
Multiply - = = - 669.299
By - - - 1.0233
Produ& = the corre& elevation - 685.228

IT. Sir George Shuckburgh’s method.
1. Reduce the barometric heights to what they would
be if they were of the temperature of 32°.
2. The difference of the logarithms of the reduced baro-
metrical heights will give the approximate elevation.
3. Correct the approximate elevation as before.
Example, the fame as before.

1. Mean expanfion for 1° from Table I. - O.00011%
18° X O.COOTII X 29-4= - 0.059
Subtra& this from - 20.4
Reduced barometric height 29.341”
Expanfion from Tab. 1. is : O.OCO1II
I4° X O.OCOII1 X 25.19 - 0.039
Subtract from - = 25.190

Reduced barometric height 25.151

2. Log. 29.34 - - 1.4674749
Log. 25.151 - - 1.4025553
Approximated elevation 669.196

3. This multiplied by 1.0238 gives 685.125 ‘
ir

te eas ae

0 hah agin eG ot

BAR

Sir George Shuckburgh has computed a feries of tables,
and given precepts for efltimating the heights of mountains
by means of thefe tables; for which we refer to his own ac-
count, ubi fupra.

Obf. x. If o.coo101 be fuppofed the mean expanfion of
mercury for 1°, the reduction of the barometric heights will
be had with fufficient exactnefs by multiplying the obferved
heights of the mercury by the difference of its temperatures
from 32, and cutting off four more decimal places: thus 29.4

X reods gives for the reduced height 29.247, and 25.19 x
yoota gives 25.155, and -the difference of their logarithms
gives 669.4 fathoms for the approximated elevation, which
differs from that given above by no more than 15 inches.

Obf. 2. If 0.0024 be taken for the expanfion for 1°,
the correction for this expanfion will be had by multi-
plying the approximated elevation by 12, and this produc
by the fum of the differences of the temperatures from
32°: counting that difference as negative when the tempe-
rature is below 32°, and cutting off four places: thus,
669.196 xX 12 X 13 +07 X yadzg= 16.061, which added
to 669.196 gives 685.257, differing from the former only
9 inches. :

Ill. Another rule may be derived from the fame pre-
mifes; and it will be fufficiently exaG for all geodetical pur-
pofes. It requires no tables, and may be eafily remembered.

1. The height through which we mutt rife in order to
produce any fall of the mercury in the barometer, is inverfe-
ly proportional to the denfity of the air; that is, to the
height of the mercury in the barometer.

2. When the barometer ftands at 30 inches, and the air
and quick{filver are of the temperature 3 2, we mutt rife through
87 feet, in order to produce a depreffion of ;4th of an inch.

3.

But if the air be of a different temperature, the 87
feet mutt be increafed or diminifhed by 0.21 of a foot for
every degree of difference of the temperature from 32°.

4. Every degree of difference of the temperatures of the
mercury at the two ftations makes a change of 2.833 feet,
or two feet ten inches in the elevation. Hence is deduced
the following rule.

1. Take the difference of the barometric heights in
tenths of an inch; and call it d.

2. Multiply the difference a between 32, and the mean
temperature of the air by 21, and take the fum or difference
of this produ& and 87 feet. This is the height through
which we mutt rife to caufe the barometer to fall from 30
inches to 29.9: call this height 4. Let m be the mean be-

Then aau8 is

m
approximated elevation very nearly. Multiply the dif-
ference d of the mercurial temperatures by 2.83 feet, and add
this produ& to the approximated elevation, if the upper ba-
rometer has been the warmeft ; otherwife fubtra& it. The
refult, that is the fum or difference, will be the correGted cle-
vation.

the

tween the two barometric heights.

Example, as before.
d= 294 — 251.9 = 42.1
4= 87 +10 x 0.21 = 89.1
CD Da

- E2720)
Approximated elevation ae =4123.24feet.
Correétion for temp. of mercury = 4 x 2.83 = 11.32
Corre&ted elevation in feet + - = 4111.92
The fame in fathoms - = = 685-32

differing from the former only 195 inches.

BAR

This rule may be expreffed by the following formula
which is fimple and ealily remembered ; a being the differ-
ence between 32° avd the mean temperature of the air, d
the difference of barometric heights in tenths of an inch, mthe
mean barometric height, 3 the difference between the mer-
curial temperatures, and E the correct elevanon, EE =
a 0x 2.83. Encycl. Brit. art. Prev-
mATiIcs. See Height of the ArmospHERe, and Atmo/pherical
Locaritumic.

BAROMETERS, Anitmat. See Anemone.

BAROMETRICAL Puosenorus. See Puospuo-
RUS.

BAROMETZ, in Botany. See Porypopium.

BARON, a perfon who holds a barony.

Baron is a term whofe origin and primary import are
much contelted. Some will have it originally denote a man,
cvnp; fome a hero, or valiant man ; fome a Iibertinus. or free
man; fome a great, or rich man; {ome a vaffal, or liege-man
—Menage derives it from the Latin baro, which we find
ufed in the pure age of that language for vir, a flout, or va-
liant man; whence, according to this author, it was that
thofe placed next to the king in battles were called darones,
as being the bravelt men in the army; and as princes fre-
quently rewarded the bravery and fidelity of thofe about
them with fees, the word came to be ufed for any noble
perfon who holds a fee immediately of the king.—Ifidore,
and after him Camden, take the word in its original fenfe,
to fignify a mercenary foldier. Mefficurs of the Port Royal
derive it from Bxpos, weight, or authority. Cicero ufes the
word daro, for a ftupid brutal man; and the old Germans
make mention of dx cting a baron, i. €. a villain; asethe
Italians ftill ufe the word darone, to fignify a beggar.—M.
De Marea derives baron from the German dar, man, or free-
man: others derive it from the old Gaulifh, Celtic, and He-
brew languages. But the moft probable opinion is, that it
comes from the Spanith varo, a flout, noble perfon ; whence
wives come to call their hufbands, and princes their tenants,
barons. In the Salic law, as well as the laws of the Lom-
bards, the word daron fignifies a man in the general, and the
old gloflary of Philomenes tranflates baron by op, man.

Baron, the title of a lord or peer of parliament, being
the next degree below that of a vifcount. A baron hath
the title of Right Honourable, and in ail aéts and proceed-
ings 13 ftyled Moft noble Lord. The parliamentary robe
of a baron is fearlet cloth, lined with white fattin, having on
the right fide two guards of Minerva, or ermine, which
fignifies his degree. The coronet of a baron is a rim of

old, having thereon fix pearls: this coronet was granted
them by Charles II. by patent bearing date 6th July 1661,
before which they wore a crimfon cap turned up with er-
mine, and on the top a taffel of gold, now called a baron’s
cap. A baron may appoint three chaplains. In ancient
records, the word barons included all the nobility of Eng-
land, becaufe regularly all noblemen were barons.

The word baron of itfelf originally did not, more than
peer, lignify an immediate vaffal of the king; for earls pa-
latine had their barons, that is, their immediate tenants ;
and in old records, the citizens of London are ftyled ba-
rons, and fo are the reprefentatives of the cinque ports called
to this day. Baron, therefore, at firft fignitied only the
immediate tenant of that fuperior whofe baron he is faid to
be; but by length of time it became reftrained to thofe
who, properly and exaétly fpeaking, were barones regis &F
regnie and even not to all of thefe, but to fuch only as had
manors and courts therein; for though, by the principles of
the feudal conftitution, every immediate military tenant of

472 the

BARON.

the crown, however {mall his holding, was obliged to affit
the king with his advice, and entitled likewife to give or
refufe his affent to any new law or fubfidy, that is, to at-
tend in parliament; this attendance was too heavy and bur-
therfome upon fuch as had only one or two knight’s fees,
and could not be complied with without their ruin. Hence
arofe the omiffion of iffuing writs to fuch, and which, being
for their eafe, they-acquiefced in, attendance in parliament
being coofidered at that time asa burthen. Thus they loft
that right they were entitled to by the nature of their tenure,
notil the method was found out of admitting them by repre-
ti the diftin@ion’ between tenants by

s by kni fervice in the
fuch military tenants

as qualified them

pit i the king ihe former we

6 conliders

withe onveni t liament, and who
; € ntitled to : he quantum of
t regularly. t knight’s fees and one
t at of a count or « t tv; that is, asa
kn s fee was then. reckoned at 201. per annum, the ba-
ron’s revenue was,400 marks, or 2C0! s. 4d

Such was the nature of all the bz of England, for
about two hundred years afte conquelt: and they are

called baronies by tenure, becaufe the dignity and privileges
were annexed to the lands they held ; and if thefe were alien-
ated with the confent of the king (for without that they
could not), the barony went over to the-alienee. OF thefe
Matthew Paris tells us there were 250 in the time of
Henry III.; and whilft they ftood purely on this footing,
it was not in the king’s power to increafe the number of the
baronies: though of barons perhaps he might ; for as Wil-
liam the Conqueror was obliged to gratify feveral of his
great officers, according to the number of men they brought,
with two or more baronies, whenever thefe fell into the
hands of the crown by efcheat, either for want of heirs, or
by forfeiture, it was in the king’s power, and it was his inte-
reft, to divide them into feparate hands. The fame thing
likewife happened, when, by an intermarriage with an
heirefs, more baronies than one came into the hands of a
nobleman, and efcheated to the crown.

But the number of thefe feudal baronies could not,
ftriGtly or properly {peaking, be increafed by the king ; for
they could be created only out of lande, and there were no
lands vacant to create new ones out of, for the king’s de-
mefnes were in thofe days unalienable. However we find,
at the end of Henry the Third’s reign, and even in John’s,
that the number of baronies were a¢iually increafed, anda
diftin&tion , made between the barones majores and mi-
nores.

The majores were thofe who ftood on the old footing of
William, and had lands fufficient in law, namely, the num-
ber of the knight’s fees requifite. The minores were fuch
as held by part of a barony; and when an old barony de-
{cended to, and was divided among fifters, in which cafe,
when the hufband of the fifter whom the king pleafed to
name was the baron of parliament, or elfe was newly carved
out of the old baronies that had fallen in by efcheat ;
as fuppofing the king had granted fix knight’s fees of an
old barony to one to hold with all the burthens and to the
fervice of an entire barony, and the remaining feven and
one-third to another on the fame terms. But the attendance
of thefe minor barons alfo at length became too burthen-
fome for their circumitances, and many of them were glad
to be excufed. The king took then the power of pafling
by fuch as he thought unable, by not fending them writs of
fummons ; and John extended his prerogative even to omit
fummoning fuch of the majores as he imagined were inclined

to oppofe him; this however at length he was obliged to
give up; for in his magna charta it is faid, ** ad habendum
commune confilium regni faciemus fummoneri archiepifcopos,
epifcopos, abbates, comites, & majores baranes regni, figil-
latim per literas noftras.’? E

The barones majores were there fully and plainly diftinguifh-
ed from the minores ; and we apprehend it will not be doubted
they were fuch as had the full complement of knight?s fees
that made up an ancient barony; and accordingly we find,
in 1255, when Henry the Third had negleéted fummoning
fome of thefe, the others refufing to enter on any bufinefs,
“© quia omnes tune temporis non fuerunt, juxta tenorem
magne charta fuz, vocati; et ideo, fine paribus fuis tune
abfentibus, nullum voluerunt tunc refponfum dare, vel aux-
ilium concedere, vel preftare.”? No king fince ever omitted
to {ummon ail the greater nobility, until Charles the Firft
was prevailed upon to forbid the {ending a writ to the earl
of Briftol, by Buckingham, who was afraid of being accufed
by that nobleman; but on the application of the houfe of
lords, and their adjourning themfelves from day to day and
doing no bufinefs, the writ at laft was iffued. .

In the reign of Henry the Third alfo, the king’s prero-
gative of fummoning or omitting the leffer barons was like-
wife afcertained by an a& of parliament iince loft, as we
find by thefe words from hiltory: *‘ Ile enim rex ({cilicet
Henricus Tertius) poft magnas perturbationes & enormes
vexationes inter ipfum regem, Simonem de Monteferti &
alios barones, motas & fapitas ftatuit et ordinavit, quod
omnes illi comites & barones regni Angliz, quibus ipfe rex
dignatus eft brevia dirigere, venerent ad parliamentum fuum,
& non alti, nifi forte dominus rex alia illa brevia illis dirigere
voluiff-t :”? and from henceforth no nobleman could fit in
parliament without a writ. But there was this difference
between the greater and the leffer barons, that the former
had a right to their writ ex debito juffitie, to the latter it was
a matter of favour; but when fummoned, they being really
barons, had the fame rights with the reft, though fitting
not by any inherent title, but by virtue of the writ. The
other lefler barons, who were generally omitted to be fum-
moned, by degrees mixed with the other king’s tenants ir
capite, and were thenceforth reprefented by the knights of
the fhires.

But thefe baronies by tenure being long fince worn out
among the laity, it is proper to proceed to the two ways
now 1n being of creating peers ; by writ, and by letters pa-
tent. It was lord Coke’s opinion, and in this he has been
followed ever fince, that a writ to any man, baron or no ba-
ron, to fit in parliament, if once he hath taken his feat in
purfuance thereof, gains a barony to him and the heirs of
his body ; and though the law, principally on the authority
of that great lawyer, is now fo fettled, certainly it is com:
paratively but a novel opinion, and very ill to be fupported
by reafon. The words of the writ are: ‘* Rex tali falutem
quia de advifamento & affenfu confilii noftri, pro quibufdam
arduis & urgentibus negotiis flatum & defenfionem regni
noltri Angliz concernentibus, quoddam parliamentum nof-
trum apud Weftmonatt. tali die talis menfis proximo futuro
teneri ordinavimus & ibidem vobifcum, ac cum prelatis mag-
natibus & proceribus digtiregni noftri, colloquium habere &
tractatum ; vobis in fide & ligeantia quibus nobis tenemini
firmiter injungendo mandamus, quod confideratis di€torum
negotiorum arduitate & periculis imminentibus, ceflante exe
culatione quacunque, didtis die & loco perfonaliter interfitis
nobifcum, ac cum prelatis magnatibus & proceribus fuper
diGis nogotiis tra¢taturi, veftrumque confilium impenfuri,
& hoc ficut nos, & honorem nottrum, ac expeditionem ne-
gotiorum prediCtorum diligitis, nullatenus omittatis.”” a

at

BARON.

That this writ mutt be obeyed there is no doubt, for
every fubject is by his allegiance obliged to affilt the king
with faithful counfel; but what right the party fummoned
acquired thereby, is the queftion. ‘The words are not only
perfonal to him, but reftricted likewife to a particular place
and time; and, accordingly, in ancient times we find many
perfons fummoned to one parliament, omitted in the next,
and fummoned perhaps to the third. There is not a word
therein that hints at giving the leaft right to an heir; and
what reafon can be aflizned why a man by this writ fhould
gain an eftate of inheritance in a peerage, when in letters pa-
tent it is admitted that he gains only an eltate for life. with-
out the word Acirs. That anciently there was no fuch no-
tion appears from the fummons to parliament, where fre-
quently we find the grandfather fummoned, the father paffed
by, and the grandfon afterwards fummoned; nay, in the
rolls there are inftances of ninety-eight perfons being fum-
moned a fingle time only, and neither themfelves nor any of
their pofterity ever taken notice of afterwards. Or if we
were to allow that this writ created an inheritance, what
reafon can be given why it fhould be an eftate tail only,
and be confined to the heirs of the body, and not, as all
Se new inheritances created generally, go to the collateral

eirs?

But in order to difcover plainly what privileges perfons
fo called by writ had or could obtain in thofe times, it will
be proper to diftinguifh them into three kinds of perfons :
firft then, they were either fome of the minores barones by
tenure, and thefe, when called, had certainly all the privi-
leges of the greater, or elfe they were not barons at all, but
plain knights or gentlemen ; and in refpe& to thefe, it is
plain they had a right to deliberate, debate, and advife ;
but the better opinion is, they had no night to vote, but
were afliftants and advifers only, as the judges are at prefent,
for it is abfurd to fuppofe that in thofe times, when the
commons were low and inconfiderable, and the barons were
more powerful than the crown, that the latter fhould fuffer
their refolutions to be over-ruled at the pleafure of the king,
by calling in fuch numbers as we find he often did, which
muft have been the cafe if all he had fummoned had votes.
But thefe two kinds of perfons gained by their writ or fitting
in confequence of it, originally, no farther nght than to be
prefent at that time. However, by many of thefe perfons
and their heirs having been conitantly fummoned, efpecially
fince Henry the Seventh’s reign, and the ancient practice
of omitting any who had been very frequently fo going into
difufe, the diftin€tion between the greater and lefler barons
was forgot, and that opinion prevailed which my lord Coke
had adopted, and which is now the law, that 4 man having
once fat in parliament in purfuance of the king’s writ, ac-
ee thereby an eftate tail to him and the heirs of his

ody.

There was yet another kind of perfons, not peers, that
might be fummoned by writ: thefe were the eldeft fons of
peers, to whom the father’s barony muft defcend; and in
fuch cafe, if the heir was called by the name of a barony
that was in his father, he was a baron to all intents and pur-
pofes. But it feems very plain that this was not a new cre-
ation of a barony, for in that cafe the fon fo called fhould have
been the loweft peer, whereas the pra¢tice is contrary ; and
we find no inftance of a baron’s fon fitting on fuch a fum-
mons, unlefs the father had another barony by which he
might fit: if the father indeed had a higher title, that has
been reckoned {ufficient to fupport his feat, though his only
barony was transferred tothe fon. This then being no new
creation, but a temporary transfer only of an old peerage, it
fhould feem that this title, when once merged in the greater

by the father’s death, fhould go according to the old limit-
ation ; but of late we find them confidered as new creations.
On the death of the earl of Derby, fir Edward Stanley, his
fixth coufin, fucceeded, and fat in parliament as baron
Strange by Henry the Seventh’s creation: but an eldeft fon
of a former earl of Derby, having been called by writ while
his father was living, the duke of Athol, as his heir by the
female line, fat by the fame title of baron Stranze of king
Charles the Firfl’s creation.

The defcent of thefe two kinds of baronies ts dire&ted
by the rules of the defcent of other inheritances at common
law ; and, confequently, females are capable of fucceffion,
but with two exceptions: firit, that half blood is no impe-
diment, and, confequently, the half brother ‘excludes the
filter; fecondly, that the honour is not divifible; and,
therefore, if there be two or more filters heireffes, the title 1s
in abeyance, that is, is {ufpended unul the king makes
choice of one of them and her heirs; though by conftant
ufage the law feems to be verging faft to a conftant defcent
to the eldett.

The third method of creating peers is by letters patent,
which is the moft ufual, and efteemed the moit advantageous
way; becaufe the peerage is thereby created, though the new
nobleman has never taken his feat, which is not the cafe of
a barony by writ. As to the manner of thefe creations,
there has a notable difference intervened fince the acceflion
of Henry the Seventh from what was the practice before
Richard the Second. In his eleventh year began this me-
thod of creating by patent, ia favour of John de Beauchamp,
who, though fummoned, never fat there, but was attainted
by the next parliament, and afterwards executed. But the
attainder out of the cafe, his patent in law couid never have
been deemed valid, becaufe Michael de la Pole was the lord
chancellor who affixed the feal to it, which had been before
taken from him by aét of parliament, and he declared in-
capable of ever having itagain. This then wasa fingle and
inefle€tual attempt of that weak prince to create a new peer
without the affent of parliament, which was the ufual way,
above thirty having been made fo in that very reign.

His fucceffors were too wile to follow his example; for
every barony newly created, till the union of the rofes, which
were about fourteen, was every one of them, as appears on
the face of the patents, by authority of parliament ; if we
except two or three: and even thefe, ona clofe examina-'
tion, will appear not to be new baronies, but regrants of old
feudal baronies by tenure, which undoubtedly were all in
the fole difpofition of the king.

But Henry the Seventh having trodden down all oppofi-
tion, was fortunate enough to carry the point Richard had
vainly attempted ; and acquired for his jucceflors that pre-
rogative which they have fince enjoyed of creating peers at
pleafure. The defcent of thefe titles created by patent is
direGed by the words of the creation: if heirs are not men-
tioned, it is only an eftate for life; if to a man and heirs of
his body, females are not excluded: but the general way is to
the heirs male of the body lawfully begotten of the grantee,
perhaps with remainders over, and they defcend as other
eftates entailed. The cafe of the duchy of Somerfet was
fingular: Edward Seymour having three fons by two venters,
was created duke of Somerfet, and his heirs male of his fecond
marriage, remainder to his heirs male by his firft. This
title continued near two hundred years in the younger branch,
until upon its failure in Charles the fixth duke of Somerfet,
fir Edward Seymour, the heir by the prior marriage, fuc-
ceeded by virtue of the remainder.

Barons by Ancient Tenure, were thofe who held by certain
territories of the king, who {till referved the tenure in chief

te

BAR

to himfelf. We alfo read of barons by temporal tenure; who
are fuch a3 hold honours, caflles, manors, as heads of their
barony, that is, by grand fergeanty ; by which tenure they
were anciently fummoned to parliament. But at prefent a
baron by tenure is no lord of parliament, till he be called

by attributing high and even fovereign juriidiétion to the
former, and only inferior jurifdiction over {maller matters to
the latter. By the late jurifdiction act (20 Geo. II.) the
civil jurifdi@ion of a baron in Scotland is reduced to the
power of recovering from his vaffals and tenants the rents of
his lands, and of condemning them in mill-fervices; and
alfo of judging in caufes where the debt and damages do
not exceed 4os. fterling. His criminal jurifdiétion is, by
the fame ftatute, limited to affaults, batteries, and other
{maller offences, which may be punifhed by a fine not ex-
ceeding 20s. fterling, or by fetting the offender in the ftocks
in the day time not above three hours ; the fine to be levied
by poinding, or by one months imprifonment. The jarif-
diGion formerly competent to proprietors of mines and
coal or faltworks over their workmen, is referved ; and alfo
that which was competent to proprietors who had the right
of fairs or markets, for correcting the diforders that might
happen during their continuance; provided that they exer-
cife no jurifdiftion inferring the lofs of life or demembra-
tion.

Barons of the Exchequer are four judges, one of whom
is called the chief baron, and the other three puifne barons,
to whom the adminiftration of juftice is committed in caufes
between the king and his fubje€ts touching matters belong-
ing to the exchequer, and the king’s revenue. They are
called barons, becaufe barons of the realm were ufed to be
employed in that office.

The lord chief baron is created by letters patent to hold
this dignity guamdiu fe bene gefferit, wherein he hath a fixed
eftate; for the law intends this an eftate for life. He alone
without the other darons fits at Guildhall the afternoon in
term time upon nif prius in London, takes audits, ac-
compts, recognizances, prefentations of offices, and many
other things of importance. In the abfence of the lord
chief baron, the other three barons fupply his place accord-
ing to their feniority.

Their office is alfo to look to the accounts of the king,
to which end they have auditors under them; as well as to
decide caufes relating to the revenue, brought by any means
into the exchequer: fo that of late they have been con{tant-
ly perfons learned in the law; whereas formerly they were
majores &F diferetiores in regno five de clero effent, Jive de curia.
See Court of ExcHEQUER.

Barons of the Cinque Ports, are members of the houfe
of commons, elected by the five parts, two for each port.
See Cinque Ports. ;

Thofe who have been mayors of Corfe-caftle in Dorfet-
fhire, are alfo Genominated barons; as were formerly like-
wife the chief citizens of London.

Baron, in Law, is alfo ufed for the hufband in relation
to the wife ; which two, in law, are called Jaron and femme,
and are confidered as one perfon, fo that in trials of any
fort they are not allowed to be evidence for or again{ft each
other. See Hussanp and Wire.

Baron and Femme, in Heraldry, are terms ufed to ex-

BAR

prefs the arms of hufband and wife; as thus, he beareth Jaron
and femme. ‘The modern expreffion is, he beareth impaled.

Baron, Court. See Courr.

Baron, prender de. See PRENDER.

Baron, Robert, in Biography, a dramatic author, who lived
during the reign of Charles I. and the proteétorate of Oliver
Cromwell. From Cambridge, where he received part of his
education, be removed to Grays Inn, of the honourable
fociety of which he became a member. At the univerfity
he wrote a novel called the ** Cyprian Academy,” contain-
ing two dramatic pieces, intitled ** Deorum Dona,” a
mafque, and *-Gripus and Hegio,”’ a pattoral. His trage-
dy of * Mirza,”’ which 18a more regular play, was probably
written at a riper age.

Baron, Michael, a-celebrated French a&tor, was the fon
of a fhop-keeper of Ifoudun, who himfelf went upon the
ftage, and born at Paris in 1652. He firft joined the com.
pany of Raifin, and afterwards that of Moliere,*in which
connection he was univerfally admired and applauded. Ba-
ron was equally fuccefsful both in tragedy and comedy ; al-
though it is faid he acquired his principal reputation in the
former department. Racine, on occafion of introducing his
Andromache on the flage, gave inftruCtions to the other
actors with re{peét to the performance of their feveral parts ;
but addrefling Baron, who was to att Pyrrhus, he faid to
him, ‘‘To you, fir, I have no inftructions to give; your
own heart will tell you more than my leffons can inform you.”
Preachers are faid to have attended in a grated box to ftudy
his a€tion; ‘and thence (fays Voltaire) went to declaim
again{t the theatre.’? Such was his vanity, that in allufion
to the title that was bellowed upon him of the * Rofcius’””
of his age, he faid, that ‘‘ every century produced a Cefar,
but that it requited 2000 years to produce a Baron.” He
was highly carefled by perfons of diftinétion, although he
fometimes was mortified by their reflections. At length,
difgufted by this circumftance, or influenced by fome other
motive, he witadrew from the ftage in 1691, and enjoyed
a penfion from the king. After an interval of 29 years he
refumed his profeffion, and at the age of 68 was as much
applauded as ever. In September 1729, his infirmities re-
duced him to the neceflity of retiring, and he furvived only
two months. Daron was a writer as well as an ator, and
compofed feveral comic pieces for the theatre; which are
faid to be lively and amufing, and to exhibit much know-
ledge of the flage and of the world. He alfo wrote fome
poems. A colleétion of his works was printed at Paris, in
two vols. 12mo. in 1736; and in three vols. in 1760. But
fome of the pieces contained in this colleétion are fuppofed
nar be his. VWoiltaire’s Age of Lewis XIV. Nouv. Di&.

itor.

Baron, Bonaventure, whofe true name was Fitzgerald,

was a native of Clonmell, in the county of Tipperary, in ~

Ireland, and educated under the care of his uncle Luke
Wadding, a Francifcan friar at Rome, who induced him to
affume the habit of this order. He refided at Rome, where
he was for a confiderable time preleCtor of divinity in the
college of St. Ifidore, founded by his uncle in 1625, about
60 years, and died there, after having loft his fight, and-at
an advanced age, in the year 1696. He was diltinguifhed
by the purity of his Latin ftyle, and wrote many books
both in profe and verfe in that language. His chief work
was his ‘¢ Theologia,”’ in 6 vols. printed at Paris in 1676.
Biog. Brit.

BARONET or Enccranp, an hereditary dignity by
patent, next to that of a baron inftituted by king James the
Firft on the 22d of May 1611. The firft baronet that was
created was fir Nicholas Bacon of Redgrave in Suffolk,

whofe

BAR

whofe fucceffor is therefore ftyled Primus Baronetorum Ang-
lie. At the firlt inftitution of this order the king engaged
that the number fhould not exceed two hundred, and that
each fhould pay into the exchequer as much as would pay
thirty foot foldiers at eight-pence per diem to ferve in the
province of Ulfter in Ireland; and for their diftin@lion, as
an hononrab!e augmentation, they bear in their coat of
arms either in a canton, or in an ef{cutcheon of pretence,
the arms of the ancient kings of Ulfter, being argent a
hand, finifter, couped at the wrift, extended in pale gules. Baro-
nets and their eldett fons have this peculiar privilege, that they
may be knighted if they pleafe, upon knowledge thereof given
to the lord chamberlain of the houfehold, or vice-chamberlain
for the time being, or in their abfence, to any other officer at-
tending his majelty’s perfon; and in all commiffions, writs,
and other deeds, the ityle of daronet is to be placed at the
end of their furnames, as a neceflary and legal addition of
dignity, as the addition of Sir to be placed before their
Chriflian names, and to their wives the title of Lady or
Dame. Baronets have precedency before all knights, ex-
cept thofe of the garter, and knights bannerets. No pa-
tent for creating a baronet can now pa{s the great feal until
the following certificate is obtained.

«© To all and fingular to whom thefe prefents fhall come’?
we, the king’s heralds and purfuivants of the College of
Arms, London, do hereby certify that the family, arms,
and pedigree of
have been duly regiftered in this college purfuant to the te-
nor of his majefly’s warrant under his royal fignet and fign
manual, bearing date the day of 1783, for
corre€ting and preventing abufes in the order of baronets.
In witnefs, &c.’’

Baronets of Ireland, an hereditary dignity inftituted
go Sept. 1619, the fame as thofe in England, and bearing
likewife the arms of Uliter as an augmentation.

Baronets of Nova Scotia. ‘This order is alfo hereditary,
and was inftituted m Scotland by king Charles I. 28th May
1625, for advancing the plantation of Nova Scotia in Ame-
rica, and for fettling a colony there, to which the aid of
thefe barouets was defigned. As an augmentation to their
arms, they bear either in a canton or in an in-efcutcheon the
enfign of Nova Scotia, being argent a croft of St. Andrew
azure charged with an efcutckeon of the royal arms of Scotland;
Supported on the dexter by the royal unicorn, and on the finifer,
by a favage, or wild man, proper ; and for the cre, a braach
of laurel, and a thifile, ifuing from two hands conjoined, the
one being armed and the other naked, with this motto, Munit
hec et altera vincit: aud for their greater honour and dignity
they were, by royal fign manual, bearing date 17th Nov.
im 1629, allowed to ‘‘ wear and carry about their necks in
all time coming an orange-tawny filk ribbon, whereon fhall
hang pendant in an efcutcheon argent a faltier azure thereon
an efcutchean of the arms of Scotland with an imperial crown
above the efeutcheon, and infcribed with this motto, Fax mentis
honefte gloria.”

BARONIZE Carur. See Carur.

BARONIUS, Casar, in Biography, a learned cardinal,
was born at Sora, inthe kingdom’ ot Naples, in 1538, and
educated firft at Veroli, and then at Naples. Having
finifhed his ftudies at Rome, he entered in 1560 into the
congregation of the oratory founded by St. Philip de Neri,
and having received the order of priefthood, he was elected
“fuperior-general of the congregation, upon the death of its
founder in 1583. Pope Clement VIII. chofe him for his
confeffor, made him apoftolical prothonotary, and in 1596
raifed him to the dignity of cardinal. He was afterwards
made librarian of the Vatican. On the death of Clement,

BAR

he had many votes in the conclave for the pontificate ; but
the Spanifh party prevented his eleétion, becaufe he had af.
ferted in his annals, that the crown of Spain founded its ti-
tle to Sicily on falfe evidence. His affiduous application at
Jength fo debilitated bis frame, that he died in 1607 at the
age of 68 years. His charaéter was diftinguifhed for picty
and probity, and mildnefs of difpofition, as well as for ex-
tenfive erudition. His chief work was his ‘* Ecclefiaftical
Annals,’? which he began at the ajre of 30, and profecuted
through the greateft part of his life. Of thefe he lived to
publifh 12 vols. in folio, the firft of which was printed in
1588, and the laft in 1607; and he brought down the
hiltory of the church to 1198. This voluminous and ela-
borate work was undertaken with a view of counter-adting
the influence of the proteftant compilation by the centuria-
tors of Magdeburgh, which was intended to expofe the
abufes and inconfittencies of the Romifh church; and the
author, adhering rigidly to his main objet, and approving
himfelf a bigoted partizan of the fee of Rome, has on
many occafions facrificed truth to the prejudices and inter-
efts of a party. He has been charged even with intentional
mifreprefentations; and he has been betrayed by his imper-
fe&t acquaintance with the Greek language into many errors,
and by his credulity into the recital of many fables, which
have been rejected by many judicious wniters of his own
party. The work, however, is a monument of affiduity
and labour. It is methodically conducted, and upon the
whole it is an ufeful, though fometimes a fallacious, guide in
the chronological hiftory of the events that happened under
the Roman emperors. The ftyle, though not pure and ele-
gant, is generally perfpicuous.. Amongit the critics and
cenfurers of this work, we may reckon both proteftants and
catholics. The learned Ifaac Cafaubon undertook a refu-
tation of the Annals of Baronius, in a work intitled ** Ex-
ercitationes, &c.;?? and though he clofed it with the 34th
year of the Chriftian era, he pointed out a great number of
palpable errors into which the Roman annalift had fallea
during that fhort interval. Even the Roman catholic lite-
rati acknowledge the inaccuracies and faults of Barontus;
and hence Pagi, Norris, and Tillemont, &c. have been em-
ployed to corre& them. Accordingly, a new edition of
thefe «* Annals” was publifhed at Lucca, in 1733, with the
corretions of thefe reviewers at the fgot of every page.
The original work was firft printed at Rome, and foon after
at Antwerp by Plantin; and editions have alfo been pub-
lithed at Cologne and Venice. Abridgments of it have
alfo been publifhed by feveral perfons. About two years
before the appearance of the ‘¢ Annais,”? Baronius publifhed
a kind of prelude, intitled, ‘ Martyrologium Romanum
reftitutum,” &c. or * Notes on the Roman Martyrology,’”
folio, 1586; and afterwards often printed with corre¢tions,
Mofheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. p. 206, Cave’s Hilt. Lit.
tom. 1. Prolegomena, p. 6, &c.

Baronius, Theodore, of Cremona, in Italy, publithed
in 1609, in 4to, ‘* De operationis meiandi triplici lwlione
et curatione, libri duo, in quibus morbi omnes renum, ct
veficze, ex Galeni prefertim mente, pertractantur.” He
was a ftrenuous defender of the dodtrines of Galen, with
whom, he is faid to have declared, it is more creditable to
err, than to reafon right on any other fyftem: but he has
in fome points left his guide. He recommends the ufe of
cantharides internally in affections of the kidneys and blad-
der, a pratice it is probable Greenveldt learned from him :
he alfo injeéted medicated liquors into the bladder, with
the view of facilitating the egrefs of calculi, or of diffolv-
ing them. Hall. Bib. Med.

Baronius, Vincentius, a celebrated Italian phyfician,
publithed in 1636, 4to. ‘De peripneumia, anno pecs

ahis

BAR

atiis temporibus, Flaminiam, aliafque regiones, populariter
infeftante, ac a nemine hactenus obfervata, libri duo, Foro-
Iivii,’? a work of confiderable merit, giving a particlur ac-
count of the difeafe, and of the method found moft fucceff-
ful in combating it, with the appearances obferved on dif-
fecting the bodies of thofe who died of the complaint. The
epidemic was attended with fever, pain in the cheft, cough,
difficulty of breathing, and an inextinguifhable thirift.
-Thbofe who expeétorated freely, early in the complaint,
particularly if they had been plentifully blooded, ufu-
aly, he fays, recovered. The lungs of thofe who died
were univerfally inflamed; fometimes, but not always,
the pleury was alfo aficcted; and in fome of the fub-
jeats, feram was found effufed in the cavity of the tho-
rax. The difeafe was not, he fays, contagious. Hal-
ler. Bib. Med.

BARONTHALA, in Geography. See Lassa.

BARONY, Baronta, or Baronacium, the lordfhip
or fee of a baron, either temporal or fpiritual; in which
fenfe barony amounts to the fame with what is otherwife
called honour.

A barony may be confidered as a lordfhip held by fome
fervice in chief of the king, coinciding with what is other-
wife called grand fergeanty,

Baronies, in their firft creation, moved from the king him-
felf, the chtef lord of the whole realm, and could be holden
immediately of no other lord. For example, the king en-
feoffed a man of a great {eigneurie in land, to hold to the
perfon enfeoffed and his heirs, of the king and his heirs,
by baronial fervice, to wit, by the fervice of twenty, forty,
fixty knights, or of fuch other number of knights, either
more or fewer, as the king by his enfeoffment limited or
appointed. In the ages next after the Conqueft, when a
great lord was enfeoffed by the king of a large feigneurie,
fuch feigreurie was called a barony, but more commonly an
honour: as the honour of Gloucefter, the honour of Wal-
lingford, the honour of Lancatter, the honour of Rich-
mond, and the like. There were in England certain ho-
nours, which were often called by Norman or other fo-
reign names; that is to fay fometimes by the Englith, and
fometimes by the foreign name. This happened when the
fame perfon was lord of an honour in Normandy, or fome
other foreign country, and alfo of an honour in England.
For example, William de Forz, de Force, or de Fortibus,
was lord of the honour of Albemarle in Normandy, he was
alfo lord of two honours in England, to wit, the honour
of Holderneffe, and the honour of Skipton in Cravene.
Thefe honours in England were fometimes called by the
Norman name, the honour of Albemarle, or the honour of
the earl of Albemarle. In like manner, the earl of Bri-
tannie was lord of the honour of Britannie in France, and
alfo of the honour of Richmond in Englend; the honour
of Richmond was fometimes called by the foreign name,
the honour of Britannie, or the honour of the earl of Bn-
tannie. This ferveth to explain the terms, honour of Al-
bemarle in England, honor Albemarlie, or comitis Albemar-
lie in Anglia; honor Britannia, or comitis Britannia ia
Anglia, the honour of Britannie, or the earl of Britannie
in England. Not that Albemarle or Britannie were in
England, but that the fame perfon refpediively was lord
of each of the faid honours abroad, and of each of the
faid honours in England. ‘The baronies belonging to
bifhops are by fome called regalia, as being held folely on
the king’s liberality. Thefe do not confift in one barony
alone, but in many; for fot erant baronia, quot majora pra-
dia. See Bisuor.

A barony, according to Braéton, isa right indivifible:
wherefore, if an inheritance be to be divided among the copar-

BAR

ceners, though fome capital meffuages may be divided, yet
if the capital mefluage be the head of a county or barony,
it may not be parcelled ; and the reafon is, left by this divi-
fion many of the rights of counties and baronies by degrees
come to nothing, to the prejudice of the realm, which is
{aid to be compofed of countics and baronies.

Barony is in Ireland the name of the divifions of the
counties, anfwering to the Englifh hundreds. According
to thefe, county taxes are aflefled; and they are often noticed
in the proceedings of parliament.
in Ireland is 252.

BARONYCHIA, in Botany. See Asprenium ruta
muraria.

BAROPHTHAS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Per-
fia Proper, according to Zofimus. ’

BAROPTIS, or Barorprinus Lapis, in Natural Hif-
tory, a name given by the ancient naturalifts to a fpecies of
fione, f{uppofed to have wonderful virtues againft venomous
bites, externally applied. Pliny has left us but a very fhort
defcription of it; he fays, it was black in colour, but varie-
gated with large {pots of red and white.

BAROS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia, in Me-
fopotamia.

BAROSCOPE, derived from Bagos, onus, and crores
video, a machine contrived to fhew the alteration in the
weight of the atmofphere. See BaromeTrr.

BAROSELENITE of Kirwan, in Mineralogy. See
PonpEROus Spar.

BAROVSK, in Geography, a diftri& of the government
of Kaluga in Ruffia, fituate on the river Protva, which falls
into the Occa.

BAROWECZ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublin, 36 miles north of Lublin.

BAROZZI, James, in Biography. See Vicnora.

BARPANA. in Ancient Geography, Carboli, an ifland
of Italy, in the Tufcan fea, according to Pliny.

BARQUES Point, in Geography, a cape on the north«
eaft of Sagana bay in lake Huron.

BARQUETTE, or Barcuerra, in the Mediterranean,
denotes a leffer fort of barks, ufed for the fervice of gallies
much as boats and fhallops are for other fhips, as to fetch
provifions, water, carry perfonsafhore, and the like.

BARR. See Bar.

Bar, Barra, or Barro, in Commerce, denotes a Portu-
guefe long meafure, ufed in the menfuration of cloths,
itufs, and the like; fix whereof are equivalent to ten
cavidos or cabidos ; each cavido equal to of a Parisell,

The Spanifh Barra is the fame with the yard of Seville,

Bakr of Valentia is equal to 1 of the Paris ell; the barr
of Caitile is equal to $ of the Paris ell: and the barr of
Arragon is equal to 3 of the Paris ell. Savar, Di&. Com,
p. 273- See Measure.

Barre is alfo ufed by the Portuguefe in the Eaft Indies
for a weight, more frequently called Banar.

Bare or Baar, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a dif.
tri; 7 miles W.N.W. of Benfelden. ‘The place con-
tains 3996, and the canton 15,644 inhabitants; the territory
includes 922 kiliometres and 13 communes,

Barr-Dice, a {pecies of falle dice fo formed as that they
will not eafily lie on certain points.

Barr- Dice and oppofed to flat dice, which come up on
certain points oftener than they fhould do,

BARRA, in Geography, an ifland of Africa, in the mouth
of the river Gambia. ;

Barra or Bar, a kingdom of Africa, near the river Garhe
bia, extending on the borders of it about 20 leagues.

Barra or Barray, one of the weitern iflands annexed to

I Invers

The number of baronies.

:
:

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Yo

‘Ty?

ee aa eae

BAR

Invernefsfhire, in Scofland, has remained for many ages: in
the pofleflion of the Macniels of Barray or Barra. Itis well
ftored with black cattle, and fruitful in barley and oats.
The manufacture of kelp is carried on with confiderable
profit in this ifland. Cod and ling are caught on the eat
coalt in great quantities; and the fifhermen alfo take fome
dry fith, the oil of which they burn in their lamps, and they
fell that which is not confumed by themfelves at 7d. or 8d.
the Scots pint. Shell-fith, and particularly cockles, are
abundant: thecockles are found in the great fand at the
north end of the ifland, and afforda very plentiful fupply of
fubfitence to the inhabitants. The fifhery, however, has
been much neglefed. This ifland is fomewhat hilly; in
extent it isuearly 8 miles long and « broad; it is populous
notwithitanding the late emigrations to America, and it is
faid to contain about 1604 inhabitants. The natives are in
gereral Roman Catholics. It is fituated nearly fouth from
South Walt, and alwol communicates with Benbecula at
low water, and on this account they are both comprehended
fometimes under the name of Leng ifland. Its coafton the
welt fide is low and flat, but on the ealt fide fteep and irre-
gular. ‘N. lat. 57° 2’. W. long. 7° :

Barra Lough, a lake of Ireland, in the county of Donegal,
through which the river Guibarra flows: 20 miles north of

Ul
30'.

Donega).

BARRABA. Sce Barapa.

BARRABOA, atown of Africa, in the country of
Magadoxa.

BARRAC Lough, a lake of Ireland, in the county of
Monaghan, on the weftern fide of which is fituated the
town of Caftle Blayney.

BARRACKS. See Baracxs. ;

BARRACOL, in Ichthyology, a name given by Artedi,
from the Venetians, to exprefs the {pecies of ray-fifh, called
by Bellonius and Gefner miraletus, and by others raia oculata
lavis.

The fpecific name of Artedi carries in it a much better
charaéter of the fifth; he calls it the ray, with a fmooth
back and belly, and with the eyes furrounded with a feries
of fpines, and three other rows of them on the tail.

EBARRA-Conpa, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Nigritia, feated on the river Gambia.

BARRACOO, or as the failors call it, Berka, or
Berxu, lies on the weft coaf of Africa, 6 cr 7 leagues
W.S.W: from Acra, and is known at fea by two very high
mountains behind it, one of which is double at the top with
a faddle, and they are covered with trees. Some rocks lie off
in the fea juft before it, and forzn a kind of haven.

BARRACOPE, lies on the weft coat of Africa, feven
leagues E.S. E. from St. Mary’s, and at the fame diltance
from the river Junk in the fame direCtion on the other hand.
This coaft abounds with negroe towns, and alfo with trees
and water.

BARRAD, atown of Arabia, 40 miles fouth-eaft of
Saade. ;

-BARRADY. See Barapy.

BARRAGAN, or Barracan, in Commerce, a kind of
fluff belonging to the clafs of cambiets, only of a grain much
coarfer than the reft, manufactured in divers parts of France
and Flanders, chiefly at Abbeville, Amiens, Rouen, and
Lifle, and now in Engiand. ‘

The word is barbarous Latin, formed as fome fuppole,
from barra, q. d. barrarum formam referéns. Du-Cange. The
chief ufe of darragans, called alfo by the French douracans,
is for furtouts. cr upper garments again{t the rain, being,

_ when good, of fo clofea grain, that the water will not foak

through, but only run upon them,
- Vou. Il,

BAR

For the woof, its thread is fingle, twifted, and fine fpun;
that of the warp is double or triple, i. ¢. conrpofed of two
or three threads well twifted tegether. The ufval matter
it is made of, is wool; though there are fome made at Ronen,
where the warp is hemp, and the woof wool. Some darragans,
again, are made of wool, dyed before it comes to the loom;
others are woven white, and dyed afterwards, red, black,
blue, brown, &c. They are not fulled, but only boiled
two or three times in fair water, when they come from the
loom ; then calendered to make them {mooth aud even; and
laflly, made into rolls called pieces of barragan.

BARREL, Ferer, in Bingraphy, a French abbé, -was
born at Grenoble, and removing to Paris, at an early period
of his life, took up the office of a {chool-matler. He dicd
there July 21, 1772. Huis chief iiterary work is a “ Die=
tionnaire hiftorique, lit:éraire, et critigne des Hommes ce-
lebres,”? Gvols. Svo. 1759. It was nicknamed the Mariy-=
rology of Janfenifm, compiled by a convulficunaire. Al-
though this work betrays too much of the f{pirit of party,
the articles of learned authors, poets, orators, and literary,
men, are generally compiled with judgment and tafte.
Barrel has alfo publifhed au ab{traét of the letters of madame
de Sevigné in 12mo. under the title of ‘ Sevigniana,”’ and
a valuable abridgment of the ‘* Di€tionnaire des Antiquicés
Romaines,”’ by Pitifcus, in 2 vols. 8vo. He was a man of
erudition, and of lively converfation; and the flyle of his
writings is vigorous and manly, though fometimes negligent
and incorre&t. Biog. Dict.

BARRA-MAHAL, or Bara-Maut, dencting the
“ twelve places,” in Geography, a valley called alfo Vaniam-
baddy, in the peninfula of India, containing twelve fortreffes
of fome note: viz, Kiftnagheri, Jegadivy, Candely, Con-
goonda, Vaniambaddy, Mahrauzegar, Cochingur, Cootu-
ragur, Bazingur, Tripatore, Tadeuil, and Gigangurry.

BARRAN, a town of France, in the department of the
Gers, and chicf place ofa canton in the diltri& of Auch,
containing about 700 inhabitants; 2 leagues W.S. W. of
Auch.

BARRANCA, a town of South America, in Peru,
with a harbour in the Pacific ocean. ‘The jurifdiGion of
Guaura begins at thistown. ‘The number of houfes does
not exceed 60 or 70, and yet the town is populous, many of
its inhabitants being Spania~ds. Near the town is a river of
the fame name, which divides into three branches. The
port is to leeward of a fmail low point. S. lat. 10° 30’.
W. long 42° 4!.

BARRARDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Paropamifus. Ptolemy.

BARRATL, barred, an appellation given to the Car-
mehtes after they were cbliged to lay. afide the white cap,
and wear cowls ftriped black and white.

BARRATRY is ufed for bribery or corruption in a
judge giving a falfe fentence for money.

Barratey, in Commerce. See Baratry.

This term comprehends any fpecies of fraud, Enavery,
deceit, or cheating, committed by the mafter cr mariners ef
a thip, by which the owners fuftat an injury; as by running
away with the fhip, wilfully carrying her out of the courfe
preferibed by the owners, finking or dcterting her, em-
bezzling the cargo, {muggling, or any other offence, where-
by the fhip or cargo may be fubject, to arreil, detention,
lofs, or forfeiture. Hence, in cafes of infurance, if the
breach effigned in the declaration on a policy was the lifs
of the fhip * by the fraud and negligence of the matter,”
this was determined to be a fufficient averment of alofs by
barratry. At Amiterdam, Hamburgh. Middleburgh, and

fome other maritime towns, infurers are, by pofitive law,
4U made

BAR

made refponfible for the barratry of the mafterand mariners.
With us the law permits the owner of the fhip to be infured
againft the mifconduét of the captain and crew, though they
are bis own agents, and the perfons of his own choice. TF
the captain be the infured, no agreement on the part of the
infurers can make them liable for barratry committed by
himfelf; but they may be liable, in fuch cafe, for the bar-
ratry of the failors, in which he has uo part. With us no
fault of the mafter or mariners amounts to barratry, unlefs it
proceed from an intention to defraud the owners of the fhip.
Therefore if the mafter from ignorance, unfkilfulnefs, or
from any motive which is not fraudulent, depart from the
proper courfe of the voyage; this will be a deviation which
will avoid the policy, but it will not amount to barratry.
In France if by the policy the infured be proteGted againft
the barratry of the mafter, the underwriters are anfwerable
for the mifcondué of the mar'ners alfo; becanfe the term
matter (patron) comprehends all the perfons en board who
are in the fhip’s pay. Our policies are more explicit, and
diftin@ly {pecify barratry of the mafter and mariners. Hence
it has been concluded, that with us, as in France, the mari-
ners may commit barratry, without the concurrence of the
matter, or ayain{t his will. Neverthelefs it has been held by
lord C. J. Lee, at Nifi Prius, that a deviation to which the
matter was compelled by a very daring a& of violence and
difobedience on the part of the feamen, did not amount to
barratry, becaufe the fhip was not a¢tually run away with in
order to defraud the owners. The infurers, therefore, were
held to be anfwerable, and the plaintiff had a verdict. This
learned judge feems to have thought, that nothing fhort of
running away with the fhip, with the intent to defraud the
owners, amounted to barratry ; and yet in another cafe, the
condu& of the mater was held to be barratry, though
certainly much more venial than that of the failors in the
former cafe. Hence it has been inferred, that though the
captain conceive that what he doesisfortke benefit of the
owners, yet if it be contrary to his duty to them, it is bar-
ratry. An owner himfelf cannot commit barratry; neither
ean it be committed againft the owner, with his confent. If
the mafter of the fhip be alfo the owner, he cannot commit
barratry, becaufe he cannot commit a fraud again{t himfelf.
Although it be a maxim in law, that fraud thall never be
prefumed, but maft be ftrictly proved; and it is a rule in
quettions of infurance, that he who charges barratry mult
fubitantiate it by conclufive evidence; yet a cafe has cecurred,
in which it was determined, that proof of the mailer’s hav-
ing carried the fhip out of the regular courfe of the vovage
for fradulent purpefes of his own is prima facie [efficient to
entitle the plaintiff to recover, without {hewing negatively
that he was not the owner, or that any other perfon was
the owner, or that this was not done with the owner’s
eonfent. Though the words ‘fina lawful trade,”? be in-
ferted in the policy, full the infurer is liable, if the captain
commit barratry by fmuggling cn his owm account. It
appears, that it a lofs do not happen within the time pre-
feribed by the policy for the duration of the rifk, the in.
farer will not be liable forit, though it be the undoubted
confequence of the act of barratry.

The offence of barratry, in itlelf fo mifchievous, and fo
injurious to commerce, 3s punifhable asa public offence,
according to the guilt of the offender, by every commercial
flate in Europe. In France, any fraud practifed by the
mafter or mariners, with or without the privity of the
owners, and frauds committed by the owners themfelves,
ate accounted barratry, and very fevercly punifhed. The
captain of a fhip was fentenced to the pallies for life, for
figning falfe bills of lading in order to change the voyage

BAR

and carry away the goods; and the owner, who was con.
victed of being an accomplice in this crime, and of robbery
in caufing the thip to be carried to a wrong port, and con-
vertiag the goods on board to his own ufe, was fentenced to
the gallies for five years. With us the ftat. r Ann. ft. 2.
c.9.§ 4 & 5. makes it felony to deltroy any thip to the
prejudice of the owners of the fhip or goods on board; ant
takes away the benefit of clergy from fuch offences, com-
mitted onthe high feas. By ttat. 4 Geo. I.c. 12. § 3. if
any owner, captain, matter, mariner, or other officer of any
fhip, fhall wilfully caft away, burn, or otherwife dcftroy the
fhip of which he is owner, orto which he belongs, or in any
manner dire€t or procure the fame to be done to the prc-
judice of the perfon or perfons that fhall underwrite avy
policy of infurance thereon, or of any merchant thet fhail
load goods thereon, he fhall fuffer death: and the Rit. re
Go. I-c. 29. takes away clergy from fuch offenders in all
cafes. Marfhali’s Treatife on the law of Infurance, vol. ii.
chap. 13. See Pirarte.

Barrarey isalfo ufed in the law of England for the
offence of ftirring up frequent fuits and quarrels among his
majefty’s fubj-&s. The term, however, is of foreign origin;
and in Italy and other countrics feems ordinarily to have
been applied to the traffic of ecclefizitical benetices; but was
afterwards ufed ina more general fenfe, as applicable to all
corrupt buying and felling ofjuftice. In Scotland it fignified
the corrupt purchafing of benefices or offices of colleétion,
from the fee of Rome, by perfons who left the realm for
that purpofe; a pratice, which had become frequent, and,
was in various ref{peéts injurious to the realm; asa means of
carrying money out of it, without any return of value, as
prejudicial to the right of patronage in the king or others,
and to the free elections of the monks in the monett ries,
both which the pope by prevention pretended to exclude,
and as contributing to raife the rate of taxation wpon be-
nefices, by the fal{e accounts which thofe fuitors for the
Office of colie&tor carried to the pope. =

BARRE. See Bar.

Barre, Lewis-Francis Fofeph De La, in Biography, was
born at Tournay in 1688, and educated at Paris; where he
applied to the ftudy of the ancient janguages and to the
collation of MSS. with fuch effiduity, that he was recom-
mended to Anfelem Banduri, the learned Benedi&tine, asa
proper effiftint in his antiqzarianrefearches. In confequence
of their joine leboers, they pubdlithed the “ Impertum
Orientale,”’ and the colleGien of the medals of the Roman
emperors from Decius. For -thefe fervices Barre had a
pevficna fom the grand duke of Tufeany. He allo gave a
new edition of the “ Spicilegium” of Luke d’Achery in 3
vels. fol. printed at Paris in 1723. He hadalfo a coafiderable
fhare in the new cdition of * Moreri’s DiGtionaty”’ of 1725.
In 1727, he was ele@ted a member of the Academy of In-
{criptions, the memoirs of which he enriched by feveral va—
luable papers, hiftorical, chronological, geographical, ahd
mifcellancous. He alfo publifhed, in 1729, in one vol. 4to.
“© Memoirs for the Hiftory of France aud Burgundy,”
known under the title of the ‘“* Journal of Charles VI.”
Befides other publications of
finifhed more than 100 feleét articles of anew and ample
diGtionary of Greek and Roman antiquities ; but he was pre-
vented by death, in 1738, from completing his undertaking.
Moreri. ,

Barre, Fofeph, a learned hiftorian, was born in 16925
and entering into the church, he became firft a regular canon
of St. Genevieve, and afterwards chancellor of the uni-
verfity of Paris. He was diftinguifhed for piety and eru-
dition, and for his induftry as a writer. His principal

= works

a lets important nature, he

BAR

works are “ Vindicia librorum deutero-canonicorum Veteris
Tetlamenti,” 1730, 12m0.; “ A General Hiftory of Ger-
many,”? 11 vols. gto. 1748; “ "tne Life of Marthal de la-
bert,’’ 2 vols. 12mo. 1752; and the ‘* Hittory of the Laws
and Tribunals of JuRice,? sto. 1756. Nouv. Dict. Hittor.

Barre’, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart.
ment of the Lozerre, and chicf place of a canton in the
dill of Florac, 2 leagues S. of Florac, and 6} W.N.W.
of Alais. The place contains 490 and the canton 5140
inhabitarts ; the territory includes 150 kiliometres and nine
communes.

Barre, La, a town of France, in the department of the
Eure, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of Bernay,

3 leagues S.S.1. of Bernay, and 6£ W.S.W. of Evreux.

Barre’, a townfhip of America, in Worcefter county,’

and ftate of Maffachufetts, containing 1613 inhabitants; 24
miles N.W. of Worcelter, and 66 W. of Bofton; deriving
its name from that of the late Col. Barré, a Britifh fenator,
and an advocate for the caufe of America, in the war which
terminated in the feparation of the two countries. The
townfhip has good paftures, fattens a multitude of cattle,
and produces more butter and cheefe for the market than
any other of the fame extent in the {tate.

Barre’ is alfo a townfhip of Huntingdon county in
Fennfylvania.

BARREA, a circar or diftri& of Hindooftan, in the
courtry of Guzerat.

BARREE Bay. Sce Baxa.

BARREGES Les Bains. See Bareces.

BARREL, an obiong veffel, of a fpheroidal, or rather a
cylindroidal figure, uled for the holding divers forts of gcods
both liquid ard dry.

Barrels are of divers ufes in Artillery, as for powder, {mall
fhot, flints, fulphur, falt-petre, rofin, pitch, quick-match,
and many other things.

Barrels filled with earth ferve to make a parapet to cover
the men, like gabions and canvas bags. »

Fire-barrels' are cafks ‘of divers capacities, filled with
bombs, grenadoes, fire pots mixed with great quantities of
tow foaked in petrol, turpentine, pitch, &c. ufed by the
beficged to defend breaches. Thefe are fometimes allo
called thundering barrels, being to be rolled down on the
enemy on their entering the breach.

» Barrer is alfo ufed for a certain quantity, or weight of
feveral merchandizes ; which is various as the commodities
vary.

The Englifh barrel, wine meafure, contains the eighth
part of atun, the fourth part of a pipe, and the moiety of
a hogthead, that is, thirty-one gallons and a half; of beer it
contains thirty-fix gallons, and of ale thirty-two gallons.

The barrel of beer, wnegar, or liquor preparing for vine-
gar, is to contain 34 gallous, according to the ttaudard of
the ale quart. 1o and 11 W.III. cap. 21.

The barrel of herrings is to contain 32 gallons, wine mea-
fure; being about 28 gailons, old ftandard: ufually amounty
ing to about rooo full herrings, 13 Eliz. cap. 11.

The barrel of falmon is to contain 42 gallons, 5 G.
cap. 18.—And the barrel of ecls the fame, 22 Ed. IV.
cap. 2.

Tie barrel of foap is to contain 256 pounds, 10 A.cap. 19.

A barrel of Effex butter weighs 106 pounds, and of Sut-
folk butter 256 pounds.

In fome parts of Ireland, particularly in the city of Cork,
coals and falt are meafured by the barrel. he barrel uled
to contain 7 buthels Wincheiter, but that lately introduced
for coal is, according to law, 4 bufhels; i.e. 40 Englifh, or

» 50 Irifh gallons. Salt is fill meafured in the barrel of 7

BAR

buthels, but file menfure; whereas the coal was fold by
heap meafure, which put it into the power of the meafurer
to cheat either the feller or buyer at pleafure. The abufe
was found fo great that this kind of meafurement bas been
abolifhed.

The barrel or barille of Florence is a liquid meafure con-
taining 20 fiafques, flafks, or one third of a ftar or ftaio.

The barrel, barique, of Paris, contains 210 pints, or 26
feptiers and a half; four bariques make three muids, or one
tun.

Barrer, in Anatomy, devotes a pretty large cavity fitus
ated behind the drum of the ear, lined with a membrane in

which there are feveral veins and arteries. It is faid to be

full of a purulent matter in children; and ir its cavity there
are four {mall bones ; viz. the malleolus, the incus, the /rapes,
and the os orbiculare.

Barrer of a Clock, in Mechanics, is a cylindrical parts
about which the {tring is wound. And the barrel of a
watch is the cylinder which contains the fpring, and about
which the chain coils.

Barre of a Gun, Piffol, &c. is the cylindrical tube
through which the ball is difcharged.

Barrer ofa Fack, is the cylindrical part whereon the
line is wound.

Barrer of a Pump, is the wooden tube which makes the
body of the engine, and wherein the pifton moves.

BARRELET, in Heraldry. Sze Barrucer.

BARRELIER, James, in Biography, a Dominican
monk, was born at Paris, in 1606, of a noble family. Having
received a liberal education, and being well flilled in Latin,
Greck, and feveral modern languages, he applied himfelf to
the ftudy of medicine; but entering among the Dominicans,
in 1635, he now confined himfelf to acquiring a knowledge
of plants. With this view, he embraced an opportunity of-
fered him, of accompanying the head or general of the
Jacobins, as an affiltanc, with whom he travelled over a great
part of France and Spain, colleGing every where whatever
rare plants could be found, of which he procured drawings
to be made. At the end of 23 years, a great part of which
was {pent in Italy, he returned to Paris. He now applied
himfelf in arranging the plants he had colleéted, propofing
to pueblifh accounts and delineations of them, in the manner
adopted by Tournefort, and had proceeded fo far as to get
engravings of 1324 of the plants finifhed, when he died of
afthma in 1672. His manulcripts, drawings, and plates,
were depofited, after his death, in the library of the Jaco-
bins at Paris, where they remained until the year 1714,
when Antonine Joffieu undertook to publifh them, under
the title of * Plante per Galliam, Hifpaniam, et Italam
obfervate, et iconibus wneis exhibite,a R. P. Jacobo Bar-
relicro, opus pofthumum ;” Pariftis, 2 vol. fol. The en-
gravings are on a {mall fcale, frequently borrowed from
other works, Haller fays, and many of them repetiticns of
the fame plants. Many of them, however, he adds, are new,
and of fcarce and valuable plants, which entitles thefe vo-
lumes to a place in all botanical libraries. Haller. Bib.
Botan. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.

BARRELLING, the art of putting up certain commo-
dities in cafks or barrels.

Gun-powder for the land fervice is often barrelled double,
the barrel it is put in being inclofed in another barrel, partly
to prevent the powder catching moilture in the fubterrane-
ous places it is kept im, and partly to enable it the better to
bear the motion and jolting of carriages, when it is to be
conveyed to another place.

Barrerwine of ferrings, imports the cutting off their
heads as they are thrown into the bufs, and afterwards pull-

402 ing

i

BAR

ing out the guts, falting them, and putting them up in
barrels. There are two forts of barrelled herrings; one
whereia they are laid orderly, layer over layer, called by
fome packed herrings; the other where they are thrown
at random, called herring in wrack.

Lhe difference arfes thus: as faft as the fifiermen catch
the herrings, they throw them on the deck of the veffel;
where having gutted aud falted them, titey throw them at
random iito the barrel, to be carried home: this is the her-
ring in wrack.

When armved afhore, they take the fifh out of thefe bar-
rels. calt them into a tub, and falting them anew, range them
handfomely in their barrels again, laying falt over them, to
preferve them; thefe are the packed herrings. And itis in
this ftate they are ufnally fold.

BARRELL’s Sounp, in Geography, lies on the N.W.
coalt.of America, and is called by the natives Conget-hoi-toi.
Ir 's fituated about 6 leagues from the fouthera extremity of
Wathington or Charlotte iflands, ina N.W. direGtion, about
N. lat. 52°. W. iong. 131°. It has two islets, one on the
eait, the other on the weit fide cf the ifland: the latter is
the belt, the other is dangerous. The fhores are of a
craggy black rock; and the banks are lined with trees of
various kinds; as pines, fpruce, hemlock, alder, &c. This’
fourd was firit vifited by Capt. Gray in the Wafhington in
1789, and derived its name from foleph Barrell Efq. of
Chariefton.

Barres, the name given to rocks near the fouth coaftiof
the county of Wexford, in the Ivifh fea, 5 miles S.W. of
Carnfore, point.—Alfo, to rocks near the fouth coat of
Ireland, in Courtmafchery bay. D

BARRE’ME, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&
of Digne, 10 miles S.S.E. of Digne. The place contains
823, and the canton, 3348 inhabitants: the territory in-
cludes 2174 kiliometres, and 8 communes.

BARREN, 1s a term of Saxon origin, and means, applied
to animals or vegetables, unfruitful, fteril, incapable of pro-
ducing or propagating its like. Landis called barrer, on
which no plants, ft for, the fuftenance or nourifhment of
man or animals, will grow. Metaphorically applied to the
heman mind, it.means dull, frupid, uninventive.

In man and animals barrennefs is ufually occefioned by
fome defect in the organs of generation. Both fexes are
hable to this dehciency ; but it is thought to be more inci-
dent.to the female than the male. It is remarkable, that
hybrid, animals, as ihe mule, are incapabie of propagating
their hke. See Hyzrins.

Barretinefs may alio be occafioned by general debility, or
iLhealth; and yet women in nearly, the laft ftage of con-
fumption, are not unfrequently found to conceive, to carry
the fruit to,its full term, and at length produce it-in a
found and healthy ftate; the progrefs of the confumption
being topped during, the time of. utero-geftation. See
CoxsumMPIrion,

Defects, occafioning barrennefs or fterility, are either ex-
ternal or internal. The moft ufual external deficiency in
men, iss, a penis too fhort, flender, or feeble. This ftate of
that organ 1s often attended by a degree of curvature, the
end being held-down by. a. ftrong bridle. In thefe cafes,
the crifice of the urethra, initead of being at the erd, is in
the under, part of the penis, within half an inch of its ex-
tremity3; whence there is not only confiderable difficulty in
introducing it into the vagina ef the female, but in the
venereal orgafm, the femen, inftead-of being thrown for-
wards towards the os uteri, 15 ejeéted backwards, and fo
lott:

In the female, ftraituefs of the vagina, or cohefion of

é

BAR

its fides, preventing the intromiffion of the male organ, may
occafion barrennefs. Thefe defe&s may fometimes be
remedied by appropriate operations. (See Vacina, Difeajes
of.) The fame cffeét, a ftraitnefs of the vagina, may be
occafioned by fchirrous affeétions of its fides (fee as above).
But a more common cafe is an expanfion of the membrane ~
called the hymen, fhutting up the entrance of the vagina,
and only having, at the anterior part, a {mall hole for the
paflage of the urine. Midwives are therefore cautioned, on
the birth of female children, to examine whether the paflage
into the vagina be open, and if they find it covered by a thin
membrane, to feparate it with their nails, and to infpe& the
part for a few fubfequent days, that it may nct coalefce
again. If this caution has been neglected, the membrane,
which at the birth of the child is fo tender as to yield to the
flighteft force, becomes, in a few years, thick, firm, and
flefhy, and can only then be divided by a painful and trou-
blefome operation. See Hymen, Imperforated.

The vagina is alfo fometimes found divided into two
canals or paffages, by a ftrong, flefhy, membranous parti-
tion, running its whole length, or nearly fo, rendering the
introduGtion of the male organ difficult or impraéticable.
Thefe two paflages fometimes communicate at the upper
end, and receive a fingle os uteri; at others, they continue
feparate, terminatirg, or each of them leading to an os
uteri; the uterus having, in thefe cafes, two cavities, or
there being two uteri. (See the articles Vacina, and
Urervus.) Thefe, however, may be conlidered as caufes
rendering impregnation difficult, but not impeffible, More
certain and mevitable caufes of barrennefs in women are,
impervioufnefs, f{chirrhus, or other difeafes of the os uteri,
Fallopian tubes, or of the ovaries, which are generally incur-
able. /

Debility, occafioning barrennefs in men particularly, is
molt commonly caufed by the too early, or too frequent, and
inordinate ufe of venery, by mzsftrupation, or felf-pollution
(fee Onanism), by repeated attacks ef gonorrhcea or
fiphylis; by gleets, and by frequent and long continued
courles of mercury. For the cure of thofe complaints, fee
Gonorruoea, Lurs Venerea, Grests; fee alfo Con-
CEPTION, Cau/es impeding.

Barren Corn, in Agriculture, a term applied to a diftem-
per in corn, in which the ears of fuch kinds as are affefted,
as wheat and.rye, which are the molt fubjeét to it, are long,
lean, and white; in fome, the ttamina, or {mall threads in the.
middle of the flower, are dry, tranfparent, and horned; the
female orzans are {mall, whiter, and: lefs:veivety tham in
healthy ears; in others, the filaments are fwelled, the apices
or knobs on the tops of the ftamina void of duit or farina, and
the ftigma badly unfolded. The ftigmata of all the bloffoms
of an ear are fometimes dried and parched, and at other
times the apices are much {welled out. This diitemper of
corn has been afcribed to various caufes; {uch as its too
fudden growth, the influence of froft or of hot gleams of
f{unfhine after heavy fhowers; and fometimes, though rarely, ,
to infe&ts. Count Gianani imputes it to the. faultinefs of
the foil; and he recommends particular attention to the
amendment of it by fuch means as are beit {united to its
nature; and he alfo dire€&ts to change the feed every
year. fy
Barren Earth, a term given by fome writers to particular
fterile foils, and alfo to the under ftratum of earth, or that-
which lies immediately below the bed of mould, which is
mott frequently turned up and cultivated for the nourifh-
ment and fupport of plants. ‘The idea of the under ftrata
of foils being improper for the growth and fupport of plants:
feems to have originated. in error, as it is now well known

that every kind of earth, whether placed near the furface~
or

BAR

or at a confiderable depth below it, is capable of affording

the fupport of plants, when well broken down and rendered
fufficiently mellow by ploughing, and the influence of the
atmofphere.

Barren Lands, ave fuch as either naturally, or for want
of proper tillage and cultivation, do not on being fown pro-
duce good crops or fuch as are fullicient for repaying the
expences of the cultivator.

Barren Money, in the Civil Law, denotes that which is
not put out to interel*, }

Barren Soils, in Agriculture, are thofe which, from the
nature of their conftituent ingredients, are incapable of af-
fording full crops. The materials which enter into the
compolition of fuch foils are, according to Mr. Kirwan,
filex, argill, and calx, in the following proportions,

Silex from 42 to 55
Argill 20 30
Calx 4 20

From which he concludes the troy pound to contain, al-

lowing 120 grains for water, of
Silex from 2368 to 4963
Argill 1128 1622
Caix 2¢ 600

The fpecific gravity in fuch foils has not been fully afcer-
tained, but the fame writer fuppofes it to be either much
above or greatly below that of other kinds, according as they
are too clofe or too open 2nd porous. That of barren
fandy land was found by M. Fabroni to be 2.21. See
Sort. ;

Barren Springs, in Rural Economy, {uch fprings 2s are
injurious to lands when fuffcred to flow or run over them.
Waters that flow from coal mines, or through mineral ftrata,
have frequently been obferved to have this pernicious quality ;
and {uch alfo as contain either aluminous or ferruginous ma-
terials in a ftate of folution in them.

Barren Plocyers or Floreis, called alfo abortive, in Botany,
are fuch as produce no perfcél feeds. The barren flowers
are fuch as have ftamens, but no piltils; and«they are alfo
called male flowers. Flowers which have only piftils, are
fometimes barren, owing to the abfence of other flowers,
which bear the ilamens. In the umbelliferous flowers, it is
not uncommon to have feveral af the florets barren, though
they are furnifhed botlr with ftamens and piftils; perhaps
owing to fome imperfection in the piftils ; but future obfer-
vations muft determine this matter.

Barren Creck, in Geography, rifes in the N.W. corner
of Delaware ftate in America, runs about 9 miles S.W.
and difcharges itfelf into Nanticoke river. A triangular
traét of land in the N. part of Somerfet county, Maryland,
is inclofed between this creek on the S., Delaware ftatesE.,
and Nanticoke river on the W. and N.W.

Barren J/land, a {mall ifle in Chefapeak bay, N.E. from
the mouth of Patuxent river, which is feparated from
Hooper’s ifland by a narrow channel cn the eatt.

Barren //and is alfo an ifland in the Eaft Indian ocean,
about 6 leagues in circumference. The whole ifland has a
fingular and volcanic appearance; and there is upon it a vio-
lent voleano, which emits immenfe volumes of fmoke, and
fhowers of red-hot ftones, fome of which weigh 3 or 4 tons,

_ and are thrown fome hundred yards beyond the foot of the
cone. The bafe of the cone is the Joweft part of the
_ ifland, and. very little higher than thélevel of the fea. It
rifes with an acclivity of 32° 17’, to the height of 1800 feet
nearly, which is alfo the elevation of the other parts of the
ifland. Thofe parts of the ifland that are diftant from the
volcano, are thinly covered with withered fhrubs and blafted
trees. Itis fituated in N. lat. 12°15’, and 15 leagues to

BAR

the eaft of the caernmoft clufter of the Andaman iflands,
and may be feen at the diftance of 12 leagues in clear wea-
ther. Ata quarter of a mile frim the fhore, there is no
ground with 150 fathoms of line. Afiatic Refearches,
vol. iy. p.J9s5, &e.

Barren J/les, ie on the N.W. coaft of America, at the
entrance of Cook’s inlet. Thefe ifles, Gruated in N. lat.
58° 48’, and E. long. 208° 30’, and cape Elizabeth, fituated
in N. lat 59° 9’, and E. long. 208° 53’, according to Van-
couver’s chert, form a channel into Cook’s inlet.

BARREN River, aname given to each of the $.E. branches
of Green river, in Kentucky; between which lics Blue
Spring.

BARRENNESS. See Srrairitry

BARRENWORT, in Botany. See Epimeprum.

BARREONE, in Geography, a viver of Piedmont, which
runs into the Vefubia, near St. Martin, in the county of
Tenda.

BARRERE, Peter, in Biography, profeffor of medicine,
phyfician to the military hofpital at Perpignan, his native
country, refided three years at Cayenne, as botaniit to the
king of France, and employed himlelf in acquiring a diltin&
knowledge of the plants and antmals indigenous to that
country, of which he publifhed accounts on-his return. He
died November 1f6 1755. Ine1741, be publifted<* Ar Dif-
fertation on the Caufes of the Colour of theSkin in Negroes,’”
which he thought was occationed by the bile being in them
blacker than in Europeans ; and in 1726, ‘* Obfervations
on the Origin and Formation of figured Stones.” But his
principal works were “¢ Ieffai fur l’Hiiftoire Naturelle de la
France Equinoxiale,”’ Paris,:1741, 12mo. in which he gives
defcriptions of the plants he had collected at Cayenne, many
of them not before known, with their ufe in medicine, dict,
&c. Nouvelle Rélation de la France Equinoxiale,” Paris,
1743, 12mo. ; republifhed, much improved, 1753 , a’con-
tinuation of the former work. In this he gives‘accounts of
the method of cultivating the fugar-cane, of preparing fugar,'
coffee, aloes, and other valuable articles. Inthe ** Hiftoire
de I’ Academie! des Sciences,’’ 1743, the method of cultivat-
ing rice; and in 1751, at Perpignan, 8vo. ‘* Diverfes‘Ob-
fervations Anatomiques tirées des Quvertures des Cadavres,”’
containing fome curious and inftrudtive cafes, Haller. Bib.
Anat. et Botan. Eloy. Dict. Hitt.

BARRERIA, in Botany; a tree fo named from Peter.
Barrere, profeffor of medicine at Perpignan. Lin. g. Schreb.
1366. Scop. gen. 767.. Poraqueiba. Aubl. Guian. Clafs,
Syngenefia monogamia. Gen. Char. Ca/. perianth one-leafed,
five-toothed, fmail. Cor. one-petalled; five-parted ; parts
oblong, acute, convex beneath, concave above, with adouble
pit; the feperior ovate, bifid, the wedge-thaped one trifid ;
excavated for the reception of the ftamens, Stam. filaments
five, afcending linear, wider above, thick; triangular, bor-
dered, curved; anthers ereét, four-cornered, marginated,
coalefcing inte the form of a mill-wheel; each, in the clofed
flower, an{wering, together with the filaments, to the pits
of the two petals. 7i//. germ roundilh ; ityle fhort; ttigma
trifid.

Ef. Gen. Char, Cal. five-toothed, very fmall. Cor. five=
parted; ftyle fhort; ftigma trifid.

Species, B.guianenfis. Poraqueiba Guian. Aublet. Guian.
t. 47. A tree forty or fifty feet high, and two feet anda
half in diameter ; the bark is afh-coloured, and the wood is™
hard and compact, of a reddifh brown colour. From the
top proceed many branches, {preading: in al] directions ;
thefe fend forth numerous twigs, with alternate, entire,
fmooth, firm, ovate leaves, ending in a long point ; petioles
fhort, convex beneath, channelled above. ‘Che flowers are

in

BAR

in fmall axillary fpikes, alternate, and almoft feffile. A na-
tive of Guiana, in the extenfive fore fts, near the banks of the
river Sinemari, fifty leagues from its mouth. It flowers in
November. ; ‘

BARRET, Georce, in Biography, a painter of landfcape,
wes born about the year 1732, in the city of Dublin, and ex-
hibited at a very early age a ftrong difpofition to the art in
which he afterwards became eminent. Having gained a pre-
mium of 50]. offered by the Dublin fociety for the beft land-
{eape in o'l, he vilited London in 1762, and in the fecond year
after his arrival. obtained a fimilar prize from the Society for
the encouragement of arts, &e. The eftablifhment of the
Royal Academy of Arts, &c. is faid to have been much in-
debted to the efforts of Mr. Barret, who formed the plan,
and became one of its members. He had two decided man-
ners of painting, both with regard to colour and touch;
his firlt was rather heavy in both, his latter was much lighter.
Scarcely any painter equalled him in his knowledge or exe-
cution of the details of vature, the latter of which was par-
ticularly light, and well calculated to mark mott decidedly

the true charaéters of the various objects he reprefented, ~

foreft-trees in particular. His attention was chiefly directed
to the true colour of Englifh fcenery, with regard to which
he was very happy in his beft works. His bet pictures, in
this country, executed according to his firft manner, are to
be found in the houfes of the dukes of Buccleugh and
Portland, &c. and thofe of his latter in his great work at
Norbury Park in Surrey, confifting ofa large room, painted
with a continued fcene entirely round. ‘he idea in general
charaGterifes the northern part of this country ; and for com-
pofition, breadth of effeét, truth of colour, and boldnefs of
manner in the execution, has not been equalled by any
modern painter. Barret alfo excelled in water colours ; and
his drawings in cha!k, Indian ink, and black-lead pencil,
have great merit. In all his ftudies from nature he was very
correct and minute. He alfo peru.m 4 fome flight but
fpirited etchings in landfeapes. He divd at Paddington
near London in 1784. Pilkington aad Strutt.

Barret Bank, Great, in Geography, lies at the S. and
S.E. end of the ifland of Oleron on the coaft of France,
and forms the N.W. fide of the Maumufon paffage, as
Point de Gardour, on the main land, forms the S.E.
fide.

BARRETRY. See Baratry, and Barrarry.

BARRETSTOWN, in Geography, a plantation in Han-
cock county, in the diftri&t of Maine, in North America,
having 173 inhabitants.

BARRICADE, or Barricapo, a military term for a
fence or retrenchment, haftily made with veffels or bafkets
of earth, carts, trees, palifades, or the like, to preferve an
army from the fhot or affault of an enemy.

The moit ufual materials of barricades are pales, or ftakes
which are croffed with battoons, and fhod with iron at the
fret ; ufually fet up in paffages or breaches, to keep back
the horfe as well as the foot.

«Barricane, in the Marine, is a ftrong wooden rail, fup-
ported by pillars, and extending as a fence acrofs the fore-
mott part of the quarter-deck. In hips of war, the intervals
between the pillars are commonly filled with cork, junks
of old cable, or plaited cordage. About a foot above the
rail, there extends a double rope netting, fupported by
cranes of iron; and between the two parts of the netting
are ftuffed hammocks, filled with the feamen’s bedding, to
intercept {mall fhot fired by fwivel-guns and mefkets, in
tine of battle.

BARRICOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton

3

BAR :

in the difii& of Grandpré, 6 leagues S. of Sedan, and 8
N.E, of Grandpré.

BARRIER, in Fortification, a kind of fence made at a
paflage, rétrenchment, gate, &c. to {top up the entry
thereof. See Drrencr. It is ufually made of great
{takes about four or five feet high, pleced at the diftance of
eight or ten feet from one another, with overthwart rafters;
ferving to {top either horfe or foot that would rufhin. In
the middle is a moveable bar of wood, which opens and fhuts
at pleafure.

Baraier Jfands, in Geography, iflands which lie off the
river Thames, on the E. coaft of New Zealand, and fo
called becaufe they fhelter it from the fea. They ftretch
from 5.E. to N.W for 10 leapues.

Barxiers, correfpording to what the French call * jen
de barres,” i. e. pale/ira, have been ufed to fignify a martial
exercife of men, armed, and fighting together with fhort
{words, within certain rails or bars, by which they were
inclofed from the fpeGators ; now difufed in this country.

Barriers, or BarrizRes, a name given, in the chief
cities of France, and particularly at Paris, to the places where
the cuftom-houfes are cftablifhed, and where the officers re-
ceive the duties of importation, according to the tariff fct-
tled by the king’s council. They are called barriers becaufe
the paflages, through which the carriages and merchandifes
liable to pay duties are to pafs, are fhut up with a woodeh
bar, which turns upon a hinge, and is opened and fhut at
the will of the cultom-houfe officers.

There are at Paris fixty of thofe barriers, all placed at
the entrance of the fuburbs.

There are alfo barrier towns, or places of defence, on the
frontiers of kingdoms.

BARRILE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the king-
dom of Naples, and province of Bafilicata; 7 miles W.S.W.
of Venofa.

pea hip a Vein, in Farriery, now obfolete. See Bar
a Vein.

BARRINGDIN, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
the country of Barra.

BARRINGTON, Joun Suure, Lorp Viscount
Barrincton, in Biography, a learned nobleman, particu-
larly diftinguifhed by his attention to theological fubjeéts,
was the youngeft fon of Benjamin Shute, merchant, by a
daughter ef the famous Mr. Caryll, author of the commen-
tary on Job, and defcended from the ancient family of Shute
in the county of Leicelter, of Roman extraG@iion. He was
born at Theobald’s in Hertfordfhire, in 1678, and received
Prt of his education in the univerfity of Utrecht. Upon
his return to England he devoted himfelf to the ftudy of the
law in the Inner Temple; and in 1701 commenced his lite-
rary career as a writer, 1f we except his Latin oration * De
Studio Philofophiz conjungendo cum Studio Juris Romani,”
publifhed at Utrecht in 1698; by an * Effay upon the In-
terefts of England in refpe& to Proteftants diflenting from
the Eitablifhed Church,” 4to. to which clafs of Britith fub-
jets he belonged. This was followed fome time afterwards
by ancther piece in 4to. intitled ** The Rights of Proteftant
Diffenters, in two parts.”? At the age of 24, during the
profecution of his legal ftudies, he was ¢ppointed by the re-
commendation of lord Somers, to the arduous undertaking
of engaging the Peetbyterians of Scotland to favour the
union of the two kingdoms, and in 1708 he was rewarded
for his fervices by the office of commiffioner of the cultoms.
From this fituation he was remove: by the Tory adminiftra-
tion of queen Anne, in 1711, on account of his avowed op-
pofition to their principles and condu&. In the mean time ~
his fortune was greatly improved by the bequelt of two con-

fiderable

BAR

fiderable eftates; one left him by Jolin Wildman, Tfq. of
Becket in Berkfhire, who adapted him for his fon after the
Roman caflom, and the other by Francis Barrington, Efq.
of Tofts, whofe name and arms he affumed by act of par-
hament. On the acéceflion of George I he was chofen
member of parliament for the town of Berwick upon
Tweed; and in 1720 he was advanced by the king to an
Trith peerage under the title of vifcovnt Barrington of
Ardglafs, liaconfequence of his unfortunate connexion with
the Harburgh company, as fub-governor under the prince
of Wales, and ofa lottery projected for defraying the expence
of opening the port, and a fubf-r'ption for this purpofe com-
menced during kis abfeace,and in oppofition to his opinion and
advice, he underwent, in 1723, the very fevere and unmerited
cenfure of expulfion from the houfe of commons, which has
been attributed to his lordfhip’s oppofition to the reigning
miniter, fir Robert Walpole, In 1725, he pudiifhed in two
volumes 8vo. his ‘* Mifccllanea Sacra, or a new method of
conhidering fo much of the hiltory of the apottles as is con-
tained in fcripture, in an ab{tract of their hiftory, an abftraat
of that abftraét, and four critical effays.’? This work traces,
with judicious difcrimination, the methods taken by the
apoltles, and firit preachers of the gofpel, for propagating
Chriftianity, and explains the feveral gifts of thefpirit bywhich
they were enabled to difcharge that office. Hence he de-
duced an argument for the truth of the Chnitian religion
which is faid to have ftaggered the infidelity of Mr. Anthony
Collins. A fecond edition of this work, with large additions
and corrections, was publifhed by his fon the prefent bifhop
of Durham, in 1770, 3 vols. 8vo. In the interval between
its firit publication and the death of the author in 1734,
he reviewed, correéted, and enlarged it; and introduced
{uch improvements, as add new force to his arguments and
elucidatinnsto his criticifms. In the fame year, 1725, he
alfo publihed “ An Effay on the feveral Difpenfations
of God to Mankind, in the order, which they lie in the
bible ; or a fhort fyftem of the religion of Nature and Scrip-
ture.” He was alfo the author of feveral other tracts,
chiefly on fubjeéts conne&ted with toleration in matters of
religion, which he ably and zealoufly defended. He died
in 1734, ia the 56th year of his age. Lord Barrington
had three daughters and fix fons, five of whom have been
advanced to high ftations in the church, the law, the army,
and the navy. His lordfhip was a difciple and friend to
Mr. Locke, and adopted his fentiments as tothe right and
advantage of free inquiry, and the value of civil and reli-
gious liberty. “Asa theological writer, he difcovers a high
fenfe of the value of the facred writings and great judgment
in interpretiug them ; and ke contributed in a very eminent
degree to the diffufion of a fpirit of liberal critici{m. In his
fentiments and difpofition he was diftinguifhed by his catho-
licifm and moderation; and though he was a rational and
iteady diffenter, he was an occafional frequenter and commu-
nicaut of the eftablifhed church. Biog. Bnit.
BarrincTron, Darnes, the fourth fon of lord Barring-
ton, was educated for the profeffion of the law, and in 1757
was appointed a Welth judge, and feme time afterwards fe-
cond jultice of Chefter. Although he never attained to
diftinguifhed eminence at the bar, he evinced his acquaint-
ance with the law by a valuable publication, entitled, ‘* Ob-
fervations on the Statutes, chicfly the more ancient, from
Magna Chartato 21 James I. c. 27; with an Appendix
being a propofal for new-modelling the Statutes,” 4to.
1766. This work, which paffed through five editions, has
been refpectfully quoted by many hiftorians and conftitu-
tional antiquaries. In1773, he publifhed * Orofius,’”? with

BAR

Alfred’ Saxon verfion, and an Englifh tranflation and notes
of his own, which underwent a fevere auimadverfion from
fom: of our critics. His & Tra&ts on the Probability of reach-
ing the North Pole,’ 1775, 4to. were occalioned by the
voyage of captain Phipps (now lord Mulgrave) towards the
north pole in 1773. His other writings may be found in the
Tranfactions of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, of
which he was an affiduous member, ard of the latter vice-
prefident. In feveral of thefe the author manifelts fome
tendency towards fingularity and paradox ; neverthelefs they
indicate both diligence and extent of refearch, and evince
his talents as a naturalift and antiquarian. Many of his
tra&s were colle€ted by himfelf in a 4to, volume, encitled
* Mifceilaneous Traéts on various fubjects,” 1781. His ex-
periments and obfervations on the finging of birds’’ (fee Sone
or Birps in this Difionary), and his * Effay on the
Language of Birds’? are amongit the moft curions and in-
genious of his papers. In private life he was a man of worth
and imtegrity, unambitious, and devoted to ftudy and litera-
ry converfation. He rcfigned his office of juttice of Chefter
in £735, and from that time to his death, March 14, 1800,
lived in retirement in the Inner Temple. Gen. Biog.

BarrincTon, in Geography, a townhhip in Queen’s county
Nova Scotia, on the fouth fide of the bay of Fundi, fettled
by Quakers from the ifland of Nantucket.

BarrinGron, a townfhip in Strafford county, New
Hamphhire, about 22 miles N. W. from Portfmouth, incor-
porated in 1722, containing 2470 inhabitants. Alum is
found is this townfhip, and the firlt ridge of the ‘ Froft-
hills,” one of the 3 interior fummits of Agamenticus, is
continued through it. Its fituation is very healthy, and fa-
vourable to longevity.

Barrincton, a townfhip in Briftol county, Rhode
ifland, on the fouth weitern fide of the N.W. branch of
Warren river, about 24 miles N.W. of Warren, and about
4 S.E. from Fox point, in the town of Providence. It
contains 683 inhabitants, including 12 flaves.

Barrincton, Great, is the fécond townfhip in ravk in
Berkhhire county in the Maflachufetts. It contains 1373
inhabitants, and lies 140 miles W. from Bolton.

Barrincron, Cape, is the fouth-eaft point of lord Eo-
mont’s ifland, or New Guernfey, the largeit of the Queen
Charlotte’s iflands. It is feparated by a narrow channel
from cape Proby, on lord Howe’s Ifland or New Jerfey.

BARRINGTONIA, in Botany, a beautiful tropical
tree named by Fortter from the Hon. Daines Barrington.
Lin. g. Schreb. r150. Forit. gen. 38. L. fupp. 50. Thunb.
nov. gen. 47. Gertn.t.101. JWJammeefpec. Edit. prior.
Commerfona. Sonnerat Nov. Guin. 8. Butenica Rumph.
Clafs, AZonadelphia Polyandria. Polyandria Monozynia, Yortt.
and Thunb, Nat. Order. He/peridee.—Myrti, Jufl.

Gen. Char. Ca/. Perianth two leaved, fuperior; leaflets
roundifh, concave, coriaceous, permanent. Cor. Petals four,
equal, ovate, {preading, coriaceous, larger than the calyx ;
ne¢tary conic, tubular, coating the bafe of the ftyle, toothed
at the tip; teeth feveral, unequal. Stam. Filaments very
many, monadelphous, (or conjoined from the very bafe into
a cylinder feated on the receptacle), capillary, longer than
the corolla; anthers {mall, roundifh. Pi/?. Germ inferior,
turbinate; ftyle filiform, length of the ftamens; fligma
fimple. Per. Drupe large, ovate, conic-quadrangular,
crowned by the calyx. Seed, nut long, ovate, outwardly
wrinkled-fibrofe, four-celled; kernels ovate, wrinkled.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal, fimple, two_leaved, fuperior, per-
manent; fruit a dry four-cornered drupe, inclosng a nut
one to four-celled,

Speciesy

BAR

Species, Barringtonia fpeciofa, \aurel-leaved B. Lia.
Svit. Supp. Cook, Voy. 1. 157-24. fig- Forlt. J. F.
Miiler. ic. 7. A lofty tree and the handfomett in the whole
equinoétia flora, abounding with thick, fhady bunches of
leaves, every where intermixed with beavtiful purple and
white flowers ; trunk lofty, thick, ftraight, covered with a
dark grey, {mooth bark, fcored with little chinks; branches
expanding widely, varioufly divided, fomewhat bending
downwards, and befet with many leaves at the ends; leaves
crowded, the upper ina kind of whorl, feffile, wedge-fha-
ped, obtufe, quiteentire, expanding from a feot to fifteen
inches in length, thick, coriaceous, very fmooth, dark green,
fhiaing with yellow veins ; flowers on a folitary erect thyrfe,
a foot in length; peduncle fmooth, a foot lenz; pedicels
five, to twenty, one-flowered, three or four incars long ;
braétes roundith, folitary at the bafe of te pedicels; flow-
ers large, white, tranfparent ; flaments and {tyle diaphanous,
purple at the top ; anthers

gold-coloured ; drupe reddith
brown. The flowers open during the mght, and fall at fun-
rife. The feed is faid to inebriate tifh inthe fame manner as
cocculusindicus, &c. It grows within thetropics. ef{pecially
on the fhores of the ocean and at the mouths of rivers, tn
the Eaft Indiés from the fouthern coalts of China through
the Molucca ifles to Otaheite and the other Society ifles.
It is cultivated in the governor’s garden at St. Heleaa.
Introduced here in 1786, by Mr. A. Hove.

BARRISTER, in Zaz, a perfoa qualified and impow-
ered to plead, and defend the caufes of clients in the courts
of juftice. The word is formed from dar, barra, a name
given the place where they ftand to plead.

Barrifters, in the Englith law, amount to the fame with
licentiates, advocates, in other countries and courts, where
the civil, &c. laws obtain.

Anciently they were denominated among us, apprentices of
the law, apprenticii juris nobiliores ; now ufually counfellors at
law: and they feem to have been firft appointed by an or-
dinance of king Edward I. in parliament, in the twentieth
year of his reign.

Before they were called to the bar they were formerly
obliged to ftudy eight years, now reduced to five; the ex-
ercifes required (if they were not called ex gratid) were
twelve grand moots performed im the inns of chancery, in
the time of the grand readings, and twenty four petty
moots, in term time before the readers of the refpedctive
inns, and a barrifter newly called was to attend the fix (or
four) next long vacations the exercife of the houfe, viz. in
Lent and fummer, and was thereupon for thofe three (or
two) years ftyled a vacation barrifler. ‘They are alfo called
Utter barriffers,i.e. pleaders oujfer or without the bar ; to dif-
tinguifh them from beachers, or thofe that have been readers,
who are fometimes admitted to plead within the bar; as the
king’s, queen’s, or prince’s counfel are; hence called inner
barrifters, 5 El. cap. 1.

Barriflers, according to Fortefcue, might be called to the
ftate and degree of /erjeants, when they. were of fixteen years
ftanding. See Counset and SerjEANT.

Barrifters who conftantly attend the king’s bench; &c. are
to have the privilege cf being fued im travfitory aGions in
the county of Middlefex. Bue the court will not change
the venue, becaufe fome of the defendants are barrifters.
Pleas before they are filed, mutt be figned by a barrifter. or
ferjeant.

‘To become a barrfter in Ireland it is neceflary in the firft
place that a memorial be prefented by the perfon defirous of
becoming fo, tothe Benches of the Honourable Society of
the King’s Inns, Dublin, ftating his parentage and previous
education, and requefting admiflion into the fociety as a ftu-

BAR

dent. This memorial certified by a pratifing barrifter of
ten years ftanding who is not a bencher, mult be lodged in

the office of the treafurer of the fociety before the effoin day

of term; and on its being granted, a certain fine muft be paid.

After this admiffion the ttudent mutt keep eight terms com-

mona in Ireland, and the fame number in England. For-_
merly a fludent was required to attend fewer terms if he had

taken a degree in any univerfity, and this was a ftrong in-

ducement to thofe who intended their fons for the bar to

give them a college education. It has been regretted that

this encouragement was difcontinued; but the advantages

of fuch an education are fo evident, that it is to be fuppofed

few will negle& it; efpecially as they can attend terms at

the fociety of the King’s Inns, at the fame time that they

are membersof the univerfity.

Barrister Affifant, the name given to an inferior judze
efiablithed in every county of Ireland, except that of Dublin,
whofe bufinefs it isto fit twice every year to try civil bills,
for the more foeedy adminiftration of juttice.

BARRITUS, in Anliquity, a military fhout raifed by
the Roman foldiers at the firlt charge on the enemy. This
cuftem, however, was not peculiar to the Romans; but
prevailed among the Trojans according to Homer, among
the Germans, the Gauls, the Macedonians, and the Perfians.
See Cuassitcum.

BARROCHES, in Geography, ave two great ranges of
rocks clofe by the welt end of Alderney, Avigny or Ornay,
towards the Cafkets.

BARROS, Joun Dos, in Biography, an eminent Por-
tuguefe hiftorian, was born at Vifeo, in 1496, and educated
at the court of king Emanuel, with the royal children. In
1522 he was appointed to the government of St. George
del Mina, on the coaft of Guinea ; and upon his return to
Portugal, after an abfence of three years, he was made
treafurer of the Indies. When king John conferred upon
him the lordfhip of Paraiba in Brafil, on condition of his
expelling the native Indians, and peopling it with Portu-
guefe, he fet out with an expedition for this purpofe ; but
his fleet being almoit wholly deftroyed, the proje& failed.
Upon this he determined to write the hifory of the Indies,
under the title of “* Decades d’Afia;” and the firft decad
was publifhed in 1552, the fecond in 1553, and the third in
1563. For the completion of this work he retired to Pom-
pal. where he died in 1570, leaving -feveral children. His
fourth decad, compiled from his MSS. by order of Philip III. -
did not appear till 1655. The werk has been continued by
others as far as the thirteenth decad; and the laft edition
of it was printed at Lifbon in +736, in 3 vols. folio. The
hiftory of dos Barros, applauded by fome and cenfured by
others, is deemed, notwithftanding the author’s difpofition
to exaggerate, a work of authority. It was tranflated
into Spanifh by Aiphonfo Ulloa. Barros was the author
of feveral other writings, moral, grammatical, &c. com-
pofed principally for the ufe of his pupil prince John,
fon of king John ITI, ‘In fome editions of his * Décads,’?
there is an an apology for his lifeand writings, written by
himfelf. Moreri. Nou. Di&. Hiftor. ;

BARROW, Isaac, a very eminent divine and mathe-
maticvan was the fon of Mr. ‘Thomas Barrow, a citizen
and linen draper of London, and born in this city in the
year 1630. Although at the Charter-boufe, where his
education commenced, he gained no reputation, and was
remarkable only for fighting and tdlencfs, his fubfequent
application and literary progrefs in a fchool at Felftead
in Effex, whither he was removed, were fuch as to
retrieve his character, and to induce his mafter to recom-
mend him to the office of private tutor to a young

noble-

BARROW.

nobleman under his care. In 1643, he was admitted a pen-
fioner of Peter-houfe in Cambridge, under his uncle Mr.
Tfaac Barrow, afterwards bifhop of St Afpah, and then
fellow of that college ; and in 1645, he was entered a pen-
fioner of Trinity college, as his uncle had been ejected
together with others that had written again{t the covenant.
The ejeGion of his uncle, and the loffes fuftained by his
father on account of his attachment to the royal caufe, in-
volved our young ftudent in difficulties; and he was in-
debted to the liberality of Dr. Hammond for his chief fup-
port. Such were the fweetnefs of his difpofition and his
refpectful condu& towards his fuperiors, that he preferved
their efteem and good-will, though he fteadily adhered to the
caufe for which his family had fuffered and refufed to take
the covenant. THis proficiency in all branches of literature,
and particularly in natural philofophy, was fo confiderable,
and his merit fo generally acknowledged, that he was elected,
notwithftanding the obnoxioufnefs of the party to which
he belonged, fellow of his college in the year 1649; and
now perceiving that the circumftances of the times were
unfavourable to perfons of his opinions in matters of
church and ftate, he determined to devote himfelf to the
medical profeflion. With this view he directed his at-
tention to anatomy, botany, and chemiltry, and made
fome progrefs in thefe preparatory ftudies: however, upon
further confideration, aided by his uncle’s advice, he refumed
the fludy of divinity in conneétion with that of mathematics
and aftronomy. With thefe feverer fludies he alfo blended
the amufements of poetry, to which he had a {tron x prepen-
fity. In 1652 he commenced matter of arts, and was in-
corporated in that degree at Oxford. Difappointed with
regard to the Greek profefforfhip at Cambridge (to which
he was recommended) on account of a fufpicion of his Ar-
minian principles, and perhaps influenced by the afpeét of
public affairs, he refolved to travel abroad ; and in order to
obtain a neceffary fupply for this purpofe, he fold his books.
Accordingly he fet out in the year 16553 and in this year
his firft work, which was an edition of ** Euclid’s Elements,’’
was publifhed during his abfence. He vifited France and
Italy ; and in 1656 he fet fail from Leghorn to Smyrna;
and in the courfe of his voyage he had an opportunity
ef manifefting his natural intrepidity by ftanding to his
gun, and defending the fhip on which he had embarked,
again{t the attack of an Algerine coriair, and of beating off
the enemy. Of his intrepidity, as well as bodily ftrength,
another initance occurred on a very different occafion. As
he was once leaving the houfe of a friend early in the morn-
ing before a fierce maltiff was chained up, the dog flew
at him with vielence; but he had the refolution to feize
the dog by the throat, and after much ftruggling to over-
power him, and to hold him faft on the ground till fome
_ of the domeftics rofe and parted them. From Smyrna he
proceeded to Conftaatinople, where he read over with pecu-
liar fatisfaétion the works of St. Chryfoftom, the bifhop of
that fee; and having remained a year in Turkey, he re-
turned to Venice, and in 1659 he pafled through Germany
and Holland into England. Soon after his return he was
ordained by bifhop Brownrig; and when the king was
reftored, his friends expe€ted that his attachment to the
royal caufe would have been rewarded by fome confider-
able preferment : but their expeStations were difappointed.
On this occafion Barrow wittily remarked in one of his
poems,
“ Te magis optavit rediturum, Carole, nema,
Et nemo fenfit te rediiffe minus.”
« Thy reftoration, Royal Charles, I fee,
By none more with’d, by none lefs felt, than me.”
Vor. Ill.

However, he wrote an ode on his majefty’s reftoration, is
which he introduces Britannia congratulating the king
upon his return. In this fame year, 1660, he was chofen
Greck profeflor at Cambridge ; and in confequence of this
appointment, he read leGtures on the Rhetoric of Ariftotle.
In 1662 he was recommended by Dr. Wilkins, and eleéted
to the profefforfhip of geometry in Grefham college; and he
alfo difcharged the duty of the aftronomical profeffor,
who was abfent. About this time he declined a valuable
preferment which was oflered him, from fcruples of con-
{cience ; becaufe it was annexed to the condition of educa-
ting the patron’s fon, which Barrow confidered as a kind of
fimoniacal contra&t. In 1663, he was included in the firlt
choice of members made by the Royal Society after re-
ceiving their charter ; and in the fame year he was ap-
pointed Lucafian profeflor of mathematics at Cambridge, on
which occafion he delivered an excellent oration on the ex-
cellence and ufe of mathematical fcience. At this time he re-
figned both his Greck and Grefham profefforfhips. Although
the ftation to which he had attained was peculiarly adapted
to his diftinguifhed talents and acquirements as a mathema-
tician, he determined in 1669 to exchange his mathematical
ftudies for thofe of divinity ; and accordingly, as foon as he
had publifhed his * Leétiones Optice,’’ he refigned his
profeffor’s chair to the illultrious Newton. In 1670 he
was created doétor in divinity by mandate ; and in 1672 he
was nominated to the matterfhip of Trinity college by the
king, who obferved, * that he had beftowed it on the beft
{cholar in England.” To the patent of his appointment
was annexed a claufe which allowed him to marry; but as
this privilege was inconfiftent with the ftatutes of the col-
lege, he infilted on the claufe being erafed. On this oc
cafion he refigned the preferments of a {mall finecure in
Wales, and of a prebend in the cathedral of Salifbury, which
he had previoufly enjoyed and the profits of which he had
diftributed to charitable ufes. In 1675 he was chofen vice-
chancellor of the univerfity ; but his fervices in this high
and honourable ftation were f{peedily terminated by his
death, occafioned by a fever, ir London, May 1677, in the
47th year of his age. His remains were interred in Welt-
minfter Abbey ; and a monument, with an appropriate epi-
taph, was erected for him at the expence of his friends.
Dr. Barrow had nothing in his perfon or external appearance,
that was likely to command any degree of attention and
refpe&t. He was of a low ftature, and of a meagre, pale
afpe&; and he was fingularly negligent with regard to his
drefs. Pope, his biographer, mentions a circumftance to
this purpofe, which fhews the effe& of his inattention to
outward appearance. Being engaged to preach for Dr.
Wiikins at St. Lawrence Jury in London, his flovenly and
awkward gait and meagre afpeét prepoflcifed the audience
fo much againit him, that, when he mounted the pulpit,
the congregation withdrew, and he was left almoft alone in
the church. Mr. Richard Baxter, the nonconformift di-
vine, however, was one of thofe few that remained; and
his teftimony was highly honourable to the preacher, for he
declared that he had never heard a better fermon, and that
he could with pleafure have liftened all day to fuch preach-
ing ; upon which thofe perfons who complained to Dr.
Wilkins of his fubftitute were afhamed of their condué& in
deferting the church, and reduced to the neceflity of ac-
knowledging that their prejudice was folely the refult of
his uncouth appearance. His fermons were-diftingu'fhed
not only by their excellence, but by their length. He took
great pains in compofing them, and in tranfcribing them
three or four times, as he fousd it extremely difficult to
pleafe himflf. M. Le Clerc ( Biblioth. Univ. t. ui. p. 325.)
4% ays

‘BAR
fays of them, that they were treatifcs or exad& differtations
rather than harangues to pleafe the multitude; and Dr.
Tillotfon, who publifhed them, obferves in his preface, that
« their own excellence and eloquence will praife them belt ;”
and king Charles II. ufed facetioufly to call him ‘ an un-
fair, preacher,” becaufe he exhaufted every fubje&, and left
nothing for any perfon that came after him to fay. The
delivery of his Spital fermon concerning charity, before the
lord mayor and aldermen, took up 35 hours; and being
alked upon his leaving the pulpit, whether he was not tired;
he replied «* yes indeed, I began to be weary with ftanding
fo long.’ In his compofitions he feems, as it were, to la-
bour for words to exprefs the amplitude and energy of his
conceptious; and, on this account, his ftyle is involved and
interrupted by parenthefes, though he fom=times introduces

affages of fublime and fimple eloquence. Dr. Barrow, as
we may naturally imagine from the courfe of his ftudies and
the chara&ter as weil as the number of his writings, was
unremitting in his application. He flept little, and gene-
rally rofe in the winter months before day. He is faid to
have been intemperate in the ufe of fruit, alleging, that if
it kills hundreds in autumn, it preferves thoufands ; and he
was much addifted to the ufe of tobacco, calling it his
«¢ panpharmacon, ”? or univerfal medicine, and imagining
that it helped to compofe and regulate his thoughts. In
his gen:ral difpofition and conduét he was fingularly amiable
and pleafing. Such were his modefty and diffidence, that
when he underftood that his optical and geometrical leGtures
were to be printed in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, he re-
quefted that they might be introduced with merely a fimple
and fhort account of them, without any thing in commenda-
tion or difecommendation of them; and on the occation
above referred to, when his congregation deferted him, he
accounted for it to a friend by faying, ‘* I thought they did
not like me, or my fermon; and I have no reafon to be
angry with them for that.” In converfation he was un-
referved and communicative, often facetious and cheerful,
and always anxious to adapt his difeourfe to different capa-
cities. He was charitable in a mean eltate, difinterelted
in a flourifhing one, ferene and content in all fortunes, of
the ftriéteft integrity, above all artifice and difguife, friend-
ly and courteous. With thefe private virtues he combined
the charaGer of the greateft {cholar of his times; and as
Dr. Pemberton obferves in his preface to the ‘ View of fir
T. Newton’s Philofophy,”? “ he may be efteemed as having
fhewn a compafs of invention equal if not fuperior to any
of the moderns, fir Ifaac Newton only excepted.”? The
chief property which he had accumulated confifted of books,
which were well chofen, and fold after his death for more
money than they coft. His own MSS. in theology, were
committed to the care of Dr. John Tillotfon and Mr.
Abraham Hill, with permiffion to publifh fuch of them as
they thought proper. They firit appearedin 1685, in 3 vols.
folio; there have been feveral editions fince, and the laft
was in 1741. They confit of fermons, of expofitions of
the creed, the Lord’s prayer, andthe decalogue; of the doc-
trine of the facraments, and of treaties on the pope’s fupre-
macy and the unity of the church. A fourth votume in
Latin, intitled ‘ Opnfcula,”” was publithed in 1687 ; and
confilts of Determinationes, Conciones ad Clerum, Speeches,
Latin poems, &c.

Dr. Barrow was no lefs diftingufhed as a mathematician
than asa divine. The principal of his. mathematical works
are the following: viz. ‘ Euclidis Elementa,’? Camb. 1655.

8yo., and tranflated into Englith and publifhed at London
in 1660, Svo. In this edition of all the books and propo-
fitions of Euclid, the demonflrations are diftinguiihed by their

ROW.

concifenefs. ** Euclidis Data,” Camb, 1657, Svo., fubjoine
ed to the Elements in later editions. -* Leétiones Opticds
XVIII. ;. Cantabrigiz in {cholis publicis habite, &c.” —
Lond. 1669. 4to.: this work was revifed and enlarved by
Newton, and has been highly commended by the beit
judges. “ Letiones Geometrice XIII. in quibus prefer-
tim generalia linearum curvarum fymptomata declarantur ; ”?
Lond. 1670. 4to.: publifhed in 1672 and 1674 with thé
6 Optics. ”” «* Archimedis Opera; Apollonii Conicorum
Libri 1V.; Thecdofii Sphzrica, methodo nova illuftrata
et fuccin@é demonttrata:’? Lond. 1675, 4to. After Dre
Barrow’s deceafe, were publifhed his « Lectio in qua theo-
remata Archimedis de Sphera et Cylindro, per methodum
indivifibilium invefligata, ac breviter demonftrata, exhiben-
tur,” Lond. 1678, 12mo. ; and ‘“* Mathematice L-A@iones,
habite in fcholis publicis Academiz Cantabrizienfis, ’?
Lond. 1683, Svo. Befides thefe, Dr. Barrow left feveral
curious papers, written with his own hand, and communi-
cated by William Jones, efq. to Dr. Ward. Hill’s Life pre-
fixed to Barrow’s Works. Ward’s Lives of the Profeffurs
of Grefham college, p.157, &c. Biog. Brit.

Barrow, in Geography, a noble river of Ireland, fuppofed
to bethe BirgusorBrigus of Ptolemy. It rifes in the mountain
of Slicbh-b!oom in the King’s county, and runaing fora
fhort fpace north-ealt, makes a kind ot elbow ; and continu-
ing afterwards a fouth-eaft courfe, it divides the King’s and
Queen’s counties from that of Kildare. At Athy, in the
latter county, a branch of the grand canal from Dublin to
the Shannon has formed a junction with it; which con-
tributes much to the advantage of the adjoining country.
It proceeds next through the heart of the county of Care
low, and then feparates thofe of Kilkenny and Wexford.
A little before it reaches the town of Rofs, it receives
the Nore; and then varying its courfe fomewhat to the weit,
mingles its waters with thole of the Suire, forming with it
the haven of Waterford. ‘The navigation of this river hes
been deemed of fuch great importance that 11,000 pounds
have been granted by parliament to remove fome ob{tru@tions
in it; and a corporation eftablifh=d for the purpofe has been
enabled to raife 20,000]. more to render it completely navie
gable. It is now (1802) expected that boats will foon
regularly ply from Waterford to Athy, and thence by the
grand canal to Dublin. The circumftance ef the three
rivers, Barrow, Nere, and Suire, all rifing in the fame .
mountain, proceeding from it by different courfes, and
uniting their ftreams before they fall into the fea, has been
mentioned by many writers. Amorgf others, Spenfer has
noticed it in his epifode of the marriage of the ‘Vhames and
Medway (Fairy Queen, book iv. cant. 11.); in which he res
prefents them as three brothers, fons of the giant Blomius
and the nymph Rheufa. He fpeaks of the Barrow as :
abounding in falmon : —

« The third, the goodly Barrow which doth hoord
Gréat heapes of falmon in his deepe bofome.??
Campbeli’s Political Survey, &c. &e.

Barrow, Littl, aviver of Ireland, which runs irto the
Barrow, about four Miles Eatt of Portarlington.

Barrow Harbour is an extenfive bay in that of Bonavifta
in the ifland ‘ef N-wfoundland, divided by Keel’s head on
the E. from the port of Bonavilta, and from Bloody bay on
the W. by a large peninfula joined to the ifland by a narrow
iithmus, which forms Newman’s found; which, as well as
Clode found, are within Barrow harbour.

Barrow Point, a cape on the fouch coaft of Ireland, in
the county of Cork, 5. milés aft of Kinfale.

Barrows, or Lumali, in Topography, ‘a name ufually
given to thofe hillocks or mounds of earth whicl were an —

ciently

©
ei

__

aan Woe

————

BAR

ciently raifed over the bodies of deceafed heroes and perfons
of diftinguifhed charaéter. This mode of interment may
be traced to the remotelt antiquity, and inftances of it occur
in all quarters of the world. A learned antiquarian, well
known for his induftrious and indefatigable refearch (fee
Gouyh’s Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain), confi-
ders barrows as the molt ancient fepulchral monuments in
the world, Homer is one of the earlieft authors who men-
tions the conftrudlion of barrows in deferibing the funeral
rites attending the interment of Patroclus and Achilles.
The body of Patroclus was firft laid on the top of a great
pile of wood about one hundred feet fquare, and covered
with the fat of animals offered in facrifice, the carcafes of
the beails, and the bodies of the Trojan captives cruelly
flain in cold blood on the oceafion, were then thrown on the
pile round its edges, and the whole reduced to athes. The
remains of the fire were next day extinguifhed by pouring
wine onthe embers ; and as many fragments of the bones of
the deceafed as could be colleéted, were wrapped up in fat,
and put into arich urn, having a linen veil flung over it.
The whole army then threw earth upon the fpot where the
pile had been confumed, fo as to cover the bones of the
Trojans, of the beafts, and all the afhes that remain-
ed, and thes reared a high rude hill, under which, nearly
in the centre, the urn was placed. After this ceremony,
folemn games were performed, and chariot races were ex-
hibited rowad the barrow, in honour of the deceafed. To
this purpofe, the elegant tranflator of Homer, in his accouat
of the furcral of Patroclus, exprefles part of the funeral
Ceremory :

«« High in the midft they heap the {welling bed

OF rifing earth, memorial of the dead.”

; Tiiad, xxiii. 319.

In Plutarch’s Life of Alexarder, we find that when that
great conqueror arrived at the ruins of Troy, he anointed
‘with much ceremony the ftone placed on the barrow of
Achilles, poured out libations, and, as the cuftom was,
ran naked round the fepulchre, and crowned the ftone with
garlands.

Herodotus, the father of hiftory, mentions the barrow of
Alyattes, the fecond of that name, king of Lydia, and fa-
ther of Crocfus, raifed 2365 years azo, and feen by
Dr. Chandlerin A. D. 1764, five miles from Sart, the an-
cient Sardis. This tumulus or barrow, formed by the joint
exertions of the merchants, the labourers, and the profti-
tutes, was about a mile in circumference, 13co feet broad,
and terminated by a piece of water called the Gygean lake,
fii!l memaining. Dr. Chandler, in his ‘Travels through Afia
Minor,” vol. i. p. 42. defcribes this and other barrows in
their prefent ftate; and Herodctus ftates, that the lower
art of it was a mals of large ftones, but that the reft of the
pulchre was a tumulus of earth.

Tt was cuftomary among the Greeks to place on barrows,
€ither the image of {ome animal, or ftelx, termini, or round
pillars with infcriptions. Pavfanias defcribes the famous
barrow of the Athenians in the plain of Marathon, on which
were pillars of this kind: and on that of Alyattes were five
ftones, on which were engraved letters, denoting how much
each clafs of the perfons concerned had performed towards
it, and it appeared that the greater portion was done by the
young women. An ancient monument in Italy, near the

Appian way, called without reafon the fepulchre of the Cu-
-qiatii, has the fame number of termini with that of Alyattes,

the bafement, which is {quare, {upporting five round pyra-

_mids. We are informed in the feriptures, that when the
_ king of Ai was lain by Jofhua, his carcafe was placed at the
‘entrance of the city, and upon it was railed a great heap of

RO W.

ftones. Several other paffiges of the facred writings lead
usto conclude, that though the Jews were prohibited from
adopting the fuperititious cultoms of the gentile nations,
they did not chink themfelves reftrained from conftruéting
thele memorials to their deceafed relatives. Diodorus Si-
culus, fpeaking of the Bulliafes, fays, that after pre fling t0-
gether the limbs of a dead body with boards, they caft
it into a hollow receptacle, and placed over it a large heap
of ftones. Virgil alludes to this mode of interment as ufed
in Italy in the times to which the Aineid refers. Xenophon
relates that it obtained among the Perfians; the Roman_hif-
torians record it as taking place among their countrymen,
and it prevailed no lefs among the ancient Germans, Britons,
and other nations.

According to Herodotus, the Gerrhi, a people of
Scythia, raifed barrows ; and the cuftom of ereGling them in
various parts of the world continued through a long feries
of ages. Gough fays, that they continued in afe till the
12th century.

Yhe ancient barrows are of various fizes, fome of them
being f{mall, and perhaps defigned for children, or the
younger branches cf the royal farily, or for perfons of
meaner rank ; others diftingu:fhed by their height and bulk,
and vifible like hilis at a great diftance, which might pro-
bably have been the fepulchre of fome renowned monarch
or warrior, or general burying-places.

Stahlenberg, in his defeription of the northern and weft-
ern parts of Europe and Afia, informsus, that great num-
bers of tumuli, called by the Ruffians “bogri,” are found
in Siberia, and in the deferts which border on that country
fouthward ; and that in thefe tombs are found many plates,
ornaments, and trinkets of gold. Some of them are raifed
by earth as high as houfes, and appear in the diftant plains
like a ridge of hills; whilft others are fet round with rough-:
hewn ftones. Archzologia, vol. ii. p. 236.

The cuftom of interring with the dead their arms, their
jewels, and fometimes their horfes and fervants, is traced by
M. Legrand D’Aufly (Mem. de V’Inftitut. National’ des
Sciences, &c. Paris, vol. ii.) to the mythology of the north-
ern Afiatic nations, which taught them to believe that they
fhould make an appearance in another world, correfponding
to the ornaments and attendants cepofited in their tombs ;
and the remains of this fuperftition have defcended through
many ages., According to this writer, a great part of the
riches acquired by the northern nations in their irruptions,
has been interred in the tombs of the conquerors. ‘Treafures
have been frequently found in the barrows fo common in
Tartary ; and, in attempting to ranfack thefe monuments,
the Siberians have had fo many confliéts with the Tartars,
that the Ruffian government has been obliged to put a ftop
to their refearches.

Denmark, Sweden, Lower Saxony, and many other
countries on the continent, abound with fepulchra! monu-
ments of this kind. - Mr. Coxe. in his ** Travels in Foland,’””
(vol. i. p. 130.) mentions two large barrows in the vicinity
of Cracow ; one by tradition called the burial-place of Cra-
cus, duke of Poland, who is fuppofed to have built the town
in the year 700; and the other called the fepulchre of his
daughter Venda, who is reported to have drowned herfelf
inthe Viftula to avoid a marriage with a perfon whom fhe
detefted. As popular tradition records thefe as favourite
characters in their country, it has honoured them with in-
terment under the moft confpicuous of thofe monuments
called barrows.

The barrows of. England are very numeroufly fcattered
over the plains of Wiltfhire, the downs of Dorfetthire,
Kent, and Surry. Monuments of the fame appropriation

4% 2 are

BARROW.

are alfo abundant in the northern counties of England,
North Wales, Scotland, and Ireland; but moft of thefe
confift of vaft piles of ftones and are defignated by the
name of “ carn,” or “cairn.” (See Carn.) The moft
confiderable barrow in Englardis that of Silbury Hill in
Wiltfhire. (See Avesury.) A barrow in Derbythire,
fituate on the fummit of a hill called “* Fin-cop,”’ has been
carefully inveftigated by Mr. Hayman Rooke. See Ar-
cheologia, vol. xii.) It difclofed two or three fkeletons,
one of which had an oblong piece of dreffed black Derby-
fhire marble faftened by a trong cement to the fkull : fome
urns alfo appeared, with afhes and burnt bones, together
with arrow-heads of flint, and a fpear-head fhaped out of a
piece of lime-itone, and made very fharp at the point.
Mr. Rooke conjeGures, that this elevated {pot, fecured by
a double fence, may have been the fite of a Britifh town or
fortrefs, and that the barrow was the fepulchre of the chief-
tain and his relatives ; the weapons of flint and of lime-itone
undoubtedly fuggeft a very remote period, and, when found
as thefe were, appear to indicate the relics of a primitive and
barbarous people. Dr. Plott takes notice of two forts of
barrows in Oxfordihire, one placed on the military ways,
the other in the fields, meadows, woods, &c.; the former
he fuppofed were of Roman erection, and the latter
were more probably erected by the Britons or Danes.
Some of thele barrows appear rude and conitruéted only of
earth ; others are more regular, and trenched round, fome
of them with two or three circumvallations, and furmounted
with monumental ftones. (Plott’s Nat. Hitt, Oxfordthire,
ch x. § 48.) We havean examination of the barrows in
Cornwall by Dr. Williams, in the. ‘* Philofophical Tranf-
aétions."? N° 458.; from whofe obfervations we find, that
thefe barrows are compofed of foreign or adventitious earth;
that is, fuch as does not occur on the fpot, but mult have
been fetched from fome diftance. In one of them was found
an ura made of burnt or calcined earth, very hard, and very
biack within; it had four fmall handles, and in it were
found feven quarts of burnt bones and afhes. Ass it was the
ancient practice to burn the dead, it appears from thefe
barrows, how the peop’e that ufed this mode of burtal ex-
preffed their re{pect for the dead ; it was by erecting over
them thefe tumuli or barrows, compofed of earth or ftone
brought from diltant places ; and the barrow was generally
proportioned to the rank and power of the deceaicd perfon.
ach foldier, or friend, might bring fome of the earth or
ftones from diftant places where they lived, and thus com-
pofe the tumulus. Many paflazes might be quoted from
ancient authors to this purpofe. The costents of thefe
harrows, as well as their fize and form, have been very va-
rious: infome have been found ftone chelts containing en-
tire bones; and in others, bones neither lodged in cheits
nor depofitedin urns; arms of yarious forts, amber beads,
&c. have not been uncommoa,

The links or fands of Skail in Sandwick, one of the Ork-
ney iflands, abounds in round barrows, fome formed of
earth alone, and others of ftone covered with earth. In
the former was found a coffin made of fix flat ftones, and as
it was too fhort to receive a body at full length, the fkeletons
had their knees preffed to the brea{t, and the legs doubled
along the thighs. A bag made of rufhes has been found
at the feet of fome of thefe fkeletons, which contained the
bones, probably, of another perfon of the fame family. In
one of thefe were difcovered multitudes of {mall beetles ;
and as fimilar infe@ts have been found in the bag which in-
clofed the facred Ibis, it may be fuppofed that the Egyp-
tians, and the nation to which thefe tumuli belonged, might

have had the fame fuperftition refpedting them. Some of
the corpfes interred in this ifland appear to have been
burned ; as the afhes depofited in.an urn which was covered
with a flat ftone, have been found in the cell of one of the
barrows. This coffin, or cell, was placed on the ground,
then covered with a heap of ftones, and cafed with earth or
fods. This barrow and its contents evinee them to be of a
different age from the former. Thefe tumuli appeared to
be a kind of family vaults, two tiers of coffins having been
found in them; and it is not improbable, that on the death
of any one of the family, the tumulus was opened, and the
body interred near its kindred bones.

Barrows are very numerous in Ireland. Ledwich fup-
pofes them to have been of Scythian origin, and to have
been introduced in Britain after the Romans had left it. It
was a law of Odin, the great Gothic legiflator, that large
barrows fhould be raifed to perpetuate the memory of cele-
brated chiefs: thefe were compofed of ftone and earth, and
were formed with great labour and fome art. At New
Grange in the county of Meath is a mount of this kind, the
altitude of which from the horizontal floor of the cave is
about 70 feet, the circumference at the top is 3co feet, and
the bafe covers two acres of land. It is founded on an
altonifhing colleGtion of ftones, and covered with gravel and
earth. In the ‘ brende-tiid,’’ or fiery age, which was the
firt among the Northerns, the body was ordered by Odin
to be burned with all its ornaments, and the alhes to be
colle€ted in an urn and laid in a grave ; but inthe ‘ hoelft-
tiid,”’ or age of hillocks, being the fecond, the body, un-
touched by fire, was depofited in a cave or fepulchre under a
barrow ; and this mode was pradtifed till the third epoch,
called ‘* chriftendomts-old,’” or the age of Chriftanity.
Governor Pownall, who has given an account of New
Grange, inthe fecond volume of the * Archzolopia,”’ ob-
ferves, that the mode of burial, and the fpecies of fepulchral
monument at New Grange, may be traced through Den-
mark, Sweden, Ruffia, Poland, and the fteppes of Tartary;
and he conje¢tures that this mount was a Danifh work;
which was alfo the opinion of fir Thomas Molyneux, M.D.
in his ‘¢ Effay on Danifh Mounts,” publifhed with ‘* Boate’s
Natural Hiitory of Ireland.’ About 1699, a Mr. Camp-
bell, who refided in the village of New Grange, obferving
{tones under the green fod, carried many of them away,
and at length arrived at a broad flat ftone that covered the
mouth of the gailery. Atthe entrarce, this gallery is 3 feer
wide and 2 high; at 13 feet from the entrance, it is but
2 feet 2 inches wide: the length of the gallery, from its
mouth to the beginning of the dome, is 62 feet ; from thence
to the upper part of the dome, 11 feet 6 inches; the
whole length being 714 feet. ‘The dome or cave, wish the
long gallery, exhibits the exa& figure of a crofs, the length

between the arms of which is 20 feet: the dome forms an_

oftagon, 20 feet high, with an area of about 17 feet; it is
compofed of long fiat ftones, the upper projeéting a little
below the lower, and clofed in and capped witha flat flag.
There are two large oval rock bafons in this cave, one in
each arm of the crofs; from which, and the cruciform
fhape of the ftruGure, it is fuppofed to be the work of femi-
chriftian Oftmen in the ninth century. The cuitom of bu-
rying the treafure acquired by piracy, in the barrows of
great men, accounts for the Roman coins found at New
Grange. Foramore particular account, the reader is re-
ferred to Mr. Ledwich’s Antiquities of Ireland, p. 307—
328. General Vallancy, however, and other antiquarians,
confider this cave at New Grange to have ben ‘ antrum
Mithre,”? or a cave for the worfhip of the fun, introduced

by

fe

¢

fued their journey.

BAR

by the Peifo-Scythic colony, which they fuppofe to have
come to Ireland from Spain, and to have e(tablifhed the
cuftoms of the eaflern nations.

Tumuli or barrows are alfo found in great numbers in
America; and the American Indians are faid to praétile a
fimilar mode of burial at this time, generally depofitingewith
the bodies the implements of war and agriculture ufed by
the deceafed. Mr. Jefferfon, in his ‘* Notes on the State of
Virginia,” p. 156. has given a particular account of the
American barrows. They are of different fizes, and formed
of different materials; fome of earth, and fome of loofe
ftones. That they were repofitories of the dead is generally
allowed; but the particular occafion on which they were
conftruéted has been a fubje& of difcuffion. Some have
thought that they covered the bones of thofe who fell in
battles fought on the fpot of interment. Some afcribe them
to the cultom prevalent among the Indians, of colleGing at
certain periods all their dead, wherefoever depofited at the
time of their death. Others again have fuppofed that they
were general fepulchres for towns, conje&ured to have been
fituate on or near thofe grounds: and this is an opinion that
has been fupported by the quality of the lands in which they
are found, thofe conftru@ed of earth being generally in the
fofteft and moft fertile meadow grounds, on the fides of
rivers; and alfo by a tradition defcending from the abori-
ginal Indians, which reports, that when they fettled in a
town, the firft perfon who died was placed ereét, and in
this pofture covered and fupported by earth; that when an-
other died, a narrow paflage was dug to the firft, the fecond
reclined again{t him, and the cover of earth replaced, and fo
on. Mr. Jcflerfon examined one of thefe barrows, fituate
in his own neighbourhood, on the low grounds of the Ri-
wanna, oppofite to fome hills on which had been an Indian
town; and has particularly defcribed its form, which was
{pheroidical ; and alfo its contents, which were colle@tions
of human bones ina disjointed and fcattered ftate. This
barrow, he conjectured, might have contained a thoufand
fkeletons. The circumftances which he has recited militate
againit the opinion that it covered the bones only of per-
fons fallen in battle ; and againft the tradition, which would
make it the common fepulchre of a town, in which the bo-
dies were placed upright and touching each other; and indi-
cate, that it has derived both origin and increafe from the
cuftomary collection of bones, and the depofition of them
together. But in what way foever this tumulus was formed,
it feems to have been well known to the Indians; a party
of whom, fome years ago, proceeded through the woods
direétly to it, without any inquiry; and having remained
near it for fome time with expreflions of forrow, they re-
turned to the high road, from which they had departed
about fix miles for the purpofe of this vifit, and then pur-
There are many other fimilar barrows

in other parts of the country. For further particulars re-

‘lating to fepulchral monuments of this kind, we refer to

Gough’s Sepulchral Monuments of Britain; Douglas’s
Nennia- Britannica; King’s Munimenta Britannica; Ar-
chzologia, vol. ii. & xii.; and Britton’s Beauties of Wils-
fhire, vol. ii.

Barrows, in the Salt Works, are cafes made with flat

- cleft wickers, in the fhape almoft of a fugar-loaf, with the

bottom uppermoit, wherein the falt is put as it corns, and
fet to drain. Phil. Tranf. N° 53. p. 1065. Hought.
Colle&. N° 2ri. p. 81.

BARROWBY, Wixtiam, in Biography, fon of Dr.
William Barrowby, a phyfician of confidcrable repute and
eminence in London. At a proper age-he was admitted of
‘Emanuel college in Cambridge, and in 1733 took his degree

BAR

of Bachelor in Medicine. Soon after, he was made fellow
of the Royal College ef Phyficians in London, and one of
the phyficians to Bartholomew’s hofpital. He died fud-
denly, after eating a hearty meal, December 20, 1752,
being only forty-two years of age, and then in great prac-
tice. here is a fine print of him, engraven in mezzotinto
by Miller, after a painting by Hayman. His father, who
furvived him, died OGober 17th, 1758, being then fenior
member of the College of Phylicians. Our author publithhed,
in 1737, a tranflation into Englifh of Aftruc’s treatife
«© De Morbo Gallico,’? London, 2 vols. Svo, Eloy. Di&.
Hitt.

BARROWISTS, in Leclfiaflical Hiflory. See Brown-
ISTS.

BARRULET, or Barrever, in Heraldry, fignifies a
diminution of the bar, confitting of its fourth part.

BARRULY denotes the field of the fhield of arms,
when it is divided bar-ways into many equal parts.

BARRY, Epwarp, in Biography, a native of Dublin,
received his medical education at Leyden, under the celes
brated Boerhaave, and was created doétor of phyfic there in
1719. After praétifing fome years at York, he went to
Dublin, and was made profeffor of medicine in the univerlity
of that city, firft phyfician to the army there, and fellow of
the Royal Society in London. In 1727, he publifhed * A
Treatife on a Confumption of the Lungs, with a previous
account of nutrition, and of the ftru@ure and ufe of the
Lungs,”’ 8vo. London, in which he maintains the doGtrine of
his preceptor. To the third edition of this work, enlarged
and improved, publifhed 1759, he gave the title of ** A
Treatife on the three Digettions and Difcharges of the
Human Body, and the Difcafes of their principal Organs.??
Haller. Bib. Anat. Eloy. Did. Hilt.

Barry, Giratp, commonly called Giraldus Cambrenfis,
i.e. Girald of Wales, in Biography, a writer of the twelfth
century, was born near Pembroke in South Wales about
the year 1146, and defcended from a noble family allied to
the princes of the country. After an early education at
home, he was fent for further improvement to France,
where he obtained great reputation for his proficiency in the
thetorie of the age in which he lived. Upon his return in
1172, he obtained feveral eccl<fiaftical preferments, of which
the principal were the archdeaconry of Brechin, and the
canonry of Hereford. As he was active in church effairs,
he acquired a reputation which induced the chapter of Sr.
David’s to elect him bifhop of that fee at the age of 30
years; but as he had reafon for apprehending the jealoufy
of king Henry IL., he declined this ecclefiaftical dignity.
However, he was mortified by being under a neceflity of
refufing what was the great objet of his ambition; and in
order to divert his chagrin, he vifited France; and at Paris
he purfucd his ftudy of civil and canon law, and of divinity,
with fuch fuccefs, that he was offered the profefforfhip of ca-
non law in the univerfity; but he thought proper to decline
it. In 1180, he returned to his own country ; and as great
confufion prevailed at St. David’s in confequence of the
expullion of the bifhop, he was entrutted with the admini-
{tration of that fee for three or four years. In 1184, Hen
II. appointed him his chaplain, and availed himfelf of his
advice in the management of Welth affairs. In the following
year he was fent to Ircland with prince John as his privy-
counfellor and fecretary ; and was there offered the united
bifhoprics of Ferns and Leighlin, which he declined accept-
ing, becaufe he difapproved of the meafures purfued by
John. During his ftay in that country, he was principally
employed in collecting materials for two works relating to

Treland.

BAR

Ireland which he had proje&ed. After his return to Wales,
in 1187, he wrote and revifed his “* Topography of Ire-
land;”? and at Oxford, he publicly recited the three parts
of the work on three fucceffive days, fealting on the firft
day all the poor of the city, on the fecond the principal
doétors and {cholars, and on the third {cholars of inferior
rank, foldiers, and burgeffes. In the following year he ac-
companied Baldwin of Canterbury in a journey through the
mountainous parts of Wales, for the purpofe of inculcating
on the people the neceffity of a crufade; and he was thus
furnifhed with materials for his ‘‘ Itinerary in Wales,”’ which
he afterwards publifhed. At this time Girald took the crofs;
but being otherwife employed at home, he cbtained a dif-
penfation from the pope’s legate for not purfuing his voyage
to the Holy Land in the retinue of king Richard I. Upon
fome difguit, he retired from court in 1192; and took up
hhis abode for fix or feven years at Lincoin, where he pur-
{ued his theological ftudics and compofed varicus writings.
In 1198, he was folicited by the chapter of St. David’s,
and the chief men of ‘the country, to canvais for the vacant
fee; but in declining it, he made ufe of a fayizg which has
become memorable; ‘* Virum epiicopalem peti, non petere,
debere,”” i.e. a man fit for a bifhopric ought to be fued to,
and not fue. However, he foon changed his mind; for
being next year unanimoufly chofen by the chapter, he went
over to Ireland to engage his relations in fupport of his
claim. But during his abfence, a mandate was iflued from
the archbifhop and julticiary for the eleGion of Geoffroy
the prior of Llanthony. Girald appealed to the pope;
and after much delay and three journies to Rome, he only
fo far prevailed as to annul the election, and to cbtam the
appointment of anewchcice. Geoffroy was at length the
fuccefsful candidate; upon which Girald refigned his arch-
deaconry of Brechin to his nephew, and withdrawing from
public concerns, devoted himfelf to his ftudies. In 1215.
be was offered the bifhopric of St. David, but the offer was
comneéted with conditions which he did not approve. The
time of his death has not been precifely afcertained ; but it
is known that he was alive after the year 1220.

Giraldus Cambrenfis was-a voluminous writer; ard there
were few of the literary topics of his age that did not em-
ploy his pen. According to the account given of him by
Mr. Thomas Wharton (Hilt. of Poetry, diff. ii.), he was an
hiftorian, an aatiquary, a topographer, a divine, a philofepher,
and a poet. Many of his works, he fays, are written with
fome degree of elegance, and he abounds with quotations
from the belt Latin poets. But his ftyle is in genera! pue-
rile, affected, diffufe, and full of quibbles and conceits: ne-
verthelefs, many of thefe defe&s muft be attributed to the
times in which he lived. Whatever may be thought of the
vanity which he manifefts in {peaking of himfelf, of his fa-
mily, and of his performances, he was without doubt ina
very great degree credulous, and fo much addiGed to fables,
that his ftatement of fa€ts is in many cafes unwerthy of con-
fidence. With the events recited in his ‘* Hiftory of the
Conqueft of Ireland,’* he has intermixed all the prophecies
he could collect of Caledonius, Merlin, and various other
impoltors ; and hence he was led to give to his hiftory the
title of “¢ Vaticinal.” This work, and alfo his “ Topographia
Wibernica,”’ have been charged by the Irifh writers with
numerous miltakes and falfehoods. They were frit printed
by Camden, at Frankfort, in 1602. His * Itinerarium
Cambrie”’ was printed with the annotations of David Powel.
he purpofe of his ‘* Ecclefiz Speculum, five de monaftris
ordinibus, ex ecclefiafticis religionibus variis diftm@ionnum,
lib. iv.?? was to expofe the vices of the monks, againft whom
he had conceived an inveterate hatred, fo that he was ac-

BAR

cuftomed to add to his litany, «* From the malice of the —
monks, good Lord, deliver us.” Biog. Brit. ’

Barry Jfland, in Geography, the welternmoft of two
iflands off Cardiff point, on the coaft of Wales, in the
county of Glamorgan. ; ;

Darry’s Point, a projeGting head land, on the weft fide
of Little Iland, up Cork harbour.

Barry, in Heraldry, is when the fhield is divided into
equal parts horizontally, confifling of two colours: or thas,
barry of fix, argent and fable. .

Barry Bendy Counterchanged, is when the bars are crofled
by lines bendwife. See Plate of Partition lines.

Barry Jndented, is when the lines which crofs the field
to form the bar are indented.

Barry Wavy and Barry Nebulé, ave formed in the fame”
manner by the lines being wavy -nebulé.

Barry Lozengie Counterchanged, is when the bars are
crofled by lines bendwife, dexter and finifter. See Plate as
above.

Barry Pily, is when the bars are charged with piles.
See Plate as above. .

BARRYERAS Vermectias, in Geography, is a large
bay, with very good anchoring on the coaft of Brafil, be-
tween St. John’s ifland and Sypomba ifland, 7 leagues
north-eaft from it; fituate in abcut 2° S. lat. and S. E. of
the mouth of the great river Amazons.

BARS, a town of Hungary, and chief place of a county
of the fame name, eight miles weft of Leventz.

Bars, or Barco, Cape, lies on the eaft fide of the paflage
into the White Sea, and to Archangel, from the N.W.,
and is the north point of the Gulf of Mezene. _N. lat. 66°
30’. E. long. 41° 45°.

BARSA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland near the coaft
of France, mentioned in the Itinerary of Antonine. See
djle of Bas.

BARSALIUM, a town of Afia, feated on the banks of
the Euphrates, on the eaft.of Samofata.

BARSALLACH Pornrt, in Geography, a cape of Scot-"
land, on the coaft of the county of W:gton, in Luce bay,
8 miles N. W. cf Burrowhead. ‘

BARSALLI, a kingdom of Africa, bordering on the
river Gambia, and inhabited by a tribe of negroes called
Jatorrs. The government of this kingdom 1s a defpotic
monarchy ; and the people are in fuch an abje& ftate of
fubmiffion, that they fall on their faces whenever any one
of the royal family appears. In time of war, every foldier
has his fhare of booty; and the king contents himfelf with
a very moderate portion. The kingdom is divided intoa
number of provinces, over which the king appoints govern-
ors, called “ bemeys,” who pay him an annual homage,
and fend a certain tribute or revenue to the exchequer. —
Thefe bumeys, though powerful and abfolute. within
refpeGive jurifdi€tios, are fubject to the abfolute dominion ©
of the fovereign. The king maintains his defpotic power
fo completely, that he admits of no other counfellor befides
his prime minifter, who is himfelf in reality his prime flave.
This minifter is alfo the general of the king’s forces, and
the interpreter of his will, from the very letter of which he
muft never deviate. The king and court profefs the Ma-
hometan religion, though they pay little regard to that part
of it which forbids the ufe of wine; for the king cannot
live without brandy, noris he ever more devout than when
he is drunk. When he ftands in need of-a freth fupply
of brandy, or of any other neceflary, he fends to the go-
vernor of James fort, begging that he will difpatch a boat
with the merchandize for which-he has occafion; and for
the payment he plunders the neighbouring towns, and feizes

a certain

—— ee ee YS

- tenders to connterpoict.

BAR

a certain number of his fubjefts, whom he fells for flaves,
and exchanges for European commodities. The general
drefs of the people is a kind of callico furplice that hangs
down below the knee, and is fometimes plaited about the
wailt ; and they alfo wear a great number of gold trinkets
jn their hair, ears, nofes, and round their necks, arms and
legs. ‘The king of Barfalli, whom Moore faw in i732, had
a prodigious number of women; but when he went abroad,
he was feldom attended by more than two, who fecmed to

~ be dreffed out in the whole finery and jewels of the feraghio,

The prefumptive heirs of the crown paid the fame fervile
homage to the fovereign with his loweit fubjeéts: neverthe-
Jefs it was ufual for the king’s children to difpute the right
of fucceffion with his brethren ; and the longeft {word gene-
rally gained the prize. Mod. Un. Hilt. vol. 14. p. 164,
&e. See Jauorrs.

BARSANIANI, in Church Hifory, a fe& who held all
the errors of the Severians and Vheodcfians.

BARSANTI, Francisco, in Biography, a native of
Lucea, born about the year 1690, ftudied the civil law in
the univerfity of Padua; but, after a fhort refidence there,
he chofe mafic for his profeffion. With this view he placed
himfelf under the tuition of fome of the able matters in
Italy ; and having attained aconfiderable knowledge beth in
the practice and theory of the art, he determined to fettle
in England, and came hither with Geminiani, who was alfo
a Lucehele, in the year 1714. He was a good performer
on the hautbois when he firit came over, and alio on the
flate : as a hautbois player, he found employment in the opera
band; and derived confiderable profit from teaching the
flute. He publifhed, with adedication to the earl of Bur-
lington, fix folos for a flute with a thorough bafe, and
afterwards fix folos for the German flute and bafe. Healfo
formed into fonatas for two violins and a bafe, the firlt fix
folos of Gemmiani. He continued many years a performer
at the opera houfe. At lenzth having encouragement to
remove to Scotland, he went thither; and it may be faid of
him with greater truth than of J avid Rizzio, that he me-
lioreted the mufic cf that country by colleét ng and making
bafesto a great number of the mo‘t popular Scots tunes.

About the year 1750, Barfanti returned to London; but
being advanced in years, he was glad to be again employed
in the opera band as a perforiner on the tenor viclin; and in
the fummer feafon, in that of Vauxhall. At this time
he publifhed twel-e concertos for violins, and foon after
Sci Antifone, in which he endeavoured toimitate Paleltrina
and the old ecclefiaftical compofers. But the profits arifing
from thefe publications were fo {mall, that the fale did not
cover ‘the expence of printing them. Barfant: was an ex-
cellent harmonii ; but his productions were dry and fancil-{s.
He acquired {mall fums by correcting the produdtions of
young compofers, and making bafcs to thofe of old pre-
Bat towards the end of his life,
he fubfitted chiefly by the induftry and econemy of an
excellent wife whom he had marmed in Scotland, and the
ftadies and talents of a worthy and ingenious daughter,
wh-, with the moft promifing voice and difpofition for
mulfic, had been bound apprentice to a mater who bad un-
Gertaken to prepare her fora public finger, and with whom
fhe had vanquifhed ali the difficulties of the art in point of
execution; but fhe totally loft her finging voice, on going
to Oxford to perform at achoral meeting, by ficknefs ina
flage coach ; and never being able afterwards to fing, fhe
was'engazed by Colman as a comic attrefs at his theatre
in the Haymarket ; and having a great fund of natural
hhumonr, and a good figure, acquired great applaufe. ‘The
winter after fhe went to Ireland, and became a favourite
aéirefs in humorous «parts, and at length was married to

BAR

* Mr. Daly, the manager of the Dublin theatre; but died

foon after to the great regret of all who knew her.

BARSCHIRS, in Geography. See Bascuxirs.

BARSCHLING, or Borstuine, in Ichthyology, one
of the fynonimous names of the common perch, peérca
Jiuviatilis. Vide Marfigl. Danub. &c.

BARSE, an Engiith name for the common perch, a
well-known frefh water fith, It is alfo the name now in
ufe for the fame fifh in the Saxon languaze, and is one of the
many Saxon words we have yet retained.
ee ae ae Reale apy a town of Norway, 50 miles

BAKSIR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kerman,
60 miles N. I. of Sirgian.

BARSOUND, lies on the coaft of Sweden, in the Baltic,
15 leagues N. by W. from the north end of Oeland ifland,
and nine leagues from the Wefterwyk channel, among a
labyrinth of rocks, impaflable except by direction of pilots
at Ocland.

BART, a port on the fouthern coaft of Nova Scotia.

Barr is allo a townfhip of Lancafter county, in the flate
of Pennfylvania

BARTAPOUR, a town of India, in the country of
Kemaoon, on an ifland in the Ganges, 93 miles eaft of
Berciliy, and go north of Lucknow.

BARTAS, Wittiiam DE SAtuusrTeE-Du, in Biography,
a French poet, was born, in 1544, at Montfort in Armagnac;
and having entered into the fervice of Henry IV. he was,
empleyed by him in commiffions to England, Denmark,
and Scotland, in which laft country James VI. would gladly
have retained him. H- was a Calvinilt, and acauired in
times of bad talte the reputation of a poet. His works
were numerous, written in a ftyle fometimes mean and
barbarous, and fometimes tumid and extravagant, and
abounding with ludicrous and difeufting figures. His mcft
famous work was ‘“*A Commentary on the Work of the
Greation of the World,” in feven books, which was held in
high eftimation, and paffed through 30 editions, was tranf{-
lated into varions languages, and formed a part of almott
every religious library. Bartas is highiy commended by
Moif. de Thou for his candour, modefty, and fimplicity of
manners. Towards the clofe of his lite he retired to his
{mall eftate of Du Bartasin Armagnac, and devoted himfelf
to itudy. He-celebrated in verfe the viftory of his matter
Henry, at Ivry in 1590, and died in the following year.
His works were colleted and publifhed in folio, at Paris,
in 1611. Gen. Di. Nouv. Dict. Hitt.

BARTAVELLE, in Ornithology, among the French
natural:fts, the fame bird which Latham deferibes under the
naine of perdix rufa; which fee.

BARTEN, ia Geography, a town of Pruffia, and capitat
of a {mall country called Bartenland, in the province of Ma-
tazen, 40 miles 8. E. of Konigfberg.

BARTENSTEIN, atown of Proffia, in the province
of Natangen, feated on the river Alle, 28 miles fouth of
Konigiberg. This town was built in 1331, and at firft called
Rofenthal.

Eartenstern is alfo atown and caftle of Germany, in
the circle of Franconia and principality of Hohenlohe.

BARTERING, in Arithmetic and Commerce, the a& of
Bpesing or exchanging one commodity for another of like
value. -

The word comes from the Spanifh daratar, to deceive or
circumvent in bargaining; perhaps becaufe thofe who deal
this way ufually endeavour to over-reach one another.

This is alfo called bartry, 13 Eliz. cap. 7.

In order to folve all queftions that occur under this
article, find the value of that commodity, the quantity of

: which

BAR

which is given, and then find how much of the other com-
modity will amount to that fum at the rate propofed.
Example I.—How many pounds of cotton at rod. per
ib. mult be given in barter for 5C. gqrs. 14lb. of pepper
at 31. 10s. per C.?
Firft, find the value of the commodity, the quantity of
which is given thus :

C&G, Ibe eck s:

Pec et U RELATE bee)
Bat sas Or, by decimals,
Ney | PEO iS 5 C. 3 Q. 14 1b. = 5.785.
2 q. rya15 3 l.10s.= 3.5
I q. 7 Ore And itis sehicseh. 70502 20:5025 =
20]. 11s. 3d. the value of the

14]b. EL A)

pepper.
-20 II 3

Secordly, find how much cotton at rod. per lb. may be
purchafed for 20]. 11s. 3d. thus:
d. Ib. Lever mid.

BOs anL icc) 2OU LE 12 493-5 = 4C. rqr.173lb.
20
4IL
12
10 | 4935
493+5

As the values or prices of the goods bartered are always
equal, it is evident that the product of the quantities bar-
tered into their refpeCtive rates mauft be equal. Hence we
obtain the following rule by which many queftions of this
nature may be folved; viz.

Multiply the given quantity and rate of one commodity,
and the produét divided by the rate of the other commodity
will give the quantity; or divided by the quantity, will give
the rate.

Example I1.—How many yards of linen at 4s. per yard
may be had in barter for 120 yards of velvet at 15 s. 6d. per

yard?
yds. fixpences.
120) se <u S ais 20 and 372° — 465 yards.

8

See ExcuanGe.

BARTH, Joun, in Biography, a fiherman at Dunkirk,
was born in 1651, and rofe by his courage and naval fall, firit
to the command of an armed galliot in 1675, and at length,
in 1692, to the rank of commodore of a fquadron in the
navy of France. By his nautical conduét and intrepid
bravery he performed many fignal exploits, and rendered
himfelf the terror of the narrow feas. In confequence of one
of his gallant ations, he was ennobled by Louis XIV.; but
he {till retained the rough manners of atar. ‘* John Barth,”
faid the king to him on one occafion, ** I have made youa
commodore.” John replied, ‘* You have done right.”’ This
naval officer diftinguifhed more by daring and prompt en-
terprifes than by any comprehenfive and complicated plan,
died in 1702, and was buried in the great church of Dunkirk.
Nouv. Did. Hiftor.

BARTHE, Nicuoras Tuomas, was the fon of a
merchant at Mari{cilles, and born in that city in 1733. He
was educated under the fathers of the oratory; and obtaining
a prize from the academy of his native place, he afterwards
became a member of it. His father had deftined him for
the bar; but his talents led him to the cultivation of polite

I

BAR

literature and poetry. Removing to Paris, he devoted him-
felf to the theatre; and in 1764, began to write for the ftage.
His pieces were “« L’ Amateur,” “ Faufles Infidelités,”? « La
Mere jaloufe,” and « L’Homme perfonnel.”” The two
firft were well received, but the Jaft did not poffefs fufficient
energy and vivacity to pleafe the public. Barthe then
ceafed to write for the ftage, and engaged in a tranflation of
Ovid’s ‘* Art of Love.” He alfo publifhed a colleétion of
fugitive pieces in verfe, in which {pecies of compofition he
excelled. His epiftles are alfo admired for their philofo-
phical gaicty. Barthe blended with impetuofity of temper
a friendly heart. Attached to focial pleafures, he paffed his
time chiefly at Paris; and after having undergone the ope-
ration for an incarcerated hernia, died in this city in 1785.
Nouv. Di&. Hiftor.

Bartur, De Nefles (La) in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the bigher Pyrenées, and chief place of
acanton, inthe diltri@ of Bagneéres; 6 leagues fouthof Tarbes.
The place contains 856, and the canton 10,426 inhabitants :
the territory includes 180 kiliometres and 22 communes.
N. lat. 43° 4’. E. long. o° 17/.

BARTHELEMY, Joun James, in Biography, a
French abbé diftinguifhed by his literary chara&ter, was bora
in Jan. 1716, at Caffis, a {mall port in Provence. At the
age of twelve years he was fent to Marfeilles, and purfued his
ftudies in the college of the oratory under the inflruétions of
father Renaud. As he intended to devote himfelf to the
ecclefialtical profeflion, he removed to the Jefuits’ college
for the ftudy of theology and philofophy ; but diflatished with
his matters, he formed a plan of private ftudy, which com-
prehended the Greek, Hebrew, Chaldean, and Syrian lan-
guages, and in the profecution of which he brought on a
dangerous illnefs. Upon his recovery he entered into the
feminary, where he received the clerical tonfure; and by the
affittance of a young Maronite, he becamea proficient in the
Arabic language. From Marfeilleshe retired to his family
at Aubagne, and in this domeftic retreat purfued his ftudies
with unabated application. Among his friends at Marfeilles,
whom he occafionally vifited, was M. Cary, who poffeffed a
choice cabinet of medals and an appropriate library, to which
he had accefs; and he was thus led to indulge the predile@tion
for this kind of ftudy, which diltinguifhed his refearches and
character in the progrefs of his life. In 1744 he vifited Paris,
and was introduced by M. de Boze, keeper of the royal
medals and fecretary of the academy of infcriptions, to the
moft eminent members of the three academies, and alfo re-
commended to be his affiltant in the care of the cabinet of
medals. In 1747, he fucceeded M. Burette as affociate to
the academy of inferiptions, M. Le Beau declining a com-
petition ; and when he was nominated by the minifter to the
office of fecretary to the academy, he waved the nomination
in favour of M. Le Beau, as an acknow!edgment of his libe-
rality. In return, M. Le Beau, when he religned this office,
gave his intereft to Barthelemy, who fucceeded him. Thus
did thefe diftinguifhed rivals vie with each other in the
exercife ofa liberality which refle&ted equal honour on both.
Barthelemy enriched the Memoirs of the academy by many
communications relating to ancient monuments, and among
others bya valuable differtation on the inicriptious found
at Palmyra by the Englifh travellers. On the death of
M. de Boze, 1n 1753, Barthelemy fucceeded him as prin«
cipal keeper of the medals. In the following year he
followed M. de Stainville, afterwards duke de Choifeul
and prime minifter, to Rome, and made a tour to Naples,
where the fubterraneous treafures of Herculaneum and
Pompeia engaged his particular attention, and where he
exerted himfelf with peculiar zeal in the prefervation of
the Greek manufcripts. _ As he was not allowed to make any

tran{cripé

a

BAR

tranfcript, it was by fome contrivance and with the help of
a retentive memory that he was able to bring away a {peci-
men of the moft ancient mode of writing practifed by the
Greeks. On his return to Rome he gained great applaufe
for a new and ingenious eaplanation of the famous Mofaic
at Paleftrina, the ancient Prenefte, which, according to
him, related not to Sylla, but to the emperor Adrian. In
1757, Barthelemy returned with his patron M. de Stainville
to Paris, who, on his acceffion to the office of prime mini-
fter in 1758, anticipated and more than gratified his wifhes,
which were moderate, by various penfiens, and at length
by the place of fecretary-general of the Swils.
patron Choifeul was banifhed, in 1771, to his feat of Chan-
teloup, in order to make way for D’Aiguillon, Barthele-
my accompanied him in his exile, and as he determined to
refign his fecretaryfhip, an accommodation took piace, by
which he retained a penfion of 10,000 livres on the poft.
His income was now about 35,000 livres per annum, which
he reduced, by feveral grants to indigent men of letters, to
25,000. This income he enjoyed with liberality ; and hede-
voted a great part of it to the benefit of his family, and to
the purchafe of an ample and well-feleéted library. Thus
twenty years of his Jife were {pent in literary affluence ; but

in advanced age he found himfelf reduced, by the fuppref-

fion of places and penfions, to mere neceffaries: and thefe
he was oblized to procure by parting with his library. This
reverfe of condition, however, he fupported not only with-
out complaint, but even with gaiety. His celebrated work,
s< The Travels of the Younger Anachariis,’? had been the
labour and amufement of thirty years ; its plan was laid in
17575 and it was publifhed in 1788. It was received with
univerfal applaufe, and in confequence of it he was admitted
into the French academy by acclamation. Declining the
office of king’s librarian, which was offered to him in 1790,
he continued to employ himfelf in the cabinet of medals,
which had been augmented under his direction, fo as to
have doubled its number of ancient medals. Lt was his wifh
to have publifhed a catalogue of its treafures. with fuitable
engravings, for the information of the learned throughout
Europe ; but thougi: he had obtained, in 1787, the concur-
rence of the minillry, the embarraffment of the finances, and
the critical events that dilrefled the country, prevented the
execution of this favourite project. In 1792, the infirmi-
ties of age crowded upon him ; and the calamities of the
times which a perfon of his age and charater might have
hoped to efcape, aggravated his other complaints. -Having
been denounced under pretence of the crime of ariftocracy
ae belonging to the library whom he had never feen,

was arrefted, and removed from the houfe of Mad. de

4 cifeul, on the 2d of September 1793, to the prifon of
tl agdclonettes.

With fuch fingular patience did he
fubmit to his fate, that when he was conduéied to the
cell that had been prepared for him, he quietly repofed.
A\a order, however, was foon iffued for his lhberation, and
he-was awaked out of fleep, and carried back to the
houfe of his kind and liberal patronefs. By way of repa-
ration for this unmerited aggreffion, he was offered the place
of chief librarian ; but his increafing infirmities were a fuf-
ficient. apology for declining it. His decay was gradual ;
bat the feverity of the winter of 1795 hattened the termi-
nation of his life, which happened on the goth of April,
on which day, two hours before his death, he was reading
Horace, till the book fell from his cold hands. He then
appeared to go to fleep, and in that ftate expired; having
attained to the commencement of his 8oth year. His cor-

' poreal form is faid to have been imprefled with an antique

charaéter ; and his buft, fculptured by Houdon, and ex-
Vou. III. :

When his-

BAR

preflive of the fimple tranquillity and candour of a great
mind, might fuitably be placed between thofe of Plato and
Ariftotle. The principal work of this truly eminent perfon
is his “‘ Voyage de jeune Anacharfis en Gréce,’? 3 vola. 4t0-
or 7 vols. 8vo., which details the hiftory, manners, culloms;
literature, &c. of Greece, under the form of the f{uppofed
obfervations of a traveller Anacharfis, a defcendant of the
ancient Scythian philofopher of this name. (See ANACHAR-
sis.) This perfon (ice the author’s advertifement prefixed
to the work) is reprefented as vifiting Greece in the year
363 B.C. and fixing his refidence at Athens, whence he
makes excurfions, not only to the other Grecian cities, but
to Egypt, Afia Minor, Perfia, and the iflands of the
fEigean fea. On this bafis of fiGtion is formed a real and
initructive hiftory, fupported by the authority-of the moft
approved ancient writers and by citations from their works
The narrative of Anacharfis is addrefled to Arfames
Phedime, a Perfian fatrap and his lady, whofe chara&ters
are meant as portraits of the duke and duchefs of Choifeul.
It is preceded by an introdu&tion, in which is given a rapid
but luminous view of the previous hiftory of Greece. ‘The
elegance of ftyle, the beauties of narration, and the judi-
cioufnefs of refleion, render this the firft work (fays a
biographer of approved judgment and tafte) in point of en-
tertainment and inftruétion, that fo brilliant a fubjeét has
produced. It has added a capital piece to the literary ca-
binet of Europe, and its value has already been recognifed
by various editions, and tranflations into different languages.
To the Englifh edition in feven volumes, 8vo. is added an
eighth in 4to. containing maps, plans, views, and coins, illuf-
trative of the geography and antiquities of ancient Greece.
An anonymous writer (fee Monthly Review, Appendix to
vol. Ixxxi.) has fuggefted, that the learned author of Ana-
charlis may have taken the hint of his plan from the
** Athenian Letters,’ confifting of the imaginary corre-
{pondence of a fet of Greek gentlemen, the contemporaries
of Socrates, Pericles, and Plato; but in reality the actual
correfpondence of a fociety of ingenious perfons of the
univerlity of Cambridge, who, in this affumed mode, com-
municated to each other the refult of their refearches into
ancient hiftory, and produced the beft commentary on Thu-
cydides that ever was written. However, the abbé Bar-
thelemy having feen this in France, fays the Englifh tranfla-
tor, wrote a lerter in confequence to M. Dutens, a refpe&-
able foreign gentieman refiding in London, in which he af-
{ures him that “ it was not till after the publication of his
work, that he heard of the Athenian letters; and that
chance alone gave him the idca of it.” A colleétion of
milcellancous pieces of the abbé Barthelemy, in 2 vols. 8vo.
was publifhed at Paris in 1798. Gen. Biog.

BartTHELemy, Sr. in Geography, a tow of France, in
the department of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftrict of Laufun, 22 leagues north of
Tonneins.

BARTHIUS, Gaspar, in Biography, a learned philo-
logical writer of the fixteenth century, was born at Cuftrin,
ia Brandenburg, in 7587, and received his education at
Gotha, and in feveral other ac2demies both in Germany and
Italy. His talents and attainments attra@ted notice at a very
early period. At tne age of 12 years he tranflated David’s
palms into verfe, and in 1607 he printed a colleGtion of all
his Latin poems, written from his 13th to his rgth year.
Tn bis 16th year he compofed a learned differtation on the
method of reading the Roman authors, and at 18 he wrote
a commentary on the /Eneis of Virgil. His acquaintance
with the modern languages was extenfive, and he made
tranflations from the French and the Spanifh. Such was

PING his

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-his attachment to literary ftudies, that he renounced every
other employment and retired to Leipfic for the purpofe
ef profecuting them without interruption ; and fo numerous
were his works, both printed and manovfcript, that, accord-
ing to the account of Mr. Bayle, few clerks in office have
tranfcribed more papers then Barthius. As to his morals
they were not very correct, and like many other men of letters
he engaged in feveral literary {quabbles. ‘Towards the clofe
of his life, however, he devoted himfelf wholly to his reli-
gious duties: and it appears from his ‘* Soliloques,”” pub-
Iithed in 1654, that he was thus {eduloufly employed. He
died, after heving been twice marricd, in 1655, at the age
of 71 years. The chief of his we rks are his ** Adverfaria,”’
printed at Frankfort in 1624, fol. comprehended jin So beoks,
and containing numerous emendations and illuftrations of
authors, both facred and profane, to which he added two
other fuch volumes left in MS.; his ‘ Latin verfion of
JEneas Gaza on the immortality of the foul,’’ with an edi-
tion of the original joined to the work of ‘ Zachary of
Mitylene,” Leipf. 4to. 1655; ‘ Nota in Claudiano,”’ 4to.
Frankfort, 1650; ‘* Comment. in Statio,”” 3 vols. 4to. 1664.
As he trufted wholly to his memory, and never corre&ted
what he had written, bis works abound with miftakes and
eontradiGions. Gen. Dié.

BARTHOLINE, Caspar, fon of a refpetable clergy-
man at Melanoe in Scania, a province of Sweden, and born
the r2th of February, 1585, gave early figns of an uncommon
capacity, which his father took care to cultivate, by giving
him the belt inftruGion his circumftances would permit in
his own country. Being well grounded in the learned lan-

uages, he went, prompted by his thirft for knowledge, to
Roftock, Wittenburg, and in fucceffion, to the principal
{chools in Germany, nck; and Italy, travelling generally
on foot, his finances rot permitting him to ufe the ordinary
conveyances. Having accumulated a vat ftock of learning,
in languages and philofophy, but particularly in anatomy
and medicine, to which his genius peculiarly inclined him, in
16to he commenced doétor of phyfic at Bafil; and the
following year, going to Copenhagen, he was firft made pro-
feffor of the Latin language, and in 1613 of medicine, in
the univerfity there. This pott he continued to fill until the
year 1624, till mindful of a vow he had made, when af-
fii@ed with a fevere iilnefs, that if he fhould recover he
would dedicate a portion of his life to the ‘tudy of divinity,
he abjured medicine for theology, to which he addicted
him(elf for the remainder of his life ; enjoying, with the pro-
fefforfhip of theology, to which he was preferred at the
univerfity of Copenhagen, a ‘canonry at Rofchild. He
died July 30, 1629, at Sora, a {mall town in the ifland of
Zealand, leaving, as we learn from an infeription on his mo-
nument at Copenhagen, where he was buried, fix fons and
one daughter. His publications were numerous; and thovgh
not always well chofen as to the fubjeGs, and adopting in
them many popular and erroncous opinions fince éxploded,
yet they were of coafiderable utility by exciting a fpirit of
inquiry ; to which we may attribute fome at leaft of the
Gifcoveries in anatomy, and other branches of natural hif-
tory, made about that time. A complete catalogue of his
works is given by Vander Linden, and by Hailer, in his
Bib. Anatom. & Med. The following will be fufficient to
be noticed here. ‘“ Anatomice inftitutiones, corporis hu-
mani utrinfque fexus hiftoriam et déclarationem exhibentes.”’
Wittenburg, ‘1611, 8vo. This work, much improved and
enlarged by his fon Thomas, has paffed through numerous
editions. “ Enchyridion phyficum, ex prifeis et recentio-
ribus philofophis accuraté concinnatum,” Argent, 1625,
yomo. ‘ Opufcula quatuor fingularia, 4. De wnicore

BAR

nu, ejufque affinibus et fuccedaneis. 2. De Lapide New
phritico, et Amulatis. 3. De Pygmzis. 4. De’ ftudio
medico inchoando, continuando, et abiolvendo.” Hafiz
1628, 12mo. ‘ Syntagma Medicum & Chirurgicum, de
cauteriis, przfertim poteltate agentibus.” Haffnie. 1642
Tat: Haller. Bib. Med. et Anatom. Eloy. Dia.
rt.
BarTHouine, Tuomas, the fecond fon of Cafpar, wa
born at Copenhagen in 1616. Equalling, perhaps excelling,
his father in genius, learning, and induitry, with more am-
pie means for profecuting his ftudies, end enjoying a much
longer portion of life, his advances in hterature and philofo-
phy were proportionab!y greater. After being well grounded’
in clafficel learning at Copenhagen, followmg the example
of his father, he travelled over the greate/t part of Europe,
converling with the moft learned men in every place’he vi-
fited, to whom the fame acquired by his father gave him
ready accefs. At Leyden, where he commenced his medi-
cal fludies, he alfo acquired a knowledge of Arabic under
the celebrated Golius. He then went to Paris and Mont-
pellier, and after refiding a proper time at thofe places, to’
Padua, which he defcribes in his book ‘* De Peregrinatione
Medica” as one of the beft anatomical fchools in Europe.
At Padua he continued three years, imbibing there thofe ftores
of knowledge which laid the foundation of his future ho-
nours. Returning to Copenhagen, after an abfence of eight
years, he vifited Bafil, where he was created doftor in me-
dicine, in 1645. At Copenhagen, he was firft made pro-
feffor of mathematics, and the year following, of anatomy, in
which he foon became a fhining ornament. But though the
{cience of medicine had engroffed the greateft part of his
attention, no {mall portion of his time had been fpent in’
acquiriag knowledge in other branches of philofophy, as”
well as in philology and antiquities, as appears by his nu-
merous differtations elucidating thofe fubje@s. ogi wk
early embraced the doéirine of the circulation of the blood”
difcovered by Harvey, an expofition of which he added te
a new edition of the “ Intiitutiones Anatomice;” pub-
lithed 1551. To the difcoveries of Afellius and Pecquet,
of the laGteals and thoracie du@t, he added that of the
lymphatics, of which he publifhed an account in 4653, un-
der the title of ** Vafa lymphatica, nuper Hafinie in ani.
mantibus inventa et in homine,’? Hafiniz apud G. Holft.
ato. Thefe veffels had been feen about the fame time by
Jolliff and Rudbeck; and Haller, who examined with at-
tention the claims of the feveral parties, gives to Rudbeck’
the honour of the invention, but to Bartkoline that of hav-
ing traced and defcribed them with the greateft accu
Having filled the chair of profeffor of anatomy with the biphe
eft reputation for fourteen years, he retired in 1661 to his
eftate at Hogeftatt, that he might have more leifure to pro-
fecute his ftudies. One of his earlieft publications from this re-
treat feems to have been his ‘* Catalogus Operum fuorum
haSenus editorum, extat cum obfervationibus vartis de nivis:
ufu medico,” Haff, 1661, 8vo. This catalogue, though then
very Jarge, was afterwards more than doubled. A com-
plete catalogue of his works was publifhed by Thomas B.-
one of his fons, in 1681. In 1670, his houfe, with his large
and valuable library, and manufcripts containing embryos
of intended works, and large colleGttons for further improv-
ing and enlarging thofe already publifhed, were burnt, and:
he was again driven into the world. As fome compenfation
for his lofs he was made phyfician and aulic counfellor to
the king (though it does not appear he was ever much en-
gaged in the pra@tice of medicine), and the univerlity of Co-
penhagen appointed him chief infpeétor of theirlibrary. OF
this accident he gave an account the fame year in a {mall
I : work,

BAR

work, intitled “ De Bibliothece Incendio, Differtatio ad
Filios,”? complaining heavily of the malignancy of Vulcan.
Among the numerous manuferipts deftroyed by the fire, he
laments in a particular manner thofe intended to elucidate
his “ Antiquitates puerperli variarum gentium, imprimis
Romanorum.” Opus (he fays in his letter to his fons)
varia eruditione, nili me fefellit opinio, refertum, cujus pri-
ma lineamenta duxi annis abhine triginta et amplius, fuafu
Cl. Wallei, qui id argumentum defiderari monuit. Meur-
fius quidem, Grace literature interpres celebris, de Gre-
corum puerperio folia tria olim publici juris fecit, fed nimia
brevitate leorem curiofum fatiare non pote. Ad plura
digreffus ego, quicquid autorum veterum iectio aflidua, quic-
quid philologorum aliorum obfervationes, quicquid variarum
gentium inftituta, mores, ritus, antiquitates fuppeditarunt,
quicquid ad hoc argumentum illuftrandum Ebrai doctores,
Greci fapientes, Romani fcriptores conferre potuerunt, cum
deleétu felegi, et fuo ordine reddidi, grata et diflufa varie-
tate nafcendi tempora percurrens, quid nempe ante nativita-
tem, quid in puerperio, quid poftea aétum fuerit. Ornarunt
librum jufte magnitudinis, varie veterum infcriptiones, et
figure paflim Rome, Neapoli, Gacte, Florentiz, in Sicilia
magno {ludio a me colleéts ex ruderibus, et dofiorum vi-
rorum monumentis. fi indulias exigui temporis, fata concef-
fiffent, fidem publico exfolvere potuiflem. Jam in ipfo
puerperio foetus, in partu laberans, excinctus, Lucinam imi-
micam nunguam follicitabit, nec profam nee poftvertam.
Abiit enim illuc, unde negant redire quenquam.””? His fon
Cafpar, who had turned his attention to the fame fubject,
and probably copied many of the notes made by his father,
in fome {mall degree repaired the accident by adding them
with fome obfervations cf his own to a new edition of his
father’s works, which he publifhed in 1676. On which oc-
cafion the father writes (fee epiltle affixed to the work),
s‘eripmit mihi Vulcanus argumentum bene de publico me-
rendi, ut tibi occafionem preberet caligine protunde vetuf-
tatis obdugtam materiam propulandi. Ex mee infortunio,
tibi gloria reli@a videtur. Quemadmodum Saturnus in coz-
lo Paganorum cedere coaétus eft filio Jovi, &c.’ The re-
Ipect, however, that was every where puid him, and the
letters of condolence he received from his numerous and learn-
ed corre{pondents, feem to have foon confoled him; as there
fearce appears to have been any intecmrffion in his labours,
every year almolt to the end of his life producing fome new
publication. The titles of a few of his diflertations, in addi-
tion to thofe already named, are here given; for the reft,
the reader ts referred to Vander Linden de Scriptis Medicis,
but particularly to Haller’s Bibhoth. Anatom. the Bib.
Med. Pract. et Chirurg. in which ample lifts of the titles of
the works, of the different editions they paffed through,
and ana yfes of the contents of the moft valuable of them,
will be found. ** Anatomica Aneurifmatis diffeGi hiftoria,”
Panormi, 1644, 8vo.”? De Angina Puerorum Campania, Si-
cilique epidemica,” Neapoli 1646, 8vo. “ De Luce Ho-
minum et Brutorum,’? Leide, 1647, attempting to account
for the emiffion of light by putrid Aefh. In a later edition
he adds, “et de raris et admirandis herbis, que noétu lu-
cent.” Domus Anatomica Haffnienfis,”? containing a ca-
talegue of the anatomical preparations, machines, &c. con-
tained in his cabinet, 1662, 8vo. ‘* Centuria quatuor epif-
tolarum medicarum,”? containing his correfpondence with
the moft celebrated men of the agein which helived. This
valuable colleG@tion has been completed, and republifhed at the
Hague in 1740, in five volumes, 8vo. ‘ De infolitis par-
tas humani vis.” Hafinie, 1664, 8vo. A colief&ion of
hiftories of foetufes voided by the navel, anus, et per os
etiam, fi diis placet.’? Hiftorie Anatomice, Cent. vi.”
Two centuries, forming two {mall volumes, were publifhed

DAR

atatime. Though fome of the obfervations, taken on the
credit of other relators, are apocryphal, and fhould not have
been admitted, the number of authentic and curious articles
contained in thefe volumes have ftamped a value on them
which time is not likely to obliterate. The laft work we
fhall mention is the ‘* Aéta Medica et Philofophica Haffni-
enfia,”’ of which four volumes in 4to. were publifhed by him,
the fifth and laft volume by hisfon. He began making this
colleétion, which contains many of his own produétions but
a much larger proportion from correfpondente, foon after
his return to Copenhagen, driven there by the deftruétion of
his library. As in al) fimilar collections, amid{t fome very
valuable articles many infignificant and ufelefs pieces will be
here found. He died in 1680, leaving five fons and-three
daughters. ‘Two of the fons, Cafpar and Thomas, treading
in the fteps of their father, ‘at haud paflibus eguis,’”? con-
tributed to the colleGion laft named, and left other anato-
mical and medical works. Of the others we have no ac-
count. Haller. Bib. Anat. et Bib. Med, Pra&. Eloy. Did.
Hit.

Barruorine, Erasmus, a younger brother of Thomas,
born at Rofchild, Auguft 13, 1625. Vollowing the fteps of
his father acd brother, he travelled throngh England,
France, Germany, and the Low Countries ; and having ac-
quired much valuable knowledge in natural philofophy and
in medicine, went to Leyden to perfect himfeli in thofe ftu-
dies, where he continued three years. In 1654 he went to
Padua, where he received the degree of doétor in medicine.
On his return to Copenhagen, he was appointed proteflor
in mathematics, and was rewarded with a feat in the grand
council of Denmark. Thefe honourable offices he continued
to fill with great credit to the time of his death, Nov. 5
1698. Inthe AGa Haff. vol. v. he gives an account of a quar-
tan fever, epidemic at Copenhagen in the year 1679, which
he cured in himfelf, as well as in many others, by giving a fine
gle drachm of the Peruvian bark on the acceffion of the fe-
ver. In 1661, he publifhed ‘ De Figura Nivis Differtatio,””
with the obfervations of his brother Thomas on the ufe
of {now in medicine; in 1664, ‘* De Cometis,”’ 4to. Haff-
niz; in 1674, ‘* De Natura Mirabilibus,” alfo qto.; and in
1679, ‘*De Aere Haffoienfis,”’ Frank. 8vo. Albert, an-
other of the fons of Cafpar Bartholine, left behind hima
work * De Scriptis Danorum,”” which was ‘publifhed by
Thomas, at Copenhagen, 1666, gto.

Bartruovine, Caspar, eldeft fonof Thomas, was born
at Copenhagen in 1650; and treading in the fteps of his fa-
ther and grandfather, acquired almott equal reputation with
them. Though accufed of plagiarifm, and of afluming to him-
felf the honour of difcoveries made by others, yet the merit of
poffeffiag genius and induftry cannot be denied him. Indeed
Haller, who had {poken lightly of him at firlt,on the authority
of Swammerdam and Drelincourt, treats him fome years after
(Bib. Med. Praét. v. 3. p. 34.) with more refpect, calling him,
‘6 Vir acuti ingenil, qui demum ad magnos honores, et locum
honoratum in regio minilterio emerlit.” Vhe early part of his
life was paffed in travelling over foreign countrics for the
acquilition of knowledge; and he had the happinefs of affo-
ciating with Ruyfch, Swammerdam, Duverney, and other
celebrated anatomilts, all eagerly engaged in the fame pur-
fuit. Being at Rome on his travels, at the age of 22 he
publifhed, in Latin, a learned and accurate treatife on
the flutes, or rather on the wind-inflruments in general,
of the ancients, under the title, “De Tibiis veterum,
et earum antiquo ufu, hbri tres.” ‘This work firft ap-
peared at Rome in 1677, dedicated to cardinal Sigiimond-
Chigi. The fecond and beft edition was publifhed at Am.
fterdam, 1679, 12mo. with double the number of copper-
plates with which the Roman edition had been ornamented,

4Ya reprefenting

BAR

reprefenting ancient mufical inftruments from drawings
chiefly made from ancient fculpture, which are well executed ;
and illuftrated with quotations from the claflics where their
ufeis mentioned. No book of the kind feems to have been
written fince of equal authority ; as recourfe has chiefly
been had to this little tract, by Bianchini, Bonanni, and
others who have written exprefsly on the fubje& of ancient
mufical inftruments. In 1678, he was received do€tor in me-
dicine at Paris. Returning thence to Copenhagen, he was
made profeffor in medicine at the univerfity there, and was in
fuch high eftimation as to be raifed by the king, in the latter
part of hislifr, to confiderable officesin the ftate. Befides re-
publifhing feveral of the works of his father, and contribut-
ing largely to the Aéta Uafinienfia, his own diftiné treatifes
are fufficiently numerous and valuable to entitle him to rank
with the celebrated authors of that age. The titles of a
few of them follow; the remainder will be found in the Bib.
Anat. and Med. Pra&, of Haller. “ Exercitationes mifcel-
lane varii generis, imprimis Anatomiz,’’ Leid. 1675, Svo.
In the feventh, he gives an account of a ftyptic efficacious
in {topping hemorrhages, taken inwardly. An experiment
was tried with it fuccefsfully before the king. ‘* De Dia-
phragmatis ftru€tura nova,”’ Paris, 1676, 8vo. Drelincourt
claims the honour of this difcovery, and as Cafpar B. was
only twenty-two years of age when he publifhed this ac-
count, Haller feems to decide in favour of the claim of
Drelincourt. De Formatione et Nutritione Foetus in
Utero,” Haffniz, 1687, 4to. * Specimen Hiftorie Ana-
tomice Partium Corporis Humani,” Haffnie, 1701, 4to.
He died early in the laft century, but in what year is not
known. His brother Thomas was appointed to the prof: f-
forfhip of law and hitory. One work of merit is attri-
buted to him, * De Caufis Mortis a Danis gentilibus con-
tempte;’’ and a differtation publifhed in the fifth volume of
the Ata Haffnienfia, ‘De Vermibus Aceti, et de Vermi-
culis feminalibus.?? The reft of the family of Thomas, are
faid to have diftinguifhed themfelves fo as to be appointed
to honourable fituations ; but thefe perhaps were rather the
homage paid to the virtues and talents of their anceftors
than to their- own merit, as none of their works have been
noticed by bibliographers. Wander. Linden. Haller. Bib.
Anat. et Med. Pra&.

BARTHOLOM EUS pe Guanvitte, an Englifh
writer who flourifed about the middle of the rath century,
wrote ‘ De proprietatibus rerum,” which was firlt printed
in fol. by Caxton, 1480. It was tranflated into Englifh
by Trevifa, and printed by Wynkin de Worde in 1507, and
again by Bertholet fol. 1535. ‘The original has paffed
through many editions. In the feventh cliapter, he treats
of all difeafes a capite ad calcem; taken, Friend fays, prin-
cipally from Conftantine. Haller. Bib. Med. Pract.

BARTHOLOME, Sr. in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Bavaria and provoftfhip of Berfchtef-

aden, near the Konigfee, 13 miles fouth of Reichenhall.

BARTHOLOMEO pe Xoncopani, Sr. a town in
North America, in the province of New Mexico.

BarTHOLOMED, St. a town of North America, in Mexico,
and province of Chiapa, chicfly peopled with Indians,—
Alfo, a tewn of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and pro-
vince of Otraito, 19 miles E.S.E. of Matera—Alfo, a
town of Ttaly, in the kingdom of Naples, and pfovince of
Capitanata, 6 miles fouth of Volturara,

BARTHOLOMEW, Sr. in Biggraphy, one of the 12
apoltles, whofe native country was Galilee, is fuppofed
by fome writers to have been the fame with Nathaniel,
one of ovr Lord’s firft difciples. It has been generally
thought, that he preached the gofpel in India; and that
he carried thither the gofpel of St. Matthew in Hebrew,

a:

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where Pantenus found it towards the clofe of the fee

cond century on occafion of his peregrination into that
country for the fame benevolent and laudable purpofe.
St. Jerome adds, that Pantenus brought this gofpel home
with him to Alexandria: but this faét is difputed ; and St.
Jerome is fuppofed to have miftaken the words of Eufebins,
who only fays that the Chriftians of In lia had preferved
that Hebrew gofpel till the time of Pantenus. (See Eufeb.
H.E. lib. v. c. ro. Hieron. de Vir. Tilutt. c. 36.) Tt has
been alfo faid, that Bartholomew preached in A'rabia Felix
and Perfia; and that, returning by way of the more northern
and weftern parts of Afia, he preached at Hierapolis and
in Lycaonia; and that he died at Albana, probably Al-
bana in Albania, on the Cafpian fea and confines of Arme-
nia. At this latter place it is faid, that he was flayed

alive by Aftyages, brother to Polemon, king of Armenia, —
from hatred to the Chriftian religion, which the spate

had incuced Polemon to embrace. But tke time, place, anc

manner of his death have not been fatisfaGtorily afcertained.
Dionyfius the Areopagite cites the writifys of Bartholomew;
and Jerome (ubi fupra, and Pref. in Comment. in Matth.)
mentions a “ gofpel of St. Bartholomew,” which pope Ge-
lafius, in his decree, refers to the clafs of apocryphal books.
Of this book there are not any fragments extant; wnlefs,
as Mr. Jones (Method of fettling the Canon, &c. vol. i.
p. 211.) inclines to think, it was the fame with the gofpel of
St. Matthew, which was ufed by the Hebrews or Nazarends,
This learned writer infers from the relations of Eufebius and
Jerome, that this gofpel was that which had been fouzd in
India; but that it had undergone many interpolations arid
additions: for, fays he, it cannot be theught improbabie

that thofe who heard St. Bartholomew preach and explain —

this gofpel to them fhould after his departure rather call it
by hisname, whom they knew, than the name of Matthew,
whom they did not know... Befides Nicephorus affures us
(Fit. Eccl. |. iv. c. 32.), that Bartholomew dilated the
gofpel of St. Matthew to them from his memory, and did
not bring it along with him. a

BarTHOLomMEW, of the Martyrs, a Dominican monk,
and archbifhop of Braga, was born at Lifbon in 1514, and
entered into the Dominican order at the age of 14 ; on which
occafion he renounced his family name of Fernandez, and
affumed that of the church in which he had been baptized.
Having taught theology for 20 years, he at length, with
great relutance, accepted the charge of the archbifhopric
of Braga, to which he was appointed by queen Catharine.
Scon after his appointment, he was deputed, in 1561, to
attend the council of Trent, in which he ftrongly infifted
on commencing all reforms with that of the clergy. On
his return from the council, he devoted his whole time and
revenue to exercifcs of benevolence. Accordingly, he ufed
to fay, “iam firlt phyfician to 1400 hofpitals, which are
the parifhes of my diocefe.” During the famine which
affiicted Portugal in 1567, and lafted feven years, the poor
of Braza were liberally fupplied by the archbifhop; and he
even extended his donations to thofe of fuperior condition
who felt the feverity of the times. The famine was’ fuc-
ceeded by a plague; an€ on this occafion the archbifhop,
who remcincd at Braga and obliged the parifh priefts to do fo

likewife, contributed in no fmall’ degree to the relief and .

comfort of the diftrefled. Waving, after repeated! folicita-
tions forthe purpofe, obtained leave to refign his erclibifhop-

ric, he retired to a nionaitery of his order at Viana, where .

he fpent the eight laft years of bis life in ftudy and religious.
exercifes; and here he died in1ggo. In 1733 he was
beatified by Clement XIV. The writings which he leit
were colle€ted and publifhed at Rome in 2 vols. folio: 1744.
Nouv. Dict. Hit. Dato

Barruo-

| BAR

Bartuoromew’s Day, St. in the Calendar, a feftival of
the Chriftian church, celebrated on the 24th of Auzult.
On this day, in the year 1662, the act of uniformity which
obtained the royal aflent on the 19th of May, took place ;
in confequence of which about 2000 minitters relinquifhed
their preferments in the church, or refufed to accept of any
upon the terms of this act. See Unirormiry.

It was alfo on the eve of St. Bartholomew in the year
1572, that orders were iffued for extending the horrid maf-
facre which had been begun at Paris ; in confequence of
which the matins of Paris, as this maflacre was ftyled in allu-
fion to the Sicilian vefpers, were repeated in Meaux, Orleans,
; Troyes, Angiers, Touloufe, Rouenyand Lyons: fo that in
the fpace of two months, 30,090 Proteftants were but-
chered in cold blood ; if that expreffion may be ufed, in fpeak-

ing of people influenced by the molt deteftable paffions.

BartHoLomew’s Hofpital. See Hospitar.

Bartuotromew, St. in Geography, one of the Caribbee
ifands in the Welt Indies, about 25 miles north of St.
Chriftopher’s, and in circumference about 24 miles. 1t was
peopled in 1618 by Poincy, the French governor of St.
Chriltopher’s ; and enjoyed by the Trench without molefta-
tion till the year 1689, when a defcent was made upon it by
fir Timothy ‘Thornhill, who ravaged the country, and carried
off about 700 of its inhabitants, with their cattle and effects.
“The Englifh government, however, difanproved of this
conduét, and ailowed the inhabitants to repoffefs their ifland,
as fubjeG&ts of Great Britain. At the peace of Ryfwick, it
was reftored to France; but as long as it continued in their
poffeffion, it was a nelt of privateers, and it has hed fifty
-Englith prizes in its harbour at the fame time. It was
ceded by France, in 1785, to the Swedes. The fhores of
-this ifland are dangerous, and cannot be approached without
a good pilot. The only port in the ifland is * Le Ca-
renage ;” near which ftands ‘* Guftavia,”? the fole town in
-the colony. This port is fituated on the weftern fide, and
has excellent moorings; but it cannot admit veffels that
draw more than nine feet of water. However, it will con-
tain 100 fuch vetfels ; in which refpeé it is fupetior both to
St. Euftatia and St. Chriftopher. The bay of ‘* Colom-
bier” is deep enough for large fhips, but it has no town on
its banks; nor had ‘« Le Carenage”? any town belonging
to it before the ifland became the pofleflion of Sweden.
Its foil is but indifferent, and only a {mail part of it admits
of cultivation; and yet it produces tobacco, cotton, and
caflava. and abounds with woods of various forts. The
plantations that moft abound are thofe of cotton, which fuc-
ceed very well. Whe praéiice of the planters is to fow four
or five grains of the feed in a hole, and when the plants
appear they pluck up all but the flrongeft. After the firlt
crop, they cut down the branches, and the plant puthes out
new ihoots, which bear like the original ftem ; but after the
fecond crop, the feeds muft be again fown. The fences of
thefe plantations are aloes trees, which are placed in a
dtraight line, and as clofe together as poffible; and when
} taey arrive at macurity, they are impenetrable either by men
oranimals. St. Bartholomew alfo furnifhes the neighbour-
ing ilands with a peculiar kind of limeftone; and its birds
| are very numerous, he climate is in general healthy ;

A though at certain times of the year the weather is variable.
For nine months in the year it is pleafant ; for, though the
_. heat is fcorching, the air.is cooled and purified by a
breeze, which is very refrefaing. Hurricanes prevail from
the middle of July till the middle of OSober. The popu-
lation of this ifland is much increafed fince it has belonged
y to Sweden. At Guftavia are Swedes, Englifh, French,
Danes, Americans, and Jews: but the planters are chiefly
French, The natives generally live, without being {ybjc@ to

BAR

much illnefs, to an cld age. The men are robult, but th:
women are flight, feeble, andindolent; and are ufually attended
by flaves, who are employed in kecping off the infeéts that
would incommode them, The houfes are made of wood;
and fome of them are raifed upon flone pillars, fo that the
wind can pafs ander them, ‘heir windows are mere open-
ings in the fides, with window-fhutters or lattices. The in-
habitants are fupplied with freth provifions, flour, dried fih,
and falted meat from the continent of America. Although
this land abounds with mountains, it is deftitute not only
of lakes and rivers, but even of {prings. The frefh water is
fupplied merely by the rain, and is kept in cifterns; and it
is fometimes procured from St. Chriftopher’s, and often at the
charge of twelve livres per ton. "Che chief produéts for ex-
portation. are drugs, cotton, lignum vite, and iron-wood.
The coins ufed in this ifland are the moidore and the piaftres
and they have alfo a fictitious money called the pifovett,
worth fomething more than 2 of a piaftre, aud a {mall filver
coin called a dogg, and another coin called a bett, of the
value of 6 doggs. See ‘* A Voyage to the Iflands of St.
Martin, St. Euftatia, and St. Chriftopher, undertaken at the
expence of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm.’”
N. Jat. 17°56'. W.long. 63° 1’.

Barrxotromew, St, an ifland in the Southern Pacific
ocean, being one of the clufter of iflands, called the New
Hebrides. S. lat. 15°42’. EE. long. 167° 17! 30.

Barruoromew’s J/land, lies in the ttraits of Magellan,
halfa league E.N.E. from Elizabeth ifland. S. lat. 52° 56’.
W. long. 71° 4’.

Bartuoromew’s Jfland, or WuERMoyseEn, is fituated
on or near the coafto! New Guinea. S. lat. 8°13’. E. long.
CASS

BarTuoromew, St. a parifh in Charlefton dia, in
Seuth Carolina, which, by the cenfus of 1790, contained
12,606 inhabitants, of whom 10,338 were flaves. It fends
three reprefentatives and one fenator to the ftate legiflature.

Bartuotomew, Cape, St. is the foutbermoft point of
Staten land, in the ftraits of Le Maire, at the fouth end of
South America. To the W.N.W_ lies Middle cape, and be-
tween them isa bay. To the eaft ofit is a {mall ifland.

Bartruoromew is the name of a ledge of rocks, nearly
weit from the S.W. extremity of St. Mary’s ifland, the
largeft of the Scilly iflands: between which and St. Mary’s
ifland, is a channel called St. Mary’s found.

BARTHOLOMITES, in Leckfaplical Hifory, a re-
ligious order founded at Genoa in 1307 ; but.on account of
the irregular lives of the monks, the order was fupprefled by
pope Innocent X. in 1650, and their effedts were confifcated.
Tn the church of the monaft:ry of this order at Genoa is
preferved the image which, it is pretended, Chrift fent to
Abgarnus,

BARTISCH, Georce, in Biography, furgeon and
oculift at Drefden, born at Koningfberg about the middle
of the 16th century, is faid to have invented a fpeculum to
fix the eyelids while performing an operation on that organ ;
which was improved by Verduyn, and fill further by Ruy{ch
or Rau, for they contended for the honour attached to it.
He wrote a treatife on the difeafes of the eyes, in the
German language, publifhed at Drefden in fol. 1583. It
has fince been tranflated into Latin, and paffed through
feveral editions. There are many plates: thofe reprefent-
ing the different parts of the eye are taken frem Vefalius.
Infected with the fuperftition of the age in which he liveds,
he attributes fome of the diforders of the eye to witchcraft.
Hall. Bib. Chir Eloy. Di&. Hitt.

BARTLEMEW Bay, in Geography, lies on the coaft
of Kent, without the North Foreland, between that and

Ramigate.
BARTLET,,

BAR
BARTLET, a plantation of America, in Hillfborough

¢ounty, New Hampthire, containing 248 inhabitants.
BARTMEISE, in Ornithology, the name of the bearded
titinoufe, parus biarmicus in Frifch. Hitt. Birds.
BARTOLET, in Biography. Sce Frameer.
BARTOLI, Danien, a learned Jefuit, born at Fer-
rara in 1608; author of many profound and ufeful works,
written in Italian with a precifion and purity of ftyle
which have inclined his countrymen to rank him among the
firft {cientific writers.in their language. The great hiftorical
work of Bartoli appeared in 6 vols. folio, printed at Rome
‘in fucceflion from 1650 to 1673. After the life of St, Ig-
natigs, he begins with the eftablifhments and labours of the
Society in Afia, comprifed in 3 vols. and divided into thofe
of the Eaft Indies, Japan, and China. In two other volumes
he treats of England and ‘Italy. ‘This performance was
trenflated from the Italian into Latin by father Giannini;
and printed at Lyons. He publifhed at Bologna, in 1680,
a work in 4to. intitled, «* Del fuono de tremort armonici €
dell? udito” (of harmonical vibrations of found and of the
ear). In this truly f{cientific and ingenious work are to be
found feveral difcoveries in harmonics, that were purfued by
pofterior writers on the fubjeét. It contains four differta-
tions; the firft treats of the fimilarity between the circular
undulations occafioned in ftill water when a {lone is thrown
into it, andthe propagation and motion of found. The
fecond, of the motion’ of found compared with that of light :
of echoes, or refleétion of found, and of its augmentation in
a whifpering room or gallery. Third, of harmonic vibra-
tions, and ratios of found; of fympathetic foands ; of the
breaking a clafs with the voice. Fourth, of the mixture of
founds; of confonance; harmonics; and the immenfe in-
creafe of founds in a veflel, or inclofed place, by repercuffion.
With many other curious enquiries ; and ends with the ana-
tomy of the ear.

Bartout, Pietro Sante, called Perugino, an engraver of
reputation, was born at’ Perugia about the year 1635, and
refided chiefly at Rome, where he died in 1700. He is
mentioned as a painter, but his charaGter as an engraver ts
more eltablifhed. He drew in a correét, agreeable ftyle ;
and his plates, which are chiefly etched, are executed in a
free, malterly manner. His diftinguifhing excellence con-
filted in copying the bas-relief, and other works of the an-
cients. His manner is original; and though his name is not
always marked at full length upon his plates, they are eafily
diftinguithed by perfons acquainted with his works, as the free-
dom and lightne(s of his pencil cannot eafily be counterfeited.
Among his detached prints are: ‘¢ St. Charles kneeling, ac-
companied by an Angel,” from Antonio Caracci; and the
«« Adoration of the Shepherds”? from Annibale Caracci.
Strott.

BARTOLO, a lawyer of the r4th century, was born
if 1313 at Saffoferrato, the ancient Sentinum, in the
marche of Ancona, purfued the ftudy of the law at
Perugia and Bologna, and attained to fuch eminence, that
he was diftinguifhed by the pompous titles of ‘‘ Light and
Star of Junfconfults,” ‘ Mater of Truth,” ‘ Lamp of
Right,” “ Guide of the Blind,” &c. In 1339, he was
eleéied profeffor of laws at Pifa; and after remaining 11
years in the exercife of this office, he removed to Perugia,
where he opened a {chool of law, celebrated through Italy,
and frequented by a great number of ftudents. When
Charles TV. vifited Perugia, in 1355, Bartolo fecured his
favour to fuch a degree, that he obtained for Perugia all the
privileges ufually granted to univerfities, and for himfelf the
titles of counfellor, and domeftic commenfal of the emperor,
with permiffion to bear the family arms of the king of Bohemia.
Bartolo is faid to have acquired great wealth, and to have

BAR

died at Perugia in the year 1359; but the time of his death
is not precifely afcertained. He was of a feeble confti-
tution, and his temperance was fuch that he is faid to have
weighed his food. His learning and refearches were ex-
tended beyond his own profeffion, and his regard for the
fcriptures induced him to make the Hebrew language the
object of his particular attention. His works, comprehended
in 10 vols. folio, were printed at Lyons in 1545. Nouv.
Dié. Hilt. :
BARTOLOCCI, Jutivus. a Ciftercian monk, was born
at Cellano in Abruzzo, in the year 1613, and became
famous for Hebrew and Rabbinical learning. Having been
36 years profeffor of Hebrew in the college of Neophytes
at Rome, and alfo Hebrew writer in the Vatican, he died
in 1687. His great work 1s intitled, “ Bibliotheca Magna
Rabbinica de Seriptoribus et Scriptis Hebraicis,”? 4 vols.
folio, It was printed by the college * Propaganda,” and
the volumes appeared fucceffively in 1675, 1678, 1683, and
1693. The fourth volume was completed by his icholar
Imbonati, who, in 1694; added a fifth, intitled “ Bibliotheca
Latino-Hebraica.”? This work furnifhes valuable materials
for affiting the interpreters of the Hebrew feriptures, Bar-
tolocci left alfo annotations on the bock of Tobit. Moreri,
BARTOLOMEO, Baccio. See Baccjo.
Barroiromeo, BreenperG. See BREENBERG,
BARTON, Exizanern, called common'y * The Maid
of Kent,”’ was an,enthufiaftical impoftor, firt known in
1525, as a fervant at Adlington in Kent. Being fubie&
to hytterical fits, which were attended with a variety of
agitatsons and diltortions, the fuperltitions of the age led the
common people to believe that fhe was fupernaturally in-
{pired. Mafters, the parfon of the parifh, thought that fhe
was a fit perfon to be employed in order to fupport the de-
clining caufe of Rome, or to give celebrity to hisown chapel,
and accordingly refolved to exhibit her as a prophetefs.
With this view, he and fome of his friends took her under
their tuition; and taught her to a& her part fo well, that
fhe not only deluded the common people, but impofed on the
credulity of feveral perfons of rank and learning; among
whom were fir Thomas More, Fifher, bifhop of Rochefter,
and Warham, archbifhop of Canterbury. The monk and
ecclefiaftics, who were appointed by the latter to inveftigate
this bufinefs, made a favourable report, and encouraged the
impofture. The nun, for fuch was the charaéter fhe had
now aflumed, was coaducted in triumphal proceffion, and
attended by a mob, to the chapel of the Virgin at ‘* Court
of Street ;’? and when fhe appeared before the image of our
lady, fhe fell proftrate in one of her ttances, delivering
rhymes, fpeeches, &c. all of which tended to the honour of
that faint, and of the Popifh religion. Having for fome
time performed in this way, very much to the honour and
profit of her employers, fhe was further inftruéted to denounce
menaces againft the king on account of his divorce from
queen Catharine, and his matriage of Ann Boleyn, and
alfo his enmity to the church, and to declare his fubjeéts ab-
folved from their allegiance. Henry, who had for fome
time defpifed the impofture and its abettors, being at latt
juftly incenfed, iffued an order that, in November 1533, the
maid and her accomplices fhould be apprehended, and
brought into the ftarechamber; all of whom, vpon their
examination, confeffed the impolture, and afterwards pub-
licly confirmed their confeflion before the people at St. Paul’s
crofs. Some attempts having becn made to induce the nun
to retract her confeffion, meafures of feverity were adopted,
and an a& of parliament was pafled (25 Hen. VIII. c. 12.)
which attainted them of high treafon, for a coufpiracy
againft the crown and life of the king. Accordingly Elizabeth
Barton, and five of her accomplices, were beheaded at Ty-
burr

. fhaped, bluntly ferrated ; anthers hairy.”

BAR

burn in April £5343 the deluded nun, who was a fimple and
ignorant woman, having made a previous acknowledge-
ment of her crime and the juttice of her fentence. Biog.
Brit.

Barton-upon- Humber, in Geography, a large market-town
in Yarborough hundred, Lincolnfhire, England. 34 miles from
Lincoln, and 167 north from London. It confilts of feveral
ftreets irregularly built, and has two large churches. By an
ancient regifter this appears to have been a much more confi-
derable and extenfive place than at prefent; but the deflruGtive
plague which infetted it in the reign of queen Elizabeth,
may, in a great meafure, have caufed its declenfion. ‘The
molt eafy paffage to Hull is from Barton- Ferry. The market
is held on Monday; and it has a fair for horfes, oxen, and fheep.
At Horkttow, in this neighbourhood, was lately difcovered a
curious Roman teflerated pavement, which is particularly
defcribed by Mr. Lyfons, in the firft part of * Reliquiz
Romane.” This town includes 412 houfes, inhabited by
1709 perfons. N. lat. 53° 40’. W. long. 0° 22’.

Barton, 2 townfhip of Orleans county, in the ftate of
Vermont, America, formerly in that of Orange, lies S.W. of
Brownington; 6 miles S.W. by W. from Willoughby lake,
and 140 N. eafterly from Bennington.

Barton, in Devonthire, and the weft of England, is ufed
for the demefne lands of a manor. Alfo tor the manor-
houfe. And, in fome places, for out-houfes, fold-yards,

}

&e.

BARTRACH, in Geography, an ifland in the bay of
Killala, at the mouth of the river Mey, about 2 miles iong,
and half a mile broad; 2 miles N.E. of Kollala.

BARTRAMIA, in Botany. See Triumretra.

BARTSA, in Geography, a town of Hungary, 14 miles
N.N.E. of Szeben.

BARTSENLU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the

rovince of Natolia, 32 miles S. of Kutaia.

BARTSIA, in Botany, a genus of plants fo named by
Linneus, in memory of his friend Dr. Bartfeh. It is an in-
termediate genus between rhinanthus, euphrafia, melampy-
rum, and pedicularis; diftinguifhed by its coloured calyx,
Lin. gen. 739. Schreb. 996. Jufl. roo Clafs, didyna-
mia angiofpermia. Gen. Char. Cai. perianth one-leafed, tu-
bular, permanent; mouth obtufe, two-lobed; lobes emar-
ginate, coloured at the top. Cor. monopetalous, ringent ;
upper lip ereét, flender, entire, longeft ; lower, reflex, trifid,
obtufe, very fmall. Stam. filaments four, briltle-fhaped,
the length of the upper lip; two fomewhat fhorter. dn-
thers, oblong, approximating under the top of the upper lip.
Pifl. germ ovate. Style, filiform, longer than the ftamens.
Stigma, obtufe, nodding. Per. capfule ovate, compreffed,
acuminate, two-celled, two-valved ; partition contrary to
the valves. Seeds. numerous, angular, fmall.

Eff. Gen. Char. Cal. two-lobed, emarginate, coloured.
Cor. coloured lefs than the calyx; upper lip longett.
Capf: two-celled.

Species, 1. B. coccinea, red bartfia. Kalm It. 3. roo.
Hort. Cif. 325. 1. Amzn.1. 160. Pedicularis, Pluk.
Horminum, Morris. ‘* Leaves alternate linear, two-toothed
on each fide.” This is a very beautiful plant, with a fem
entirely fimple. Leaves divided, crowded towards the top
into a ipike, having a fiegle flower on each leaf- Calyxes
tinged towards the tip of avery deep red, as are alfo the
trifid bra€tes. Capfule claftic. The fruGification is not
yet well afcertained. It has been found in Virginia, Mary-
land, and New York. 2. B. alpina, alpine bartfia. Hudf.
With. Smith Eng, Bot. t. 361. Flor. Dan. 43. Euphra-
fia rubra, &c. Ray Syn. 285. ‘* Leaves oppofite, heart-
Smith. Root
perennial, creeping ; items from four to eight inches high,

BAR

ere&t, fimple, fquare, hairy ; leaves oppofite, feffile, ovate
or cordate, ferrate, rugofe, hairy on the under fide, thofe
near the top coloured: fpike terminal, purple, leafy; calyx
vifeid, hairy, purple, its fegments nearly cqual, acute; co-
rolla of a violet purple, thrice as long as the calyx, com-
preffed, clothed with glandular vifcid hairs; lower lip ree
flexed; anthers prominent, very hairy; ftyle hirfute, pro-
jeéting beyond the ftamens ; capfule ovate, downy, of two
valves, with a tranfverfe partition arifing from each; feeds
numerous, angular, fmall. This rare plant prefers a moift
ftony foii in alpine fituations; it has been found in Weft.
morland, Durham, and in the highlands of Scotland.——
3. B. vifcofa, yellow vilcid bartha. Hudf. With. Light.
Smith. Dickf. D. p. 72. Euphvafia major lutea, &c.
Ray Syn. 285. ** Leaves ferrate, uppermod alternate 5
flowers diftant, lateral.”? Root annual, fbrous; ftem about
a foot high, commonly fimple, unlefs very luxuriant ; ercét,
fmooth, downy, leafy; leaves feflile, ovate-lanceolate, fer-
rate, nerved, fcabrous, lower ones only oppofite; flowers
axillary, fubfeffile, folitary: calyx tubular, hairy, regular,
white at the bafe; corolla twice the length of the calyx,
yellow, divifions of the lip obcufe, nearly equal; anthers
hairy ; ftyle hairy ; capfule ovate, roundifh, rough at the
apex, the two valves furnifhed with tran{verfe partitions ;
feeds numerous, very {mali, fubangular. The whole of this
plant is vifcid or clammy. It has been found in Cornwall,
Devonfhire, Lancafhire, and in Argylefhire, in marfhy foils,
flowering in July and Auguft.——-4. B. pallida, pale-flow-
ered bartfia.’ Amen. 2. 356. Gmel. Sib. 3. 208. n. II.
t. 42. ‘ Leaves alternate lanceolate, quite entire; floral
leaves ovate, toothed.”? Root fibrous; ttem round, fimole,
fomewhat ftreaked ; downy towards the top; Jeaves feflilz,
linear-lanceolate, three-nerved, longer than the internodes ;
the lower ones {mailer, undivided ; the upper longer, broad-
er, with an oblong tooth on each fide; floral leaves involy-
ing the calyxes, not longer than the flowers, but broader,
coloured, more obtufe, trifid or quinquefid ;, {pike termi-
nating leafy, a little inclining to one fide; flowers alternate,
feffile; corolla purple A native of Siberia and Hudfon’s bay,
from whence it was introduced into the Kew garden in 1782.
5. B. gymnandra, lagotis glauca. Gertn. in Nov. Com.
Petrop. 14. p. 534. t. 18. f. 2. G. borealis, Pall. It. 3.
710. t. A. f. 1. Veronica, Gmel. Sib. 3. 219, n. 332
‘* Two-ftamened ; leaves radical, twofold, petioled; ftem
moftly two-leaved, one-{piked; fpike linear, obtufe ; whorls
brated, colleéted.”? Stem four inches high, {mooth, round,
fimple; root-leaves fucculent, oval, entire, or fertate, very
fmooth ; in the middle of the ftem they are alternate, ovate,
feffile ; {pike of colleG@ted whorls; brates ovate, blueith ;
calyx comprefled, three-toothed ; corolla pale blue, lower
lip bifid or trifid; capfule four-toothed. This fpecies, which
is very variable in the fize and form of the leaves, grows
within the arétic circle, on the north fide of the frozen rocks
in Kamtf{chatka, where there is no other vegetation.
6. B. Odentites, red bartfia. Hudf. 268. Smith. Brit. 648.
Euphrafia odontites, Sp. Pl. With. Balt, Curt. Lond. f. 1.
t. 44. ‘Leaves lanceolate, ferrate, the upper alternate ;
flowers in racemes, inclining to one fide; anthers {mooth ;
root fibrous, annual.” Stems branched, fquare; leaves
feffile, lanceolate, ferrate, {cabrous, inferior ones oppofites
racemes terminal, many flowered, leafy ; flowers all on the
fame fide; calyx purple, hairy, fometimes quinquefid ; co-
rolla rofe-coloured; helmet entire, lips cut into obtufe
equal parts ; anthers {mooth ; capfule fomewhat compreffed,
hairy; feeds numerous, fmall, ftriated. Common in mea-
dows and paftures, flowering in July and Auguft.
BARTUS, in Geography, atown of Hungary, 16 miles

N.W. of Palotza.
BARUCH,

BAR

BARUCH, in Scripture Biography, was the fon of Ne-
riah, of the tribe of Judah, and the faithful difciple and
fervant of the prophet Jeremiah, who employed him as his
fecretary or amanuenfis. This prophet having received or-
ders in the reign of Jehoiechim king of Judah, whilft he
was in prifon, to write all his prophecies till that time,
diated them to Baruch, by whom they were read to the
*people affembled in the temple on occafion of the feaft of
expiation, B. C. 605. Baruch terrified by the threats
contained in the roll which he had read to the people, was
encouraged by an aflurance, that, notwithftanding all the
calamities which would befal Judah and Jernfalem, he
fhould obtain a deliverance. (Jer. xlv.) Archbifhop Uther
and Dr. Prideavx are of opinion, that this roll was read a
fecond time to the people, in the fifth year of Jehoiachim,
B.C. 604.; after which it was committed to the flames
by the king himfeif ; and the Jews keep an annual fatt,
even to this day, in commemoration of the burning of
the roll; the day marked forit in their calendar is the
29th day of Cifleu, the ninth month of the Jewifh year,
and correfponding to our November. After the burning
of this ro!l, another wasimmediately written, by God’s fpe-
ciel command, from the mouth of the prophet by the hand
of Barech ; and tothis were edded many other words, and
particularly that prophecy with refpe@ to Jehoiachim and
his houfe, which is denounced againit them for this impious
fa&t, in the goth and 3rft verles of the 36ch chapter of
Jeremiah. In the fourth year of Zedekiah (B.C. 594.),
Baruch went to Babylon with his brother Seraiah, and
carried thither a written account of the prophecies con-
tained in the 50th and 5xft chapters of Jeremiah, which
denounce the judgments~that were to be executed upon
Chaldza and Babylontby the Medes and Perfians. Baruch,
having read thefe prophecies to Jehoiachim and the other
captives, threw the roll that contained them into the Eu-
phrates, as the prophet had commanded him. Baruch ac-
companied Jeremiah into Egypt, and after the death of the
prophet, he retired to Babylon, where, according to the
rabbins, he died in the 12th year of the captivity. The
book cf Baruch, contained in the Apocrypha, is aa epifile
fent, or feigned to be fent, by king Jehoiachim and the
Jews in captivity with him at Babylon, to their brethren
that were {till eft in Judah and Jerufalem; with an hifto-
rical preface, in which it is related, that. Baruch being then
at Babylon, drew up this epiftle in the name of the king
and the people, by their appointment, and read it to them
for their apprebation; and that a colleGion having been
made, the epiftle with the money was fent to Jerufalem.
No Hebrew copy of this bock is extant; but there are three
other copies, one in Greek and the other two in Sy-
riac. ‘The Jews have not received this book into their
canon ; nor is it found in the ancient catalogues of the ferip-
tures, cited by the fathers and the councils. In the latter
catalogues, it is annexed to the book of Jeremiah, and cited
by fome of the fathers asa part of Jeremiah. St. Jerome
(Pref. in Jerem.) exprefsly reje€ts it out of the canon;
nor does he tranflate it, becaufe it was not in Hebrew, nor
received by the Hebrews. On the other hand, St. Cyril of
Jerufaiem, and the Laodicean council] held A. D. 364,
mention Baruch among the canonical books of fcripture,
In both the catalogues which they have given, thefe words
occur: ‘ Jeremias cum Baruch Lamentationibus ct Epif-
tola.” But it has been alleged, that by thefe words they
meant to exprefs no more than Jeremiah’s prophecies and
lamentation; that by the epiltle, is meant merely the epiltle
in the 29th chapter of Jeremiah; and that the name of
Baruch is added, only becaufe he had collected thefe toge-
ther, and annexed the laft chapter, which is fuppofed to be

BAR

Baruch’s, the prophecies of Jeremiah, ending with the sift
chapter, asit is pofiuvely faid in the la words of it: and
it mult be acknowledged, fays Dr. Prideaux, that as neither
in St. Cyril, nor in the Laodicean council, any of the other
apocryphal books are named, it is very unlikely that by the
name of Baruch, in either of them fhould be meant the apo-
cryphal book under this title, which has the leaft pretence
of any of them to be canonical. Although the church of
Rome has admitted it, and its authority has been fanétioned,
after fome hefitation and difficulty, by the canon of the
council of . Trent, it is configned by Proteftants to the
clafs of apocryphal books. Prid..Conn. pt. i. b. i. vol. ie
p:» 87-&c. Dupiu’s Eccl. Hift. vol. i. p. 28.- A

BARUCO, or Barica, Care, in Geography, is the wefte
ern point of Golfo Dulce, or Frefh-water bay, and diftant
from it about four leagues, on the S.W. fide of the ifthmus
of Panama, in the Northern Pacific ocean, S.S.E. from
Cino ifland, and S.E. from the gulf of Salinas. N. lat.
8° 207.

BARUD, the name of feveral {mall places of Egypt,
on the caft and weft fide of the Nile, fituate not far from’
Manfalout, Siout, and Dendera.

BARVER, a town of Germany, in the circle of Wefte
phalia, and county ef Diepholz, fix miles E.N_E. of Die.

holz.
BARVILISKI, atowe of Lithuania, in the palatinate -
of ‘Troki, 28 miles S.W. of Troki.

BARULES, in Church Hifory,a fe& which maintained
that the Son of God had cnly a phantem of a body; that
fouls were created before the world, and that they lived all
at one time.

BARUM, in Geography, 2 town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony, and ‘principality of Luneburg;
io miles fouth of Luneburg.

BARUTH, in Commerce, an Indian meafure containing
17 gantans; it ought to weigh about three pounds and a
half avoirdupois. mai

Barutu, in Geography. See Bairout, and Bery-
TUS.

Barurn, atown of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, 22 miles S.S.E. of Potzdam, and 34 N.E.. of
Wittenberg.

BARWICK, Perer, in Biography, of a refpeGable fa-
mily of Witherflack in Wellmorland, was at a proper age
admitted of St. John’s college in Cambridge, where, in
1642, he took his degree cf Bachelor in Arts. Quitting that
feminary during the troubles which at that time diflurbed
the country, he was entertained at the houfe of Mr, Sache-
verel of Leicefterfhire, as tutor to his fon. In 1655, he took
his degree of Doétor in Medicine, and foon after was made
phyfician in ordinary to king Charles II.; which occa-
fioned him to come to London, where he fcoa acquired
confiderable reputation for his {kill in his profeffion, He
is feid to have excelled particularly in his treatment of the
{mall-pox, and of putrid and malignant fevers; perhaps
following the method recommenced by Sydenham in thofe-
complaints: but ke has left no publications on thefe fub-
jects. He wrote very ably in defence of Harvey’s do&trine
of the circulation, at that time much agitated; and M.
Carrera attributes to bim a treat‘, publifhed in London,
1671, 4to. ‘ De iis que Medicorum An:mum exagitant.??
But the work by which he is principally known, is the
life of his brother John Barwick, late dean of St. Paul’s,
written in elegant Latin, It was publifhed in 1721, in large
Svo, by Hilkiah Bedford, and an elegant portrait of the
door, engraved by Vertue, affixed to it. His defence of
the “* Eikon Bafilike,” againft Dr. Walker, which was writ-
ten in the 74th year of his age, ‘does not only thew,”

Granger

BAR

Granger fays, “the warmth of his loyalty, but difcovers
not a little of the peevifhnefs of old age.’? He died Au-
guit 1705, in the 85th year of his age, highly honoured and
refpected by all who knew him. Granger’s Biog. Hilt. of
England. Eloy. Dict. Hit.

Barwick, Joun, an eminent Englith divine of the r7th
century, and dean of St. Paul’s, was born at Wetherflack,
a little village of Weltmoreland, in 1612; and being de-
figned for the church, he was fent to fchool at Sedberg in
Yorkfhire, where he manifefted early indications of genius
and prety. In 1631, he was admitted into St. John’s col-
lege in the univerfity of Cambridge, where he became fo
diftinguifhed, that he was chofen, at the age of twenty, to
manage a difpute relating to the election of a mafter, which
was heard before the privy council ; and by his conduct in
this bufinefs, he acquired celebrity in the univerfity, and was
alfo taken notice of at court, and by the miniftry. Hav-
ing taken feveral degrees at the univerfity, he bore an aétive
part in the civil war, and made one of a party of horfe which
conveyed the college plate and a {mail fupply of money to
Nottingham, where the king had fet up his flandard. He
alfo publifhed a traét againft the covenant, which was fo of-
fenfive to perfons in power, that he was obliged to retire to
London, where he rendered all the fervice in his power to
the royal caufe. As he poffeffed talents that jufified con-
fidence, he was employed on various occafions of importance
by the king and his friends; and he feems to have been
fuccefsful in his endeavours to reclaim fome perfons who
had been induced to abandon the caufe to which he was de-
voted. During his majefty’s confinement in Carifbrook
eaftle, Mr Barwick contrived to preferve for him a free in-
tercourfe with his friends ; and he alfo coacerted a plan for
his efeape, which however did not fucceed. After the king’s
death, and when the royal caufe f{eemed to be defperate,
Mr. Barwick, though in a very weak flate, exerted himfelf
in maintaining a daily correfpondence with the minilters of
king Charles LI. This office he was at length obliged to
devolve, firft on his brother Dr. Peter Barwick, and then
on another of his brothers, whom he endeavoured to refcue,
at the hazard of his own life, from the danger to which he
was ex pofed in confequence of a treacherous difcovery. When
Mr. Barwick was threatened with torture if he did not im-
mediately difclofe the names of the perfons who were con-
cerned with him, he kept the fecret with invincible firm-

nefs ; upon which he was committed to the Tower by an

order of council, dated April gth, 1650. Here he was
confined in a clofe dungeon, and debarred the ufe of pen,
ink, and paper, ard of all books except the bible. In this
fituation he remained many months, during which his diet
was herbs or fruit, and water-gruel made of oatmeal
or barley, with currants boiled in :t. and {weetened with a
little fugar; and yet {uch was the benefit which he derived from
this flender diet, that though he was afflicted with a phthifis,
atrophy, and dyfcrafy, when he was committed, he reco-
vered beyond all expectation, and grew plump and fat.
This fa& has been mentioned by many phyficians. as a proof
of the advantaye of temperance, even in the moft inveterate
difeafes. After two years’ confinement, he was difcharged
in 1652, upon giving fecurity to appear at any time within a
twelvemonth before the council of ftate. At the expira-
tion of the year, being fatisfied by prefident Bradfhaw, who
had been difmiffled by Cromwell, that neither he nor his
friends would be expofed to any danger from the recogni-
zance into which they had entered, he again engaged with
ardour in public bufinefs, and conferred with feveral perfons
whom he had drawn over to the king’s fervice, on various
fchemes for reftoring monarchy. He was alfo employed in
condudling the king’s correfpondence, which he did with
Vou. III.

BAR

fecrecy and fuccefs ; and when a refloration was likely to
take place, he was fent over by the bifhops to reprefent to
the king the ftate of ecclefiaftical affairs. On this occafion,
he was received with expreflions of cordial efteem by his ma-
jefty, and appointed one of his chaplains. Upon his return
he vifited the univerfity of Cambridge, and took the degree
of Do&orin Divinity. Upon the king’s reftoration he was
offered a bifhopric, which he declined accepting, that the
world might not imagine that his extraordinary zeal for
epifcopacy was owing to any fecret hope he might indulge
of being made a bifhop. - Upon this he was promoted to the
deanery of Durham, with which he kept the reGiory of
Houghton-le-Spring, four miles diftant from the city. The
revenue which he thus acquired, he liberally employed in re-
pairing public buildings, relieving the poor, and maintaining
hofpitality. In 1661, he took poffeffion of the deanery of
St. Paul’s ; and by his intereft with his majefty he obtained
two royal grants; one for the repair of the cathedral, to
which he himfelf conuibuted ; and the other for fecuring
its privileges. The kingalfo appointed him one of the nine
affiitants to the twelve bifhops employed in the Savoy con-
ference ; and he was unanimoufly chofen by the clergy in
convocation, their prolocutor. His various engagements
brought on his old complaint, which was aggravated by re-
newed application after a temporary recefs, and which ter-
minated in his death, OG. 22, 1664. By his will he be-
queathed the greateft part of his eftate to charitable ufes.
As his time was fo much devoted to political and public
matters, we may well imagine that his writings were not
numerous : they confifted only of three fermons; the piece
againft the covenant already mentioned ; and the life of the
bifhop of Durham, annexed to his funeral fermon. Many
of his letters to chancellor Hyde may be found in Thurloe’s
Colleétion of State Papers. Biog. Brit.

BARYGAZA, in Ancient Geography. See Baroacu.

BARYGAZENUM Promonrorium, a promontory
of India, placed by M. D’Anville at the fouth entrance of
the ‘* Barygazeuns Sinus,” or the prefent guif of Cambaya.

BARYPYCNI, in Greek Mufic. The ancients cave this epi-
thet to five of the eight {table or fixed founds of their dia-
gram; namely, the hypate hypaton, the hypate-mefon, the
mefe, the paramefe, and the nete diezeugmenon. Thefe
four terms, barypyene, mefopycve, oxypycne, and apycne
imply the jower {pifs or denfe founds; that is to fay, the
fpifs or clofe intervals, the mean of the f{pifs, the acnie of
the fpifs, and the wideit of the {pifs, meaning in the Greek
mufic the hypate, the parhypate.- the licanos, and the nete
of the tetrachords of the {pils kind. By f{pifs or clofe, the
intervals of the femitones in the chromatic and quarter
tones in the enharmonic, areimplied. See Greex System.

BARYTES, or ponderous earth; terra ponderofa, /cAwer-
erde Germ. baryte, Fr.

The Englifh and French names of this earth are derived
from the Greek Bagus, heavy, on account of the high fpecific
gravity of the Ponperous Spar or native fulphat of barytes,
which is the commoneft form in which this earth appears.

§ x. Hiftorical notices refpeCting barytes.

It is to Scheele that Chemiftry 1s indebted for the difco-
very of this fubftance in 1774. In his. valuable eflay on
manganefe, he informs us that the nitric and muriatic folu-
tions prepared from the native black oxyd of this metal con-
tain befides, an earth differing from all thofe hitherto known
by its itrong affinity for fulphuric acid, &c. In 1775 Galhn
made his analyfis of the ponderous fpar, and found it to con-
fift of the earth newly drfcovered by Scheele, ard fulphuric

acid. Bergman repeated and confirmed the experiments of
thefe chemilts, and named the earth terra ponderofa. Mor.
4.Z veau

BAR
veau- propofed the term barote derived from the Greek,
whichMr. Kirwan foftened into barytes. In this appellation
Bergman acquiefced ; and it is now adopted by all except
the German chemifts, who in conformity with their general
cuftom prefer the term {chwererde, which is a literal tranfl2-
tion in their: own language of terra ponderofa. Weigleb
and Afzelius contributed to enlarge our acquaintance with
this fubftance; and in 1793, Dr. Hope publifhed his valu-
zble experiments in the Edinburgh TranfaG@iions. In-1796,
Klpproth augmented our knowledge by his mafter'y analyfis
of the native fulphats and carbonats of barytes; and in 1797
Pelletier and Wanquelin gave.to the world their able me-

tmoirs, confirming the faéts already admitted and adding to
them many new ones.

§ 2. Method of obtaining pure barytes.
_ > The only way of procuring this earth in a fate of fuffi-
cient purity for chemical experiment, is to expofe cryital-
lized nitrat of barytes ina platina crucible to a moderate red
heat till it becomes quite dry and has ceafed to give out any
vapours: the nitric acid will be whoily decompofed and vo-
Tatilifed, leaving the barytes behind in the form of a greyifh
white porous mafs more or lefs adherent to the crucible,
The nitrat of barytes is obtained either by diffolving the na-
tive carbonat of barytes in very dilute nitrous acid; or by
heating the native fulphat of barytes in a clofe crucible’with
charcoal, and thus converting it into fulphuret of barytes and
then treating this with nitric acid. which will diffolve the
earth, and leave the fulphur behind. A much mere econo-
mical way however of preparing this earth, is mentioned by
Dartigues.. (Ann. de Chimie, vol. 40). ‘Take fuiphat of
barytes, pulverife it together with charcoal, and expofe it for
half an hour to a full red heat : by this means the greater
epart will be converted into fulphuret of barytes. Pour
boiling water on the mafs,-and a clear yellow liquor will be
gbtained by filtration: add to this, ae da; anda
copious white precipitate of carbonated barytes, four. times
the weight of the foda employed, will be depofited. This
being feparated from the folution of fulphuret of foda and
wathed repeatedly, is to be mixed with charcoal and again
heated for about half an hour; the carbonic acid will be for
the moft part converted into gaff-ous oxyd of carbon, and the
barytes will remain in a caullic flate. By a hhort digettion in
boiling water and fubfequent filtration, a clear fuperfaturated
folution of barytes is obtained; frem which, by evaporation
and gently heating in a filver crucible, the pure barytes is
readily ‘obtained.
§ 3. Chemical and phyfical properties.

Barytes obtained by the methods mentioned in the prece-
ding fection. is a porous mals of a greyith white colour and ea-
fily reducible to powder: its fp. gr. in this fate cannot be
afcertained with much accuracy: F surcroy ftates it at 45
Haffenfratz only at 2.374. Ibis the moft active of the alka-
line earths ; and from its ready folubility, has been arranged
by fome modern chemifs @mong the properalkalies. Tt has
a harfh caultic tafte, and acts uponthe animal econcmy as a
violent poifon. ” Tris deftitete of fmell. Tt changes fyrup
of violets green, and the lemoa yellow of turmeric to a
brownifh orange. ~

By a ftrong heat it becomes harder, denfer, and acquires
tternally a blueifh green tinge. When ftrongly urged by
the blowpipe or a ftream of oxygen gas upon a piece of
charcoal, it fufes and is partly imbibed-by the charcoal and

partly volatilized, communicating a yellow colour. to the
~ flame. ;

lts affinity for water is very confiderable. When expofed
to the air, it gradually imbibes moifture, fells, and falls to

ge - i

_ atmofphere and becoming.mild: hence the

‘water giving out phofphorated hydrogen gas,.

BAR:

pieces; attraing at’the fame time the ebvbone ci of the ©
; ty of keep=
ing it in dry well-ftopped vials. When {prinkled with a
little water, it exhibits the fame appearances'as q dime, but
with greater energy; the mafs becomes white, is remarkably
increafed in bulk, and a large quantity of heat s evolved.
If ftirred up while hot with an additional portion of water to
the confiftence of athin paite, it aflumes, abit cools. the ate
of a folid, made up of confufed needle-form cryitals; but
this by expofure to the air becomes carbonated: and falls
inte powder. 2 2 Beg

Water boiled upon pure barytes, is capable of taking: up
half its weight of this carth; the greater part of which it
depofits by cooling, in flender delicate crpftals implanted
into each other, or, by carrying on the procefs very flowiy,
in theform of comprefled hexahedral prilms terminated bya
four-fided pyramid, and of a brilliant fattiny lultre. ‘Dhefe
cryftals appear to be compofed 6f 53 parts of water and 47
of barytes. By a boiling heat, they completely liquefy ;sand
at length the water being evaporated, a white powder re- —
mains behind, which is pure barytes.. By mere expofure to
the air they become cflorefcent, and the earth is found to be
carbonated. They are felubie in about 17% parts of water
at the temperature of 60°. The fluid that remains after the
depofition of the cryitals of barytes retains as of the earth ~
in permanent folution, and is called barytic waters im
barytic lime water. This folution is perfe,
colourlefs, has an acrid tafte, and poffeli es prt
logous to lime water.’ Ly expofure to +t
covered with a cruit of carbonated barytes; ai
moved or falling to the bottom, a frefh cruft $
formed till the whole of the earth is thus fepa
water.

Barytes, like the other alkaline earths, «
the known acids; and the barytic falts thus prod
the moft part readily cryitaliizable, and are doll
the firong mutual affinity of their elements: fulphuric acid
in particular is diflodged by it from every other combina,
tion. 1S gag

Among the fimple inflammables, pho(phorus aud fulphue
appear to be the only on<s capable of uniting with barytes.
Tf alternate portions of phoiphorus and pure barytes are put
into a flrong glafs tube clofed at one end and expoledtoa
red heat, the phofphorus melts; fublimes, and combineswith ~
the barytes that is in conta with it into a brown’
mafs of a metallic luftre, the phofphuret of barytes,
fubftance when breathed upon exhales a ftroug fetid.
is lumioous in the dark, changes gradually by expo r
the air into phofphat of barytes, and immediately decompofes ‘

ted

The affinity between fuiphar and barytes is v
able. Pure barytes>digeited in wacm water y
willtakeup more thama quarter of its weight of this {ub
being then evaporated to drynefs and he 1 red
crucible, the refult is a reddith yellow inodorons. im:
phuret of harytes. Its properties have bapa r
mired into, on account of the great cafe wit! 2,
compofed. Sulphuret of barytes has a remarkably power=
ful attraGion for water. is very foluble in this fuideven 1
cold, but is fill more fo in hot water. Init
however, a decompoiition of part of the water is
the hydrogen uniting with a portion of the ful
the oxygen with enother portion. The new es }
that take place it this pracels are very interelting, and hay-
ing becn ably inveftigated by, Bertnollet, we thell tn y
Hae fing bat at length. ia’ a Re
hen fulphuret of barytes is thrown into hot water it
immediately

/

BAR

immediately diffolves, the liquid becomes of a yellow colour
and exhales a {trong {mell of fulphurated hydrogen; a white
earthy fediment is‘depofited, and as the liquer cools, a con-
fiderable quantity of cryltals: either acicular, prifmatic, or”
in plates, make their appearance: which being dried by
preflure between filtering paper become perfectly white.
Thus fulphuret of barytes by the aGion of water furnithes
+ three diltinct produéts. «x. The earthy fediment is rege-
» merated fulphat of barytes; being produced by the oxygen
of the water combining with part of the fulphur into ful-
phuric acid, and this as foon as formed faturating itfelf with
barytes. 2. The cryftals are hydrofulphuret of barytes, a
falt remarkable for being ‘the only one of the earthy or al-
) kaline hydrofulphurets thatis capable of being cryttallized.
Tt is very little alterable by expofure to the air, is eafily
oluble in water, and is dgcompofable by the mineral acids
with extrication’ ef fulphurated hydrogen gas. Befides
ing produced in the decompofition of fulphuret of ba-
yytes, it may be made in the direét way by paffing ful-
| phurated hydrogen gas through a Woulfe’s apparatus
~ containing barytes diffufedin water. 3. Befides the fulphat
rand hydrofulphuret of barytes, there remains from the de-
compefition of the fulphuret of barytes, a’ yeliow liquor,
which, by the addition of muriatic acid, gives out a large
quantity of fulphurated hydrogen, and yields at the fame
time a copious precipitate of {ulphur: hence it appears to
be fulphuret of barytes, intimately mixed or more probably
combined with fulphurated hydrogen.
_ There are therefore three modes in which fulphur can
“combine with barytes: the’ fir is fimple dry fulphuret. of
barytes, incapable of uniting with water without decompo-
fition; the fecond is hydrofuiphuret of barytes, cry{talliz-
able, foluble in water, and decompofable by muriatic acid
_ without depoliting fulphur; the third is hydrofulphurated
_-fulphuret of barytes, foluble in water, not cry ftallizable, and
when decompofed by muriatic acid giving out both fulphur
and fulphurated hydrogen. .
Barytes, in confequence of its alkaline properties, as on
-wegetable and animal matter with great energy; it forms
infoluble foaps with oils, corrodes and diffolves mufeular

fibre, 78E6))),

&
“I

as potath does: three parts of barytes and one of filex being
intimately mixed and fuled together, produce a yellowith
green mafs entirely foluble in nitric, muriatic, or acetous
acid; from which the filex may be feparated in the ufual
“way. In the moilt way barytes being mixed with néwly
precipitated alumine forms a compound infoluble in water,
bat. vhich is readily taken up by am excefs of barytes.

_* ‘of lead; but thefe
tended to.

Barytes was for a long time fuppofed to be a very refrac-
tory metallic oxyd. Berzman, Lavoifier, and other eminent
chemifts adopted this opinion from its great {pecific-grayity,

_ from the greeniih hue that'it communicates by fufion with
_ the other earths, and from its being precipitable from its
folutions in acids by pruffiat of potafh. But, in anfwer to
thefefurmifes, it may be remarked, that metals in’ propor-
tion as they become oxygenated approach to the ttate of
‘acids ; whereas barytes pofleffes alkaline properties in a very
eminent’ degree :.and that pruffiat of potafh when quite pure

combinations have not been’ much at-

occafioned by the prefence of {ulphat of potafh, with which
the pruffiac is generally contaminated.
* Barytes 2s anvattive poifon to animals; as are moft df its
falts. It is not made ufe ofin the large way, but is of con-
Siderable importance in the laboratory as a teit for fulphuric

~ In the dry way, barytes diffolves filex in the fame manner’

' Barytes diffolves certain metallic oxyds, efpecially zhofe’

> does fio’ precipitate barytes; this appearance being always’
"were written on each fide.

BAS

‘acid and an effeQual reagent to feparate this fub{tance from

all its other combinations.

The order of the affinities to which barytes is fubjeé, as
far as they have been invelbieated, appeara to be: in the moilt
way,—fulphurie acid, oxalic, fuccinic, fluoric, phofphoric, .
facchola&tic, nitric, muriatic, citric, tartareous, arfenic) for-
mic, laétic, benzoic, acetons, boracic, fulphureous, carbonic,
and pruffic acids, water, fat oil, {ulphur, alumine, filex ; in
the dry way,—phofpboric acid, boracic, arfenic, fulphuric,
fluoric, and muriatic acids, fulphur, oxyd of lead,-filex, and
alumine.

Gren Syftematifches handbuch. Annales de Chimie.
Pelletier Eff. Chimiques. Fourcroy ,Syft. des connoiff.
Chimiques. Thomfon’s Chemiftry. Pearfon on Chemical
Nomenclature, &c.

BARYTONO, in Mufic- See Barrrono. :

BARYTONUM, from Peeus, grave, and rov0;, accent, im
the Greck Grammar, denotes a verb, which having no accent
marked on the jaft fyllable, a grave accent is to be under-
flood.

BARZAURA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Alia,
in the Paropamifus. Ptolemy...

BARZETO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Parma,
17 miles S.S.W. of Parma.

BARZIZIIS, Curisropuer De, in Biography, pro-
feflor of medicine at Padua in the beginning of the fixteenth
century, publifhed in 1517, ** De Febrium Cognitione et
Cura Liber,” gto. Lugduni; “ Introduétorium, five Janua
ad omne Opus pratticum Medicine,’ Augu{ta-Vindel, fol.

1594, with other works of lefs note. Haller. Bib, Med.
Praé&. i

BARZOD, in Geography, a town of Hungary, and ca
pital of a county to which it gives name, feated on the
Hernach, between Caffovia and Aria. :

BAS, James Puivip Le, in Biography, a modern French ,
avtilt, flourifhed about ‘the year 7754, by whom we have
fome excellent prints. His great force feems.to lie in
landfeapes and fmall figures, which he executed in a {upe-
rior manner. His ftyle of engraving is extremely neat; and
yet he proves the freedom of the etching, and harmoniles.
the whole with the graver and dry point. We! have alfo a_
variety of pretty vignettes. by this artift ; among which are
moft of thole that adorn'the 8vo. edition of Rollin’s Ancient
Hiftory in Englifh, publifhed by the Knaptons in 1754.
Of his molt eftéemed works, the following. may be‘enume-
rated: viz.** The Works of Mercy,” a fet of feveral Dutch’
Merry-Makings, Fairs, &c.” both from Tenier 3“¢ The Ita.
lian Chafe,” and the.‘ Milk-pot,’? and alfo the ‘ Wild
Boar,” from P. Wouvermans; feveral plates of ** Hunting,
&c.” from Van Falens; the *¢ Sea ports of France,” after
Vernet ; the “ Bavirons de Groningue” and the * Environs
de Gueldres,”? from Ruyfdaal.. Strutt>

Bas, Joun Le,.a furgeon and accoucheur of confiderable'
emifience, born at Orleazs, was admitted at the academy of
furgeons of Paris, in 1756, where he refided. Called upon
in 1764 to give an opinion as to the legitimacy of a child
bora ten months and feventeen days after the death of the
fuppofed father, he decided in its’ favour; but the caufe
being referred to another court, the affiltance and opinion
of Bonvart, Ant; Lewis, Petit, and feveral other phyticians
and furgzeons, were demanded, who unanimoufly d eclared
againft the decifion of Le Bas. ‘This gave rife to a furious
literary difpute, in the courfe of which feveral pamphlets

Le Bas defended the part he
had taken, by the authority of Ariftotle and Pliny, feps
ported by Schenkius and other modern reeorders of extra=
ordinary. events, as well as by the decifions of the courts of
law in various parts of Europe, which had been fometimes

4 4Z2 givem

BAS

given in favour of births protra@ed to even more than
twelve months, which Le Bas thinks might, and, he had
no doubt, had happened. Bauvart and Louis, on the con-
trary, contending again{t the authority of thefe pretended
cafes of protraéted geftation brought by their antagonitt,
which they do not admit to have been completely proved in
any one initance, fix the time of parturition in women to
nine calendar months from the time of conception ; allowing
it may be extended beyond that time ten or twenty days,
and denying that in any one well-authenticated cafe, proof
had been produced of a woman’s being delivered of a livirg
child later than that period. This opinion is now, we be-
lieve, univerfaliv eftablifhed. The following are the tities
of the books written by Le Bas on the fubje& : ** Queftion
important ; Peut on déterminer le tems de ?accouchement,”’
Paris 1764, Svo. ‘ Nouvelles Obfervations fur les naif-
fances tardives,”” 1765, 8vo.; written in anfwer to Louis,
who had confuted his arguments, and denied the authenti-
city of the cafes brought in fepport of them. ‘* Lettre a
M. Bouvart, au fujet de fa derniere confaltation,” 1765,
S8vo. Bouyart had taken the fame fide with Louis. * Re-
plique a un ouvrage de M. Bouvart,”? 1767, Svo. This is
Written with much acrimony; the laf refource, when de-
fending a bad caufe. Haller. Bib. Chirurg.

Bas, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Englifh channel,
near the coalt of France, in the diflri& of St. Pol. de Leon,
near Penpoul, the harbour of St. Pel; one French mile in
length, and 2 of a mile in breadth; difficult and dangerous
of accefs on account of the rocks cvergrown with fea-weeds.
The eaftern part of the ifland is rather mountainous, but
towards the weit and north-weft the coaft is lower, and
well cultivated. ‘The whole population compreherds about
800 perfons, who inhabit three villages, viz. Porféaéve,
Carn, and Goualen. The ifland is defended by four bat-
teries and two forts, with eleven pieces of cannon and So
canoneers, befides a garrifoa of 50 men to guard the
coafts. It has only one fpring of water ; the foil is fandy ;
the men are all failors, and the women cultivate the ground.
The richeft propriztor here does not poff<fs more than fix
or feven cows, of which there are only about 200 on the
whole ifland. Not a fingle tree grows here. The fea
abounds with fith. The inhabitants live together in fre-
ternal concord, and confider themfelves as members of one
family. N. lat. 48° 50’. W. long. 4°.

Bas, Paint de, is the fouthern cape of a bay which runs
in ealtward from Quiberon bay on the fouth of Vilacre river,
on the welt coaft of France.

Bas en Baffel, a town of Frarce, in the department of
the Upper Loire, and chief place of a cauton in the dileé
of Yffengeaux; one league north-welt cf Moniltrol. Tne
place contains 5c98 and the canton 11,173 inhabitants ;
the territory includes 2074 kiliometres and fix communes.

Bas Relief. See Basso relievo.

BASAAL, in Botany, the name of an Indian tree, grow-
ing abont Cochin. Ray’s Hilt.

" BASAG, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Indian
ocean, near Arabia Felix, according to Pliny.

BASALT, artificial, or black porcelain, a compofition
having nearly the fame properties with the natural bafalt,
invented by Meflrs. Wedgwood and Bentley, and applied to
various purpofes in their manufactures.

Basar, in Mineralogy. Argilla bafaltes, Werner ; figu-
rate trap of Kirwan.

The colour of this mineral is generally greyifh black,
more rarely blueith or brownifh black ; its furface is ufually
reddifh brown, from a partial decompofition. It is found
in large mafles, compofing entire infulated mountains of a

BAS

fomewhat conical form. Of itfelf it is deftitate of luftre,
but not unfrequently coutains fhining particles of olivin er
bafaltie hornblende. Its fracture is uneven, pafling into
fine fplintery, fometimes approaching to the even or flat
conchoida). It flies, when broken, into indeterminate rather
fharp-edged fragments.

The molt ufual form of bafalt is that of columns, Rraight
or curved, perpendicular or inclined, from three inches to
three feet in diemeter. Thefe pillars are divided cither by
fimple fections at right angles to their axes, or by articula-
tions formed by the convex end of one piece inferted into
the concave extremity of the adjoining one. The forms of
the columns are pentangular, hexzngular, o¢tangular, rarely
triangular or quadrangular. Bafalt alfo fometimes cecurs
in tables, or in giobuiar or elliptical concentric mafles, called.
by the French ba/alte en boules.

It gives a clear afh-grey itreak. is almoft hard enough to
give fre with tteel, and is very difficultly broken. © It is ge-
nerally opaque, though fometimes flightly tranflucid on the
edges. It is remarkably fonorous when ftruck with the
hammer. Sp. gr. according to Bergman, 3; Briflon, 2.864.
It is fometimes magnetic.

Before the blowpipe, bafalt fufes without addition into a
black, opeque glais, attraétable by the maguet. When
heated in a charcoal crucible, according to Klaproth, it fufes
into an afh-grey mafs, of a dui! earthy fraGture, and mi-
nutely fpongy texture, overlaid with grains of iron: it lofes
in this procefs 9 per cent. of its weight. In a ciay crucible,
it fules isto a denfe glafs, opaque m mafs, but tranfparent,
and of a clove-brown colour, in thin f{plinters.

Its conftituent parts, according to Bergman, are;

Silex — 50°
Alumine i 15
Lime — 8
Magnefia — 2
iroa _— 25

‘109

The geological chara@ers of bafalt, and the various con-
troverfies with regard to its origin, and that of the other
Rocks of Secondary Trarrormation, will be treated of
at large in their proper place. It witl be fufficient to men-
tion here, that bafalr belongs to the itratified. mountains,
and that it very rarely contains any petrifa@ions. When
in mafs, it never inclofes any metallic veins; and when it _
occurs in the form of dykes, in coal ftrata or metailiferous
rocks, it produces a total feparation of the ore or coal on
each tide of the dyke. . :

It is feldom if ever quite pure, being generally mixed with
bafaltic hornblende, commen hornbiende, and olivin; more
rarely with zeolite, feltfpar, quartz, {chorl, and calcareous.
fpar. Mica is fometimes fouad on its furface, though very
{cllom penetrating its fubftance. When mingled with thefe
in confiderable proportion, it is eatily decompofable into a
remarkably fertile clayey loam.

The north-eaft coat of Ireland prefents the moft perfe&
and magnificent ranges of bafaltic columns in the world:
the celebraced Giants’? caufeway is an aflemblage of.
many thoufand articulated piilars projeéting into the fea, at
the foot of a lofty bafaltie promontory, exhibiting a poly
gonal pavement fomewhat refembling a folid honeycomb.
The promontory at Fairhead is a vait colonade of upright
bafaltic pillars, the fhafts of which are 250 feet in length.
Scotland alfo contains many beautiful ipectmens of columnar
bafalt : the little ifland of Staffa in particular almott entirely
confilts of bafaicic pillars, both vertical and bending. The
central diftri€t of Auvergne in France, and the northern

parts

*

eo, 3 ros

BAS

arts of Italy at the foot of the Alps, as well as Saxony and
Heffia in Germany, are alfo remarkable for their bafaltic
columns.

Besides the ufe of bafalt as a material for building and
paving, it has of late been employed as an ingredient in the
manufacture of glafs bottles; it ferves inftead of more coftly
fubftances, and the glafs, though black and opake, has the
advantage of being confiderably ttronger than the common
greenkind. Whencaleinedand pulverized, bafalt isan ex-
cellent fub{titute for pnzzolana in the compofition of mortar,
to which it gives the property of hardening under water.
Emmerling. Brochant. Karwan. Ann. de Chimie.

BASAN, or Basuan, in Ancient Geography, otherwife
called Batanea, lay north of the tmbes of Gad and Renu-
ben, and in the half tribe of Manaffeh, and was bounded
by Gilead and the Ammonites on the caft, by the brook
Jabbok onthe fouth, by mount Heron on the north, and
by Jordan on the weft. Og was king of Bafhan, when the
Ifraelites conquered it. After the Babylonifh captivity, it
was fubdivided ; fothat only a part was called Batanea or
Bafan, another part Trahonitis, a third Aurunitis or Iturza,
and fome part of it Gaulonitis. It wasa country famous
for its paflures, and its breed of large cattle.

BASANITE of Kirwan, in Mineralogy.
ous ScHisTus.

’ Basanites, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by many

authors to the touchitone, ufed fortrying gold, &c. Pliny

fpeaks of a bafanites which yielded a bloody juice, and was
ocd againft difeafes of the liver.

BASANITUS Lapis, in Ancient Geography, the name
of a mountain in Egypt, according to Ptolemy.

BASANUS, in Natural Hiflory See 'Toucustone,

BASARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleltine,
in Galilee, 20 ftadia from Gaba, in the vicinity of Ptolemais.
Jofephus.

BASARTSCHIK, in Geography, a confiderable town of
Romania, in Turkey of Europe. Itistolerably well built,
has broad and clean ftreets and good trade, and is feated on
the river Maritz. N. lat. 40° 49’. E. long. 24° 31’.

BASARUCO, in Commerce, a {mail bafe coin in the
Eat Indies, being made only of very badtin. Of thiscoin
there are two forts, good and bad; the value of the bafe
fort ist lower than that of the good. Vhree bafarucos are
equal to two rees of Portugal.

BASCANIA, in Antiquily, ridiculous or grotefque figures
hung up by the ancient {miths before their furnaces, to
divert envy.

BASCARA, in Geography, 2 town of Africa, in Biledul-
gerid. ‘The foil in its vicinity is fertile in grain and fruits,
particularly dates, which are excellent.

BASCHARAGE, a town of France, in the department
of the Foréts, and chief place of a canton in the diltriG of
Luxembourg. The place contains 835 and the canton
422 inhabitants; the territory includes 245 kilometres
and 13 communes.

BASCINNO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Abruzzo Ulira, 4 miles S.S.E.
of ‘Teramo. ;

BASCULUMBAT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Natolia ; 36 miles eaft of Pergamo.

BASE, Basis, in Archite@ure, denotes an aflemblage of
mouldings conitituting the lower part of acolumn, of a pier,
or of apedettal.

In the Grecian remains of the Ionic order, the lower
torus, aftragal, or fillet of the bafe, refts immediately on the
upper ftep of the building ; but in thofe of the Corinthian
order, a fquare plinth is added tothe bafe. This praétice is
obferved in all the Roman works, with the exception of the

See Sirice-

BAS

temples of Veftaat Tivoli and at Rome; fmall circular build.
ings, in which a plinth radiating to the centre would have
had an unfightly diminution. Modern architeéts have unix
verfally given plinths to their bafes; and the following rules
may be ttated from their works: the height of th-ir bafcs of
columns to be half a diameter, thofe of pedeltals, two ninths
of the height of the refpeGive column and pedettal; the
plinths of the Tufcan and Doric orders, one half the height
of the bafe; and one third in the Ionic and Corint)nan.
For the particular proportions of the mouldings, we refer to
the plates.

The Aitic or Atticurgic Bafe confits of two torvffes and
fillets, with an intermediate feotia. (See Plate XVI. of
Architecture; and Plate 1. fig. 1. from the temple of Jupiter
Olympius at Athens; and fy. 2. from the temp!e of Minerva
Polias, of the fame place.) This bafe, probably the mo&
ancient of any, is employed in all the Athenian remains of
the Ionic and Corinthian orders ; in Roman antiquities, it is
frequently ufed in the Corinthian order, and conttantly in the
Tomic ; and it has been adopted in every order by modern
architeéts. It may be obferved in this place, that, of the
Grecian Tonic bafes, the upper torus is frequently fluted.
See Plate I. fig. 2. Plate XXVIII.

The Tufcan Bafe. he remains of antiquity do not fur-
nifh any complete fpecimen of the Tufcan order ; and mo-
dern architects have accordingly varied in this order more
than in any other ; the bafe, however, has been determined
by all to confift of a fillet and torus. See Plate XLV. of
Architeéure.

The Doric Bafe. It has been the praétice of antiquity to
execute the Doric order without a bafe. The maffive ftrength
of this dignified order required no additional ftability from
a bafe, the projecting mouldings of which would have em-
barraffed the comparative narrownefs of the mono-triglyph
intercolumniation. But modern architects having adopted a
column modeljed rather on Roman than Grecian proportions,
have for the mott part, with great propriety, added a bale
to their flender order. The Doric bafe invented by Vig-
nola (fee Plate I. fig. 3.) confilts of a fillet, aftragal, and
torus; all other architedis have ufed the Attic bafe.

The Corinthian Bafe (fee Plate XX1X.) differs from the
Attic, in having two fcotias with attragals between the to-
rufes. "Ehis bafe is found in the Pantheon, and in the three
columns of the Campo Vaccino. In the other Roman and
in the Grecian antiguities of this order, the Attic bafe is
employed. -

The Compofiie Bafe. The compofite order has no pecu-
liar bafe, and ufes tie Attic and Corinthian bales in4iffer-
ently. Vitruvius. Stuart’s Athens. Defgcdetz Edif. de
Rome. Arch. di A. Palladio. Regola di J. B. da Vignola,

Base, Rudeniée, isthat which has its tores cut like cables.

Base, in Fortification, denotes the external fide of the
polygon; or that imaginary line which is drawn from the
flanked angle of a battion to that which is oppofite to it.

Base of a Figure, in Geomeiry, denotes the loweft part of
its perimeter: in which fenfe, the bafe ftands oppofed to the
vertex, which denotes the highelt part. :

Base of a Triangle, is properly the lowelt fide, or that
which lies parallel to the horizon.

Thus, the line AB is the bafe of the triangle ABC,

Plate

BAS

Plate Ul. Geom. fiz. 38. Not but, on- other occafions,
the lines, AC, or BC in the triangle, may be made th
bafe. ; aes ’
“In a right-angled triangle, the bafe is properly that fide
oppofite to the right angle, i.e. the bypothenufe. *

Base of a falid Figure, is its lowelt fide, or that whercon
it lands.” Thus the circular plane DFE is the bafe of the
cylinder ABDI. Plate I11. Geom. jig. 39.

Base of a conic Scélion, isa right line in the hypetbola and
parabola, formed, by the: common interfeGtion of the fecant
plane, and the bafe ef the cone. ~

Bass, Altern.’ See ALTERNS
" Base, in Guanery. See Cannon.

Base, in Heraldry, fignifies the bottom of the fhield ; and
the charges thereon are {aid tobein bafe.
~ Bass, Diflind, in Optics. See Distincr. :

\ *

Base of the Heart, in Anatomy, denotes the Bee
upper part of that vilcus, to the fides cf which ‘the two
auricles are affixed. This is fometimes alfo called the vertex
cr head, n; in oppolition to which, the Ie ffer or .arrower
part is called apex or mucro, the point ortip of the heart.

Seme alfo give the denomination da/e to the root of the os
hyotdes.

Base, or Basts, in Chemi/iry, aterm which was applied,
by the old chemitls, to defignate thofe fubflances of a fixed,
inert, paflive nature, which combined with, and were acted
upon,, by more volatile or aétive men{trua. Thus the alka-
lies: earths, and metallic oxyds, which form compound falts
by uniting with acids, were called the bafes of thefe falts.
Modern chemifts, though they maintain that in every com-
bination the nifus or force of affinity between two ingredients
is mutual and equal, have yét retained the term, for the fake
of precifion, to exprefs either fpecies or families of falts,

- which differ with regard to the acid, but agree as to the al-
kali, earth, or metallic oxyd which they contain. Thus
falts with a bafe of potafh, include all thofe fpecies which
are formed by the combination ‘of the various acids with the
particular alkali potafh. Again, falts with an alkaline bafe
comprehend the three familics of falts with bales of potafh,
foda, or ammonia, as difinguifhed from the other {alts
with earthy or metallic bafes. The utility, therefore, of
this mode of expreflion is evident; for though the com-
pound falts are ufually divided into gentra, according to

- their acids, as fulphats, nitrats, muriats, &c. yet it is often
defirable to arrange them according to their other element or
bafe, for which the Lavoiferian
cularly provided. ~ i
. The term bafe is alfo ufed on other occafions as a method
of denoting fpecies ; as when we fay, fulphuric acid is com-
pofed of oxygen united with a bafe of fulphur; the vegetable
acids of oxygen and a compound _bzafe of hydrogen and
carbon. Sometimes alfo the word bafe is applied in a more
indefinite manner; asin the expreffion, phofphat of lime is
the bafe of animal bone, azot is the bafe of mufcular fibre:
where it means merely the chara4teriftic or principal part.

‘Bast, Engl. Basse, Fr. Basso, Ital. in Mufic, the
lowelt part in the harmony of a mufical compofition. We
prefer the derivation of the word from baj/s, Lat. to baffle or
baffo ; as the word bafis is already naturalized in the ufe that
js made of it in architeéture, the bafe of a pillar. Sir Francis
Bacon ules it mufically fora deep or grave found : ‘* In pipes
the lower the note-holes be, aad the further from the mouth
of the pipe, the more bafe founds they yield ” Nat. Hitt.
N° 178. And Dryden thus expreffes the ftring of an in-
ftrument that gives a bafe found: | ,

« At thy well-tharpen’d thumb from fhore to fhore,
The trebles fqueak for fear, the bafes roar.” —

nomenclature has not parti- °

and after him by Mr. Thomas Pigot, A.B. of Wa

ae

_ Dr. Johnfon fays, bafe is applied to deep, grave founds;
it is frequently written bafs, though the comparative bafer
feems to require bafe.. ; Sy
The bafe is the moft important of all the parts of poli-
phonic compofitions, being the foundation upon which all
the other parts are built; and it has long been a maxim
among mulicians, that “it the bafe be good, the harmony
and modulation are feldom defeétive.”’ ee -
The word bafe ts applied to various purpofes in mufic; as
bafe-viol, principal bafe, continued bafe, ripicno bafe, ground.
bafe, thorough-bafe, &c. molt of which explain themfelves:
the reft will be further noticed in their places. But the bafe
to any common chord or part of a chord, called by the
Italians beffo principale, and by the French baff- tonda-
mentale, is what chicfly belongs to this article, and requires
aclear explanation of its ufe. ah 4.
Set principal or fundamental bafe, in praGtice, is that bal
which carries the common chord of Sor the chord of yee

erived from common chords, the left hand fhould give.
the fifth and eighth to the bafe. For the fun sent and
fuppofed bale to the treble {cale, major, minor, and chro-
matic, fee CounTERPoInT, ComPosiTion, Se Com-
mon Cuorps, and THoroucu-Base. = ,

tremble of its own accord. But I can now add, that not
the whole of that other ftring doth thus tremble, but-the —
feveral parts feverally, according as they are unifons tothe
whole or the parts of that ftring fo {truck.?? (Here thie
gives the feveral divifions into which a ftring, when caufed to
found, divides itfelf, and a delineation of the forms of the:
feveral confonances on a plate; but of thefe we fhall have
further oceafion to fpeak hereafter.) Te
“This was firt of all (that I know of) difcovered ‘by
Mr. William Noble, M.A. of Merton college; and by him
fhewed to fome of our mulicians about three years fince:

e : 7
, i Sho cay

”

ps ,
college, without knowing that Mr. Noble had difcovered it
before. As we are now only proving a claim, we need
cite no more of this paper; at the end of which another
paper is referred to (N° 135. p. 879.), which reference
fays: ‘Converning thefe phenomena, an exquifite folution
is given by Dr, Narciffus Marth, in Dr. Plot’s Natural
Hiltory of Oxford fire.”

D’Alembert (Elémens de Mufique) fpeaks of Rameau as
the difcoverer of the harmonies, as well as author of the
fyitem built upon them. In the preface to the fecond edi-
tion of his Elements of Mufic, in which he has abridged and
methodized the muafical tracts of Rameau, ‘he fays; * it
was Rameau who firft began to reduce chaos into order, and
throw a light upon the principles of harmony. h

* He found in the refonance of a fingle fring or founding
body, the moft probable origin of harmony, and of the

eafure which it affords us: he developed this principle,
and fhewed whence the phenomena of mufic were derived,”
&e. :

“And ’Rouffeau, Di&, de Muf art. Harmonie, fays, that
¢¢ Pere Merfenne and M. Sauveur having found that every
found, though feemingly a fimple unifon, was always ac-
companied by other founds lefs diftinguifhable, which
‘formed with it the commen chord major ; and M. Ramean,
efetting off from this experiment, made.it the hafis ofr his
ate fyftem, which M. D’Alembert .at length took

uble of explaining to the public.”
_Ramew himfelf, ip his Nouveau Syfeme de Mofique ;
“publifed 1726, fays “ we have in our nature the germ of
harmony without knowing it. If is however eafy to per-
‘ccive it in the found of .Pitring, a pipe, &c, in the tone of
_ which there are'three different founds at once.’* In a pote
he adde, ‘‘ this experiment is-cited by different authors.”
But he does not i¢em to know their, names. Ramean’s
“account feems to have been* taken from our Phil. Tranf,
-quoted above, where it was fuppofed to bean HA&elith dif-

Harm. Univerfelie, chap. des Inftrumens. p. 209. for the
Anvention; but Merfenne, in the very title of the chapter
alluded to, relinguifhes all claim-to the diicovery, by merely
‘promifing his readers “to explain many cireumftances and
‘propertiesof motion, natural or forced, oblique or perpendicu-
‘dar, where the ideas and experiments of Galileo aré examined,”

This puts it out of all doubt who was the firlt cifcoverer
of this niifical phenomenon.. But the name of -the true
hint does not feem to have’ been mentioned by any

Hter'in Engiand before the year 1748. when Dr. Smith

+ firft publithed his Harmonics; who begins the fir fection of

that feienvific work in the following manner. ‘ Sound is
catfedby the vibrations of elaftic bodies, which communicate
the like-vibrations to the air, and thefe the like again to our
organs of kearing.
© “ Philofophers are agreed in this, becanfe founding bodies
communicate tremors to diltant bodies, For inftance, the
- vibrating motion of a mulical {tring puts others in motion,
whofe tenfioa and quantity of matter difpofe their vibrations
. to’ keep time with the pulfes of air propagatcd from the
firing which was truck. Gaiileo expiains this phenomenon
bye bieveing, that ayheavy pendilum may be put in motion
“by the leait breath of the month, provided the blaits be
fi

tions of

the pendulum ; and alfo by the like art in raifing a
15 and probably he was the firll
henomenon.”” eta Bs a
aving traced this curious ¢ ilcovery to the
ad, we ‘hall draw all further information from

-eovery. Butin p. 17 of his treatife,he refers to Merfenne’s °

tently repeated, and keep tine cxacily with the vibra-’

pehey oom

if BAS

The admirable Galileo, perhaps the moft acute and ufeful
experimental philofopher of any age or country, in his firlt
dialogue (Opera del Galileo, vol. ti. Bologna 1655), after
difculling the vibrations of pendulums, which he firft applied
to the meafuring of time, proceeds with his friends Sagreco,
an intellizent inquirer ‘into mechanical powers, who afks
queftions of difficult folution;’ and Simplicius, a young
philofopher, ‘curious concerning the cafes of common
effects: Galileo, under the name of Salviati, after difcuffing
the doérine of motion, and the range of cannon-balls, fays;
« vengo ora da i quefiti di V. S. dirvi qualche mio penfiero
fopra alcuni problemi attenenti alla mufica ;” and now, at
your requett, gentlemen, I fhall give you my thoughts on fome
muficak problems, a noble fubjeét, on which fo many great
men have written, and, among the reft,-Ariftotle himfelf ;
concerning which he haslett us many _curidus problems ;
fo that if by fuch eafy and intelligible experiments T
fhail be able to account for the wonderful phenomena of
found, I.may perhaps hope that my reflections would
amufe you. i j

* Sagredo. They will not only amufe me, but are what
I mot particular with for, being extremely delighted with
all mufical inftruments; and thougls] beftowed much medi-
tation on harmonical confonances, I have always remained

perplexed and unable to account for one of thefe intervals

pieafing me more than another. For fome not: only give-
meno pleafure, but are extremely off-nlive to my ear; and
that common problem of two ftrings tuned in uinfon, when”
one of them ts caufed to found, the other not only vibrates
but atually founds, I fhil am unable to folve ; nor do I,
clearly underiiand the forms of confonances, or many other:
particulars concerning them.”? 4 ee nS
_& Salviati.. Ler us try whether from our doétrine of
pendulums we cannot acquire {ome information concerning
thefe difficulties. And zs to the fu ft doubt, which is, whether’
it be true that the fame perdulum performs al! its ofcillations,
whether its {wing be the greatelt: the mean, or the leait,
exactly in equal times? I fhall depend on what our profeffor
told us, who has, Clearly demonfrated that a pendulum
fubtending any arcs whatever, pafles them all in equal times,
i. €. whether of 180°, or 60, 10, 2, 4 a degree, or of four
minutes, f{uppefing them 4ii to termieate in the loweft point,
which touches’ the “horizontal: plane—ail is -performed—in
equal times.””_ This accounts for the tone of a ftring not
finking ‘or changing as the vibrations became more iecble.
Here too he.gives the ratia of vibrations; and afterwards

thehiltory of his difcovering ima church, from thetwing of
atamp, the laws of a pcndulumy, and'that all its ofcilations

were ifochronous. » This do¢ivinehe appiiedito the vibrations
of mufeal fringes. upon the aumbsr of which the gravity
and acutenets of fonnds more depend than on theiriength,
tenfion, or thicknels. It fsems as ¥ few difcoveries had been
made in the piNlofophy of found fince this. dialogue was
written. Galileo has demonftrated that if a ftring founding:
G, for example, be divided by a moveable bridge into half,
each half would ‘be an O@fave to the whole; if divided into
three parts, each would bea fifth to the octave; divided into
four parts, each would-be a fifteenth or double Gdtave to
the whole; if into five pavts, each would be a majer feven-
teenth (commonly called a tierce’ or faarp third) to the
fifteently or double o¢tave. : ;

Though thefe divifions are the fame as the ratics afcribed
to Pythagoras, and thofe of Euclid in the fe€tion” of the
canon; and thongn long before Galjleo’s time, the chorus of
a full organ bad beep coniiry&ed on the principle of the har-
monics toa fundamental ba,> tyere can be no doubt but
that this great philofopher fs... caught nature ia the fact of

y . producing

BAS

producing invifibly, and without human aid, the fweeteft
chord in the whole fy{tem of harmony.

Here all the phenomena are reprefented and explained, of
kindred {trings being caufed to tremble and found merely
by the tremors occafioned in the medium by the tone of a
neighbouring ftring or founding body.

Here too the theory of tuning ftrings, not only by
tenfion but by weights, is explained ; from which proportions,
doubtlefs, the lyrichord of Plenius was tuned by weights
inftead of tenfion, fome fifty years ago.

Having juttly reftored to Galileo the difcovery of the
harmonic proportions into which every fingle ftring and
founding body divides itfelf when caufed to found, it feems
unneceflary further to explain this phenomenon here. We
fhall therefore proceed to the fy{tem built on this foundation
by Rameau, under the title of Basse Fondamentale ; concern-
ing which, not only the author, but the French nation, have
gloried as much as if he had difcovered and conquered a
new world in the celeftial regions of harmony.

Basse Fondamentale, or Fundamental Bafe, was firk
formed into a fyftem by Rameau, and though the Italians
meant the fame thing by baflo principale, fo early as the
time of Zarlino, it was not fo clearly explained; nor were

Ina regular afcent or defcent of the feale in modern har-
mony, the rule foraccompanying the oftave (fee ReGLe De
L’Ocrave) allows only common chords to the key note
and the 5th of the key; which are confequently fundamental

By contrary motion, howéver, the principal bafe may
have, and often has had, common chords with good effect,
when afcending diatonically.

And if the feventh were added to many of thefe chords,
they would be {till more interefting, without divefling the
bafe of the title of fundamental.
=

4
—

Of all the experimenis that have beea made in phyfical
harmony, there has been no fatisfaétory origin found of

7

BAS

its derivation or derivatives, from a phyfical experiment, then
generally known in Italy.

The natural harmony or common chord te every bafe,
confilts of the third, fifth, andeighth above the bafe; or
their oGtaves, which the Germans call the triad: or rather
the unifon, or any given found, with its third and fifth, con-
ftitute their triad, without the oGtave. If inftead of the fun-
damental! or loweft found (which Rameau calls the gene-
rator) the bafe takes the third or fifth of that chord inftead
of the lower found or principal bafe, the harmony is faid to
be inverted ; and the jowelt part, carrying the chord of the
fixth, or ©, is called the {uppofed bafe, and fometimes the
baffo continuo. (See Suprosep Bafe, and Basso-Continuo. )
If any found is added to the common chord, except the
feventh, the bafe is no longer furdamental. :

The fundamental bafe fhould move by confonart intervals;
as 9d, 4th, 5th, or 6th: never rifing or falling one note or
degree with perfe&t and fimilar harmony to both; as it would
occaiion a violation of the rule againft 5ths and Sths in
fucceffion, and preclude all relation and conneétion of chord
to chord. Common chords may be given to the following
fundamental bafes in fucceffion.

bafes: the chords of the 6th and Sth are given to the ref.

Rameau (Traité de l’Harmonie, p. i190.) has made all
the following bafes fundamental, by accompanying them
with common chords.

minor modes, or keys with flat 3ds. From whatever grave
found the harmonies have been obferved to arifc, they are
all component parts of major chords, or keys with fharp 3ds.
In Rameau’s Génération harmonique, chap. xii. origine du
mode mineur, where we expected all would be cleared up,
we found his derivation of this mode more perplexed and
perplexing than any part of his book. Hetells us that we
are to find indications given by nature cf the minor mode
below the principal found, which ceufes the 12thand major
17th below it to vibrate though not to found. And M.
D’Alembert in the firft edition of his “ Elements”? feems
fatisfied with this folution. When, after telling us that the
12th and 17th major are produced by every found immedi-
ately after it has been heard in its totality; that is, the
tone of the whole ftring or founding body. That the 12th
and 17th arifing from this ftricg or principal found, are
called its harmonics, and form, when approximated for the
convenience of the hand, the common chord major or triad
of unifon 3d and 5th. But to acquire a natural origin of the
minor mode, if we tune the 12th and major 17th below any
found, below C for example, which will be an oétave below
the 5th and a double oétave below the inferior major 3d,
to C, we fhall find when C is ftruck, thee 12th and

pe, esa -
major 17th will vibrate but not found .
bS

But

produced by two trebles.

BAS

_this origin neither fatisfied theorifts nor practical muficians.
And in M. D’Alembert’s fecond edition of his ‘* Elements”
he changed his ground, and inflead of the chord minor of iy

-he adopted that of C: PSF in which G is an

harmonic of C as well as of Eb. But this folution of the
difficulty, fetched from far, and by no means fatisfaGory,
was changed in the article Fondamentale of the 7th volume
of the Encyclopedic, to ACE, without fucceeding in prov-
ing it to be the work of nature. :

The abbé Feytou, in the new Encycl. methodique, fays,
that Fis the fundamental bafe of A minor. But, though
among the harmonics of a fingle bafe note there is, at the
top of the chord, a found fomething refembling a 7th, it is
not a major 7th; nor can I’, or any grave found, produce a
major 7th. All the harmonics produced by F, are the fol-
Towing, ard in the following arithmetic order:

Top 2ee a ny li) at
The cwutemiay che (yy fs
1 g Ge i LY eto

A major 7th may be joined to the common chord of F

in practice, without taking from it the title of fundamental;
but it isnot one of its harmonics ; ego, F is not the funda-
mental bafe to A minor. Ner does nature give any irdica-
tion of a minor chord either in the harmonics, or 3d found
See Terza Suona.
* Base-Viow. This inftrument is now often confounded
with the violoncello, though not of the fame kind. In the
i7th century every mufical family had a cheft of viols; all
with fix flrings, and the finger-board fretted. "Uhe bafe-viol
was the largeft of thefe inftruments, and called in England
the fix-flringed bafe; but in Italy, viol da gamba, on ac-
count of its refting on the leg of the performer. The tenor
viol, the next in fize of that clafs, is called viol da braccia;
from its refling on the arm or fhoulder when played on.
The {malleft and higheft of thefe inflruments is called the
treble viol.

A complete cheft of viols contained eight inflruments; two
firft trebles, two fecond trebles, two’tenors, and two bafes ;
all flrang and tuned alike, by 4ths and 3ds, and the necks
fretted. he accordatura of the open ftrings is as follows.

- Treble Viol. 2 =:
i . aA RINE EPS = a

fg oll
— S = —— ——-O—

22.

Tenor Viol ;
tbr, Viol da Braccia.

Peek Viol;
or, Viel da Gamba

——=—s

oO

__ From the time of queen Elizabeth till that of Charles
iI. in all private concerts (we had none that were pub-
lic then) thefe, except the common flute, were the only
inflruments that were admitted into a gentleman’s houfe;
‘and indeed from the feeblenefs of the tone they may very
properly be called ftromenti da camera, chamber inftru-
ments. At firft, where voices coubd not be procured, the

feveral parts of full anthems, fervices, and other choral mu-.

Vou, IIT,

BAS

fic were adapted to viols. The firft mufic that was coms
pofed exprefsly for them was fantafias; the tafte for which
was brought from Italy previous:to fonatas and concertos.
The paffages given to thefe viols, at this time, difcover
no kind of knowledge of the expreflive power of the bow;
and even Orl. Gibbons, who compofed fo well for voices
in the church, feems very little {uperior to his cotempo-
raries in his productions tor inttruments. Indeed, his ma-
drigals of five parts, as well as thofe of many others, are
faid in the title page to be apt for viols and voices; a
proof that with us, as well as the ancient Greeks and
other nations, there was at firlt no mufic exprefsly come
pofed for inftruments ; confequently, the powers of thefe
inftruments muft have been circum{cribed; and when this
mufic was merely played, without the affitance of human
voices and of poetry, capable of no great effe&ls. ‘The
fubjects of Orlando Gibbons’ madrigals are fo fimple and
unmarked, that if they were now to be executed by in-
flruments alone, they would afford very little pleafure to
the greateft friends of his productions and thofe of the
fame period. At the time they were publifhed, however,
there was nothing better with which to compare them;
and the beft mufic which good cars can obtain, is always
delightful till better is produced, Air, accert, grace, and
expreflion, were now equally unknown to the compofer,
performer, and hearer; and whatever notes of one inflru-
ment were in harmony with ancther were welcome to the
player, provided he found himfelf honotred from time to
time with a fhare of the fubjeé&t, or principal melody ;
which happening more frequently in canons and fugues
than in any other fpecies of compofition, contributed to
keep them fo long in favour with performers of limited
powers, however tirefome they may have been to the
hearers when conftruéted on dull and barren themes. See
Fantrasta, Sonata, and Concerro.

Base, in Law.—Baje eflate is that eftate which bafe
tenants have in their lands.—Ba/e fee denotes a tenure in fee
at the will ef the lord; by which it ftands diftinguifhed
from focage, or free tenure. (Sce Fre. )-—Bafe court, is any
court not of record. Such, e. gr. is the court-baron.—Ba/z
tenure, baffa tenura, denotes holding by villenage, or other
cultomary fervice; as dillinguifhed from the higher tenures
in capite, “or the military fervice. :

Base rocket, refeda, in Botany. “See Resepa. :

Base Knights, bas chevaliers, denote the inferior order of
knights as diftinguifhed from barons and bannerets, who
were the chief or fuperior knights.

Bast Point, im Heraldry. See Point, and Escurcueon,,

Base Ring of a Cannon, is the great ring next behind the
touch-hole.

BASEDOW, Joun Berwarp, in Biography, was born
at Hamburgh in 1723; and though the early part of his
education was neglected by reafon of the feverity of his
father, which obliged him to abfcond, and to live almoft a
year as a domeftic with a land furveyor at Holftein, he af-
terwards returned to hig native place, and fuccefstully pur-
fued his fludies in the Gymnafium from the year 1741 to
1744, under profeflor Reimarus. Here his proficiency
was fuch, that he was enabled to fubfitt at the age of 16
years, independently of his parents. As it was his father’s
ambition to make his fon a clergyman, he went to Leipfie
in 1744. forthe purpofe of ftudying theology. Here he cons
tinued two years, and attended the leGtures of profeflor
Crufius. Thefe le€tures and the writings of Wolff, which.
he alfo perufed, unfettled his mind with refpe&t to many
doGrines which he had imbibed, and excited fome doubts
in his mind concerning the truth of the Chriftian revelation;:

5A but

BAS

but by further examination of this interefling controverfy,
he became a firm believer of the truth of the divine miffion
of Chrift, though he denied many of thofe dorines which
fome Chriltians deem to be effential articles of the Chriltian
faith. Ia 1749, he was appointed private tutor to the fon
of a gentleman in Holftein; in this fituation he had an op-
portunity of fubmitting to the teit of experience the plan of
an improved method of education, which he had for fome
time held in contemplation. The attempt fucceeded to his
wifhes ; and though his pupil was only feven years of age,
when he undertook the charge of him, he was able in the
{pace of three years not only to read Latin authors, but to
tranflate from the German into that language, and to {peak
and write it with a degree of fluency. He had alfo made
eonfiderable progrefs in the principles of religion and morals,
in hiftory, geography, and arithmetic. This fuccefs advanced
his reputation; fo that in 1752 he was admitted to the
degree of matter of arts at Kiel, and in the following year
he was chofen profeflor of moral philofophy and the belles
lettres in the academy at Soroe in Denmark. Here he pub-
lifhed feveral works, which were well received; particularly
his ‘* Practical Morality for all conditions,”’ containing hints
of his improved plan of fchool education. His leétures
on morality and religion were much freqnented; but as he
fpoke with freedom on fome points of theology that were
generally received, he was removed by the Danifh court to
the gymnafium at Altona, and allowed the talary which he
had enjoyed as profeflor. In the goth year of his age he
began, in oppofition to the advice and remonttrance of his
friends, to attack publicly many received tenets of the church,
and be publifhed his ‘* Philalethy,’? in which he fuggefts
doubts concerning the eternity of future punifhment; his
* Methodical Inftruétion in Natural and Revealed Religion,”
in which he avows his diffent from the common do¢trine
concerning Jefus Chrift, the Holy Ghoft, infpiration, bap-
tifm, the Lord’s fuppzr, &c.; his ‘* Theoretic Syitem of
Sound Reafon;’? and fome other works of a fimilar kind.
In confequence of thefe publications he was reprefented by
Gotze, Winkler, and Zimmermann, clergymen ef Hamburgh,
as holding opinions hoftile to revelation, as a man void of
principle, and as an enemy to religion. ‘The populace like-
wife were incenfed, and threatened to ftone him. He was
preferved, however, from becaming a victim to intolerance,
by the protection of count Bernitorf and fome other friends
at Copenhagen. In thefe circumftances he dire€ted his at-
tention to an improvement of the ufual method of fchool-
education; and for his encouragement in the profecution of
it, he was releafed by the Danith court from attendance at
the gymnafium of Altona, and allowed a penfion of 8c0
dollars. Having folicited and obtained confiderable fub-
fcriptions, he publifhed in 1769 the heads of his ‘* Elemen-
tary Book;” which he fubmitted to the infpeGion of many
re{peCtable and learned friends, by whom it was approved.
In 1771, the fum which he had colle@ed amounted to
15,000 rix-dollars; of which a thoufand had been contri-
buted by the emprefs of Ruflia, who read his plan and in-
vited him to Peterfourzh. Although he met with fome op-
pofition, he obtained very confiderable encouragement ; and
he was invited by the prince of Deflau, with the promife of
a penfion of 1100 rix-dollars, to eflablifh the fchool which
he had projected in his territories. Accordingly, he removed
to Deffau, which afterwards became the chief place of his
refidence. Having publifhed feveral detached parts of his
work, he determined in 0772 to continue it. In the fol-
lowing year he publifhed the principles of « Arithmetic and
the Mathematics,” and in 1774. his grand treatife in four
volumes, with Ico copper-plates, under the title of ‘* Ele-

BAS

mentary Work,” by way of diftin@ion from his Elemene
tary Book” which he had publithed in 1770. This publi-
cation was fayourably received, and was foon tranflated into
Latin and into French, As he had beftowed fix years? la-
bour on the completion of this work, his health declined 5
and in this tate he wrote his * Legacy for the Confcience,””
being a work on the principles of natural and revealed res
Jigion. The prince of Deffau, having permitted him to
ettablifh his fchool in any place which he found moft con-
venient, he travelled to Frankfort on the Mayne; and on
his 51{t birth-day, he determined to put his plan in execus
tion, and, on account of tts humane obje@, to give his fe-
minary the name of the * Philanthropinum.”” ‘ This {chook
was intended to be a feminary for rearing up young teachers
and profeffors, and a pattern for all the other ichools of
Germany. he children of wealthy pareits were to be
admitted for the fum of 250 rix-dollars per annum; all the
former errors in education were to be carefully guarded
againlt; and the children of poor people were to be educa-
ted in italfo, either to render them fit for becoming teachers
themfelves in f{chools of lower rank, or for being ufefuk
fervants in refpe€table families.” At Deflau, whither Bafe-
dow returned from Frankfort, on the 27th of December
17.74, the 6th birth-day of the hereditary prince of Deffan,
he opened his “ Phi‘anthropinum,” appointing Wolke as
head matter, and undertakmg the direction of it for fever
years, promifing to read le¢tures, and to give a few hours
inttruétion daily to the pupils without any emolument.
The plan, however, was not encouraged agreeably to Bafe-
dow’s expectations, and he therefore relinquifhed it. His
difappointment and other circumitances led him to feek re-

lief from drinking, by which he impaired his health and ine

jured his reputation. In the melancholy period that elapfed
trom 1778 to 1783, he employed himfelf in examining the
nature of pure Chriltianity; ana whatever may be thought

of his peculiar opinions with regard to fome of its doétnnes,.

he appears to have been a friend to truth, and a zealous ad-
vocate for religion and virtue. Jn 1785 he publifhed a plan
by which children might be more eafily taught to read, and
diftributed 500 copies of it in various {chools. His plan was.
introduced by himfelf in two fchools at Magdeburg, and it
fucceeded to his wifhes.. Having experienced great friend<
fhip at Magdeburg, he removed to this city towards the
clofe of his life, and died there in 1790 in the 67th year of
his age. Bafedow is reprefented by his biographers as a

man of acute judgment and penetration, and pofieffed of-

great fenfibility and a lively imagination. His works, which
relate chiefly to religious fubjects or to education, amount
to upwards of 50 different treatifts. Beytraga zur Labens
gefchichle, &c. or Biographical Anecdotes of Joh, Beruh,

Bafedow, taken from his own works, and from other authens:

tic fources, 8vo. sMagdeburg, 1791.

BASELECE in Geography, a town of Italy,.in the
kingdom of Naples and province of Capitanatay 7 miles-

S.S.W. of Volturara.

BASELS, Basexui, in our Old Writers, a kind of coin

abolifhed by king Henry II. 1158.

BASELLA, in Botany. Lin. gen. 382. Reich. 413.
Schreb. 520. Juff.84. Gzrtn.t. 126. Clafs and order,
pentandria trigynia. Nat. Order of Holoracce ; Atriplices Jufl.
Gen. Char. Calyx none. Cor. feven-cleft, pitcher-fhaped
two outer divifions broader, one within the reft, converging
above, flefhy at the bafe. Stam. hlaments five, tubulate,
equal, faftened to the corolla, and fhorter than it; anthers

roundifh. Pi. germ fuperior, fubglobular; ftyles three, —

filiform, of the length of the ftamens; ftigmas oblong,
on one fide of the tops of the ftyles. Per. corolla per=
manent,

>

;
e
H

¥

ey RI oe

eld

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manent, clofed, flefhy, counterfeiting a berry. Seed, fingle,
roundifh.

Eff. Char. Cal. none. Cor. feven-cleft; two oppofite
divilions fhorter, at length berried. Seed, one.

Species, 1. B. rudva, red Malabar night-fhade, cufeuta
Lin. hort. Ciiff. 39. Gandola rubra. Remph. Amb. t. 154.
f. 2. “ Leaves flat; peduncles fimple.’? It has thick,
ftrong, fucculent {talks and leaves, of a deep purple colour;
climbing to the height of eight or ten feet, and producins
miny fide-branches; in the bark-ftove living through the
winter, and producing great quantities of flowers and feeds.
The fruit is a fort of fpurious berry, of a very dark red
colour, a little flatted, furrowed crofs-wife at top, and con-
taining a fingle nut. A native of the Eaft Indies, Am-
boina, Japan, &c.; and cultivated, in 1739, by Miller.
From the berries a beautiful colour is drawn, but when ufed
for painting, it changes to a pale colour; the juice is faid to
be ufed for {taining callicoes in India. 2. B. alba, white

Malabar niht-fhade, Gandola alba, Rumph. Amb. Pluk.
Alm.t.63.f.1. Murafakki, Kempf. Amen. 784. The

ftalk fma ler, the leaves oblong and flaccid, and the flowers
and fruit fmaller thanin the foregoing. Miller raifed from
feeds, fent by Jufficu, two varieties; one with the purpleleaves
and flalks, the other having leaves variegated with white.
Cultivated by bifhhop Comptonin 1691. A native of China
and Amboina. 3. B. /ucida, fhining Malabar night-hhade ;
“leaves fubcordate ; peduncles crowded, branching.” A
nat v: of the Eaft Indies. 4. B. nigra, black Malabar night-
fhade; ‘leaves round-ovate; {pikes lateral.’”? Stem peren-
nial, twining, flender, round, fucculent, branched ; leaves
thick, fmooth, entire, alternate, petioled ; flowers purple and
white, lateral, few, in long, folitary fpikes. Calyx three,
roundifh, acu ninate, very {mall fcales ; corolla one-petalled,
with a fhort {welling tube, and a fix-cleft border ; germ four-
lobed ; ftyles fhorter than the ftamens ; berry roundifh, deep
black, {mall, four-lobed, with four blunt concave clefts at
top. Loureiro apprehends, that the berry is formed from
the germ, and not from the corolla. He thinks that this
plant is tre fame with the ** Gandola alba” of Rumphius;
but different from the B. a/ba of Linneus. Perhaps none of
thefe are {pecifically diftinét. A native of China and Cochin,
in the hedges and fences of their gardens.

Propagation. ‘Thefe plants are propagated by feeds, fown
on a hot-bed in the fpring, and p'anted, when fit to remove,
each ina {cparate pot, fiilcd with rich earth, and plunged in
a tan-bed, where they mult be treated like other exotics.
They may be alfo propagated by cuttings, which fhould be
Jaid to dry fora day or two after being feparated from the
plant, before they are planted, that the wound may heal;
otherwife they will rot. Thcefe fhould be treated in the fame
manner with the feedling plants. Thefe plants lower from
Jese to autumn, and the feeds ripen in September and
December. Martyn’s Miller’s Did.

BASELLI, Benner, in Biography, fon of Mark Bafelk,
phyficianof Bergamo, a town in the Venetian territories,

. itudied anatomy and medicine at Padua, affifted by Fabri-
eius ab aqua pendente, and other celebrated matters, under
whom he is faid to have made great proficiency in the
knowledge of his profeffion, Returning to Venice in 1594,
he was rcfufsd admifiion into the coliege of phyficians there,
on account of his praétifing furgery jointly with medicine.
Irritated by the injuftice, as he thought it, of the law by
which he was rejected, he publithed at Bergamo, in 1604, a
defence of furgery, under the title of ‘* Apologiz, qua pro
chirurgiz nobuitate ftrenue pugnatur, libri tres, gto. Eloy.
Did. Hik.

BASEMENT, in 4rchitedure. Stereobata. Stylobata.

BAS

Soubaffement, Fr. The lower part or flory of a buildin
when it isin the form of a pedeftal, with a bafe or plinth
die, and cornice or plat-band. '

In the Roman antiquities, the temples are generally raifed
on a bafement which has exactly the members and propér-
tions of a pedettal to the columns of the portico ; but in
modern architeétere, the bafement conftituting the lower
{tory of a habitation has ics proportions regulated by the
nature of the apartments which it contains. The Italian
palaces have frequently the femmer habitations on the bale-
ment, which in that cafe is often as high as the principal
{tory ; but when it only contains offices, it fometimes dors
not exceed one half of that height. Thefe proportions may
be confidered aa extremes, which it will not be proper to
exceed ; for the principal ftory lofes its importance when too
much elevated, while a very low bafement will not admit
any tolerabie porportions of windows and doors.

Pafements are commonly decorated with ruftics of vari-
ous kinds; they are crowned wtha cornice or vlat-band,
and fupported on a hafe or focle. The height of the
ruftics, including the joint, fhould never be lefs than one
module of the order of the principal ftory, neither fhonld
it much exceed this meafure ; the plat-band fhould be the
fame height, asa ruftic, and the focle or plinth rather more.
When the bafement is finifhed with a cornice, it fhould alfo
have a regular moulded bafe; the heigiit of the cornice may
be about one feventeenth of the whole bafement, and the
bafe about twice as much. Chamber’s Civil Archite&ture.
Defgodetz. edif. de Rome.

BASENTELLE, ia Geography, a town of Italy, in
Calabria, where the emperor Otho II. was vanquifhed and
made prifoner.

BASHARIANS, a fe& of Mahometans, being a branch
or fubdivifien of the Motazalites.

The Bafhavians are thofe who maintain the tenets of
Bafhar Ebn Motamer, a principal man emong the Motaza-
lites, who varied, in fome points, from the general tenets of
the {c&, as extending man’s free agency to a great length,
even to the making him independent. He afferted, that
God is not always obliged to do that which js belt; for
that, if he pleafed, he could make all men true believers.
Accordingly he taught, that God might doom an infant to
eternal punifhment ; but taught at the fame time, that he
would be unjuft in fo doing. Thefe feétaries alfo held
that if a man repent of a mortal fin and afterwards return ~
to it, he will be liable to fuffer the punifhment due to the
former tranfgreffion, Wide Sale’s Prelim. Difc. to the Ko-
ran, p. 162.

BASHAW, Pascua, or Pacua, a Turkifh governor
of a province, city, or otherdiltrié. The Arabs pronounce
it Bafhaw ; but the word is Turkifh, and properly Pafhaw,
denoting viceroy ; whence is derived Pacha. As fome of
the provinces of the ‘Turkifh empire are too extenfive for the
government of the Pacha, this cflicer has a variety of fub-
delegates ; but itis in reality the fultan who diétates and
commands, under the varied names of Pacha, Motfallam,
Kaiem-Makam, and Aga; noris there one in this defcend-
ing {cale, even to the loweit Delibafhe, who does not repre-
fent him,

All Egyptis, onthe part of the grand feignior, governed
by a bafhaw ; who hasin reality but little power, but feems
principally to be meant for the means of communicating to
his divan of deys, and to the divans of the feveral military
ogiacs (that is their bodies), the orders of the grand feigni-
or, and to fee that they be executed by the proper officers.

When Selim, fultan of the Ottomans, put a period to
the dynafty of the Mamlouks in 1517, he was fenfible that

5A2 if

BAS

if he eftablifhed a pacha in Egypt with the fame authority
which was poflefied by the pachas in other provinces, the
diftance from the capital would be a ftrong temptation to
revolt. -For preventing this inconvenience, he projected
fach a form of government, that the power being diltributed
among the diflerent members of the ftate, fhould ‘preferve
fuch an equilibrium as fhould keep them all dependent upon
himfelf. Theremnant of the Mamlouks who had efcaped
his firit maffacré, appeared proper for this purpofe ; and he
next eftablifhed a divan or council of rezency, compofed of
the pacha and the chicfs of the feven military corps. The
office of the pacha was, as we have cblerved, to notify to
this council] the orders of the Porte, to expedite the tribute
to Conttantinople, to watch over the fafety of the country
again{t foreign enemies, and to counteract the ambitious
views of the different parties. On the other hand, the mem-
bers of the council poffeffed the right of rejeGting the orders
of the pacha on affizning their reafons, and even of depofing
him; andit was neceflary that they fhould ratify all civil
or political ordinances. It was alfo agreed, that the 24
governors or beys of the provinces, fhould be chofen from
the Mamlonks. Thisform of government has not ill cor-
relponded with the views of Selim, fince it has fubfilted
about two centuries; but within the latt 50 years, the
porte having relaxed its vigilance, innovations have taken
place, and ‘the power of the Mamlouks has fuperleded
and aimott annihilated that of the Turks. In order to re-
itrain the paciias, the porte had fuffered the divan to extend
its power, till the chiefs of the Janizaries and Azabs were
left without controul. Hence Ibrahim, one of the Kiayas,
or veteran colonels of the Janizaries, about the year 1746,
rendered himfelf in reality mafter of Egypt; and the orders
of the fultan vanifhed before thofe of Ibrahim. About
the year 1766, Ali Bey (fee Ai Bey) rendered himfelf
abfolute matter of the country. Since ihe rovolution of
Ibrahim Kiaya, and the revolt of Ali Bey, the Ottoman
power has become more precarious in Egypt than in any
other province; fo that though the porte {till retains there
a pacha, this pacha, confined and watched in the cattle of
Cairo, is rather the prifoner of the Mamlouks than the
reprefentative of the fultan.. He is depofed, exiled, or ex-

elled:at pleafure ; and on the mere fummons of a herald
clothed in black, called «* Caracoulouk,’? he muft defcend
from his high ftation, or be depofed. Some pachas, chofen
exprefsly for that purpofe by the porte, have endeavoured
by fecret intrigues to recover the power formerly annexed
to their title; but the beys have rendered all fuch attempts fo
dangereus, that they now fubmit quietly to their three years’
captivity, and contine themfelves,to the peaceable enjoyment
of their falary-and emolument. :

After foltan Selim I. had taken Syria from the Mam’ouks,
he fobje€ted that province, like the reft of the empire, to the
government of pachas or viceroys, as the term fignifics. (See
Syria.) Ineach province the pacha, being the image of the
fulten, is, :ke him, an abfolute defpet. All power is united in
his perfon ; he ischief both of the military and of the Snances,
of the pclice ard of the criminal jultice. He has the power
of life and death: he has the power of making peace and
war; andina word, he can do every thing. Thefe powers
in their unlimited extent belong only to the pacha with three
tails. The power of the pacha with two tails 1snot fo confider=
able, nor his department fo extenive ; he cannot put any one
to death without a legal trial; heis, like anether, chief of
the armed force of his department; but when he takes the
field, he is obliged to unite, his ftandards to thofe of the
pacha with three tails, and to march under his orders. The
main object of fuch power veiled with the pacha, is to

BAS:

colle& the’ tribute and to tranfmit the revenue to theft

matter, This duty fulfilled, no other is required from him;
the means employed by the agent to accomplifh it is a mate
ter of noconcern: thofe means are left to his difcretion ;
and fuch is the nature of his fituation, that he cannot be
delicate in his choice of them; for he can neither adyance,
nor even maintain himf{clf, but in proportion as he can pro-
cure money. ‘The place he holds depends on the favour of
the viller, or fome other great cffizer ; and this can only be
obtained and fecured by bidding higher than his competi-
tors. He mnft therefore raife money to pay the tribute,
and alfo to indemnify himfelf for all he has paid, fupport his’
dignity, aud make a provilion in cafe of accidents. Ac-
cordingly, the firft care or a pacha, on entering on his go-
vernment, isto devife methods to procure money, and the
quickeft are invariably the beft. The eftablifed mode af
colleGtinz the miri and the cuitoms, is to appoint one or
more principal farmers, for the current year, who, in order
to facilitate the collection, divide it into leffer farms, which
are again fubdivided, even to the fmalleft villages. The pa-
cha ets thefe employments to the belt bidder, wifhing to
draw as much money from them as poffible. The farmers,
who, on their fide, have no cbjeét in taking them but gain,
{train every nerve to augment their receipt. Hence an avi-
dity in thefe delegates.always bordering on difhonefty ;
hence thofe extortions to which they are the more eafily in-
clined as they are fureof being fupported by aurhority ; and
hence, in the very heart of the people, a faction of men in-
terefted in multiplying impofitions. The pacha may appland
himfelf for penetrating into the moft hidden fources of pri-
vate profits, by the clear-fi:hted rapacity of his fubalterns ;
but what is the confequence? The people, denied the en-
joyment of the fruit of their labour, reltrain their indultry.
to the fupply of their neceflary, wants. The hufbandman
only fows to preferve himfcif trom itarving: the artift Ja-
bours only to fupport his family; if he -has any furpies, he
carefully conceals it. ‘hus the arbitrary power of the ful-
tan, tranfmitted to’ the pacha, and to all his fubdelegates,
by giving a free conrfe to extortion, becomes the main
{pring of atyranny which circulates through every clafs,
whilltits effects, by a recrprocal re-aétion, are every where
fatal to agriculture, the arts, commerce, population; in a
word, to every thing which conttitutes the power of the
ftate, or, which is the fame thing, the power of the fultan
himfelf.

This power is not fubje& to lefs abufes in the army. Per-
petually urged by the neceffity of obtaizing money, on
which his fafety and tranquility depend, the pacha has res
trenched, as far as poffisic, the ufual military eftablifhment.
He diminifhes the number of his troops, leflens their pay,
winks at their diforder ; and difcipline is no more.

It fometimes happens that the pachas, who are fultans in
their provinces, have perfonal hatreds againtt each other. To*
gratify thefe, they avail themfelves of their power, and
wage fecret or open war; the ruinous confequences of which
are fure to be felt by the fubjeéts of the fultan. * ies

It alfo happens that thefe pachas are tempted to appro=
priate to themfelves the power of which they are the depo-
fitaries. ‘The porte, in order to conntera& their ambitious
views, often changes the refidence of the pachas, that they
may not have time to form connedtions in the country ; but
as all the confequences of a bad form of government have
a milchievous tendency, the pachas, uncertain of to-morrow,
treat their provinces as mere tranfient pofleffions, and take
care to make no improvement for the benefit of their fuc-
ceffors. On the contrary, they haften to exhauft them of
the produce, and to reap in one day, if poflibley the fruit

8

of

ee -

BAS
of many yeafs, It is true, thefe irregularities, every now
and then, are punifhed by the bow-flring, one of the prac-
tices of the porte which belt difplays the {pirit of his govern-
ment. The oftentible reafon ia always for having opprefcd
the fubjeéts of the fultan; but the porte, by taking poffeflion

of the wealth of the extortioner, and reltoring nothing to

the people, leaves fufficient room to think that the go-
vernment is far from difapproving a fyltem of robbery and
plunder which it finds fo profitable. Every day, there-
fore, affords frefh examples of oppreffive and rebellious
pachas; and ifnone of them have hitherto fueceeded in form-
ing a fable and independent government, it is iefs owing to
thefe wife meafures of the divan, and the vigilance of the
Capidjis, than their own ignorance in the art of governing.
The pachas regard nothing but money; nor has repeated
experience been ablé to make them fenfible that this, fo far
from being the pledge of their fecurity, becomes the certain
caufe of their deftruétion. They are wholly devoted to
amafling wealth, as if friends were to be purchafed. As
the pacha poffefles the power of life and death, he exercifes
it without formality. and without appeal. Wherever he
meets with an offence, he orders’the criminal to be feized ;
and the executioner, by whom he is accompanied, ftrangles
him, or takes off his head upon the {pot ; nay, fometimes
he himfelf dees not difdain this office, This duty he fre-
quently commits to a deputy, called Wair. The admi-
niftration of jultice in civil fuits is the only {pecies of au-
thority which the fultans have withheld from the executive
.power of the pachas. ‘Uhe officers appointed for this pur-
pofe are, by a wile regulation, all independent of the pachas.
See Can.

To the governors of provinces were formerly given indif-
ferently the names of pacha and of beglerbeg, or beyler-bey:
the Jatter at this day is referved for the pachas of Manattir
and of Cutayé: they have the pre-eminence, over the other
pachas, and generally command the troops which are brought
into the ficld, The beyler-bey of Manaftir has under his
orders the Iuropean t:oops, and the beyler-bey of Cutayé
thofe of Afia. They are neverthelefs fubordinate tothe
grand vifier, when the latter takes the general command of
the armies. Formerly, the name bafhaw, or pacha, was
appropriated to fuch as had two enfigns or horfe-tatls carried
before them; thofe who had the honourof three tails, called
vifier-bafhaws, were denominated begler-begs; and thofe
who had only one, fanchiacbegs.

The appellation of bafhaw is alfo given by way of cour-
tefy atConftantinople, to the lords about the grand feignior’s
court, the officers in the army, and almoit every perfon of
any figure.

A bathaw is made with the folemnity of carrying a flag

or banner before him, accompanied with mufic and fongs by
the mirialem, an officer on purpofe for the inveftiture of
bafhaws.
. Bathaw, ufed abfolutely, denotes the prime vifier; the
reft of the denomination being diflinguifhed by the addition
of the province, city, or the like, which they have the
command of; as the bafhaw of Ezypt, of Paleftine, &c.
The bafhaws are the emperor’s fponzes. We find load
complaints among Chriltians of their avarice and extortions.
As they buy their governments, every thing is venal with
triem. Volney’s Travels into Egypt and Syria, vol. i. ch. ro.
vol. ti. ch. 33. Ollivier’s Travels in the Ottoman Empire,
th.17. Ruffeil’s Aleppo, vol. i. p. 135, &c. '

There are alfo fub-bafhaws, or deputy-governors under

the firft. Pail. Tranf. N° 218. 4
Basuaw, Captain, is the title of the Turkith high-admiral,
who commands the naval forces of the Ottoman empire,

BAS

and isat the head of all the maritime eflablihments. THe
ufually commands ia perfon the fleets and all the naval forces
of the empire ; he nominates to all places and employments 5
he orders the building and repairing of fhips; but the
“ Terfana-emini” is properly the naval minilter, fince he
has the adminiftration of the funds appropriated to the
navy, the, direction of fupply of ftores to the arfenal, the
care of the equipment of {hips, and the fuperintendence of
all the works. He has under him chiefs, deputies, and
diferent harbour-matlers, as well for the execution of his
orders and for private fuperintendence, as for the police.

BASHEE Isuanps, in Geography, a group of five
iflands fituated inthe Chinefe feas, north of the Philippine
iflands, and fouth of Formofa. They are faid to be fo
called by Dampier from the name of a liquor mace of
the juice of the fuzar-cane and a {mall black grain, and
ufed by the inhabitants. This name was given to the
molt ealterly of the group, and at length was applied to
them all, The produdtions of thefe iflands are plantains,
bananas, pine-apples, fugar-canes, potatoes, yams, and cot-
ton; their quadrupeds are goats and hogs. The people,
accordiny to Dampier, are kind and hofpitable. ‘Phe names,
of the iflands are Orange, Grafton, Monmouth, Ifle of
Goats, and Bafhee. This group is reprefentec in the
“ Mflionary Voyage,” p. 308. as confifting of fix ‘or
feven iflands; the nerthermoft of which lies in N. lat. 21°.
E. long. 122° 6’. The two to the fouth-eaft are highs
fome of the others are of moderate height; the mo north-
ern except one is high and craggy at top; and betwen
thefe two lie two. {mall rocks above water. Between thefe
iflands and thofe of Botol Tabaco-Xima, is a channelabout
16 miles wide.

Basnee, or Bachi, the mof eafterly ifland of the pre-
ceding group, appearing ofa circular form, and being cbout
2 leagues in diameter. It has a town of the fame name.
N. lat. 20° 45'. E. long. 1229 157.

BASHKIRS, or Bascueirs, a people of the Ruffian
empire. They call themfelves Bafhkourt ; and derive their
origin partly from the Nogay-tartars, and partly from the’
Bolgarians. Probably they are Nogays, whom the Bolzares
adopted among them: their country at leatl is a part of the
ancient Bolgaria, They formerly roamed about the fouthera
Siberia under the condu& of their own princes: to avoid the
moleftations of the Siberian khans, they fettled in their pre-
fent pofleflions, fpread themfelves about the rivers Volga and
Ural, and were {ubjeét to the Kazanian khanate. On the
overthrow of that ftate by tzar Ivan II. they voluntarily
took refuge under the Ruffian feeptre: they afterwards,
however, frequently revolted again{t the government, whereby’
their prefperity as well as their population have been con-
fiderably diminifhed. In the year 1770, they confilted of
tweniy-feven thoutand families, having their homettead in the
governments of Ufa and Perme. ‘Phe Bathkirs have been
long without khans; and all their nobility have been gradually
deftroyed in the civil wars. At prefent every tribe or wolcit
chufes for itfelf one or more ancients, or ftar{chinis; and the
whole nation compofes 34 wolofts. The huts or houles,
which they inhabit during winter, are ‘built after the Ruffian
fathion ; the principal part, which the family commonly poft-
{effes, is furnifhed with large benches, which ferve for beds;
the chimney, of a conical form, and of the height of an
ordinary man, isin the middle of this divifion, and fo ill con-
ftruGed, that they are very hable to {moke: cn this account
the Bafhkirs are very fubje€t to various complaints of the
eyes. Infummerthis people inhabit what the Ruffians calt
Jurtes; they are tents or covers of felt, which, like the huts,
have feveral divifions and achimney in the centre. A Lek

village.

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village contains from ten to fifty huts; but the fummer
encampment never exceeds twenty jurtes. Thefe jurtes area
kind of barracks.

The bathkirs have fome knowledge of the art of writing,
and have fchools; but as it is from th-ir own nation that
they ele& their priefts and the inftruGors of youth, they
remain in the profoundeft ignorance. With fome knowledge
of tillaze, they retain a liking to the pattoral life; which
{poils them for agriculture. They fow but little grain;
confequently their harvelts afford them only a few refources
forthe winter, being far from fufficient for their whole con-
fumption. They apply with greater fuccefs to the cultiva-
tion of bees; making hollows in the trees to f-rve the purpofes
of hives: which, to fecure from the attacks of the bears, they
have invented a variety of ingenious contrivances both as
weapons and traps. One man, in frequent inftances, is known
to poflefs at leaft five hundred hives. They have the art of
finding ont the mountains that contain mines; but, hke the
Tartars, they would think themfelves difgraced by working
them themfelves. It muft be owned, however, thet they
have not the ftrength of body which that labour requires.
Their pratice is to let them out for a term of fixty years to
Ruffian contractors, affigning to them at the fame time a
tra¢t of foreft neceflary forthe forges. The pooreft of them
ferve for wages in tranf{porting the ore.

The women underftand the art of weaving, fulling, and
dyeing narrow coarfe cloths; they lhkewife make the clothes
for the whole family. They make a fmall quantity cf linen
of hemp; but they prefer weaving the filaments of the com-
mon nettle, as that plant requires no culture, and the linen
they make of it is extremely coarfe. They have not the
unwholefome praétice of {teeping their hemp or their nettles
jn water, but leave them to dry in the air on the top of
their huts during the autumn and winter ; then {tripping off
the bark, they pound them in wooden mortars. The men
follow the more difficult bufinels of making felt and of
tanning leather. Both fexes wear fhirts of the cloth made
of nettles; they alfo wear wide drawers, which defcend to’
the ankle-bone, and a fort of flippers, like people in the
Eaft. Both men and women weara long gown, that of the
men being generally of red cloth bordered with fur; this
they bind round their middle with a girdle, or with the
belt to which they fix their {cymitar. The poor have a
winter peliffe of fheep fkin, and the rich wear a horfe {kin
in fucha manner that the mane covers their back and waves
in the wind. The cap is of cloth like the fruftum of a cone,
and 10 inches high; and that of the rich is ufually orna-
mented with valuable furs. The gown of the wives is made
of fine cloth or filk, buttoned before as high as the neck,
end faftened by a broad girdle, which the richer claffes have
made of fteel. Their necks and throats are covered with a
fort of fhawl, on which are feveral rows of coins, ora {tring of
fhells.

The principal wealth of this people confifts in their flocks;
it is efpecially from their horfes that they derive the necef-
fories of life; meat, milk, veffels, garments. ‘They have
nearly as many and even rather more fheep than horfes ; and
their horned cattle are about half as numerous; they hke-
wife bring up fome goats, and only the rich have camels.
A man of the ordinary clafs has feldom fewer than between
thitty and fifty horfes, many poflefs five hundred, and fome a
thoufand, two thoufand, and mere. Their fheep are of the
broad-tailed fpecies; they efteem the others for the finenefs of
their wool.

The moft opulent of the Bafhkirs are thofe who dwell to
the eaft of the Ural, and in the prevince of Iffet. Some
of them are owners of not lefs than four thoufand horfes,

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who fatten in the richeft paftures: the wafps and gnats
oblige them in the month of June to quit thefe fine mea-
dows, and retreat to the mountains; the horfes then lofe
their fleth and pine away, but regain their priftine vigour on
coming dowa again to the plains in the month of July.

Though the Bahhkirs exserience a lonz and very fevere
winter, yet they abandon their flocks and droves to the
inclemencies of the feafon. They havencither granaries nor
barns; they only lay upa hittie bay, which they range in
cocks round the trees, referving it for the diftempered cattle.
Tnofe that are healthy pick up a littie grafs or mofs from
beneath the fnow, and are often reduced to the neceflity of
feeding onthe bark of the young eims. No farther atten
tion is paid to the camels, then to wrap them in fome
wretched coverings of felt which they tew about their
body. The cattle towards the end of the winter are become
lean, weak, and emaciated. ‘Though the females are never
kept apart from the males, they rarely bring forth out of
feafon ; becaufe the exhaufted fate of the flocks and herds
during the winter, is unfavourable to generation. Neither
the Bafhkirs nor the Kalruks {uffer the colts and the calves
to fuck their dams except during the night, their praétice
being to milk them in the day-time for their own advantage;
kumifs, prepared from mare’s milk, being their favourite
liquor. (See Kumiss.) Theyare alfo fond of a mixture
of four mi!k and mead, called Aryan. In the fpring they
drink the fap of the birch, which they colleét by means of
deep incifions in the trees.

Their arms are the bow, the lance, the helmet, and coat
of mail; from the Ruffians they cbtain fabers, mufquets,
and piftols. A Bahkirian army prefents a truly curious
fpeétacle; obferving no order in marching, they only form
into ranks when they halt. Tvery one leads a horfe in his
hand, which carries all his provifions: the load however is not
heavy; confifting only of cheefe, fome cora dried in the kiln,
and a hand-mill to grind it to meal. With the meal they
form a ball which they fwallow, and which ferves them for
bread. Each warrior, dreffed in his long gown, equips him-
felf as he chufes or ashe can. One has procured tor himfelf
the various kinds of arms, and carries a whole arfenal with
him; the other fcarcely poffeffes more than one ill-condi-
tioned weapon. Such troops as thefe rendered the armies
of the ancient Perfians at once fo numerous and fo little for-
midable.

They are all well mounted, are fkilful in drawing the
bow, and dexteroufly manage their horfes. A {mall number
of Bafhkirs are eafily vitorious over a numerous {quadron of
Kirghifes; fometimes one of their regiments will traverfe a
whole horde of Kirghifes, put to flight by their very looks
all the enemies they meet, and return triumphant without
having fuftained the flighteft lofs. The military fervice
which they are bound co perform, and the only point in which
they are galled by the Ruffian yoke, confiitsin furnifhing, in
time of war, 3000 cavalry, which fform 30 troops of 109
men each. The Bafhkirians are the moft negligent and
flovenly of the Tartars. In commerce they are the leaft
intellizent ; but, at the fame time, they are the moft hof.
pitadle, the mot lively, and the moft brave. ‘Their diverfions
at any religions feitival. or at a marriage, confiftin numerous
libations of four milk, finging, dancing, wreftiing, and horfe-
racing, in which they excel. In their fongs they enumerate
the atchievments of their anceftors, or their own, and fome~
times their amorous adventures. Their fongs are always
accompanied with geltures, which render them very the-
atrical. Among them old age meets with the -greatelt
refpeét. In their entertainments, it occupies the place of
honour; and the flranger, to whom compliments are paid,

3 is

nn al

ey a a+,

BAS

is always {et among the old mens The language of thefe
people is a Tartar disle€t, very different from that fpoken
at Kafan. ‘The Bathkirians are, like molt of the Tartars,
Mahometans; bit though they have their mofques, their
molaks, and their fchools they are much addiéted to fu-
peritition and foreery. ‘Their forcerers challenge even the
devil, and pretend to engage with him in combat; and
thus they delude the credulous vulgar, who confult them in
their diltrefs, and particularly when they lofe any of their
mares. Tooke’s View of Ruffia, vol.i. p. 473. Chantreau’s
Travels, vol. i. p. 281.

BASHUI, or Bascatt, in Geography, a {mall town ona
brook of the fame name, at the diitance of 4 German miles
from the Cafpian fea.

BASHUYSEN, Henry James Van, in Biography, a
Tearned divine, was born at Hanau, in Germany, in 1079,
and-educated at Bremer, Leyden, and Franeker. In 1701,
he was appointed proteffor of the oriental languages and ec-
clefialtical hiftory in the gymnafium of Hanau, afterwards
profeffor of theology ; and in 1712, he was elected member
of the Royal Society of Berlin. He was afterwards pro-
feffor of theology, the oriental languages, and hittory, in
the gymnaijum at Zerbft, where he died in 1758. About
the year 1709, he eltablifhed in his own houte a printing-
office, in which he printed many Hebrew and Rabbinical
works. Among his writings are ‘© Obferv. Sacr. lib. i. de
integritate Sac. Seript.”” Frankf. 1708, 8vo; ‘* Comment.
R. If Abarban. im penratenchum Mofis, &c.”? Hanoy. 1710,
fol. *« Difput. iit. de Kabbala vera & falfa,”? Hanov. 1710,
B7IT, 1712, 1713, 4to; ‘¢ Syftema Antiq. Hebr. minus,”
Hanov. 1715, 8vo.; “ Milcellanca Sacra, &c.’? Witteb.
1709, Ato.; ‘* Diff. de Ifide, &c.”’ Serv. 1419. 4to.;
* Clavis Talmudica, &c.’? Hanau, 1740, 4to. Gen. Biog.

BASIA Uttima. See Uttima.

BASIATRAHAGI, in Botany, a name ufed by fome
for the common folygonum, or knot-grals.

BASIENTO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which
rifes near Potenza, in the province of Bafilicata, traverfes
this province, and runs into the gulf of Tarento. his is
the ancient Mctapontus, or Cafuentum, on which OGavius
Cefar and Mark Antony had an interview, brought about
by the mediation of Oavia.

BASIL, Sr., denominated the Great, in Biography, was
born in Cappadocia, in the year 328 or 329. Having re-
eeived inftruétions from his father in polite literature, he pur-
fued his ftudies at Antioch under Libanius, at Czefarea in
Palctline, at Confantinople, and at Athens; in which lat-
ter place he formed an int'mate acquaintance with Gregory
Nazianzen, and was introduced to Julian, afterwards empe-
ror. In 355, he returned to his native country, and became
a profeflor of rhetoric, and a pleader. His religious zeal,
however, foon induced him to vifit the monafkeries in the
deferts of Egypt and Lybia; and here his imagination was
fo impreffed with the auiterities of the devout folitaries in
thefe fequeftered manfions, that he withdrew to a retired
fpot in the province of Pontus, and embraced the monattic
life.. He was foan joined by his brother and feveral friends,
to whom he gave a fet of afcetic rules; and he is regarded
as the founder of all fimilar inftitutions in Pontus and Cap-
padocia. His monaftic life continued, but not without fome
interruption by other avocations, for twelve years. Having
been ordained prieft by Eufebius bithop of Cefarea, he again
w thdrew to his folitude ; but as his tame increafed, he was
elected to thisfee on the death of Eufebius in 369, 370, or

371. Herehe fucceeded Athanafius in the conduct of the Tri.

nitarian controverfy. Many attempts were made by the em-
peror Valens, who was an Arian, partly by friendly folicita-
tions, and partly by angry menaces, to induce him to com:

BAS

municate with Eudoxus, the Arian bifhop of Conflantinople;
but altogether without effect. Balil, however, remaining
firm and inflexible, was left in the free poffeffion of his con«
feience and histhrone. The emperor him(elf affitted at the
folemn fervice of the cathedral, and fubfcribed the donation
of a valuable ellate for the ufe of an hofpital which Bafit
had lately founded in the neighbourhood of Crfarsa. ‘The
bifhop employed himfelf with much affiduity in endeavours
ing to reconcile the eaftern and weltern churches, which had
differed on account of the two rival bifhops of Antioch ;
and he alfo-attempted to terminate the dilputes between the
two churches re{pecting the hypoftafes : but his endeavours
were unavailing, Tle was likewife engaged in difputes
more perfonally interefling to himfelf; for the emperor hay-
ing divided his province of Cappadocia into two parts, An
thimus bifhop of Tyana, the metropolitan of the new moi
ety, attempted to enlarge his limits. Bafil rcfifted this ufurp-
ation; and, ere@ting the 4ittle border town of Safima into
a bifhopric, with a view of feenring his boundaries, he ap-
pointed his friend Gregory Nazianzen to this fee. Gregory
fubmitted with relu¢tance to this humiliating exile, and em-
braced the firit opportunity that offered of withdrawing
from it to the government of his native church of Nazian-
zus, of which his father had been bifhop above 45 years.
After fome other theological contentions, Bafil clofed his
life in 378, or 379, or 380, after having been bifhop
fomewhat more than eight years. ‘The talents and accom-
plifhments of this prelate have been highly extolled ; and,
allowing for fome alloy of {pirttual pride, not without jnf-
tice. Few of the fathers occupied a higher rank.. His
ftyle is pure, elegant, and dignified; fo that Erafmus makes
no {crup!e in equalling or even preferring his eloquence to
that of Demolthenes, and the moft celebrated orators of
ancient Greece. His erudition was extenfive; his reafonings
more clofe ard forcible, and his illuftrations of fcripture
more natural than thofe of many of the fathers. Many
writings have been alcribed to Bafil without fufficient reas’
fon; and, therefore, many learned moderns, among whom
we may reckon Cave, Fabricius, Tillemont, Dupin, and
efpecial'y Garnier, have taken laudable pains in diltingwith-
ing the {purious from the genuine. Of the various editions
of his works that have been publifhed, the firft- in Greek
was that of Frobenius at Buifii in 1532, under the infpec-
tion of Erafmus; and the beft modern edition of all his
works, confilting of ** Homilies, Epiftles, Commentaries,
and Moral T’reatifes,”’ is that of the learned Benedictines,
D. Garnier and D. Prudent Morand, at Paris, 3 vols. folio,
from 1721 to 1730, with a Greek text: this edition con-
tains a faithful and elegant Latin verfion, and valuable notes.
The © Life of St. Bafil’ was written at largeby M. Hermant,
in 2 vois. 4to. 1674. Cave, H.L. vol. i. p' 238, &c. Du-
pin. Bib. t. i. p. 154, &c. Dupin! Eccl. Hitt. voi. i. p.122,
&e. Fabr. Bib. Gree. t. viii. p. 60. 69. Lardner’s Works, -
vol. iv. p. 400. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. iv. p. 269. vol. ve p19.
Basix, bifhop of Ancyra, was placed in that fee, in 339,
by the council of Conftantinople which depofed Marce!lus,
and he himfelf was depofed at the council of Sardica in 347,
though by the favour of the emperor he retained his fce.'
In 351, he was prefent at the council of Sirmium, «nd had
a diipute with Photinus. Epiphanius reckons him among
the chief of the Semi-Arians. who held the Son to be of
like fubftance to the Father; Sozomen fays he was in elteem
for eloquence and learning ; and Theodorct obferves, that
he wasin great favou: with the emperor Conftantine for his
piety. His pecu tar opinton with regard to the identity of
the fubftance of the Father andthe Scn was, by his influence,
eftablithed in the council of Ancyra held A. D. 358; and:
he maintained it-in feveral diiputes with the Eudoxians and
Acaciansy

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Acacians, in the prefence of Confantius. However, the
A.cacians prevailed againit him in the council of Conftanti-
nople, A. D. 360, and procured his depofition; neverthelefs
he kept poffeffion of his fee, and was acknowledged as bi-
fhop by the orthodox prelates. Bafil is fuppof2d to have
@ied. either at the end of Jovian’s reign, or the beginning
of that of Valens. Cave, Hift. tom.i. p. 210. Lardner’s
Works, vol. iv. p. 125.

Bast, in Botany. See Qcymum.

Bast, Field. See Cuixopopium.

Basti, American Field. See Monarpa.

Basiz, Syrian Field. See Ziziruora.

Basi, Stone, and Wild. See Tuymus.

Basit, Order of St., in Ecclefiafiical Hiflory, is the mot
ancient of all the religious orders. ‘It takes its name from
St. Bafil, bifhop of Czfarea, in Cappadocia, about the mid-
dle of the fourth century ; who is fuppofed to have been
the author of the rules obferved by this order, thougt
Jome difpute it. The order of St. Bafil was ancient!y very
famous in the Eait, and {till continues in Greece. The ha-
bit of the monks is black, and plain, confifing of a long
caflock, and a great gown with large fleeves ; on their head,
they wear a hood, which reaches to the fhoulders; they
wear no linen ; fleep without fheets, on flraw; eat no fizth;
faft often; and till the ground with their own hands. The
hiftorians of this order inform us, that it has produced 1805
bifhops, and beatified, or acknowledged as faints, 3010 ab-
hots, 11,805 martyrs, and an infinite number of confeflors
and virgins. They likewife place among the religious of
this order of St. Bafilr4 popes, feveral cardinals, and many
pairiarchs, archbifhops, and bifhops. It likewife boaits of
deveral emperors and empreffes, kisgs and queens, princes
znd princefles, who have émbraced the rule of St. Bafil.

This order was introduced in theWelt in 1057, and wa
reformed in 1579 by pope Gregory XIII. who united the
relizious of this order in Italy, Spain, and Sicily, into one
congregation ; of which the monaitery of St. Saviour, at
Meffina, is the chief, and enjoys pre-eminence over the
reft. Each community has its particular rule, befides the
rele of St. Bafil ; which is very general, and prefcribes little
more than the common duties of a Chriftian life.

Basit, Baflz, or Bale, in Geography, one of the new
cantons of Swiflerland, which jomed the Helvetic confede-
racy inisor. It is hounded on the fouth-weit and fouth
by the canton of Soleure, on the eait by Lower Argow and
the canton of Baden, on the north-eait by the territory of
Rheinfelden, one of the foreft towns, and on the north-
sv:it by Alface, and on the welt by the bifhopric of Bafle.
Its extent is about 160 fquare miles, and its population is
eftimated at 40,000 perfons. The lower parts of this can-
ton are fertile in corn and wine, and alfo &t for pafure; but
the mountains are extremely barren. It has many medicinal
fprings and baths, and the air is temperate and falubricus.
‘The religion of this canton is the reformed, or Proteftant.
As toits ancient government, the bifhops of Bafle once pof-
fefled the fovereigaty over the city and easton; but when
they quitted this town in 1501, and retired, firft to Friburg
in Brifgau, and afterwards eftabliflied their refidence at Po-
rentru, they loft the inconfiderable authority and few prero-
gatives that belonged to them. Upon the introduction of
the reformation in 1525, the conftitution was in fome mea-
fure changed, and the power of the ariftocracy limited.
Before the late revolution, the government was ariflocratic,
inclining towards-a democracy. The. fupreme legiflative
power refided in the great and little councils, contilting of
about 300 members, and the authority of thefe two councils
was without controul; they enacted laws, declared war and

BAS
peace, contracted alliances, and impofed taxcs; they ele&ted-
the feveral magiftrates, appointed their own members, nomi-

nated to all employments, and conferred the right of burgh= —

erfhip. The general adminiftration of government was com-
mitted, by the great council, to the fenate or little council ;
that is, to a part of its own body. This fenate, compofed
of fixty members, together with the four chiefs of the re-
public, two burgemallers, and two great tribunes, was di-
vided into two bodies, which aéted by rotation; the adting
divifion continued in cfice one year, decided finally in ai
criminal caufes, fuperiatended the police, and exercifed fe-
veral other powers fubordinate to the fovereign council.
The collective body of citizens affembled only once a year,
when the magifirates publicly took an oath to maintain the
conftitution, and to preferve the liberties and immunities of
the people inviolate. The reciprocal osth of obedience ‘to
the laws was adminilt-red to the citizers in their refpeive
tribes. But, notwit! ftinding the bourdicfs prerogatives of
the great council, the meaneft citizen was legally capable ef
being admitted into that body, and, by the finguler method
of cleGion, might pofflibly be chofen ; fer the vacancies in
the two counciis were fupplied from ail ranks of cttizens,
the members cf the univerfity only excepted. Thefe citizens
were Civided into cizhteen tribes, GSfteen of which belonged
to the larger towns, and three to rhe f{maller; each of the
fifteen tribes returned four members to the fenate, and each
of the eighteen {cnt twelve to the great council. © As thefe
cleGlions were formerly determined by a plurality of voices,
the richeft perfon was.always almoft certain of bemg ckofen;
to prevent which, a regulation, calied a “ ternaire,”? was
eftablifhed ; that is, three candidates were nominated, and
from thefe the fucceflor was appoizted by lot. In 1740,
an act was paffed, by which the “ ternaire” was changed
into a * fenaire,”” by which fix candidates were put in no-
mination, and drew lots for the charge; fix tickets, con-
taining the names of the refpeStive candidates, and feparately
placed in filver eggs, were put into one bag, and the fame
number of tickets, five being blanks, and one marked with
the vacant employment, were put into another bag: the
reigning burgomatter and the great tribune, appointed to
be the drawers of this official lottery, both at the fame in-
flant took a ticket from each bag, and the candidate whofe
name came out with the ticket on which the employment
was written, cbrained the poft.—But it is now needlefs to
purfue the detail. In 1798, the Helvetic confederacy was
diffolved by the invading power of France, and, according
to the diftribution of that year, Bafle was conftituted one
of the eighteen departments into which Swifferland was di-
vided: but according to the conftitution of r8or, ‘Bafle
was made one of the departments, with the addition of the
lower part of the Frickthal to Seckingen, with the right of
deputing three reprefentatives to the diet. ,

Bafle was the firft canton which feparated from thé old
Helvetic confederacy, and adopted the new conftitution fa-
bricated in France. Its fituation near the frontiers, expofed
it to the intrigues of the French agents, and without foreign
fupport, rendered it incapable of refiftance. The peafants of
the canton were likewife diffatisfied with the monopoly of
power and commerce vefted in the burghers of the town.
Encouraged by the French, and excited by their own tur—
bulent demagozues, they peremptorily required emancipation
and independence. ‘The progrefs of the revolution in this
canton was almoft inftantaneous; the magiltrates were inca-"
pable of refiflance, and cbliged to refign their authority 5
and fixty delegates appointed by the people, were inyefted”
with a provifional government, until the new conftirution
fhould be cenfolidated. Coxe’s Travels in Switzerland,

: * wol,

—_— ee

een

BAS

vol. i. What other changes await the Swifs cantons, time
mult develope. See SwisseRLAND.

Basit, or Basve, the capital of the canton of the fame
name, is the largeft, and feems formerly to have been one of
the moft populous towns in Swiflerland, Its extent 1s capable
of containing above 100,000 inhabitants, and it is {aid to have
220 ftreets, and fix market-places or fquares ; whereas it
can now fcarcely number more than 14,000. Among the
caufes which have contributed to its decreafe, Mr. Coxe
mentions the jealoufy of the citizens with regard to the
burgherhiip, which they feldom deign to confer upon fo-
reigners ; aud, on this account, no fupply can be obtained
to balance that gradual wafte of people which takes place
in great cities, from an influx of ftrangers, who are not per-
mitted to carry on commerce, or to follow any trades. The
late law that allows the frecdom of the town and the right
of burgherfhip to be conferred upon ftrangers, is clogyed
with fo many re‘triétions, that it by no means anfwers the
purpofe for which it was intended.

Balle is beautifully firmated on the banks of the Rhine,
mear the point where the river, which is here broad,
deep, and rapid, after flowing for fome way from ealt
to weft, turns fuddenly to the north. It contitts of two
towns, joined together by a long. bridge; the large
town lying on the fide of Swifferland, and the finall
town on the oppofite bank of the river. Its environs are
very beautiful, confifting of a fine Ievel traét of fields and
meadows. It was anciently called Balilea, as we learn from
Ammianus Marcellinus; and in the middle ages, Bafula:
and it appears in hiltory, foon after the reign of .Chaile-
magne ; having fucceeded Aucst, or the Augufta Raura-
corum. Bafle is very favourably fituated for commerce 5
and of this advantage the inhabitants have availed them-
felves, by eftablifhing a great variety of manufactures, par-
ticularly of ribbands and cottons; and by the extenfive
trade that is carried on by the principal merchants. The
cathedral is an elegant Gothic building, and contains: the
marble tomb of the famous Erafmus, who chofe this city as
his favourite place of refidence, and publifhed from hence
the greateft part of his valuable works. Bafle has, befides
the cathedral, fix parochial churches, and feveral other pub-
lic buildmgs; fuch as a public granary and an arfenal, a
town-houfe, and a flately palace belovging to the margrave
of Baden Dourlach, a chamber of curiofities, feveral hofpi-
tals, &c. Inthe town-houfe is an exquifite piece of the
fifferings of Chrift, by Holbein, who was a native of this
place; and a ftatue of Munatius Plancus, the Roman gene-
ral, who founded Augufta Rauracorum. In the arfenal
is fhewn the armour in which Charles the Bald loft his life,
with the furniture of his horfe, and the kettle drums ard
trumpets of his army. On the itair-cafe of the council-
houfe is a picture of the Jaft judgment, in which, though
painted before the reformation, popes, cardinals, monks, and
pricils, are reprefented in the torments of hell. Upona
wall that inclofes the burial-orcund of the church of the Pro-
tcitants in the fuburbs of St. John, is painted, in oil colours,
the ‘* dance of death,”’ crroncoufly attributed to Holbein, as
it was painted before he was born, in which the king of terrors
is reprefented as mixing with all ranks and ages, and compli-
menting them in German verfes on their arrival at the grave.
From this ancient painting, it is thought, that Holbein
took the firft hint towards compofing his famous drawings on
the ‘dance of death.’? Prints were taken from fome of
thefe drawings by Hollar, which are now very fcarce. The
univerfity of Bafle, founded by pope Pius II. in 1459, or
1460, was formerly eminent in the literary hiltory of Eu-
rope. It was honoured by the celebrated names of Oecolam-
pedius, Amerbach, the three Bauhins, Grynzus, Buxtorf,

r

Vor. Ill.

BAS
Wetfein, Tfelin, the Bernounillis, and Euler; and it ftill

boafts of feveral members who are ornaments to their native
town by their learning and talents. The public lthrary con+
tains a {mall collection of books, remarkable for {-veral rare
and valuable editions, particularly of thofe printed in the
15th century. Befides books, this library contains fome
valuable MSS. In a fuite of rooms belonging to it, are a
cabinet of -petrifactions, fome ancient medals and gems, a
few antiquities found at s\ug{t, a large number of printsy
and fome fine drawings and paintings, confifting chiefly of
originals by Holbein, moft of which are in the highelt pre-
fervation. Bafle is famous for the excellence of its police,
and the ftri€tnefs of its fumpcuary laws. Although the ufe
of coaches is not prohibited, yet no citizen or inhabitant is
allowed to have a fervant behind his carriage. No perfon,
it is faid, without the city, muft wear lace of gold or filver;
and all young women are prohibited from wearing filks.
By fuch regulations, a diftinguifhing fimplicity of manners
prevails even in the richeft families. It was formerly a fin-
gularity belonging to this town, that all its clocks were an
hour fafter than the real time, which, according to fome,
was introduced during the council of Bafle, in order to fum-
mon the cardinals and bifhops in due feafon for the difpatck
of bufinels: others fay, that they were put forward, ia
order to defeat a confpiracy, by one of the burgomatters,
who had notice of the defign ; by which the conf{pirators,
thinking that they had mifled the time and were too late,
were induced to retire; others fay, that the fun-dial on the
cathedral, which regulates the clocks, declines fomewhat
from the eaft, and this circumftance, according to Bernouilli,
occafions a variation from the true time of about 45 minutes.
‘The inhabitants have long tenactovfly maintained this an-
cient cuftom, and refifted every change ; till in the late new
order of things, a revolutionary change has taken place with
regard to tne clocks 2s well as the government, and they
have been altered to the true time. Bafle was formerly the
{ee of a bifhop ; but though there is one that now bears the
title, he lives at Porentru near Alface, and has no jurifdic-
tion in this city.

The famous council of Bafle began its fittings in
1431, continued its deliberations, and proceeded in en-~
acting laws and publifhing ediés, until the year 1443,
notwithftanding the efforts of pope Eugenius, who had
been depofed from the papacy of the council in 1439,
and his adherents, to put a ftop to their proceedings.
And though in that year the members of the council retired
to their refpeétive places of abode, yet they declared pub-
licly that the council was not diflolved, but would refume its
deliberations at Bafle, Lyons, cr Laufanne, as foon as a
proper opportunity occurred, Accordingly, in the year
1449, when [Telix V. refigned the papal chair, the fathers
of the council of Bafle affembled at Laulanne, ratified his
voluntary abdication, and, by a folemn decree, ordered the
univerfal church to fubmit to the jurifdiGtion of Nicholas as
their lawful pontiff. Nicholas fet the feal of his approba-
tion and authority to the aéts and decrees of the council of
Bafle. The two grand points that were propofed to the
deliberation of the famous council of Bafle, were the union
of the Greek and Latin’churches, and the reformation of
the church univerfal, both in its head and in its members,
according to the refolution that had been taken at the coun-
cil of Conftance. In 4435, this council publicly abolifned
the ‘“‘annats;” and in 1436, a confeffion of faith was read,
which every pontiff was to fubfcribe on the day of his elec-
tion ; the number of cardinals was reduced to tiventy-four 5
and the papal impofitions called ‘ expetatives,”? * refer-
vations;’? and ‘ provifions,’? were annulled. Mofh. Eccl.
Hilt. vol. iil. p.420, &c. N. lat. 47°35’. E. long.7°29/30".

5B Basix,

BAS

Basix, or Baste, Bifhopric’ of, a principality of Ger-
many, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, may be claffed
under two geheral divifions: the firft liés to the fouth of
Pierre Pertuis, and forms a part of Swifferland; the fecond,
to the north of the fame boundary, includes that dift riét
which is properly Situated within the German empire. The
fovereign, that is, the bifhop of Bafle, or, as he is called by
the Proteftants, the prince of Porentru, whofe principal re-
fidence is Porentru, the capital of his dominions, was for-
merly chofen by the chapter of eighteen cantons, refident
at Arlefheim, and confirmed by the pope. He was a prince
of the German empire, and did homage to the emperor for
that part of kis territory which lies in the circle of the
Upper Rhine. He was always confidered as an ally of the
Swifs, By his union with the Catholic cantons, firft formed
in 1579, and renewed at different intervals, particelarly in
1671 and 1697, and by being included in the treaty which
thofe cantons contraéted with France in 1715: but as he was
not comprized among the allits of the Swils, in the league
between the thirteen cantons and Louis the XV1th, in
1777, he was not deemed a member of the Helvetic con-
federacy. The firft particular alliance with France was
concluded in 1739, between the bifhop and Louis the XVth,
and was renewed im 1780. "Fhe population of that part of
the bifhopric of Bafle that was allied to the cantons amounted
to 24,000. -The form of government was a limited fove-
reignty, the bilhop being bound, on all important occafions,
to corfult his chapter ; and his prerogative being confined,
by the great immunities enjoyed by his fubje&ts in general,
and particularly by thofe of the reformed communion. He
nominated to all employments’ both civil and military,
and appointed the bailiffs or governors ; criminal juftice
was adminiftered in his name, and he had the power of par-
doning. In civil proceedings, he received an appeal from
the inferior courts ; but in his German dominions, when the
caule exceeded the valne of a ttipulated fum, it might be
carried to the chambers of Wetzlar cr Vienna. The fub-
jects of the bifhop are partly Protettants and pattly Catho-
lics: the Proteflants inhabit the greater part of the valley
of Munfter, and the whole diftri& to the fouth of Pierre
Pertuis, and are about 15,0c0; the Catholics amount to
35,000. ‘The French and German langueges are both
fpoken in the bifhop’s dominions. The whole bifhopric of
Balle is now annexed to France. - In 1792, their troops
over-ran the conntry of Porentru on the German part, under
the pretence of delivering the natives from flavery, and took

offeffion of the famous pafs of Pierre Pertnis. This dif-
tri& was ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio,
and is formed into the department of Mont Terrible. «Iu
1798, the Helvetic part of the territory was taken poffef-
fion of, in the tame of the republic, by general St. Cyr,
under a declaration that France fucceeded to the property,
dominions, rights, and prerogatives of the bifhop. . ‘This
diftriG was alfo annexed to the department of Mont Ter-
sible. The bifnopric of Bafle is a fertile country, and
many forges are employed in the manvfaGures of iron and
fteel.

Basit, among Foirers, denotes the angle to which the
edoe of an iron tool is ground. To work on foft wood,
they ufually make their bafil 12 degrees; for hard wood 18 :
it being obferved that the more acute or thin the bafil is,
the better and fmoother it cuts; andé the more obtufe, the
{tronger and fitter it is for fervice. ’

BASILAN, or Basseizan, in Geography, one of the
Philippine iflands 5 12 leagues in circumterence, very fertile,
efpecially in fruit and rice; 6 leagues S. W. of Mindanao.
N. Jat. 5° 51'. E. long. 121° 30"

BDASILARE 0s, in Anatomy, a barbarqus denomination

BAS :

given to the os /henoides, on account of its being fituated at
the bottom or balis of the fkull; or becaufe a great part of -
the brain reits upon it, as on its bafis. :

BASILARIS Arteria. See Artery.

BASILE, St. in Geography, a towo of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and province of Otranto, 18 miles ealt
of Matera.

Basize, Sf. 1s alfo a town of the kingdom of Na-
pl. ins the province of Dafilicata; 11 miles N. E. of
Tour fi.

BASILEUS, fzciacy:, a title afflumed by the emperors
of Conttantinople, exclufive of all other princes; to whom
they give the title rex, king. Vhe fame quality was after-
wards given by them to the kings of Buigaria, and to
Charlemagne ; from the facceffors of which lait they. endéa-
voured to wreit it back again.

The title bafi'cus has been fince affumed by other kings,
particularly the kings of England; ‘ Lgo Edgar totius dun-
Sli bafileus confirmavt.” .

Hence alfo the queen of England was intitled dafilea, and ~
bofiliga

BasiLevs, in Ornithology, a name by which many of the
old-authors called the Regulus Crijlatus of Aldrovand, the

foracitta Recutus of the Linnean fyftem, or the

olden-creited wren. : ‘

BASILI, in Geography, a viver of European Turkey,
which runs into the gult of Colokitia, 4 miles N. N. E. of
Colokitia. :

Basitt, St a town of European Turkey, in the Morea ;
§ miles S. of Corinth. ‘i

BASILIA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Vol-
hynia; 32 miles W.S.W. of Conftantinow. | ‘

BasiLia, or BastLico, a fortified town north of Co-
rinth, fituate upon tne coat of the gulf of Lepanto.

BASILIANS. See Bocomirr.

BASILIC, Basitica, is uled in Kechfiaflical Writers,
fora church. In which fenfe this name frequently occurs
in St. Ambrofe, St. Auitin, St. Jerom, Sidonius Apoliinaris, .
and other writers of the fourth and fifth centuries.

M. Perault fays, that bafiles differed from temples, in
that the columns of temples were without fide, and-thofe
of bafilics within.

Some will have the ancient churches to have been called
bafilicee, becaufe generally built in the fafhton of the Re-
man halls called by ‘that names others, becaufe divers
churches were formed of thofe halls. Some have fuppofed

that, on the converfion of Conftantine, many of the ancient

bafilice were given to the church, and turned to another
ule, viz. for Chriitian affemblies to meet in ; and they refer
to that paflage in Aufonius, where, {peaking to the emperor
Gratian, he telis him, the bafilice, which heretofore were
wont to be filled with men of bufinefs, were now thronged

“with votaries praying for his fafety; by which it is appre-

hended he mult mean, that the Roman halls or courts were
turned into Chriltian churches: and hence it has been con-
ceived, that the name bafilice came to bea general name for
churches iaafter-ages. See Bastrica. es

Basixic is chiefly applied, in modern times, to churches.
of roval foundation ; a8 thofe of Sts John de Lateran, and
St. Peter of the Vatican, at Rome, founded by the emperor
Conitantine. re

Basitic appears alfo to have been given, in later ages, to.
churches before confecration.

Basttics were allo little chapels built by the ancient
Franks over the tombs of their great men; fo called, as re-
fembling the figere of the facred bafilice or churches.

Perfons of inferior condition had only tumbe, or porti~
culi, ere€ted over them. By an article in the Salic law, he

» - that.. .

EE ee ae eee

BASILICA.

that robbed a tumba or porticulus, was to be fined fifteen
folidi; but he that robbed a bafilica, thirty folidi.

BASILICA, or Basiticus, in Anatomy, the name of a
vein, arifing from the axillary branch, and running the whole
Jength of the arm. ‘The bafilica is one of the veins opened
in bleeding in the arm. , See Vern.

Basitica, in Archite@ure. This word,-which has fuc-
cecflively received very different acceptations, is derived from
Bacrzus, kingr, and osxos, houfe : it means, therefore, etymolo-
gically, royal houfe. Verhaps the halls of juftice acquired
this name in early antiquity, when the judging of the people
might be regarded as the peculiar regal prerogative ; and
it was natural that they Mould retain this appellation, when
juftice was no Jonzer adminiftered by kings. Among the
public edifices compofed of a fingle building, the bafilica
appears to have been one of the largeft. It was, among the
Romans, an ample hall adjoining to the Forum, in which the
magiftrates judged under cover; which diftinguifhed it
from the fora, where they held their fittings in the open air.
Tere the tribunes and centumvira adminittered juftice, and
the jurifconfulti and legifts in the pay of the republic, ad-
vifed thofe who came to confult them. Young orators de-
claimed in feparate apartments, and the porticos were oc-
cupied by merchants and traders. ‘hus thefe edifices were
at the fame time applied to the purpofes of commerce and
jodicature.

Tt isto be lamented that the antique bafilicas have fo en-
tircly perifked, that the conftru€iion and difpofition of them
are volved in great doubt and obfeurity. Vitruvius, the
only ancient architeé&t whofe writings have defcended to us,
gives the following defcription of the Roman balilica.

« The bafilica fhould be adjoined to the forum on the
warmett fide, that the merchants may confer together with-
out being incommoded by the weather. ‘Fhe breadth is
not made lefs than the third, nor more than the half of the

Jength, uniefs the nature of the place oppofes the proportion,
and obliges the fymmetry to be-different. But if the bafi-
lica has too.much length, chalcidice are made at the ends,
as they are in the bafilica of Julia Aquiliana. The columns
of the bafilica are made as high as the portico is broad.
The portico is the third part of the {pace in the middle; the
upper columns fre a fi~arth part jefs than the lower. The

luteum, which is between the upper columns, fhould alfo
ee made a fourth part lefs than the fame columns, that thofe
who walk in the floor above may not be feen by the mer-
chants below. The epiftilium, zophorus, and corone, are
proportioned to the columns, in the manner explained in the
third book.”’

The bafilica, however, which Vitruvius erefled at the
zolony of Julia of Fanum, did uot conform to the foregoing
precepts. Itis thusdcferibed : ‘‘ the middle teftudo (aifle or
nave) 1s 120 feet long, and 60 feet broad; the furrounding
portico between the walls and columns is 20 feet broad.
‘The columns, continued the whole height of the building,
“are 50 feet, including the capitals, and 5 feet in diametzr ;
having behind them pilafters 20 feet high, which fuftain the
beams that bear the floor of the upper porticos. Above
thefe pilafters are others 18 feer high, which fupport the
ceiling of the upper porticos, which is Jaid lower than the
roof of the teltudo, the {pace between being left open in the
intercolumniations for light. The columns in the breadth

of the tcftudo are four, including thofe of the angles; and .

in the length, of the fide next the forum, including the
fame angles, eight. On the other fide there are but fix,
the two in the middle betng omitted, that they may not
_obftruét the view of the pronaus of the temple of Auguflus,
_ which is Situated in the middle of the fide wall of the batilica.

i
x

The tribunal in this building is in the figure of a hemicrcle,
extending in front 46 feet, and receffing in the centre of the
curvature 1§ feet; fo that thofe who attend the magiflfate
obftruét not the merchants in the. bafilica.’?

From the preceding defcriptions it wou'd appear, that the
ancient bafilica confilted of a great nave in the middle, fur-
rounded with only one range of porticos; and it is thus
that it has been reprefented in the defigos of all who have
reftored it from the words of Vitruvius. However, the
fragments of the plan of Rome taken under Septimius Se-
verus, which ftill exift, fhew a part of the bafilica A2miliena +
and in this authentic record we find two rows of columns
on each fide, which, fuppofing an exterior wall, would give
two ranges of porticos. But this valuable relic gives reafon
to doubt, whether the bafiticas were furrounded with walls,
or whether their porticos, open on every fide, communicated
with the public places. The defeription of Vitruvius explairis
nothing in this particular; but it may perhaps be inferred
from what he recommends relative to the warmth of the ex-
pofure, that they weré not inclofed.

Suppofing the entrance of the bafilica to be at one end,
the other was terminated by a hemicycle, in which was
placed the tribunal; this circular end an{wers to the abfidium
of the Chriftian bafilica. The chalcidice mentioned by
Vitruvius have given rife to various conjectures, which it
would be ufelefs to detail, as we have no data from which
any other inference can be drawn, than that they were fome
kind of apartments, feparated by a partition, at the end3 of
bafilicas.

Before the excavations made at Otricoli, and the difco-
verics which were the refult, we had only conjeCtures on the
form and nature of the ancient bafilica; uncertain veltiges
were al] that remained of thofe of Rome, and the fituation
of the famous bafilicas, /Emilia and Fulvia, was fought in
vain at Prenefte. The monument of Otricoli, therefore,
ought to be very precious if we find in it a true bafilica, of
which the reader will be enabled to judge from the following
defcription. .

To difcern the effential charafer of a bafilica, it will be
ufeful previoufly to confider the difference between it and a
temple. The original form of a temple is an oblong cella
or body, furreunded with porticos ; and even where the la-
teral porticos were fuppreffed, they were never deprived of
a pronaus or portico in front. In fhort, in the bafilica the
porticos were internal and external in the temple. Now the
edifice of Otricoli has no exterior colonade, neither pronaus
nor periftile. It isa fquare building, furrounded witha fimple
wall. In the middle the entrance is by a ruttic opening, with-
out any veltige of decoration. The interior confilts of a
great hall, divided by porticos into three naves or aifles.
The portico immediately oppofite the entrance is compofed
of three arches ; eight Corinthian columns form the remain-
ing three porticos; the further end of the building is occu-
picd by a hemicycle or tribunal, on each fide of which is a
{mall apartment. The tribunal is afcended by feveral fteps ;
and round the interior of the edifice is continued a pea
deftal, on which were ftatues which have been tranfported
to the Mufeum Vaticanum. The ceiling was probably of
wood, as there are no remains of a vault. No vettiges lead
even to fufpeét that in the middle there might be a bafe
for a ftatue, or any thing that indicates a temple.

This monument is certainly deficient in many of the cha-
ra€teriftics of a bafilica; its plan is an exaét {quare inftead
of an oblong, and the upper galleries are wanting. How-
ever, coniidering to what variations thefe edifices were fub-
ject, according to the riches, the fize of towns, and the di-
verfities of fituation; and how much Vitruvius, the author

5 Ba of

BASTIRLEG &

of the precepts which fhould: fix our ideas on this fubj-@,
has departed from his own rules in the conftru@ion of his
bafilhea, it will perhaps be impoffible not to recoznize, in the
edifice of Otncoli, an example of the ancient bafilica.

But we cannot quit this divifion of the fubject without
mentioning a monument, intereiting at any rate from the
fingularity of its archite@ure, and {till more fo if it pre-
ferve to us the form of the Grecian bafilica. This ed'fice.
one of the antiquities of Peftum, is in length the double of
its breadth; it is formed by ranges of Doric columns, to the
pumber of nire in each front and eighteen on each wing, in-
eluding the angles.. Ona line with the central column of
cach front a range of columnais continued through, dividing
the building into two parts ; at the foot of thefe columns
the pavement is elevated and adorned with mofaic. ‘Thefe
interior columns fupported the roof, which was probably a
terrace. The uneven number of columns in the fronts, and
the narrownefs of their intercolumniations compared with
thofe of the wings, prove fufficiently that the principal en-
trances mult have been at the fides ; and this circumitance,
tozether with the abience of any exterior wall to inclofe a
cella, fhews that this edifice could not have been a temple.
But to the purpofes of a balilica it feems very well adapted ;
open on every fide, it admitted an eafy accefs, while the ele-
vation or bank in the middle, would afford a tribunal fuited
to the fimplicity of the age.

The Ecclefiaftical Bafilica. It is not probable that the
ancient bafilicas were ever converted into Chriftian churches ;
in that cafe, we fhould {till be in poffeffion of fome of thefe
monuments of antiquity. The moft ancient bafilicas of the
Chriitians, thofe which date from the firft centuries of the
public exercife of our religion, were built exprefsly for their
ufe ; and the details of their archite@ture, announce but too
elearly the time of their conftruétion. But thefe new tem-
ples refembled fo much the antique bafilicas, that they re-
tained their name : and indeed if we examine the buildings
of antiquity, we fhall find no other fo well calculated for
the purpofes of our religion. Thefe edifices, at once fim-
ple in plan and magnificent in decoration, were of a form
and difpofition the moft advantageous that can be imagined
for large halls, and their conftruétion combined folidity with
economy. Their folidity is proved by the duration of four-
teen centuries of fome of thefe buildings; and their economy
confilts in the lightnefs of the points of fupport, and in that
of the covering which was only of carpentry. In mott of
the bafilicas, the walls and the points of {upport only occupy
one tenth of the total {pace; which, in buildings vaulted
and fupported with arcades, like many modern churches,
take up at leaft twice that fuperficies, and require befides
materials and modes of conftruétion which quadruple the
expence.

It is to Conftantine, that the firft Chriftian churches
known by the name of bafilicas are to be referred. This
prince fignalized his zeal by the ereGtion of monuments
which announced the triumph of the religion which he had
embraced. He gave his own palace on the Ccelian mount
to conftrué on its {cite a church which is recognized for
the moft ancient Chriftian bafilica. A modern building has
fo much mafked and disfigured the ancient, that only the
fituation and plan of this monument caa be difcovered.

Soon after, he erected the bafilica of St. Peter of the Va-
tican. This magnificent edifice was conftru@ed about the
year 324 upon the {cite of the circus of Nero and the tem-
ples of Apollo and Mars, which were deftroyed for that
purpole. It was divided internally into five aifles from eatt
to weft, which terminated at the end in another aifle fom
worth to fouth, in the centre of which was a large niche or

tribunal, giving the whole the form of acrofs. .The larger
aiflz was inclofed by forty-eight columns of precious marble,
and the lateral aifles had likewife forty-eight columns of
Imaller dimenfions ; two columns were placed in each wing
of the terminating aifle. ‘The whole was covered with a
flat ceiling, compofed of immenfe beams which were cafed
with gilt metal and Corinthian brafs taken from the temples
of Romulus and Jupiter Capitolinus. A hundred fmailer
columns ornamented the fhrines and chapels. The walls
were covered with paintinzs of religious fubjeéts, and the
tribunal was enriched with elaborate mofaics. An incredible
number of lamps illuminated this temple; in the greater fo-
lemnities 2400 were reckoned, of which ene enormous can-
delabrum contained 1360. The tombs of pontiffs, kings,
cardina's, and princes, were reared againft the walls or infu-
Jated in the ample porticos.

This {uperb temple was refpefted by Alaric and Totila,
and remained uninjured in the various fortunes of Rome
during the lapfe of twelve centuries; but crumbling with
age, it was at laft pulled down by Julius iI. and upen its
{cite has arifen the famous bafilica, the pride of modern
Rome.

The third great bafilica built by Conftantine, that of St.
Paul on the road to Oftia, ftill exifts. The intericr of this
building refembles precifely that of St. Peter which has juft
been deferibed. OF the forty columns inclofiag the great:

aifle, twenty-four are fuppofed to have been taken from the

maufoleum of Adrian; they are Corinthian, about three
feet diameter, fluted their whole length, and cabled to one
third: the columns are of blue and white marble, and anti-
quity prefents nothing in this kind more precious for the
materials and the workmanfhip. But thefe beautiful remains
feem only to be placed there to the difgrace of the reft of
the confiru€tion, which is of the age of Conftantine and
Theodofius, and which moft ftrikingly exemplifies the rapid
decline of the arts.

The churches we have hitherto defcribed bear a very com-
plete refemblance to the antique bafilica in plan and propor-
tion. The only remarkable difference is, that the fuperior

galleries are fuppreffed, in the p!ace of which a wall is raifed’

upon the columns of the great aifle, which is pierced with
windows, and fupports the roof.

The church of St. Agnefe out of the walls, though not
one of the feven churches of Rome which retain the title,
is however a perfeG imitation of the antique bafilica. This
refemblance is fo complete, that without the teftimony of
writers who inform us that it was built by Conftantine at the
requeft of Conftantia his fifter or daughter, and without the
details of its architecture which forbid us to date it higher,
it might be taken rather for an ancient tribunal of juftice
than a modern church. It forms an oblong internally,
three fides of which are furrounded with columns forming
the porticos; the fourth fide oppofite the entrance is re-
ceffed in a femicircle ; this is the tribunal. The firft order
of columns carries a fecond, forming an upper gallery, above
which begins the ceiling of the edifice. ‘The fhortening of
the columns, recommended by Vitruvius, is obferved in the
upper order. pe

We have hitherto obferved in the Chriftian bafilicas but
{mall variations from the antique conftruGtion : they were ftill
fimple quadrilateral halls divided into three or five aifles, the
numerous columns of which fupported the flat ceiling ; but
the crofs form, the emblem of Chriftianity, which began to
be adopted in thefe buildings, operated the moft effential
changes in their fhape. ‘Fhe interfeGtion, of the croffing
aifles produced a centre, which it was natural to enlarge and
make principal in the prapetien 3 and the inven os]

7
fet iieers Se a ee

ee Da

=

es

BASILICA.

domes fupported’ on pendentives enabled the architects to

ive fize and dignity to the centre, without interrupting
the vilta of the aifles. The church of St. Sophia at Con-
itantinople was the firft example of this form.

The feat of the Roman empire being transferred to Con-
ftantinople, it is natural to fuppofe that the difpofition of the
ancient St. Peter’s of Rome, efteemed at that time the moft
magnificent church in the world, was imitated in that which
Conttantine ereS&ted for his new capital under the name of
St. Sophia. This laft did not exift long : Conftantius, the
fon of Conftantine, raifed a new one which experienced
many difaiters. Deltroyed in part, and rebuilt under the
reign of Arcadius, it was burnt under Honorius, and re-
eftablifhed by Theodofius the younger; but a furious fedi-
tion having arifen under Juftiaian, it was reduced to afhes.
This emperor having appeafed the tumult, and wifhing to
immortalize his name by the edifice he was about to ere,
afembled from various parts the moft famous architects.
Anthemius of Tralles and Ifidore of Miletus were chofen ;
and as they had the boldnefs to attempt a novel conftruc-
tion, they experienced many difficulties and difafters; but
at laft they had the glory of finifhing their defign.

The plan of this bafilica is a fquare of about 250 feet.
The interior forms a Greek crofs, that is, acrofs with equal
arms ; the aifles are terminated at two ends by femicircles,
and at the other two by fquare receffes, in which are placed
two ranges of tribunals. The aifles are vaulted, and the
centre, where they interfeét, forms a large {quare, upon
which jis raifed the dome, of about 110 feet diameter. The
dome, therefore, is fupported uoon the four arches of the
naves and the pendentives or {pandrels which connect the
f{quare plan of the centre with the circle or the dome.

The general effe@ of the interior is grand; but whatever
praifes the bold invention of this immenfe dome may merit,
xt mult be confefled that there are times in which princes,
however great and liberal, can only produce ithperfec&
monuments, of which this edifice is a {triking example. All
the details of its architeGture are defective and barbarous.

However, from the communication eftablifhed between
Greece and Italy, at the revival of letters, this bafilica, the
laft as well as the moft magnificent of the lower empire, was
that which influenced moft the form and archite¢ture of the
new temples. The Venetians, in the tenth century, copied
with fuccefs the beft parts of the difpofition of St. Sophia
in the church of St. Mark. This is the firft in Italy which
was conttruéted witha dome fupported on pendentives; and
it is alfo this which firlt gave the idea, which has been imi-
tated in St. Peter’s of the Vatican, of accompanying the
great dome of a church with {maller and lower domes to
give it a pyramidal effeat.

From this time to the ereCtion of the bafilica of St. Peter’s

‘we find the churches approach more or lefs, to the form of

the ancient bafilica or the new confruction. The church
of Santa Maria del Fiore of Florence, from the magnitude
of its dome and the fill which Brunellefchi difplayed in
its conttruction. acquired a celebrity which made the fyftem
of domes prevail; and this fy{tem was finally eftablifhed in
the noble bafilica of the Vatican, which has become the type

_ and example of later ones. The form of the antique bafilica

was cntirely lott, and the name, which has been retained,
ia the only remain of their ancient refemblance.

In the pontificate of Julius II. the beginning of the 16th
century, the bafilica of St. Peter’s was begun fromthe de-
figngof Bramante. This great man formed the idea of
fufpending in the centre of the building acircular temple as
Jarge as the pantheon, or, as he exprefied it, to raife the pan-
theon on the temple of peace; and, in fact, we find great

~ mintiter juftice.

refemblance in fize and difpofition between thefe two edifices
and the projeét of Bramante. He was fucceeded in his
office by San Gallo, who almoft entirely loft fight of the
original plan; but Michael Angelo, to whom at his death
the undertaking was committed, concentered the difeordant
parts, and contraéted the whole into the form of the Greek
crofs. Michael Angelo died in 1564, while he was engaged
in ere&ting the dome; but he left plans and models which
were ftriétly adhered to by his fucceffors Vignola, J. de la
Porte, and Fontana, who terminated the dome. The build-
ing was catried on under many fucceeding pontiffs; and at
left, by lengthening the longitudinal naves, it acquired the
form of the Latin crofs ; in that particular, approaching to
the original defizn of Bramante.

The general form of this edifice externally is an oblong,
with circular projections in three of the fides; the plan of
the interior confilts of a Latin crofs, the interfestion of the
arms of which is enlarged and formed into an oftagon; the
head ef the long aifles and the ends of the crofs aifles are
terminated in hemicycles. and the great naves are accompa-
nied with lateral aifles and with feveral inclofed chapels.
The oGtagon centre fupports a circular wall enriched with
pilafters and pierced with windows, above which rifles the
magnificent dome.

Thus we have traced the progrefs of the bafilica from
the quadrilateral hall of the ancients with its fingle roof and
flat cieling fupported on ranges of columns, to the crofs-
fhaped plan, central dome, and vaulted aifles fupported on
mafly piers of the modern cathedral. It only remains to
treat of the

Modern Bafilica. We give this name with Palladio to the
civil edifices which are found in many Italian cities, and the
deitination of which is entirely fimilar to the antique bafilica.

In imitation of the ancients, fays this celebrated archi-
te, the cities of Italy conitru€. pubiic halls which may
rightly be called balilicas as they form part of the habita-
tion of the fupreme magiftrate, and in them the judges ad-
The bafilicas of our time (he continues)
differ in this from the ancient; that thofe were level with
the ground, while ours are raifed upon arches in which are
fhops for various arts and the merchandize of the city.
There the prifons are alfo-placed, and other buildings be-
longing to public bufimefs. Another difference is that
the modern bafilicas have the porticos on the outfide, while
in the ancient they were only in the interior. OF thefe halls
there is a very noble one at Padua; and another at Brefeia, .
remarkable for its fize and ornaments.

But the moft celebrated is that of Vicenza; the exterior
part of which was built by Palladio, and the whole fo much
altered that it may pafs for his work. The body of the
building is of much greater antiquity, though the date of
it is unknown.

Time and various accidents had reduced this edifice to:
fuch a {tate of decay, that it was neceflary to think ferioufly
of preventing its total ruin: for this purpofe the moft emi«
nent architeéts'were confulted, and the defign of Palladio was
approved. He removed the ancient loggias, and fubttituted
new porticos of a very beautiful invention. Thefe form two
galleries in height, the lower order of which is ornamented
with Doric engaged columns, at very wide intervals, to an=
{wey to the internal pillars of the old building; the fpace
between each column is occupied by an arch refting on
two {mall columns of the fame order, and a pilafter at each
fide againit the large columns, which leaves a {pace between
it and the {mall columns of two diameters, The upper
porti¢o of Tonic columns is difpofed in the fame mian-
ner, and a balluftrade is placed in the archways. ‘The -

entablature

BAS

entablature of the large orders is profiled over each
column. ‘

This edifice is about 150 feet lonz and 60 feet broad;
the hall is raifed above the ground 26 feet% it is formed by
vaults fupported on pillars, and the whole is covered with a
wooden dome. Sce Plate 1]. of Architefure, the Roman
bafilica, from the defcription of Vitruvius. P/ate III. the
bafilica at Peltum.» Plate 1V. the plan of the old batfilica
of St. Peter, founded by Conftantine. Plate V. plan of the
modern St. Peter’s of the Vatican. Vitruvius. Arch. de A.
Pailadio. Coftagati Pianta del Vaticano. EEncyc. Meth.

BASILICS, Basrrica, a colleGtion of the Roman laws,
tranflated into Greek by order of the emperors Bafil and
Leo, and which were of force in the eaftern empire till its
diflution.

The bafitics comprehend the inftitutes, digefts, code, and
novels, and fome ediéts of Juftinian and other emperors,
The colleGtion confitted of fixty books, for which reafon it
was called cZnxovraGier0;. It is fuppofed to be chiefly the
work of the emperor Leo the Philofopher, who denomi-
nated it from his father Bafilius Macedo, who firt began it
in 867, and carried the work to forty books. It was pub-
Jithed by Leo," with the addition of twenty books nore, in
880; and thirty years after, corrected and improved by his
fon Conftantine Porphyrogenitus. Six books of the ba-
filica were tranflated into Latin in 1557, fol. by Gentianus
Hervetus. Of thefe fixty books, there are now remaining
enly forty-one; an edition of which, with a Latin verfion,
was publifhed by Charles Annibal Fabrottus, at Paris, in
¥647, in 7 tomes folio :.the other ninetesn are in fome mea-
{ure fupplied by Fabrottus, from the ‘!Synopfis Bafilico-
rum,” &c. Four other books have been fince difcovered,
and are inferted in Girard Meerman’s * Novus Thefaurus
Juris Civ. et Canon.” tom. v. Of the whole work, the
fixty books, Jo. Leunclavius has printed at Bafil, in £575,
an ecloge or fynopfis. On the fubje€t of the bafilics, Ia-
hricius ( Bib. Gree. t. xii, p. 426—5 14.) Heiaeccius (Hitt.
Juris Romani, p. 396—399.), and Gianonne (Iftoria Ci-
vile di Napoli, tomi. p. 450—458.) as hiltorical civilians,
may be ufcfully confulted.

BASILICATA, in Geography, a province of the king-
dom of Naples, bounded on the north by the Capitanata, and
the Terra di Bari, on the eaft by the gulf of Tarento, on
thefouth by Principato Citra and Calabria Citra, and on
the weft by Principato Ultra. Its extent is about 1,605,047
moggies, 5 moggies making 4 Erglith acres; and the num-
ber of its inhabitants about 325,652. Its rivers are Bra-
.dano, Bafiento, Salandrella, Acri, and Sina; its lakes are
Lagonagro and Olmo; its mountains are for the moit part
branches of the Apennines; and its principal places are
Acerenza, Melfi, Monte-Pelofo, Tricarico, Potenza, An-
glona, Venoia, and Muro ; its ruined cities are Metapontum
and Heraclea. This province produces cern, wine, oil, faf-
fron, cotton, honey, and wax.

BASILICI, @zcirsmo, in the Greek Empire, was a de-
Nomination given to the prince’s mandatories, or thofe who
«carried his orders dnd commands.

BASILICON, or Basizicum, in Pharmacy, is the pom-
pous denomination formerly given to an officinal unguent or
piafter, much refembling and fuperfeded by the Uncuen-
tum Refine Flave.

. BASILICUS, or Basirica, in Afronomy, is the name
of a fixed ftar of the firlt magnitude in the conttellation
Leo; called alfo regulus, and cor leonis.

Bastzicus Sinus, in Ancient Geography, the gulf of Mel-
laflo, a gulf of Afia Minor, in Caria, which it feparates
from Ionia. re

BAS.

BASILIDA, a people of Scythia, according to Pliny.
Herodotus fays, that their habitation was below the cata-
ratts of Boryithenes. ‘

BASILIDES, in Biography, an herefiarch of Alexan-
dria in Egypt, who flourifhed in the former part of the fe-
cond century. Bafnage refers him to the year 121, Mill to
123, and Cave to the year 112. Grabe fays, that he began
to {pread his notions in the time of Trajan, but chiefly under
Adrian; and that he probably did not die before the begin-
ning of the reign of Antoninus Pius: and this opinion is con-
firmed ty Clement of Alexandria, who informs us, that he
or his followers boafted of his having been taught by Glau-
cias, a difciple of St#Pcter. Bafilides has genera!ly ob-
tained the ficit place among the Egyptian Gnoflics. He
was the author of feveral works, of which the principa! was
his ‘Twenty-four Books of Commentaries,’”’ fuppofed by
Beaufchre, Fabricius, and Jones, to be the ‘*Gofpel of
Bafilides,” mentioned by Origen, and after him by Ambrofe
and Jerome. As none of his works are extant, we derive
our knowledge of them’ from thofe who have detailed and
expofed his errors; among whom are Irenxus, Tertullian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, Epiphanius, &c. Bafilides
acknowledged the exiltence of one fupreme God, felf-ex-
iftent, and perf.& in wifdom and goodnefs, who produced
from his own fubftance feven beings, or zons, of a molt-ex-
celient nature. From two of thefe, called Dynamis and
Sophia, i.e. power and wifdom, proceeded angels of the
higheft order, who formed a heaven for their habitation ;
and thefe angels azain produced other inferior angelic beings;
thefe were fucceeded by other generations of angels, and
new heavens were alfo created, until the number of angelic
orders, and of their refpe&tive heavens, amounted, as Irenens
has fuggeited, and others have believed, to 365, the number
of days in the Ezyptian year. Beanfobre difputes this
account ; and it is fugcefted. that Befilides might poflibly
fay, there were 365 angels, who prefided each over one day
of the year; which is a notion that feems to have been en-
tertained by fome perfons in the Eaft. Bailides afevibed the
formation of this lower world to angels; conceiving it te be-
umworthy of the Supreme Being to give form and beanty
to matter, and to be the author of the many evils that are in
this world. Thefe angels, perceiving matter, which was
eternal, agitated in a tumultuous manner, determined to
reduce it to order; and having in their minds an idea of the
world of {pirits to which they belonged, and which ferved ©
for them as a model, propofed to forma material world that
fhouid refemble it, and to create a race of beings to inhabit

it. This defizn was executed and approved by the Supreme

Being 5 who added a reafonable foulto the animal life with
which alone the inhabitants of this new world were at firft
endowed, and who gave to the angels the empire over them.
Thefe angelic beings became gradually depraved by the in-
fluence of malignant matter, and endeavoured to efface from
the minds of men the knowledge of the Supreme Being, and —
to atrogate to themfelves the worfhip that was his due. The
moft arrogant and turbulent of thefe fallen angels prefided
over the Jewifh nation, At length the Supreme Deity, ob- —
ferving and compaffionating the ruined and wretched Rate
of the world, fent from heaven his firft-begotten Nus, or
Chrift, the chief of the wons, to reftore the knowledge of
the Supreme God, and to deftroy the empire of thofe angels
that prefided ever the world, and particularly that of the
arrogant leader of the Jewifh nation. The god of the Jews,
alarmed at this, fent forth his minilters to feize the man
Jefus, and put him to death. They executed his commands;
but their cruelty could not extend to Chrilt, the heavenly
being, againft whom their efforts were vain. According to

Trenseus’s

BAS

ii

\ ;
§ Trenaus’s account, Jefus appeared aa man, but was not fo
in reality, and wrought many miracles; however, he was not
: crucified; the Jews having, through miflake, crucified Si-
mon the Cyrenian in his ftead, Many of the ancients have,
upon the authority of lrenwus, accufed Bafilides of denying
the reality of Chrift’s body, and of maintaining that Simon
was crucified in his ftead. But this acculation, as far as it
refers to Bafilides himfelf, is groundlefs; for he feems to
have confidered the divine Saviour, as compounded of the
» man Jefus, and Chrift the Son of God. To this purpofe
Beaufobre fays, that though Bafilides did not believe the
incarnation, or hypoftatic union of the Son of God with
flefh, yet he never denied that Jefus was a real perfon, in
whom the Underftanding, or Son of God, difplayed his
power, whom he filled with his gifts and illuminations, and
invelted with extraordinary influence. With regard to the
ridiculous ftory of Simon transformed into Jefus, and cruci-
fied in his flead, he reprefents it as a fable which Irenxus
derived from fome unknown fource. As Bafilides believed
the death of Jefus, who was a real and moft excellent man,
in-whom the firft-begotten of the Father chofe to dwell,
though not of the Son of God, he probably believed his re-
furrettion ; that is, that his foul afcended to heaven, and
the body was left to lie in the grave, or was diflipated into
the air, and among the elements of which it was compofed.
A\s the anciest Catholic writers do not particularly fay that
Bafilides denied the refurreGtion of Jefus, though they affure
us he and his followers denied the refurrection of the body ;
it is not unlikely that he admitted the refurreCtion or the
advancement and glorification of the foul of Jefus. Bafiii-
des believed the fact of the bapti{m of Jefus: and his fol-
_ lowers, as Clement informs us, celebrated the day of his bap-
tim as a feitival, which was the 15th day of the Egyptian
month Tubi, correfponding to the gth or 1oth of our Janu-
ary, in the 15th year of Tiberius; and they fpent the whole
_ + preceding night in reading, and probably in prayers. Some
_ perfons have fuppofed that Bafilides, denied the neceffity or
reafonablenefs of our fuffering martyrdom fer Jefus; and
yet it appears from the teftimony of Clement, that he
eltcemed martyrdom -an honourable fuffering, though it is
the punifhment of fins committed either in this life, or in a
pre-exiftent ttate. Bafilides taught that the foul only would
be faved; but that the body is in its nature corruptible,
and incapable of immortality. As for the fpirits of the dif-
obedient, itis faid to have been his opinion, or that of his
foliowers, that they would pafs fucceflively into other bodies.
Bafilides has been falfely acculed of believing that actions
are indifferent in their own nature, and of allowing and en-
couraging the pra@tice of wickednefs. On the cottrary he
is reprefented by thofe whofe teflimontes are moft credible,
zs ftrongly recommending the pra€tice of virtue and piety,
and condemning not only the a€tual commiffion of iniquity,
but even every inward propenfity of the mind to a vicious
conduct. However, fome of his praftical opinions gave of-
fence to the orthodox Chriflians; for he allowed men to
conceal their religion, and even to deny Chrilt, when their
lives were in danger, and to partake of the fealts of the
Gentiles that were infituted in confequence of the facrifices
offered to idols: not to add, that the irregular lives of fome
of his difc‘ples feemed to juftify the unfavourable opinion
that was entertained conceruing their matter. The Bafili-
dians have been alfo accufed of magical pra€tices: but Ter-
tullian fays nothing. of this kind; and the paflage of Ire-
ueus upon which this charge is founded, is fuppofed to have
been corrupted. Befides, the ancient fathers perpetualy
confound allronomy and aftrology with magic; and hence

» Lardner is induced to be very doubtful about the truth of

ee eee eel

a oe

‘BAS

this acenfation. Irenuus fays, that the Brafilidians called
the prince of the heavens Abraxas, that name having in it
the number 365; and the gems, or figures, bearing this
name, are fuppofed to have on,inated from Bafilides. Howe
ever, many of thefe Egyptian talifmans appear to have an
earlier date; and the magic of this fect was probably so
more than the praétice of certain fuperttitions, rather of a
foolifh than of a malignant nature. See Apraxas.

Bafilides had many followers, and his fvé furvived to the
fifth century. Beaufobre, and after him Lardner, have given
a learned and candid examination of its do@rine in ail its
particulars. See Beaulob. Hilt. du Manicheifme, t. ii.
Lardner’s Works, vol. ix. p, 272—307. Mofheim, Eccl,
Hik. vol. i, p.223, &c.

BASILIDIANS, the followers of Bafilides, of whom az
account has been given in the preceding article.

BASILINEA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Puarzns
that inhabits Auftria. The wings are p reyih brown undu-
lated, with a little black line at the bale; crcit of the thorax
bifid. Fabricius. 5

BASILINOPOLIS, or Bastnopotis, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, an epifcopal town of Afia Minor, in Bithynia.

BASILIPOTAMO, in Geography, the ancient Exrotas,
a river of the Morea in European Turkey, which falls into:
the gulf Calochina. ‘

BASILIPPUM, ie Ancicnt Geography, a town of Betica
in Spain, abont 20 miles from Hifpalis or Seville; now Can-
tillana, a citadel of Andalufia, on the Guadalqnivir.

BASILIS, a town of Peloponnefus, in Arcadia, founded,
according: to Paufanias, by Cypfelus, and fituated near the
Alpheus. In his time it was in ruins, among which was
a temple of the Eleufinian Ceres.

BASILISCUS, in Ornithology, one of the fynonymous
names of the golden-crowned wren, among old writers.
This name is a diminutive of the word defileus, king ; and
was given it on account of its golden crown.

Basitiscus, in Zoology, a {pecics of Lacerta, which,
according to Linneus, has the tal long and round; dorfal
fin radiated ; and back of the head crefted. This is the ba-
filifk of modern naturalifts, and feems to unite the two ge-
nera of Lacerta and Draco. The remarks of Dr. Shaw (in
the Gen. Zoo].)'on this extraordinary creature are highly
Interefting, and ought not to efcape attention. It is, accord-
ing to this writer, particularly diltinguifhed by a long and
broad wing-like procefs or expanfion continued along the
whole length of the back, and to a very confiderable dif-
tance on the upper part of the tail, and furnifhed at certain
diftances with internal radii analagous to thofe in the fins of
fifhes, and ftill more fo thofe in the wings of the draco vo-
lans, or flying lizard. This procefs is of different elevation
in different parts, fo as to appear ftrongly finuated and in-
dented, and is capable of being either dilated or contracted
at the pleafure of the animal. “Ihe occiput, or hind part
of the head, is elevated into a very confpicuous pointed hood,
or hollow crett. :

Notwithftanding its formidable appearance, adds this au-
thor, the bafiliflk is a perfeétly harmlefs animal; and like
many others of the lizard tribe, refides principally among
trees, where it feeds on infects, &c. It has long ago. been
admirably figured in the work of Seba; and as it is an ex-
tremely rare f{pecies, has fometimes been confidered, from
the flrangenefs of its form, as a fititious reprefentation,

‘There is, however, in the Britifh Mufeum, a very fine fpe-

cimen, well preferved in {pirits, and which fully confirms-
the excellency of Scba’s figure; from which, in all proba~
bility, Linnzus himfelf (who never faw the animal) took his.
{pecific defeription. The celour of the balilifk is a pale ci-

3 RECUR:

BAS

pereous brown, with fome darker variegations towards the
upper part of the body. Its iength is about a foot and
a balf. The young or {mall fpecimens have but a flight ap-
pearance either of the dorfal or caudal procefs, or of the
pointed occipiral creft. The bafilifk is principally found in
South America, and fometimes confiderably exceeds the
leagth before mentioned, meafuring three fect, or even more,
from the nofe to the extremity of the tail. It is faid to be
an animal of great agility, and is capable of {wimming occa-
fionally with perfect eafe, as wellas of {pringing from tree to
tree by the help oftits dorfal creft, which it expands in order
to fupport its flight.

Among the French naturalifts, the Iguane is a diftin&
genus of the oviparous quadrupeds, in whieh the Linnzan
lacerta bafilifrus is included under the name of bafilifk.

The batilifk of the ancients exifted only in the glowing
fancy of their poets: they feigned it to be the molt malig-
nant of all poifonous ferpents; as a creature whofe breath
empoifoned the very air, and whofe baneful glance would
alone prove fatal to all other animals. A creature gifted
with fuch extraordinary powers could have no common oti-
gin, and therefore it was aflerted to be the produce of the
egz of a cock brooded upon by a ferpent. Galen fays its
colour is yellowifh, and that it has three little elevations on
its head, {peck!ed with whitifh fpots, that have fomewhat
the appearance ofa crown. /#lian, Matthiolus, Pliny, Lu-
can, and others of the moft diftinguifhed ancients, relate
many marvellons properties of this creature; but notwith-
{landing their authority, the bafiifk, as they reprefent it,
is moft unqueftionably fabulous. ‘It is neediefs to add to
this article any of the fables of Jerome Lobo, although
Dr. Johnfon has received fome of them with an unwarrant-
able degree of credulity. The learned Profper Alpinus in-
forms us, on the authority cf fome relations, which he feems
to have credited, that near the Jakes contiguous to the
fources of the Nile, there is a number of bafilifks, about a
palm in length, and the thicknefs of a middle finger ; that
they have two large feales which they ufe as wings, and
crefts and combs upon their heads, from which they are
called bafilifci or reguli, that is, crowned, crefted, or kingly
ferpents. And he fays, that no perfon can approach thefe
Jakes without being deftroyed by thefe crefted {nakes. Our
traveller, Mr. Bruce, obferves, that-having examined the
lake Gooderoo, thofe of Court Ohha and Tzana, the only
lakes near the fources of the Nile, he never faw one ferpent
there, crowned or uncrowned; and that he never heard of
‘any: and, therefore, he believes this account as fabulous as
that of the Acontia and other animals mentioned by Profper
Alpinus, lib. iv. cap. 4. ~The befilifk is a fpecies of fer-
pent frequently mentioned in feripture, though never de-
fcribed farther than that it cannot be charmed fo as to do
no hurt, nor trained fo as to delight in mufic; which all
travellers who have been in Egypt allow is very poffible, and
frequently feen.. (Jerem. viii. 17. Pfalm ix. 13.) How-
ever, it isthe Greek text that calls this ferpent bafilifl ;
the Hebrew generally calls it tfepha, which is a fpecies of
ferpents real and known. Our Englifh tranflation very im-
properly renders it cockatrice, a fabulous animal that never
did exift. The bafilifk of fcripture feems to have been a
fnak-, not a viper ; as its eggs are mentioned ( Ifaiah ix. 5.) :
whereas it is known to be the charatteriltic of the viper to
bring forth living young. Bruce’s Travels in Abyflinia,
vol. v. p. 201.

Basittsx is alfo myftically ufed by the alchemifts, to de-
note the {ublimate mercury of the philofophers.

Basrxisk. or Basiutsc, in Artillery, alfo denotes a great
piece of orduance; thus denominated from its refemblance

BAS

to the fuppofed ferpent of that name. The bafilifie throws:
an iron ball of two hundred pounds weight. It was much
talked of in the time of Solyman, emperor of the Turks, in
the wars in Hungary ; but {cems now out of ufe. Maffeus
{peaks of bafilifks made of brafs, which were drawn each by
a hundred yoke of oxen. Modern writers alfo give the name
bafijifk to a much fmaller and fizeable piece of ordnance,
which the Dutch make fifteen feet long, and the French
only ten. It carries forty-eizht pounds.

BASILIUM Friumen, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Afia, which, according to Strabo, flowed between the Eu-
phrates and Tigzis; but Ammranus Marcellinus fays, that it
was a branch of the Euphrates, direéted towards Ctefiphon,
and defigned for conveying water into the interior part of
Babylonia, The emperors Trajan and Severus opened this
canal after it had been filled up, and formed by it acommu-
nication between the Tigris and Euphrates.

BASILIUS, in Biography, a phyfician and monk of
Bulgaria, in the r2th century, was the founder of the fe&
called Bogomili. After teaching his do&rine many years
in fecrecy, he was feduced to Conftantinople by the emperor
Alexius Comnenus, who, under pretence of learning his
do&trines at a private audience, placed a fecretary behind
acurtain, who penned down what Bafilius delivered. The
emperor afterwards convoked a council, which, on the re-
fufal of Bafilius to retract, committed him to the flames in
118. See Bocomitt.

BASILUZZO, in Geography, one of the Lipari iflands
in the Mediterranean, about two milesin circumference, and
raifed fome poles above the furface of the fea. On the fouth
fide isa narrow bay; and on the fummit is a plain of no great
extent, and the only part capable of cultivation, though it
produces only a little corn and pulfe. This feanty vegeta- ~
tion is nourifhed by a thin cruft of decompofed lava, under
which is foon difcovered the folid lava, which, in many
fituations, is granitous, the quartz, felt{par, and mica, being
very apparent init. Two little cottages, which belong to
the proprietors of this ungrateful foil, are the only buildings,
near which are fome ancient ruins. Rabbits are the only
animals found in this ifland; and as they were very mif-
chievous to the corn, the inhabitants introduced cats, which”
followed them into their fubterranean holes. This ifland, as
well as thofe that are in its vicinity, have been produced by
volcanic fires. Spallanzani’s Travels in the Two Sicilies,
vol. ii, p. 142, &c.

BASIN or Minas, a hody of water of confiderable
extent and irregular form, fituate in Nova Scotia, at the eaft
end of the bay of Fundy, and conneéting with its north-ealt
branch by a fhort and narrow ftrait. ‘The country on its
banks is generally a rich foil, and is watered by many {mall
rivers. The {pring-tides rife here 40 feet.

BASINET, Bacinet, cr BAsnet, in Ancient Armour,
a {pecies of light helmet, much ufed, both here and abroad
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Its name was
undoubtedly taken from its form, and means a little bafon.
The helmet of Don Quixote gives the reader an exaét idea
of it. In the manufcript illuminations of the times it fre-
quently occurs; but as it materially differed from the ftate
helmet, it is rarely, if ever, found upon fepulchral monu-
ments. Fauchet (GEuvres, f. 524. edit. 1610.) cites Froiffart
(vol. iii..c. cxix.),to prove that it had a vizor hike the helmet;
and obferves, that the French warriors of that era thought
the beft lances came from Bourdeaux, and the beft helmets
and bafinets from Paris, where, in his time, a ‘* Rue de la
Heaumerie” exiited. The bafinet is particularly mentioned
in the ftatutes of Robert king of Scotland; and its fre-
quent ufe in England may be judged of from an i

22 We

BAS

22 Edw. IIT., whence Lawrence de Haltings, earl of Pem-
broke, appears to have held the manor of Alton Cantloue, in
eapite, by the fingular tenure of finding, in every war with
Wales, for forty days, a foot-foldier, armed with a bow
without a ftring, and a bafinet (cum uno bafneto fine cappa).
See Cowev.

BASINGSTOKE, or Basince, Joun, in Biography,
aman of diftinguifhed learning in the thirteenth century,
was born at Bafingftoke in Hamphhire, and educated partly
in the univerfity of Oxford, and partly in that of Paris.
From Paris he travelled to Athens; and on his return to
England, brought with him a great number of Greek MSS.,
and introduced the ufe of the Greek nnmeral figures into
thiskingdom. He waseminently inftrumental in promoting
the ftudy of the Greek language; and with this view he
tranflated from the Greek, into Latin, a grammar, which
he intitled ** The Donatus of the Greeks.’”? His other
works were A Latin tranflation of the Harmony of the
Gofpels ;”? a volume of Sermons; and * A Latin Commen-
tary upon Lombard’s Sentences.” He was preferred firft
to the archdeaconry of London, and afterwards to that of
Leicefter; and died in 1252. Gen. Di&.

Basincsroxe, in Geography, a \arge populous town of
Hamphhire, in England, 16 miles N.E. of Winchetler, and
46 W. from London, whence it is a great thoroughfare to
the weitern counties. It appears that this place was of in-
ferior confideration to Bafing, in its neighbourhood, previous
to the conqueft; the latter place being the head of the
barony of Ports. In 1233, Peter de Rupibis, bifhop of
Winchefter, was poffeffed of the advowfon of both the
churches, and gave the prefentations to the priory of Sel-
borne in Hampfhire. Thefe afterwards were given, among
other eftates, by bifhop Wainfleet to Magdalen college, Ox-
ford, in which the patronage is now velted. In the church
lies buried the mother of Walter de Merton, bilhop of
Rochelter, founder of Merton college. Bafingltoke gave
birth to John de Bafingftoke, a learned Grecian f{cholar, in
1252, and the intimate friend of Matthew Paris, and bifhop
Grofthead. Henry II1., at the defire of bifhop Merton,
founded an hofpital at this place for aged priefts from his
college at Oxford: of this collegiate chapel, which was en-
dowed in 1261, there are now noremains. A beautiful ruin
overlooks the town on the north fide, called Holy Ghoft
chapel. This was founded by fir William, afterwards lord,
Sandes, who, with bifhop Fox, obtained a licence fiom
Henry VIII. to found a brotherhood, to continue in per-
petual fucceffion, for the maintenance of a prieft to perform
divine fervice, and for the inftru€tion of youth in literature.
The town is a corporation, governed by a mayor, high-
fteward, recorder, &c. Its trade confiftsin the manufacture
of druggets and fhalloons; and the market, held on Wednef-
day, is very confiderable for corn ; the trade of the town alfo
is much benefited by a navigable canal. Bafing-houfe, in
this neighbourhood, is rendered famous by the bold ftand its
poffeffor, Powlet marquis of Winchefter, made againit the
parliament forces, during the civil wars in the reign of
Charles I. Population; houfes 512, inhabited by 2589
perfons.

BastncstToxe Canal. This was the firft channel of com-
munications with the Thames, by means of canal naviga-
tion; and in 1777, an act was obtained for uniting the
waters of the river Lodden at a place called Newman
{prings, near the village of Bafing, to the river Wey, near
Weybridge in Surrey, where it falls intothe Thames. One
important object of this canal is the carriage of fhip-timber
from the woods in Hampfhire, to the public and private

$C ames. The length of the courfe of

BAS

Bafineftoke canal is nearly 44. miles.
of Hamphhire, 4to. See Canar.

BASLOGLOSSUS Muscre, in Anatomy, the front
part of the Hyoctossus; which fee.

BASJOURA, in Geography. Sce Baciura.

BASIRE, or Basier, Isaac, in Biography, a learned
and ative divine in the feventeenth century, was born in
1607, according to Wood (Athen. Oxon.), in the Ifle of
Jerfey, but according to others in France, and after an edu-
cation in fome f{chool or univerfity, not afcertained, he be-
came matter of the free-fchool at Guernfey. At length he
obtained fome preferments in England, the laft of which
was the archdeaconry of Northumberland, with the annexed
reGtory of Howick ; and in 1640, he received the degree of
doétor in divinity at Cambridge by mandate. In the be-
ginning of the civil wars, he was plundered and compelled to
fly; upon which he repaired to king Charles at Oxford ;
and in 1.641, alicence was granted to him, under the public
feal of the univerfity, to preach the word of God throughout
England, Uponthe furrender of Oxford to the Britifh par-
liament, he determined to ieave the kingdom, and to propa-
gate the doétrine of the Englifh church among the Greeks,
Arabians, &c. Accordingly, he firft went to Zante, an
ifland near the Morea; and there imparted to the Greek in-
habitants the doGtrine of the eftablifhed church, in a vulgar
Greek tranfation of our church catechifm. From hence he
was compelled by the Latins to retreat to the Morea, where,
at the defire of the metropolitan of Achaia, he preached
twice in Greek, at a meeting of fome of the bifhops and
clergy. He afterwards embarked for Syria, and during his
abode at Aleppo, furnifhed the patriarch of Antioch with an
Arabic tranflation of our church catechifm. From Aleppo
he travelled, in 1652, to Jerufalem, and through the whole
of Paleftine. At Jerufalem he was honoured by the Greek
patriarch with his bull, or patriarchal feal, and he received
many tokens of re{pec&t from the Latins. Athis departure from
Jerufalem, the pope’s vicar gave him his diploma in parch-
ment, under his own hand and feal, in which he was ftyled
“a prieft of the church of Eng!and, and doétor of divinity.’’
On his return to Aleppo, he pafied over the Euphrates into
M<fosotamia, intending to convey the church catechif{m in
Turkifh to fome cf their bifhops, who were moltly Arme-
nians. In 1653, after wintering at Aleppo, he travelled
by land to Conftantinop!e, where the French Proteftants
defired him to be their mintlter, promiling to fecure to him
a competent itipend. Before he quitted the Eaftern parts, it
was his intention to have paffed into Egypt, to vifit the
Coptic churches, to confer with the patriarch of Alexandria,
and to impart to them a competent knowledge of the doc-
trines and forms of the church of England. But it is not
known whether he accomplifhed this defign. In 'Tranfyl-
vania, whither he next removed, he was honoured by Ra-
gotzi IL., prince of that country, with the divinity-chair in
his new-founded univerfity of Alba Julia or Weiffenburg,
and endowed with a very ample falary. During his travels,
he collated the feveral confeffions of faith of the different
forts of Chriftians, Greeks, Armenians, Jacobites, Maronites,
&e. which he kept by him in their own languages; and it
was his conflant endeavour, as long as he remained in the
Eatt, to perfuade the feveral feéts of Chriftians to introduce a
canonical reformation of fome errors, and to unite with the
church of England. But it is faid, that his good inten-
tions for this purpofe were defeated by the artiftces of the
court of France. Upon the reitoration of king Charles II.,
Dr. Bafire was recalled by his majefly to England, and
reflored to his preferments and dignities. Having quictly en-
joyed his ample revenues for feveral years after the pugs

5 c

Warner’s Hiftory

BAS

he died in 1676, in the 69th year of his age, and was
buried in the yard belonging to the cathedral of Durham.
He appears to have been’ learned, a&tive, and indultrious,
zealoufly attached to the church of England, and eminently
dittinguifhed by his loyalty. His publications were not
very numerous : the principal of them were his ‘Deo et
Ecclefie Sacrum,’’ or facrilege arranged and condemned by
St.Paul, Oxford, 1646, 4to, and London, 1668, Svo; ‘* The
Hifory of the Englifhand Scotch Prefbytery,” Lond. 1659,
1660, 8vo; * The dead man’s real fpeech,’’ a funeral fermon
for Dr. Cofin, bifhop of Durham, to which is annexed his
life; Lond. 1673, 8vo; and his “ Diatriba de antiqua Ec-
clefie Britannie Libertate,’”? printed at Bruges hy a royal
exile in 1656, 8vo, and tranflated into Engitth under the
title of Theancient Liberty of the Britannic Church, &c.”
Annexed to it is ‘* A Letter, written by Dr. Bafire to the
Hon. fir Richard Brown, refident at Paris for his majefty
of Great Britain; relating his travels and endeavours to
propagste the knowledge of the doétrine and difcipline
eftablifhed in the Britannic church, among the Greeks,
Arabians, &c ; dated from Pera, near Comttantinople, 20th
July 1653.” O; this letter fir R. Brown obferves, “ that
he coud nevér readit but as a kind of nine-and-twentieth
of the A&s.?? This book was printed at London in 1661,
{mall Svo. Biog. Brit.

BASIS, in the Ancient Mufic and Poetry, denotes the
equability of founds proceeding in the fame tenor. In which
fenfe, bafis ftands contradiftingu:fhed from ar/is, or eleva-
tion, as well as from zhefs, or depreffion.

Basis, in Architedure and Chemiflry. See Base.

Basis, in Oratory, denotes the fourth member of a com-
plete exordium, being that which fuccceds the apodo/is, and
prepares the way for the propofition.

BASKERVILLE, Sir Simon, in Biography, fon of
Thomas Bafkerville, an apothecary at Exeter, was, at the
age of eighteen years, fent to Exeter college. Oxford, where
he foon diftinguifhed himfelf by his fuperior abiity and in-
duftry, which procured him a fellowfhip in the college be-
fore he had taken his degree of bachelor in arts. In 1606,
he was chofen fenior pre€tor in the univerfity. He now
applied himfelf folely to the fludy of anatomy and phytic;
and in 1611, was admitted to the degree of bachelor, and
_ door in medicine, at the fame time. Having acquired con-
fiderable reputation for his {kill in his profeffion, he removed
to London, and was chofen fellow, and fome years after pre-
fident of the college of phyticians there. He had alfo the
honour of being appointed phyfician to king James,and after-
wards to kidg Chariesthe firlt, by whom he was knighted.
As his practice extended with his fame, he acquired fo much
wealth ‘as to be called the rich Sir Simon; which will not bz
woudered al, if it be true, as was reported of him, that he
had 100 patients on his lift at a time. He died July 5th 1641,
azed fixty-eight years, and was buried in the eathedral of
St. Paul’s. It does not-eppear that he left any manulcripts
for publication, or any offspring to inherit the wealth he had
accumulated. Wood’s Athene Oxon. Biograph. Di&.

BASKERVILLE, JOHN, an ingenious artiit, entitled to
commemoratiou on account of his improvements in printing
and type-founding, was born at Woverley, in Worcetterthire,
in the year 1700, and inherited a {mail eftate. Having
acquired in early life a flill and talte for fine writing and
cutting in ftone, he removed to Birmingham at the age of
twenty, where he fettled as a writing-maiter; but he foon
direS&ed his attention to the art of japsnning, which he
followed with fingular ingenuity and fuccefs as long as he
lived. In 1750 he turned his thoughts to letter-founding,
which he purlued with great laoour and expence. An edition

I

BAS

of Virgil in royal 4to., in 1756, was his fit great performe
ance; which has fince fetched thrice its original price. He
afterwards printed many of the Latin claffics, and feveral
Englith ones, in 4tc. and {maller fizes.. The paper and ink,
as well as the type, were prepared by himfelf; and the
beauty of his workmanthip was unrivalled. The type was
diftinguifhed bya peculiar finenefs and fharpnefs, which gave
the printing a {trong refemblance to fine print-hand writings
and the paper had a remarkable glofs, which fet off the type,
but not without offending the eye. It is obferved, however,
that Bafkerville’s editions are not remarkable for their cor-
re€tnefs. Deriving little encouragement from bookfellersy
he fet up a type-foundery for fale, which bufinefs was for
fome time carricd on by his widow, after his death in 1775.
After many ineffectual attempts for the difpofal of his types
and matrices, they were fuffered, not much to the credit of
this country, to be removed to Paris, where they were pur-
chafed by a literary fociety for 3700l..and employed ina
{plendid edition of Voltaire’s works. Mr. Bafkerville was
diltinyuifhed by the elegance of his tafte in hishonfe, and
every thing that belonged to him. The pzannels of his car=
riage were elegant piétures, and he was drawn by a beautiful
pair of cream-coloure+ horfes. He feems to have been in-
clined to oftentation end fingularity : however, he was polite
and hefpitable to ftrangers, and ambitious of cultivating
acquaintance with ingenious men. . He was not conneGed
with any religious fect, and was buried under a maufoleum
in his own grounds. Biog, Brit. Gen. Biog. rr

BASKET, a kind of veffel made of ofier, wicker, rufhes,
or the like, of different figures and fizes, according to the
purpofe whichit is intended to ferve. its ecules

Bafkets have their ufes not only in the ceconomical, but
military affairs; at fieges, they make ule of a {mall bafket
filled with earth and ranged on the top of the parapet.

They are about a foot and half high, as much in diameter
at top, and cight or ten inches at bottom; fo that being
fet together, they leave a fort of embrafures at the bottom,
through which the foldiers fire, without expofing them-
felves.

Basxer alfo imports a kindof meafure or quantity of
certain commodities. So's

Basket, corbeille, in Architedure,a kind of vafe, or figured
piece of {culpture, in form of a bafket, filled with flowers or
fruits, ferving to terminate fome decoration. An

Basxet-f/h, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by the
Englifh in North America, to a very remarkable fifh, fome-.
times canghtin the feas thereabout, though not pam
any where. ‘

Mr. Hooke, to whom it was referred by the Royal So-
ciety to name it, has called it Pi/cis echinoflellaris vi/ciformis,
the body of it refembling an egg-fith, or echinus marinus, and
the arms a ftar fifh, and iinally, the dividing of the branches
being more like that of the branches of mifletoe than any
other natural produ@ion we are acquainted with, aaa

This fith {preads itfelf from a pentagonal mouth-piece, or
root, in the centre of which the mouth is placed, in _five
main limbs or branches; and each of thefe, at its firft iffuing
out of the body, is divided into two: this makes ten.. Each
of thefe ten again divides into two, which makes twenty,
and fo on, each dividing to the fourteenth time; at which
place they make more than fourfcore thoufand limbs.
‘Thefe are too {mali to be traced farther by the eye, or pre-
ferved in carriage: but it is very probable that even thefe
were again divided, perhaps feveral times. ;

The branches between the joints, are not all equally of a
length, though, for the molt part, they are pretty nearly fo,
‘The arms or branches are never very {trong ; but when they

are

ae

eS

BAS.

are dry, they are much more brittle than before; the leaf
force imaginable deltroying them.

The fhoals of Nantucket, an ifland on the coalt of New
England, at times furni(h the fifhermen with this creature ;
but it is remarkable, that they are never feen there unlefs
when taken by hooks in fifhing for other fih. They clafp
the hook-bait faft, and encircle it with all their arms, com-
ing up, when drawn by it, in form of a wicker bafket ;
whence the name: but when they have been fome time out
of the Water, they become flat.

The ufe of the numerous arms of this fifth is plainly to
catch its prey. lt probably extends them to their full length
while under the water, and then clafps hold of any thing fit
for food that chances to {wim over them. ‘The fifhermen
have fometimes found the arms containing fmall mackrel, or
pieces of Jarger. Phil. Tranf. N° 957 and 74. It is evident
from the defcription, that this fith is of the fella arborefcens,
@r branched ftar-fifh kind; but whether the fame with the
commonly known kind, called the caput medu/z, is not evi-
dent from this defcription. The body of this fith, by what
is related of its protuberance, and refemblance to the echini
marini, may probably be the afferopedium in its foffil tate.
See Astrerias, and Asreropopium.

Basxer fait. This is brine falt, made from the water of
our falt fprings in Chefhire, and elfewhere, differing from
the common brine falt in the finenefs of the graia, and in its
whitenc{s and purity.

In the preparing of this kind of falt, fome ufe refin, and
other additions, to break the prain und make it {mall ; others
effet this by keeping up a very brifk fre under it, and Kirring
it all the while: bet the molt approved method is only to
take out of this kind the third draught of every pan that is
working for the common brine falt, and to do this betore
the granules orcryttals are perfetly formed. - By this means
the falt is very fine; and when it has been hard preffed down
into {malt wicker bafkets, it is dried at the ftove in them, and
fo kept for fale. “ith

BASKING-Suark, in /chthyology, the Englith name of
Sovarus Maximus.

BASKINRIDGE, in Geography, a town of America, in
Somerfet county, New J-rfey, on the W. fide of a N.W.
branch of Paflaic river, nearly 6 miles N. E. from Plucke-
min, and 7. S.S.W. from Morriftown. -

BASNAGE, Benyamin. in Biography, fon of a French
minifter, frit fertled at Norwich, in England, and afterwards
at Charenton, in Norinaady, was born in 15803; and devoting
himfelf to his father’s profeflion, fucceeded him at Charenton,
where he fpent the remainder of his life. In 1623 he aifiited
at the fynod of Charenton, as deputy from the province of
Normandy; and he was chofen, on account of his diftinguifhed
talents and prudence, moderator of the national fynod of
Alencon, in 1637. He was afterwards aflociated to the mo-
derator of the fynod of Charenton in 1644, and being de-
puted by this fynod to the queen-mother, received from her
tokens of efteem. He was alfo deputed by the proteftant
churches in France, to king James VI. of Scotland; and being
allowed to vifit that country, he was eminently ufeful in ferv-
ing the interefts of his conttitvents. Bafsage had feveral
difputes with the Catholics, and wrote * A ‘l'reatife on the
Church”? which was much citeemed. He alfo left an imperfe&
& Work again{t the indifcreet worfhippers of the blefied Vir-
gin.” He died in 1652, in the fifty-firft year of his miniltry,
and left two fons of diftinguifhed merit. Gen. Di&.

Basnacs, Antony, eldett fon of the former, was born
in 1610, and became miinilter of Bayeux. He diftinguifhed
himfelf by his firmnefs and refolution during the perfecution
of the proteftants; and after having been imprifoned at

Brarsiv’

Havre-de-Grace, at the age of 75 years, he was releafed by
the revocation of the edié of Nantes, and fled to Holland.
He died at Zutphen in 1691. Gen. Did.

Basnacu, Henry, younger fon of Benjamin, was born
at Sainte Mere Eglife, in Lower Normandy, in 1615. du-
cated to the profeflion of the law, he became one of the moft
learned and eloquent advocates of the parliament of Nor-
mandy, into which he was admitted in 1630; fo that he was
employed in every caufe of importance. In 1677 he was
appointed commiffioner for the affairs of relizion, and dif-
charged the office with great honour. He was highly
e(teemed as an author, as well as an advocate; and in 1678
he publithed the * Coutume de Normandie,” with ample
commentaries, of which a fecond edition, in 2 vols. folio,
was publifhed in 1694. At the fame tine was publifhed a
third edjtion of his ** Trané des Hypotheques,” a T'reacife
on Mortgages. He died at Rouen im 1695. Gen. Dig.

Basnace, SAMUEL, DE TFiuortremanvitee, fon of An-
tony, was firft co-paltor with his father at Bayeux, and after-
wards at Zutphen. He was eminent for his learning; and
publifhed in Latin a continuation of Cafaubon’s Critical
Examination of Baronius’s Annals, entitled « De Rebus
Sacris et Ecclefiafticis Exercitationes H:ftorico-ecritice,”?
Ultraje&t. 4to. 1622; and alfo « Anuales Politico-Eeclefi-
attic,” 3 vols. folio, 1706., He died in 1721. Gen. Di@,
Nouv. Did. Hift.

Basnace pe Beauvat, James, eldett fon of Henry, the
mof ilufrious of the name, and fitter, fays Voltaire, for
being mint%er of ftate than of a parifh, was born at Rouen
in 1653. Having acquired a competent knowledge of Greek
and Latin, and feveral modern languages, he went, at the
age of feventeen, to Geneva, where he ftudied philofophy
and divinity. Upon his return to Rouen, he commenced the
exercife of his profeffion as paftor of the church in 1676, and
in confequence of the revocation of the edi& of Nantes, res
tired to Holland, and fettled as minifter at Rotterdam. Such
was the reputation he acqnired for political fagacity, that
when the Abbe du Bois came to the Hague, in. 1706, ender
the character of ambaflador plenipotentiary, to negeciate a
defenfive alliance between. France. England, and the States-
General, he was ordered by the duke of Orleans, regent of
France, to confult Mr. Bafnage, and to be diredted by his
advice: and as a reward for his affiftarce on this occalion, he
obtained a reftitution of nis eitate in’ France. His works
are very numerous and valuable; the principal are as follow,
viz. * A Hifory of the Church,” in French, 2 vols. Rot-
terdam, 1699; ‘* The Hittory of the Reformed Churches,”
part of the above work, printed feparately in 2 vols. 4to.:
1725; “Phe Hittory of the Jews. from Jefus Chrift to the
prefent time, being a continuation of the hiftory of Jofephus,’?
written in French; of this work, diftinguifhed by erudition
4nd critical fliil, the bett-edition is the fecond of the
Hague, in 15 vols. r2mo. 17363 “The Republic of the
Hebrews,”’ 3 vols. 8vo. Amit. 1705; « Jewifh Antiquities,”
2 vols. 8vo. 17135 “ Differtation on Duels and Chivalry,”?
8vo. 17203 ** Annals of the United Provinces, fince the
Peace of Muntter,”’ 2 vols. fol. Hague, 1719 and’1726;
* A Treatife on Confcience,”’ 2 vols. Svo.; ‘ Sermons 3?
«On the Holy Communion ;”? « Thefaurus Monumento-
rum Ecclefiafticorum et Hiftoricorum, &c.’’ fol. 4 vols,
Amft. 1725, being a new edition of the ‘ LeAiones Anti-
que”? ot Henry Canifius, enriched with learned prefaces and
remarks. ‘The matter of Bafnage is good, but his flyle,
though fufficiently perfpicuous, is ft ff and inelegant. In
the latter part of his life he removed to the Hague, and died
there in 1723. THe was polite and affable, benevolent and
friendly, and more mild in his difpofition than moft con.

5 C2 , troverfialiits.

BAS

troverfialits. Many of his writings are efteemed equally by
catholics and proteftants. Gen. Di@. Nouv. Dic&. Hittor.

BasnaGe pt Beauvan, Hexxy; younger brother of the
preceding, was born at Rover in 1659, and became a coun-
fellor in the parliament of Normandy. Attached to his re-
lh gious profeffion he quitted his profp-@s at the bar, and took
refuge in Holland, where he publifhed, in 1684, a {mall but
valuable tra&t * On Religious Toleration.”? He alfo wrote
a fequel to the * Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres” of
Bayle, under the ttle of « L’Hiftoire des Ouvrages des Sa-
vans,”? commencirg in 1687, concluded in 170g, and com-
prehending 24 vols. 12mo. This work is reckoned judicious
and impartial, but the writer’s own reflections are fometimes fo
intermixed with thofe of the authors whole works he reviews,
that they cannot be eefily diftieguifhed. His new edition of
‘* Furetiere’s DiQionary,”? 3 vols. fol. was printed in 1701.
He died at the Hagnein 1710. Gen. Di. Nouv. Di&. Hiktor.

BASON, Petvis. in Anatomy. See Pervis.

Basson, or difh, among Gla/s Grinders. Thefe artificers
ufe various kinds of bafons, of sopper, iron, &c. and of va-
rious forms, fome deeper, others fhallower, according to the
foci of the glaffcs that are to be ground. In thefe bafons
convex glafles are formed, as concave ones are formed on
fpheres or bowls.

Glaffes are worked in balons two ways. .JIn the firft, the
bafon is fitted to the arbor, or tree of a lath, and the glafs
(fixed with cement to a handle of wood) prefented and held
faft in the right hand within the bafon, while the proper
motion is given by the foot of the bafon. In the other the
bafon is fixed to a ftand or block, and the glafs with its
wooden handle moved. The moveable bafons are very {mall,
feldom exceeding five or fix inches in diameter; the others
are larger, fometimes above ten feet in diameter. After the
glafs has been ground in the bafon, it is brought fmoother
with greafe and eme:y: and polifhed firft with tripoly, and
finifhed with paper cemented to the bottom of the bafon.
See GrinDING.

Bason, among Maiters, isa large round fhell, or cafe, or-
dinarily of iron, placed over a furnace; wherein the matter
of the hat is moulded into form.

The hatters have alfo bafons for the brims of hats, ufually
of jead, having an aperture in the middle, of a diameter fuf-
ficient for the largeft block to go through.

Bason, in Hydraulics, is alfo ufed on various occafions for
a {mall refervatory of water: as the bafon of a jet-d’-cau, or
fountain ; the bafon of a port, of a bath, &c. which laft Vi-
truvius calls labrum. Bafons are made cither with clay, ce-
ment, or lead; but they are molt ufually made with clay.
In the making of them this way, the diameter muft be made
four feet longer on each fide than the bafon is to be. This
will be taken up by the walls of clay. Tor the fame reafon,
it malt be deg two feet deeper than the intended depth of
the water ; becaufe it is to be Jaid over eighteen inches thick
with clay, avd fix inches with gravel and paving. The wall
is to be made with fhards, rubbifh, or flints, with the natural
earth for mortar: and the clay mult be well worked, and
trod firmly down with the naked feet.

The way of making them with cement is, to allow one foot
nine inches every way for the work; then cut the banks per-
pendicularly, and raife a wall of mafonry a foot thick, made
of pebble floues, or the like, laid in mortar of lime and fand :
the bottom is then to be covered to the fame thicknefs; and
then the folid lining of the cement is to be backed up again
the walls, and over the bottom. This is to be made of {mall
ints ia beds of mortar made of lime and cement. When
this folid is eight inches thick, it mut be plaftered over the
whole furface with cement well fifted, before it be mixed

BAS
with the lime ; and with this it is to be wrought over fmooth
with a trowel. The proportion of this cement fhould be
two-thirds of the cement, or powdered tile, to one-third of
lime; and this cement has the property of hardening fo under
water, that it will become like ftone or marble, and it will
not be fubje& te decay for a long time.

After the foifhing, the bafoa fhould, for four or five days,
be anointed over very often with oil, cr bullcck’s blood, to
keep it from flawing or cracking in the drying ; and after
this, the water fhould be kt in as foon as may be.

The leaded bafons are made with wal!sa foot thick, and a
bottom of half a foot. Thefe mut be of rubble ftones, ce-
mented with plafter; for the lime wil: injure and eat the lead.
The fheets ot lead are to be {pread over thefe wails and bot-
tom, and feamed with folder. Thefe bafons, however, are
but little in ufe now, from the expence of making them, and
the danger of the lead being ftolen.

The waite pipes of fountains ought aiways to be made
large enough fur fear of choaking. When the waite water
is to be carried off into common fewers, it may be carried
away in drains, or earthen pipes; but when it is to ferve for
bafons that lie below it, it is to be conveyed in leaden ones.
Miller.

There are divers forts of bafons; as

Bason figured, that whofe plan or circumference makes
feverai turns and returns, either ftraight, circular, or the like.
Such are moit of the bafons of fountains at Rome.

Bason with a baluflrade, that whofe cavity is {urrounded
with a baluitrade of ftone, marble, brafs, or the like.

Bason with a trench, or bafin a rigole, that whofe border
being of marble, or other ftone, has a trench cut in it, from
whence, at certain diftances, {fprings out a thread of water,
which lines the trench, and forms a kind of nape or gargle
around the baluftrade. Such is that of the fountain of the
rock of the Belvidere at Rome.

-Bason en coguille, that thaped like a hell.

3ason is likewife ufed for a Dock.

Bason of the fea. Sze Sra.

Bason, fale by the, in Commerce, at Amfterdam, is ufed
for the public fales made under the cire@ion of the ven du
meefter ; thus called, by reafon that, before adjudging the
lot or commodity to the leit bidder, they ufually ftrike a
brafs bafon to give notice of it. P

Bason harbour, in Geograpdy, lies on the ealt fide of Lake
Champlain, in the township ot Ferrifburg, and ftate of Ver-
mont, 43 miles fouth-wefterly from the mouth of Otter creek.

Basons of a balance, in Mechanics, two pieces of brafs, or
other matter, faitened to the extremities of the ftrings; the
one to hold the weight, the other the thing to be weighed.

BASOVA, in Geography, a town of Siberia, on the river
Lena, 20 miles fouth of Orienga.

BASOUDA, a large town of Hindooftan, belonging to
the diftri& of Bhilfah, in the route from Agra to Oujein.

BASQUES, Les, a country of France, before the re-
volution, fituate between the fea, Spain, the river Adour,
and Bearn towards the Pyrenean mountains, and compre-
hending Labour, Lower Navarre, and the diftric&t of
Soule.

BASQUE Roap lies on the coaft of France, fouth eaft
from the ifland of Rhé, north-eaft from the ifland of Oleren,
north from the ifland d’Aix, and fouth from the weft point
of the entrance into Rochelle, and dire@ly weft without the
bay of Chatelaillon.

BASQUEVILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton in
the diftri& of Dieppe, 3 leagues S.S.W. of Dieppe, and 7$
N.N.W. of Rouen. ;

BASRAH,

_—

BAS

BASRAH. See Bassora.

BASROUCHE, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Taberiftan, 27 miles weft of Farabat.

BASS, among Gardeners, a foft kind of {edge or rufh,
ufed in binding plants, &c.

Bass, in Geography, an ifland, or infulated rock, on the
coalt of Scotland, near the mouth of the frith of Forth, at
afmall dittance from the town of North Berwick in Eatt
Lothian. On the fouth fide it has a conical form, and to-
wards the north it tremendoufly overhangs the fea. The
caitle, or ancient ftate prifon, is on the edge of the preci-
pice. It is acceflible only on the fouth-wett fide, and here
only by one perfon at atime, with the affiltance of a rope
or ladder. On the top of itisa {pring; and a cavern pxfl-s
through the rock from north-weft to fouth-ealt. ‘This
ifland is about a mile in circuit, and in fummer abounds with
birds and their eggs, &c. The foland geefe arrive here in
March, and retire in OGober or November. It contains a
{mall warren for rabbits, and affords pafture for a few fheep.
Ac the revolution it wasfupported by a party of the adherents
of king James, and it was the laft place in the three kingdoms
that fubmitted to the new government ; upon which its for-
tifications were negleG@ed. This iffand is the fouth entrance
into the frith of Forth ; and the ifland of May, feven miles
fromit, at N.N. FE. ealterly is the north entrance, N. fat.
56° 3’. W. long. 2° 35’.

Bass Harbour, a harbour of Mount Defert ifland, in the
diftri& of Maine, North America, feven miles from Soil
Cove.

Bass Strait, fo called from its difcoverer Mr. Bafs, a fur-
geon, is more than 3o leagues wide, containing a chain of
{mall iflands that run north and fouth, and feparates Van
Diemen’s land, hitherto confidered as its fouthern extremity,
from New Holland. Mr. Bafs, accompanied by Mr. Flin-
ders, a naval gentleman, entered this {trait between the lati-
tudes of 39° and 40° fouth, and attually circumnavigated
Van Diemen’s land. This difcovery ferves to expedite the
paflage from the cape of Good Hope to port Jackfon: for,
although a line drawn from the cape to 44° of fouth lati-
tude, and tothe longitude of the fouth cape of Van Die-
men’s land, would not fenfibly differ from one drawn to the
Jatitude of 40°, to the fame longitude; yet a fhip will be
four degrees nearer to port Jackfon in the latter fituation,
than inthe former, But befides a faving of four degrees
ef latitude along the coaft, the paflage through this ftrait
would avoid the north-eaft winds, which have retarded and
endangered fhips on opening the fea round the fouth
cape andcape Pillar. This ftrait likewife prefents another
advantage. rom che prevalence of the north-eaft and eaft-
erly winds. off the fouth cape, many fuppofe that a paflage
may be made from thence to the weftward, either to the
cape of Good Hope or to India; but the fear of the great
unknown bight between the fouth cape and the fouth-weft
cape of Lewen’s land, lying in about 35° fouth and 113°
ealt, has hitherto prevented the trial from being made. The
ftrait evades a part of this danger, by prefenting a certain
place of retreat, fhould the thip be oppofed by a gale at the
firkt effay ; and fhould the wind come at fouth-eaft, the need
not fear making a good ftretch to the W. N. W., which
courfe, if made good, 1s within a few leagues of going
clear of all. There is befides King George the Third’s
found, difcovered by Capt. Vancouver, fituate in S. lat. 35°
3’, and E. long. 118° 12’; and it is hoped, that a few
years will difclofe many others upon the coaft, as well as
confirm or difprove the conjecture that a itill larger than
Bals ftrait difmembers New Holland. Collins’s account of
New South Wales, p. 192, 193.

BAS

Bass, in Mufic. See Base.

BASSAD, or Besp, an Arabian name for the purple
Jucus of the Greeks, ufed by the women to paint their
cheeks, and by the dyers of cloths. It has been fo far mif-
underftood by late authors as to be interpreted by the word
coral ; but the error of this is evident, fince coral has none
of thefe propertics. See Marcian.

BASSAIM, in Geography. See Bassecn.

BASSAMUER Rock lies on the coaft of France, in
the Englih channel, and isa fhoal that bears about a league
N. by W. from La Ciarte church, near the point fo called,
to the fouth from the feven iflands.

BASSAN, Giacomo, in Biography, acclebrated pain-
ter, whofe real name was Giacomo de Ponte, was called
Baffan from the town of Baflano on the river Brenta, where
his father lived and followed the fame profefion. He was
born in 1510, and became a difciple of Bonifacio ; and after
having improved himfelf in his art by ftudying and copying
the works of Titian and Parmegaiano at Venice, he returned
to his native town. Here he formed a ftyle different from
that of his mafters, and guided by his own genius, he af-
fumed a manner of colouring and dcfigning peculiar to him=
felf, and copied all his objets from nature. His fubjects
were generally taken from fuch parts of feripture as affard
the rural fcenery of animals and landfeape connéted with
fome ftory; fuch as the journeyings of the patriarchs, the
Ifraelites in the defert, the flight of Jofeph and Mary into
Egypt, &c. In all thefe fubjeéts his figures were well de-
figned; molt of them were formed fromhis wife, children, and
fervants, and the animals in his court-yard; and they had of
courfe a pleating refemblance of nature. Althouyh his com-
pofitions cannot boaft of any great degree of clegance or
dignity, they are diftinguifhed by force and truth; his co-
louring was admirably lively and natural; and his chiaro-
{curo and perfpeétive were correétly difplayed. His touch
was free and fpirited ; and in his landfcapes his diftances
were always true. Although he had many excellencies,
his drawing was incorreét, and his draperies were deftitute
of variety. His works are eafily difcriminated from thofe
of other painters, by the fimilitude of charaSers and counte-
nances in the figures and animals ; by his talte in the build-
ings, uterfils, and draperies ; and by a violet or purple tint
that predominates in every one of his pictures. Baflan
painted much, and with eafe ; fo that his pidiures were fent
by wholefale to merchants, who difperfed them over Europe.
His real pictures, however, are not common; as many of
thofe that are called originals are copies by his fous, who
were inferior to himfelf, or by fome painter of meaner abi-
Iities. Baffano praéifed alfo in portrait, and painted feve-
ral excellent likeneffes of the doges of Venice, of Ariofto,
Taffo, and other perfons of eminence. His houfe at Baffano,
to which he was attached, and which the folicitations of
the emperor Randolph could not induce himto leave, was
the place of refort to many perfons of diflin@ion, and the
receptacle of the arts, particularly of mufic, of which he
wasa matter. In his private condué Baffan was regular ;
and his charity was fo profufe, that his wife was under a
neceffity of reftraining his liberality. He lived to the age
of 82, and diedin 1592. Several of his capital pieces are
in the churches of Baflano, Venice, Vicenza, and other
towns of Italy. Some of his {maller works may be found
in moft of the principal colleGtions of Europe; but thofe
that are really originals fetch a high price. Many of them
have been engraved.

Giacomo Baffan had four fons, who were painters. Fran-
cefco, the eldeft, was the moft eminent. He was born in
1550. He painged inthe ftyle and manner of his ria

: an

4%«@

BAS

and greatly excelled his brothers in defigning, drawing, and
colouring. He was employed in the church of St. Mark at
Venice, in conjunion with Tintoretto and Paolo Veronefe.
By inceffant application he increafed the natural melancholy
of his diipofition, and put an end to his life in 1594, by
throwing himfelf out of a window. Leandro was born. in
1558, [ettled at Venice, painted in the ityle of his father
and brother, but with inferior merit, and particularly ex-
celled in portraits. ‘The portrait of the doze Grimani pfo-
cured for him the honour of knighthood. His life was irre-
gular, aed he diftrefled himfelf by a-conftant fulpicion of
the intention of his companions to poifon him. He died
in 1623. Lhe other two brothers, viz. Giovanni Battifia
and Girolano, the former bora in 1553.and dying in 1013,
and the latter born in 1560 and dying in 1622, chiefly em-
ployed themfelves in copying the works of their father and
eldeft brother. Pilkington..,

BASSANI, Giamparista, in Mufical Biography, was
chiefly known in England, at the beginning of the laft-cen-
tury by his Motets, which were more graceful and plealing
than thofe of any of his countrymen, except Cariflimi and
Stradella. But he has many titles toan honourable place in mu-
fical hiitory. He was not only author of thirty-one different
works in favour all over Europe during the limited longevity
of mulical produ&tions, but the frit compofer for the violia
in Italy, who feems to have written for it with the fpinit and
intelligence of a real mater of the inftrument. He wasa
native of Bologna, maelftro di capella of the cathedral, Aca-
demico Filarmonico of that city, and violin-mafter to Corelli.
Baflazi, who flourifhed from about the year 1675 to 1793

- (the date of his jaft work), was a man of extenlive know-

ledge and abilities in his art; having been not only a fuc-

~ ceisful compofer for thechurch, the theatre, and the cham.

ber, but an-excellent performer on the violin, as we are af-
fured by Padre Marzini his townfman, who was old enough
to have formed his opinion from thofe who had often heard
him perform. And indeed, his fonatas for the violin, and
accompaniments for that inftrument to his mafles, motets,
pfalms, and cantatas, mauifefta knowledge of the finger-
board and bow, which appears in the works of no other
compoler, anterior to Corelli, which we have been able to
find; and thelovers of the pure harmony and fimple melody
of that admirable matter would ftill receive great pleafure
from the performance of Baflani’s fonatas for two violins
and a bafe; in which they would hear, not only the general
mufical language of the time, but the mild accents and grate-
ful tones of Corelli’s own mellifluous voice.

BASSANIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mace-
donia, on the frontiers of Illyria, fituate, according to Livy,
about 5 miles from Liffus, and belonging to the Cavians.

BASSANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, belonging
to the itate of Venice, inthe Trevifano, onthe Brenta, 12
miles north of Vicenza.

Bassano, a town of Italy, in the ftate of the church,
near which Dolabella defeated the Etruriand Boii, 3 miles
weft of Orta. ;

BASSANTIN, James, in Biography, a Scots a‘trono-
mer, in the fixteenth century, was the fon of the laird of
Baffantin, in the Mers, aud born in the reign of king James
IV. The rudiments of knowledge, and particularly of that
fkill in various branches of the mathematics for which he
was afterwards fo diftinguifhed, he acquired in the univerfity
of Glalgow. For further improvement he travelled through
various parts of the continent, and at length fettled at Pa-
ris, where he taught the mathematics with applaufe in the
univerfity of that city. During his abode in this city, he

imbibed that zeal for the delufions of judicial altrology, .

- BAS

which was then fo prevalent, and which few aftronomers
had judgment or refolution fufficient to difcouptenance.
Arter having acquired great reputation and fome fortune. in»
France, he returned to his own country in 1562. At York,
in his journey through England, he had an interview with
fir Robert Melvil, brother of fir James Melvil, who, in his
‘< Mentoirs,”’ relates the coryerfation that paffed between
them. It appears that Baflantin communicated to Melvil
certain predictions relating to his miftrefs, Mary queen of
Scots, who was then treating with Elizabeth after haying
taken refuge in her dominions. Of thefe {predi€tions fome
were true, and others were faife ; but fuch was the political
fagacity of Baffantin, that we may afcribe them to this
fource rather than to his fkill in the occult fciences, for
which however he feems to have been ambitious of being
thoucht diftinguifhed. Of his mode of life during the re-
maining peried of it, we have no account ; but he appears to .
have been a zealous. proteftant, and partifan of the earl of
Murray. Hediedin 1568. Toa flight acquaintance with po-
lice literature, Baffantin added a confiderable degree of ma-
thematical and aftronomical knowledge, confidering the dark
periodin which ke lived. His principal work in aftronomy was
written in French, and tranflated into Latin by Tomefius,
and _publifhed at Geneva in 1599, folio, under the title of
«« Aftronomia, Jacobi Baffantin Scoti, opus abfolutiffimum,
&c. &c.””? He alfo publithed “ Paraphrafe de 1’Attrolabes
avec un amplification de l’ufage de i’Aftrolabe,” or an
ample explanation of the aftrolabe, printed at Lyons in
1555, and at Parisin 1617, Svo.; ‘ Super Mathematica
Genethliaca,”’ or of the calculation of nativities ; Arith-
metica ;” ‘* Mufica fecundum Platoni;’? and “ De Mathefi
in genere.”? _Biog. Brit. ithe ,
BASSANUS, in Ornithology, a {pecies of PELECANUS,
as large as a common goole, with a wedge-fhaped tail;
bedy white ; bill and primary quill-feathers black ; and face
blue. Gmelin. Latham, &c. ~ . .
This is the commen gannet, or foland goofe; a bird
found in great plenty on all the northern coafts of Britain,
but rather lefs commen to the fouthward. The adult birds
have the plumage nearly all white ; but during the firft years
it is of a .dufky colour, and only fpeckled with white. SRE:
billis blueifh-afh colour, abovt fix inches in length, an
has the noftrils placed in a furrow; the mouth within ‘is
black ; the throat is bare; and the fkin very dilatable, form-
ing a pouch of fufficient fize to contain five or fix herrings ;
the legs are black, marked with a ftripe of pea-green be-
fore; and the claw of the middie toe is peStinated. The
males and female are very much alike in plumage. The gan-
net is particularly abundant in the ifle of Auifa in the firth
of Clyde; the rocks adjacent to St. Kilda; the ftalks of
Soulifkerry, near the Orkneys; the Skelig ‘fles off the coafis
of Kerry, Ireland; and the Bafs ifland in the frth of Edin-

‘burgh. Dr. Hervey gives fome account of the latter in

thefe words. Thereisa {mall ifland, called by, the Scotch
Bafs iftand, ‘not more than a mile in c'reumference ; the
furface is almoft wholly covered during the month’ of May
and June with nelts, eggs, and young birds; fo that it is
{carcely poffible to walk without treading on them; and
the flocks of birds in flight are fo prodigious as to darken
the air like clouds; and their noife is fuch that you cannot
without difficulty hear your next neighbour’s voice. Ifyou
look down upon the fea from the top of the precipice, you
will fee it on every fide covered with infinite numbers of
birds of different kinds, fwimming and hunting for their
prey ; if in failing round the ifland you furvey the hangin

cliffs, you fee in every cragg or fiffure of the broken rogks

‘innumerable birds of various forts and fizes, more than the

ftars

, BAS

flars of heaven when viewed in a ferene night ; if from afar
you fee the diftant flocks either flying to or from the ifland,
you wou!d imagine them to be a vaft {warm of hees.”’

« The gannet,”? obferves Dr. Latham, * inhabits the
colder parts of this kingdom, and more efpecially feveral of
the northern ifles, and in particular that of Bafs in Scotland,
whence the name. It generally firft makes its appearance
in March, and after making acireuit of the ifland, departs
m October or November. ‘This race feems to be in purfuit
of the herrings and pilchards, whole motions it watches;
and the fifbermen know the coming of thefe fifh by the
appearance of the birds. That this is the inducement feems
probable, as they are likewife feen, in the morth of De-
cember, as far fouth as the coaft of Lifbon and Gibraltar,
plungifie for fardine. The gannet is alfo common on the
coafts of Norway and thofe of Iceland, and now and then
met with on the fouthern coaft of Greenland. In America,
it is found on the coafts of Newfoundland where it breeds
migrating in winter as far as Carolina: faid alfo to have been
met with frequently in the fouthern ocean; but we are not
clear whether the fort meant by them is the common gannet,
or the leffer one.”

«©The gannets,’? Mr. Pennant: remarks, “are birds of
pence. The fir appearance in thofe iflands being in

arch, and their continuance till Auguft or September,
according as the inhabitants take or leave their firlt egg ;
but in general the time of breeding and that of their de-
parture feems to coincide with the arrival of the herring,
and the migration of that fifh, which is their principal food,
out of thofe feas.”’—* IT have in the month of Auguit,” he
adds in another place, ‘ obferved in Caithnefs their north-
ern migrations. I have feen them pafling the whole day in
flocks, from five to fifteen in each. In calm weather they
fly high, in ftorms they fly low and near the fhore ; but
never crofs over land, even when a bay with promontories
intervenes, but follow at an equal diftance the courfe of the
bay, and regularly double every cape. I have feen many
of the parties make a fort of halt tor the take of fithing ;
then darting headlong into the fea, make the water foam
and {pring up with the violence of theirdefcent: after which
they purfued their route. I enquired whether they ever
were obferved to return fouthward in the fpring, but was
an{wered in the negative ; fo that it appears, they annually
encircle the whole ifland.”’

They are well known on moft of our coaits by different
names. - In Cornwall and in Ireland they are called gannets,
and by the Welth gan. It comes on the coalts of Cornwall
in the latter end of the fummer or beginning of Antumn,
hovering over the thoals of pilchards that come up through
the St. George’s channel fromthe north fea. The gannet
feldom comes near the land, but is conttant to its prey ; and
when the pilchards retire, which happens about the end of
November, they are feen no more.

_ The nett of the gannet is compofed of various materials,
fuch as grafs, and water plants intermixed with any thing
the bird finds floating on the water. ach bird, if undif-
turbed, would lay only one egg in the year; but if that
be taken away, they will lay another; and if that be taken
away alfo, they will lay a third, but no more. The
young gannets, as well as the eggs, are eaten. Martin
aflures us, that the inhabitants of St. Kilda confume an-
« nuaily no lefs than 22,600 young birds of this {pecies, befides
an amazing quantity of their eggs; thefe bei their prin-
cipal {upport throughout the year: they preferve both eggs
and fowls in pyramidal ttone-buildings, covering them with
turf afhes to preferve them from moifture. his is a dear~
bought food, and earned at the hazard of their lives, either

BAS

by climbing the moft difficult and narrow paths, where to
appearance they barely cling, and that too at an amazing
height above the raging fea; or elfe, being lowered down
from above, they collect their annual provifion, thus hanging
midway in the air, and placing their whole dependence on
the uncertain footing of one perfon who holds the rope by —
which they are fufpended at the top of the precinice. The
young birds are a favourite difh with the north Britons in
general, during the feafon they gre conftantly brought from
the Bafs ifle to Edinburgh, and are roafted and ferved up a
little before dinner as a whet: the price they are fold for in
the markets are twenty-pence a piece.

The following account of the gannets in the ifle of St.
Kilda is' given by Mr. Macauley. ‘* The rocks are “in
fummer totally covered with the foland geefe and other fow!s,
and-appear ata diftance like fo many mountains covered
with fnow. The neft of the foland goofe, not to mention
thofe of other fowls, are fo clofe, that when one walks be-
tween them the hatching fowls 6n either fide can always
take hold of one’s clothes; and they will often fit till they
are attacked, rather than expofe their eggs to the danger of
being deftroyed by the fea gulls: at the fame time an equal
number fly about, and furnifh food for their mates that are
employed in hatching’; and there are, befides, large flocks of
barren fowls of the different tribes that frequent the rocks of
St. Kilda.

“The foland geefe, equal almoft the tame ones in fize.
The common amufement of the herring-fifhers fhows the
great {trength of this fowl. The fifhers fix a herring upon a
board, which has a {mall weight under it to fink it a little
below the furface of the fea: the foland goofe obferving the
fith, darts upon it perpendicularly ; and with fo much force,
that he runs his bill irrecoverably through the board, and is
taken up dire&tly by the fifhers.

«The foland geefe repair to St. Kilda in the month of
March and continue there till after the beginning of No-
vember. Before the middle of that month they, and ail the
other fea-fowls that are fond of this coaft, retire much
about the fame time into fome other favourite regions, fo
that not a fingle fowl belonging to their element is ‘to be
{een about St. Kilda from the beginning of wioter down to
the middle of February. Before the young foland geefe fly
off, they are larger then their mothers, and the fat on their
breatt is fometimes three inches deep. Into what quarter
of the world thefe tribes of wild fowl repair, after winter
fets in, whether into the northern ocean, the native country
and winter-quarters of herrings in general, or into fome
other region nearthe fun, or whether they be of the fleeping
kind, they who pry into: the myfteries of natural hiftory, or
have converfed much with writers ef voyages can bett ex-
plain. I hall only pretend to fay that thele different na.
tions of the feathered kind are taught to chufe the propereft
habitations and feeding places, and fo fhift their quarters
feafonably by the unerring hand of God.

« From the account given above of the multitude of fea-
fowls that feek their food on this coalt, we may juftly con-
clude that there muft be inexhauitible ftores of fifh there.
Let us fora moment confine our attention to the confump-
tion made by a fingle {pecies of fowls.» The toland goofe
is almoft infatiably voracious; he flies with great force and
velocity, toils all the day with little intermiffion, and digefts
his food in avery fhort time; he difdains to eat any thing
worfe than herring or mackrel, unlefs it be ina very hungry
place, which he takes care to avoid or abandon. We thall
take it for granted that there area hundred thoufand of
that kind around the rocks of St. Kilda; and this calcu.

lation is by far too moderate, as no lefs than twenty thou-
fand,

BAS

fand of this kind are deflroyed every year, including the
young ones. We fhall fuppofe, at the fame time, that the
foland geefe fojourn in thefe feas for about feven months in
the year; that each of them dettroys five herringsin a day,
a fubliftence infinitely poor for fo greedy a creature, unlefs
it were more than half fupported at the expence of other
fifhes. Here we have 100,000,000 of the fineft fifh in the
world devoured annually by a fingle fpecies of the St. Kilda
fea-fowls,’”? &c.

In concluding this account of the gannet, it is proper to
obferve that /e grand fou of Briffon and Buffon, and great
booby of Catefby, an inhabitant of the fea-fhores of Florida,
is fuppofedto be the young or at leaft a variety of pelecanus
Baffanus; and that obferved by navigators fo common on
Alcention ifland pelecanus pifcator, a different {pecies.

BASSAWS, or Bona, Shoals, in Geography, lie on the
weit coaft of Africa, beginning abcut weit, or to the fouth
of weft from Sierra Leone, and ruaniig out far to fea in
rounds and hoilows, fo that fhips cannot clear them without
ftanding off out of fight of land.

BASSE, Bass, or La Basses, a town of France, ia
the department of the North, and chief place of a cauton in
the diftri& of Lille; ceded by the Spaniards to France by
the treaty of Aix-ia-Chapelle, in 1668; formerly a place of
confiderable ftength, but difmantled by Lous XIV. It is
fituated on the Deule, 2 leagues eaft of Bethune, and 35
fouth-weft of Lille. The place contains 2171, and the
canton 11,913 inhabitants: the territory includes 75 kili-
ometres and 11 communes. N, lat 50° 53’. E. long. 3° ©’.

Basse, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of a ffh found
on fome of the Britith coafts, and named perca labrax. Linn.
Syit. 482. ed. 12. |

Basse-Cour,in Building, a court feparated from the prin-
cipal one, aud deftined for the ftables, coach-houfes, and
livery-fervants.

Basss-Cour of a country-feat, isthe yard or place where
the cattle, fowls, &c. are kept.

That where ftrange creatures of divers forts are kept for
curiofity, is called by the French menagerie. The Romans
gave the name of vivarium to that place, where beafts were
kept for the public fhows.

Basse, in Middle Age Writers, denotes a collar for carte
horfes, made of flags. Hencealfo the round matted cufhions
of flags, ufed for kneeling in churches, are called baffle ; in
Kent, atru/o.

Basse de Flute traverfiere, Fr.in Mu/ic, a fide-flute, a fifth
below the ufual compafs of the German flute, now out of ufe
in France ; and we never remember its ufe in England.

Basse-flute. When, at the beginning of the lafl century,
the flute a-bec, or common flute, was in general ufe and
favour, there were flutes of every fize and pitch. F natural
being the beft in tune, and the eafieft key on the commoa
flute, all fongs and other favourite airs were tranfpofed for
the flute into that key, or into C natural, at the bottom of
the plate, wher printed. The bafe flute was an octave be-
low this F, and theoétave flute an oGtave higher. See PLure.

Basse Tonigue, the bafe of the key-note, or Tartini’s
third found, produced by the concurrence of two treble notes
perfeétly in tune, and fteadily fultained with two voices,
violins, flutes, hautbois, or by two ftrings in deuble ftops on
one violin, or two keys onthe organ. See Terza Suona.

BASSEEN, or Bagaim, in Geography, a fortified city,
fituate on the point of the continent on the weftern coalt of
the peninfula of India, oppofite to the north end of Salfetta.
It lies ia. N. lat. 19° 19, and under the fame meridian as
Bombay. This place fell into the hands of the Englith,
after a {mart fiege in 1780, but was reftored to the Mahrattas,
é' 7

BAS

together with all the other conquefts made on that fide of
India, at the peace of 1783; Salfetta and the {mall iflands
excepted. :

BASSENTO, a river of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, which runs into the Grati, near Cofenza.

BASSERSTORYF, a town of Swifferland, in the canton
of Zurich, 4 miles N.E. of Zurich.

BASSET, or Basurrs, a game with cards, faid to have
been invented by a noble Venetian; for which ke was ba-
nifhed. It was fir intreduced into France, by fignior
Juttiniani, ambaflador of Venice in 1674. Severe laws were
made again it by Louis XIV.; to elude which they
difguifed baffet under the name of pour & contre, that is,
for and againft; which occafioned new arrets and pro-
hibitions of parliament. The parties concerned in it are, a
cealer or barker, his affiftant, who fupervifes the lofing
cards, and the punter, or any one who plays againit the
banker.

Befides thefe, there are other terms ufed in this game;
as, 1. The fufe, or face, which is the firft card turned up
by the ¢aillure belonging to the pack; by which he gains
half the value of the money laid down on every card of that
fort by the punters. 2. The couch, or firft money which
every punter puts on each card; each perfon that plays
having a book of thirteen feveral cards before him, on which
he may lay his money, more or lefs, at difcretion. 3. The
paroli, which is, when a punter having won the firft ftake,
and having a mind to purfue his good fortune, crooks the
corner of his card, and lets his prize lie, aiming at a /ept et /e
va. 5. The mafe, when having won the firft ftake, the punter
is willing to venture more money on the fame card. 5.
The pay, when the punter having won the firft ftake, be it a
fhilling, half crown, guinea, or whatever he laid down on his
card, and not caring to hazard the paroli, leaves off, or goes
the pay; in which cafe, if the card turn up wrong, he
looies nothing, having won the couch before; whereas, if it
turn right, he by this adventure wins double the money
ftaked. 6. The al/piew, much the fame with paroli, and ufed
when a couch is won by turning up, or crooking the corner
of the winning card. 7. Sept et /e va, the firlt great chance
or prize, when the punter having won the couch, makes a
paroli, and goes on to a fecond chance; fo that if bis winning
card turns up again, it comes to /ép? et le va, which is feven
times as much as he laid down on his card. 8. Quinze et le
va, is the next higher prize, when the punter, having won
the former, is refolved to pufh his fortune, and lay his money
a fecond time on the fame card, by crooking another corner;
in which cafe, if it come up, he wins fifteen times the money
he laid down. Q. Trent et le va, is the next higher prize,
when the punter crooking the fourth corner of his winning
card, if it turn up, wins thirty-three times the money
he firft flaked. 10. Soixant et le va, is the higheft prize, and
entitles the winner to fixty-feven times his money ; which, if
it were confiderable, ftands a chance to break the bank ; but
the bank itands many chances firft of breaking the punter.
This cannot be won, but by the /ail/eur’s dealing the cards
over again.

The rules of the game of baffet are as follow: The
banker holds a pack of fifty-two cards, and having fhuffled
them, he turns the whole pack at once, fo as to difcover the
laft card ; after which he lays down all the cards by couples,
The punter has his book of thirteen cards in his hand, from
the king to the ace; out of thefe he takes one card or more
at pleafure, upon which he lays aftake. The punter may,
at his choice, cither lay down his ftake before the pack is
turned, or immediately after it is turaed, or after any number
of couples are down. Suppoling the punter to lay aes hig

ake

s

ee eae ee ee ae

_

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flake after the pack is turned,’and calling 1, 2, 3,4) 5, &e.
the places of thofe cards which follow the card in view,
either immediately after the pack is turned, or after any
number of couples are drawn. Then if the card, upon
which the punter has laida flake, comes out in any odd
place except the firlt, he wing a {take equal to his own. If
the card upon which the punter has laid a ftake,- comes out
in any even place except the fecond, he lofes his ftake. If
the card of the punter comes out in the firft place, he nei-
ther wins nor lofes, but takes his own flake again. Ifthe card
of the punter comes out in the fecond place, he does not lofe
his whole flake, but only one half; and this is the cafe
in which the punter is faid to be faced. When the punter
choofes to come in after any number of couples are down, if
his card happen to be but once in the pack, and is the laft of
all, there is an exception from the general rule; for though
it comes out in an odd place, which fhould entitle him to
win a flake equal to his own, yet-he neither wins nor lofes,
from that circumftance, but takes back his own ftake.

This game has been the fubje&t of mathematical calcula-
tions Mr. De Moivre folves this problem; to eflimate
at baffet the lofs of the punter under any circumitance of
cards remaining in the flock, when he lays his flake,
and of any number of times that his card is repeated in
the ftock. From this folution he has formed a fable,
fhewing the feveral loffes of the punter in whatfoever cir-
cumitances he may happen to be. See Do&trine of Chances,

63%

z From this table it appears, 1. That the fewer the cards
are inthe ftock, the greater is the lofs of the punter. 2.
That the lealt lofs of the punter, under the fame circum-
ftanses of cards remaining inthe ftock, is when his card is
but twice in it; the next greater when but three times; {till
greater when four times ; and the greateft when but once.
The gain of the banker upon ail the money adventured at
baffet, is 15s. 3d. per cent. De Moivre, Doétr. of Chances,
p: 69. edit. 3.

Basser, in Zoology, the name given by Buffon to that
Kind of dog which is called in England the turnfpit, canis
wertagus of Gmelin. Of this kind he makes two varieties ; le
baffet a jambes droites, and le baffet a jambes torfes; the
firft having ftraight legs, and the laft crooked ones.

BASSETERRE, in Geography. a general name given by
the French to the low lands of the Weit India iflands; fuch
are the S.W. part of the two parts of Guadaloupe ifland,
feparated by a {mall arm of the fea, called the Salt river:
and alfo the N.W. part of the ifland of Martinico.

BaAsstrerre Yozwz, afea-port town on the S.W. coaft
of the ifland of St. Chriftopher in the Weit Indies, and
capital of the ifland, fituated at the mouth of a river, open-
ing into a bay, called Baffeterre road. The town contains
about Soo houfes, and is defended by three baiteries. N. lat.
17° 24’. W. long. 62° 37’.

Bassererre Lown, is alfo a fea-port town on the S.W,
coaft of the ifland of Guadaloupe, regularly built, with fome
handfome houfes, and defended by a citadel. N. lat. 15°

! 30”. W. long. 61° 59’ 15”.

BASSETING, in the Coal Mines, denotes the rife of the
vein or coal towards the furface of the earth, till it come
within two or three feet of the furface itfelf.

Thisis alfo called by the workmen croping, and ftands op-
poled to dipping, which is the defcent of the vein to fuch a
depth that is rarely, if ever, followed to the end.

BASSI, AncExo, in Biography. See Poriziano.

Bassi, Laura, an Italian lady, diftinguifhed by her ac-
quirements, was the wife of Dr. Jofeph Verati of Bologna.
ore nedtatand the Greek, Latin, and French languages, as

OL, °

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well as her own, and was eminent for her literature and
fcience. In 1732, fhe was honoured with the doétorial
dignity, and the kept up a correfpondence with many learned
perfons in Europe, who admired her talents and accomplith-
ments. ‘She commenced a courfe of leétures in philofophy
in 1745, and continued them to her death. Her morals were
pure, and her character amiable ; and fherwas liberal in her
aéts of charity to the poor and orphans. She died at an ad-
vanced age at Bologna in 1778. Nouv. Di&. Hilt.

BASSIA, in Botany, fo named by Kenig in honour of
Ferdinando Baffi, curator of the botanic garden at Bologna.
Linn. Gen. Reich. n. 645. Schreb. 805. Jufl. 132. Gert.
t.104. Clafs and order, dodecandria monogynia. Wat. Ord.
Dumofe ; Sapote of Jull. Gen. Char. Cal. perianth four-
leaved ; leaflets coriaceous, ovate, permanent. Cor. mono-
petalous, bell-fhaped; tube inflated, ovate, ficthy ; border
fhorter than the tube, eight-parted; divifions ovate, almolt
upright. Stam. filaments fixteen ; eight below the jaws, and
eight in the middle of the tube; anthers linear, fagittate,
acute, villofe on the infide, fhorter than the corolla. Pi/.
germ fuperior, ovate ; ftyle fubulate, twice as long as the
corolla; ftigma acute. Per. drupe flefhy, milky. Seeds,
nuts five, oblong, three-cornered.

Eff. Ch. Cal. four-leaved. Cor. eight-cleft ; tube in-
flated. Stam. 16; drupe five-feeded. (Berry five-celled,
with a feed in each cell. G.)

Species, 1. B. longifolia. Iliippe Malabaris, and Micle
Ceylonenfibus. ‘ Leaves ovate-lanceolate, peduncles axil-
lary.”? A lofty tree, with the outmolt branches recurved,
thickifh, and covered with a grey down: leaves on them al.
ternate, approximating, petioled, entire, veined, naked, half
a foot long, and deciduous; petioles roundifh, fhort ; pedun-
cles axillary, from one to five, filiform, one-flowered, upright;
after flowering, prolonged and pendulous; berry oblong,
flightly comprefled, fmooth, fhining, and ycllow, with a
white band. A native of Malabarand Ceylon. 2. B. dubia.
Seed large, half-moon fhaped ; flatted like a lens, fmooth and
fhining, of a dark chefnut colour, excepting an oblong,
rugged, umbilical area, which is almoft white. The fhell is
thick, itony, and very hard. The feeds of bailia are not
eafily diftincuifhed from thofe of fapota, without attending
to the albumen, of which bafita is entirely deftitute; and the
inner integunient is alfo commonly wanting. 3. B. obovate.
Forft. Florul. n. 200. ‘ Leaves obovate; peduncles heaped,
terminating.”? A native of the ifle of Tanna, in the South
feas. Martyn’s Miller’s Did.

BASSIANO, Laup1, in Biography, born at Placenza,
difcovering early a propenfity to the knowledge of medicine,
was fent to Padua, where he fludied under Baptift Monti,
and, having performed the ufual exercifes, in 1544 he was
admitted doétor in philofophy and phyfic. In1544 he was
made profeffor in thofe fciences, and acquired confiderable
reputation as a public teacher. Going to his houfe, in 1562,
he was aflaulted by an affaffin, who killed him by ftabbing
him in feveral parts of his body with a bayonet. He left
feveral-publications, of which the principal are, ‘ Iatrologia
five dialogi duo, in quibus de univerfe artis medicz, precipue
vero morborum omnium et cognofcendorum et curandorum
abfolutiffima methodo, differitur,’’ Befilee 1543,4to.; ‘De
origine et caufa peftis,” Patav.1555,8vo; ‘ De prodigio=
fis partubus.””? Haller. Bib. Med. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.

BASSIN’s River, in Geography, is fituated on the coat
of Labrador, in North America, nearly oppofite to the
north point of Newfoundland.

BASSING, a town of France, in the department of the
Meurte, and chief place of a canton in the diltri& of Dieuze,
Tz league N. E. of Dieuze.

5D BASSIUS,

BASSO.

BASSIUS, Henry, in Biography, fon of Gerard Baffius,
or Bafs, a furgeon of eminence at Bremen, born in 16go. In
1713, he went to Halle, where he ftudied medicine under
Frederic Hoffman, in 1715 to Strafburg, and two years
after to Bafle; attaching him{elf particularly to acquiring a
knowledge of the improvements that had been lately made
in anatomy and furgery. Returning thence to Halle, he
‘was created doétor in medicine; and foon after profeffor in
anatomy and furgery, which office he continued to hold till
the time of his death, March 5th 1754. His works are,
*‘Difputatio de filtuia ani feliciter curanda,”? 8vo. 1718;
** Obfervationes anatomico-chirurgico-medice,’’ Hale 1731,
with figures, reprefenting fome inftruments invented by the
author,—a work much commended by Haller; ‘* TraGtatus
de morbis venereis,”? Lipfie 1764, 8vo.; a pofthumous
work, to which the editor has added fome valuable obferva-
tions. He alfo publithed, inthe German language, ** Com-
mentaries on Nuck’s Art of Surgery,’ 8vo. 1728. Haller,
Bib. Anat. et Chir. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.

BASSO Conrinvo, in Mujic, originally meant the ac-
companiment to the higher parts of a fonata, concerto, or
chorus, in whatever cliff it was written, which ferved as a
bafe, when the real bafe was filent; as in fugues, and other
movements ; to let the accompanier on the organ or harpfi-
chord know what was doing by the other inftruments, while
his part was at reft. This may ftill be feen in the organ
part (organo) to Corelli’s Sonatas, Op. 1ma, which were
compofed in the feventeenth century, after which the cultom
was difcontinued, there being no inftance of it in his other
works. ‘Though in the fonatas of Baffani, his mafter, and
in thofe of Torelli, it is conftant. Handel, in his hautbois
concertos, and in his twelve grand concertos, calls the ripie-
no bafe, baffo continuo.

It was to this kind of choral bafe for the organ or
harpfichord, in ecclefiaftical mufic, that the harmony of the
whole fcore, without a treble part, was firft exprefled by
figures over the bafe notes. Baffo continuo, by an aukward
tranflation, is, in Englifh, fynonimous with thorough-ba/e,
which fee.

It was inthe beginning of the feventeeth century that
Ludovico Viadana (not Viana, as erroneoufly written by
Rovffeau, and copied from him in both editions of the En-
cyclopedic) one of the moft diftinguifhed ecclefiattical com-
pofers of that time, invented the indication of chords by
figures, in what the Italians call the baffo continuo, and the
Englifh thorough-bafe, or accompaniment on keyed inftru-
ments, lutes, harps, and, in recitatives, even violoncellos; but
we have found feveral inttances of the minute beginnings
of this expedient before the time of Viadana; though he
was doubtlefs the firft who drew up general rules for ex-
prefling harmony by figures over the bafe in 1615. Draudius,
in an ample lift of his ecclefiaftical compofitions, which were
very numerous, tellsus of one that authenticates his claim to
this invention, which was a colletion of all his choral pieces
of one, two, three, and four parts; ‘*with a continued and
general bafe, adapted to the organ according toa new inven-
tion, and ufeful for every finger as wellas organitt ; to which
are added fhort rules and explanations for accompanying a
general bafe, according to the new method.”? Viadana was
therefore the firll whe compofed an organ-bafe different
from the voice-part, in the execution of which the new-in-
vented figures enabled the performer to give the fingers the
whole harmony of the feveral parts of a full campofition,
without feeing the fcore.

In 1731, Matthefon, in his * Goffe general vaffe fchule
oder Dev efxemplarifchen ozqaniften proben,” a treatife
en thorough-bafe, has given a lit of twenty-two writers

*

on accompaniment from the time of its invention in
1606. The invention has been indifputably fecured to
Viadana in Draudius’s Catal. ii. (Draudio Bibliotheca Claf-
fica, 2 vols. 4to. Frankofurti 1625.), where there is a lift of
all his works, and among the relt, ** Dn. Ludovici Viadane
Itali opera omnia facrorum coucertuum, I, 2, 3, & 4. voc.
cum baffo continuo & generali, organo applicato, novaque
inventione pro omni gcnere et forte cantorum et organiftarum
accommodata. Adjun&ia infuper in baffo generali hujus
nove inventionis initructione et fuccinéta expheatione, La
tine, Ital. et Germ. ap. Steinium 4. 1613.”

In the lift which Matthefon has given of twenty-two
authors on accompaniment before 1731, it is obfervable that
only one tra& isin Englifh; and that written by Kellera
German, who lived in queen Anne’s time, and dedicated to
her majefty fix fonatas tor two flutes and a bate.

In Rameau’s fyftem, and ftill lefs in that of the abbé
Feytou, as the fundamental bafe can have no melody, but
what arifes from its own harmony or fingle common chord,
la baffe continue may be regarded asa kind of low treble
under the violins and tenor, or as a variation of the funda-
mental bafe.

Basso Streito, Ital. a bafe confined to a few bars or notes,
repeated to different and varied treble parts. The Englifh
call this kind of monotonous movement a ground. During
the feventeenth century, che Italians and their imitators were
very fond of writing upon a ground-bafe; Stradella and
Purcell frequently manifefted their ingenuity under fuch re-
itriGions; nor had the fafhion quite fubfided in Handel’s
time, as may be feen in the laft chorus of his Dettingen Te
Deum, and elfewhere in his numerous and admirable works.
See Grounp, Cracona, and CHACONNE.

Basso Cantante, Ital. Baffle, Fr. the vocal bafe-part, or
the bafe finger in an oratorio, opera, or concert.

Basso Relievo, Italian, Bas-relief, French, in Sculpture, is
the reprefentation of figures ona back ground, in fuch a
manner that no part of them is detached from it; alto relievo,
high relief, has the groffer parts attached to the back ground
whillt the {maller parts are free from it; fome diltinguifh a
third kind, or mezzo relievo, micdle relief, between both; al<
thouzh it muft be acknowledged that all three kinds are im-
plied, in a general mode of {peaking, by the common term of-
baffo-relievo, or bas-relief, becaufe almoft all figures in relievo,
even alto-relievo, are more compreffed or flattened than their
infulated archetypes in nature. This, hke many other terms
in the art of defign, is of modern date, and was moft likely
invented, or at leaft compounded and applied, in the eleventh
or twelfth centuries, when fculpture and archite€ture began
to revive in Italy, and thefe kinds of works became a very
confiderable decoration to the new cathedrals. ‘The Greeks,
to whom we muft look for the beft defiaitions in this art,
as well as the moft excellent works, called this fpecies fimply
anaglypta, carved (Pliny, lib. 33. c.11.); that which we
call alto-relievo was diftinguifhed by them from the low-res
lief, by the word, toreuticen, rounded. Pliny, |. 34.c. 8.

Baflo-relievo, although a confiderable province of feulp«
ture, is in a particular manner allied to architecture and
under its dominion ; as any confiderable work of this kind
mutt be made for the pediment, frieze, or pannel of a build-
ing, or archite@ural form, fuch as a farcophagus or pedettal:
and therefore the general fhape of the ground, the diltri-
bution and projeétion of the figures, muft be fubfervient to
the furrounding and containing parts, in order that they
may produce a beautiful whole. :

It is well remarked by the authors of the French Ency-
clopedie, that “the origin of baffo-relievo is confounded
with that of the hieroglyphic ; that is to fay, it wee “i

irt

© Oe

cates.

i See

OO AOD:

BASS O.

birth to figured writing. Under this point of view, it is
common to all people, and is found among the molt favage.
It was invented by neceflity, appropriated by religion. ‘Che
progrefs alone of the arts of imitation could perfeét thefe
pane figns and give them life. This honour was referved
or the Greeks.. In Greece the arts were in fome fort the
minilters of religion; in Egypt and Afia they were the
flaves. A religious refpect for thefe primitive characters,
which worfhip had fanétified, feared perhaps to change
the ideas in changing the forms to which they were attach-
ed: all contributed, among the Egyptians; to retain the arts
in a kind of infancy, from which religion prevented them
from emerging.”

All the larger hieroglyphics engraven in the furface of
Egyptian architeGture, or on the figures of men and iferior
animals, may be confidered as baffo-relievo; and as of the mo
fimple, it may be confequently of the moft ancient kind; be-
cauie the figure was funk in fuch a manner, that the furface
of the ground was left, forming an enclofure or outline
whole greateft depth was equal to the greateft projection of
the figure. which was productive of thefe advantages. As
many of the hieroglyphics were cut in granite, a very brittle
marble, it prevented the danger of fpoiling the outline in
finking the back-ground, one third of the labour was faved,
and a ftrong fhadow all round the figure, particularly when
the fun fhone on it, defined its form to thefight. All the
temp'es and palaces enumerated by Ripaud, and defcribed
by Denon in the late expedition’ of the French into Egypt,
few that the greater part of thole edifices, as well as inferior
works, were covered with hieroglyphics, or facred figure-writ-
ing in the kind of bas-relief above defcribed: the largett of
thefe formed regular ornaments to the friezes, centres over
the doors, corre{ponding tablets, or pannels where the fym-
metry of the architecture required. The principal of thefe
fizures, according toa comparifon of what we find in Orus
Apollo, Jamblichus on Hicroglyphics, and other authors,
with the hieroglyphics themfelves, {eem to be the reprefenta-
tion of fome charatteriltic or attribute of the divinity, and
the operations of his providence in nature, accompanied by
acts of adoration; the inferior figures and characters are
ranged in lines like writing.

Befides the hieroglyphics, the Egyptians employed bas-
relief, with the ground levelled to the lowelt part of the
* figure, to deferibe the political or military prowefs of their

heroes, and for other hiltorical purpofes. Of this kind are
thefe in the palaces of Karnac, engraved by Denon, and
thofe defcribed in the Bird’s Well, of which there is a f{pe-
_ emen in the ball of the Britifh Mufeum. It isin a foft cal-
careous {tone in very low relief: the fubje&t, men flaying oxen.
The human figures are in violent aftion, which they feem to
have attempted tn hiftorical more than in facred fubjects.
Nor is it furprifing that fuch ations are extravagant, and
not weil rendered ; when we fee by the works themfelves,
that the flock of knowledge which the feulptors pofleffed,
was infufficient to account for the parts of the body by a fine
proportion, beautiful outline, and the anatomical changes of
appearance in the different circumitances of motion. But
the prodigious quantity of this kind of labour ftill remain-
ing muft have occupied the diligence of fo many hands for
a feries of ages, that they could have had little leifure to
make advances, either in the fentiment or fcientific perfec-
tion of their figures. This may account, in part at leat, for
the execution of the quadruped being better than that of
the human figure, which is fo much more difficult.
It is neceffary to give a general account of the character
and ftyle of defign in the Egyptian figures, becaufe what is
faid on this fukje@ will be in a great meafure applicable to

the early progrefs of the arts among the Hindoos, Perfians,
and Greeks, allowing for fome peculiarities in each nation.
The arts of defign are {triétly imitative in the early attempts;
and we find in the Egyptian figures, compounded of differ-
ent animals, that each part is a copy of nature. In the human
figure, the body and limbs were reprefented in general forms.
The face, as being the motk interefting part of the perfon, was
more minutely expreffed. The form of the face was a round-
ed egg, lines of the eye-brows and lids, fimple curves, ins
clining upwards from the nofe, the bottom of the nofe and
the line of the mouth inclined upwards in the fame diretion
with the eyes. The eyes were full, nearly ona level with the
forehead and cheeks, and the lines of the eye-brows, lids,
and borders of the lips, marked with pr/cifion. The chin ap-
peared {mall and bony, the neck round, the fhoulders high
and broad, except the marking of the breaft, little diftinc-
tion of the mufcular forms in any part of the body and limbs,
the loins narrow, thelimbs round, rather ttraig ht and flen-
der, their joints flightly indicated, the hands and feet rather
flat, the fingers and toes rounded. without the appearance
of joints, and nearly of the fame length. According to a
fizure Denon found, meafured by 22 {quares in length, the
half of the figure cach way was from the divifion of the
thighs, the head was rather lefs than a feventh part of the
fizure’s height. See Denon’s Voyage, plate 124, figs 1.

The quadrupeds on Egyptian monuments, are reprefent-
ed in proti'e, and in the fimpleft attitudes. ‘The parts of
which thofe are compofed, are fewer and more general than
thofe in the human figure. This is one reafon why the Egyp-
tians excelled in their animals; the mechanical manner in
which the fhoulder is drawn of the lion and {phinx (where they
have difplayed more anatomy than in any other part) prefents
afimple, but not juft account of the ftruGiure of that mem-
ber of the body: thefe cbfervations apply tothe ftate of
fculpture before the time of Alexander the Great; after
which period, it partook of the improvements introduced
by its Grecian conquerors.

Baffo-relievos are found in Iedia, which decorate the ex=
cavations of Ellora and Elephantis in an aftonithing profu-
fion. The fubjects are facred, fuitable to the temples in which
they are carved; the drawing of the figures and their parts
bears a {trong refemblance to the Egypuan ftyle; but inferior
in this, that many of the fizures have very large heads, the
limbs and bodies difproportioned, It feems likely that the
Egyptian hicroglyphics are more ancient, becaufe more fim-
ple than the Hindoo baffo-relievo; the former having the
ground left even with the highett relief, the latter having the
ground cut level with the loweift outline of the figure. For
the moft extenfive, accurate, and valuable publications of
thefe fubjeéts we are indebted to the abilities and unwearied
labour of our countryman Thomas Daniel, efq. R.A.

The Perfians employed baflo-relievo like the other ancient
nations as a figured writing, at once to record and reprefent
the fymbols of Almighty power and operation, their reli-
gious ceremonies, and the prowe(s of their heroes. The bas-
reliefs on the palace of Perfepolis and the royal tombs are
arranged in lines, horizontal and perpendicular, to anfwer
the double purpofe of defcription and architeCtural decora-
tion: the ftyle of drawing refembles that of the figures in the
later hieroglyphics, although the dreffes are extremely dif-
ferent. ‘Fhe lgyptians are particularly diflinguifhed by the
hood, the mitre, the full hair artifictally curled, the clofe
tunic, the apron of papyrus ; the Hindoos by the necklaces,
bracelets, and anklets; the Perfians have long beards and
hair ending in {mall curls, caps, full tunics with regular folds
and large fleeves ; the Medes in the fame ruins of Perfepolis
have clofe tunics, ‘The drapery in thefe bas-reliefe is rather

5 D2 more

BASSO.

more like nature than that in the Egyptian hieroglyphics
and other bas-reliefs, but this may be the confequence of
what the artilts had more frequently to imitate, initead of a
proof that the arts were more advanced in Perfia than in
Egypt, which feems {till lefs probable when we confider, the
different pofitions of the human figure, the varicty and ex-
tent of the hiftorical compolitions in the palace of Karnac,
the Theban tombs, &c. and the exquifitely neat and perfect
execution of the hieroglyphics on the obelifk of Sefoftris,
lately ere€ted on Monte Citorio by Pius the VIth, far ex-
ceeding the workmanfhip of any figure at Perfepolis. See
Denon’s Egypt. Le Bruyn’s ‘Travels, vol. 2.

The earlielt Greek fculpture extant is fill more like the
Egyptian in the principles of defign, than that of any other
nation. The face of the human fioure has the fame oval, the
features defcribed by the fame fimple curves, the eye kept
full as the eafieft to execute, being more diftinguifhed by the
lines of which it is formed, than by its appearance in profile ;
and nearly the fame general parts reprefented the body and
limbs. That there fhould be this fimilarity in diff-rent nations
in the imitative arts, is {trifly agreeable to reafon; becaufe
conformably to their limited progrefs in feience, they will
reprefent in a fimple and grofs manner thofe objects, the detail
of which their minds have neither comprehended nor under-
ftood, and which in that ftage of progrefs the hand would
be aslittle likely to perform with the requifite accureey. It is
equally reafonable to expect fuch imitations fhould refemble
each other; being made from examples of general likenefs,
and done without the influence of manner, which is the con-
fequence of imitating art inftead of nature.

Tt is moft likely that fome imitations in fculpture of the
human fizure were made in Greece, previoufly to the intro-
duétion of letters by Cadmus, becaufe modern travellers have
found {uch imitations among many barbarous people unac-
quainted with letter-writing, and becaufe the Greeks appear
to have ufed figure-writing before they were acquainted with
letters: fee Wolf’s Prolegomena to Homer, page 813 who
believes that fizure writing only was known in the time of
Homer. But it is equally certain that {mall bronze figures
exift with inferiptions of Cadmean letters on them, which
are very poor and barbarous imitations of the human form;
fo that we may fairly infer, that the {culpture previous to
this period could not have been very fuperior to the produc-
tions of Mexico, Otaheite, or the Sandwich Iflands. In the
popular {tory of the Maid of Corinth, related by Pliny, lib.
35. cap. 12. he fays, Dibutades the Sicyonian potter, her
father, firft invented a method of taking likenefles, the pro-
cefs of which is defcribed as follows: ‘* His daughter being
in love with a young man who was going to a foreign coun-
try, fhe circum{cribed the fhadow of his face with lines upon
the wall by lamplight ; her father took the impreffion in clay
and baked it in the fire with his vafes.”? It feems, therefore,
that as this was the firft invention of portraits in clay, and
as this portrait was only-the relief impreffed from a line
{cratehed on the wall, that it muft have been the very firlt
fiage of baffo-relievo. Pliny proceeding fays,, that Dibu-

_tades made another addition to baflo-relievo, by ornamenting
the loweft row of rounded tiles, ufed to terminate roofs,
with-mafk faces. Thefe may be confidered as two inven-
tions, which diltinguifhed the Sicyonian fchool. Pliny does
not fay at what time Dibutades lived, but he mentions him
before Demaratus the father of Tarquinius Prifcus, who
mut have been 630 years before Chriit.

Independently of what may be deduced from thefe quota-
tions, concerning the progrefs of baffo-relievo in Greece, ex-
amples in this branch of {culpture exiitin marble and bronze,
which, with the aid of coins and gems, if properly arranged,

would form a complete chronological feries from the introe
duétion of lettersin Greece. As the moft ancient fubje&ts to
be chiefly felefted are thofe which bear infcriptions, this ar-
rangement would neceffarily follow: the infcriptions of Cad~
mean letters firft, the Bouftrophedon manner of writing
next, and the more modern as circumftances point out their
propriety. This method would be found perfeétly agreeable
to the progrefs of fcience difcernible in the works them-
felves, as well as the perfe@tion of execution; and thus the
antiquarian, or the artift having infured an accumulation of
teftimony, would be in little danger of miftake. A paflage

-in Paufanias, the firft Eliacs, or 5th book, thews the propri-

ety of this method: he fays, the cedar cheft in which Cyp-
felus was preferved by bis mother (about 669 years before
Chrift), was dedicated by his pofterity in Olympia. This
chelt is defcribed as being covered with baflo-relievo of alle-
gorical end heroical fubje€ts, explained by Bouftrophedon
writing, which the author defcribes as very old and difficult
to read.

The earlieft Greek {culptute which has come down to
us is equal in the proportion of the figure to the Egyp-
tian, and fuperior in the drawing of the body and limbs.
Vitruvius informs us, that as the height of the human figure
was fix times the length of the foot, that was made the
rule for the Doric column. (Book iv.) Thus we fee the
Greeks had been in the habit of meafuring the human
firure by its own parts, previous to the eftablifhment of ar-
chite@tural proportions; and we find very tolerable general
forms of the mulcles and bones moft commonly fcen in the
living body, which thofe early Greeks copied by clofe atten-
tion to the naked figures they conftantly faw before them,
without the aid of aratomical fyflem; for Pliny (lib. xxix.
c. 1.) fays, the art of medicine remained in the darkeft night
from the fiege of Troy to the time of Hippocrates. A few
examples from the many exifting will fhew the progrefs of
fculpture in baffo-relievo, from the introdu€tion of letters in
Greece to the time of Phidias: thefe fhall be fet down ac-
cording to their apparent antiquity, and followed by general
obfervations. :

In Wirkelmann’s ‘ Monumenti inediti,” plate 3. is a
print from a {carabeus of Jupiter in his car, holding the thua-
der with one hand, and trident with the other. This has the
appearance of great antiquity in defign and charafter, and
perhaps is the oldeft work cited in this article. The nextis ~
a patera of bronze inthe Britifh Mufeum, on which is
carved Minerva, fubduing Hercules, or wifdom prevailing
over ftrength. The next is an engraving of five of the feven
chiefs who befiered Thebes. The laft is Hercules bearing
away the tripod from Apollo, which, by the improved ftyle
of drawing, feems to approach the time of Phidias. The
firft obfervation that occurs in this part of the fubjeét is,
that antiquarians have fallen into a confiderable miltake in
pronouncing many early works to be Etrufean, which later
difcoveries have aimott certified to be Greek. The Grecian
fubje€ts cut on gems, the backs of which were formed into
{carabei like the Egyptian feals, have been pofitively called
Etrufcan by Winkelmann; notwithfanding that the ftyle
of the figures is early Greek, the fubje&ts are Greek, and
the letters upon them are Greek; befides which, Mr.
Hawkins, a late accurate and highly-qualified traveller, has
brought a Cornelian fearabzus found in that country to Eng-
land, which has a Mercury engraved on itin that early ftyle
called Etrufcan. How many more of thefe might travellers,
if they fought for them, findin that country? And_ is it
not likely that the Roman lords of the world would bring
into*their own country as many curious Greek gems as
{tatues, when a dozen of the former may be conveyed in

palm

Eee

BASSO.

palm of a man’s hand, whereas vat operations are neceffary
to tranfport only one marble or bronze flatue? Thefe argu-
ments ene are fufficient to account for the gems of this
defcription which have been found in Italy ; befides fome
which may have been wrought in that country by Greck
colonifts, or the fcholars of Greeks. A crowd of evidence
might be adduced in this place to fhew, that the vafes for-
merly called Etrufcan have been found in great abundance
in Greece. Mr. Stuart and Mr. Parrs brought many frag-
ments of them from Athens, which are lodged in the Bri-
tihh Mufeum; Mr. Greaves brought feveral entire and beau-
tiful painted vafes from Greece, fome of which were after-
wards in the poffeffion of Sir William Hamilton: and to
thefe might be added many other teltimonies and collections
on this part of the fubject.

One error more fhould be refuted before we proceed;
Winkelmann (vol. i. lib. 3. c. 4.), in his hiftory of the art,
afferts, that “ the Etrufcans gave their Fauns horfes’ tails;
whereas the Greeks reprefented Fauns and Satyrs with fhort
tails like goats.”? The head-piece, (p. 23. chap. 3. vol. ii.)
of ‘*Stuart’s Athens,” is a fufficient anfwer: it is a bas-
relicf of a Bacchanalian dance, in which two Satyrs have
horfes’ tails. It was found in the ruins of the theatre of
Bacchus, is of the ftyle commonly called Etrufcan; but in
fa&, according to the time when this theatre was built
(nearly 500 years before Chrift), it is of the ftyle of feulp-

. ture which prevailed in Greece immediately prior to the time

of Phidias.

The general remarks on thefe works, during the period of
about 550 years from the time of Cadmus to the time of
Phidias, fhall be confined to the three following : the manner
of reprefenting the gods; the manner of drawing the human
firure and its actions; and, laltly, tome obfervations on the
Graperies and utenfils.

From the two proofs adduced that Grecian-fculpture has
been called Etrufcan from the want of fufficient knowledge
of the fubje&, and to which other proofs equally certain
might be added (for inftance that all the early Greek coins
are of the fame ftyle with that called Etrufcan), it will feem
to be a fafe conciufion, that all ancient f{culpture reprefent-
ing Greek fubjects, faould be confidered as the work. of
Greeks, their colonifts, or {cholars, excepting in fuch -cafes
as there is fufficient reafon to believe the contrary.—
Conformably to this regulation, the following obfervations
may be offered on Greek {culpture preceding the time of
Phidias.. As the ancients reprefented their divinitiesin hu-
man forms, in the early times thofe forms were grofs and
imperfe&t, their aim being only to copy human nature;
thus, in the gem above cited, of Jupiter with the thunder
and trident, in Winkelmann’s “* Monumenti inediti,”? pl. 3.
his bedy and limbs are formed of few parts, grofs and inele-
gant, his face is beardlefs, and his hair is thick and matted.
Nearly the fame may be faid of the Hercules on the bronze
patera in the Britifh Mufeum above mentioned; a figure of
Neptune on the oldeft coins of Pa‘tum ; and the other monu-
ments of the fame ages, which reprefent Jupiter, Neptune,
Mercury,,and Hercules, by fuch figures as they employed to
reprefeat common men, equally devoid of beauty and cha-
raéter. The face of Minerva is not more delicate than that of
Hercules, nor do his limbs appear more robuft than thofe of
Apollo. The gods were only knowr by their fymbols: Jupi-
ter by his thunder, Neptune by his trident, Mercury by his
caduceus, Minerva’ by her helmet and egis, &c. The gem
of Jupiter with the thunder and trident above mentioned,
which has alfo a four-footed animal under his car, perhaps a

_horfe, agrees with Orpheus’s bymn to that god, in which

earth and fea are faid to be hie; in this refpe aorecable
to the moft ancient religion, and an argument of the high
antiquity of the workmanfhip.

Concerning the manner of drawing the figure, it has been
judicioufly obferved by the authors of the French Encyclo-
pedie, “ that the Greeks began where the Egyptians left
off ;?? and fome of the bettermoft (not perhaps the very
belt) of the Egyptian figures, are nearly fac-fimiles of the
beginnings of Grecian art. However, improvements were
foon made; they began to difinguifh between mufcle and
bone, and the furface of the body and limbs were carefully
marked with their greater fubdivifions ; the maftoid mufcles
and gullet marked the neck, the collar bones were marked
by neatly ftraight ridges, the’ edges of the ribs by an high
arch, the abdomen by a double row of three nearly-fquare
mufcles on each fide of the linea alba, and the Givilion of the
trunk from the limbs is. ftrongly indicated by the edge of the
pelvis ; the fhouider is rounded, the biceps of the arm defined,
the elbow exprefled ; a gentle indenture down the back of
the lower arm fhewed the fituation of the ulna, the arm
tapered downwards with a graceful {well for the mufcles,
and flatnefs for the part compofed of bones and tendons;
the infides of the thighs were flattened in the progrefs of
the fartorius mufcles, the lower tubercle of the thigh-bone
was fhewn immediately above the knee, which was expreiled
by the form of the patella; theinfide of the thin was ftrongly
expreffed, as were the calves of the legs; the ancles were
neat and (mall, rounded at the bottom; the feet and hands
partock more of the forms of nature than the Egyptian, and
the fingers and toes were made more neat, diftinét and various
in the outline; on the back, the blad- bones were marked
as being little difgwifed by fieh, and the glurezi as {mail
and firm. Upon the whole, there are men in an early ftate
of fociety, whofe hard and conitant exercife in leaping, run-
ning, feats of dexterity in war and hunting, hes made the
coverisg of their bones tendinous and elaitic, tapered their
limbs, and whofe quick and ftrong digefiion has kept tie
loins narrow and the abdomen flat, whilft a free and power-
ful refpiration expanded and raifed the cheit, The firft
effays of fculpture in the round figure, required that the
arms fhould be attached to the body, and the legs joined
together, for fupport, and to prevent the unfkiltul artift
from breekiag his work: but this reftraint did not extend
to bas-relief, in the fame carly compofitions of this kind ;.
in which you fee fuch fimple pofitions as approach to forma~
lity. There are alfo figures in violent a¢tions; as dancine
fatyrs, groups contending, and fuch exertions as fhew the
figure, with {prawling, angular, and extravagant appearances :
for hitherto the indications of grace were as {mail as thofe
of beauty.

The draperies in the early bas-reliefs are thin, fhewing the
forms of the body and limbs; the folds regular, fmall, and
diftin€t, confifling chiefly of perpendiculars and zig-zags.
Some of the head-dreffes confilt of {mall curls, very like the
fafhions of barbarous nations defcribed and drawn by mo-
dern travellers ; and in the bronze patera in the Bnitiih Mu-
feum above mentioned, the club of Hercules is ornamented
with fpiral flutes, like one brought by eaptain Cook from
the Sandwich iflands.

The bas-relief of Hercules bearing the tripod from
Apollo, mentioned above, feems to be nearer the time of
Phidias than any of the other above examples ; not only from
the fuperior elegance of the defign, but likewife from its being
in ftyle very fimilar to the Bacchanalian dance found in the
theatre of Bacchus at Athens. This fubje& of Hercules
bearing the tripod from ‘Apollo, is defcribed by Paufanias

in:

BASSO.

in the temple of Apollo at Delphos. It has been frequently
repeated by the ancients in bas-reliefs and gems. A bas-relief
of this fubjeét, brought from Greece, was preferved in the
Mufeum Nani at Venice; belides two others in the Albani
colle&tion. Thus we afcertain this to be a Crecian work,
although in a ityle which has been fuppofed Etrufcan; and
by the likenefs of its manner to the Bacchanalian dance
above mentioned, its age may be nearly afcercained.

Our fubjeé& now prefents the moft important and per-
fe& period in the art of fculpture, beginning with the great
works executed by Phidias and under his direGtion, during
the adminiftration of Pericles. Greece enjoyed phylical advan-
tages, as well as moral and political inftitutions. peculiarly
adapted to give the arts of -defign that perfetion which
could not be looked forin other countries. The climate was
temperate, warm, and genial, which, to penetrating and ele-
vated genius, added beauteons perfons in its inhabitants:
their games and exercifes gave vigour and perfection to their
forms; which initiated and familiarized the fpectator with
all the appearance of beauty in the human figure, in the
different itates of exertion or repofe, whether naked or
clothed. The pra€tice of the arts of defign was the pecu-
liar privilege of thofe who poff-ffled the greate{t natural ad-
vantages, and were the belt inftru&ted; and in the perfon
of the artiit, as well as the fubjeét reprefented, were fre-
quently united the philofopher, the lawgiver, and the heroic
defender of his country. Such were the ftudies for the ar-
tilts, and fuch were the men who praétifed the art. The
ftores of theological and metaphyfical knowledge had been
laid in from Egypt and the Ealt; fcience had accumulated ;
and commerce cultivation, and patrioti{m, fupplied the means
of raifing thofe monuments which were to be the admiration
and ftudy of all future ages.

Thefe were the times and circumftances in which Phidias
was employed by Pericles to adorn Athens with architecture
and fculpture, with the affiftance of the architeéts Callicrates
and I¢tinus, who worked under his direétion. Under thefe
illultrious men, the Propyleum, the Temple of Minerva or
the Parthenon, in the citadel, and the Temple of Thefeus in
Athens, were erected. The decorations of {culpture in thefe
buildings are the molt perfe& {pecimens of art; which we
mult apply ourfelves to with the utmoft diligence to under-
ftand, if we would entertain hopes of producing any thing
excellent in the fame kind. The baffo-relievos which fill the
friezes which go round the pronaos, cell, and porticus, of
the Parthenon, reprefent the panathenaic proceffion in ho-
nour of Minerva; which confifts of a numerous company on
horfeback, victors in chariots, men leading oxen to facrifice,
tray-bearers, chorufles of virgins, fome bearing candlelticks
and fome bafkets, with their affittants and attendants. The
facred veil is produced and examined, the hierophantes ex-
plain the mytteries, and the gods themfelves are feated, be-
holding, dire€ting, and approving the whole. The alto-
relievos in the metopes are the contefts of the Lapithe and
the Centaurs. The alto-relievos in the tympanums of the
eaft and weft ends, are, alas! no more; war has deprived
us ef them. That of the ealt end. was a miracle of art, from
the remaining fragments (fee Stnart’s Athens, vol. ii.) ;
and fuch it appeared to Sir G. Wheeler, who had the hap-
pinefs to fee it entire. However, we know by Sir George’s
defcription and drawing, that the fubjeét of the eaft end was
the birth of Minerva, or rather Minerva introduced by Ju-
piter to the gods; that on the welt end, the conteft of Mi-
nerva and Neptune for the patronage of Athens. As thele
fubje&s are of the higheft kind the mind can conceive, fo
they are the nobleft the hand can execute: they are theo-

logical and moral, as they reprefent the gods, their operas
tions in the government of the univerfe, and providence in
the difpofition of human affairs; the heroes are exerted in
the caufe of juftice, and the deftruétion of montters.

Mr. Fofeli, the able and learned profeffor of painting in
the Royal Academy of Lendon, has judicioufly applied
Aniftotle’s divifion of poetry to the arts of defign; and he
confiders the greater produétions, as either epic, dramatic,
or hiitoric. According to thefe clafles, the fculpture in each
tympanum was entirely epic, as the gods only were repre-
fented in them engaged in fingle aéts; the groups in the
metopes are dramatic, becaufe they reprefent a feries of ace
tions ; and the frieze which goes round the temple is epic,
inafmuch as the gods are prefiding ; and are perhaps alfo hifs
toric, as particular perfons and events may be reprefented in
the proceffion. In the temple of Thefeus, the alto-relievos
formerly in the pediments are gone entirely ; nor do we know
even what the fubje&ts were. In the frieze round the pronaos
is the battle of Marathon, in which the apparition of The-
feus cafts great {tones on the Perfians; Jupiter, Juno, and
Minerva, Neptune, Apollo, and Diana, fit, behold, and de-
termine the victory, the trophy of which is raifed by the
Athenians. The battle of the Lapithe and Centaurs is
in the frieze of the porticus: the metopes are filled with the
labours of Thefeus and Hercules.

The execution of thefe works is equal to the conception ;
the fentiment is elevated and fit, the compofition is noble,
full, and various ; the gods are fublime and beautifnl, their
pofitions preient dignity and repofe; the heroes are vigo-
rous and aétive, and an admirable fimplicity reigns through
the whole; whether you are roufed by the terrific engage-
ment of a Centaur and a Lapitha, or captivated by the
modefty of the virgin chorufles. In the battles, the figure

is fhewn in thofe elaftic curves and varied movements,

thofe uncommon but advantageous fituations, which equally
excite furprife and admiration; every part is intelligible ;
they occupy fuch fpaces of the ground as leave fufficient
blank to render the outline diftinét; and their quantities are
fo diftributed, that one part is not bare while another is
crowded: the lines themfelves alfo become an ornament.
The tories are told by one plan or ground of figures; and,
like the principal charaéters in the tragedies of Aifchylus,
Euripides, and Sophocles, their effet is weakened by no
under-plot of inferior heroes. The drawing of the figures
is of the fineft ftyle, the outline and forms are chofen, the
greater parts boldly exprefled, the lefler parts delicately in-
dicated, but not more than neceflary. The heads fine, the
drapery rich in folds, but perfe@ly natural ; fome of the re-
maining hands and feet of the moft perfect beauty ; and
the horfes may be defcribed in the words Sir George
Wheeler ufed to exprefs his opinion of thofe he faw in the
eaftern tympanum of the Parthenon: ‘* The horfes are made
with fuch great art that the fculptor feems tu have outdone
himfelf, by giving them a more than feeming life; fuch a
vigour is expreffed in their prancing and ftamping, natural to
generous horfes.” The edges of the figures have been kept
{quare in the working, to give the bolder effe€: to the relief;
which was not high in the proceffion round the frieze under
the portico of the Parthenon, in order that the feulpture
might not overpower the archite¢tural members. The
fculpture in the two pediments of the Parthenon, the me-
topes in that temple and the temple of Thefeus, as well as
that round the frieze of the latter temple under the portico,
are in alto-relievo. This Phidias difcovered; it is called
toreuticen, rounded, by Pliny (lib. 34. cap. 8.); and he
fays, Polycletus ‘fo taught soreuticen, alto-relievo, rounded

: work,

Liter

BASSO.

work, as Phidias had invented it :—et soreuticen fic evudiffe,
ut Phidias aperuiffe.’’

Befides the baffo-relievos above mentioned, feveral others
in Athens are of the highelt beauty: the figures on the
Temple of the Winds; the ftory of Bacchus and the Tyr-
rhenian mariners transformed into dolphins, on the Choragic
Monument of Lyficrates (Stuart’s Athens, vol.i.), raifed
in the time of Alexander the Great ; and two alto-relievos
of the battle of the Athenians and Amazons, with another
battle, fubject unknowd, (See the laft two plates, vol. ii.
of Stuart’s Athens.)

Before we quit the fubject of baffo-relievo among the
Greeks, it is proper to obferve, that foliage ornaments in
baffo-relievo feem to have been introduced in lonia about
the fame time with the [onic capitel; in the reign of Alex-
ander the Great. (See the capital of an Ionic pilafter en-
riched with foliage, in the ruins of the temple of Apollo
Didymeus, tail-piece, p..55. Rivett’s Tonia.) Thefe in-
ventions are the two characteriftics of the Ionian {chool.

Soon after this period, the moft eminent Grecian fculptors
and architects were almoft entirely engaged in decorating
the capital of their Roman conqmerors. Mott of their
public works at home were inferior in beauty and {pirit, in
proportion as the intention was debafed, which was chiefly
that of paying fervile compliments to their matters ; and the
buildings raiied, with a very few exceptions, were diftin-
guifhed by a colonial inferiority from thofe of Rome, which
the genius of Greece, and the fpoils of the world, rendered
the moft magnificent of the times.

We may begin the oblervations on the baffo-relievos ex-
ecuted or exilting in Italy, by fome notice of thofe cut in
the rock. In the garden of the Capuchin’s convent at Pa-
lazzuolo, on the lake of Albano, is a tomb; and in the tufobe-
neath, on the fide of the rock, are carved the fafces, the curule
feat, the diadem, and the fceptre. M.D’Hankerville be-
lieves this to have been the tomb of Tarquin the Elder ;
becaufe he received thefe regalia from the Etrufcan {tates,
and becaufe the tomb ftands on the eftate which belonged to
him. There are other baflo-relievos cut in the tufo, repre-
fenting the combats of lions and gladiators, with other ap-
parently domettic fubjeéis, on the fides of a tomb at Cor-
neto, the ancient Tarquinium: and although thefe works
may be confidered as Etrufcan, yet there are reafons for
thinking they are of Grecian origin; for Pliny (lib. 35.
‘ce. 12.) fays, ‘that Demaratus, the father of Tarquin the
Elder, in Hetruria, who was afterwards king of Rome,
‘flying from Corinth, was accompanied by the modellers

(fi@tores) Euchira and Eugrammus, by whom modelling
was brought into Italy.’ ‘There are, inceed, works known
to be Etrufcan, in the gallery of Florence ; among which
are many fquare cinerary urns of terra cotta: fome of them
bear baffo-relievos of Greek fubje€&ts, and thefe are much
the beft; the reft are of an execution and manufactory
“equally ordinary. A terra cotta frieze of {mall figures,
feven different {ubjects, was found fome years fince at Vel-
letri, and preferved in the Borgian Mufeum, This feemed
to be of the oldeft Etrufcan ftyle: but ftill, as antiquarians
have believed the {tories to be Greek, and the frieze itfelf
to be copied from a Greek original, fo far this hkewife mult
be confidered as a produétion of the Grecian fchool. There
is a print from one of thefe fubjeéts, reprefenting two
women in a car drawn by two winged horfes; the firft head-

iece, vol. iii, of Winkelmann’s Hiltory of the Arts of
Bekah Fea’s edition.

The tafte for carved or chafed plate of gold and filver
was introduced at Rome, by the immente quantity which
Lucius Scipio brought in triumph from the {poils of Afia, con-

fifting of 1,400 pounds weight of chafed filver, and 100,000
pounds of gold vafes, about 150 years before Chrift. Pliny de-
{cribes the ficklenefs of the Romans afterwards inworksof this
kind. ‘* The vafe of filver varies, by the wonderful incon-
ftancy of the human difpofition, not approving long the pro-
duction of any workfhop: now we feek the Furnian, now
the Clodian, now the Gratian, now baffo-relievo fharply cut,
and now pictures expreffed in lines.”

Modelling in ftucca, called plaflicen by Pliny, was practifed
under the firft emperors, with extraordinary beauty, freedom,
and flight of execution ; as may be feen in the ornaments of
the bath of purification at the temple of Ifis at Pompeia,
and the baths of Livia in the palace of the Cefars at
Rome.

It may be proper to enumerate fome of the fineft detached
baflo-relievos in the Roman colle@ions, previous to thofe ex-
ifting in the ancient buildings. In the Villa Borghefe is
one of young women in fine drapery, holding each other by
the hand, and dancing. ‘The figures are almoft round; it
is diftinguifhed by beauty and fimplicity. The fleeping
Endymion of the Capitol; the fentiment of which is perfeét,
the figure elegant, and the execution bold: the Perfeus
delivering Andromeda from the rock ; likewife in the Capi-
tol: the large fragment of Antinous, in the Villa Abani;
to which may be added, a moft beautiful frieze on one
fide of the cortile of the palace Santa Croce, of Neptune
and Amphitrite, fea-nymphs, tritons, and marine animals ;
and another beautiful frieze in the palace Della Valle, of
victory facrificing bulls to Mithras. Some others will be
noticed under particular heads.

The alto-relievo of Auge and Telephus, mentioned with
fo much rapture by Winkelmann and fome of his followers
(fee the Monumenti inediti, plate 72.), will only be noticed
here to expofe an hypercriticifm. It is highly extolled for
having three plans of objeéts in proportionate gradations of
relief: it is felf-evident that objects placed one beyond the
other on a ground, muft have different gradations of pro-
je€tion ; but as this work has nothing elfe to recommend it
particularly, either in charaéter, fentiment, or compofition,
what has been faid is fufficient to fhew, that an indifferent
work may become the object of admiration, by the magic of
technical jargon, where fentiment, expreflion, a beautiful
defign, compofition, harmony of parts, and all thofe parti-
culars which ean alone conftitute excellence, are wanting.

Of the baffo-relievos executed whilft the arts {till retained
fome perfeétion under the Roman emperors, no fpecimens are
remaining of thofe compofitions of figures which adorned the
pediments of buildings. A fragment of the frieze on the
Temple of Minerva in Rome, near the Capitol, is flill in to-
lerable condition ; there are feveral prints of it in the * Ad-
miranda Romanorum.” ‘There are likewife in the different
colleétions, detached fpecimens and fragments of friezes,
pannels, and dies of pedettals. But the greateft number of
baffo-relievos in their original places, is on the triumphal
arches and columns; and the greateft profufion of fubjects
is to be found on the farcophagi. We fhall pafs the more
haftily over thefe, becaufe we have already noticed whatever
is moft excellent in this department of {culpture, in the ruins
of Athens. The following triumphal arches are enriched
with baffo-relievo : thofe of Auguftus, at Suza and Rimini;
that of Trajan, at Beneventum ; and at Rome, thole of
Titus, Marcus Aurelius (the baffo-relievos of which are pre-
ferved in the Capitol, although the arch is deftroyed) ; that
of Severus; the goldfisiths’ arch ; and that of Conftantine.
The nobleft compofition, perhaps, among them is the apo-
theofis of Fauftina, from the arch of Aurelius. (See Bartoli’s
Triumphal Arches.) The arc of Conftantine is remark-

able

ABeAoSsS oO.

able for. its fealpture, part of which was done in the reign of
‘Trajan, and the reft under Confiantine ; fome of the for-
mer as remarkable for its grandeur; beauty, and boldnefs,
as the latter for its barbarity ; fhewing the miferable decay
of the arts in the courfe of 240 years. The two battles,
the figures in which are as large as life, forming friezes un-
der the cornices of the impofts in the middle opening of the
arch, are gracd and animated compolitions, in a noble ftyle
of fculpture (fee plate 42. and the following, in the Veteres
Arcus Auguftorum). Two obfervations on the arch of
Severus will thew, that fculpture had declined confiderably
from the beft ages. The principal baffo-relievos occupy
very large {quares, containing figures, animals, cities, forts,
and great warlike machines, on diferezt plans, irregularly
diftributed, with rezard to perfpeétive ; and thus, when
viewed at fuch a diltance that the detai! becomes indiftinG,
they prefent the appearance of ruflic work irregularly rough,
and difagreeable as mixed with regular and magnificent ar-
chiteG@ure: unlike the friezes in the temples of Athens,
which, as they have only one plan of figures, each fimply
and beautifully conceived, when viewed at/a diltance in
which the detail difappears, they prefent to the eye a com-
poiition of lines diftin& and harmonious, forming an orna-
ment. It is alfo to be obferved, that the {mall figures in
thefe great fquares are fo boldly relieved, that they interfere
with and deftroy the effeét of the {maller architcCtural mem-
‘bers near them. ; :
The triumphal columns demand our particular attention,
not only for their magnificent defign, itructure, and mate-
rials, but alfo for the immenfity of bafio-relievo which co-
wers them. But here we may obferve, that imperial gran-
deur, by.the endeavour to outitep, falls fhort of real great-
nefs ; and that where too much is expected or intended, too
little is the refult. With refpe& to the very conception of
the Trajan column, a doubt has been entertained, whether
a tower might not have allowed of a more grand and fimple
delign for the purpofe of a ftupendous fruture, than a Tuf-
can column mounted on a Corinthian pedeital. But notwith-
ftanding the doubts of fome judicious and unprejudiced per-
fons on this point, the column has been the wonder and de-
light of all beholders for 1600 years. The fpiral baffo-
relievo, reaching from the bottom to the top of the haft,
reprefents Trajan’s firt and fecond expedition againit the
Dacians, and his victory over their king Decebalus. Vali
{in his Itinerary of Rome) fays, ‘¢ they court upon it up-
wards of 2,500 figures, without reckoning horfes, elephants,
arms, machines of war, and an infinity cf other objetis ;”’
to which may be added the four eagles on the corners of the
_pedettal, bearing feftoons of laurel, and the arms on the die
of the pedeftal, all of mafterly, and the lait mentioned of the
moft delicate and laborions execution. But here a defe&
mutt be noted, in jutification of the fir obfervation on this
noble monument, that although the figures increafe fome-
what, both in fize and projection, as they approach the top
of the column, yet it is cercainly true, that any perfon
ftanding on the ground cannot fee the objects diltin&ly
above oue-third of the height of the fhaft, beyond which all
is confufion. Does it not follow, that if figures of that fize
were intended to be feen, they fhould not have been raifed
above one-third of the column; and if they were intended
to be feen at a greater diftance, their fize fhould have been
proportionably increaied? That this is an optical defect
cannot be denied ; yet critics have taken pains to make their
readers believe, that every thing relating to perfpective in
this column was beyond the reach of moft modern compre-
henfion for excellence; when any perfon acquainted only
with the very firt principles of perfpeCtive, mufk perceive

no attention whatever has been given to lisear perfpedtives
from the top to the bottom of the column: fuch injudi-
cious praife proves only the abfurdity and ignorance of the
evlogilt.. Certainly. the ancient feulpture contains whatever
is truly excellent and admirable-in the art; but let us choofe
the objects which are really poflefled of thofe qualities;
always diftinguifhing between beauty and the want of it;
and then we cannot beftow our praifes too liberally, nor
ftudy with too much diligésce thofe perfeGtions we would
imitate, or be thoroughly acquainted with. The Antonine
column is covered with baflo-relievo, reprefenting the vic-
tories of Marcus Aurelius over the Marcomanni. The
fculpture is inferior to that on the Trajan column; and
figures, having more projeGion, deform the outline of the
fhaft at a near view. The Theodofian column at Conftan-
tinople, drawn by Gentil Bellini (fee Montfaucon), induce
us to believe that fculpture did not decline fo haftily in the
Eatt as in Italy.

Marble farcophazgi do not feem to have been ufed in
Rome much before the time of Craffus, whofe wife Cecilia
Mcetaila was buried in one. The fronts and ends of thefe
coffins, from that time for many ages afterwards, were deco-
rated with figures. Some of the fineft compofitions of the
ancients are to be fourd upoa them, molt probably eopicd
from Greek originals, by IKkoman manufaéturing ftatuanes ;

_one of whom lived on the Appian way, and occupied an ex-
pp y' P

tent of two miles in his works, as has been f{uppofed from
the quantity of fcu!pture fisifhed and unfinifhed found on the
fpot, as well as an inicription which confirms the fa@. The
fublimity of the fubjeéts leads us to think, that fome have
derived their origin from Phidias, Polycletus, and other of
the greateft matters ; as it is fcarcely poffible fuch groups
and {uch expreflion as we fee in thefe bad copies, could at
fir have been produced by inferior artiits. Among them
are the ftories of Prometheus, Medea, Phaeton, Oreftes,
Alcefte, the anger of Achilles, Bacchus and Ariadne, the
fall of the giants, the judyment of Paris, &c. &c. Thele
continued to be repeated ull after the time of Conftantine, «
when {ubjeGts from the Old and New Teftament {neceeded :
but thefe were fo barbarous that they merit no farther no-
tice at prefent ; and indeed the removal of the feat of empire
to Conftantinople had fo defpciled Rome of riches and abi-
lity, that little effort could be expeéted in the Welt, and
the little that was left became the fucceflive prey to the
Northern invaders, and the unavoidable deltruGion of time,
for the following fix centuries. Bas-reliefs of the eighth cen-
tury, round the capitals of columns, reprefenting Charle-
magne and other figures, are in the Mufeum of French Mo-
numests at Paris. There is allo a bas-relief of Samfon kill-
ing the lion, on a capital in the crypt of St. Peter’s church,
Oxford, done in the time of Alfred. Like all the works of
thefe ages, they are barbarous and unmeaning.

In 1063 the Pifans began to build their cathedral, the old
bronze gate of which contains a ferics of fubje&ts from {crip-
ture in bas-relief ; but fo rude and grofs, that they muit be
confidered as the very beginnings of art. ‘There is a baffo-
relievo of the a€&ts of Abraham forming capitals to a group
of columns, in the weft door of the cathedral of Carrara;
carved between 1100 and 1200, which is rather more de-
tailed, though the figures are grofs and bP omereitod
not being above five heads high. Similar fpecimens may be:
feen of this ege in different countries of Europe, from the
firlt feeble efforts to revive {culpture. In iuch attempts as
have been juft mentioned, little improvement was made till
towards the year 1230, when Nicolo Pifano having diigsnuy
fludied fome antique baffo-relievos on farcophagiat Pila, was
employed in carving fimilar ornaments of facred wie _

ve

!
;

BAS

feveral cathedrals building at that time in different parts of
Italy. He was affifted by his fon Johr, and amone other
pupils, by two who feem to have been particularly elteemed,
Arnolpho and Lapo. Belides being architect to feveral ca-
thedrals in Italy, Nicolo, with the affiftance of his pupils,
carved fome baflo-relievos in marble; which were works of
wonderful merit in that age, and would certainly deferve
confiderable admiration and refpeét in any other time or
country, for fublimity, fentiment, truth, and beauty of exe-
cution. The following deferve particular notice : Stories from
the Life of our Saviour, onthe pulpit and baptiltery of Pifa ;
fimilar fubjeéts on the pulpits of the Duomos of Sienna and
Piftoia. But the greateft and moft eftimable of thele works
is on the front of the cathedral of Orvieto. This-front 13 one
of the molt {plendid, both for materials and art, that the
mind can conceive, or the refourcesof nature furnifh. Itis
built of fatuary marble, wrought with the niceft care, and
ornamented with the mott delicate labour ; the bolder mould-
ings and {maller pillars are relieved by Mofaic liftels of the
mott fplendid coloursand gold; and magnificent Mofaic paint-

ings of facred fubjedts finifh the decoration immediately under-

the cornice. The bafement between the great and two fide
doors, from the height of fix feet to that of twenty feet, 1s
covered with fubje&ts from the Bible ina great number of di-
vifions reprefenting all the principal faéts, and concluding
with the Refurrection, Judgment, and final defination of the
_ good and wicked; the fubjetts are divided by running or-
naments of vine, and other foliage, of uncommon delicacy and
fancy. There is an altoerelievo by Nicolo, on the church of
St. Martia ac Lucca, of the Delcent from the Crofs, which
is extremely pathetic and fimple. The baffo-relievos on-the
oldeft bronze gate of the baptiltery of Florence, by Andrea
Ugolino of Pifa, after defizns by Giotto, of the Life of St.
John the Baptift, are fimple and grand. Donatello, born in
Florence 1393, executed bronze bafic-relizvos on the two
pulpits of St. Lorenzo in that city: the principal fubjects
are the Crucifixion and Interment of our Saviour, in which
the expreflion is admirable. Vellano of Padua, his fcholar,
made fome fine baflo-rclievos of bronze in the church of St.
Antony in that city. But the work of this defcription which
obtained the hizheft reputation in that age, was the fecond
bronze gate, executed by Lorenzo Ghiberti, his father, and
other affiltants, for the before-mentioned baptiitery of St.
Johnin Florence, Onit, ten compartments are filled with fub-
jects from the Old Teftament, beginning with the Creation
and ending with the meeting of Solomon and the Queen of
Sheba; the {paces between the pannels are adorned with
foliage, heads, and beautiful figures of prophets and fybils ;
the architrave is ornamented with feftoons of flowers and
birds, of fo perfeét an execution that they feem to be caft
from nature: the whole is of gilt bronze. Wafari relates
:that Michael Angelo faid, ‘ [t deferved to be the gate of
*Paradife.”? Certainly an admirable fancy, delicacy, exprel-
fion, grace, and execution, are to be found in every part of
it ; but its general character is rendered trivial by the intro-
dudtion of fo many plans, fo much land{cape and architecture
in perfpeétive, with the affectation of picturefque effeét in
thechiaro-feuro. But this fault muft be palliated by the re-
membrance, that perfpeftive was a new difcovery to the
moderns, wonderfully admired at the time : it had turned the
brains of Paolo Uccello, a painter of great merit ; and it is
not to be wondered at, if Lorenzo Ghiberti, who had praétifed
painting, fhould have fallen into the delufive hope of adding
_ anew charm to fculpture, which in fact belongs to painting
exclufively.—From thistime little can be faid in commenda-
tion of the practice of baflo-relicvo. Memory was fubftituted
for imitation, fancy for nature ; and the confequence was,
‘Vox. III,

5S 0.

thofe various [pecies of affectation which are called manners.
The fchools of John of Bulogna, Algardi, Bernini, will jultify
this remark; and whoever takes the trouble to examine their
productions in this department of fculpture will fee, that art
more than nature ‘has been their objeét.—Within the laft
century a number of circumfances have combined to de-
velop the principles of fculptute, and a confiderable emula-
tion has been excited to attaia its real perfections. A prodi-
gious number of ancient ftatues, groupes, bults, and baffo-
relievos in marble and bronze, as well as piétures, have been
difcovered ; thefe have been magnificently and judicioufly ar-
ranged, not only in the public mufeums of Italy, but in
private colleGtions of the different countries of Europe. Such
admirable works have excited univerfal curiofity and interelt,
the number of books onthe fubje& have been increafed by
learned men and elegant critics; fludents have repaired in
greater numbers than formerly from all parts to copy thofe
works with great diligence ; the number of contenders has
produced Jemuiation, each one endeavouring to diltinguifh
himfelf above his competitors ; thus they havelaid up a large
flock of ability for employment in their own countries, where
tafte for the arts of defirn has been gradually increafing; fo
that now there are feulptorsin Italy, France, England, Ger-
many, &c. who have produced baflo-relicvos of great merit,
as well as other works of fculpture. ;

Winkelmann has {aid, “ that Sculpture, likean elder fifter,
has introduced and led her younger filter, Painting, into the
world :” thisis elegantly faid, and on that accounts likelyto
obtain currency more than for the certainty of its truth. What
additional value does one art acquire over the other by being
older? Both arts are noble and virtuous purfuits ; the fine pro-
duGiions of both afford intelleGiual and rational delight; and
there is difficulty encugh in the way to excellence in both, to
exercife the utmolt ftretch of the molt powerful geniufes who
have engaged, or may engage, in the ftudy of them. It fhould
feem by Pliny’s account, lib. 35, c. 3. and ¢. 12. that the
beginning of painting and baflo-relievo were alike; for the
firft advances towards baflo-relicvo were made by Dibutades’s
taking the impreflion of an outline. Ardices the Corinthian,
and Telephanes the Sycicnian, made the firlt effays towards
painting. before colour wasufed, by outlinealfo.—But toleave
this queition of little moment, let us go to thofe confidera-
tions which are of real importance to the fubjc€ we are treat-
ing. It has already been fhewn, that baflo-relievo, from the
earlieft ages, was.ufed as reprefentative writing ; and the right
and enly good purpafes to which writing as well as {peaking
can be appliedisto honour God,andto recommend and diflem1-
nate whatever is virtuous in public or private, and ufeful
among men, Thus was baflo-relievo employed in the belt ages
bythe ancients, according to their feveral fyitemsof theology,
philofophy, and ethics: and thus only it fhould be employed;
for when it is applied to other purpofes, it is a deviation from
the original intention, ceafes to be ufeful, and mult engage
the artill in the reprefentation of perfons and things below
that ftandard at which he fhould conftantly aim. Phidias
gave a perfection to his Jupiter which altonifhed all men, and
induced them to believe he hed been favoured witha revelation
of the god, by the humas reprefentation of power, majelty,
benignity, and wifdom. And we fhall find that whatever ap-
pears admirable, «perfect, or lovely, in the reprefentations of
the ancient deities or heroes, 1s fome mental or bedily per-
fection. The Chmiftian relizion prefents perfonaces and
fubjeéts no lefs favourable to painting and [culpture than the
ancient claffics: angels and archangels fhould be as perfeét in
youth and beauty asthe youthful divinities of Greece. The
heroes of the Old Teftament bear fo ftriking a refemblance
to thofe of Greece, that eminent moderas have miflaken

ane: them

BAS

them for the fame perfons, Nothing can be found in the fages
of Greece, more augult or fublime than in the patriarchs or
prophets: they were equally inhabitants of warm climates,
favourable tothe difplay of the human figure; and their cloath-
ing and arms were nearly fimilar, Indeed it may be fafely
aflerted, that the bafl-relievos of the-Laft Judgment by N1-
colo: Pifani, the Crucifixion and Entombing of our Lord by
Donatello, and fome of the pannels in Ghiberti’s gate, prove
that the Bible prefents fubje@s, and thofe almoft innumerable,
of greaterintereft, and as abundant in all the excellence of
compofition, asany to be found in the clafiical authors : fuch
fubje&s are the proper decorations for churches and other
public edifices of moft importance to fociety, which fhould
be perpetual {chools of inftru@ion.—After the choice of fub-
ject, the economy and manner of treating are next to be con-
fidered. And here feveral hints may be found in Ariftotle’s
poetics, and in the condu& of the Greek tragedies, as ufeful
for the compofition of a beffo-relievo as a poem; with this
ciflerence, a poem embraces a facccfiion of times, but a
baflo-relievo one moment only:. and where this rule has been
tre{paffed, the fame perfon has been introduced twice over.
That one moment muft reprefent an 2€tion, into which noe
more figures fhou'd be admitted than are neceflury ; becaufe
the increafe of number is the difira@ion and lofs of expref-
fion. The fentiment, the expreffion, and every part fhould be
as elevated and advantageous as the nature of the fubject: will
admit.—Concerning the execution, the baffb-relievos of the
Parthenon temple of Thefeus, the others in the ruins of
Athens, and a few more which are truly Greek, muit be fet
up asthe perfedtion of what has hitherto been done : the
compofitions are intelligible, becaufe the figures are diltinétly.
feen on the back-ground and not crouded one behind azo-
ther; the drawing of the figures is from chofen examples,
feelingly, forcibly, and faithfully copied ; the pathos of the
fubjedi is not weakered by the introduction of building in
perfpective, or the affeGation of chiaro-feuro, which at-
tempts to introduce the diftances of painting in baffo-relievo:
A gatharchusemployed perfpeétive in painting fcenes, but Phi-
dias and Polycletus knew that the form and exprefiion of the
human figure was the obje& of their fculpture.

Some very fine and extraordinary antique baffo-relicvos
enrich the collc€tions of England : —

The tomb-ftone of Xanthippus, and a man curbing a
horfe, both about the time of Phidias, are in the colleGtion
of Charles Townley, efq-

The marquis of Lan{down has.a Greek bas-relief of Chal-
cas, as large as life.

At Wilton Houle there is a fine example of the death of
Meleager, and a {mall bat curious Hercules. and Aigle, a
baffo-relievo compofed of Mofaic, in natural colours, which
is fuppofed to be the only one of the kind.

The celebrated Barberini vafe, in the poffeflion of the
duke of Portland, is of dark h'ue glafs, bearing figures in
pbaflo-relievo of white enamel or glafs of admirable workman-
fhip. (See Bellori Sepolchri Autichi, Plate 84.) Frag-
ments of bafls-relievos in fimilar materials have been found
in the ruins of the Cfars’ palace in Rome, where they had
been fixed in the walls.

John Hawkins, efq. the Grecian. traveller, poffeff-s 2
beautiful fmall bronze baffo-relievo of Paris, Helen, and
two Genii, which he brought with him from Greece.

Plate. 1. Contains.an Evyptian hieroglyphical fphinx-
2, An Hindoo bes-relief. 3. A Perfian bas-relief. 4. Jupiter
with the thunder and trident, a Greek gem of the oldctt ftyle,

Plate lf. 1. Minerva fubduing Hercules, from a_very
ancient Greek patera of bronze in the Britifh mufeum.
>. Apollo.and Hercules contending fur the tripod.

BAS
Plate YL. The tomb-ftone of Xanthippus, father of Pe-

ricles.
P.ate IV. 1. A capital of a columa in the weft door of
the cathedral of Carrara, reprefenting part of the hilory
of Abraham; a work of thetwelfth century 2. A beau-
tiful Greek baffoerelievo, near the time of Poidias, of Zethuss
am Amphion comforting their mother Arniope; from the
Villa Albani.
Basso. & Alto, in Law: See Auto :
BASSOMPIERRE, Fraxars De, Marfhal, in Bios
graphy, was a:defcendant of a d.feinguithed fari'y in Lore
raine, and born in 1579. Engaging betimes in military fer-
vice, he rofe to the office of colonel-g-nerai of the Swifs,
end in 1622, to that of marfhal of France. He was alfo
employed ina diplematic capacity to Spain, England. and
Swiff-vland. In thefe employments he was diltioguifhed by.
his talents and condu@, and particularly by his wit, noble
air, pehteneis, and generolity. He fpoke ell the Europea
languages. was en adept in gallantry, and mucn addidted to
play. By his bons mots, which were fharp avd fatirical. he
offended cardinal Rachelien ; who cauled him to be confined
in the Baftilein 1637, where he eontinucd for twelve years
till the death of this minift-r.. In this retreat he poffed his
time in reading and writing ; and the hiftorical works which.
he compofed were the productions of his imprifonmert..
Thefe are “ Memoirs, containing the hiftory of his life, and
of the melt remarlzable cocurrences atthe court of Franc?
from 1599 to 1631,” 3 vols. 12mo.; ‘¢ An account of his
Emboffics,’? 2 vols. r2mo.; and ‘* Remarks on the Hiftory
of Louis XIII. by Duple'x,” 12mo. Tihefe works abound
with curious particulars and ftrokes of fatire. After his hbe=
ration he was reftored to his rark of colonel of the Swifsy
and was fixed upon as governor to the young kieg Louis.
XILV., bur excufed himf:lf on account of his age and infir-
mities. ‘Gowards the clofe of his life he became very cor
pulent, and died of anapoplexy in 1646. Gen. Biog.
BASSOON, in Aufic, trom bas fon, Fr. low found, iw
oppofition to hautdsis, to which it isthe natural bafe. Lrke
the hautbois, it is p'ayed with a reed, and is a continuation
of the feale downwards. It is compofed of four different.
pieces or tubes, which when feparated are bound together
hike a faggot; hence by the Italians called Argotto. It has
three keys of communication to open and fhut the ventages,
which from the length of the inflrument are out of the reach
of the fingers. It hasa crock, or mouth piece, to which
the-reedis fixed. (See Resp ) The whole length of the in--
ftrument is eight feet; but reduced to four, by being doubled
uplike a trumpet forconyenience in performance and carriage.

Ripe tae

—7

Its compalfs is three oftaves,

from double A Atin the bafe to ain the fecond {pace of the
treble; of which the tones and femitones are as complete @&
on an organ, orany other keyed inftrument. Every per-
former is not able to producea lower found than double.
BBD in the bafe, or.a higher than G-in the fecond {pace in
the treble.

In the laft age, Miller was the favourite performer on the
baffoon ia England at: all. public places ; but we have at
prefent Mr. Holmes,.a fupesior performer, at leaft in point
of tone, toany that we have ever heard elfewhere. A {eale
for this inftrument will be found in the mufical plates.

The two Bezozzis of Turin rendered thefe. kindred in=
flruments, the hautbois and baffoon, famous in Italy, during;

the middle of the laf century. See Bezozzt.
BASSORA.

BAS
BASSORA, Barsora, or Basra, in Geography, a fa-

mous city of Afia, in the Arabian Irak, fituate on the weft-
ern banks of the Shat al Arab, which is a navigable canal,
formed by the juaGion of the Euphrates and Tigris. This
canal is navigable for veffels of fifty tons to the Euphrates,
and thence to the gulf of Perfia, from which it is diltant
about 15 leagues north-welt. This city was founded in the
year 636 by order of Omar, the fecond caliph, to hinder
the commerce that fubfilted between the Indians and Per-
fians, and to fecure the command of the two rivers by
which goods imported from India were conveyed into all

arts of Afia. The firfl colony was compoled. of 800

1oflems; but the fituation was fo wifely chofen that it foon
became a flounfhing and populous capital, and a place of
trade, fcarcely inferior to Alexandria. The atr, thouzh
exceflively hot, is pure and healthy ; the mvadows are co-
vered with pa'm-trees and cattle; and one of the acjacert
vallies has teen celebrated among the four paradifes or gar-
dens of Afia. Under the firft caliphs, the jurifdi€tion of
this Arabian colony extended over the fouthern provinces of
Perfia. The city has been fanétificd by the tombs of the
companions and martyrs; and the veflels of Europe (till
freqnent the port of Baffora as aconvenicnt {tation and paf-
faze forthe Indian trade. Merchants of Arabia, ‘Turkey,
Armenia. Greece, Jews, and Indians refide here; the Eng-
Jifh and Dutch have their'confu's, and their fhips come from
India loaded with various kinds of merchandiz-. Thofe
from Bengal, which arrive from the month of March to
Jane, bring white linens, filk, muflins, bailard faffron, fan-
dal, and other woods. benzoin, va:nifh, rice, lead, Euro-
pezn tin and iron. From the coalt of Coromandel they
bring thicker cloths, white or blue; which are ufed by the
Arabians for their garments. From the coaft of Malabar
they bring cardamom feeds, pepper, &c. From Surat they
receive all kinds of gold and filver tufts, turbans, blue cloths,
indigo, and fteel ; of which the Perfians are the chief pur-
chafers for the manufacture of their fabres. The principal
merchandizes of the Dutch are {pices and coffee from Java.
Some Arabians bring flaves, and others bring pearls from
Bahrein, and coffee from Mocha. ‘The neighbouring coun-
tries alfo furnifh merchandize for exchange; of which
the moft confiderable are the ancient copper of Perfia in
{mall cakes, drugs of various kinds, grain when it is allawed
to be exported, dates, wine, and dried fruits. The mer-
chandize is fold for ready money, and pafies through the
hands of the Greeks, Jews, and Armenians, Tne Banians
are employed in changing the coin current at Baflora for
that which is of higher value in India. The abbé Raynal
values the merchandize annually brought to India at
525.0001.; of which the Enghth furnifh 175,0001. the Dutch

7.5001. and the Moors, Banians, Armenians, and Arabs
furnith the remainder.

Baffora has been fubje& to the Turks ever fince the
year 1668; and, like other cities, tributary to that domi-
nion, is governed by a caci appointed by the prince of Baf-
fora. But it may now be regarded as brlonging to an in-
dependent Arabian prince, who pays dubious homage to
the Ottoman Porte. The prince allows fuli hberty to all
nations to come and trade to his capital; and the police
of the city 1s fo well maintained, that a perfon may pafs
fafely through the ftreets at any time of the nrht. The
prince derives his chief revenue from the exchange of
money for the horfis and camels that are fold here,
and allo from his plantation of palm-trees, which is faid
to be go miles in length. he horfés that are bred in
its vicinity are in great repute, and are fold at a high
price. The income of the prince trom the feveral articles
ef money, horfes, camels, and dates, is fo great, that he

BAS

has a confiderable furplus after difcharging all the expences
of his tribute and government. The opulence of Batfora is
owing partly to the extenfive commerce which is carried on
by the intervention of this town between Afia and urope,
partly to its being a place whence letters may be difpatched
into all parts cf Europe, particularly England and Hol-
land, by way of Damafcus and Aleppo, for which purpole
A:abs, who are very {wift-footed, are employed; and
partly to the refort of Perfian caravans in their pilgrimages
to Mecca, where they pay confiderable duties to the govern-
ment, and exchange many va!uable commodities. ‘The num
ber of inhabitants is computed to be about 59,003; the
majority being Arabs: the relt are principally Turks and
Armenians. The latter are the merchants, and fome of
them are very refpectable. As to the religion of Baffora,
befides Mahometans, there are Syrian Jzcobites and Nefto-
rians, and monks from Europe; ard aifo fome modern Sa-
beans, whom they cali diiciples of St. John. The town is
of great extent, and furrounded by a wall of clay, faid to
be twelve miles in circumference. The Bazar, or market~
place, is about two miles long and well fupplicd. The build.
ings of thi3 city are moftly conftructed after the Turkifh
manner. The whole country about it is fo low, that it is
prevented from being inundated by a dyke or bank extend-
ing between three and four miles along the coaft, and built
of large {quare ftones fo well cemented together that the fea
cannot effect it, though the fea runs ftrongly againft it at
the extremity of the Perfian gulf. Baflora is 210 miles
S.W. of Ifpahan, and 600 S.E of Aleppo. N. lat. 30%
24’. E. lonz. 48°. 39.

BASSOS, or Baxos, Cape, lies in the Indian fea, on the
eaft coatt of Ajanin Africa, in N. lat. 4° 12’. E. long. 47° 7.

Bassos de Banhos, fhoals in the Indian ocean, lying off
the eait coait of Zanguebar in Africa, in S. lat. 5°. E. long.
48° 8.

Bassos de Chaga, or fhoals of Chaga, are fituated in the
Indian ocean, in S. lat. 6° 4.2’. E. long. 68° 20’.

Bassos de India, fhoals of India, are fituated N. E. eaft-
erly from the cape of Good Hope, and are called in fome
charts Jews Rocks, between Madagafcar ifland on the eatt
and the coa{t of Atrica on the weft, about Sofala. S. lat.
22° 30’. E. long. 40° 417.

BASSOUES, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers, and chief place of a canton in the diftriGt of Mi-
rande, 5 leagues W.S.W. of Auch.

BASSOVIA, in Botany. Lin. gen. Schreb. n. 348.
Aubl. 85. Jufl. a19. Cuafs and Order, pentandria monogy-
nia. Gen. Char. Ca/. perianth one-leafed, permanent, fives
parted; parts ovate, acute. Cor. one-petalled ; tube very
fhort; border five-cleft, fpreading; clefts ovate, acute,
larger than the calyx. Stam. filaments five, inferted into
the tube of the corolla, and oppofite to its clefts ; anthers
ovate. Pi/f. germ ovate, fitting ona glandule; ftyle fhort ;
ftigma thickifh, obtufe. Per. berry ovate, knobbed. Seeds,
very numerous, kidney-fhaped, girt with a membrane, nelt-
ling in pu'p.

Eff. Char. Cor. five-cleft, fpreading, with a very fhort
tube; berry ovaie, kaobbed, with many feeds.

Species. B. /ylvatica. Aubl. Guian. 217. t.85. Stems
herbaceous, tree or tour feet hizh, branched; leaves alter-
nate, ovate, acute, fmooth, entire, on a petiole about an
inch long; the largett 10 inches long and 43 broad; flow-
ers in axilla y corymbs, green, and very fmail. A native
of Guiana, in wet forelts, flowering and frusting in June.
Martyn’s Milter’s Dist. .

BASSUE’, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partm ut of the Marn-, and chief place of a canton in the
diltrict of Vitry la Frangoile, 6 miles N.N.E. ot Vitry.

5E2 BASSUEL,

BAS

BASSUEL, Peter, in Biography, born in Paris in
1706, was early initiated in the knowledge of furgery, by
attending the hofpitals and the le&tures of the principal
teachers there. In 1730 he was admitted to pradlice ; and
the academy of furgery being infkituted the following year,
he was nominated by the king one of the firft members.
in 1744, he was chofen demonttrator royal in therapeutics.
He took part in the difpute on a queftion then much agi-
tated, Whether the heart was fhortened in its fyftole, or
contraction, to expel the blood from the ventricles? But
his opinion was formed, Haller fays, from theory only.
His differtation on the fubje&t was publifhed in one of the
medical journals of the time. He died June 4th 1757.
Haller. Bib. Chir. Eloy. Di&. Hif.

BASS-VIOL, in AZufic. See Basz-Viow.

BASSUM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Weitplalia, in the county of Heya, witha noble
abbey; 16 miles weft of Hoya.

BASSURE Sawn, begins at Ambleteufe, a little to
the fouth of St. Tchn’s, on the coaft of France, clofe to
the fhore, and firetches out S.W. by S. and S.W. by W.

BAST Istanp, is fituated on the coalt of Norway, 5
leagues N.W. by W. fro: the Sifters’ ifland, which hes 4
leagues at W. by N. from Acker found

BASTA, Georce, Count, in Biography, an Ep:rote
by defcent, was born at La Rocca, a village near Taren-
tum; and devoting himfelf to the military profeffion, he
was commander of an Epirote or Albanefe repiment of
horfe, when the prince of Parma aflumed rhe government of
the Low Countries in 1579. Under this great general he
perfected himfelf in the military art, and was preferred by
him to the poft of commiflary-general cf cavalry, and allo
employed in many important enterprifes. The principal
theatre on which his talents were exhibited, was the war in
Tranfylvania and Hunzary, where, in r6o1, he gained a
fignal victory over Sigifmund Battori, and took the town
ot Claufenburg. Having completed the ruin of Battori,
he granted him peace on condition of his renouncing all
rights over Trantylvania. Tlowever, the feverities exercifed
by Bafta againft the proteftants of that country did great
injury to the caufe of the emperor; and the Imperialifts,
under,the count Belgiofo, were defeated. Although. Bafta, in
1605, could not prevent the Turks from taking Strigonium
or Gran, he made a judicious arrangement before Comorra,
which hindered their further advances. Having made a
peace, he foon after died in 1607. Bafta was the author of
two profeflional works that are much efteemed : the “* Maef-
tro di campo generale” (Quarter-mafter general ), printed at
Venice, in 1606; and “* Governo della cavalleria laggicra”’
( Difcipline of the Light Horfe), Frankf. 1612. Gen. Di&.

Basra, in Aacient Geography, a town of Italy, in Lapy-
gia, on the ealt=rn coaft, at a {mall diftance N. E. of the
Salentine promontory.

Basra, in Geography, a town of Egypt, 40 miles N, E.
of Cairo,-and 31 5.5. E. of Manfora.

Basra, or Baflow, a place of trade on the coal of
Africa, before which is a road with 20 to 23 fathoms of
water, and tolerably good ground.

Basta, in Natural Hiflory, a {pecies of Sronera,
found in the Indian fea, and called by Rumpfius ba/fa ma-
rina, bafla laut. It is fomewhat rigid, blackifh, with un-
culated divifions ; ftem round. Pallas. Found adhering to
ftones, and is about the thicknefs of a finger. Gmelin, &c.

BASTAGARII, in Antiquity, a coliege or company at
Rome, who carried the fifcal {pecies out of the provinces to
Rome or Conttantiuople. The directors of thefe were
called prepofiti bafagarum. _'The word is derived from
baflaga, which properly imports the oflice of carriage or

images of faints at proceffions.

BAS

conveyance ; from Busa2, portare, to carry.” The denomie
nation baftagarii has alfo been given to thofe who carry the
Du-Cange.

BASTAL, in Geography, the name ef a romantic and
fertile vale of Swifferland, lying in the dire&t road from
Bafle to Soleure, through the midft of the Jura mountains.

BASTAN, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Natclia, 30 miles S.W. of Amafia.

BASTARD, Tuomas, in Biography, a clergyman and
poet of the fixteenth century, was born at Blandford in
Dorfetfhire, and educated at Winchefter {choo] ; whence he
was removed to New College, Oxford, and chofen perpetual
fellow in 1583: but indulging too much his talent for fatire,
he was expelled the college fora libel. He afterwards became
chaplain to ‘Thomas earl of Suffolk, lord-treafurer of Eng-
land, and, by hisintereft, vicar of Bere-Regis, and rector of
Hamer in his native county. He was a perfon of great
natural endowments, and fkilled in the learned languages, a
celebrated poet, and, in his later years, an excellent preacher.
Towards the clofe of his life, he was deranged and involved in
debt; and being contined in prifon at Dorchefter, he dicd in an
obfcure and mean condition in 16158. He was thrice married:
firft, as he informs us in one of his epigrams, in his youth for
-love ; «gain, in maturer age, for money ; and a third time,
in his old age, for a nurfe. His poefical performances,
which were admired in that age, were ‘* Epigrams,” and a
Latin poem, entitled, ** Magna Britannia,’’? London 1605,
4to. He alfo publifhed a colleGtion of “ Five Sermons;’?
and another ef ‘ Twelve Sermons,” Lond. 1615, ato.
Bios. Brit.

Basrarp, in Law, a natural child, or one that is not
only begotten, but born, out of lawful wedlock.

The word is of Saxon etymology, and is compounded of
bafe, vile or ignoble, and /lart, or feart, original. :

According tothecivilandcanen laws, achild doth notremain
battard, if the parents afterwards intermarry; but icisan in-
difpenfable condition of legitimacy, according to our law,
thatit fhall be born after lawtul wedieck. In this refpeé our
Jaw is far fuperior to the Roman; becaufe marriage being prin-
cipally defigned for afcertaining fome perfon to whomthepro-
tection, maintenance, and education of the children fhould
belong, this end isbetter anfwered by legitimating alliffueborn
after wedlock than bylegitimating all iffues of the fame parties,
even born before wedlock, fo as wedlock afterwards enfues; in
proof of which, Blackftone alleges the following arguments.
1. Becaufe great uncertainty will generally attend theevidence,
that the iflue was really begotten by the fame man; whereas,
by confining it to the birth, and not to the begetting, our
law has rendered it perfectly certain, what child is legitimate,
and who is to take care of the child. 2. Becaufe the
Roman law, by which a child may be continued a baftard,
or made legitimate, at the option of the father and mother,
by a marriage ‘‘ ex poll facto,” opens a door to many
frauds and partialities which our law prevents. 3. Becaufe
by thofe laws a man may remain a battard till forty years of
age, and then become legitimate by the fubfequent marriage
of his parents; and thus the main end of marriage, or the
protection of infants, is totally fruftrated. 4. Becaufe this
rule of the Roman law admits of no limitations as to the
time or number of baftards fo to be legitimated; but a
dozen of them may, 20 years after their birth, by the fub-
fequent marriage of their parents, be admitted to all the
privileges of legitimate children. ‘This is plainly a great
difcouragement to the matrimonial flate; to which one
principal inducement is ufually not only the defire of having
children, but alfo the defire of procreating lawful gece.
Whereas our conflitutions guard againtt this ae nd
at the fame time afford fuflicient allowance to the frailties of

humap

BASTARD.

human nature. Yor if a child be begotten while the parents
are fingle, and they will endeavour to make an early repara-
tion for the offence by marrying within a few months after,
our law is fo indulgent as not to baftardize the child, if it
be born, though not begotten, in lawful wedlock ; for this
is an incident that can happen but once, fince all future
children will be begotten, as well as born, within the rules of
honour and of civil fociety. Upon reafons like thefe, Black-
ftone fuppofes the peers to have aéted at the parliament of
Merton, when they refuled to enaét that children born be-
fore marriage fhould be efteemed legitimate. Stat. 20
Hen, Ill. c. 9. See the introduction to the great charter,
edit. Oxon. 1759, fub anno 1253.

Hence it appears, that all children born before matrimony
are baftards by our law, But if a man marries a woman
grofsly big with child by another, and within three days after,
fhe is delivered, the child is no baftard. 1 Danv. Abridg.
9729. Ifa child is born within a day after marriage between
parties of fullage,if there be no apparent impoflibility that
the hufband fhould be the father of it, the child is no baftard,
but fuppofed to be the child of the hufhand. 1 Roll. Abr.

58. Moreover, all children born fo long after the death of
the hufband, that by the ufual courfe of geftation they could
not be begotten by him, are baftards. But this being a
matter of fome uncertainty, the law is not exatt as to a tew
days. It appears, upon the whole, that what is commonly
confidered .as the ufual period is 40 weeks or 280 days; but
if the child be born fome time after, it only affords pre-
fumption, not proof of illegitimacy. This uncertainty of the
period of geltation has given occafion to a proceeding at com-
mon law where a widow is fufpeéted to feign herlelf with
child, in order to produce a fuppofititious heir to the ellate ;
an attempt which the rigour of the Gothic conftitetions
efteemed equivalent to the moft atrocious theft, and there-
fore punifhed with death. In this cafe, with us, the heir
prefumptive may have a writ “f de ventre in{piciendo,”’ to ex-
amine whether fhe be with child or not ; andif fhe be, to keep
her under proper reftraint till delivered; which is entirely con-
formable to the practice of the civil law: but if the widow
be, upon due examination, found not pregnant, the pre-
fumptive heir fhall be admitted to the inheritance, though li-
able to lofe it again on the birth of a child within forty weeks
from the death of her hufband. But ifa man dies, and his
widow foon after marries again, and a child is born within
fuch a time, as that by the courfe of nature it might have
been the child of either hufband; in this cafe, he is faid to be
more than ordinary legitimate: for he may, when he arrives
to years of difcretion, choofe which of the fathers he pleafes.
(Co. Litt. 8.) To prevent this among other inconveniences,
the civil law ordained that no widow fhould marry ‘infra
annum luétus;” arule which obtained fo carly as the reign of
Auguftus, if not of Romulus: and the fame conftitution
was probably tranfmitted to our early anceftors from the
Romans, during their ftay in this ifland; for we find it
eftablifhed under the Saxon and Danifh governments. L. L.
Ethelr. A. D. 1008. L. L. Canut. c. 71.

As baftards may be born before the coverture or marriage
fate is begun, or after it is determined, fo alfo children born
during wedlock may in fome circumftances be baftards.
if the hufband be out of the kingdom of England, or as, the
law fomewhat loofely phrafes it, ‘* extra quatuor maria,”
for above nine months, fo that no accefs to his wife can be
prefumed, her iffue during that period fhall be baftards.
(Co. Litt. 244.) But, generally, during the coverture ac-
cefs of the hufband fhall be prefumed, unlefs the contrary be
fhewn; (Salk. 123. 3 P. Wms. 276. Stra. 295,) which is
fuch a negative as can only be proved by fhewing him to be
elfewhere; for the general rule is, “ przfumitur pro legi-

LANEY

timatione.”” There are fome determinations by which it
appears that the child of a married woman may be proved a
baftard by other circumfantial evidence befides that of the
hufband’s non-accefs. 4 Term, Rep. 251. 356.

In a divorce ‘a menfa et thoro,’’ if the wife breeds chil-
dren, they are battards ; for the Jaw will prefume the hufband
and wife conformable to the fentence of feparation, untefs
accefs be proved; but in a voluntary feparation, by agree-
ment, the law will fuppofe accefs unlefs thenegative be fhewn.
(Salk. 123.) So alfo if there be an apparent impoffibility of
procreation on the part of the hufband, as if he be only eight
years old, or the like, the iffue of the wife fhall be battard,
(Co. Litt. 244.) Likewife, in cafe of divorce in the fpiri-
tual court, ‘a vinculo matrimonit,” all the iffie born
during the coverture are baitards ; becaufe fuch divorce is
always upon fome caufe that rendered the marriage unlawful
and null from the beginning. Co. Litt. 235.

Ifa manor woman marry a fecond wife or hufband, the
firlt being living, and have iffue by fuch fecond wife or
hufband, theiffue is a baftard. (Bott. 397. pl. 521.) Before
the ftatute 2 & 3 Ed. VI. c. 21. one was adjudged a baftard
“¢ quia filius facerdotis.””

If a man hath iffue, a fon, by a woman before marriage,
and afterwards marries the fame woman, and hath iffve,-a
fecond fon, born after the marriage; the firft of thefe is
termed in Jaw a *baftard eigneé,’”’ and the fecond a “‘mulier,””
cr ‘* mulier puifné.”’ By the common law, a * baftard
eigné,”” is incapable of inheriting as if the fatherand mother
had never married. However, there is in one cafe in which
his iffue was let into the fucceffion, and that was by the
confent of the lord and perfon legitimate; as if upon the
death of the father the “* bailard cigné’” enters, and the
** multer” during his whole life never dilturbs him, he cannot
upon the death of the * baftard eigué” enter upon his iflue.
In this cafe the “ mulher puifné,”? and all other heirs, are
totally barred of their right. This indulgence, however,
is fhewn to no other kind of baftard; for if the mother
was never married to the father, fuch baftard con!d have no
colourable title at all. (Litt. fe&. 399, 400. Co. Litt. 245.)
To exclude the “¢ mulier” from the mheritance, there muft
not only be an uninterrupted poffeffion of the % baftard
eigné” during his life, but a defcent to his iffue. Co. Litt.
244. 1 Rol. Abr. 624.

‘The duty of parents to their baftard children by our law,
is principally that of maintenance. The method in which
the Englith law provides maintenance for illegitimate chil-
dren isas follows. When a woman is delivered, or declares
herfelf with child, of a baitard, and will by oath before ‘a
jultice of the peace charge any perfon as having got her
with child, the juftices fhall caufe fuch perfon to be appre-
hended, and commit him till he gives fecurity, either to
maintain the child, or appear at the next quarter fefiions to-
difpute and try the fa&t. But if the woman dies or is
married before delivery, or mifcarries, or proves not to have
been with child, the perfon fall be difcharged ; otherwife,
the feffions, or two juftices out of feffions, upon original
application to them, may make an order for the keeping of
the baftard, by charging the mother or the reputed father
with the payment of money or other fuftentation for that
purpofe; and if the party difobey fuch order, he or fhe may
be committed to gaol, until they give fecurity to perform it,
or to appear at the feflions. The juftices may commit the
mother of a baftard, likely to become chargeable, to the
houfe of correction for a year; or, for a fecond offence, till
fhe give fecurity for her good behaviour. And if fuch pu
tative father, or lewd mother, run away from the parifh, the
overfeers, by dire€tion of two jultices, may feize their rents,
goods, and chattles, in order to bring up the faid baftard

child,.

BAST AMM.

child. Yet fuch ts thé humanity of our laws, that no woman
can be compulfively queftioned concerning the father of her
child, till one month after her delivery. Stat. 18, Eliz.
c.g. 7 Jace Lnc.4., 3, Caryl ic. ania se r4iCar. i L..caie.
6 Geo. Il. c. 31. :

As to the rights of a baftard, they are very few; being
onl; {uch as he can acquire: for he can inherit nothing, being
regarded as the fon of nobsdy; and fometimes called ‘¢ filius
nullius,’? fometimes ‘ filius populi.”? Fortefc. de L.L.c. 40.
Yet he may gain a furname by reputation, though he has
none by inheritance. Co. Litt. 3. Wherea remainder is
limited to the eldeft fonof Jane S. whether legitimate or
illegitimate, and fhe hath iffue, a baftard fhall take this
remainder; becaufe he acquires the denomination cf her iflue
by being born of her body. Noy. 35. All other children
have their primary fettlement in their father’s parifh; buta
baitard in the parthh where born, for he hath no father.
Salk. 427. However, incafe of fraud, as if a woman be
fent either by order of juftices, or comes to beg asa va-
grant, to a parifh to which fhe does not belong, and drops
her baftard there, the baltard (hall, in the firft cafe, be fettled
in the parifh from which fhe was illegally removed (Salk.
121); or, in the latter cafe, in the mother’s own partih, if
the mother be apprehended for her vagrancy. 17 Geo. II.
c. 5. Baftards alfo born in any licenfed hofpital for pregnant
women, are fettled in the parifh to which the mothers be-
long. 13 Geo. III. c. 82. When a parifh becomes charged
with the maintenance of a baftard, then, and not before, the
authority of the church-wardens and overfeers commences,
(Say- 93); and they may a& without an order from the
juitices. 3 Term Rep. C. P.253. It feems, however, that
until a baitard attain the age olf {even years, it cannot be
feparated from its mother (Cald. 6.); but may be re-
moved to the place of her fettlement, while the age of nur-
ture continues (Carth. 279.); and mutt under thefe circum-
ftances be maintained by the parifh where it was born.
Doxg. 7,

The incapacity of a baftard confi'ts prineipally in this,
that he cannot be heir to any one: neither can he have heirs,
but of his own body; for being ‘ nullius filtus,”” he is there-
fore a-kin to nobody, and has no anceftor from whom any in-
heritable blood can be derived. Asa battard has no legal
anc: ftors, he can have no collateral kindred; and therefore if
a baftard purchafes land, and dies feized thereof without iffue,
and inteftate, tue land fhall efcheat to the lord of the fee.
Co. Litt. 244. Finch. Law. 117.

By the Roman law, the mother inherited from her baftard
child, and vice ver’: but there wasa great difference between
baltards, ‘¢ nothi.”? and thofe they called ** {purious.”? The
Jaw did not own the latter, nor allow them fultenance becanfe
they were bornin common and uncertain pro‘titution. Is
non habet patrem, cui pater eft populus.”? The former fort,
born in concubinage, which refembles marriage, inherited
from their mothers, and had a right to demand fuftenance of
their natural fathers. ‘They were looked upon as domettic
creditors, that ought to be treated the more favourably, for
being the innocent produét of their parents’ crimes. Solon
would have it, that the parents ‘hould be deprived of their
paternsl authority over their baftards; becaufe, as they were
only parents for pleafurz, that ought to be their only reward.

Anciently, in Rome, natural children were quite excluded
from inheriting after their fathers ab inteftato: but they
might be appointed heirs in general. ‘The emperors Arca-
dius and Honorius made ar ftriétion; and when there were
legitimate children, the baitards fhould only come is fora
twelfth, to be fhared with their mother. Juftinian after-
wards ordcred, that they might come in for haif; and fucceed
ab inteltato fora fixth, when there were legitimates.

Bftards might be legitimated by fubfequent marriage,
or by the emperor’s letters. ‘The emperor Anaftafius al-
lowed fathers to legitimate their baftirds by adoption alone :
but this was abolifhed by Juftin and Juttinian, left by this in-
dulgence they fhould authorife-concubinage. The pope
has fometimes legitimated baftards. Nay, the holy fee has
on fome occafions dilpenfed not only with illegitimates, but
with the offspring of adultery, as to fpiritual confiderations,
in allowing of their promotion to epifcopacy.

Accordingly the civillaw differs from ours in this point,
and allows a baftard to fucceed to an inheritance, if after its
birth, the mother was married to the father (Nov. 89,c. 8.);
and alfo, if the father has no lawful wife or child, then, even
if the concubine was never married co the father, yet fhe and
her baftard fon were admitted each to one twelfth of the
inheritance (Ibid. c. 12.); and a baftard was likewife capable
of fucceeding to the whole of the mother’s citate, although
fhe was never married; the mother being fufficiently certain,
though the fatherisnot. But our law, in favour of marriags,
is much lefs indulgent to baftards.

An attempt was once made to introduce the civil law here
in this ref{pect, by declaring chiidren legitimated by a fubfe-
quent marriage; but it was rejected; and it was upon this
occafion that the barons of England aflemb!ed in the par-
liament of Merton, A. D. 1272, made that famous anfwer,
« Nolumusleges Angle mutare.” 20 Hen. III. c. 9.

But though baftards are not looked upon as chiliren to
any civil purpofes, yet the tiesof nature hold as to maintenance,
and many other intentions; as, particularly, that aman fhall not
marry his baftard fifter or daughter. L. Raym.63. Comb. 356.

A baftard was, in ftriétaefs of law, incapable of hely
orders; and though that were difpenfed with, yet he was
utterly difqualified from holding any digsity in the church.
Fortefe.c. 40. 5 Rep. 58. But this dottrine feems now
obfolete; and there is a very ancient decifion, that a felon
fhould have benefit of clergy, though he were a baftard.
Bro. Clergy 20. In all other refpeéts, there is no diftin@ion
between a baltard and another man: whereas the civil law,
which has been extolled for its equitable decifions, made
baitards in fome cafes incapable even of a gift from their
parents. Cod. 6. 57.5. A baftard may even be made legiti-
mate, and capable of inheriting, by the tranfcendent power
of an a& of parliament, and not otherwife (4 Inft. 36.) ; as
was done in the cafe of John of Gaunt’s baitard children, by
a ftatute of Richard IL.

Baftardy, with regard to the feveral modes of its trial, is
diftinguifhed into general and fpecial baltardy. ili the
ftatute of Merton already recited, the queftion whether born
before or after marriage, was examined before the ecclefiafs
tical judze, and his judgment was certified to the king or
his juflices, aud the king’s court either received cr rejected
it at pleafure. But after the folemn protett of the barons at
Merton againtt the introduGtion of the civil and canon law in
this refpect, fpecial baitardy has been always triable at com-
mon law ; and general baltardy has alone been left to the
judgment of the ecciefiaftical judge, who in this cafe agrees
with the temporal. (2 Init. 29. Reeves’s H ft. Eng. Law.
85. 201.) General baltardy, tried by the bifhop, comprehends
twothings. 1. It fhould not be a baltardy made legitimate
by a fubfequent marriage. 2. That it fhould be a point
collateral to the original caufe of action. If the ordinary
certify or try baftardy without a writ from the king’s tem-
peral courts, it is void; and the ce:tificate mult be under the
feal of the ordinary. 4 Rol. Abr. 361, 362.

Special battardy is two-fold: it, Where the baftardy fs
the gift of the aétion, and the material part of the iffue; adly,
Woere thofe are baftards by the common law that ae * mu-
licrs”’ by the fpiritual law. (Co. Litt. 134. 1 New Abr. ie

3 1 Kol.

tm

BAS

r Rol. 367. Hob. 117.) If a man receives any temporal
damages by being called a baftard, and brings his ation in
the temporal courts, and the defendant juftifies that the
plainufl 1s a baftard, this mult be tried at common law, and
not by writ to the bifhop. 1 Brownl. 1. Hob. 179. Godol.
479. Co. Ent. 29.

In an ancient MS. of the time of Edw. TTI it is faid that
he who gets a bafard in the hundred of Middieton in Kent
fhall forfeit all his goods and chattels to the king. If a baf-
tard be got under the umbrage of a certain oak in Kaolwood
in Staffordth're, belonging to the manor of Terfley-cafie,
no punifhment can be inflicted; and neither the lord nor
the bifhop can take cognizance of it. Piott’s Stafford.
Pp: 279+ :

By the ftat. 21 Jac. 1, c. 27. a mother of 2 baftard child,
concealing its death, muft prove by one wiinefs that the child
was born dead; otherwife, fuch concealment fha!l be evidence
of her having murdered it. But of late years it hath been
nfual, on trials fur thefe offences, to require fome fort of pre-
fumptive evidence that the child was borm alive, before the
other prefumption be admitted, that becaufe the death was
concealed it was killed by the parent. If a woman be with
child, and any one give her a potion to:deftroy the child,
and it kills the woman, this is murder. If a woman great or
quick with child takes, or any perfon gives her, auy potion
to caufe abortion, or if a man ftrike her fo as to kill the child,
this is not murder por manflaughter by the law of England;
but the offender may be indi&ed for a mifdemeanor at com-
mon law. But if the child be born alive, and afterwards die
of the poifon or brunfes it received in the womb, it is murder
on-the part of fuch as adminiftered or gave them. Thus aifo,
if a man procure a woman with child to deltroy her infant
when born, and the child is born, and the woman in purfuance
of that procurement kill the infant, that is murder in the
mother, and the procurer is-acceflary. 1 Hal P.C. 429,
430. 433. Blackit. Com. vol. i. p. 454, &c. vol. il. p. 248.
vol; iv..p. 65. Burn’s Juftice, vol.i. p. 217—2371.

Basrarp, in refpeét of Artillery, isapplied to thofe pieces
which are of an unufual or illegitimate make or proportion.
Thefe are of two kinds, long and fhort, according as the
defe@ is on the redundant’or defettive fide.

The long baitards, again; are either common or uncom-
mon. To the common kind belong the double culverin ex-
traordinary, half culverin extraordinary, quarter culverin
extraordinary, falcon extraordinary, &c.

The ordinary baftard culverim carries a ball- of eight
pounds. Sce Cannon.

BAsTarvs in Botany, is app'ied to feveral fpecies of plants:
as baflard al!kanet, for which fee LirnospermuM ;—balm,
fee Meritris;—cabbage-tree, fee GeorrroyA;—cedar,
fee THeossoma Guazzuma ;—crefs, fee Turasp1 ;—fever-

few, fce Parruenium ;—flower-fence, fee ADAMANTINA:

—gentian, fee Sarorura ;—hare’s ear, fee PHytiis ;—
hatchet-vetch, fee Biserruta ;—hemp, fee Darisca ;—
hibifeus, fee Acuania;—Jefuit’s bark-tree, fee Iva ;—in-
digo, fee AnrorPHA ;—knot-grafs, fee CorricGiora ;—
lupine, fee Trirorium Lupinafter ;—orpine, fee An-
DRACHNE ;—pimpernel, fee Cenruncutus ;—plantain, fee
Heticonta Bihai, and CenruncuLtus;—quince, fee Mzs-
Pitus Chameme/fpilus ;—rocket, fee Resepa ;—faffron, fee
Cartruamus;—ltar of Bethlehem, fee ALBuca ;—wood-
fiax, fee THesium3—vetch, fee Paaca.

Bastarp, in Sea Language, is ufed for 2 large fail of a:

galley, which will make way with a flack wind.

Bastarop is alfo ufed adjeGtively, or in compofition with
divers other words, to denote things of inferior or diminus
tive value. In this fenfe we meet with baftard’ coral, baf-
tard alabafter, baftard amianthus, &c.

BAS

Basrarn. Sczr/et is a name given to red dyed with bale
madder, as coming neareft to the bow-dye, or new fearlet.

Bastarops are alfo an appellation given to a kird of face
tion or troop of banditti, who rofe in Guienne about the
beginning of the fourteenth century, and joining with fome
Englith parties, ravaged the country, and fet fre to the
city of Xaintes.

Mezeray fuppofes them to have confifted of the natural
fons of the nobility of Guicnnc, who being exciuded the
right of in>eritiug trom their fathers, put themfclves at the
head of robbers aud plunderers, to maintain themfelves.

BASTARDY is a defect of birth objefted to one born
out of wedlock

Enftathius maintains, againft the courfe of antiquity, that
beftards amcng the Greeks were in equal favour with legi-
timate children as !ow as the Trojan war: others, however,
have fhewn that there never was a time when baftardy was
not in difgrace. (See Homer. Il. §, v. 281. Sephocl. Ajax,
v.1250. Enripid. Ion. v. 589.) Inthe time of Wilham
the corqueror, baftardy feems not to have implied any dif-
grace; fer that monarch does not feruple to affu:ne the ap-
pellation of baftard. His epiltte to Alan, cout of Bre-
tagne, begins, “‘ Ego Willielmus, cognomento baftardus.”’
Du-Cange Gioff. Lat. t. i. p. 502.

Basrarpy, Arms of, in Heraldzy. fhould be croffed with
a bar, fillet, or traverl-, from the left to the right. Baf-
tards were not formerly allowed to carry the arms of their
father, and therefore they invented arms for themf{clves; and
this is fill done by the natural fons of a king.

Bastrarpy, Right of, Droit de Batardife, in the Frenck
Law, isa right, im virtue of which the effets of baftarde
dying inteftate devolve to the king er the lord.

Bastarpy, Trial of. See Bastarp.

BASTARNAS, in Ancient Geography, a people who at
firlt inhabited that part of European Sarmatia that corre-
{poaded to a part of Poland and Pruflia, towards the Viilus
la, and who afterwards approached the more fouthern parts,,
and eftablifhed themfelves to the left and right of the Tyas
or Danafter. The era of their war with the Goths, and
of their conqueft of thefe territories, is not precifely afcer-
tained. M. Freret refers it to the interval between the years
282 and 280 B.C. ‘Tacitus fays, they had houfes; and
hence it has been inferred that they were not Sarmatians,-
becaufe they dwelt in huts. Livy confiders them as Gauls,
and Strabo prefumes that they were a nation of Germans.
They feem, however, to have inhabited the region that lay
north of the Carpathian mountains, and to have gradually
extended themfelves towards Poland and the Bory {thenes.
Many learned perfons have reprefented them as a colony left
by the Gauls on the other fide of the Carpathien moun-
tains, when they made their progrefs, under the condu& of
Brennus, from the eaft towards the weft. M..de Peyflonel
fays, that they may be regarded as the founders of the Ruf-
fians and Sclavonians.

BASTATAL, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the eaft-
ern coaft of the ifland of Sumatra. S. lat. 1°. E. loug..
103° 307. :

BASTAVOE, a bay onthe eaft fide of Yell, one of the
Shetland iflands. .

BASTELLICA, a town of the ifland of Corfica, §
leazues E.N.E. of Ajaccio.

BASTERIA, in Botany. See Carycastuus.

BASTERNA, in Antiquity, a kind of vchicle or cha-
riot ufed by ancient Roman ladies.

Papias thinks, that bafterna was firft written for veffern.
Rofweild fays, it fhould be via flerna, which he concludes
from Ifidore, who fays, Laferna, via flerna. But the word
feems better derived from the Greek Gzsuu, ports,.to carry.

Salmahus

BAS

Salmafius obferves, that the baferna fucceeded the /edtica,
or litter; from which it differed very little, except that the
litter was borne on the fhoulders of flaves, and the bafterna
borne or drawn by beafts. Cafaubon fays it was borne by
mules. F. Daniel, Mabillon, &c. affert it was drawn by
oxen, to go the more gently ; and Gregory de Tours gives
an inftance of its being drawn by wild bulls. The infide
they called the cavea, or cage: it had foft cufhions or beds,
befides glaffes on each fide like our charicts. The mode of

alternas pafied from Italy into Gaul, and thence into other
countries; and to this we owe our chariots, which, though
we call them currus, yet have they no conformity to the
ancient currus, but are in effeG@ bafternas improved. The
bafterna appears aifo to have been ufed in war, for the car-
rying of baggage. -

BASTI, now Baza, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Spain, in Betica, north-eaft of Acci, and near the moun-
tains which feparate Batica from Tarragonenfis.

BASTIA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Albania, in
Turkey in Europe, over againft the ifland of Corfu, at the
mouth of the river Calemu. ‘N. lat. 39° 40’. E. long.

20° .35!.

‘ Bassi, a city and fea-port of Corfica, the capital of the
ifland, or of the department of Golo, is fituated on its north-
eaft fide, and commanded by a lofty mountain, in the centre
of which the fea forms a {mall bay, defended by a mole. Ic
js divided into two parts, called ¢* Terra Nuova”’ and * Terra
Vecchia ;?? in the former af which is a citadel, furrounded
with fortifications, Its harbour, theugh goed, is not large;
and affords convenient anchorage for veilels of a {mail fize,
but is unfit for the reception of fhips of war: and its com-
merce is incorfiderable. In 1730, Corfica revolted from
Genoa; and in 1794, it was attacked by lord Hood, and
captured by the Britifh ficet and army. Tne number of in-
habitants in its cartons is {uppofed to be about 10,997. N.
lat. 42° 35’. E. long. 9°30’.

Bastra Marina (Rumpfus), in Natural Hiffory, a kind of
fponge, {uppofed to be the Spongia ventilabra of Gmelin.

BASTIDE, in Toposraphy, an appellation given in the
fouthern departments of France, to {mall country-houfes,
built by individuals of eafy circumftances, in the vicinity of
the towns.

Bastive de Montfort, La, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton
in the diftri& of Gaillac, 5 miles N. E. of Gaillac.

BastipeE de Seron, La, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Arriege, and chief place of a canton in the
diftriG of Foix ; 44 leagues N. W. of Tarafcon. The piace
contains 1764 and the canton 5712 inhabitants: the terri-
tory includes 157% kiliometres and 12 communes.

Bastive, La, a town of France, inthe department of the
Lot, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of Gourdon,
The place contains 1161 and the canton 5914 inhabitants:
the territory includes 2124 kiliometres and 11 communes.

Bastive de Fourdans, La, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the mouths of the Rhone, and chief place of a
canton in the diftriG of Apt, 4 leagues S. E. of Apt.

Bastive d’ Armagnac, La, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gers, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri& of Nogaro, 43 leagues N. N. W. of Nogaro.

Bastipe Clerence, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton in
the diftri& of Baionne. ‘The place contains 2000 and the
canton 6934 inhabitants: the territory includes 150 kiliome-
tres and 5 communes; 4 leagues W. of Orthez.

BASTILE denotes a {mall antique caftle, fortified with
turrets. Such was the battile of Paris, which feems to have
been the only caftle that retained the name: it was begun to

BAS

be built in 1369, by order of Charles V. and finifhed in 1383,
under the reign of his fucceffor. Its chief ufe was for the
cultody of ftate prifoners.
Of the plan and {tre@ure of this edifice, which was for
feveral ages appropriated to the clandeltine purpofes of un-
eeling defpoti{m, and which might be juitly corfidered as
the abode of human mifery, and of the regulations by which
it was governed, it is now needlefs to record any particulars;
as it was aflaulted and totally deftroyed at an early period of
the revolution in France, viz. on the r4th of July, in the
year 1789. Thofe who are cifirous of acquainting them-
felves with its hiftory, will find their curiofity | ratified in
a volume entitled ‘“* The Hiitory of the Batliles he.” pub-
lifhed in 1790, Sve. The moft fatisfattory information re-
lating to the prifoner in the iron mafk, who was confined in
this wretched dungeon for many years, and concerning
whom many conje€tures have keen made, is communicated
to the public in a work entitld © Memoires du Marechal
Duc de Richelicu,” publifhed at” Paris in-a790, in 4 vols,
Svo. The-fecret is faid to have been extorted from the
regent by his daughiter, who difclofedcit to the duke de
Richelieu. From the acconnt.given in this Work it appears,
that this unfortufate perfon was the twin-brosher of Louis
XIV. born eight hours after this. monarch, and who was
the unhappy victim of fuperftition and cruelty. His father,
Louis XIIL., being weak enough to give ‘credit toa pre-
diGtion of fome impoltors, that if the queen fhould be deli-
vered of twins, the kingdom would. be involved in civil war,
ordered the birth of this prince to be kept a profound fe-
cret; and had him privately educated in the country as the
illegitimate fon of a robleman: but on the acceffion of
Louis XIV. the young man gave indications of having dif-
covered his parentage, of which his brother being informed,
ordered him to be imprifoned for life, and to wear a mafk,
in order to prevent his being recognized. - :
BASTIMENTOS, in Geography, {mall iflands near the
ifthmus of Darien, at the mouth of the bay of Nombre de
Dios. They form a good harbour; and one of them has an
excellent {pring. N. lat. 9° go’. W. long. 79° 45%
BASTINADO. See Bastonapo. at
BASTION, in the Modern Fortifications, a huge mals of
-earth ufually faced with fods, fometimes with brick, rarely
with ftone, flanding out from a rampart, whereof it is a
principal part ; and anfwering to what in the ancient fortifi-
cation was called propugnaculum, ov a bulwark. =
Battions, fome fay, were firft introduced by Zifca the Bo-
hemian; others attribute the invention of them to Achmet
Bathaw, in the year 1480, mentioning the fortification of
Otranto as the firft inftance in which they were ufed. How-
ever, they were well known foon a’ter the year 15003 for
Tartalea gives a plan of Turin, which had been completely
fortified for fome time with four baftions, in his Quefiti &
Inventioni diverfe, publifhed in 1546. The firft baftions,
fuch as thofe of Turin, and of Antwerp, which was fortified
about the year 1540, were {mall, and removed at a great
diftance from each other: but they were made much larger,
and brovght nearer to each other in the citadel of Antwerp,
ere€icd under the diretion of the duke d’Alva, about the
year 1566. ot
A baltion confifts of two faces and two flanks, and an
opening towards the centre of the place called the GORGE.
—The faces are the lines BC and CS (Plate I. Fortificat.
Jig. 1.) including the angle of the baftion. See Face.—
The flanks are the lines BA, SD. The union of the two
faces makes the outmott or faliant angle, called alfo the an-
gle of the baftion, BCS. yr
The union of the two faces to the two flanks makes the
fide-angles called the fhoulders, or epaules of the cf
n

a

BAS

and the union of the two other erda of the flanks to the
two curtins, the angles of the flanks of the batlion.

The foundation of the ballion, 1. e. of a work confilling
of flanks and faces, is that great rule in fortification, viz.
that every part of a work mult be feen and deferded from
fome other part: mere angles therefore are not fvfficient,
but flanks and faces are indifpentib ly requiftte.—Thue, if the
baition confitts of flanks and faces,as ABCS D, Sg. 1. all
the points may be Sass from the flanks; there being
none, v. gr. in the face BC, but what may be deferded
from the oppolite flark EF. un nor avy inthe curtin A FE, but
may be defended from te adjacent flanks BA and EL;
nor in any one flank BA, but may be defended from the
other FL.

For the proportions of the faces, they are not to be lefs
than 4o toifes, nor more than 60; or differing little from
ico yards.

‘Lhe flanks of baltions are better as they are longer, pro-
vided they Nand at the fame angle under the line of defence:
hence the flank mutt ftand at right angles to the line of dee
fence. Indeed, in the ancient fertificatien, the Gane 1s
made perpendicul arto the cortin, fo as to have the ang'e out
of the enemy’s eye 5 but this is new provided for, by with-
drawing the lower part of the flank two or three perches

towards the capital line; which part, thus withdrawn, 1s
better, if made corcave, than reGilinear; and if double,
with a ditch between, than if fingle.

The bulinefs of difpofing the flanks of baflions makes the
principal part of the art of fortification ; it 1s that on which
the d-fince principaily depends, and which has introduced
the various forms and modes ct fortifying.

If the angle of the baltion be lets than fixty degrees, it
will be too {mall to give room for guns; and befides, fo
acute as to be eafily beaten down by the enemies’ guns: to
which may be added, that it will either render the line of
defence too long, or the flanks too fhort: it muft therefore
be more than fixty degrees; but whether or not it fhould
be a right angle, fome intermediate angle between fixty and
ninety, or even whether or not it fhould exceed a right an-
gie. is fill difputed ; though thofe are generally preferred,
which are not much lefs than go", and not exceeding 120°
er 130°. Hence it follows, that a triangle can never be
fortined, becaufe ether feme or all of the angles will be
ether fixty degrees, or |: fs than fixty.

Baltions are of divers kinds, /alid, void, flat, cut, &c.

Bastions, folid, are thofe that are tilled up extircly, ard
have the earth equal to the heght of the ramparr, without
ary void {pace towards the cenire.

Bastions, void, or holiocv, are thofe furrounded with a
rampart and parapet, only ranging round their flanks and
faces, fo as to leave a void fpace towards the certre; where
the ground is fo low, that if the rampart be takin, no re-
trenchment can be made in tie centre, but what will lie
under the fire of the befleged.

Bastion, flat, is a battion built on a right line in the
midcle of the curtir, when it is tco long to be defended by
the baition at its extremes.

Basrion, cut, is that whefe point is cut cff, and in leu
thereof has are entering angk, or en angle inwards with
two points outward: this is fometimes alfo called ba/lion
qvith a tenaille; and is ufed either when, without fuch a con-
trivance, the angle would be too acute, or when water, or
fome o:her impediment, hinders the carrying on of the baftion
to its full extent.

ao’, compofed, is when the two fides of the interior
polyzon are very unequal, which makes the gorges alfo un-
equal.

Bastion, regular, is that which has its due proportion

Vou. Ift.

: BAS

of faces, flanks, and gorges; the faces being of an equal
leneth, the flanks the fame, and the two angles of the
fhoulder equal.

Lasvion, irregular, is where this proportion and equality
are not oblerved.

Bastion, deformed, is where the irrecularity of the lires
and angles. makes the ballicn ort of fhape: as when it wants
one of its dem’-gorges; one fide of the interior polygon
being too fhort.

Bastion, demi, is that which hath but one face, and one
flank : called alfo an epau/ement.

To fortify the angie of a place that is too acute, they cut
eff the point, and make two demi-laflions, which form a re-
naille, or 1 ve-entering angle. Their chicf ufe is before a
horr-work, or crown-work.

Bastion, double, is that which, on the plane of the great
bafticn, has another baftion buiit higher, f{omewhat after the
manner of a cavalier ; leaving twelve or eighteen feet between
the parapet of the lower, and the foot of the higher.

Bastion, Capital ofa. See Carirar.

Bastion, Gorge of a, See Gorce.

Basrion, Diflance of the. See Distance.

Bastion, Company in France. See Company.

BASTIVANL, in Ancient Geography, a people of Be-
tica, in Spain. See Batica, and Bast.

BASTOGNE, in Geography, a city of the Netherlands,
in the dechy of Luxemburgh, near the forcft of Ardennes,
and fince the revolution, a town of France, in the department
of the Foréts, and chief ploce of a canton in the diftri@ of
Neufchateau. The place contains 2354 and the canton
5SE6 inhebitants ; the territory includes 255 kilometres and
15,communes. It is fo populous, fo well built, and has fo
much trade, that it is not enfrequently called “ Paris in Ar-
dennes.” N. lat. 50° 6’. EE. lonz. 6° 0,

BASTON, Roserr, in Biography, a poet of f-me note
in the fourteenth century, and author of feveral works, was
defcended of a noble family, and born in. Yorkfhire, not
far from Nottingham. In-his youth he became a Carmelite
monk, and afterwards prior of that order at Scarborough.
He wes likewife poet laureat and public orater at Oxford.
In 1304, he accompanied king Edward I. in his exped:tion
into Scotlend, for the purpofe of celcbrating the king’s
victories ever the Scots; but being taken prifoner, he was
compelled to fing the fucceffes of Robert Bruce, who then
claimed the crown of Scotland. . He died about the year
1310, and was turied at Nottingham. His poetry, though
barbarous, wes not contemptible for the age in which he
lived. Biog. Brit. Gen. Diét.

Baston, or Batoon, in Architeure, denotes a mould in
the bafe of a column; otherwife called a fore.

Baston, or Baroon, in Heraldry, a kind of bend which
has only one fourth of the ufual breadth. The balton does
not go from fide to fide of the efeutcheon, as the bend or
fearf does, but is broken off thort, 1 in form of a truncheon.
Its ufe in Enghth coats of arms is a mark of baftardy: but
French ‘heralds introduce it in arms as a difference, a mark
of confanguinity.

Basron alfo fignifies the earl-marfhal’s aff.

Baston, ieadehy literally fignifying a /laf, and techni-
cally a verge, or mace, in Law, is ufed for one of the war-
den’s of the Fleet’s men, who attends the king’s court with
a red ftaff, for taking fuch to ward as are committed by the
court, and likewife attends on-fuch prifoners as are fuffered
to go at large by licence. Stats. 1 R.I].c. 12. 5 Ehz.
c. 23. See TrpstTarrF.

BASTONADO, Basronape, or Bastinavo, the pu-
nifhment of beating or drubbing a criminal with a flick.

The word is formed of the French daftca, a flick, SE

Gd

BAS

The baftonade is a punifhment ufed among the ancient
Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and ftill obtains among the
Torks.

The Romans called it fufigatio, fuftium admonitio, or fuf-
tibus cedi, which differed from the /lagellatio, as the former
was done with a ftick, the latter with a rod or fcourge.
The fultigation was a lighter punifhment, and inflicted on
freemen; the flagellation a feverer, and referved for flaves.
Tt was alfo called tympanum, becaule the patient here was
beat with flicks, like a drum.

The penalty is much in ufe in the Eaft to this day. The
method there practifed is thus: the criminal being laid on
his belly, his feet are raifed, and tied to a ftake, held falt
by officers for the purpofe; in which pofture he is beaten
by a cudgel on the foles of his feet, back, chin, &c. to the
number of one or more hundred blows. Calmet, Di&.
Bib. tom. i. p. 260.

For the method of infliGing this punifhment at Algiers,
fee Arciers. Dr. Shaw (Trav. p. 253.) fuggeits that it
was probably in this manner, that St. Paul was “ thrice
beaten with rods.?? . 2 Cor. xi. 25. The Choufes, whofe
office it is to infli& this punifhment at Algiers, appear to
be no other than fo many Roman liftors armed with their
fafces. The flighteft of ail the Chinefe punifhments is the
bathinado, which is only ufed for chaitifing thofe who have
been guilty of very trivial faults. ‘Phe criminality of the
offender determines the number of blows which he mutt re-
ceive; but the loweft number is twenty. The punifhment in
this cafe is confidered merely as a fimple paternal ecrre@ion,
without any infamy attached to it; and it is ordered by the
emperor to be iufiicied on his courtiers, who are afterwards
received into favour and treated with refpect. The baton,
or ** pan-tfee,”? ufed for this punifhment, 1s a piece of bam-
boo, alittle flatted, broad at the bottom, and polifhed at the
upper extremity for the convenience of being more eafily
handled. very mandarin may ufe it at pleafure in certain
cafes, cither when any one forgets to falute him, or when
he adminifters public juftice. On fuch occafions he fits
gravely behind a table, upon which is placed a bag filled
with fmall fticks, while a number of petty officers ftand
around him, each furnifhed with fome of thefe ‘* pan-tfees,”’
and waiting only for his fignal to make ufe of them. The
mandarin takes from the bag one of the little flicks which
it contains, and throws it into the hall of audience. The
culprit is then feized, and ftretched out with his belly to-
wards the ground; his breeches are puiled down to his
heels, and an athletic domeflic applies five {mart blows of
his “* pan-tfee ;”’ anptberinceccds, and beftows five more, if
the mandarin draws another fmall baton frem the bag, and
thus, by gradation, until the judge is pleafed to make no
more fignals. The criminal, who has undergone this chal-
tifement, muft then throw himfelf upon his knees before
the judge, incline his body three times to the earth, and
thank him for the care which he takes of his education.
Groficr’s China, vol. it, p. 52, &c.

BASTONIER, or Batonisr, in the French Law, an
ancient advocate, ereéted yearly according to fentority, to
be the head or mafter of the community of advocates and
attornies. He is prefident of the board held for mainte-
nance of the order, and difcipline of the galais. To him
alfo belongs the commiflion of the inferior judges, when put
under interdi&, fo long as the interdiétion latts.

Basronser is alfo ufed for him who keeps the ftaff of a
gommunity, and carries or follows it in proceffions.

BASTOVA, in Geography, a town of European Tur-
key, in Albania, 18 miles fouth of Durazzo.

BASTWICK, Jonn, in Biography, M. D. born at

i

PAT

Writtle in Effex, in 1593, after paffing through the ufual
{chool education, was fent to Emanuel college in Cambridge,
where, however, he did not continuea fufficient time to take
his degree; but with the view of qualifying himfelf for the
practice of phyfic, he quitted England to vifit the principal
feminaries on the continent, where, at that time, the different
branches of medicine were better taught than in bis own
country. At Padua he was admitted to the degree of do@or
in medicine; but engaging early in theological difputes, and
thence exciting the refentment of the clergy, he foon found
himfelf involved in troubles, from which, at a late period, he
f{earce efcaped with his life. In 1624, and before he re-
turned to England, he publifhed at Leyden, ‘* Elenchus
Religionis Papiltice, in quo probatur, neque Apoitolicam,
neque Catholicam, imo neque Romanam effe,”? 24to.; and
foon after his return, ‘¢ Flagellum Pontificis et Epifcopornm
Latialinus.” Though he declared, in the preface to this
work, that nothing in it was intended to affect fuch bifhops
as acknowledged their authority from kings and emperors,
yet our Enghih prelates, either fufpe&ing that fome things
in his book were leveiled at them, or perhaps not enduring
that the conduct ef ecclefiaflics fhould be expofed with fueh
freedom by a lay writer, and fearing if he was fuffered to
go onthe fame weapon might be turned againft them, he
was cited by them before the high-commifion court, fined
1oool. and fentenced to be excommunicated, to be debarred
the practice of phyfic, to have his books burnt, and to re~
main in prifon until he made a recantation. After being
confined two yeats in the Gatehoufe, he publifhed “* Apolo-
geticus ad Prefules Anglicos ;” but that procuring no re-
miffion of his fentence, it was foon followed by ‘* The New
Litany,” in which he taxed the bifhops with having an in-
clination to popery, and exclaimed againit the feverity and in-
juftice of the high-commiffion’s proceedings againit him. For
publifhing this work, he was fentenced, by the fame court,
to pay a fine of 5ocol., to ftand in the pillory in Palace-yard
Weftmintter, and there lofe his ears, and to fuffer perpetual
imprifonment in a remote part of the kingdom. The fame
fentence was, about the fame time, in 1637, pafled and exe-
cuted upon Prynne and Burton. Baftwick was conveyed
to Launcefton caftle in Cornwall, and thence removed to
St. Mary’s caitle in the fle of Scilly, where no one was per-
mitted to vifit him. The houfe of commons, however, in
1640, ordered him, as well as thé others, to be brought to
London, whither they were attended by vaft multitudes of
people, with loud acclamations of joy. The proceedings
againit them were voted illegal, and they were ordered to be
remunerated out of the revenue and eftates of the archbifhop.
of Canterbury, and the other lords of the comm’ffion who
had condemned them. Baltwick was alive in 1648. The
time of his.death 1s not known. Gen. Biog. DiA.

BASVILLE, in Geograp4y, a fea-port town in the ifland
of Martinico. =

BASZEU, a river of European Turkey, which runs inte
the Preth, near Stephenowze, in Moldavia.

BAT, in Zoology. See VESPERTILIO.

Bar, Sea. See SEA BAT.

Bar, in Commerce, a {mall bafe filver coin, current in divers
parts of Germany and Swifferland, at different prices.

The bat or fladermoufe, at Nuremburg, is equal to four
croitzers; at Zurich, to 4, of the French crown; at Bafil,
Schaffhaufen, &c. to xy; and at Bern and Friburg to 35
of the fame crown. Thefe Jatt are called fhort bats.

BATA, in Botany. Sce Musa. '

Bara, in Geography. Sec Batra. '

BATABANO, a town on the fouth fide of the ifland of
Cuba in the Welt Indies, feated near a large bay, oppofite

inos

Bae.

Pinos ifles, and about 50 miles fouth-weft from the Ha-
vannah. ;

BATABLE Lanp. See Barraste.

BATACALO, or Baracoto Bay, in Geography, lies on
the eaft coaft of the ifland of Ceylon, in N. lat. 7° 55’.
FE. long. 81° 3’. It extends to the fouth between the main
ifland and a narrow track of land on the eaft fide of it, and
is well fheltered from moft winds. The Port town, fo called,
is on the welt fide of this bay, or gulf, 53 leagues N. E. of
Columbo. The bay is about 20 leagues to the S.S.E. of
Trincomale. Batacolo is a place of comparatively {mall
importance ; but the furrounding country, and the bold gro-
tefque rocks which {kirt its fhores, have defervedly attracted

articular attention.

BATACARANG Pornr, lies on the caf coalt of the
ifland of Sumatra.

BATALHA, a monaftery in Portuguefe Eftremadura,
about 6o miles to the novth of Lifbon, founded by John I,
at the clofe of the fourteenth century, in confequence of the
great victory over the king of Caftile, and reckoned one of
the mot noble monuments of what is called the Gothic
flyle of architeGure. It has been particularly ceferibed by
Mr. James Murphy.

BATAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Natolia, 20 miles fouth of Kutaia.

BATARDIERE, a place in a garden, prepared for
the planting of fruit trees, which being tranfplanted thither
from the nurfery, are to be placed in efpaliers, or elfewhere,
to fupply the place of dead trees.

BATATAS, in Botany. See Convorvutus.

Batatas. See Potato.

Bararas, in Entomology, a {pecies of Acarus, found on
the potatoe in Surinam and fome other parts of South Ame-
rica. It is rather rough and fanguineous; anterior legs as
long as the body. Fabricius.

BATAVI, in Ancient Geography, are fuppofed to have
been originally the fame people with the Catti or Cattans,
who dwelt beyond the Rhine; and being driven from their
country by a domeltic infurre&tion, they fettled at the ex-
treme borders of Gaul, in an ifland called ‘* Infula Bata-
vorum,”’ formed by the mouths of the Rhine and the ocean.
According to this defcription, the Batavians poffeiied South

- Holland, part of the country of Utrecht, and the ifland of
Betaw in the dukedom of Guelderiand. The early hiftory
of*the Batavi is involved in confiderab’e obfcurity. It is
certain, however, that about 54 years before the Cenitian
zra they were dillinguifhed by their valour, and attracted
the attention of Czfar, who formed an alliance with them.
He encouraged them to ferve in the Roman armies; and
they appear to have fought with him againft Pompey at
Pharfalia, and to hiave affilted Auguflus in the battle of
AGium. They affiled Csefar ia his attacks upon the
Gauls, and they every where ronted and difperfed that fero-
cious and warlike people. The Batavian cavalry bore- the
highelt reputation, and the infantry fought with the fame
order, difcipline, and intrepidity in the marfhes and waters
as upon the firm land; and even the Romans dreaded their
refentment. Uhey became the body-guard of the emperors,
who repofed equal confidence in their fidelity and courage;
and they retained this honourable truft till they were dif-
miffed by Galba, though with tokens of favour and elteem,
In all important expeditions, in every dangerous enterprife,
and where obltinate boldnefs was required, the Batavianswere
feleGted. They generally compofed the forlorn hope of the
Roman army, fullained the fir& fhock of the enemy, and
made the firit attack with an impetuolity \peculiar to them-
{clves. They were n t only honoured by the title of allies

gS Saya ie

to the empire, but diftinguithed by the appellation of the
friends and brethren of the Romans; which denomination
was particularly applicable to the inhabitants of Betaw, an
ifland formed by the Rhine and Vahal or Waal. Their
government feems to have been monarchical, and it ig con-
jeGtured that Claudius Civilis was defcended from their
kings. But though the Romans indulyed them in an ex-
emption from tributes and taxes, it was not confiftent with
the views they hed adopted of univerfal dominion to allow
them the enjoyment of their liberty. “They built towns,
and made eltablifhments in their territories; and this rude
people, flattered by the luxury andthe amufements which
they introduced among them, did not immediately perceive
the dangerous policy which direGted them. ‘They were
foon, kowever, informed of the treachery of their allies, by
the oppreffion and injuftice which they began to exercile.
When Vitellius and Otho difputed the empire, and the
German nations attempted to recover their liberty, the Ba-
tavians followed their example. Alarmed for the interett
and the rights of their nation, Julius Paulus and Claudius
Civilis fet themfelyes to oppofe the practices of the Romans,
and to emarcipate themfelves from their dominion. But
Forteins Capito, the Roman commander, conlidering them
as rebels, made himfelf mafter.of their perfons; and having
beheaded the former, he loeded the latter with chains, and
fent him to Rome. he death of Nero, however, which
happened about this time, delivered Civilis from the danger
which threatened him; and the weak and impolitic Galba
fuffered him to return to his country, without inquiring into
his crime, or into his merit. This illuftricus chief then
prepared to gratily his refentment, and to recever and vin-
dicate the liberty and honour of his nation. He called an
offembly of his community, and reprefenting the evils of
tyranny, inculeated a difdain of fubmiffion and fervitude.
His countrymen fubmitted themfelves without referve to his
condu&; and uniting wich the Frifiiand the Coninefates,
he declared wer again{t the Romans. Gaining an acceffion of
ftrength fromthe Tungrians, who deferted the Romans, and
from fome natives of Batavia, who ferved as rawersin the Ro-
man fleet, he was enabled to defeat the Romans and put themto
flight. He was afterwards joined by eight Batavian cohorts,
who alssndoned Vitel'ius, by whofe ordcrs they were march-
ing to Rome, and alfo by fome other German tribes ; and
thus a‘ded’and encouraged, he obtained fome further fuc-
cefs. But upon the arrival of Cerealis, the Roman general,
he received a total overthrow, and was at length cbliged to
abandon his own ifland, whither he had retreated, to retire
beyond the Rhine, and to fubmit tothe Romans. A con
ference taking place between Cerealis and Civilis, the iffue
of it was an entire fubmiffion on one fide, and an unreferved
pardon on the other. The Batavians remained in the fame
condition in which they were béefare the war broke out;
that is, exempt from all tributes, abd only obliged to fupply
the Romans with troops when required. We know little
more of the ancient hiftory of the Batavians than that the
fierce and warlike {pirit of the peeple obliged the Romans
to maintain ftrong garrifyss er the banks of the Rhine ;
that they revolted againft ConRentine; that they performed
fignal fervices to Theodcfiu: in Briain: and that, with the
re(t of the empire, they fell under the power of the Franks;
and were governed by Charlemagne, and his defcendants,
until, upon the decline of that houfe, the great lords and
officers of the crown, taking advantaze of the weaknefs cf
the reigning princes, rendered their governments hereditary
in their familics. From the Batavi, the feven united pro-
vinces derived the name of Batavia, which fince the French
revolution has been reccgnized in the appellation of the

52 Batavian

BATAVIA:

Batavian republic. Cef. Com. 1. vii. Tacit. Hilt. lv. 1. vii.
Sueton. in Galb.

BATAVIA Castra, acitadel of Vindelicia, fo called
from the cohors Batavia, in garrifon under the commander
in Rhatia; now Passau, fituated in Bavaria, at the con-
fluence of the Dagube, Inn, and [ls.

Batavia, in Geography, the celebrated capital of the
Dutch poff-ffions in the Eaft Indies, and denomnated the
** Queen of the aft,” on account of the beanty of its bu:ld-
ing, and its immenfe trade, is a fea-port town on the no-th
coaft of the ifland of Java, fitnated very near the fea, ona
fertile plain, bearing evident marks of having been Icft or
thrower up hy the fea, in the kingdom of Jaccatra, upon
the river of that name, which, running through the middle
of the town, divijes it into two parts. To the north of the
city is the fea-flare ; behind it to the fouth, the land rifes
witha gentle, and fcarcely pe-ceptible, acclivity towards the
mcu tains, which lie 15 or 16 Dutch miles, er leagues, in-
Jand ; one of which, as being very high, bears the name of
the Blue mountain. This city was founded in 1619 by the
governor-general, John Peterfon Koen, who captured and
deitroyed the town of Jaccatra, near the fpot where the
former town was fituated ; and he gave it the name of Ba-
tavia, though it is faid he much wifhed to have called it
«© New Horn,” from the place of his nativity, ‘* Horn,” ia
North Holland. Although it was then an inconfiderable
place, with regard both to itrength and beauty, he declared it
the capital of the Dutch fettlements ia India; and his choice
of the fituation was fo juf, and his plan fo well contrived, that
it rofe with unparalled rapidity to that degree of magnifcence
and importance which has rendered it both the admiration
and terror of all the more eaftern nations of India. It thil
retains a very confiderable rank and influence ; although, for
the laft_50 years, it has much declined both as to opulence
and population. The form of the city is an oblong {quare,
3 of a saile long, and 3 a mile broad, inte rfe&ted by the river
already mentioned, which runs from north to fouth, and is
croffed by three bridges. he breadth of the river, within
the city, is about 160 or 180 feet; and paffiag the callle
and admiralty wharf, it difcharges itfelf into the feas Oa
both fides of its mouth are long piers of wood and brick-
work, about 3,800 feet long, taken from the moat cf the
city: between which, on the welt fide, the veficls belonging
to the free merchants are laid up and repaired ; but along
the calt file, the paffage lies open for the lighters, which
yo into and cut of the city with the’ cargoes of the fhips.
Oppofire to the outwa-d point of the eattern pier is.a horn-
work, commonly called the ** Water-fort,” conftruéted of a
kiad of coral rock, and having, mounted cr difmounted,
fourteen guns, and two howitzers. Tt confifts of a
parap:t, retained by a wali; bat the’psrapet has been
much neglected, and the wall is nearly deitroyed by the
conttant working of the fea. This fort is proteéted on the
Jand fide by a noxious fwamp, and towards the fea, on the
north-welt, by cxtenfive flats, over which even boats cannot
pats. Tie only good approach is that by the channel, which
it (-es and defends. On the welt fhore, about a quarter of a
mile from the water fort, is a battery, mounticg {vea guns,
bearing dower the river; and oppoSte to this tsa battery of
fix guns, facing the river, and two to the ealtward. Tach
Givifion of the city on either de of the river has two canals,
raaniag parallel with the lonzefk fides, and interfe@ted at
rigrt angles by crofs<cana's. hefe canals join the great
caual, or river, at the diltance-of half a mile from the en-

trance; and below their juntion is laid a boom of wood,’

armed with iron fpikes. Ihe city is encompafkd by a
wall of coral rock, ferving as a facing to the rampart behind

it; and alfo by a moat, having feveral fluices, into which
water is coaveyed from the river. Sir George Staunton
fays, that a part of the town-wall is built of lava, which is
of a dark bine‘colour, and of a very hard denfe texture,
emitting a metallic found, and very much refembling. fome
of the lava of Vefuvius. It is brought from the mountains
in the centre of Java, where a crater is fhilf{meking. The
rampart is defended by twenty ortwenty-one baflions, which,
as well as the wall, are in a rainous ftate. Small projeGtions,
of various forms, are confirudtcd at intervals of about 350
feet, each of which generally mounted three guns. At fhort
fiftances from the town, three or four fmall ftar-forts of
earth are ere€ted in particular paffes, probably for dcferce
againit the inhabitants cf the ifland. ‘The caitle or citadel
of Batavia, whch was formeriy oa the fea fide, is now, by
the continual increafe of the mud-banks before it, diltant
from the fea more than tco rvods, and is feated on the ealt
bank of the river. It covers about 200 roods of ground,
and is a regular fquare fortrefs, butit of coral rock brought
from fome of the adjacent iflands, compofed of that material.
Tt }-as neither ravelins nor outworks. Two gens are
mounted on cach flank, and two, or fometimes three, on each
face: neither ‘*en barbette,” nor ‘*en embrafure;”? bet
ina fituation between both, having the ddfadvantages of both
without the advantages of cither. The wall is of mafusry,
about 24 feet high. It has no ditch, but acanal encompafles
it at fome d:Rance. It has no cordon; and the length of the
exterior fide of the wo-k is about 700 feet. Between the
moat and the buildings within the fort, onthe fouth fide, is
a large area or efplanade. In the centre of the butidings
that look towards the city, is a great gate, and then a broad
p-ffage, with warehoufes on each fid2, leading to another
tfplanade, on the north fide, enclofed between the ramparts
and the buildings, which are appropriated to the ufe of the
company. ‘The government houfe, which forms the left
wing of the buildings looking to the fouth, is provided with
numerous and convenient apartments, but uninhabited. In
it is a large hali, in which the council of India generally
affemble twice a week. Wear this is a lirtle church or
chapel, called the caltie church ; and at a fmall diflance isa
corps-de-garde, where a party of dragoons always mount
guard. Over the cafle-bridye is a fpacious plain or fquare,
planted with tamarind trees, which eff rd an agreeable fhade;
and the entrance into it from the city is over a bridge and
through a large flately gate, mounted with a lofty cupola,
from which anfzs an oSagzon turret with a large clock, the
enly public one at Batavia. On the left fide of the gate is
a large building, ferving as a corps-de-garde, having in front
along gallery, reting upon a row of pillars; where is ufually
pofted a captain’s guard of grenadiers. On the welt fide of
the fquare itand the company’s artillery-houfe, and the dif-
penfary or provifion-magazine, both of which extend ta the
fide of the river, fo that the gocds are taken in and out of
the lighters with the greateft eafe. On the oppolite fide
is the iron-magazine, and the grafs-plat or place of exscu-
tion, which is an artificial {quare eminence, upon which area
gallows and fome pofts; and behind it is a {mall building,
with windows, opening towards the place of execution,
where the ccunfeilors of juftice may behold the completion
of their fentences. Upon the plain are arranged pieces of

iron and brafs artillery, and other warlike implements.
Batavia has five gates; and near to that on the north fide,
to the welt of the river, is the admiralty wharf; and near
shis, the warehoufes for naval ftores, and the workfhops of
the carpenters, coopers, fail makers, and {miths, wich other
offices and houfes that relate tothe fhipping. In the fouth-eatt
corner of the city, clofe to the ramparts, lies the workmen’s
"quarter,

——

BAT A'V1I A.

\ . . .
quarter, called Ambagtfle wartier,”? in which all the work-

meu and labourers employed by the company refide. B--
files a great numb«r of Enropeans, there are more than a
thoufsnd flaves who belong to this quarter.

B-lides the public buildings already mentioned, Batavia
has a town-hall, which ts well fituated ; two Jarze and con-
venient hofpitals, and feveral churches; three of which,
within the city, wre appropriated to the reformed religion,
in which fervice is performed in the Dutch, Portuzuefe, and
Malay languares; and one without the gates, called the
outer Portuguefe church. There 1s alio a Lutheran church
not far from the ecaltle, provided with a fine organ anda
very handfome pulp't. TTacfe chucches are {applied every
Sunday by twelve Bea te of the reformed religion, and
three Lutheran minifters. One of thefe clergymen is de-
puted, once every yee ar, or fometimes only once In two years,
upor a vifitation to the com; pany’s pofle ‘fons on the welt
coait of Sumatra; and to the individuals thus employed, the
vifitation is renidere d lucrative by the merchandife which they
take with them for fale. The Chinefe have alfo feveral
temples, which are tolerated by government: but che ex-
ercife of the Roman Catholic rel'gion is obfinately pro-
hib‘ted. ji

In the difri&ts round Batavia, immediately fubj-@ to the
Daitch, itis calculaced, fays Sir George Staune zon, that near
59,000 Javan refe families are flérledy containing pon an
averaze ix perfons to a family, or 309,00) perfons in the
whole. The city of Batavia, including the fuburbs, contains
near 8000 houfes. Valentyn (cited in the Mod. Un. Hitt.)
ftates the number of houfesin the city and fuburbs at 4,770.
Huyfers,a more recent Dutch writer, who was long refident
at Batavia, and who publifhed his account in 1778, eltimates
the number of houfes in Batavia at 3,500; but he does not
fiy whether he eluded the fuburbs. ‘The number and
Cefcription of inhabitants in 1778, according to this writer,
were as follows: viz. 468 European bur, zhers, 5.532 native
Cnriftians, 4,573 Mary kers or manumitted flaves of all
nations, 23,309 Chi: fe, 289 Amboynefe, 278 Bardamefe,
956 Moors, 254 Gentoos, 1,552 Malays, 324 Boutanners,
3.963 Macaflers, 3,707 Bouginele, 104 ‘Timorefe, 189
Maacharefe, 85 Sumbauwers, 13.073 Balicrs, 33.498 Javans,

and 23,072 flaves; making in all 110,816, exclutively of -

womnen and c hildren, and of the company’s fervants.
The compiny’s s eftablifh nent confi'ted. in 1776—1777; of
613 p-rfons in civil, and 35 in eccietialtical enploym- nts,
og furgeons and afi! tants, 125 belonging to the artillery,
875 {camen and mariners, 1,571 foidiers, and 993 me-
chanics; in all, 4,221 Europeans, belides 702 natives in their
fervice.

The honfes at Batavia, belonging to the Dutch, are well
built, chiefly of brick, clean and fpacious, and their con-
ftruétion is, for the moft part, well adapted to the climate.
The doors and windows are wide and lofty ; the ground-
floors are covered with flags of m Highs which being shes
led frequently with water. give a pleafant coolné fs to the
apartment; but when Sir George Stauaton vificed the ae
a contidcrable proportion of the houfes was unteranted ;
ceircunttance which indicated a declining fettlement. Phe
howfes of the Chinefe are low, and crammed with people.
Mott of them dweil in the fouthern and wellern fuburbs,
which are called the Cinefe **Campon.” Before the
revolt of the year 1740, they had the beft quarter of che
city allotted them, to the wet of the great river; but when
in that commotion all their houfes were burnt to the ground,
the whole quarter was converted into a © paflar,” or market,
where-at prefent all kinds of provifions are daily expoled to
fale. DBetore the perpetration of this maifacre, feveral thou-

fand Cnhinefe ads venturers reforted to Batavia, allured by the
profperity of their conntrymen already fettied there. The
number of thefe colonilts, together with the robberies and
murders conmitted by them, excited a confiderable degree
of apprehenfion ; which induced Van Imhof, who was at
that time a member of the council, to propofe, that thofe
who could not prove that they were gaining an honeit liveli-
hood, fhould be feized and tranfported to Ceylon, and there
employed in mining and other labour for the fervice of the
company. The execution of this order produced a tumult
and an infurreétion ; and thoufands of the Chinele retired
from the city, and colleéting a {trong force, ravaged the
country and affaulted the capital. ‘he civil and military
inhabitants united in repeliing them. But a fire taking
place foon after among the Chinefe buildings in the city,
feveral of the owners were accufed of opp. sling with arms
the extinguiihment of it, with a view, as it was faid, of
allowinz “the conflagration to fpread through the whole
town, that inthe moment of confifion they might aflaffiaate
the Europeans, and become matters of the place. The
alarm was fuch, that the Duteh government gave tnftant
orders to put all the Chinefe heads of families to death; and
the failors from the vellels in the road were br ought
afhore, and induced, for the fake of plunder, to fhare in ex-
ecuting the bloody edict. Allt he Chineté, without diltinction,
men, women, and children, were put to the {word; and
the innocent and gul:ty were indifcriminately exterminated.
Whence this barbarous order iffued has been a fubjeét of
unfatisfactory invelligation. The governor-general, Valke-
nicer, and his brother in-law Helvetius, were accufed by the
public voice, of direétiny the maffacre; but their guilt was
never proved. he decd itfelf was condemned by the
dire€tors of the company of Holland; and much apprehen-
fion being entertained that the fact would excite the indig-
nation of the emperor of China, deputies were fent to
him in the following year, to apologife for the meafure ou
account of the neceflity of thecafe. Thefe deputies were
plhacetaes furprifed to find that the empcror ‘calmly aa-
fwered, that “he was lictle folicitous for the fate of ua-
worthy fubjeéts, who, in the purfuit of lucre, had quitted

the country, and abandoned the tombs of their ancestors.’”
The Chinefe, however, are faid to be now as numerous as
ever in and about Batavia; and it is acknowledged by the
Dutch that the fettlement could fearcely fubfiit without
their indultry and ingenuity. Tne quarter of the fuburbs
which they occupy is crowded with fhops containing all
kinds of goods: thofe of their own manufacttre, and fuch.
as they receive annually from China, or purchafe from the
European importations. Thé number of Ctunefz, who
live both within and without the walls of the city, cannot
be precifely determined; but it mutt be very contiderable,
as the company receives a poll-tax from. them of more than
40,000 rix dollars. Every Chinefe who has. a profeffion is
obliged to pay a monthly poli-tax of half a duccatoon, or
3s. fteriing; but women, children, and thofe who have
no trade, are exempted from this tax. They are under a
chief of their own nation, called the Chinefecaptain, who
lives within the walls, and has under him fix lieutenants in
different diitriéts. A flag is hortted at his door on the firlt
or fecond day im every month, and the Chinefe that are
liable to the tax are then obliged to repair to him for the
ayment of it. Ifach houfe in Batavia pays annually an
afleffnent of half a month’s rent, which is expended in
dvagging and cleanfing the canals, and in repairing the town-
hall and other buildings belonging to the city. ‘The
churches are repaired out of the duucs levied upon tunerais.
At Batavia a bank of circulation has been eitablifhed far
‘ fome

BATAVIA,

fome years, which bank is united with the Lombard or bank
for Jending money on pledges. This bank is under the
adminiitration of a director (who is generally a counfellor of
India), two commiffaries, a cafhier, anda book-keeper. Its
capital is computed to amount to between two and three
millions of rix-dollars, or between 435,000l, and 650,000l.
fterling.

The fuburbs of Batavia are remarkable on account of
their confiderable extent, uncommon pleaiantnefs, and great
population. They are inhabited by Indians of various na-
tions, and by fome Europeans ; but the quarter of the Chinefe
is the moft populous, and feems of itfelf a city. None of
the ftreets of Batavia are paved; but along. the fides of
them near the houfes are {tone foot-paths, about three or
four feet broad. The ftreets and canals are planted on each
fide with large trees, generally the ‘* onophyllum cato-
phyllon,” and ‘‘calaba,”’ the ‘canarium commune,” and
others of a fearcer fort. he Dutch, who are fo fond of
gardens in Holland, have indulged that tafteto a great ex-
tent at tneir houfes in the environs of Batavia, which are
every where interfperfed with rivulets, by which the cireum-
jacent rice plantations are inundated, and fertilized in the
proper feafon.. The country, though it be a fenny diftrict,
of which a gentleman upon the fpot ufed the trong expref-
fiou, ** that the air was peftilential, and the water poiforous,”?
is neverthelefs every where fo verdant, gay, and fertile, in-
terfperfed with fuch magnificent houfes, gardens, avenues,
canals, and drawbridges, and fo formed in every refpe€& to
pleafe, if health could be preferved in it, that a youth juft
coming from fea, and enraptured with the beauty of every
object he faw around him, but mindful of the danger to
which life was expofed, could not help exclaiming, * What
an excellent habitation would it be for immortals!’’? There
are five principal roads which lead from the city towards
the country, and they are all planted with high and fhady
trees, and adorned with handfome houfes and pleafant
gardens,

As to the habits and mode of living of the inhabitants of
Batavia, they very much depend on the views and difpofi-
tions with which they refort hither, on the fituation which
they occupy, and on the qualities of the climate. The na-
tive Javanefe are in general too remote from civilization to
have any wants that are not eafily fatisficd, ina warm and
fertile climate. Noattempt is made to enflave their perfons;
and they find the government of the Dutch lefs vexatious
than that of others who divide fome fhare of the fovereignty
of the ifland with them. As for the Chinefe, who are con-
ftantly reforting hither from China in the veffels called
‘‘junks,” their views are fimilar to thofe which influence
the natives of Holland, and they are alike aGuated by the
defire of accumulating wealth in a foreign land; both the
one and the other were trained in their own country to
habits of induftry; but upon their arrival in Batavia, they are
placed in different circumftances, and acquire different man-
ners. The Chinefe, having no profpeé of advancement by
favour and intereft, apply with diligence to the occupation
that is afligned them, and by exertion and economy meliorate
their condition, without being able to gratify their ambition
by the attainment of any public offices. In the city, they
become retailers, clerks, and agents; and in the country,
they are farmers, and the principal cultivators of the fugar-
cane. Thus they at length acquire fortunes, which they
value by the time and labour required to earn them; and
this gradual acquifition makes no change in their difpofition
or mode of life; their induftry is not diminifhed, nor is their
health impaired. The Dutch, on the contrary, who are
fent out by the company to adminifter their affairs in Atia,

become foon fenfible that they have the power, wealth, and
poffeffions of the country at their difpofal. Thofe who
furvive the depredations of the climate, mount by a quick
gradation to offices, lucrative but not Jaborious. Their ins
fluence l:kewile enables them to fpeculate in trade with great
advantage. The drudgery of bufinefs ts readily undertaken
by the Chinefe, who, like the native Banians and Debafhes
in Calcutta and Madras, are employed as fubordinate inftru-
ments; while their principals find it difficult, under fuch new
circumftances, to retain their former habits, or to refift a
propenfity to indolence and voluptuoufnefs, though often
attended with the facrifice of health, if not of life. Convivial
pleafures, among others, are frequently purfued to excefs.
*«¢ The Chinefe,”” fays Stavorinus, ‘ are like the Jews in
Europe, very cunning in trade, both in the largeft dealings,
and inthe moft trifling pedlary, They are fo defirous of

money, that a Chinefe will run three times from one end of ©

the city to the other, if he has the profpect of gaining a
fingle penny.” He adds; ‘in doing bufinefs with them,
the greateft care mutt be taken to avoid being cheated.”
In ftature they are rather fhort than tall, and in colour not
fo brown as the Javanefe. ‘Their heads are fhaved all round,
except a bunch of hair on the middle of the crown, which
istwifted with a ribbon that hangs down the back. Their
drefs confilts of along robe of nankeen or thin filk, with
wide-fleeves, and under it they wear drawers of the fame,
which cover the legs. In their houfes they hang up in
certain niches, images cf their ‘jooftjes” or idols, painted
on Chinefe paper, before which they burn lamps and ineenfz.
This jooftje they confi jer as an evil {pirit, and therefore they
continually fwpplicate him not to do them any harm, in
their adorations, they proftrate themfelves before him, and
expre(s their reverence by ftriking their heads continually
againft the ground. They likewife confult their idol by a
peculiar mode of divination, when they engage in any im-
portant undertaking. Notwithftanding this fuperftition, the
Chinefe are accufed of gratifying their lufts, by the moft
deteftable violations of the law of nature. Their tombs are
magnificent and cottly; and great numbers of them are to be
feen about halfan honr’s walk from Batavia, on the road to
Jaccatra. When a Ciinefe of any note dies, his death is
formally announced to all the branches of the family. The
body is wafhed, perfumed, and dreffed in the beft apparel of
the deceafed. The corpfeis then feated in a chair; and his
wives, children, and relations, fall down before it and weep.
On the third day it is put into a coffis, and placed in one of
the beft apartments, hung with white linen, the colour ap-
propriated by them to mourning. In the middle of the
apartment is erected an altar, on which is placed the
portrait of the deceafed, with incenfe burning near it. On
one fide of the coffin ftand the fons, drefled in white coarfe

linen exhibiting every fizn of forrow; while the mother and-

female relations are heard lamenting behind a curtain. On
the day of burial, the whole family affembles, and the corpfe
is carried to the grave with much folemn pomp. Images
of men and women, relations of the family (in the manner of
the ancient Romans), ard even of animals, together with
wax tapers and incenfories, are carried firlt in the proceflion.
Then follow the priefts with mufical inftruments; and after
them the corpfe upon a bier, attended by the fons of the
deceafed, clothed in white, and Jeaning upon crutches, as if
difabled by grief from fupporting themfelves. The female
relations are carried in chairs, hung with curtains of white
filk, that conceal them from view; but their lamentations
are diftin@ly heard; and other women are hired, who are
trained to utter fhrieks {till louder and more piercing. Pre-
viuufly to the funeral, a table with fruits and other eatables

Pe]

aie at

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8, ae ae

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BATAVIA.

Ja laid before the corpfe, and wax figures of fervants placed
on each fide as attendants upon it. The Chinefe vifit the
graves of their anceftors from time to time, ftrewing them
with odoriferous flowers ; and when they depart, they leave
a few {mall pieces of filk or linen before the entrance, and
fometimes boiled rice or other vi€tuals which are {peedily
made away with at night.

The mode of living pra@tifed by the Europeans, either
from Holland or any other nation, that refide at Batavia, 13
very nearly the fame. In the morning at five o'clock, or
when the day breaks, they rife ; and the table is fpread at
an earlyhour. Befides tea; coffee, and chocolate, fifh and
flefh are ferved for breakfalt; and when this is finifhed,
Madeira, claret, gin, Dutch {mall beer, and Englifh porter,
are laid out in the portico before the door of the great hail,
and pipes and tobacco are prefented to every guett, with a
bright brafs jar for a {pitting-difh. Thofe who have bufi-
nefs appear at their proper ftations at eight o’clock, and re-
main employed till between the hours of eleven and twelve.
Their dinner hour is one o’clock ; but immediately before
dinner, two men flaves go round with Madeira wine, of
which each takes a large glafs. Then follow three female
flaves, one with a filver jar, containing plain or rofe water
for wafhing ; a fecond with a filver bafon and low cover of
the fame metal, pierced with holes, to receive the water after
it has been ufed; and the third with towels for wiping the
hands, During dinner, a band of mufic plays at a little
diftance. The muficians are ail flaves who have been in-
ftruéted for th's purpofe. A confiderable number of female
flaves attend at table, which is covered with many difhes.
Dinner is immediately followed by coffee. After drinking
coffee, each perfon retires to a bed, confifting of a mattrafs,
boliter, pillows, and chintz counterpane, but no fheets ; and
puts on his night-drefs, a muflin cap, and loofe long cotton
gown. A bachelor is attended by a female flave. who fans
him while he fleeps. About fix they rife, drefs, fleep, drink
tea, take an airing in their carriages, and form parties for the
evening. The morning meetings are compofed generally of
men, as the ladies feldom choofe to appear till evening.
«6 Married men,” fays Stavorinus, ‘ feldom give themfelves
much concern about their wives, nor fhew them much regard.
They feldom converfe with them, at leatt on ufeful fubjedts,
and fuch as concern fociety, with which of courfe they are
little acquainted. Few of thefe ladies are natives of Europe,
but many are defcended from Dutch fettlers here ; and they
are educated with fome care. The features and outlines of
their faces are European; but the complexion, character,
and mode of life, approach more to thofe of the native inha-

“bitants of Java. A pale languor overfpreads the ‘counte-
nance. In their own houfes, they drefs like their flaves,
with along red chequered cotton gown defcending to the
ankles, with large wide fleeves. ‘They wear no head-drefs,
but plait their hair, and faften it with a filver bodkin on
the top of the head. he colour of their hair 1s almoft
univerfally black ; they anoint it with the oil of the cocoa-
nut, and adorn it with chaplets of flowers. When they go
abroad, and particularly to their evening parties, they drefs
magnificently in gold and filver fpangled muflin robes, with
a profufion of jewels in their hair, which is worn without
powder. They never attempt to mould or regulate their
fhape by any foreign idea of elegance, or any {tandard of
fafhion ; and, therefore, exhibita ftriking contraft to the
Dutch ladies. Every native lady is conitantly attended bya
female flave, who fits at the feet of her miftrefs on the floar,
holding her gold or filver box, the compartments of which
contain areca-nut, cardamom feeds, pepper, tobacco, and
flaked lime ; all which mixed together in due proportions,

and rolled within a leaf of betel, conftitute a mafticatory of
a pungent talte, that is in general ufe. In public affemblies,
when the ladies are incommoded with heat, they retire to
change their drefs, and return, without ceremony, ina more
light and loofe attire. Their example is followed by the
gentlemen, who appear.in white jackets, fometimes adorned
with diamond buttons. The elderiy gentlemen lay afide
their wigs, and puton night-caps. “he members of the go-
veriment, except on thefe occafions, appear abroad in crim.
fon velvet ; their carriages are diftinguifhed by peculiar or-
naments ; and they receive homage from others not of their
rank. One of the gates of the city is opened only to let
them pafs. The Indian women marry young, generally at
twelve or thirteen years of age; they have feldom many
children, and they are old women at thirty. They are re-
markably fond of bathing and ablutions; and ufe for this
purpofe a large tub containing three hogfheads of water,
in which they immerfe the whole body at leaft twice a week ;
and fome do this in the morning, in fome of the running
ftreams out of the city. They manifeft a moft exceffive jea-
loufy both of their hufbands and of their female flaves;
and when they difcover the flighteft familiarity, punifh the
latter with a variety of tortures; and of the former they
avenge themfelves in kind. ‘lhe coaches ufed at Batavia are
{mall and light, and for keeping thefe a yearly tax is paidto
the company. Services of a domeftic or men‘al kind are
chiefly performed at Batavia by flaves. ‘Three thoufand of
both fexes are annually brought hither from the coaft of
Malabar, Bengal, Sumatra, and other parts; but in the
greateft number from Celebes. Their treatment is in ge-
neral mild and gentle, though fome inftances of barbarity
and inhumanity occur. They are not forced to exceffive
labour, and they are allowed fufficient fuftenance. How-
ever, many of the males, who had formerly. perhaps, led an
independent Iife before they were made captives in war, have
taken cffence againft their mafters upou flight occafions,
and wrecked their vengeance by affaffination. ‘To the ap-
preher:fion of fuch an event is afcribed the preference given
at Batavia to female flaves, for every ufe to which they can
be applied ; and therefore the number of thofe that is pur-
chafed far exceeds that of the other fex. The flaves that
are determined on revenge, often {wallow, for the purpofe of
acquiring artificial courage, an extraordinary dofe of opium,
and foon becoming frantic as well as defperate, they not
only ftab the objets of their hatred, but fally forth to at-
tack in like manner every perfon they meet, till felf-pre-
fervation renders it neceflary to deftroy them, They are
faid in that ftate to-be ‘‘ running a muck;” fo called be-
caufe, during their frenzy, they continually cry out,
« amok ! amok !?? which fignifies “ kill! kill !”? and their
fury has been erroneoufly afcribed-to opium, whereas in
reality it is the effe@ of unruly paffion. Infiances of it are
not more common among flaves than among free natives of
the country, who in the anguifh for lofing their money,
effets, and fometimes their families, at gaming, to which.
they are’ violently addi€ted, or under the urgency of fome
other paffion or misfortune, have recourfe to the fame re-
medy, with the fame fatal effeéte. A fondnefs for play,
and alfo for opium, 1s not uncommon among the Chinefe
alfo at “Batavia; but by habits of reftraint and moderation
they are prevented: from falling into the fame frantic ex-
ceffes. The Chinefe at Batavia are accuftomed to keep
gaming-houfes, which are the means of feduction and ruin
to the greateft part of the flaves in the city ; and thefe pefts
of fociety are under the proteétion of the municipal govern-
ment, the officers of which pay to the company, as a con-
fideration for the profits accruing from them, a monthly

contributica

BATAVIA.

contributiou of 3,1¢0 1ix dollars, or upwards of 8,000).
fterling per annum.

The chief zovernment of Betavia, and of all the noff ffions
cf the Dutch Eaft India company in Afia, is vetted in the
council of India, at the head cf which is the governor-
general, who refides at a fup-rb manfion near Batavia, pof-
fefliug unbounded power, afluming a ftate, and exaGing
tokens of refpect, much greater than any European mo-
narch claims. The next in rank is the director-gereral,
who is the eldeit counfellor of India; and to him are en-
truited the direGion and con!roul of the trade of the company
throughout all Ivdia, and to Europe. Next in order follow
the five ordinary and nine extraordinary counfellors of Todia.
To the fervants of the company j:itice is adminiftered by an
aff-mbly called the council of juftice, independent of the
council of India, and corfilting of a prefident, eipht ordinary
members, and two adjutors, taken from the company’s fer-
yauts. The citizens and free merchants of India, who are
not in the company’s fervice, arc amenable to a feparate ru-
nicipal court of juftice, called the board of {cheepens or
aldermen, cight in number, with a preiident who ts a mem-
ber of the council of India. The puptfhments infl:Ged at
Batavia are exceedingly fevere, efpecially fuch as are in-
HiGed upon the Irdians; of thefe the chicf, and the molt
terrible, is Impauement. For teking alive thefe flaves
who are guilty of the .aéts of murder cailed ‘ mucks,”
the officers of juftice are provided with a pole ten or twelve
fect in length, at the end of which is a kird of fork, made
of two pieces of wood three feet long, which are furnithed
within with fharp iron {pikes ; this is held befere the object
whom they with to apprehend, and in his frenzy he runs
into it, and is thus takcn. If he happen to be mortelly
wounced, he is immediately broken alive upon the wheel,
without any form of trial, in the’prefence of two or three of
the counfellors of jultice. ,

The orphan-chamber at! Batavia ferves for the whole of
the Dutch poffeflions in India; and the board confiits of a
prefident, whois a counfellor of India, and fix regents, who
are appointed by the council of India, with fubordinate
clerks. There are feveral other courts or -oards; as the
commiffioners of dykesand fluices, thofe of bankrupteies, a
court of common pleas, a board of controul over marriages,
and feveral others.

The eftablifhment of regular troops at Batavia, according
to the report of captain Parifh, cited by fr George Staun-
ton, confifls of 1,209 Europeans, of whom 300 are artillery,
and the reft infantry. Butas this number cannot be mair-
tained complete in this unhealthy climate, 500 natives were
employed, and thus the cflablifhment of European regulars
was reduced to 7c0. Three hundred volunteers of the town
are alfo formed into two companies, but not dilciplined.
The irregulars are very numerous, confilting of enrol'ed na-
tives of Java, who have never been embodied, and of Chinefe,
whom the jealoufy of the Dutch allows to be armed only
with lances. ‘This eftablifhment appears too {mall for any
eficQual refiftance. Although every man who fettles at
Batavia muft take up armsin its defence, it is acknowlecged
by one of the ceunfellors of the Indies, that their chicf de-
pendence was on the havock which the climate was likely
to make amongit the enemy’s forces. The chicf protection
to their il-manned veffels lying in this port, is afforded by
the fortified ifland of Onrust, which is well fituated to
command the channel that forms the principal paflage into
the road.

The climate of Batavia is fingularly unhealthy, and has
proved the occafion of difeafe and of death to many of the
Dutch f{etilers, and other Europeans who have tranfiently

vifited this place. The city is fitaated in the midi of
{wamps and flagnated pools, whence proceeds every morning
a colleGtion of pellilential vapours, whenever the fea-breeze
fets and blows over this ma:afs. The meridian fun raifes
from the fhaliow and muddy canals which interfe& the
town, deleterious miafmata into the 2ir; andthe trees, with
which the quays and ftrects are crowded, impzde the courfe
of the air, by which the putrid eflluvia would in fome de-
gree be diifipeted. _Befides the noxious circumftinces of a
loc.] kind pecu iar to this place, the adden tranfiiton from
a cold northern region to the middle of the totrid zone,
without the adoptioa of thofe habits that are requ fite in the
latter, meft render the human frame more liable to be af-
fected by any caulcs of difeafe. Herce it happens that pre-
ventive medicines are teken almott as regularly as food, and
every -ody expeds the returns of ficknefs, as we do the
f.afons of the year. There are few cxamples of ftrangers
who remain long in Batavia without being attacked by fever,
which is the general denomination in that place for every,
kind of ilnefs. The diforder at Frit is commonly a tertian
ague, which after two or three paroxy/ms bicomes a double
tertian, and then a cont‘nued remittent that frequently car-
ries off the patient in a fhort tims. The Peruvian bark is.
feldom preferibed in any ftaze of the difcafe, or it is given
in fuch {mall quantitics asto be produétive of little benefit.
The chief, or rather the fole medicine adminiftered, is a fo-
lution of carphor in fpirit of wine. It is fuppofed, that of
the Europeans of all claffes who come to fettle in Batevia,
not always half the number fervive the year. The place
refembles in that refpe@t a field of battle, cr a town be fiezed.
The frequency of deaths renders fainiliar the mention of
them; and little figns of emotion or furprife are manifcfted,
on hearing that the companion of yelterdayis to-day no
mores When an acquaintance is faid to be dead, the com-
mon reflection is, ‘¢ Well, ke owed me nothing ;” or,
«© T muit get my money of his executors.’”’? It appars by
acalculatioa, that the company lofe, in general, every year,
full one-fifth of their fervants. Itis obferved, however, that
this climate is not fo fatal to the female Efropeans zs to the
other fex. They feldom expofe themfe!ves to the heat of
the fun, make frequent ufe of the cold bath, and live more
temperately than the men; and, for thefe reafors, they
may fufferlefs from the infalubrity of the climate. In the
l_wer town, on the rorth fide, the mortality is greater,
where uninhab:ted houf:s contra&t a foul infeGious air,
than in the other parts of che city that are more fully inha-
bited. On this account, people not only leave the lower
town, but abandon the city altogether, and refide in gardens
without the walls, and atas remote a diftarce as their em-
loyments will allow. This kind of migration increafes
ice year to year, and will probably, in the lapfe of time,
produce the total abandonment and ruin of Batsva. The
mcit tolerable feafon here is from March or Aprilto No-
vember, when the rains begin, which laft the reit of the
year. The fea-breeze fetsin about ten o’clock in the morn=
ing, and continues till forr or five in the afternoon ; it
becomes then calm till {even or cight, when the land breeze
commences, and continues at intervals till day break, fol-
lowed by a calm for the remaining hours of twenty-fou-.
The heat of the weather at Batavia is not fo exerffive as in
fome other parts of the eait. From July to Nevember,
Stavorinus obferved, thet his thermometer, which hung in
the fhade in the open air, ftood generally between 84 and
go degrees of Fanrenheit’s {cale, mn the hottett part of the
day ; once indeed the mercury rofe to g2°: in the morn-
ing, it feldom fell lower then 76°. The barometer feareely
evcr varics from the mean height. Sir George Seems
who

BA T

who arrived at Batavia in March, informs us, that in the
road, Fabrenheit’s thermometer, during his continuance,
was from 86 to 88 degrees; and in the town, from 88 to
g2 degrees: but that its variations by no means corres
f{ponded to the feafations produced by the heat on the hu-
man frame; the latter being tempered by any motion of the
air, which circumftance has little effeét upon the thermo-
meter. In the night, the thermometer, inftead of finking
as it does in colder countries, fometimes 20°, keeps gene-
rally here within 4 or 5 of what it attains in the fhade when
the fun is at its highelt elevation. The unhealthinefs of the
place, as Stavorinus jultly obferves, is owing not fo much to
the heat, asto the morafles by which the city is furrounded,
and particularly to the mud which the fea throws up, and
which it leaves, at low water, expofed to the fun. With
care andattertion on the part of the government, it is reafon-
able to imagine, that this evil might be greatly diminifhed,
if not wholly removed. The general apprehenfion of the un-
healthivefs of Batavia for Europeans, deters molt of thofe
who can refide az home with any comfort, from feeking a
fettlement there, notwithitanding the temptation of fortunes
to be quickly emafled in this place. From this circum{tance
it happens, that offices and profeffions are often neceflarily en-
trutted with perfons little qualified for occupying them.
One of the clergymen, and the principal phyfician of the

lace, are faid to have originaily been barbers, . The United
oat oa furnith very few military recraits; the reft are
chiefly Germans, many of whom are faid to have been kid-
napped into the fervice,

All goods which are carried into or out of Batavia, are
fubje&t to duties which are levied at the bar at the entrance
of the city. TLhefe, as well as the other taxes and impolts,
are annually fermed out, generally to Chinefe. ‘The whole
of them amount together, upon an average, to 32,000 rix-
dollars per month, or about $3,001. fterling per annum.
The important revenues arifing from thefe import and ex-
port duties, &c. and the valuable produétions which the
country round it affords, the principal of which are pepper,
rice, fugar, cctton, and indigo, might lead us to fuppofe,
that Batavia, or rather the colony of Jaccatra, for that is
the account in the books of the company, to which all that
relates to Batavia is carried, would be adequate to its own
fupport ; yet this is far from being the cafe. Batavia is the
metropolis of the Dutch Ea India poffeffions; it is the
feat of their government; a large garrifon is conftantly
maintained in it; mo of the company’s fhips touch here,
both outward and homeward bound ; their cargoes are landed
and fhipped ; all recruits are received, maintained, and paid
here: in fhort, almoft all the charges of the marine and mi-
litary eftablifhment of the company are carried to the ac-
count of Batavia, eni of courfe a confiderable balance ap-
pears every year aganit it. Formerly there ufed to be a
confiderable furplus after defraying all thefe charges; but
in the year 1779, the charges exceeded the receipts by
about 51,327).

The coins current at Batavia are the following ; viz. the
milled Dutch gold ducat, the Japan gold coupangs, the
Spanifh dollar or piattre, the milled filver duccatoon (which
is the current coin of the company throughout their pof-
feffions, except onthe continent of India), the unmilled’duc-
catoon, the milled Batavia rupee, other rupees, half and
quarter rupees. The {maller coins are fkillings, twopenny:
pieces, and doits, Of the fkillings there are two forts: the
old, worth 6 ftivers; and the new, worth 74. The old
twopenny pieces pafs for 2 flivers; the new, for 24: the
doits are ftamped with the mark of the aft India company,
and are equal. toa farthing in value.

Vor. IIL.

doe a

The following table thews the value, in ferling money,
of the above coins, at the fterling valuecf 11 francs per

pound.

th,
s
:
<
~

The old Japan gold coupang f.24 0 — 2 3 72
The new ditto 5 = rm. 8 —= 1 6 924
The milled Dutch ducat - 612) =. oO 12 ©
The fiver milled duccatoon - 4 0 — 9 7 Gf
The unmilled ditto = =< 13) 168 2 O74)
The Spanith dollar, from a) ag B= 1G) th, 184
to - 2) HO) —=_ Our 36
The rix-dollar - a 28 — o 4 4F
The Batavia rupee - - 110 — 0° 2 98%
Other rupees, about - i 7 = 0812 55
Moft merchants’? goods are eftimated at Batavia by
£

€ picols” of 125 pounds; or according to Ricaud, 1184
pounds Amfterdam weight: and thefe picols are fubdivided
into 100 “ cattis,’? each weighing 1% pound. Rice and
other grain are meafured by “ coyangs,’” which differ
in weight; but when received by the company at Java,
they mult weigh 3,500 pounds. They are fhipped to Ba~
tavia for 3-409 pounds, and landed there for 3,300 pounds;
for the out-fa€tories, they are d'fpatched for 3.200 pounds ;
unloaded for 3.130 pounds, and delivered for confumption at
the out-fuctones for 3,000 pounds: fo that every coyang iofes
500 pounds in weizit. This deficiency is an allowance made
to the compaay’s fervants who have the management of the
rice. Sugar-is taken by “ cavaffers’? of 3. picols, or 375
pounds neat; the grofs weight being about 4co or 405.

pounds. The “ ganting’” is a {mall rice meafure of 133
pounds. Every bag of coffee thipped from Batavia to Hol

land weighs 252,,anda bale of cinnamon S0-pounds.

Vhe bay and harbour of Batavia are excellently adapted
to the commercial navigation that is carried on at this
place. A circular range of fifteen iflands proteéts the road
from any heavy fwell, and renders it a fafe place of ans
chorage for fhips; and it is large enough to contain all thofe
that double the cape of Good Hope; as well as the Chivefe
junks and other trading veffels of the country. ‘The names
of the iflands are, Onruft, de Kuiper, which are the inner-
moft, and within fight-of the city ; Purmerend, Engels
Onruft, Rotterdam, ;Schiedam, Middleburg, Amfterdam,
Horn, Harlem, Edam, Enfhuizen, Aikmaar, Leyden, and
Vader Smit. The company make ufe of only four of thefe
lands, viz. Onruft, de Kuiper or Cooper’s ifle, Purmerend,
and Edam; which fee. At the boom, which croffes the
bay below the town, all veffels pay toll. ‘I'he fea-breeze,
which rifes every morning at ten, ferves to bring. veflels
within the bar, and a land-breeze at night carries them out.
The obfervatory formerly ereéted at Batavia is now re-
gleGted ; but the Society of Arts and Sciences, founded un-
der the adminiftration of the governor-general De Klerk,
ftill fubfifts. The rtt volume of its Memoirs was printed at
Batavia in 1779. S. lat. 6° 10’. E. long. 1o6" 51’ 15”.
Stavorinus’s Voyages, vol. i. and vol. iii. Staunton’s Ac
count of Lord Macartney’s Embafly to China, vol. i. ps 23 55
&c. Mod. Un. Hift. vols; viii. andix. See Java.

Batavia, a fettlement of America, in’ New York, at
the head of Schoharie creek, about 39 miles from its mouth,
and 38 fouth-welt from Albany, aud’ as far north-weft of
Efopus.

Baravia, ariver of Afia, fo called’ by the Dutch, Stuate
in Carpentaria, on the coaft of New Holland.

BATAVIAN Repustic, an appellation given to the
United Provinces, after the conqueft of them by the French,
the exclufion of the ftadtholder, and the change of their Oa
5G 0

BAe.

of government. Towards the clofe of the year 1794, and
the commencement of the following year, the French forces,
favoured by the froft cf winter, by the difcontents that pre-
vailed in the provinces, and the ineffetual fupport afforded
to the Dutch by the Britith troops, took poflefiion of their
principal towns ; andon the 27th of January 1795, the pro-
vilional reprefentatives of the people of Holland affemblea,
and chofe Pierre Paulus for their prefident. On this occa-

fion, feveral decrees were immediately paffed for the future_

regulation of the government, and for the depofition of the
ftidtholder from all his offices. Among thefe decrees were
the following: viz. the fovereignty of the Dutch people,
and the declaration of the rizhts of man :—the abolition ef
the ftadtholderthip; as alfo of the offices of admiral and cap-
tain-general of the United Provinces, with all their appen-
dages:—the releafe of the citizens and inhabitants of Hol-
Jand from their oaths to the old conftitution :—the fuppref-
fion of the college of the deputy council, and that of the
chamber of accounts; and the eitablifhment in their room
of a committee of public fafety, a committee of military af-
fairs, and a committee of finance:—and the recall of the
commiffion of the deputies to the aflembly calling itfelf the
ftates-general. It was alfo decreed, that the commiflioners
of the affembly of the provifional reprefentation of Holland
fhould immediately begin their fittings in the hall of the
ci-devant ftates-general, in order to advance the general in-
terefts of the people. A treaty of peace and alliance was
concluded between the French and Batavian republics, at
the Hague, May 16, 1795; in which the French ftipu-
lated to reftore immediately all the conquered places and
countries that belonged to the feven United Provinces ; the
frontier towns of the generality, fuch as Maeltricht, Venlo,
Breda, Bergen-op-Zoom, with their territcries, excepted.
It was alfo itipulated that the French, as well as the Bata-
vians, fhould enjoy, without paying any tolls, the free navi-
gation of the Scheldt, the Rhine, and the Meufe, and all
their branches as far as the fea; that the Batavians fhould
pay to the French the expences of the war which the latter
had been compelled to make againft the former; that the
French republic acknowledged the independence and fove-
reignty of the Batavian; that an alliance offenfive and de-
fentive fhould be eltablifhed between both republics; and
that neither the French nor Batavians fhould conclude
peace, or make any other treaty, in which both parties did
not participate.

In 1796, the national convention of the Batavian republic
made fome confiderable alterations in matters relating to
religion. It was determined, that all the inhabitants of the
republic were free to exercife without moleftation any mede
of public worfhip whatever to which their opinions might
lead them; that there fhould be no eftablifhed religion in
the republic ; that the ufe of bells in convoking perfons to
public worfhip, fhould be prohibited; and that Jews fhould
be allowed to become citizens of the republic, and empow-
ered to purchafe lands in the fame manner as other citizens.
On the 11th of January 1797, the new plan of the con-
ftitution was difcuffed ; and it was decreed, that the Bata-
vian \people are one and indivifible; that the fovereignty
appertains to the whole Batavian people; and that the Bata-
vian people fhail eleét reprefentatives to exercife its fove-
reignty. Tt was alforefolved, that all citizens born and re-
fident in the republic, and twenty-one years of age, fhould
be invefted with the right of voting; and alfo {ftrangers,
after having refided within the republic fix years fucceffively.
It was alfo refolved, that the republic fhould be divided into
cleven departments. ‘Towards the clofe of the year 1797,
the French di.ectory iffued their mandate for a revolution.

z

BAT

The execution of this mandate was intruffed with Charlee
Le Croix, and the plan of operations for accomplifhing it
was concerted with the Dutch general Daendels, who was
an original mover, and principal agent in the revolution,
Accordingly it was cff-@ed on the 22d of January 1798, -
This revolution gave birth to a new form of government in
the Batavian republic, which was introduced and eftablifhed
by acts of violence. An affembly, formed by revolutionsry
defpotifm and military force, and affuming the name of the
conftituent aff»mbly of the Batavian people, abolifhed thofe
provincial divifions, and other admintttrations, that had been
eflablithed under the convention ; which was a conftitvtion
grounded. on principles deemed more popular than thofe
which formed the befis of that which was about to be pre~
fented when this revolution took place, and againft which a
formal proteft had been previoufly made by forty meme
bers of the convention,’ when it was offered to the pri-
mary aflembhes for. their confideration, The people,
wearied with- continual agitaticns, and indeed incapable
of effectual refiftance, accepted this project formed on
the model of the French conftitution, as the beft remedy
again{t further convulfions; and thus Holland funk for 2
while to the ftate of a dependent province, under the pro=
tection of Ie Croix, the revolutionary delegate of the
French directory. The principal articles that conftituted
the bafis of this new government are the following: viz.
—The abolition of the divifion into provinces :—Separation
of church and {tate:—No corporation or fociety to have
rules contrary to the laws of the ftate:—Exclufion from
the right of voting of all the adherents of the Orange fa-
mily :—The formation of a democratic reprefentative go-
vernment by means of a legiflative body compofed of two
councils, and a provifionary executive direGtory confilting
of five members, having under it the agents of the executive
power :—The formation of a new plan of finance, founded
upon the relative means of the citizens :—The commiflion-
ers of the treafury are to be appointed by the executive
power :—Thofe of the chamber of accounts by the legifla-
tive aflembly :—The territory of the republic to be divided
into a fuitable number of departments; and accordingly,
the nine provinces were divided into eight departments, the
extent of which was meafured by the population and the
limits formed by the great rivers; thefe departments were
again divided, each into ten circles ; and each department
was prefumed to contain 235,c00 inhabitants; and the ge-
neral population of the republic was eftimated at a million
eight hnndred and ninety-two thoufand individuals: —A
diitin@ divifion of three powers, the legiflative, the execu-
tive, and the judiciary:—The right of individual petition to
the citizens:—Revifion of the conftitution after the expi-
ration of the fifth year:—The oath of hatred to the go-
vernment of the ftadtholder, federalifm, ariftocracy, and
anarchy, to be taken by all the perfons employed Ly the
republic :—No power to haye the right of interfering with
the bahks of circulation in the different towns of the repub-
lic :—Inttitutions for public inftru€tion in arts and {ciences :
—And alliance with the French republic.

In the year 1Sor, a new conftitution for the government
of the Batavian republic, contilting of 108 articles, was in=
troduced. This conftitution abolifhes the executive direc-
tory, and fubititutes a ftate direGtory, confifting of twelve
perfons, one of whom goes out annually. The legiflative
body is to confift of 35 members. ‘The territory of the re-
public is to be divided into eight departments, whofe boun-
daries are to be the fame with thofe of the old provinces.
‘The allowance of the members of the legiflative body is to
be 4000 florins, ‘They are to meet twice in the year, and

te

——. a

BAT

to fit from the 15th of April to the rft of June, and from
the r5th of Ogtober to the 15th of December. The go-
ve nment has the power of convoking them at pleafure.
Yor further particulars, fee Houtanp, and Unirep Pro-
vinces. By the treaty of peace concluded at Amiens,
March 27, 1802, the Batavian republic cedes and guaran-
tees to his Britannic majefty. in full property and fovereignty,
all the poffiffions and eftablithments in the ifland of Ceylon,
which before the war belonged to the republic of the United
Provinces, or to the Dutch Eaft India company.

BATAVIENSIS, in Entomology, a {pecies of Crypro-
CEPHALUs; the head, thorax, wing-cafes, and legs of which
are livid. Hornft. Sch. Berl. Naturf. Inhabits Java.

BATAVODURUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Batavi, in the ifland called after their name. Accord-
ing to Tacitus, the Romans had a bridge in this place, and
the poft was defended by a Roman lesion, when the Ger-
mans, who reforted to the fuccour of Cerealis, were defirous
of penetrating into the ifland; and here they were repulfed
after great flaughter, and at length obliged to throw them-
felves precipitately into the river. Some have fuppofed
that this town was the fame with the modern Duerflede ;
but others conjecture that it was not on the fame fide of
the river.

BATAVORUM Insura, the ifland of the Batavi, was
formed by the Vahalis or Waal to the fouth, and a branch
of the Rhine to the north. his laft branch, and alfo the
Vahalis, rejoin afterwards, and form the Mofa or Meufe.
According to Tacitus, the Rhine was divided at its entrance
into Batavia into two rivers: one of which retained its name,
and purfued its courfe throush Germany, till it difcharged
itfelf into the ocean; the other, wafhing the coaft of Gaul,
with a broader and more gentl- f{tream, was called Vahalis,
which on its joining the Mofa, affymed its name. From
this account it feems that the ifland of the Batavians was
bounded by the Ocean, the Rhine, and the Vahalis. Czfar
extends it to the Mofa; but Pliny’s account coincides with
that of Tacitus. It appears, however, that this ifland was
of greater extent in the time of Tacitus than in that of
Cefar; as Drufus, the father of Germanicus. had by a new
canal conveyed the waters of the Rhine into the ocean at a
confiderable dillance tu the n rth of the former mouth of
that river. It is not certain'y known who were the firft in-
habitants of thisifland. Some hiftorians fay, that they had
been removed by the Cimbri and Tcutones, when they in-
vaded the Roman territories; and it is not improbable that
the profpe& of a more commodious eftablifhmest might in-
duce them to abandon a country which was conftantly ex-
pofed to the inundations of the water that encompaffed it.
The Batavi, when driven from their own country by the
Catti, teok poff:ffion of it, and became a very powerful
people. A part of this country {lili bears the name of e-
taw, formed from Batavi; and is probably the fame with
the ancient ‘* Infula Batavorum.’? This name, however, is
given only to the eaftern part of the ifland, and is the fame
with that which has the river Leck to the north, and Vahal
to the fouth, to the north of Nimeguen.

Baravorum Oppidum, Baterbourg, a town which feems
to have be-n the Batavedurum ot Prolemy, but different from
that of Tacitus. Ptolemy places it upon the Mofa, or
Meufe; and the Batavodurum of Tacitus was more to the
norch upon the Rhine.

BATBERGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of We'tphalia, ana bifhopric of Ofnaburg.

BATCHAJOVE, a town of Afia, in Armenia, 9o miles
douth of Erivan.

BATCHELOR. See Bacueror.

BAT

Barcnueror’s Buttons, in Botany. See Lycunts.

Batcueror’s Pear. See Sovanum.

Barcuecor’s River, in Geography. See Bacuerors.

BA VCHURISCHKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the po-
vernment of Archangel, on the eaft coalt of the White Sea;
8 miles north of Archangel.

BATCOLE, or Barxur, a fea-port on the coaft of

Malabar, in the peninfula of India, fituate between Onore
and Barcelore. The Enghth had a factory here tll 1670,
when they were maflacred by the natives. It was evded to
the Britith by the treaty of 1799. N. lat. 13° 58’. E. long.
74° 37'-
é BATE, Georce, in Biography, born at Maid’s Mor-
ton, in Buckinghamfhire, in 1608, was fent to Oxford at
the age of 14. years, where he foon diftinguifhed himfelf by
his diligence and application to ftudy; and havirg made
choice of medicine for his profeffion, he was admitted to
praGtice as foon as he had taken his d=gree of bachelor in
that line. In 1637 he was made dcetor in medicine; and
when Charles the Virft kept his court at Oxford, he was ap-
pointed his phyfician. Removing foon after to London, he
was cleGted fellow of the college of phyficians, and phyfician
to the Charter-houfe ; and conforming to the circumitances
of the times, he foon obtained fuch favour witb the ruling
party in the ftate, that he was fent to Scotland, in 1651,
in conjunétion with Dr. Wright, to attend Oliver Cromwell,
then confined there with an intermitting fever, and was ap-
pointed his firft phyfician. "This, however, did not prevent
his being made phyfician to king Charles IT. on his acceffion
to the throne, and being eleéted fellow of the newly confti-
tuted Royal Society. Thefe honours were procured him,
Anthony Wood fays, by a report induftrioufly circulated by
his friends, that he had haftened the death of the protector,
by adminiftering a deleterious medicine; a flory, which, if
believed, whatever reward it might otherwife have procured
him, would never have placed him in a confidential poft
about the perfon of the fovereign. He died in 1668, and
was buried in the chancel of Ail Saints church, at King{ton
vpon Thames, where a monument is erected to the memory
of him and his wife, who died the year before. The only
medical work in which he engaged, was in contributing a
part towards a treatile * De Rachitide,’? publifhed by Dr.
Gliffon in 1650. His prefcriptions, collected by Shipton,
an apothecary in London, were publifhed fome years after
his death, under the title of “¢ Pharmacopeia Bateana,’’ and
have paffed through many editions. He publifhed, m 1649,
« Elenchus motuum nuperorum in Anylia, fimul ac juris
regil et parliamentari, brevis narratio,” r2mo. Paris. A
fecond part of this work was printed at London, in 1661.
In compofing this, he was afliited by papers furnifhed by
the chancellor Hyde. A third part appeared in 1676,
written by Dr. Skinner. He 1s alfo faid to be the author
of the * Royal Apology, &c.” 1647. Biog, But.

Bate, in Anctent Geography, a village or ganton of
Greece, in Attica, belonging to the tribe of Atgeides,
where refided Abro, the commentator of Callas, who wrote
concerning fealts and facrifices, and Amynomachus, to
whom Epicurus bequeathed his property. Steph. Byz.

Bare, or Bait, in Geography, one of the principal ports
in a diltri&t of India, inhabited by a piratical tribe called
Sangarians, on the fouth coatt of the gulf of Curcu. ‘Phe
other port is ARAMROY. :

BATEAH, a town of North America, in the province
of Yucatan, 190 miles §.S.W. of Merida.

BATEAU, in Navigation, a particular kind of boat,
very generally uled upon the large rivers and lakes in Ca-
nada. Its bottom is perfeGly flat, and each cad very fharp

5 G2 aud

BAT

and exaétly fimilar. The fides are about four feet high ;
and for the convenience of the rowers, four or five benches
are laid acrofs, and fometimes more, according to the length
of the bateau. Tt is a heavy and awkward veffel both for
rowing and failing ; burit is preferred to a boat with a keel
for two very obvious reafons: firlt, becaufe it draws lefs
water while it carries a larger burthen; and, fecondly, be-
caufe it is much fafer in lakes cr wide rivers, where forms
are frequent. An oil-cloth awning may be thrown over
the widelt part of it, and fupported by hoops fimilar to
thofe of a waggon; and thus may be formed a very ex-
cellent cabin, which fecurts from the inclemency of the
weather, and at the fame time allows a view of the beauties
of the fesnery on each fhore.

BATECUMBE, or Bapecomes, Wittiam. in Bio-
raphy, an eminent mathematician, fuppefed by Pits (De
Iuft. Angl. Scriptor. An. 1420. nr. 784.) to have flourifh-
ed about the year 1420, in the reign of Henry V. He
ftudied at Oxford, and made great proficiency in mathema-
tics; which appears from his writings. It is not knowa
where he died. He wrote ‘* De Sphere concave fabrica et
ufu.’ * De Sphera folida.” ‘ De Op-ratione A ftrolabii,”
and ‘ Corclufiones Soph’x.”? Biog. Brit.

BATELEUR, in Ornithelogy, a name given by S nnini
and others to Fatco Ecauparus of Latham, &c.

BATELLO, Sr. in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and province of Calabria Ultra, three
miles north of Reggio.

BATEMAN Bay, lies on the fouth fide of point Up-
right, on the eaft coaft of New Holland, in which are
three or four {mall iflands. The rorth point is in S. lat.
35° 35’

Barrman’s Drops, in Pharmacy, are the anodyne bal-
fam made with a weaker {pirit, fo that a larger dofe can be
taken; they are tin“tured with anifeed,

BATENBOURG, or Bartensure, in Geography, a
town of the duchy of Gueldres, feated on the north fide of
the Meufe, nearly oppofite to Raveftein. N. lat. 50° 55’.
E. long. 5° 35’.

BATENI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia,
placed by Piiny and Solinus towards the Oxus and Bac-
triana.

BATENITES, a fe& of apoftates from Mahometanifm,
difperfed over feveral parts of the Eaft, who profefled the
fame abominable principles with the Ifmaelians and Karma-
tians. The word fignifies Efoterics, or people of inward
or hidden light or knowledge. Sale’s Koran, p. 186.

BATENKETOS, in 4fronomy, a ftar about the third
magnitude, in the conftellation of Cerus.

BATES, Wivuiam, in Biography, an eminent non-con-
formift divine, was born in 1625, and educated at Cam-
bridge, where he took his degree of B.A. in.1647. He
afterwards became a celebrated preacher among the prefby-
terians in London. Upon the reftoration, he was appointed
chaplain to Charles II.; and received a degree of door in
divinity, by royal mandate from Cambridge. He was one
of the commiflioners at the Savoy conference for reviewing
the liturgy, and one of the difputants on the fide of the
prefbyterians againft Dr. Pearfon and other epifcopalians.
He took the oath required of non-conformifts by the five-
mile a&, and was concerned in feveral unavailing efforts for
effe&ting a comprchenfion of the diffenters by certain altera-
tions and confeffions. Moderate in his temper, and accom-
plifhed as a fcholar, he was a fit perfon to be employed for
{uch puwpofes ; and he was always treated with re{pe& by
the members of the eftablifhment. He was alfo much re-

garded by king William, and queen Mary frequently perufed
5 :

BAT

his writings. Dr, Bates, towards the clofe of his life, re-
fided at Hackney, where he died in 1699. His works,
confilting chicfly of fermons and difcourfes, were colle&ed
after his death, and publifhed in one volume folio. Befides
thefe, a pofthumous volume appeared in Svo, confilting of
* Sermons on the everlafling Reft of the Saints.” He
likewife edited a volume of the lives of eminent perfons,
written in Latin, and entitled, “* Vice feleCtorum aliquot
Vi-orrm, qui doGrina, dignitate, aut pietate inclaruere,??
Lond. 1681, gto. The ttyle of Dr. Bates has been com-
mended for its elegance; and he appears to have read
meny books in polite literature, as well as in theology.
Biog. Brit.

Bates. Foah, Efg. late commiffioner of cuftoms, was
born at Halifax, ia Yorkthire, where he began his {chool
education under the celebrated Dr. Ogden, with whom he
remained till the doGor returned to refide at Cambridge.
During this time he received the rudiments of mufic from
Mr. Hartley, the organift of Rochdale. When Dr. Ogden
guitted Halifax, Bates was removed to the fchool of Man-
chefter, under Mr. Parnell; and it was there, as he has
frequently told his friends, that the grand flyle of organ-
playing, in which he fo eminently excelled, was fuggelted
to him by the performance of old Wainwright on the or-
gan in the coliegiate church. While he remained at Man-
chefter, he had made fuch a proficiency in mufic as to be
able frequently to efaciate for his old mafter Hartley, when
his avocations called him away from Rochdale.

Bates, on quitting that feminary, was removed to the
foundation at tor ; but there his progrefs in mufic received
a confiderable check, and was in danger of being totally
ftopped ; for it was contrary to the rules of that fociety
for any of the boys on the foundation to be permitted the
ufe of mufical infiruments. In this flate of mufical priva-
tion Bates remained fome months, and had no other means
of practifing than by playing on imaginary keys on the
table, which for a confiderable time wes his cuftom every
day. At length, having by chance had an opportunity of
touching the college orvan, his talents for mulic were re-
ported to Mr. George Graham, one of the affiltant matters,
who, having a harpfichord, invited him to his rooms; and
finding what an extraordinary performer he was, obtained
permiffion for him to purfue his mufical ftudies, acecommo-
dated him with the ufe of his harpfichord, and procured
him liberty to play on the college organ at his leifure
hours.

When he went to Cambridge, the vacancies for King’s
college were fo few, that he was in danger of being fuper-
annuated, and was actually entered at Chrift’s college,
where, while he was a member, two of the univerfity fcho-
larfhips became vacant, and he declared himlelf a candidate.
It proved on this occafion a fortunate circumftance, that
he had not gone off to King’s; for as Dr. Heath and Mr.
Keate, both of King’s college, and his feniors, were can-
didates, the cuftom of that college would not have permit-
ted a junior to become a candidate. But though he was
now a member of Chrift’s, that circumftance did not pre-
vent his being a candidate for a univerfity fcholarfhip ; the
examination for which is confidered as the molt fevere of
any claffical examination in the univerfity of Cambridge.
Some of the moft diltinguifhed under-graduates were at
this time candidates ; and after an examination of feveral
days, Zouch of Trinity, and Bates, were eleGed.

This tuccefs eftablifhed his literary chara&ter in the uni-
verfity as high as his mufical had been before: and foon
after, as the term of {uperannuation was expired, a va-

cancy happening at King’s, he was admitted a icholar, and
in

BAT

in three years, fellow, The regularity of his condu&, dur.
ing his {cholarfhip, recommended him fo much to provott
Sumner, that he was appointed tutor to the college foon
after his admiffion as fellow. While he was in this fituation,
among his private pupils he had not only ftudents of his own
college, but the prefent lord Bolton, and Mr. Coxe the tra-
veller, both then fcholars of King’s, were his private pupils;
as was the Hon. Waliam Auguitus Montagu of Trinity
college, fecond fon of the earl of Sandwich. This pro-
duced a connexion with that nobleman, which ended in
his lordfhip’s tempting him to refign his fellowfhip, and re-
fide with him at the admiraity in the capacity of private fe-
cretary.

Tew dilettanti muficians have ever acquired or deferved
more fame for their knowledge in mufic, judgment, and ex-
perience in its effeéts, and abilities in conduding a complete
orchellra and numerous band of fingers, than Mr. Bates,
who, at the univerfity of Cambridge, diftinguifhed himfelf
as a fine performer on the harpfichord, as well as a zealous
votary of the works of Handel; and as long as he r-mained
at college, he peiformed the part of a Coryphzus at all
public and private concerts. It may perhaps not be thought
unworthy of notice here, that at this time (about the mid-
dle of the laft cenéury), the univerfity of Cambridge was in
poffeffion of four very extraordinary dilettanti muficians ;
Dr. Smith, mafter of Trinity coliege, for the theory of
found; the Rev. Thomas Twining, an admirable performer
and leader on the violin, and an excellent judge of every
fpecies of mufic; the late worthy and ingenious Mr. Lobb
of Peterhonfe, the moft correé and certain Sigh?’s man on
the harpfichord or organ with whofe performance we have
been acquainted; and Mr. Bates for his mafterly performance
on keyed initruments, and abilities in conduéting a band.
There being at this time no very able profeffor in the uni-
verfity, thefe gentlemen regulated and performed at all pub-
lic and private concerts during their refidence in colleze.

No one ftood higher in character, or was more courted
in fociety, while at Cambridge, by perfons of all ages than
Mr. Bates; in particular by the late Dr. Smith, the mafter
of Trinity college, with whom he fpent moift of his even-
ings, and who, at his death, le‘t him a legacy.

Before he quitted the univerfity, an organ was built for
the church of his native place, Halifax ; and dceterm‘ning
that it fhould be opened with eclat, he, for the firlt time
that any oratorio had been performed north of Trent, at-
tempted the Meffich. With the affiftance of the Rev. Mr.
Allott, of Kirkneaton, who had trained up the country
people in his parifh to fing chorufes in a very fuperior ftyle,
and with the addition of Bates’s own exertions, with the
fingers of Hahfax, the chorufes were performed with a pre-
cifion that aftonifhed every one; and it was univerfally ac-
knowledged, by the beft judges, that the Meffiah had never
been fo well performed. The firft violin, on this occafion,
was performed by the celebrated Dr. Herfchel, the aftro-
nomer ; and his profeffion being then mufic, he was imme-
diately ele&ted organift.

Tt was the fuccefs of this undertaking that infptred the
late commiffioner with the idea of refcuing the compofitions
of old matters from oblivion, by having them executed by a
numerous and fele@& band of vocal and in{trumental per-
formers; and after being fettled in London as private fecre-
tary to lord Sandwich, he had an opportunity of commu-
nicating his plan to perfons of the firft diftinGtion, and the
eftablithment of the Concert of Ancient Mufic in Tottenham
ftreet was the confequence, being formed and executed en-
tirely under Mr. Bates’s dire€tion : andas many of the works
of Handel, which-had not been performed for many years,
and never fo well as at this eftablifhment, were revived, the

BAT

number of that truly great, and often fublime, compofer’s
admirers was much increafed.

His majefty, a conftant and fteady patron and prote@or
of the works of Handel, foon ‘after the eftablihment of
this concert, graciowfly condefcended to become a (ebferiber ;
and together with her majelly ard the princefles, conftantly
to attend the feveral performances. The nobilitvand gentry,
who were enrolled among the original fubferibers to this re-
{pectable inflitution, have been likewife fteady in their patron-
age and attendance. And it is now (1 802). from the fplendor
and celebrity of its admirable performances, in higher public
favour, than at any former period of its c4ablifhment.

After remaining fome years with the earl of Sandwich at
ths admiralty, Mr. Bates was appointed commiffioner of
the victualling office; and foon after, he married his cele-
brated pupil, Mifs Harrop, who had been educated under
his eye from his firft arrival in London ; and whofe feraphic
voice, and difpofition for mufic, he fo highly cultivated, as
to render her one of the molt enchanting lingers which this
or perhaps any country ever produced.

The vidtualling cffice on Tower hill now became the re-
fort of perfons of the higheft rank ; and at his rfidence
there, was planned that moft fupendous mvfical perform-
ance, the Commemoration oF Hayper in Weltminiter
abbey and the Pantheon, which was conduGted by Mr.
Bates in a manner never to be forgotten by thofe who had
the happinefs of being prefent. The great {plendor and
fuccefs of this CommEmoraTion will unite the name of
commifhoner Bates with the renown of Hanpen, as long
as fuch a memorable event fhall remain in the records of the
mufical art. And the performance of Mrs. Bates, particu.
Jarly in the pathetic fongs of Handel, has rendered it fo
difficult for her fucceffor at the concert of ancient mufic,
to fatisfy the old fubferibers in fuch fongs as fhe ufed to
perform there, that fomethinz will aiw ays fcem wanting tg
complete their heppinefs.

Soon after the commemoration, Mr. Bates was promoted
to a feat at the boaid of cultoms; but previoufly to his quit
ting the victualling-cflice, having officially experienced the
difficulties which the capital of the kingdom often labours
under for want of flour, he projected the plan of the 4/-
bion Mills ; on the fuccefs cf which he was fo fanguine,
that he vetted his whole fortune, and even that of his wife,
in the capital ftock of that company, to the amount of
10,0001. By the conflagration which happened to this
building, he was completely ruined. His whole fortune
was not only vfted in the company, but his credit for
a large part of the flock in hand, which was all confur-
ed by the fire; fo that he was totally bereaved of the
means of making any provifion for his family, and of
guarding againil the viciffitudes to which humanity is fub-
jet. He fubmitted to this event with dignity and forti-
tude; but the circumftance of having involved his wife in
the ruin, and facrificed her profeflional acquirements without
her approbation, preyed fo continually on his mind, as at
length to produce a complaint in his cheft, which finaliy
proved fatal, and brought him to the grave, the Sth of
June 1799, at the age of 59.

BATESON, Tuomas, an Englifh Madrigalift of the
beginning of the feventeenth century, not devoid of merit
as a vocal compofer. He was organilt of the cathedral of
Chefter in 1600. Ant. Wocd fays, that he was a perfon
cfteemed very eminent in his profeffion, efpecially after the
publication of his Englifh madrigals to three, four, five,
and fix voices. About 1618, he became organift and
matter of the children of the cathedral church of tae Blefitd
Trinity in Dublin; and in the univerfity of that city, he
obtained the degree of bachelor of mufic.

BAT:

BA TT.

BAT-FOWLING, a method of catching birds in the
night, by lighting fome ftraw or torches near the place
where they are at rocft ; for, upon beating them up, they
fly to the flames, where being amazed they are eafily caught
jn nets, or beat down with bufhes fixed to the end of

oles, &c. ,

BATGAN, or B’uatcan, in Geography, a city of Hin-
doftan, fituate in the extenfive plain of the kingdom of Ne-
pal or Nupaul, to the eaft of Lelit Pattan ; and to miles
fouth of Catmundu, the capital of Nepal. It contains
about 12 000 families, extends towards the ealt to the di-
ftance of five or fix days’ journey, and borders upon another
nation, alfo independent, called Ciratas, who profefs no reli-
gion, In 1769, the king of Gorka took poff-flion by force
of the city of Batgan. See Father Givfeppe’s account of
the kingdom of Nepal in Afiatic Refearckes, vol. ii. p. 308.
N. lat. 28°. E. long. 85° 12’.

BATH, a city of Somerfetfhire in England, is fituated in
N.lat. 51° 22! 30", W. long. 2° 21/30", at the diftance of
107 miles weft from London, and 12 eaft of Briftol. This
ancient and elegant city !s fingularly favoured by nature and
art, whofe joint co-operations have confpired to give it im-
portance and celebrity. ‘The beauty and peculiarity of its
fituation are perhaps unequalled by any town in England.
Planted originally in the bottom of a deep and narrow valley,
where its hot waters boil up, it continued for ayes to be con-
tined to the dimenfions which the Romans had firlt marked
out ; and till within the laft century, the ancient Roman
walls (inclofing a {pace of about fifty acres) formed the
boundaries of Bath, But the fafhion and celebrity which it
latterly obtained, induced many builders and {peculators to
extend the ftreets in all direétions, by additional houfes,
which were inftantly occupied upon completion. Built of the
fine oolite, or granulated egg-like freeftone, which forms the
bafis of the furrounding hills, the honfes are remarkable for
their exterior neatnefs and fplendour; and being raifed over
the fides of the broad acclivity of Lanfdown (which rifes to
the north) in irregular groups of ftreets, fquares, parades,
circufles, and crefcents, they prefent to the eye an appearance
equally fingular, magnificent, and beautiful. Nothing, in-
deed, can be more piéturefque than the views of this city
from various ftations on the furrounding eminences ; where
houfes rife above houfes in progreffive order, and the more
elevated feem to look down with proud fuperiority on the
no lefs elegant and extenfive ftru€ures below.

Baru, Ancient Hiffory of. Various names have been
given to this city at diflerent periods. Its Britith appella-
tion was Caer-Baddon. In Latin, it was cailed Aquz Solis,
Fontes Caiid', Achamannum, Therm, Badonia, &c ; and in
Saxon, Acemannes-ceaytpe, Acemanes-bepi, LezkeSun,
&c. Moft of thefe names refer to its fituation, and its
{prings or baths. The origin of this place as a fettlement
or town, is loft in the lapfe of ages; and its early hiitory is
enveloped in iegendary tal-s and monkifh fables. The
ftrange ftory of Bladad and his leprous pigs is difcredited by
all rational thinkers, though it formed a part of the creed
of the Bath citizens till within thelaft fifty years. «* But the
prefent generation (obferyes Mr. Warner) are wifer and
more prudent than their forefathers, and rather attentive to
the value of the fprings than their origin, have at length for-
gotten the antiquity of their difcovery, in the agreeable con-
templation of the large rents which they throw into the cor-
poration chelts.””

That Bath was one of the principal, if not the moft con-
fiderable, of the Roman flations in England, is fatisfactorily
proved by the many architeétural and military antiquities
which have been found within its precingts, It is probable that

if Bath was not originally built by the Romans, it was at leat
reduced under their power, and embellifhed by their arts, as
early as the middle of the firft century ; when, in the reign
of the emperor Claudius, according to Tacitus, about the
year 44, the weftern and fouth-wcitern parts of this ifland
were completely fubdued by Flavius Vefpaiian. Attracted -
by the medicinal and warm fprings which they found here,
and which afforded every means of indulging in that prime
enjoyment of Roman luxury, the bath, the Roman fo!diers
fixed in this place one of their principal {tations. Aqui
Solis,’ the name by which they defignated this delightful
refidence, was foon eftablifhed as a colony ; and of courfe
became entitled to the privilege, which all the Roman colo-
nies enj>yed, of minting its own money. It is to be conjec-
tured aifo, that a military forge, or college of armourers, was
erected here for the fabrication of legionary arms, under the
authority of a Roman government. In the reign of Adrian,
about A. D. 11S, the tirft detachment of the fecond legion,
which had been ftationed here, was joined by a divifion of
the fixth ; and in that of Severus, a part of the twentieth
legion, removed from Devana, or Chetter, had its ftation in
Aquz Solis, which was then become the molt capital city in
Roman Britain, and the principal, if not the only, place in
this part of the ifland, for preparing the legionary arms and
enfigns. The form of the city then co: ftruGed, according
to that ufually affected by the Romans, approached to a
parallelogram, {welling out on one fide, fo as to deferibe an
outline fomewhat pentagonal, and {tretching in length, from
eait to welt, about 400 yards, and 380 yards in the broadelt
part from north to fouth. The wall, which rofe upon the
outline of the fettlement, appears, from fubfequent dif.
coveries, to have been twenty feet above ground in height,
and in thicknefs fixteen feet at the bafe, and eight at the
fummit. It was {trengthened with five towers, rifing at the
angles; and had for porte, or entrances, facing the cardinal
points, which were conne¢ted together by two grand ftreets,
dividing the city into four parts, and interfecting each other -
at the centre.

The place thus fortified and ftrenethened for fecurity, was
next adorned with houfes for the officers, temples, and thofe
maznificent baths, the remains of which were difcovered, in
digging to a confiderable depth, in the year 1755. hele
baths were feated near the centre of the city, betwixt the
north and fouth gates, on the ealtern fide of the great fofle-
road. he fudatories, tympanum, fluted columns, cornices,
pilafters, and fculptured ornaments, found here, provethat the
buildings were conftructed from elegant defigns, and of
fimilar chara@ters to fome {truCtures defer b:d by Pliny and
Vitruvius. Many altars have alfo been found here bearing
the inferiptions of Dex Sulini Minerve, Dee Sulinis, &c.
concerning which may conjeCtures have been adduced.
Mr. Warner affirms the goddefs Sulinis to be a local deity ;
Mr. Lyfons afferts that the name is of Gothic origin ; whillt
Mr. Whitaker more appropriately and happily explains it
to be the Britifh charadteriftic appellation for Minerva as the
tutelary goddefs of medicine, deriving her influence immedi-
ately from the fun. ‘This great difpenfer of heat was denomi-
nated Sulin the Celtic language. The ancient baths occupied
a {pace meafuring 240 feet in length from eaft to weft, and
120 feet at the broadeft part trom north to fouth. (Thefe
baths, and remaining fragments, have been particularly de-
{eribed and iluftrated by governor Pownal and Mr. Warner,
in publications exprefsly on the fubjeét; and the fragments
are reprefented and deicribed by Mr. S. Lyfons in a volume
latelv- publithed.) :

The Romans being eftablified here, conftruéted four of
their great military roads to communicate between this place

(Aque

BATH.

(Aquee Solis} and the flations of Durocorinium (Cirencefter),
Verlucio (Heddington), Tichalis (I-chelter), and Abone
(Aunfbury). The conquering Romans having enjoyed the
pofefion of Bath and England for nearly four centuries,
at length left the whole ifland to the peffeffion of the Bri-
tons, who were afterwards fubjugated by the hardy S:xons,
It was not till the year 577 that Aque Solis fell into the
hands of thefedeftroying conquerors, who, under the command
of Ceaulin and Cuthwin, overcame Commzi!, Candidan, and
Favinmail. the three Britih kings of Gloucefter, Cirencefter,
and Bath, at a place called Dyrham, eizht miles from the
latter p'ace, and took pefieffion of their refpective dominions.
Bath now received the privileres of a Saxon burg ; had its
Gerefa or jnfticiary appointed to it, who prefided in the
monthly meeting of its citizens, calied the burgemote or
folemote ; councils inftituted for the regulation of the police,
and adminiltration of the laws within the burgh. Bath was
afterwards taken by Offa, king of Mercia; and during the
civil wars and Danifh invafions which prevailed in the eichth
century, it was torn to pieces and nearly exterminated as a
town. During the brilliant reign of Athelftan, this place
again rofe to confequence ; and a mint was eftablifhed here
by that monarch, who alfo gave feveral large donations of
eltates to Offa’s abbey. King Edgar was crowned and
inaugurated here, and teftified bis regard for the place by
granting it feveral privileges. The inhabitants feem to
have been fully fenfible of the favours conferred on them by
this monarch ; and according to the ftatements of Leland
they prayed for feveral centuries “in all their ceremo-
mies, for the king’s foule; and at Whitfuntide,” he (tates,
“ there is a king eleGted every year of the townes men, in the
joyful remembrance of king Edgar, and the privileges gyven
to the town by him.” Daring the Danifh dominion in
England, the mints of Bath continued to be worked, and
feveral coins of Canute the Great, firuck here, are {till re~
maining in fome {cle& cabinets.

The Norman conqueft had produced much general evil to
the country ; and Bath, with feveral other cities, experiznced,
in confequence of it, great deterioration. But this was
partial and light, compared to the miferics which happened
to it in Rufus’s reign; when in the infurreétion raifed by
Odo bifhop of Bayeux, Geoffrey bifhop of Conftance, and
Robert de Mowbray ; the two latter took the place by
affault, and, in the {pirit of the times, delivered it over to
plunder and burning.

Bath was indebted for its reftoration to John de Villula ;
who purchafed it of Rufus, in 1099, for 500 marks, and ob-
tained permiffion to remove the pontifical feat from Wells
hither. He rebuilt the city, ere€ted a new monaltery upon
the ruins of the old one, and united the bifhopric to this
inftitution. Thus reinftated, Bath gradually increafed its
monattic poffeffions, in confequence of the munificence of
monarchs and private perfons ; but the {weeping diffolution
of Henry VIII. drove the monks from its monaftery, when
the abbey-houfe, with its lands, &c. was granted to private
individuals.

The citizens of Bath returned members to the Englifh par-
liament as early as the 26th of Edw. I. and writs were
regularly fent them for the fame purpofe every time par-
liament was fummoned to meet. But as thefe privileges
were attended with heavy charges on the burgeifles, who
_ generally paid the expences of their members, the city was
not reprefented during the 1ft and 2d years of Edward IT.
It now fends two members, who are eleéted by the body
corporate, confilting of thirty-one perfons. The govern-
ment of Bath was originally vefted in a fheriff: and the
firft that appears to have borne this office was Ailfred, who

is faid to have been a great benefafter to the city, and died
A.D. 907. Ithad afterwards a provolt or bailiff. [ts firft
charters were confirmed by king Edward III., Richard IT.,
Henry V., and Henry VI. Queen Elizabeth, in the 32d
year of her reign, granted the city a new charter, declaring
it to be a fole city of itfelf, and the’ citizens to be a body
corporate and politic, by the name of mayor, aldermen, ard
citizens of the city of Bath. This charter was renewed ir
1794, when two additional franchifes were granted the
citizens ; and under that charter the corporaticn derive their
authority, power, and rights

The commerce of this city, abftraéted from the expendi-
tures of fafhionable company, is inconfiderzble, nor is there
any manufa¢tory deferving particular notice. Bath was
formeriy diftinguifhed for its clothing trade; and at the
time of the reftoration, it is faid, there were no lefs than
fixty broad-cloth looms ufed in the parifh of St. Michael.

The river Avon, which wisds round the fouthe-n part of
this city, was made navigable by an aét of parliament in the
roth of queen Anne; and the firft barge, laden with deals,
pig-lead, and meal, was brought here December 15th Djeqe

In the early part of the civil wars, this city was garrifoned’
for Charles I. and the fum of 7o00/. is faid to have been
expended on its fortifications; notwithftanding which, it
quickly furrendered to the enemy, and was made one of the
principal pofts for the parliament’s- forces. Sir Willism
‘Waller lay here for a confiderable time with his whole army,
meking fallies into the country, and inyiting together all the
difaffeGted from the neighbouring clothing tewns and vil-
lazes. But-after the battle of Roundway-down, July 13,
1643,in which Walicr was defeated, and the withdrawment
of the garrifon for the reinforcement of Briftoi, che king’s
troops took poffcflion of the city.

Having ftated a few particulars relating to the early
hiftory of Bath, we proceed to a bricf defeription of its
principal public ftructures. and other prominent objects
which charaéterife this fafhionab'e place.

The Public Baths are four in number, befides two private
baths. Thefe are all conftru€ted with particular attention
to the convenience and accommodation of invalid bathers ;
and the laws and regulations are very equitable and fair.
(For an analyfis of the hot waters of Bath, and an account
of their medicinal powers, vide Dr. Gibbs’s Treatiie on the
Bath Waters. )

The King’s Bath is fuppofed to be fo denominated from
fome of the Saxon kings having made this city their refi-
dence. It is fituated to the weft of the abbey church, and
forms a parallelogram, 65 feet 10 inches in Jergth, and go
feet 10 inches in breadth ; the bottom af which is 12 fect
below the furface of the gronnd. ‘The {pring or main fource
is from the centre, wich :s covered with a large leaden re-.
fervoir, to retrain its rapid motion, and to difperle the water
more equally, both for bathing and drinking. There are
alfo two commodious rooms with pipes, fire-places, and other
conveniences for the bathers. This bath fills in nine hours.

The Queen’s Bath, which receives its waters from the
former, forms a fquare of about 25 feet in diameter. The
Crofs Bath forms a handfome termination to Bath-ftreet,
and is a very elegant building, conttruéted after a plan of
Mr. Baldwin’s; its fhape is triangular. The Hot Bath is
ereGtedto the fouth- weit of the latter, and is fo called fromthe
fuperior heat of its water; this alfo forms a parallelogram,
and is perfeétly convenient with refpect to an open bath,
private baths, dry pump, and drefling rooms. Certain regu-
lations are prefcribed refpecting thefe baths and the perions
belonging to them; as well as particular fees for every pro-
cefs of bathing, pumping, &c. Adjoining to the king’s bath,

in

BATION

in Stall-ftreet, are fome new private baths, which were
ereéted by Mr. Baldwin in 1788. Thefe baths belong to the
corporation. There are alfo the private baths, called the duke
of Kingfton’s, or the abbey baths, belonging to lord New-
ark, and in the occupation of Mr. Sloper. See Batu
Water.

Baru, Public Buildings. The Guildhall isa very handfome
firuGere, built after a defign of Mr. Baldwin, and contains
a number of ufeful and convenient rooms for public bufinefs.
Tn the conmon-council room, one of the molt elegant of the
kind in England, ere portraits of the king and queen, the
late prince and princefs of Wales, and the late earls Chatham
and Camden. The Pump-100m was conftruécted, by the
fame architect, in the year 1796: its length is 85 feet, in-
cluding the receffes at the ends; in breadth 46 feet, and 34
feet in height. The infide is fet round with Corinthian
three-quarter columns; and lighted by a range of large
windows below, and of kffer ones above. Here is'a marble
ftatue of Richard Nafh, Efq. the arb'rer elegantiarum of
Bath ; a gentleman to whom this city is principally indebted
for its fafhionabe cclebrity. The pump is held under a
beneficial leale from the corporation for three years, the rent
being S00 guineas, exclufive of taxes; which, however, is
fufficiently low to enable the kflee to lay up 12004 or
150>/ during the term. Mot of the clezance ‘of {treet-
building in Bath is owing to the late Mr. Wood; who
commenced h's operati ns with {pirit, and conduéted them
with tafte. To him the city is indebted for Quecn-fquare ;
the northern fide ef which prefents a chafte and neat range
of itruftures, decorated with all the ornaments of the Corin-
thian order.

The Circus is of his defizning ; here the houfes partake
of the three orders, Doric, Tonic, and Corinthian, highly
ornameated. To che grandeur of his defigns, the North
and South Parades bear ample teftimony; as do feveral
ftreets Rretching to the northward of the old city, which
ftronaty mag his judzment and execution. Subfequent ar-
chiteéts have followed Mr. Wood's example, and hence arifes
a profefion of new fquar-s, crefcents, piradcs, and Itreets ;
thus increafing Bath to fix times its original fize ; and the
beauty of the city 1s equal to its extent.

The new affembly rooms are the molt elegant of the kind
in Europe; thefe wete built by Mr. Joha Wood in 1771, at
an expence of 20,030/. The bil!-room is 105 feet Sinches
long, 42 feet 8 inches wide, and 42 feet 6 inches high ; the
other parts of the building are compofed of the o€tagoa
room, the tea room, and the card-room, all of equal beauty.
The regulations to preferve order and decorum in thefe rooms
are fimple and fatisfa&tory. The lower rooms, near the
north parade, have a convenient fuite of apartments appro-
priated to the elegance of the place ; and here are to be feen
the original regulations by Mr. Na‘h, which he wrote for
the purpofe of reducing politenefs and urbanity to a fyftem.
A neat {mail theatre was erectedin Orchard-ftreet by the late
John Palmer, efq..who obtained. a patent for dramatic enter-
tainments ia 1763; and here plays are performed on Tuef-
cays, Thurfdays, and Saturdays. Sydney gardens are laid
out in-a very pleafant ard elegant ftyle, for the purpofe of
evening promenades: where galas and public mufic and
finging are given fimilar to the entertainments at Vauxhall
gardens of London.

Hojpitals, &c. Build'ngsand infitutions of thisnature form
a ft riking feature of Bath; and no place in the realm, accord-
ing to its fize, exhibits fo many foundations for the extirmina-
tion of difeafe and wretchednefs, for the fupport of the poor,
andthe infructionof the ignorant. The generalhofpital, from

the munificence of its plan, is an inftitution open for all the
fick poor in the united kingdom, who labour under difeafes to
which the hot waters of Bath particularly apply, with an ex-
ception to thofe perfons inhabiting the city, who have the
waters at their own houfes for a fmall expcnace. Mr. Nath
had the honour of fuggelting the idea for its foundation, in
1715, and the firft {tone was laid in 1738. St. John’s hof-
pital, criginally founded by Reginald Fitz-Jofelion in 1189,
and the chapel attached to it, {tand near the crofs bath, and
were built in 1728, upon the feite of.an old ftru&ure for
the accommodation of fix infirm men and-women. St. Ca-
tharine’s hofpital, called alio the Black alms and Bimberries, -
is another afylum for ter poor perfons. Bellot’s hofpital en-
tertains twelve poor men and women, who have each an
apartment, the liberty of bathing, and a {mall weekly allow.
ance. The Bath city Difpenfary and Afylum, is equally
open to the inhabitants and itrangers in cafes of phyfical
and furgical emergency ; aud is a molt excellent inftitut‘on.
The Cafualty hofpital is appropriated to paupers whe have
been injured by accidents. Vhe Puerperal, or child-bed
charity, is another benevolent inftitution, whole objeés are
explained by its name.

Bath has, befides thefe eftablifhments, a public grammar
{chool, charity and Sunday fchools, with many humane and
{cientific focieties. ‘The principal of thefe are, the ftrangers’
friend fociety, and the Bath and weit of England fociety. °
The firft is eltablifhed and conduGted on the moft beuevok nt
principles of univerfal philanthropy; aad the only recom-
mendation for relief, is a {ufficient proof of evident diftrefs.
The fecond was eflabinied by Mr. Edmund Rack in 1777,
fer the encouragement cf agricu'ture, arts, manufactures,
and commerce ; and from the judicious management of its
founder, and late fecretary Mr. W. Matthews, it has ac-

uired fome celebrity, and proved of extexfive utility. The
philofophical fociety was eitablifhed in the year 1799, by
fome refpe@able literary chara&ers at Bath, upon a plan
fomewhat fimilar to that at Manchettér, for the promotion of
{cience aud the diffufion of knowledge.

Parifies. Bath is divided into the partfhes of St. Peter and
St. Paul, St. James, St. Michael, and Walcot. Bathwick,
though connected by Pulteney bridge, and confiiting of a
great number of handfome houfes, is cut of the jurifdition
of the city. Each of thefe parifhes has its church; and in
that of Walcot are feveral chapels of eafe. Of thefe the prin-

‘cipal is t!e Abbey Church, which prefents a noble {pecimen

of Englith architeQure. It is built in the form of a crofs,
from the centre of which rifes a tower 162 feet high, orna-
mented with beautiful light perforated battlements. The
length of the body from ealt to welt, is 210 feet, from
north to fouth, 126; and the breadth of the body and fide
aifles, 72 feet. The grand entrance at the weit 1s through
a noble arched doorway ; and the chafte uniformity, propor-
tion, and harmony ia the ftru€ture of the interior of this
ftately building, powerfully arrets the attention of the be-
holder. The weit window is of extreme richnefs, and the
whole of this front difplays a reprefentation of allegorical
carving, not ufually met with. ‘The roof, confilting of two
parts, the nave and the choir, is equally remarkable; the
ribs which compofe its tracery being the only folid work, the
intermediate {paces having been originaliy left open, and af-
terwards filled up with lath.and platter. The windows areall
large, of admirab!e and nearly uniform conftruétion; this has:
occafioned the church to be called * The Lantern, of Eng-
land.” A profufion of marble monuments ornament, ar-rather
crowd up, the infide; among which, may be noticed thofe
of bifhop Montague, Quip, beau, Nath, lady, Miller, and fir
William

BA

William Draper. Theveftry contains a fmall library, found-
ed by bifhop Lake. Oliver King, bifhop of Bath and Wells,
in the time of Henry VII. undertook this building which
we have defcribed; but by a neglect of his four fucceffors,
cardinals Adrian and Wolfey, and bifhops Clark and Knight,
the undertaking wis fo dilapidated, that at the diffolution it
was proffered to the citizens for 500 marks. ‘They refuting
the purchafe, under an idea of offending the king, the glafs,
iron, bells, and lead were {tripped from it, and fold at a
foreign market. ‘Chus it continued in a ruinous ftate till
the reign of queen Elizabeth, when fub{criptions were fet on
foot to reftore it; and Thomas Bellot Efq. fteward of her
houfehold, repaired the choir for divine fervice; bifhop
Montague, in the next reign, at the expence of roool. com-
pletely reftored the whole to its former ftate; and with the
affitance of feveral munificent noblemen and gentlemen, the
abbey of Bath became again a confecrated temple to divine
worfhip and a grand ornament to the city.

St. James’s church was ereéted in 1768, and is a free-
ftone ftruGture, with a fquare tower rifing at the weft end,
containing eight mufical bells, St. Michael’s church was
begun in 1734, and is injudicioufly fituated in the middle of
aftreet. Walcot church, dedicated to St. Swithin, is a neat
modern ftructure, rebuilt in 1780. In this parifh are four
chapels of eafe, and a church for the ufe of the poor: of
thefe, Chrill’s church was built by voluntary fubfcription for
the ufe above mentioned; and the whole area is therefore
appropriated folely to accommodate the poorer clafs of in-
habitants. There are alfo in Bath other chapels and meeting-
houfes for divine fervice: the OGagon and Laura chapels
are of the eftablifhed religion. The Unitarians, Quakers,
Baptiits, Methodi‘ts, Moravians, and Roman Catholics have
each a place for divine worship.

Bathis furnifhed with 438 lodging-houfes, and 19 boarding-
houfes, where individuals and families are accommodated
with every domeftic convenience during the winter, which is
‘the fafhionable feafon, he fhops of Bath are particularly
{plendid, and its hibraries are numerous and re{pectable.

Civil Government. The judicial bufinefs of the city is
tranfacted in the guild-hall, where quarter-feflions, a court
of record, and a court of requefts are held. The corpo-
ration confilts of a mayor, ten aldermen, two fheriffs, and
eighteen common-council men, befides town clerk, con-
ftables, &c. The principal markets are kept on Mondays
and Saturdays.

For further particulars concerning the hifory and
defcription of this city and its environs, fee Warner’s
Hiltory of Bath, 4to. and the Bath Guides publifhed at
this place.

Batu Water. Bath has been long celebrated for its
thermal waters. There are three principal fources of the
water; called the King’s bath, the Crofs bath, and the Hot
bath. The fupply of wateris abundant and invariable. The
temperature of the hotteft of thefe is uniformly 116°, when
freth drawn, and of the coldeft 112°; and no variety of {va-
fon appears in any degree to influence this temperature.
By fome accurate obfervations that were made on the heat
of Bath and Brittol water, by Mr. Canton, it appears, that
a Fahrenheit’s thermometer held in tne ttream from the
common pump of the king’s bath after pumping about a
quarter of an hour, was raifed to 112°. The ftream from
the common pump of the hot bath raifed it to 1r44°, At
the pump of the crofs bath it fteod at 110°; the heat of the
fhaded air at noon being 66°, and of common water expofed
to it 61°. And Briftol water raifed the thermometer to 76°,
whillt in common water expofed to the fhaded air it flood
at 62° Phil. Tranf. vol. lvii. N° 22.

Vou. Ll.

Tg

The analyfis of Bath water has been the caufe of much
controverfy among chemilts, but it feems now to be well
underftood. ‘To the tafte it is neither briflk, nor acid, nor
alkaline, nor faline, nor fulphureous, but fimply hot and
chalybeate; and it is truly remarkabie that the chalybeate
tafte is entirely loft as foon as the water cools, before any
fenfible precipitation of the iron takes place. The aétual
quantity of the iron is fo minute as never to have been
eftimated with any accuracy: probably a quarter of a grain
in a gallon is an ample allowance, a quantity fo {mall as only
to be perceptible to the tafte when frefh drawn and hot,
Bath water contains no other ingredients of any importance.
It is hard, and holds fome calcarecus earth ia folution, and
(as Dr. Gibbs has difcovered) a portion of filex. It is
perfectly free from fulphur. A confiderable quantity of
azotic gas rifes from the earth along with the warer, and a
certain portion is held by it in folution or rather weak affinity.
OF carbonic acid it only contains about <4, of its bulk.

~The difeafes for which the Bath water has been recom-
mended are very numerous. It has long enjoyed a high
celebrity in the cure or relief of gout, chicfly of the atonic
kind; of rheumatifm; paralyfis, efpecially that partial pally
of the limbs induced by rheumatifm; and difeafes of the
urinary organs. When drank frefh from the fpring (the
only time when it poflefles any peculiar virtues), it fometimes
raifes the pulfe, caufes the face to fluth, and heats the body
very conliderably ; and hence there are many invalids who
cannot bear its operation, or who mult be gradually accuf-
tomed toit. ‘This heating effect, however, is by no means
con{tant or univerfal. [t often produces a coltive flate of
body, and generaily keeps the fin pervious and eafily per-
fpirable. Itsufe as a hot, warm, or tepid bath, is fuil as
extenfive and probably important as when taken internally.
{t has been thought by many that the pragtice of drinking
our Bath waters in Somerfetfhire is not very ancient, and
that their ancient ufe wasin bathing; but Dr. Friend endea-
vours to fhew the internal ule of thofe waters to have been
very early. Dr. Guidot, in whofe time chis ufage revived,
and who has given us an hiftorteal narrative of thefe waters,
goes no higher for their internal ufe than the latter end of
the fixteenth century. But they appear to have been in ufe
in the thirteenth century. Gilbert, furnamed Anglicus,
who, according to Bayle, lived in 1210, in the reign of
king John, or more probably in that of Edward T. men-
tions a perfon cured of a leucophlegmacy attended with a
fwelling, &c. by the fulphureous baths : which Dr. Friend
underltands of the Bath waters; and that the cure was
wrought by drinking, not bathing, which had een improper
in fuch a cafe.

Dr. Mufgrave makes it probable, that they were reforted
to in the time of Geta; there being {till the remains of a
flatue ere€ted to that general, in gratitude for fome benctac-
tions which he had conferred on the place. Some pretend
that thefe waters were in ufe S00 years befere Chnift. Phil.
Tranf. N° 49. 346.

The two ftated feafons for drinking the Bath waters are
fpring and fall, though they may be uted whenever they
are found neceffary.

Baru, in Geography, a river of Africa, in the kingdom of
Fez, which rifcs in mount Atlas; and joining the Suba or
Sebu, flows into the ocean north of Mahmore.

Baru, a country of Virginia, in North America, about
60 miles long and 50 broad, bounded on the eait by the
country of Augutta; andnoted for its medicinai {prings, which
are hot and cold, near the foot of Jackfon’s mountain.

Baru, atownfhip of Lincoln county, in the diftrict of
Maine, in America, containing 949 inhabitants. It es on

5 the

IBA: Vee. P

the weft fide of Kennebeck river, about 13 miles from
Wifcaflet, 60 N. E. from Portland, 32 from Hallowell, and
165 N. E. from Bofton. N. lat. 43° 49’.

Barn, a thriving town, in Berkley county, in Virginia,
feated at the foot of the warm-fpring mountain. The
fprings in the vicinity of this town, though lels efficacious
than the warm fprings in Bath county, draw upwards of
1coo people here, during fummer, from various parts of
the United States.. The country in the environs is agreeably
diverfitied with hills and valleys; the foil rich and well culti-
vated; 269 miles S. W. from Philadelphia.

Baru, atownlhip of America, in Grafton county, New
Hampfhire, containing 493 inhabitants; and lying on the
ea{t bank of Conne@ticut river; 35 miles N. E. by N. from
Dartmouth college, and o7 N. W. from Portfmouth.

Batu, or Port Bath, an ancient town in Hyde county,
North Carolina, on the norch fide of Tar river, about 24
miles from Pamplico found, 61 S. by W. from Edenton,
and in the port of entry on Tar river. It contains about
12 honfes, and is decliniag. N. lat. 35° 31’. W. long.
77° 35!

Bata, a village in the county of Renffalaer, New York,
pleafantly feated on the eaft bank of Hudfon river, nearly
oppofite to the river of Albany, at the head of Sloop navi-
gation. A mineral {pring has been difcovered in this place,
and a commodious bathing-houfe has been erected, at a
confiderable expence, containing hot, cold, and fhower-
baths.

Batu, a thriving poft-town in Steuben county, New
York, containing about 50 houfes, fituate on the north bank
of Conhoéton creek, a northern head-water of Tioga river,
42 miles S. E. from Williamfburg, 120 from Nigara, and 221
welt from Hudfon city. N. lat. 42°15’. W. long. 77° 107

Baru, a village in the eaftern parith of St. ‘Thomas, in
the ifland of Jamaica. It owes its rife and name to a hot
{pring near it, which is faid to be very efficacious in the cure
of the dry belly-ache. The fulphureous water flows froma
rocky mountain about a mile diftant, and is fo hot that the
hand cannot be held in it.

Batu, BaLnEum, a convenient receptacle of water for
perfons to wath or plunge in, either for health or pleafure.
Baths are either natural or artificial. Natural, again, are
cither hot or cold.

Batus, Natural, hot and cold. See Mineral Warers.

Barus, Artificial or Medicated. Tbe very accurate
imitations of moit of the mineral waters for the purpofe of
drinking which are now met with, have induced fome in-
genious artifts to extend the imitation to larger quantities of
water fufficient forthe purpofe of bathing. ‘The method of
performing each will be explained under the article of Wa-
rTers, Mineral.

OF artificial baths fome are aqueous, others vaporous,
others dry, &c.

Barus, Aqueous, are thofe prepared from common plants
and other fubftances of emollient, refolvent, and nervous
kinds. Aqueous Baths fometimes confit of milk and
emollient herbs, with rofe-water, &c. when the defign is to
humcétate; at other times of bran and water, when the
defign is only to cleanfe: fometimes again they are made
of a decoftion of roots and plants, with an addition of
fpirit of wine, when a perfon bathes for a great pain or
tumor, &c.

In Vapour Baths, the fume or fteam of fome decoétion is
reccived upon the body to promote a perfpiration. Thefe
are alfo by fome called Balnea Laconica.

Vapour Baths are, when the patient isnot plunged into
what is prepared for the bath, but only receives its fleam

upon thofe parts of his body which require it: as in fome
diflempers of the fundament and womb, where the patient
fits and receives the fumes of fome proper fomentation, &c.
Mr. Jemes Playfair has publifhed ** A Method of conftru@-
ing Vapour Baths,” fo as to render them of {mall expence,
and of commodious ufe in private families. The principles
on which this method is founded are, that in the vapour
bath the water being applicd, not in the {tate of fteam, but
of folution in air, a much lefs quantity of thesheated fluid
than that ufually applied will futlice, provided the heat of ©
the inclofed air can be mai: tained in a fufficient degree ; and
that denfe fubftances, efpeciaily metallic ones, being the
greateft conductors of heat, are to be avoided in the con{lruc-
ton of the veffel containing the vapours, and the lighteit and
mot non-conducting materials ufed inflead of them. The
whole apparatus for the vapour-bath is, therefore, reduced
to a tin boiler, tin pipes wrapped in flannel, and a deal box,
with a cotton cover, for the reception of the body and cir-
culation of the vapour.

To thefe may be added the bagnio, where people are
made to {weat by the heat of a room, and pouring on of hot
water; after which they generally go into a hot bath, or
bagnio. See Batuinc.

Barus, Dry, are thefe made of afhes, falt, fand, fhreds
of leather, and the like.

The ancients had divers ways of {weating by a dry heat;
as by the means of a hot fand, flove rooms, or artificial
bagnios, and certain natural hot fteams of the earth, re-
ceived undera proper arch, or hot-houfe, as we learn from ~
Celfus. They had alfo another kind of bath by infolation,
where the body was expofed to the fun for fome time, in
order to draw forth the fuperfluous mo:fture from the in-
ward parts: and to this day it is a practice in fome nations
to cover the body over with horfe dung, efpecially in chro-
nical difeafes, to digeft and breathe out the humour that
caufes the diftemper. In New England, they make a kind
of ftoves of turf, wherein the fick are fhut up to bathe or
{weat. Phil. Tranf. N° 384. p. 130. The fame name is
fometimes allo given to another kind of baths, inade of
kindled coals, or burning {pirit of wine; the patient being
placed in a convenient clofe chair for the reception of the
fume, which rifes and provokes {weat in a plentiful manner:
care is here taken to keep the head out, and to fecure re-
{piration.

This bath has been found very effeQual in removing old
obitinate pains in the limbs, and venereal complaints; and, it's
faid, willoften complete a cure, left unperformed by falivation.

Batus, Metaline, thofe made of water impregnated with
the /coria of metals. The mot common and ufeful of this
kind are thofe prepared with the /corie of iron, which abound
with the earthy, faline, and fulphurcous fubflance of the
metal; and thefe are of excellent fervice for ftrengthening and.
bracing uf the part to which they are applied, and recover-
ing weak and decayed limbs; ftopping various kinds of
bleeding; and reftoring the menftrual end hemorrhoidal flux,
where obftructed ; infomuch that they may well be fubilituted
for the natural tron baths. .

Adjacent to the {melting huts where metals are run from.
their ore, are to be found large quantities of the flag of
copper, antimony, and cobalt, which, abounding with ful- | ~
phur, vitriolic fait, asd an earthy principle, make ferviceable-
baths for ftrengthening the loft tone of the fibres, and re-
laxing them when they are too ftiff. Thefe baths have like-
wife a deterfive and cleanfing virtue; fo that, with prudence-
and due regard to circumitances, they may be ufed on.
many occafions. The way of making thefe artificial baths.
is, cither to take the flags as they come hot from the fur-

nace,

Ba 7. G,

nace, oy clfe to heat them afrefh, and throw them into hot
water: which ts afterwards to be ufed, either in the way of
bath or fomentation oceafionally. There are other artificial
baths, prepared of alum and quicklime. by boiling them to-
gether in fine rain-water. Such baths are highly ferviceable
In paralytic diforders and weakne{s of the limbs,

The pepper bath, or peffer wafer on the Alps, is one of the
moft celebrated in Eu J has been the fubj-@ of
particular treatifes, befidcs what has been faid of it occa-
fionally by Scheuchzer and others. It was finft difeovered
in the year 1240, and is of the periodical kind. ‘The water
breaks forth mia dreadful*place, fcarce acceflible to the fun-
beams, or indeed to men, unlefs of the greateft boldnefs,
and {uch as are not in the lealt fubje& to dizzinefs. Thefe
baths have this fingulanty above all others, that they com-
monly break forth in May, and that with a fort of impe-
tuofity, bringing with them beech leaves, crabs, or other
wood-fruit; and that their courle defifts in September or
Odiober.

Scheuchzer profeff-s himfelf of opinion, that thefe waters
are not impregnated with any minerals; or, if they do con-
tain any, that their virtues in curing d:ftempers and preferv-
ing health, do not proceed from them. Thev are exceed-
ingly clear, deftitute of colour, taite, or {meli. Phil. Tranf.
N° 316. p. 151.

Batu, Batneum, in Chemifiry. In many chemical
procefles it is of the utmoft importance both forthe fecurity
of the veflels, and the fuccefs of the operation, that the ap-
plication of the neceflary heat fhould be gradual and regu-
Jated. Thisis particularly the cafe in molt diftillations, and
in digeftions at a moderate temperature, and wherever glafs
veflels are employed. Hence the contrivance of baths or
intermedes between the burning iuel and the veffel contain-
ing the fubject of the procels, in which the veficls are
immerfed, and whereby they receive the heat in a regular
gradual manner. As fluids heat with more uniformity than
folids, they are preferable where only a heat a little inferior
to the boiling point of the fluid is required; and they peflefs
this important advantage, that the heat is fo kept down by
€vaporation, that itcan never rife beyond the known and
given point of boiling. But where as much even asalow
red heat is required, no fluid can be employed with any
convenience, and recourfe muft be had to fome incom-
bultibdle folid reduced to powder. A great variety of baths
were invented by the elder chemilts, efpecially thofe who
were engaged in alchemical purfuits, which were fuppofed
to require long digeftions in a very accurately regulated heat;
but molt of thefe are now laid afide, and only the following
kind of baths are retained.

The waier Bath, Balneum Aque, is of great ufe in the
diftillation of effential o'ls, of the aromatic part of vegetables,
of the finer kinds of ardent fpirits, in evaporating into
dryaefs the folutions of vezetables employed in medicine
whofe virtue would be loft by any excefs of heat, and in
many other proceffes. The apparatus for this bath forms
part cf the improved Atrmaic (which fee, in Plate ILL. fg.
13- A. of Chemiftry); but any vefiel full of water, capabie
of being heated to boiling, and of containing a retort or
other veflel, may be ufed asa water bath. As the utmoft
heat which any fubftance immerfed in a boiling liquid can
acquire thereby, falls fhort by a few degrees of the tempe-
rature of the hquid itfelf, the heat of a water bath cannot
amount to 212°. This is confiderably increafed, however,
by uling a ftrong folution of fea-falt, or any other falt, in-
ftead of water; asthe boiling point of faturated brine is
much higher than that of mere water. ‘This forms the
ancient Lalneum Marie, Bath of Mary (the Virgin, as {ome

ype, ah

d

have interpreted, the term); but othera with more plaufi-
bility write Balneum Maris. fea-water, ov brine Lath,

Mercury, the fulible alloy of bfmuth tin and lead, tin
alone, aud other metals, have been propofed for the purpofe
of baths, and now and then ufed, when a higher beat than
the falt-water bath was required; but the metals are cumber-
fome by their weighr, and expenfive, merenry is danperous to
the bye-itander from its evaporation, and they ailhave the in-
convenience of requiring more preffire to be ufed than the
mere weight of the fubltance which they zre to heat, to
enable it to be immerfed in the melted metal.

Balneum Siccum. 'This whimfical term has been applied to
the vapour bath, in which the veflel to be heated ia enclofed
in a kind of cafe filled only with the {team of boiling water.
It isalmott if net quite out of ufe for chemical purpofes,
but it forms a valuable implement for the kitchen.

Balneum Arena. Sand-bath, of all kinds ot chemical baths
is that which is ufed the mott extenfively. In experimental
furnaces, or {mailer chemical operations, the veffel to contain
thefand is of calt iron, very much tn the form of an inverted.
round hat, of which the hollow part !s fupported by the
projeGiing rim upon the fides of the furnace, and hangs
down over the burning fuel, the flame of which plays round
itand gradually heats the fand which it contains, together
with every vefl<el buried therein. The fand thould be of
middling finenefs, the fineft as well as the very coarfelt
being feparated by fifting; for by this means the heat is
more gradually dittributed. Thofe diftillations, which at
any part of the procefs require 2s much as alow red heat,
are ufually performed in fand baths, even in manufa@ures
in the great way, as of aqua fortis. Sand, when thorouzhly
heated, continues hot for a very coufiderable length of
time.

Bath is a\lfo ufed in another fenfe, to fiznify the fufion
of metailic matters in certain operations: thus, in refining
or cupelling, the metals are {aid to be im bath when they are
melted.

Barus, the name proper to {uch public or private edifices
as are ufed for bathing.

The praGtice of bathing is found among all the nations
of antiquity. The people of the Eaft were ever accuftomed
toit, and have continued the habit to the prefent time; their
methods being perfcétly conformable to thofe of the Greeks
and Romans. If we may credit Homer, Mofchus, and
Theocritus, the firft ages of Greece knew no other baths than
the rivers; and it was in them that the princefics Nauficaa,
Europe, and Helen bathed. Homer (lay the French En-
cyclopedifts) indicates, that in his time private baths of a
regular form were inufe. 'T'elemachus and Pififtratus, they
obferve, were conduted to baths of uncommon neainefs:
the moft beantiful flaves in the palace bathed them, perfumed
them, and adorned them with the handfomett garments. But
all this is an afflumption which the text of their author by no
means warrants. he paflage alluded to is in the Odffey,
Book xv. 1. 135.

XiguBa SapPirrodos weoxdw emeyeuce Qeeuace

Karn xeuoeiny uree aeyveroio A</3nt0s

Nilasdss.
And the Jines which follow plainly fhow, it was nothing
more than a common abiution previous to an entertainment.
The A<@n; was a kind of vafe occafionally placed upon a
tripod.

The Romans, who fora long time bathed in the Tyber,
borrowed the idea of artificial baths from the Greeks; their
various habits of life and drefs rendered fuch accommoda-
tions neceflary ; and, to make fhort of our relation, ail the
moft {plendid and facinating luxsuties of the emperors were

geldiz raulti-

BOAT Hs

mu'tiplied and brought together in the vaft buildings of the
therme.

The therme, thofe prodigions monuments of Roman
magnificence, were formed in imitation of the Greek g ymna-
fia. In both were affembled all the inftitutions favourable

o health, allthe exercifes of the body, all that could give
relaxation to the mind, or afford amufement to the people.
Although the name of therme, given by the Romans to
thele edifices, fignifies a place deftined to the ufe of warm-
baths, yet the diverfity of ufes to which they were applied
will not fuffer us to comprife the whole ina fingle article.
All that concerns the immediate ufe of the baths will be
found here; but for other details, we fhall refer to
THERM.

The molt complete and beautiful baths were compofed of
fix principal apartments.

The firtt was calied the apodyterium, where the frequenters
of the bath undreffed; it was furnifhed with tables to receive
the garments of the bathers, and guards named cap/arii to
take care of them. This room was alfo called by the Ro-
mans the /poliatorium. All the baths were not furnifhed
with an apodyterium. Lucian fays, that in thofe which
were without it, the frizidarium was ufed for the fame pur-
pofe. The apodyterium ts te und neither in the gymnafium
of Vitruvius, nor in the pazlira defcribed by Lucian. It is
very probable, there was no fuch apartment in the Greek
gymoeatia, and that the frigidarium fupplied its place. Pliny
is the only author who mentions it, when defcribing the
baths of his country-houfe.

The fecond apartment was the cold-bath ; named Acurpuy
by the Greeks, and frigidarium by the Romans. This room
was ufually expofed to the north, and ferved, as we have jult
related, the purpofe of an apodyterium to fuch baths as
were without on¢; of courfe it was then the firft apartment.
The marquis Galiani imagined that the frigidarium and
tepidarium were the fame; but ancient paintings prove the
contrary. it

The third room was the ¢epidarium. Its principal ufe was,
by the temperate air it contamed, to prevent any bad effects
that might be occafioned by pafling too fuddenly from the
warm to the cold apartment. In the paintings of the baths
of ‘Titus, this apartment is found between the frigidarium
and the concamerata fudatio. ‘The tepidarium, according to
hittorians, joined the frigidariam to the warm bath; and it
is for that reafon that Pliny calls it cella media, the middle
room. Galen gives it the fame name, and imagines it ac-
quired this appellation not only on account of its fituation
in the centre, but from its temperature; for, fays he, this
chamber was as many degrees colder than the third or warm
bath, as it was warmer than the firft or frigidarium. ‘The
frigidarium and tepidarium, however, were more frequented
for the benefit of the air than of their water,

The fourth chamber was that which contained the flove ;
and was called /aconicum, from the name of the oven which
warmed it. According to Galen it inclofed a dry heat; and
he advifes perfons of a warm temperature not to enter it,
but rather to ufe the warm bath, where the water abforbed
by the pores would hinder the heat from being attended
by any bad confequences. The laconicum alfo had its name,

as having been originally derived from Laconia. Martial

fays to one of his friends (lib. 6. epea.2s)):

Ritus fi tibi placeant tibi laconum,

Contentus potes arido vapore

Cruda virgine Martiaque mergi. ’
Dion informs us, that they who perfpired in the laconicum
anointed themfelves with oil, and then entered the cold bath;
neverthelefs in its origin the laconium was only ufed by old

2

men and valetudinarians. This room, agreeably to Vitruviua,
as well as to the ancient paintings of the baths of ‘Titus,
joined the tepidariam, and communicated to it a more tem-
perate heat. A fort of furnace was ufually fufpended at
one corner of the room, of a circular form, terminating ina
{mall cupola, open at the top; which, as Vitruvius fays, ferved
to regulate the degree of heat which the bathers wifhed to
givethe room. It feems beyond a doubt that the /aconicum
itfelf was nothing more than a kind of furnace; and the
miltakes it has oceafioned owe their rife to the room in
which it was placed havirg taken its name from it. In the
paintings of Titus’s baths, itis called the concamerata Judatia ;
but Vitruvius furrifhes us with a preper diftinétion, when
he fays (I. v. c. 10.), ‘¢laconicum fudationefque funt con-
jungendz tepidario;”? and explains himfelf more fully in the
next chapter, where he reckons the ftove as a chamber of
the paleftra, There fhou!d in one of its corners, he fays,
be placed the laconicum, and in another the warm bath.
«* Concamerata fudatio longitudine duplex quam latitudine
que habeat in verfuris ex una parte lacontum....... ex
adverfo laconici caldam lavationem.” It fhou'd perhaps
have Been before obferved, that according to Vitruvius, the
laconicum had niches which were called fudationes, where
thole who ulfed the dry baths feated them{clves, as we fee in
ancient paintings.

The fiith apartment was the balneum, or warm bath,
called thermoloufia, and was the moft reforted to. Its fize
was proportioned to the number of thofe who bathed in it
at once. Its breadth was a third lefs than its height,
without including the gallery, called /¢hola; which was
carried round it, and terminated near the bafon with a little
wall for the bathers to lean againft. This gallery was
fufliciently large to contain thofe who waited for their turns
tobathe. The middle of the room was occupied by a bafon
called pifcina, or by a bathing piace which had the name
of alveum, as we {ee in the balneum of ancient paintings.
The bath was placed immediately below the only window
by which the light was admitted, that it might not be
darkened by the fhadows of thofe who were walking in the
gallery.

Tne fixth room was the eleothefium or unduarium. Here
were preferved the oils and perfumes ufed both in entering
and quitting the bath; and it was fo con{truéted as to receive
a contiderable degree of warmth from the hypocauft.

The hypocautt was a fort of fubterranean furnace, which
Vitruvius calls /u/penfura; the bottom forming an inclined
plane, by a gradual defcent from the opening where the
wood for heating it was thrown in; by which means the
heat was increafed, and the apartments warmed more expe-
ditioufly. It extended under the greater part of the rooms
we have mentioned.

Befide thefe rooms particularly defined to the ufe of the
bath, there were feveral others intended for the exercifes
previoufly taken. Such were the /pheriflerium, the coniflerium,
the corycea, the fludium, the ephebeum, and others: all forming
part of the gymnafia; but which were not always appen-
dazes of the baths, particularly thofe of private perfons.
Private baths, however, differed greatly in conftrn@ion
from thofe we have mentioned. Each poffeffor followed his
own caprice, eitherin changing the rooms of which they
were compofed, or making the fame chamber ferve for
different purpofes. The defcription the younger Pliny has
left us of his bath at Laurentinum, is a proof of this. In
this building there was neither apodyterium nor tepidarium ;
and the arrangements of its other parts was very different
from that of the public baths. You firft entered a f{pacious
frigidarium ; where contiguous to the walls, and oppofite

to.

BA

to each other, were placed two bathe fufficiently extenfive to
{wim in. Near this chamber was the unétuarium: you
then entered the hypocautt, the propniseum, and two other
apartments neat but not magnificent; you afterwards came
to an hot bath, from which the fea was difcovered; and
farther'on was the /pberiferium, expofed to the afternoon fun,
In his honfe in Tulcany, on entering the bath, we firlt find
a great apodyterivm, a {pacious and agreeable chamber for
undrefing. ‘This conducted to the frigidarium ; which was
darkened, and contained a bath of an appropriate fize.
When it was not found fuflictently fpacious, there was in
the open air a valt bafon, which might be ufed for the fame
purpofe. Not far from the frigidarium was a chamber ex-
poled to the fun fufficiently warm, but lefs fo than the
flove ; this was the tepidarium. ‘This room had three par-
titions, each having a different degree of heat. The two
firft were entirely expofed to the fun; and though the latt
had not all the heat of the former, it was equally light.
Above the apodyterium was the /pheriflerium, or place of
exercife for diflerent games. Although Pliny does rot in-
form us how the bathers employed themfelves after having
undrefled and anointed, it is highly probable they went up
to the fpherilterium and exercifed, defcended. by another
ftaircafe into the ftove, and afterwards returned to the
apodyterium; not forgetting in their way to vifit the tepida-
rium and frigidarium.

The following defcription, according to the Hippias of
Lucian, gives another idea of the baths of the ancients,
with the various apartments they contained.

«« Having pafled the great vellibule, to which was an ealy
afcent, you entered a fpacious hall for the ufe of the do-
meltics who attended their matters. On the left were the
chambers, where they who quitted the bath retired; which
were the handfome!t and moft agreeable of all. Farther on
was another hall deftined for perfons of confideration.
After this apartment, on each fide were galleries, where the
bathers changed their drefles. The centre, which was both
elevated and well-lighted, contained three baths of cold
water, ornamented with Laconian marble ; and had likewife
two ftatues of the fame material, the one of Hygeia, and
the other of Efculapius. On leaving this part of the baths
by a long vaulted paflage, the building became infenfibly
warmer, although the heat was far from difagreeable : this
paflage led to a light apartment where the oils and eflences
were preferved, which on the right hand had a communica-
tion with the paleftra; and the door-polts of which were
covered with Phrygian marble. The apartment contiguous
to this, as Lucian informs us, was more beautiful in its de-
corations than any we have mentioned; its very floor was
compofed of the marble already fpoken of. It was of a fize
fufficiently large for the bathers to walk in, and was fur-
nifhed with feats. After this apartment you entered a fort
of gallery heated; of fufficient length to admit the exercifes
of the courfe. It was incru{fted with Numidian marble; and
led to a handfome well-lighted apartment, painted with pur-
ple, where were three warm baths. ‘To leave it, it was not
neceflary you fhould go back by the way you entered, but
acrots a warm chamber where the heat gradually diminilhed.
All the chambers were lighted from the top; and Hippias
fhewed great judgment, in conftru@ting the apartments which
contained the cold bath fo as to face the north. In regard
to thofe which required a greater degree of heat, he expofed
them to the fouth, the fouth-eaft, and weft.”’

It appears from this defcription, that the bath of Hip-
pias had no apodyterium; there were only at each end of
the frigidarium, which contained the three baths of cold
water, tables on which the drefles were placed. The bathers

T H.

entered a warm paflage which condu&ed to the un&tuarium
whence having anointed themfelves they gained the fpheri-
fterium, the Jarge(t and handfomeft apartment of the whole.
When the exercifes were finifhed, they paffed into the hot
bath by a gallery where there was fufficient heat to preferve
the perfpiration firft excited in the fpherifterium: fo that
when the bathers fir? entered the warm bath, the difference
they found was fcarcely perceptible; fince the warmth of
the water was pretty nearly the fame with that of the body.
After having ufed the bath, they returned by a fhorter way,
and croffed an apartment where the heat diminifhed in pro-
portion as they approached the frigidarium where their
dreffes had been left.

The following is the defcription which Vitruvius has left
us of the Grecian baths. Having deferibed the different
apartments of the gymnafium, he fays: ‘ On the right of
the ephebeum is built the coryceum, or the room for fhav-
ing, drefliag, &c.: near which fhould be the conifterium,
where the fand for the wreftlers is preferved; and at the
corner of the peryltyleum, the loutron, or cold bath. On
the left of the ephebeum, the eleothefium, or apartment for
the eflences and oils: near which is conftru&ted the frizida-
rium ; whence a paflage fhould conduét the bathers to the
propnigeum near the ftove in the corner of the portico.
Adjoining, on one fide the frigidarium, is built the vaulted
chamber for perfpiration, which is always made twice as
long as wide ; and at one of its angles, ufually that oppofite
the warm bath, the laconicum.”’

The difpofition of each of the apartments we have men-
tioned varied itill more in the therme of the Romans, al-
though their plans evince uniformity to a certain extent.
As the Romans had two peryftilia in their therme, it feems
right to conclude they had a double order of baths. Warro
proves inconteltibly, that the women bathed in different
apartments from the men; for, in {peaking of the public
baths of Rome, he fays: ‘* Item primum balneum nomen
et Grecum introiit in urbem: ubi bina effent conjunGa adi-
ficia lavandi cavfa; unum ubi vir, alterum ubi mulieres
lavarentur.’? What Martial and St. Cyprian relate of the
baths, where the men and women bathed indifcriminately,
does not confute this paflage; fince writers attribute thole
indecencies to none but women of infamous charaGter:

«¢ Cum te lucerna balneator extin@a
Admittat inter buftuarias meechas.’?

This feparation is confpicuous in the baths of Caracalla; a
great part of which was furrounded by a veftibule which
encompaffed the principal buildings of the therm. This
part was divided into fitty vaulted halls feparated from, but
perfeétly refembling each other. One of thefe yet remains
entire, and fufficiently indicates how the others were dif-
pofed. It is approached by a {mall veftibule. ‘The room in
which the bath was placed, was thirty-one feet in length by
fifteen feet three inches wide; the bafon was of malonry,
with a border of Jasger ftones extending eighteen inches
from the edge of the hollow. The cavity between the fides
was twelve feet wide by fifteen long. It was defcended to
in front by feven or eight fteps extending the width of the
bath; four above the brink, and three or four went to the
bottom of the bafon: and the whole was lighted by a {mall
opening at the top. A thoufand perfons could bathe in
this part of the thermz at once.

When the water flowed into thefe baths, it feems to have
been only lukewarm, as it was brought from the hot baths
of the great thermz; of which thefe, as we have already
mentioned, formed only the outer circle. The water was
conveyed from thefe baths, by pipes, into a great pifcina,

or

BATH.

or pool, deftined for the ufe of thofe who wifhed to exer-
cife themfelves in fwimming.

In front, on the right and lefts were other baths for peo-
ple of {uperior eonfeqnence, In the room of balons they had
large bathing veffels, which were of copper, porphyry,
granite, or bafaltes. They alfo contained {cats of marble
y; of which we yet {ee a great number at Rome.
rus a@flures us, that the baths of. Caracalla had

Oy¥mpioc
no lefs than fixteen hundred.

The grand hail was a rotunda, t11 feet diameter ; which
is be ieved to have been called cella /elzaris. or the hall of
fandals, of which Spartianus foeaks in thefe terms: ‘¢ Cellam
fol-arem architedi negant pofle ulla imitatione qua faéta eit

fieri2? It feems to have had its name from the bars of
copper and bronze which, according to fome, formed its
pavement, and to others its cicling ; bearing fome refem-
blance to the faftening of the fandals among the ancient
Romans. It had alfo large plates of bronze or copper,
which covered and ornamented the piers of the windows and
other parts of the rotunda. It concained a number of vef-
fels in which the warm bath was taken.

OF all that relates to the baths, nothing has fo embarraffed
the learned as the manner in which hot water was funplied
to all the recepta~les for bathing which have been fourd.
For if we fuppofe, and it may be done without exaggera-
tion, that each bath in the therme of Dioclefian was capa-
ble of containing fix bathers, 1809 perfons might have
bathed at once. But 2s no veltige remains, fuflicient to
favour our cosjectures as to the manner in which the water
pall d mio thcle veffels, we muft content ourfelves with what
Viruvius has faid upon it.—Baceius has treated this fubject
better than any of the moderzs. He imagines the water
was conveyed from refervoirs outfide the therme, and that
machines were ufed for raifing it to that height, which,
agreeably to his examination of Dioclefian’s baths, feemed
rcquiite. He was alfo induced to conclude, that the water
was heated outfide the thermz, from the number of pipes
which he faw underneath the area of the building ; where
there had never been any alteration, and which were all
furrounded by other pipes from the hypocauft. But this
fuppofition eppeared to Baccius himfelf fo replete with
difficulties, that he pufhed his refearches on this matter no
farther.

The two fizures of the water towers or refervoirs for the
baths of Caracalla, engraved by Piranefi, will fuffice to ex-
plain how eafily the Romans heated the largelt body of
water their thermz could contain. 4

The water tower of Caracalla received its fupply from
the aqueduct of Antoninus, part of which pafled by the
Appian way.

It appears from the plan of this refervoir, that it had,
immediately above the hypocauft, twenty-eight vaulted
chambers; that thefe chambers formed two ranges of
fourteen each; and that they had a communication one
with the other. Above thefe were twenty-eight other
chambers, which were conneéted with each other in like
manner, though only one of them communicated with the
chambers below. Above all thefe was a fpacious refervoir,
not very deep, but which extended the whole length of the
water tower; in this, the water received confiderable warmth
from the heat of the fun, before it paffed into the chambers.
This refervoir did not receive its water direétly from the
aquedué, but from an intermediate ciltern. Whenever it
appeared neceflary to draw off the water of the lower cham-
bers to fill the bathing places, the water of the refervoir
became ufelefs, and would have overflown but for an open-
ing on one fide of the ciltern, by which it efcaped with-

Ss

out going inta the baths. During all this time the water
of the refervoirs was tranquil. The ciltern anfwered two
purpofes; it prevented any agitation in the water of the
refervoir, and carried cff that which was of no ufe. When
the twenty-eight vaulted chambers, immediately above the
hypocauft, began to heat, the warmth they acquired was
quickly augmented ; as there was only one of them which
communicat-d with the exterior air.

The ftrength of the wails and vault was quite {nfficient to
refit the rarefra&tion of air within the water, and of confe-
quence to hinder its evaporation from producing danger.
It was neccffary that it fhou'd have pipes to give the water
a fufficient heat for the ufage of the bath. When the hour
of bathing came, the warm water was let into the bathing
places from the lower chambers ; where it ran with incredible
{wiftnefs, and rofe to a perpendicular height equal to the -
furface of the refervoir of the water tower. .

To hinder the water from cooling as it paffed through the
fubterranean pipes, they were inclofed in others which came
from the entrance of the hypocautt, forming a fort of double
tunnel, and acqniring a confiderable degree of heat before
the water entered them.

Each chamber was within the walls 49 feet long, 27 wide,
and about 30 high. The number of fquare feer on the furface
of the lower chamber amounted to 38,500. If we allow for
the medium height 30 feet, the quantity of water contained
in the lower chambers amounted to 1,143,450 cubic feet.

The ancients do not inform us how they difcovered the
method of heating fuch large volumes of water. We are
therefore in the dark whether it was an invention of the
Romans, or whether they brought it with rhem from the
Eaft. It is reafonable, however, to fuppofe, that fuch
methods cou!d be of no ufe before the contruGtion of the
therme at Reme, and of courfe could not be older than
the time of Auguftus; in whofe reign, Dion Caffius informs
us, Mecenas built a warm bath capable of admitting perfons
to {wim in. ;

This method, or one very fimilar, was ufed in all the baths
of Rome. That defer:bed by Vitruvius was infufkeient to
furnifh water for thefe vaft buildings, which Ammianus
Marcellinus compares to provinces (lavacra in modum pro-
vinciarum extruGta) ; though it was undoubtedly the cafe in
private baths. They heated the water of the bath, fays
Vitruvius, by means of three veflels of copper, fo difpofed
that the water flowed from one to the other. One was
called caldarium, another tepidarium, and the third frigida-
rium, The marquis Galiani obferves, that it isno eafy matter
to give a precife idea of the fituation of thefe vafes above
the furnace. Czfariano and Caporali have engraved one
above the other, or rather one within the other, placing the
frividarium above the tepidarium, and that above the cal-
darium, which was placed immediately above the furnace.
But the great difficulty is, that in this arrangement the heat,
by the afcenfion of the flame, ought to warm the upper vale,
or frigidarium. Perrault, on the contrary, places the three
vafes on a level; and he imagines that fyphons carried the
water of one vafe into another: but how, without a pifton,
or fome fech expedient, the water could be raifed fo as to
re-defcend, he has not explained. a

The ancient paintings of ‘Vitus’s baths place thefe vafes
upon three fteps, in fuch a manner that the bottom of the
water of one veffel fhall be upon a level with the aperture of
the other; fo that it is eafy to comprehend how the water
was conveyed. But the marquis Galiani believes, that this
difpofition is not altogether agreeable to the truth; and that
it was adopted by the painter, only to afford a more clear
idea how the water was transferred.

I believe,

’

T believe, he fays, that the three vafes were upon a kind of
level: the caldarium immediately above the furnace; the
tepidarium a little backwarder, fo as to receive a reverberation
of the heat more than the fire itfelf; and the frigidarium upon
a maf{ly pedaftal, fo that the warmth could not reach it.
From the caldarium to the baths was a pipe, which, by
means of a cock, fupplied any quantity of water that was
requifite. Another pipe carried the water of the refervoir
to the frigidarium, and kept it at the fame level. All the
figures which Vitruvius has given of this procefs, feem to
require that an attendant fhould overlook this transfufion of
the water: but that author himfelf tells us, that the opera-
tion was performed without afiiftance: ita collocanda uti
ex tepidario in caldarium quantum aque caldw exierit
influat de frigidario in tepidarium ad cundem modum.

They had alfo other means of heating the water of the
baths. We conitruét, fays Seneca, a fpecies of vales high
and narrow, in the form of dragons and other fanciful fhapes,
in which we place pipes of native copper, of a {ptral form,
throuzh which the water paffes till it acquires a fufficient
degree of heat. Inthe fame degree as the cold water enters
the pipes, the warm pafles out ; fothat all the water which
runs through, acquires the fame temperature. Seneca ex-
plains the advantage of this proce{s, and informs us the tube
through which the water paffes having no communication
with the fire, the vapours are not mixed with fmoke; nec
trahit vaporem evaporatio, quia claufa pertrahitur.

he parallel which Seneca has given in his letters
between the baths of Scipio Africanus and thofe of
his own time, is highly iterefting, and will probably
eJucidate much that has been elready written on the
fubject. ,

“© Scipio’s bath,”? he fays, ‘* was {mall and fomewhat
dark, agreeable to the ancient cuflom ; for our anceftors
thought that a bath could not be warm enough unlefs it was
clofe. It was therefore a great pleafure to me to compare
the manners of Scipio with our own. In this little nook
did Scipio (the dread of Carthage, and towhom Rome was
indebted for having once taken it) nfe to bathe his body when
fatigued with rultic labours. Under this low and fordid roof
he ftood, and difdained not to tread fo vile and mean a floor.
But who is there in our time who would condefcend to bathe
in this way? A man thinks himfelf poor and mean, unlefs
the walle are decorated with large and precious embofiments;
uelefs Alexandrian marble is pointed and inlaid with Numi-
dian rough cat; unlefs a richand curioufly variegated piailter-
ing be ipread upon them in picturefque; unleis the roof is
covered with glafs-work ; unlefs the Thafian ftone, once
reckoned a fcarce and curious ornament, even in fome tem-
ples, new compafs about the pools in which we bathe our
bodies when enfeebled with. fatigue at fome trifling {port :
in fhort, unlefs the water is conveyed by a filver fpout. [
am {: aking as yet of common ttoves; but what fhall I fay
when I come to {peak of our freedmen? What noble
ftata-s! What vaft pillars fupporting nothing ; but placed
there for mere ornament, and the vain oltentation of expence!
Waat larze and far founding cafceades! We are arrived to
fuch a pitch of delicacy and extravagance, that we cannot
tread but upon the moit precious marbles.

« Tn Scipio’s bath there are fome chinks, rather than wia-
dows, cut out of the ftone wall to let in the light without
hindering the ftrength of the building. But now we call the
baths moth-houfes and dungeons, if they are not fo contrived
as to admit the whole day’s fun through the moft fpacious
windows, whereby men are tanned as wel! as wafhed ; and
from the bathing veflels have a profpeét both of the meadows
and the fea.. So that. thefe baths, which, at their frit con-

tar Tt

ftruction, called together a vaft concourfe of people, and filled
them with admiration, are now rejeted as poor antiquated
things ; while luxury is daily prefenting fome novelty that
muft at Taft prove its own ruin, Formerly there were but
few baths, and thofe not ornamented with any coltly deco-
rations ; for to what purpofe is it to adorn a common room,
Open to any one that paid his farthing, and which was built
not for pleafure but for ufe? It was not cultomary to have
the water fprinkled or poured in upon the bathers; nor did
it always run frefh, as from a warm {pring ; nor did they
think it material, how clear the water was wherein they were

to wafh off their filth.’

From this letter of Seneca, we perceive to whata pitch of
magnilicence luxury had carried the edifices deftined forthe
batis. And nothing gives a ftronger confirmation to the
account, than the fragments of thefe buildings which have
reached our own time. The greater part exhibits to us the
moft precions furniture. The hall of the bath, difcovered a
few years fince at Otricoli, has preferved the reliques of the
rareft marbles ; its pavement was formed of the fame won-
derful kind of motaic which at this day ornaments the
rotunda of the Vatican mufeum. Inthe baths of Titus,
the marble coating is carried to the height of about ten feet,
where, to preferve the paintings from the dafhing of the
water, the walls were covered. It appears that in thefe
baths one divifion of the rooms, efpecially thofe which were
deftined for the warm baths, had no openings to admit the
light ; at leaft none have been found. When it became
fathionable to frequent the baths by night, it was neceflary
the place fhould be lighted by lamps and candelabre ; the
introduction of which contributed very much to the decora-
tion of the apartments. ‘The moft magnificent we have feem.
at Rome, have been found in the Therme : their light was.
reflected by mafles of cryftal, fufpended from the roof or-
fixed againit the walls, fo as to produce the mott effulgent
light.

The ufe of glafs in the decoration of the baths, com-
menced about the time of Pliny, who calls it a modern in-
vention; novitium et hoc inventum; It did not exit, as
far as has been difcovered, in Agrippa’s time; whofe baths
were covered with ornamented clay or itucco, called albarium
opus.

Having thus brought the kiftory of the Roman baths to
a conclufion, it will not be irrelevant to add a brief notice-
of the principal ruins of them which remain, taken chrono--
logically.

The better halfof Paulus /Emilius’s baths is nearly pere.
fe&.

Thofeof Livia, on the Palatine hill, and under-the ruins
of the imperial palace, {till {hew.two fmall apartments entire,
decorated with ftucco, painting, and gilding.

The magarficent ruins. of the baths of Titus, Caracalla,.
and Diocletian, fill {hew the entire plans: fufficient remains
of the walls to determine the fe€tions and elevations with
telerable certainty ; and of the contruction of the con--
duits and. ftoves, enough to give the molt fatisfatory in--
formation.

There are fome remains, but very incemplete, of the baths.
of Conttanting, in the gardens of prince Colonna.

All the reft of the ancient baths, in or about Rome, 2re
neaily or entirely dettroyed; and it is to be remarked, that
the baths of Vitus, Caracalia, and Dioclefian, are entirely
ftripped of their magnificent columns and fine marbles, exe
cepting the great hall.of Dtocilelian’s baths, which was cone.
verted into achurch by Michael Angeio, and its granite
columns of fingle ftones, each forty feet ia height, pre.-
ferved. .

That

BwArtTi Be

That the Romans, who enjoyed dominion in our ifland
near four bundred years, had their baths, is evident from the
frequent ruias of them « hich are found; and fome in-
{lances occur where the builders had undoubtedly the ther-
mz of their parent country in view. At Hovingham in the
north Riding of York‘hire, 1745, a Roman bath was
Gifcovered, which had its fudaria and vaporarium
(Camden, ed. 1789, Mi. S5.); and ten years after, in tak-
ing down the abbey houfe at Bath, to build a new fet of
baths called the duke of Kingiton’s, the workmen found
remains of very noble Roman baths and fudatories, whofe
{prings and drains were made ufe of for the prefent baths.
Yhe plan and elevation of them were engraved by Mr.
Gough. (Ibid. 1. 79.)

Nor while mentioning the ancient baths in England, met
we forget one inftance where a magnificent building of the
kind occurs among the monattic conveniences of the middle
ages. Hugh, the facrift of the monaftery of Bury, we are
told, early in the twelfth century finifhed the aulam hofpitum
and balneatorium of his houfe; and Sampfon, who was
eleéted abbot in 1182, appears to have completed the latter
edifice upon a {eale, for thofe times, peculiarly grand.
(Aqueductum et aquam per rivulos derivatam et lavatoria
opere mirifico et magnitudine miranda confummavit.) See
Leland, Itin. vol. iv. App.

But it muft be owned, that in {pite of ail the advantages de-
rived from the habitual ufe of baths with re{pe&t to health and
cleanlinefs, the moderns have till lately very much neglected
to employ them; though from this cenfure we muft except
the Orientals and the Turks, among whom the practice of
the bath has been more eafily preferved, on account of its
conne@tion with religious worfhip. Their mannner of bath-
ing is very fimilar to that of the ancients; they have ftill
vait edifices for the purpofe, which are heated by means of
pipes, and receive light from the top : and though the ufe of
the ftrigyl (fee Ancuitecture, Plate III.) may not have
been prelerved, proper frictions for the excitement of perfpi-
ration are ftill ufed; and the inftruments adopted by the
ancients are replaced by rough cloths and flannels. The
rich among them have private baths, in the conftruétion of
which they are expenfive, and devote to them the moft con-
fiderable part of their mantions. ;

Among the modern Europeans, the practice of bathing,
generally fpeaking, has returned to the fame condition it was
in when Homer defcribed it in the earlier ages of Greece.
It is inthe river, during the heat of fummer, that the mult-
tude bathe ; and that more for pleafure than on any other
account: without once refleGing on the accidents which are
likely to refult from the crudity of the water, theantempera-
ture of the air, or the aétion of the fun, to which-they are
frequently expoled.

At Florence, on the bank of the Arno, public baths were
conitructed by the late duke, with fuch accommodations as
feemed moft appropriate for general ufe: adjoining which
there are other baths belonging to private perfons; and
gardens of promenade. a

What are called public baths at Paris, are far from uniting
thefe advantages; they are no other than large boats, called
tone, covered with acloth, with {mall ladders attached by
cords, to facilitate tue purpofes of bathing. The French
have alfo private baths for hire, fimilar to thofe in England ;
and many of their larger manfions are furnifhed either with
domettic baths of the larger kind, or bathing veflels formed
of metal.

Thofe which are called natural baths, are ufually buildings
conftruéted nigh the fources of mineral waters ; {uch as the
baths of Puzzuoli, Baix, and St. Germano, near Naples:

Pifa, in Tufcany; Bourbon and Vichi, in France; Buxton,
Beth, and Harrowgate, in England.

OF the engravings which accompany this article, Plate I.
exh:bits the plan of the baths of Caracalla; of the references
in which we give the following explanation.

1. The great fquare, furrounded by a portico, for the
exercifes of the ftad‘um.

2. Thofe parts of the porticos which ferved for entrazce
to the veftibules of the palettra.

3. The cella folearis of the paleftra ; the gates of which
were furnifhed with lattice work of bronze.

4. Vellibules of the great hall.

5: The great hall, furnifhed with the xyftum.

6. Other veftibules belonging to the lateral apartments
of the paleftra.

7. Others narrower than thofe already mentioned, leading
to the fame apartments.

€. Halls, open at the top, whole fides were ornamented
with baffo-relievosin marble. A fragment of one of the laft
of thefe was lately in the poffeffion of cardinal Albani.

g- Anti rooms belonging to the xylta.

10. Common entrances to the fame.

1z. Openings to give the xy‘ta light.

12. A {pacious xyftum in the middle of the paleftra, for
the exercifes of the athlete: : ie’

13. Apartments in which the athlete anointed themfelves
and left their veltments, with ftaircafes afcending to the
upper part of the cella folearis. ,

14. Receptacles for the rain-water from the roofs of the
porticos (fig. 19.), which was conveyed by pipes to the lower
baths.

15. Other uncovered receptacles, for the fame purpofe,
formed in the fide walls.

16. The portico, whence paffing through the xyftum you
reached the great bath: it was expofed to the S. W. and was
fometimes warmed by the fun, and at other times by furnaces.

17. Chambers or baths belonging to the wreillers, and
other combatants, of the theatre and xyftum.

18, The ciftern of water in the centre.

19. Porticos, ornamented by niches, with magnificent
fountains ; ferving as a fhelter for the populace from the
rain and fun, '

20. Double prtico before the theatre.

21. Seats for the ipcGators at the games; in front of
which, upon occafion, the ftage, and fcenes for theatrical re«
prefentation, were erected.

22. Open {paces between the porticos and the great hall
or faloon. :

23. Uncovered halls.

24. The atheneum. a
25. Open {pace in front of philofophic watks. '
26. The philofophic walks.

27. Quarters for the prztorian guard. ¥
28

. The great exedra, for trials of ftrength. .

.
29. Apartments appertaining to the exedre, fubdivided
into {maller ones for the accommodation of the officers aad
exercifers in the different games. eae

30. Apartments for the fecnes, and other theatrical ap-
paratus. : "9

31. Openings withiron gratings, for the admiflion of light
to the lower ftory. *

32. Staircafes from the lower to the upper ftory.

33+ Veltibules of the upper ftory.

34. Other ftaircafes of afcent tothe porticos.

; Lower Story.

F 35- Quarters of the pretorian bands ; with porticos in
ront,

36. Pifcine,

. ail

By AyT, Hh.

26. Pifcine, or pools of cold water.’

37. Porticos erected at a later period, by Alexander
Severus.

38. Cold bath with fountains in the centre.

39 Walks for public accommodation.

40. Magnificent fountains.

41. Walls furrounding the fummit of the hill on which
the baths of Caracalla were erected.

42. Open {pace around the refervoira of water.

43. The aquedu& of Antoninus, which fupplicd the
batits.

44. Intermediate refervoir, into which the water of the
aqueducét was difcharged,

45- The opening by which the water was conduéted to
the warm bath:.

40. The refervoir.

47. Walls of the city, anterior to thofe of Aurelian,
which were enlarged by Caracalla, for the extenfion of the
therme.

48. The fountains mentioned in fig. 38.

49- Porta Capena in the city wal.

50. Porta Terentina.

5st. The Appian way.

Pilate 11. exhibits a painting from the baths of Titus, on
a brown ground, reprefenting three flight temples: in the
centre one a {latue, fupoofed to be Apollo, with a prieft on
either fide; and above cach of the lateral temples a bas-re-
lief, reprefenting the facrilices of Bacchus. ‘The {mailer
figures in Arabc{que.

Here may be remarked, that in ftri& contradiction to all
that 1s aflerted by the French writers, the paintings cf the
ancients, whether Greek or Reman, are in bad perfpec-
tive.

Plate WII. contains a feion of the baths of Caracalla,
from Firanefi; with Montfaucon’s idea of explaining the
relative fituation of the different apartments in the Roman

therme.

Baru, in Fewifh Antiquity, is the name of a liquid mea-
fure, containing the tenth part of an omer.

Some diflinguifh five kinds of baths: viz. the greeter
bath, containing 80 pounds of water, or, according to Jofe-
phus, 1440 Roman ounces; the {econd bath, containing 1co
ounces; the third, 663 ounces; the fourth, containing 25
ounces; and the fifth 6} ounces of water. Beveryn. Sync.
de Menf, p.n. p. 127.

Some have eftimated the facred bath at half as much
again as the common bath; but there is no fufficient reafon
for this diftin@tion. Calmet.

Baru, Knights of the. This order was inftituted in Eng-
land at the coronation of Henry IV. in 1339, and revived
by Geo. I. by his letters patent, bearing date at Weftmin-
fter, the 18th of May in the 11th year of his reign, 1725,
in the following words:

“© George, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France,
and Ireland, king, cefender of the faith, &c., to all to
whom thefe prefents fhail come greeting. Whereas our royal
predeceflors, upon divers wife and honourable confiderations,
have, on occefion of certain angalt folemnities, conferred
with great ftate, upon their royal iffue male, the princes
of the blood royal, feveral of their nobility, principal officers,
and other perfons diftinguifhed by their birth, quality, and
perfonal merit, that degree of knighthood whieh hath been
denominated the knighthood of the bath; we, being moved
by the fame contiderations, do hereby declare our royal in-
tention net only to re-eftablin and fupport the faid honour
of knighthood in its fermer Juftre and dignity, but to ereét
thetame iptoaregular military order: and, accordingly, of

Vou, IIT.

our efpecial grace, certain knowledge, and mere motion,
and by virtue of our royal prerogative, being the fountain of
honour, we have inftituted, ereéted, conftituted, and created,
and by thefe our letters patent, do inftitute, ereét, conftitute,
and create a military order of knighthood, to be and be
called for ever hereafter by the name and title of “ The
Order of the Bath,”? whereof we, our heirs and fucceffors,
kings of this realm, for ever fhall be fovereizns ; which faid
order fhallconfit ofa great mafter, to comtinue during the plea~
{ure of us, our heirs or fucceffors, and thirty-fix companions,
to be from time to time nominated and appointed by us, our
heirs and fucceffors, wherein a fucceflion fhall be always regu~
larly continued; which faid order fhall be governed by tlatutes
and ordinances, to be from time to time made, ordained, altered
and abrogated, by us, our heirs and fucceflors, at our and
their pleafure. And to the end that fuch ftatutes may bt
legally eftablithed, we, following the example of our royal
predeceffor, king Edward the Third, of glerious memory,
founder of the meft noble order of the garter, who gave
fanétion to the ftatutes of that order, by affixing to them
the feal which had been by his command made and ap-
pointed for the fame order, do hereby dire&t and appoint,
that a feal fhall be immediately engraven, having upon one
fide the reprefentation of our royal perfon on horfcback
in armour, the fhield azure, three imperial crowns, or the
arms ufuailly aferibed to the renowned king Arthur, with
this circumfcription, ‘ Sigillum Henoratiffimi Ordinis Miii-
taris de Balneo ;”? and on the reverfe, the fame arms en:pal-
ing our royal arms: and our royal will and pleafure ts, that
the faid feal fhall for ever hereafter be the feal of the faid
order of the bath ; and that the ftatutes to be perpetually and
inviolably obferved within the {nid order, fhall be eftablithed
and fealed by and with the fame feal: and we do hereby for us,
our heirs and fucceffors, declare and ordain, that the faid
ftatutes fo to be given by us, our heirs or fveceflors, to
which the faid feal fhall be afixed, fhall be of the fame force
and validity asif the fame ftatutes, and every article of them,
had been verbatim recited in thefe our letters patents, and
had been paffed under the great feal of this our realm. And
further, we do hereby ordain, conftitute, nominate, and ap-
point our right trufty and right entirely beloved coufin John
duke of Montagu to be the firft great matter of the faid
order, to hold the faid office during our pleafure, with fuch
powers, privileges, and emoluments, and fubjeci to fuch re-
gulations as fhail be for that purpofe appointed in the flatutes
to be efablifhed by us, our heirs or fucceflors, as aforefaid.
And whereas it is abfolutely neceffary, for the dignity and
fervice of this order, that there fhould be officers peculiarly
appropriated thereto, we do by thefe prefents, for us, onr
heirs and fuceeffurs, will and ordain, that there ‘fhall be
for ever hereafter a dean, genealogit, king of arms, regilter,
fecretary, ufher, and meflenger, of and belonging to the faid
order, whofe ref{pe€tive duties, privileges, emoluments, and
perquifites {hall be particularly exprefled and declared in the faid
{tatutes; and we do hereby for us, our heirs and fucce‘fors,
conftitute, create, andappoint thedeanof the collegiate church
of St. Peter’s Weitmintter, for the time being, to be for ever
hereafter dean of the faid order, and do for us, our heirs and
fucceflors, give and grant full power and authority to the
great matter of the faid order, for the time being, to con-
ftitute, nominate, and appoint, under the feal hereby ap-
pointed for the faid order, a genealogilt, king of arms,
regilter, fecretary, ufher, and meffenger of the faid order ;
and from time to time to fill up the. places of fuch officers
upon vacancies, according to fuch rules and directions, as
fhal) for that purpofe be laid down and exprefled in the faid
flatutes to be given as aforefaid. And to the end that the

Bek refpeGive

BATH,

refpeétive fees to be paid to the feveral officers of the faid
order of the bath by fuch perfoas as fhall be nominated unto
and accept the honour of a companion of the faid order; may
be certam and fixed, we do by thefe prefents, for us, ours
heirs and fucceffors, will and declare that all-fech fees thall
be cipecially and particulariy efcertained and eftablithed in
and by the {tatutes to be given and ordained to and for the
faid order, by us. ovr h or fucecffors, under the feal
hereby appoisted for the faid order, and fhall be of the like
force and eff as if the fame had been particularly expreffed
and fet forth in theie our letters patents: and, latlly, we do
hereby, for ns, our heirs and fucceflors, grant that thefe our
letters patents, or the ivrolment cr exemol fication thereef,
fhali be in and by all things good, frm, valid, fufficient. and
effectual ia the law. 2ccordinz to the true intent and meaning
thereof; any omiffion, imperfeGion, defe&t, matter, canfe,
or thing whatfocver to the contrary thereof in anywife not-
withitanding. In witnefs whereof we have cauied thefe
our letters to be made patents.

Witnels ourfcif at We fiminfer, the eighteenth day of
Mav. in the eleventh ycar of our reign.”’

The badge, cegnizance, or enlign of this order, is a rofe,
thiltle, and fhamrock, iffeant from a feeptre betweea three
imperial crowns, furrounded with the motto of the order 3
viz. © Tria junéta in uao ;” the whole of pure gold;
chafed and pierced, and is worn by the knight elect, pendant
from a red. ribbon acrofs the right fhoulder. The collar is
of gold, Weighing thirty ounces troy weight, and is com-
pofed of nine imperial crowns, and erht rofes, thiftles, and
fhamrocks, ifluing {rem a fceptre, enamelled in their proper
colours, tied or inked together with feventeen gold knots,

enamelled white, having tbe badge of the order pendant °

thereto. The ftar confilts of three imperial crowns of gold,
furrounded by the motto upon a circle of red, with rays
ifuant from the centre filver, forming a far, and is «m-
broidered on the left file of the upper garment. ‘The in-
ftallation drefs of a knight of the bath is a furcoat of white
fattia, with a mantle of crimfon fattis lined with white, tied
at the neck with a cordon of filk crimfon and gold with
old taffels, and on the left fhoulder is embroidered the far
of the order; a white filk hat, adorned with a fanding
plume of white oitrich feathers, white leather boots, edged
and heeled, crimfor and gold fpurs, a fword in a white
Jeather feabbard, with crofs hilts goid. The knights receive
the order by inveftiture in the k'ng’s clofit, or, if abroad, by
warrant, The ceremony of inveiliture is as follews. The
dean, the knights, and the officers of the order attend in the
privy-chamber im their mantles and collars, and proceed {rom
thence, after the levee, into the fovereizn’s prefence, making
the ufual reverence, in the following order; gentleman usher
of the order in his mantle, chain, and badge; bearing the
fearlet rod; regifter and fecretary of the order in their
mantles, chains, and badges; bath king of arms in his
mantle, chain, and badge, bearing the {csptre of bath, carrying
the ribbon and badge of the ord=r ona crimfon velvet cufhton ;
the genealogiit in his mantle, chain, and bade; the knights
of the order with their mantles, collars, and badges; the
dean of the crder in his mantle, chain, and badge; the firft
knight and princioal companion, ating as great matter.
Then by his majzity’s command the intended knight is in-
troduced between the two junior knights of the order, pre-
ecded by the gentleman ufher of the order, with reverences
as before. Tne fword of tlate is then delivered to the
fovercign by the fecond knight of the order in feniority,
and the intended knight is kuiphted therewith. Then the
principal knight companion prefents the ribbon and badge
to the fovereign, and his majcfty puts it over the new

7

knight’s right fhoulder, who, being thus invefted, has the
honour to kifs the king’s hand. © ‘The proceffion then re-"
turns to the privy-chamber in the order above-mentioned.
After the invefiiture, the knight wears only the ribbon and
badge ; as he cannet wear either the collar or far before his
being inftailed, without 2 letter of difpenfation, which is
only granted to thole en foreign fervice. Cn the revival of
the order, king George the Firft allowed the chapel of king
Henry the Seventh in Weltminftcr abbey to be the chapel of
the order, and ordained that each knight’s banner, which
thell be placed over bis fall, fhall be two yards in length,
and one yard three quarters in breadth, fringed about with
red and white filk ; and that, in the lowelt margin, the name
and title of the knight fhall be inferibed with letters of gold
upon 2 black ground; ard thatthe creft, helmet, and {word
fhall Mkewife be affixed to the ttall, together with an
efcutcheon of his erms and fupporters, enamelled within a
circle gules, having thereon the motto of the order in letters
of gold, and his name and title in like manner as the knights
of the garterare in St. George’s chapel, Windfor; the arms
alfo of his three efquires are enameiled on one plate, with
their names end title affixed thcreto, and placed under the
kaight. At an inftallation of the order, each knight is al-
lowed three efquires, who muft be by the ftatutes ‘“ gentle-
nen of blood, bearing coat armour;’? they precede their
knizht in the proceffion, having for their drefs a crimfon filk
wail coat wiih fleeves, breeches, Lockings, aud fhocsw'throfes,
the whole of which are filk, of the fame colour, with a furcoat
of white fi!k, lined ard edged with crimfon, having a heed of
the fame effixed thereto, and on the right fhoulder of the fur-
coat the plain e(cutcheon of the order, ‘ azure, three imperial
cCrownsor,”’ a black Gtk hat or coif: for which fervice each
efquire ‘“ (hall, during the term of his life, enjoy all rights,
Eberties. privilezes, exemptions, and advantages which the
efquires cf the fovereign’s bady, or the gentlemen cf the
privy do lawiully ezjoy, or are entitled unto by
ry grant, prefeription. or custom whatfocver; and
the cideit fen of every of thefe efquires fhali have and ufethe
addition and utle of efquire in ail a&s, proceedings, and
pleadings: previded that all thefe efquires to be entitled to
thefe privileges, thal! have certificates of their qualifications
before their refpcGtive adm ffion, and hkewtfe an exemplifi-
cate of their actual performing the dutics upen the creation
of any knight or kmghts ef the bath, attefted by the great
matter under the feal of the order.” An efquire ef the
order is allowed to hunt and fh in the king’s royalty, and
is exempt not only from ferving the office of high, fhe iff,
but any parochial office. To prevent any abufes in 4
claiming thefe privileges and exemptions, the following no-
tificate was inferted in the gazctte, previous to the inftalla-
tion of the order in 1893, when twenty-two knights were
inilalled, attended by their efquires, fixty-fix in number.

‘ Tt is hereby notified, that no «xempliiicate will be iffued
to any efquire, from his royal hizhnefs the duke of York, after
the enfging inftailation, ustil it fhall be certified to his royal
highnels by the genealegit, that the pedigree and coat
armour of the feveral knights and their refpeétive efquires
have been entered in the genealogical books of the order, in
obedience to the faid itatutes. :

Given at the Horfe guards, this 13th day of May 1803;
Frederick, aGing as great malter of the faid mott honour-
able military order of the bath.” ‘

The drefs of the officers of the order is as follows: viz.
the mantle and cordon of the deanare the fameas theknights;
he wears a gold chain, with the badge of the order; but no
collar. The genealogiit, king of arms, regiftrar, fecretary,
and ufher’s isa white fattin mantle or robe lined with crimfon,

having

mber

virtue of ¢

BA

having on the right fhoulder the badge of the order tied
about the neck with a cordon, the fame as the knight’s; ux-
der itis afurcoat ke the efquire’s, with a gold chain about
their necks, to which is pendant an efeutcheon of gold, thereon
enamelled the badye of the order; except that on collardays,
the badge is worn pendant to a red ribbon. The office of
genealogift is a difting& office of record for the pedigrees and
coat armour of the knights of the order and their efquires,
which are entered in a regular feries from the year 1399 to
the prefent time. The office of genealogit has, from the
revival, been fucceflively filled by John Anttis, efq., John
Suffield Browne, cfq.. and George Naylor, efq., York he=
rald. its prefent poff-flor.

The order of the bath doth not appear to have been of
greater antiquity, in this kingdom, than the reign of
Henry IV. who, on the day of his coronation, conferred
that dignity upon forty Gx efquires, who had watched ail
night before, and had bathed themielves; yet this degree
of knighthood may juitly boaft of a much earlier antiquity.
The learned William Camden, and Jean du Tiilet fuppofe
it to have been prattifud by the old Franks, or inhabitants
of Lower Germany; with whom Mr. Anttis (who was genea-
loxift of the order on its revival) is of opinion, the Saxons,
who invaded England, had the fame common defcent ; and
who, upon their fetclement in England, introduced the fame
method of knighthood. Da Tillet: further remarks, that
thofe ancient Franks, when they conferred knighthood, ob-
ferved many folemn rites. Before they performed vigils,
they bathed, to fignify that fuch as were admitted to this
degree fhould be of a pure mind and honetl intentions; be
willing to confi wich any dangers or difficulties in the
eaule of virtue; take care, both in their words and adlions,
to follow the maxims of prudence; and, on all occafions,
religioufly obferve the motto of the order, £* Tria junGa in
uno ;”” which implied a true belief of the Trinity: which rites
and conditions, according to his teftimony, {till continued to
be praétifed in England; and from the prattice of thefe, gen-
tlemen were denominated knights of the bath. Mr. ae
with his ufual precilion and clearnefs, hath fully proved that
William the Conqueror, and the fucceeding kings of Eng-
land, conferred this degree of knighthood as well in Nor-
mandy asin England. We have a very particular detail of
the ceremonies that were ufed in creating knights of the
bath at the coronation of king Henry V.; and our hifto-
rians and records amply vouch that from that time till the
reign of king Charies II. inclufive, it was the ufval pratice
to create knights of the bath at, or previous to, the corona-
tion of our kings, the creation of princes of Wales, and at
the celebration of their nuptials, and thofe of others of the
royal family. King Charles IL. previous to his coronation,
created no Jefs than fixty-eight knights of the bath; from
which time no knights of that degree were created, until
the revival by George I. in 1725.

Batu Metal is a preparation of copper with zinc, which
gives a more beautiful colour than the calamine ufed in the
preparation of the common brafs.

Batu Kol, in Fewifh Antiquity, a {pecies of revelation
by a voice or echo from heaven.

The word fignifies, in the Hebrew original, daughter voice,
or daughter of a voice ; for it may be interpreted both ways.
It feems to have been thus called with refpeé&t to the ora-
cular voice delivered from the mercy-feat, when God was
confulted by urim and thummim; this latter was the
grand and primary voice of revelation; the former of
fecondary dignity, and inferior to it as the daughter to the
mother.

The Jewifh writers {peak of three kinds of revelation

B24 'T

among them; the fir by urim and ‘thummim, which ohe
tained from the ere&ing of the tabernacle to the buil ings of
the temple; the fecond by the fpirit of prophecy, which
prevailed from the beginning of the world to the death of
Malachi; the third, the Lath Jol. or fiia wocis, which took
place when the fpirit of prophecy wholly ceafed in [frac] ;
and was, fays Grotius, the fole oracle which remained dur-
ing the time of the fecond ti mple.

This bath kol, fays Dr. Prideanx, was no fuch voice from
heaven, as the Jewihh, and particularly the Talmudicai,
Writers pretend; but only a fantaftical mode of divination of
their own invention, ré fembling the * Sortes Virgiliane”?
among the heathens. (See Sortes.) Prid. Comm. pt. 2.
b. 5. vol. 3..p.463. Godw. Mofesand Aaron. lib 4.c. 8.
Lightfoot’s Works, tom. i, p. 485. Grot.in John, xii. 28.

Danzius has a differtation on the iniquity and impotture
of thebath kol: “ De filia vocis nefanda, divine emula.”?

BATHA, in Ancient Geography, the ruins of an ancient
city of Africa,in the kingdom of Algiers, about two leasues
fouth of Oran, which was deftroyed in the wars that raged
between the African powers, about the beginning-of the
feventh century, it has been remarkable, in more modern
times, for a little chapel, erected in memory of a marabout,
who lived among thefe ruins, and by the prefents he received
for his hofpitality to travellers, became rich enough to maine
tain 500 difciples, whofe employment it was to go through
a long litany of allthe divine attributes, by the help of thar
beads at certain hours of the day; but the feg& has of late
declined and is almoft extin&,

Barita, a town of Ethiopia, near Egypt. Pliny.

Barua, Bach, or Bachia, in Geography, a town of Hun-
gary, fituate near the Danube, and capital of a county of
the fame name. It was formerly the fee of a bihhop, now
united to Colocza ; 20 leagues fouth of Buda. N. lat. 46?
40’. E. long. 20° go’.

Barua, a town of Ethiopia, on the confines of the
country called by the Arabs, Berbera, and more commonly
Zanguebar.

Barua, a name fometimes
which fee.

BATHASECA, a town of Lower Hungary, in the
county of Tclna, on the Sarwitz.

BATHENAS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria,
between Cyrrbus and Edeffa. Anton. Itin.

BATHGATE, or Barucer, in Geography, a market
town in the county of Linlithgow, in Scotland. There are
three fairs held annually in Bathget: fecond Wednefday in
April, firt Wednefday after Whitfunday, O.S. fourth Wed-
nefcay in June, third Wednefday in July, third Wednefday
in Auguit, N.S. and firft Wednefday after Martinmas. The
circumjacent country is ratherhilly,yet by no means deftitute
of agricultural improvement ; the foil of late is made to vield
abundant crops; and rural economy advances daily. In
a morafs, about a quarter of a mile from Bathget, fome
flight traces of the principal refidence of Waller, high
fteward of Scotland, (the founder of the royal houfe of
Stuart,) are ftili difcernibie. The manfion, and lands
thereto belonging, were the dowry beftowed on the high
fteward’s wife, lady Margery, by her father, king Robert
the Bruce, in A. D. 13:6.

BATHING, the aét of ufing or applying a bath; that
is, of immerging the body, or part of it in water, or other
fluid. See Batu.

Bathing, on a religious account, is more properly called
ABLUTION, OF BAPTISM.

Bathing is a prattice of antiquity. The Greeks, as early
as the heroic age, are faid to have bathed themfelves in the

512 fea,

given to the ifle of Bas;

BATHING.

fea. in rivers, &c. We even find mention in Homer of hot
baths inthe Trojan times; but thefe feem to have been very
rare, and only ufed on extraordinary occafions. Athenzus
fpeaks of hot baths as unufual even in his age. In reality,

ublic baths appear to have been difcouraged, and even pro-
hibited, by the ancieat Greeks, who were contented to wath
themfelves at home ina fort of bathing tubs. Pott. Archzol.
tom. i. lib. iv. c. fg. The method of bathing among the an-
cient Grecks, was by heating water in a large vetlel with
three feet, and thence pouring it on the head and fhoulders
of the perfon feated in a tub for that purpofe, who, at
coming out, was anointed with oil. Burett, in Hift. Acad.
Infer. tom. i. p. 117.

The Romans were alfo long before they came into the ufe
of baths; the very name of which, therme, fhews they bor-
rowed it from-the Greeks. As the ancient Romans were
chiefly employ<din agriculture, their cuftom was, every even-
ing, after work, to wath their arms and legs, that they
mizht fit down to fupper with more decency ; for it 1s to be
obferved, the ufe of linen was then unknown, and the people
of that age went with their arms and legs bare, and confe-
quently expofed to duft and filth. But this was not all ; for
every ninth day, when they repaired to the city, either to
the nundina, or to attend at the affemblics of the people,
they bathed all over in the Tyber, or fome other river which
Happened to bencareft tothem. This feems to have been
all the bathing known till the time of Pompey, when the
cuitom began of bathing every day. Mercurial. de Art.
Gymn. lib.i.c. 10. Mem. Acad. Infer. tom. it. p. 414.

The Celtic nations were not without the ufe of bathing ;
the ancient Germans bathed every day; in winter in warm
water, and in fummer in cold. This is what Tacitus feems
to fugzelt, “fiatim e fomno—lavantur, fiepius calida, aut
epud quos plurimum hiems occupat.” De Mor. Ger.
22. PSs

Bathing, among the ancients, made a part of diet, and
was uled as familiarly as eating, or fleep ; and cold bathing
was in high eftcem among their phyficians for the cure of
difeafes ; as appears from Strabo, Piiny, Hippocrates, and
Oribafius; whence occur frequent exhortations to wathing in
tlie fea, and plunging intocold water. The firft inftance of
cold bathing, as 2 medicine, is Melampus’s bathing the
daughter of the king of Argos; and the firft inftance of
warm bathing isthe ufe of ic by Medea, who was faid to
boil people alive, becaufe Pelias king of Theffaly died in a
warm bath underher hands. The cold bath was fuccefsful'y
ufed by Antonius Mufa, forthe recovery of Auguitus: but
after the death of Marcellus, who was thought to have fallen
a facrifice to the improper ufe of it, the praétice funk into
negle&t. It was again revived towards the clofe of the reign
of Nero, by a phbyfician of Marfeilles named Charmis; but
it was afterward difufed during the ignorance of the fuc-
ceeding ages. Among the Turks, bathing forms a part of
dict and luxury, and in every town and evea village there 1s
a public bath forthofe who have not the convenience of pri-
vate baths attached to their own houfes. Baroa de Tott (Me-
moirs) gives us the following account of the confruction of
the private baths. Two fmall chambers. built with brick and
faced wich marble or plafter, communicate with cach other,
and each of them is enlightened by afmall cupola cutin che-
quers. This little edifice iscomm snly joined to the houfe by
a {mall room, in which thofe who bathe undrefs; double
coors, folding over and lifled with felc, fhut in the firit and
fecond part of the ftove. A wood fire is kept in a fubter-
ranean vault, the eatrance into which is from without.
Tis fire-place is under the farttiermolt chamber, and heats a
ealdron immediately beneath the marble floor, which ferves

asacicling to the vault. Pipes, placed within the walls, pro«
ceed from the infide of the caldron, and go out at the cu-
pola, for the purpofe of evaporating the water, which is
kept continually boiling. Other tubes, communicating with
a refervoir, are likewife contained within the brick-work, and
furnifh the infide with cold water, by means of cocks placed
at the fide of thofe which yield the warm water. Small
feats of {meoth wood are made to fit en, and drains cut in
the marble to carry off the water which is thrown down.
Thefe private baths, always heated twenty-four hours before
they are ufed, by being thus conftructed, poflefs fuch a de-
gree of heat, that perfons who undrefs in the exterior cham-
ber, and put on high fandels of wood to preferve the feet
from being burnt by the marble floor, cannot enter the firit
room with fufety till they have ftopped a moment between the
two doors to Ict the lungs dilate; efter which they cannot
enter the fecond fove, under which the heat is mott aétive,
without fimilar precaution. A fudd:n perfpiration rafhing
through all the pores, is felt immediately as they are entered 5
but the violence of this heat does net prevent the women
from ftaying in thefe baths five or fix hours, aod returning
to them very frequently. he following defcription of the
public bath, and the method of ufing it, is ebltraéted from
the account given of the baths at Cairo, by Savary, Travels,
vol. 1. p. 146, &c. The firft apartment, or undrefling cham-
ber, isa lofty and fpacious hali, which rifes in the form of a
rotunda, and is open at the top for admitting a free cireu~
lation of the air. A fpacious eftrade, or raifed floor, covered ;
with a carpet, and divided into compartments, goes round
it, on which the perfon who bathes lays his clothes. Inthe
middle of the building, a jet-d’cau fpouts up from a bafon,
and agreeably entertains the eye. When you are undrefled,
you tie a napkin round your loins, put on a pair of fandals,
and then enter anarrow paflage, where you begin to feel the
heat. The door being fhut, at the diltance of twenty paces,
you opena {econd door, and preceed along a paflege, which
forms a right angle with the former; here the heat increafes.
Thofe who are afraid of fudderly expofing themfelves toa
{lronger degree of it, #op in a marble hall, in the way to the
bath, properly fo called. The bath itfelf isa fpacious and
vaulted apartment, paved and lined with marble, areund
which are four clofets. The vapour inceflantly rifing from a
fountain and ciftern of hot water, mixes itfelf with the_
burning perfumes, when perfumes are defired by the perfons
who bathe. The bathers extended on a cloth that 1s fpread_
cut, and with the head fupported by a {mall cufhion, ftretch
themfelves freely in every potture, whilft they are-enveloped
by a cloud of odoriferous vapours, which pesetrate into all
their vores. After repoling there for fome time, til a gentle
moilture is perceived over the whole body, a fervant prefics
you gently, turns you over, and when the limbs are become
jupple and flexible, he makes all the joints crack without —
any difficulty. He maff-s, i.e. delicately touches, and feems
to knead the flefh, without making you feel the fmelleft
pain, When this operation is finifhed, he puts on a glove
covered with a piece of coarfe fluff, and rubs you for a lor
time; and during this operation, he detaches from the bedy,
running with fweat, a {cu for fort of {mall feales, and re-
moves even the imperceptible filth that ftepsthe pores. The
fin becomes foft and {mooth hike fatin. Hethen conduéts
you into a clofet, pours a lather of perfumed foap upon your
head and then withdraws. The clofet is furnithed with a
cillern asd two cocks, ove for cola and the other fer hot
water. After having wafhed in this apartment, the fervant
brings 2 depilatory pomatum, compoied of a mineral called
‘‘rulma,”. which is of a deep brown, and which the Egyp:
tians burn lightly, knead with water, and mix with half the
quantny

—_—

BATHING.

qnantity of flaked lime, This greyifh pafte, applied to the
hair, makes it fall off in a little time ; and it is generally ufed
both by men and women in Egypt. "After being well wafhed
and purified, you are wrapped up in hot linen, and conduéted
through the windings that lead to the outer apartment : and
by this gradual tranfition from heat to coldy or by {topping
for fome time in the hall next the flove, no inconvenience
arifes from the ufe of the bath. On arriving at the eltrade,
you find a bed prepared for you, and as {con as you are laid
down, a child preffes every part of your body with its delicate
fingers in order to dry you thoror ghly, Here you change
linen a fecond time, and the child gently grates the callofity
of yonr feet with pumice tone, He then brings you a pipe
and. Mocha coffee.

By thefe baths; fays Savary, the ufe of which the ancients
ftrong'y recommended, and which are ftill the delight of the
Te ryptians, they prevent or difpel rheumatifms, catarrhs, and
fuch cutaneous diforders as are produced by want of perfpi-
ration. Thus the blood is made to circulate with freedom,
the whole body acquires a fupplencfs and lightnefs, and the
fpirits gain a vivacity and flow, which are not experienced in
an eq: aald egree, by thofe who do not pay fo much attention
to’ external rleen waste The women are particularly fond of
thefe baths, and frequent them at leaft once aweek. A frer
underzoing the ufual preprrations, they wath their bodies,
and more elpeci: ally their heads, with role Was Here the
female head-dreffers form their long black hair into treffes,
to which they ned ly coltly eflences, inttead of powder and po-
matum., Here they blacken the edyes of their eye-lids, and
lengthen their eye-brows with “c: ynel,” ora preparation of
tin burnt vie gall-auts. Here alfo they ftiin their finger
and toe nails with “henne,”? (See Arcanna), which gives
thema Balden colour. The linen and clothing which ‘they
nfe are paffzd through the {weet team of the wood of aloes.
The days, appropriated to the ufe of the bath, are feitivels
for the Eyptian women; and on this occafion they pay

reat attention tothe ornaments of their drets, as well as to
the cleanlinefs of their perfons.

Baths fimilar to that above defcribed, though differing in
fize, are conilruéted in all the principal towns of Egypt.
The neceflity of cleanlinefs in the ealtern ciimates, where
perfpiration 1s fo copious, has rendered baths indifpenfible:
the comfort they preduce, preferves the ufe of them; and
Mahomet, who knew their utility, has re-enforced the prac-
tice of abluticn and bathing by exprefs precept.

Mr. Tooke (View of the Reffian Empire, vol, ii. p. 7, &c.)
informs us, that the common Refiians, in general, ufe but
few medicines; fupplying their place, in all cafes by the
fweating bath, 2 practice univerial among them, and which
hasa deeided influence on the whole phyiical ftate of the
people. The ule of the bath, that venerable, relict of the
manners of the ancient world, as this ingenious writer de-
nominates it, is now almolt entirely confined to the Oriental
nations, where it minifters both to health and to luxury, and
is perpetuated by religion. In Europe it has been gradually
declining for feveral centuries, though it was here alfo in
fome {are interwoven with religion, she holy water of the
Roman catholic church being a flizht remnant of it.

Ruffia and Elangary are at pre efent the only countries in
this quarter of the world, where it is {till the cuflom to
bathe after the manner of the ancients. In Ruffia, particu-
larly. the bath forms fo eflential a part of the fyltem of living,
that it is ufed by people of every age, and in all circum{tances,
by infants, by lying-in OH Se in almoft all ficknefles, be-
fore and after a journey, after hard work, &c. The bath is
a neceflary of life fo indi{fpenfible to the common people, that

they frequent it as often as poflible, well or iil, and without

‘been common in RuMa from time immemorial.

any particular occafion, once a week at Ieaft. Perfona of
middle {tation in good cireumiarces, and the great, ufually
conitruét vapour baths, after the Rufliin fafhion, in their own
houfes, though in thefe claffes the practices is declining under
the iicreeti ig influence of foreign manners. Baths have

They are de-
feribed t by Nuettor fo long ago as the 11th century, precifely
in their prefent form. Amo ong the ancients the ‘baths were
public: buildings under the immediate cognizance of the
government. The invention of them was owing to cleanli-
nefs and convenience; but in procef: of time all the graces
of archite&ture were lavif hed epon them; and at length lux.
ury and voluptuoufnels fo perverted them from their primi
tive pur rpofes that they became offenfive and fhocki ing tothe
morali ‘ts of a: tiquity. Alexander was aftonifhed at the mag<
nificence of the batns in Perfia. At Rome, under the em-
perors, there were once 870 of thefe edifices, fuch, with
refpet to magnificence and tafte, as might pafs for matters
pieces of art; and in afterages they were demolifhed by the
Goths, or converted by. bithops i into churches. In our days,
however, Hangary is the only country that can fti!l exhibit
baths, equal in magnificence to thole of the ancient Romans.
In Ruffia, on the contrary, they are always of that fimple
conttruction, which indicates their primitive and ge: eflential
defination. Here the public baths, called public becaufe
they are under the care of the police, and let cut to com-
mon pecal on the crown’s account, ufually confit of mean
wooden houfes, firuate, whenever it 1s poflidle, by the fide
ofa running ream. In the bach-room is a large vaulted
oven, which, when heated, makes the paving ftones lying
upon it red-hot ¢ and ; adjoining to the oven is a kettle fixed
in mafonry, for the purpote of bolding boiling water. Round
abont the walls are three or fou rows of benches, one
above another, Ike the feats of a feaffold. The room has
little jtght, but here and there are apertures for letting the
vapour elcape; the cold water that is wanted being Tet i in
by fmall channels. Some baths have an anti- chamber for
dreffing and undreffing ; but in mott of them this is done in
the open court-yard, which on that account has a boarded
fence, and is provided with benches of planks. In thofe
parts of the country where wood is eae they fometimes
confit of wretched caverns, commonly dug in the earth clefe
to the bank of fome river. In the houfes of w ealthy indivi-
duals, and in the palaces of the great, they are conttruéted
in the fame manner, but with fuperior elegance and conveni-
ence. The heat in the bath room is ufually from 32° to 40?
of Reaumur; and.this ts much increafed by throwing water
every five minutes on the glowing hot {tones in the chamber
of the oven. hus the Teak often rifes, -efpecially on the
uppermolt bench, to 44° of the thermometer. ‘The perfons
that bathe lie quite naked, en one of the benches where
they perfpire more or le{s in proportion to the heat of the
humid atmofphere in which they are enveloped. For promot-
ing per{p: ration, and more completely ope nit ug the pores, they
are firft rubbed, and then gently flazeilated with leafy bunches
of birch. After remaining for fome time in this ftate, they
come down from the {weating bench, and wafh cheir bodies
wich warm or cold water, aan at laft- plunge over head in a
large tub of water.

Many perfons throw themfelves immediately from the

ath-room into the adjoining river, or roll themfelves in the
{now in a froft of ten or more degrees.

The Ruffian baths are, therefore ‘“‘ fweating baths ;”
not the Roman tepidaria or caldaria of a moderate warmth,
but very violent {weating baths, which to a perfon unhabi-
tuated to the practice, bring on a real, though a gentle and

almo voluptuous {woon. ‘They are ‘ vapour-baths,” not
water

BATHING.

water nor yet dry fweating-baths ; differing in this refpe&
from all the baths of antiquity, as well as from thofe of the
modern Orientals; and in this confifis their effential excellence,
that they are beneficial in fuch a variety of cafes, where hot-
water beths would be ufelefs or even pernicious. They 2re
further “ f{alutary baths,”’ as they promote cleanlinefs, affit
the perfpiration, render the fkin foft and {mooth, &c. and
not voluptuous baths like thole of the Greeks and Romans.
All the inventions of effeminacy and luxury ere entirely ob-
viated ; and of anointine after the ufe of the bath jf
fible in thofe, the Ruffian is wholly ignorant.
this the fudden tranfition from heat to a rigorous
dens his body, 2nd adapts it to all the feve
and to every viciflitude of weather, a tranfition of which

to us unnatural or dangerous, merely from the prejudices of
a foft and effeminate age.

Mr, Tooke adds, that’without doubt, the Ruffians owe
their longevity, their robuit ftate of health, their little dif-
pofition to certain mortal difeafes, and their he
ful temper, moftly to thefe baths, zh cl

& ate, alimext,
and habits of livieg likewife contribute their fhare.

The great lord chance lor Bacon, and ether fazacious

~ obfervers of nature, and of mankind, have lamented, and cer-
tainly not without caufe, that the practice of bathing has
fallen into difufe among the modern nations of Europe, and
anxtoufly with that it might again revive in all our towns and
villages. In faA, when we confider, fays Mr. Tooke,
that the old phyficians fo carly introduced into their prac-
tice this remedy of nature’s own invention, and emploved it
with fuch great fuccefs; when we recolle& that Rome for
500 years had no phylicians but only baths; and that to this
day a multitude of nations cure almof all their maladies
recrely by baths ;"we cannot avoid regarding the difm:fion
of them as the epocha of a grand revolution, which has been
wrought in the phyfical ftate of the human rece, in one
quarter of the world. The natural per{piration, the molt
important of all excretions, muft naturally go on better ina
body conftantly kept foft by bathing. Many impurities
that privily lay in us the train to tedious and dangerous dif-
tempers are removed in time, before they poifon the blood
and juices. All exanthematic difeafes are abated by bath-
ing, and confequently the {mall pox ; and if this dreadful
diforder be a¢tually lefs fatal in Ruffia than in other countries,
this phenomenon necd not be attributed to any other caufe
befides vapour baths.

BatuinG, medicinally confidered, ranks among the moft
efficacious means by which difeafes are prevented or cured.
Its effeéts vary according to the variation of temperature,
and according to the qualities of the liquid medium em-
ployed; that is, according as the bath confifts either of
common water, or of water containing falt or other mineral
ingredients (fee Mixerat Waters), or of water impreg-
nated with the virtues of aromatic er other herbs. Thefe
laft, which go under the name of medicated baths, are fe\dom
ufed; and when they are we are inclined to believe that it
is to the watery medium, rather than to fuch impreguations,
that their beneficial operation is to be afcribed. :

Under the prefent head, we fhall confine ourfelves to the
confideration of the effeéts produced by bathing, fo far as
they depend upon a diminution or increafe of tempera-
ture above or below the natural flandard of the human
body.

Baths of different degrees of temperature, correfponding
to the familiar terms, cold, temperate, and hot, are fuited to
different and oppofite ftates of the body. The manner of
ufing them is alfo different ; the time of immerfion or ftaying
in them varying according to the difference of temperature,

and according to the required quantum cf impreffion or ef-
fest, as will be particularly noticed in treating of each.—
Ard, firit, of the _

Corp Batu, by which is underftood water of a tempera-
ture from 65 to 33 of Fahrenheit. The gencral effe4is pro-
duced ina healthy perfon by immerfion into an ordinary
cold bath (that is, water of the temperature of 48 or 50)
are, according to the accurate flatement of Dr. Saunders,
as follow: ‘ Firlt, there is a general fenfation of cold,
forming that fudden fhock to the whole fyitem which is one
of the moft important efle&s of the cold bath. This is al-
moft immediately fucceeded by an equally univerfal fenfe of
warmth, which increafes rapidly to a certain point, fo as
to caufe the furrounding water, though aQualiy cold, to
feel of a comfortabie warmth; and this feeling is fooner
produced, and continues longer, in proportion as the perfon
is in tull health, and naturally poffefies a vigorous circu-
lation. By degrees, however, if the body continues im-
merfed, it becomes chilled; violent fhivering comes on ;
the extremities grow numb and pale; f{smetimes ficknefs
takes place ; and, at laft, the animal powers are exbaufled
by cold and fatigue. In this procefs the moit remarkable
efiects are thofe which occur frit, and are dire&tiy confe-
quent to the fhock of immerficn ; and thefe require partis
cular attention in a medical view, as it is only to the pros
duGion of thefe that the cold bathing fhould be fuffcred
to proceed. The fenfations of returning warmth which
take place directly after the cold of the arft immerfion, con-
{tituce what has been called the rzadion of the /yflem; and
this is certainly a proper and charactcriitic term, as it im-
ports an aétion produced in the body icfelf, to refift an ex-
ternal impreflion. Reaétion in this place feems to be a pe=
culiar effort of the living powcr, and to be excited in a de-
gree proportionate to the force of that power, and to the
iatenfity of the caufe which called it intoaction. It implies
not merely an ircrcafe of the produéiton of animal heat,
but, fuperadded to this, a fudden effort within the body, and
the whole arterial fyftem, to overcome an impreffion on the
extremities as fudden and powerful. Hence it is that a
mere abitra¢tion of heat, by a co!d medium will not pro-
duce that which is precifely meant by reaétion, except the
external cold be applied fuddenly, and to a large furface.
Thefe two conditions are fulfilied by fudden immerfion into
cold water. ‘Fhe fuperior power of condu€ting heat which
water pofleffes over air, is alfo a circumftance that is always
to be kept in mind in applying cold externally. This is par-
ticularly (hewn where a perfon continues long in this cold
medium beyond the firlt effcéts of reaGtion. On account of
the high condu@ting power of water, the body muft be con-
fiantly employed ju producing an unufual quantity of heat;
and this appears to be a great effort in the conflitution,
which, if carried too far, goes directly to deftroy the ani-
mal powers.” Thus three effets are produced by immerfion
in cold water; viz. an inftantaneous and powerful fhock, a
fudden abftraction of heat from the furface of the body, and
that exertion of the vital energies to counteraét the fhock
and reftore the loft quantity of animal heat, whichis termed
reaGion. It is eafly to perceive that when the body is
placed under fuch cireumftances for a few feconds, a confi-
derable impreffion muft be made, firft upon the fentient fyf-
tem, i.e. the brain, and its ramifications, the nerves; and,
fecondly, upon the fanguiferous and abforbent fyftems:
and that fuch impreflion may be rendered {ubfervient to the
prevention and cure of various difeafes. Accordingly, the
cold bath is a principal remedy, firlt in many convulfive af-
fe€tions, and in maniacal attacks; and fecondly, in certain
forms and conditions of fever.

a. In

Bead. TO I NG:

t. In the convu!fions to which children are fo liable, Dr.
Currie of Liverpool (whofe obfervations on the fubjec&t af
cold bathing cannot be too often quoted) has found this
application a molt ufeful remedy, whether the convulfions
originated in worms, or other causes. In early infacy,
however, he remarks, that he has ufed it with caution,
fometimes tempering the water when the weather was cold,
and fometimes pouring it upon the patient, rather than im-
merging the patient in it; making the application of the
cold water in this way fudden and tranfient, fo as to fecure
reaction, and avoiding the remedy entirely in all cafes where
the vital energy feened much exhaulted. He further re-
marks, that the chief benefit derived from the cold bath in
convulfive difeafes, depends on its being ufed in the pa-
roxy{m of convulfion. It not only fhortens the duration or
abates the violence of the exilting paroxyfm, but has a ree
mote good effeG in retarding or wholly preventing its return,
Tn that coavulfive diforder termed chorea Sii. Viti, the cold
bath, though ftrongly recommended by molt practitioners,
has not fucceeded with this author; and he candidly ac-
knowledges, that his experience of its effects in epileptic
fits is as yet too limited to enable him to form any fatif-
faGory conclufion. The late Dr. Heberden, whofe expe-
rience in thefe affleQions was confiderable, had no great
opinion of it. Againft tetanus, whether idiopathic or ariling
from local injury, this remedy has been employed with
the molt decided good effet, particularly in the tropical
climates ; nor has it proved lefs beneficial in maniacal pa
roxy{ms. See Dr. Currie’s work hereafter quoted.

2. In certain forms and conditions of fever. In thefe
cafes, cold bathing, whether by immerfion or affufion, is of
eminent fervice when properly applied; as, by abftratting
the preternatural degree of heat, it rids the body of an ex-
haufting ftimulus and irritation, and thereby abates the fre-
quency of the pulfe, the delirium, and other febrile fymp-
toms. It may be reforted to in moll fevers, (fome of the ex-
anthematous fevers excepted) where the fkin is hot and dry;
but it is efpecially adapted to the zyphus, or common conta-
gious fever of this country, the ardent fevers of the hot
climates, and the yellow fever of the Welt Indies, &c.—
« The fafelt and molt advantageous time (fays Dr. Currie)
for ufing the afperfion or aifulion of cold water, is when the
exacerbation is at its height, or immediately after its decli-
nation is begun; and tiis has led me almoft always to dire&
it to be employed from fix to nire o’clock in the evening ;
but it may be faicly ufed at any time of the day, when
there is no fenfe of chilincfs prefent, when the heat of the
furface is fteadily above what is natural, and when there is
no general or profufe perfpiration”’ It te of the utmoft
importance that medical practitioners be careful not to apply
this remedy during the cold fit of fever, when it would ex-
tingulh life; nor to apply it when the heat of the body is
lefs than natural, or even only equal to the natural heat ;
nor when the fever-patient is in a fate of perlpiration.
Cold bathing has alfo been tried in the /carlatina ; but in
this fpecies of eruptive fever as well as in meafles, the appli-
cation of cold water to the furface of the body is, in our
opinion, by no means advifable. Another caution we
would fubjoin with regard even to fevers that are not erup-
tive; viz. that when they are complicated (as often happens
in ths climate) with pneumonic inflammation, cold ablution
is inadmiffible.

Cold bathing has often been recommended in certain
glandular difeates, and particularly in {crophula. Accurate
obfervation, however, has proved, that in thefe cafes it is
generally hurtful; and that for fach complaints, a temperate
bath, whether of frefh or falt water, is preferable.

Having thus defcribed the general effeéts of cold bathing,
as well as its particular application to certain ftates of difs
cafe; we have only further to edd a few words refpeGiing the
manner of ufing it. In the café of immenfion, the time of ftay-
ing fhould in general not exceed a minute or two, where the
degree of cold is below 603 but in the fummer and autum-
nal feafons, immerfion in rivers, and efpecially in the fea,
may be continued as long as is plesfant to the feelings of the
bathers ; provided the body is at the fame time exercifed in
{winming. Much mifchief, however, is frequently done
by ftaying in too long.

It has been commonly fuppofed, that if a perfon has made
himfcif warm with walking or any other exere:f>, he hud wait
ull he becomes cooled before he fhonid plunge into the cold
water. Dr. Curric, however, has fiewn that this is an er=
roncous idea, and that in the earlier {tages of exeresfe, before
profufe perfpiration has diffipated the heat, and fatigue
debilitated the living power, nothing is more fafe, accords
ing to his experience, than the cold bath. This is fo true,
that he has for fome years conftantly dire&ted infirm perfons
to ufe fuch a degree of exercife before immerfion as may
produce fome increafed ation of the vafcu‘ar fyttem, with
fome increafe of heat; and thus fecure a force of reaction
under the fhock, which otheiwife might not always take
place. The popular opinion, that it is fafeft to go perfectly
ccol into the water, is founded (he obferves) on erroneous
notions, and fometimes produétive of injurious confequences.
Thus, perfons heated and beginning to perfpire, often think
it neceflary to wait on the edge of the bath until they are

erfeétly cooled ; and then plunging into the water, teel a
fudden chilnefs that is alarming and dangerous. In fuch
cafes, the injury is generally imputed to going into the water
too warm, whereas in truth it arifes from going in too cold.

Befides immerfion, there are other modes of cold bathing ;
{uch as affufion, which confifts in fuddenly pouring upon the
body a fufficient quantity of cold water from buckets or
other veffels. This mode of applying cold water produces a
very corfiderable fhock, and confequent reaction. It is
this mode of cold bathing that has been reforted to with
adyantaze in the contagious fevers cf this climate, and in
the yellow fever of the Welt Indies. What is termed the
fhower-bath is only another mede of affufion.. .

As cold bathing is a remedy which is fuccefsfuliy em-
ployed for the cure of various diferders, fo is it a preferva-
tive againft others, and particularly againft febrile infec-
tion. When ufed by perfons in health, it increafes the tone
of the mufcular fibres, {trengthens the digeltive organs, and
by diminifhing the fenfibifity of the whole fyttem, end par-
ticularly of the fkin, renders the body lets fufceptible of at-
mofpheric impreffions from cold, wet, and fudden changes
of temperature; thus contributing to the produ&tion of
what is termed a robuft or athletic conftitution. A tems
perate bath (i. e. from 70° to 85°, or more) is applicable to:
the fame cafes as the cold bath, and-may be ufed in the fame
manner. It is preferable in many cafes where the flock of
the ordimary cold bath is too great.

If after going into the cold bath a perfon feels dull or
chilly, or complains of head-ach, or tightnefs acro{s the:
chelt, it is a proof that it dilagrees, and it fhould accord-
ingly be difcontinued. Tt thould further be remarked, that
this remedy is not {uited to thofe who have a tendency to
confumption, nor to fuch as are conttitutionally liable to
bowel complaints. The beft feafons of the year for cold=
bathing are the fummer and autumn.

We now proceed to the confideration of

Warm Batuine: a remedy not lefs efficacious than
the former in difeafes of an. oppolite nature; but

concerning

BAT

eoncerning the operation of which, wrong notions have
till very lately been entertained by the generality of
medical writers and medical practitioners. It has been
imagined that the warm bath relaxes (a figurative ex-
preflion) and weakens, whereas it produces a contrary
effect ; unlefs indeed the temperature be fo high, or the
time of immerfion continued fo long, as to bring on that
degree of debility which is accompanied with deliquium.
But this arifes only from an abufe of hot bathing, and is
even then the confequence of an excefs of flimulation. So
far is immertion of the body in wat<r heated to 96 from hav-
ing a lowering or weakening operation, that when duly re-
gulated it is found to raife the [pirits, to mend the pulfe and
appetite, and to refrefh and invigorate the whole frame.
Hence the benefit derived from it after great fatigue; in
old age; in atonic gout, accompanied with fliffnefs and
pallid fwellings of the joints; in paralyfis; in chlorofis; in
difeafes arifing from a certain torpor of the lymphatic and
glandular fyftem, fuch as fcrophula, leprous, and other chro-
nic eruptions, &c. In cafes of predifpcfition to phthifis, it
abates the frequency of the pulfe, and tends to retard at
leaft, if it does not wholly prevent, the pulmonary affediion.
In confequence of its foothing and agreeable impreffion upon
the furface of the body, it prcduces very beneficial effecis
in certain diforderéd itates of the alimentary canal, originat-
ing in diminifhed ation ; and it effords the be and {peedie
relief in 2 great variety of painful diforders, whether con-
need with local inflammation or not; fech as ckronie
rheumati{m, certain forms of lues venerea, nephritis, calculus
veficx, colic,-enteritis, &c.

The time of immerfion fhould be varied according to the
temperature of the water, and the ftelings of the patient.
In a bath of 96°, a perfon may remain fifteer, twenty, or
thirty minutes, or even longer; but in one of 98 or tco, it
will feldom be proper, and indeed there are few perfons that
can bear, to remain beyond ten minutes, and in the gene-
rality of cafes not fo long. Patients labouring under chro-
uic rheumatifm and palfy bear the high degrees of tempe-
rature beit, When fweating is defired (which will feldom
happen, except in cafes of local inflammation), the warm
bath fhould be ufed in an evening, and the patient fhou!d
immediately afterwards be put into a warm bed, and remain
there until late the next morning: but in ail cther cafes,
where fweating is nct required, or in which it would be
hurtful, the beft time for ufing the warm bath will be in the
forenoon, about two hours after breekfalt. In thefe cafes,
the bathers fhould not retire to bed, nor confiue themfelres
within doors, but go abort as ufual; unlefs the weather
fheuld be particularly damp or inclement. Hot bathing,
like cold bathing, is applied topically by pumping on the
Gifeafed part, as will be deferibed when we come to treat on
mineral waters. Sometimes [team is applied to the body in-
flead.of warm water.. See Vapour Baru.

“mong the works on cold and warm bathing, the follow-
ing are thofe which feem mof entitled to, notice: viz.
<< Floyer on Cold Bathing,” 1709. It fhould be remarked,
however, that this author writes without method on this
fubje@ ; that he is too indifcriminate ia his praifes of the cold
bath, and that he recommends it in fome difeafes of debility
to which warm bathing is better adapted. ‘ Macard tiber
die Natur und den Gebrauch der Bader.” Hanover, 1793.
Currie’s ‘* Medical Reports on the Effe€ts of Water, cold
and warm,” 1797. And the 6th chapter of Dr. Saun-
ders’s * Treatife on Mineral Waters,’ 1800.

Baruine a hawk or falcon, is, when being weaned from
her ramage fooleries, and alfo hired, rewarded, and tho-
rougily reclaimed, fhe is offered fome water to bathe her-

BAGE

felf in, a bafon, where fhe may ftand up to the thighs,
choofing a temperate clear day for that purpofe. By the
ufe of bathing fhe gains {trength, with a fharp appetite, and
fo grows bold.

Batuinc, among the Cophts and Ethiopians, denotes
the day of Chrift’s baptifm, reputed the 6th of January ;
when, from an opinion of an extraordinary fan@tity in the
waters on that day, they not only, by ancient cuftom, bap-
tifed their catechumens, but were re-baptifed themfelves.
The water of this day they carry home to keep; and
Chryfoftom affures us, that it had been often known ta
remain fwect and uncorrupted for two or three years!
Orat. 74.

Batuine Tub. In the Roman baths there are two kinds
of bathing-tubs; the one fixed, and the other moveable.
Among the latter, fome were contrived on purpofe to be
fufpended in the air; whereby, to the pleafure of bathing
was added that of being fwung or rocked by the motion
givento the bathing-tub. Burette,in Hitt. Acad. Infcript.
tom. i. p. 122.

BATHINUS, in Ancient Geography, aviver of Pannonia,
near which the young men of the country aflembled, laid
down their arms, and threw themfilves at the feet of the
victorious Romans. ‘5

BATHIS, Barovum, a river of Afia, in the territory of
Colchis, which ran from the ealt to the weft, and difcharged
ifelfiato the Euxine fea, 6 leagues fouth cf the mouth of
the Phafis. A

Barus, in Entomology, a {peci-s of Parixio (Pleb. rer.)
that inhabits Surinam. ‘The wings are two-tailed, with a
black ocellar fpot : beneath brown, fafciated with white:
anal angle rufous. Vabricius. :

BATHMONSTER, in Geography, a town of Hungary,
feparated by the Danube from BaTua. ;

BATHOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in Arcadia, near the nver Alpheus, according to
Pavfanias; who adds, that they celcbrated every third year

the myfleries of the greater goddcffes in thisyplace. =
BATHRACUS, a port of Africa, in Marmarica. Pto-
lemy. , :

BATHRITITES, the name of a nome of Egypt,
whence, according to Eufebius, king Vaphres fent. fuccour
to king Solomon. J ;

BATHRUM, a name given by ancient ferreons to a

kind of flool or bench proper for the redudiion ef diflocated
hones. This 3s called 228eor ‘Inroxpaluoy, or the Hippocratie

ol. Its defcription and ufe are reprefented at Jarge by
Schulterus, Arm. Chir. p. i.

BATHURST, Rateu, in Biography, born et How-
thorpe, a {mail hamlet belonging to the parifh of Thedding-
worth in Northamptonfhire, in the year 1620, received the
rudiments of his education at the frce-fchoo! in the city of
Coventry ; where his progrefs in the Latin end Greek lan-
guages was fo rapid and extenfive. that ne was fent to Ox-
iord, and entered in Gloucefter Hall (now Worce!er Col-
lege), OGober the roth, 1634, being then only fourteen
years of age. He was however foon removed to Tinity
College, where his father had been educated, and of whi
two of his brothers, George and Edward, were then mem-
bers. Proceeding in his itudies, he was eleéted icholar of
the college, June 5th, 1637. In January following he took
his degree of Bachelor of Arts; and in the year 1640, he
was appointed Fellow of the College. In 1641, he pro-
ceeded Matter of Arts; and in 1644, wes ordained pri fEby _
the bifhop of Oxford; his inclination, his biographer fays, -
difpofing him to theological fludies. Finding. however, from
the troubles that then aud for many years after afl @-d the
: country

BAT

eountry, little profpect of advancing himfelf in that line, he
applied to the fludy of medicine, which, in a letter toa friend
fome years after, he called ‘* his refuge in bad times, and
not his primitive defign.’? But as his mind was vigorous, he
foon acquired confiderable eminence in this profeffion ; being
affifted in his endeavours by Dr. Thomas Willis, with whom
“he kept up an intimate connection until death deprived him
of that valuable friend. In 1654, he took the accumulated
degrees of Bachelor and Doétur in Medicine; but he had
before fo far fignalized himlelf, as to obtain the appointment
of phylician to the fick and wounded of the navy, which
office he performed to the fatisfaction of the commanders of
the fhips, and of the admiralty. Quitting this fituation, he
returned and fettled in Oxford; and, with his friend Dr.
Willis, attended Abingdon market regularly every Mon-
day, to give advice to {uch patients 2s applied. He was an
affociate with Mr. Boyle, Dr. Seth Ward, Chriflopher
Wren, and various other perfons, who met every week at
the rooms of Dr. Wilkins, to difeufs philofophical fubjeéts ;
which meetings led to the formation of the Royal Society
in London, in 1662. A committee or branch of the fociety
continued their mectings at Oxford for feveral years after,
of which Dr. Bathurft was elected prefident in 1685. On
the reftoration of king Charles the Second, he quitted the

ractice of medicine, and ref{umed his theological ftudies.
Ph 1663, he was made chaplain to the king; and the year
following, prefident of the college, which was nearly re-
built under his direGtion. The expence of the building was
furnifhed in part by the college, part by fubfcriptions foli-
cited by the door, and no fisall portion of it from his
own fortune. About the fame time he married the widow
of Dr. John Palmer, warden of All Souls College ; but had
no children by her. In 1670, he was inftalled dean of
Wells. This advancement was procured him by the duke
of Devonfhire, to whofe natice he had recommended him-
felf by an elegant copy of Latin verfes to Mr. Hobbes,
on his Treatife of Human Nature, which was printed with
‘the volume. In 167% he was made chancellor of the uni-
verfity, and was re-clected to that office the two following
years, by which means he had opportunity of reforming
many abufes which had crept into the inftitution, and of
- eltablifhing many ufeful regulations which {till continue to
be obferved. As he had contributed largely in rebuilding
‘and beautifying his own college, and was the firft in intro-
ducing Grecian archite€ture in Oxtord, he now fet about
reftoring St. Mary’s church, which had fuffered much dur-
ing the proteGtorate. He fubfcribed 300]. towards paving
the choir with marble, and erecting an organ there. In
1691, he was nominated by king William and queen Mary,
bithop of Briftol, with hberty to keep his deanery and head-
fhip of the college; but had the refolution to decline this
noble offer, left 1t fhould detain him, he faid, too long from
the univerfity, and be the means of retarding the improve-
ments he was making there, both in difcipline and in the
buildings. Inthe mean while his fame for proficiency in
letters became fo extended, that he correfponded with moft
of the firft literary charaéters in the kingdom, who fre-
quently fubmitted their works to his infpeétion and criti-
cifm before they were publifhed. He was particularly in-
ftrumental in advancing Derham, the celebrated author of
the “ Aftro,”’ and ‘* Phyfico-Theology,’’ from obfcurity
and indigence ; recommending him to the bifhop of Salif-
bury, through whofe means he was raifed to an eminent
ftation in the church. As he wasa ftri&t difciplinarian, and
regularly attended his duty both in the univerfity and at
his deanery, he had little leifure for undertaking any ex-
tenfive works; accordingly, excepting his ‘ Prelectiones

Vor. lit,

BA. F

tres de Refpiratione,’”? we have only his “¢ Orations”’ before
the univerlity, on his being appointed vice-chancellor, oa
laying down his office, and on a few other fubjects ; with
fome fhort poems. ‘hele however have been fufficient to
eltablifh his chara¢ter as an elegant Latin {cholar. He wag
very abftemious in his diet, and reguiar in taking exercile ;
and had the happinefs of enjoying an almoft uninterrupted
{tate of good health until he was upwards of fourfcore yeara
of age, when his fizht began to fail, and at length he be-
came blind. Walking one day in his garden, the only
amulement that remained to him after the failure of his fight,
he had the misfortune to break his thigh bone, by what ac«
cident itis not faid; which occafioned him exceffive torture,
and after languifhing a few days, he diedin 1704. His pro=
perty, which was confiderable, he had directed by his will
to be difpofed of in the manner he had expended a large part
of his income in his lifetime; in donations towards improving
his college ; in books and medals to different libraries; in do-
nations to the cathedral at Weils, and to the fervants of the
cathedral and of his own college. The remainder was left
among his relations, who were numerous. His direétions
concerning his funeral, as being fingular, and marking fome-
what the difpofition of the man, we fhall tranferibe.—* Con-
cerning the place and mayner of my funeral (he fays) I am
not at all folicitous, but {hall leave it to the difcretion of my
executor ; except it fhall pleafe God to give me leifure and
opportunity of ordering it at the time of my death, as occa-
fion may then require: only I fhall always defire, thar it
may be performed with all convenient frugality and privacy ;
and that my mouth and noftrils may be firmly clofed up
with a plaiter of diachylon, and my whole head wrapped in
cere-cloth ; and that I be buricd without any cover to my
coffin, only with a black pall of woollen ftuff loofely nailed
on, and hanging loofe down.’ See Life of Ralph Bathurft,

by T. Warton. ;
Baruurst, Avuen, earl Bathurft, 2 nobleman not more
dittinguifhed by the elevation of his rank, than by his abilities
and integrity as a ftatefman, and by the elegance of his tafte
and the variety of his accomplifhments asa polite fcholar, was
the fon of fir Benjamin Bathurit, defcended from an ancient
family of Luneburg, refiding at a place called * Batters ;’?
and fettled in England in the time of the Saxons, at a place
called ** Batters Hurlt,’’ cr Batters Grove, in Suffex, whence
the name; and born in Weltminiter, in the year 1684. At
the age of 15 years, he was entered in Trinity College, Ox-
ford, where he enjoyed peculiar advantages for improve-
ment under his uncle, dean Bathurft, who was then pre-
fident. Having availed himfelf in an eminent degree of thefe
advantages, he commenced his political career asa fenator
in 1705, being chofen reprefentative for the borough of Ci-
rencefter in Glocefterfhire, which he ferved in two parlia-
ments. Under this charaéter he diltinguifhed himfelf in the
debates that related to the union of the two kingdoms, and
vigoroufly fupported this meafure. He likewife concurred
in the oppoSition planned by his two friends, Mr. Harley and
Mr. St. John, againft the duke of Marlborough and his ad-
herents ; and by his fpirit and eloquence he was of great fer-
vice to his party. At the fame time he was duly fenfible
of the’ merit of thofe from whom he differed in political
principles ; and by his conduét toward lord Somers, both in
and out of office, he preferved his lordfhip’s efteem and
friendfhip. In his oppofition to the whig miniftry, he ap-
pears to have acted from the conviction of his own mind ;
for after their difmiflion, he accepted no place under go-
vernment, though his abilities and aétivity entitled him to
notice, and his connection with the principal tories of that
period might naturally have Jed him to expeét fome honour-
5 able

J

BAT

able and lucrative preferment. However, his merit was re-
compenfed in 1711, by advancemen: to the dignity of a peer
of Great Britain, under the title of lord Bathurit, baron Ba-
thurit of Battlefden in the county of Bedford. Upon the
acceffion of king George [. the political friends of his lord-
fhip were in difgrace, and fome of them were actually ex-
poled to the profecution of government ; and yet his attach-
ment to them remained firm and unchangeable. He even
avowed his difapprobation of the treatment they fuffered,
which he confidered as fevere and vindidtive ; and on this
- occafion he is faid to have obferved, in trong and poignant
terms, “ that the king of a faction was only the fovereign
of balf his fubjets.”” His zeal in defence of his friends
was manifelted by his joining in the protefls againft the at-
tainder of lord Bolingbroke and the duke of Ormond; and
by his oppofing the profecution, and concurring in the una-
nimous acquittal, of lord Oxford. In 1716, he oppofed the
feptennial bill; and united with thirty peers in entering his
seafons for diflenting from it, as a violation of the conftitu-
tion. From the commencement of the year 1718, he took
an ative and diftinguifhed part, for the {pace of twenty-five
years, in every matter of importance that came before the
upper houfe of parliament, and he fteadily oppofed the mea-
fures of the court, and the adminiftration of fir Robert
Walpole. Lord Bathurft was a zealous advocate for bifhop
Atterbury ; and diftinguifhed himfelf, in 1723, on the third
reading of the bill for infliGing pains and penalties on that
ingenious and celebrated prelate. In 1727, he opened the
debate on the king’s fpeech, and ftrenuoufly oppofed a war
with Spain, which then threatened the country. ‘* What
(faid he) can we get by the war, if it be a fuccefsful one?
Vl fay itin one word, nothing. What can we lofe, if it be
unprofperous? ll fay it in one word, ina fyllable, all.”
In the year 1731, he fupported the bill againit permitting
penfioners to fit in the houfe of commons; he moved an
addrefs to the king for difcharging the 12,000 Heffian troops
in the pay of Great Britain; and in the next parliament,
he very ably refifted the undue taxation of the poor, on the
bill for the revival of the falt-duty. On another occafion
he difplayed his parliamentary talents, by the fupport of the
earl of Oxford’s motion for reducing the number of forces
to 12,000 effeGtive men, and vindicated the expedience and
ufefulnefs of a national militia, as the moft proper and con-
ftitutional mode of defence in a free country. In a fubfe-
quent debate on the mutiny bill, his lordfhip declared him-
felf, with great eloquence and fpirit, againit a large fland-
ing army, and in favour of a national militia. Among other
things, he particularly urged the importance of all men in
the Eisen: or at leaft all freeholders, farmers, and fubftan-
tial merchants and tradefmen, providing themfelves with
arms, and training themfelves to military difcipline. He
likewife declared his utter difapprobation of the method
that had been adopted of alienating the finking fund, and
applying it to other objets befides the payment of the pub-
lic debts. Lord Bathurft was uniform and aétive in oppof-
ing the meafures of fir Robert Walpole’s adminiltration,
particularly with regard to the tranfaétions that regarded
the Spanifh depredations, and the convention with Spain,
and the fubfequent condu& of the war with that kingdom 5
and he exerted himfelf, with fingular ability, in the debate
that Jafted two days, on the queftion, whether an addrefs
fhould be prefented to the king for the removal of this mini-
fter from his majefty’s prefence and councils for ever.
When his lordfhip had accepted a place, in conjunétion
with fome of his friends, his reafoning, in 1743, 1n vindica-
tion of the propriety and neceflity of retaining the Hano-
verian forces in the fervice of England was fomewhat differ-

BAS

ent from the fentiments he had avowed on a former occae
fion; but he was probably Id to approve and defend this
meafure by the critical fituation of our foreign affairs, and
argued in its favour from a conviétion of its prudence and
reGtitude. Whatever opinions may be entertained of lord
Bathurft’s political principles, and of the general reafons
upon which his oppofition to the whig miniftry was found-
ed, the hiftory of that period will furnifh {carcely any cha-
racter, in which we may difcover le{s difcrepancy of con-
dv@ than jn that of his lordfip. We fhiail clofe this brief
recital of his political hiflory with the teftimony of an ano-
nymous writer, who delivered it at a time in which his tae
lents were in their full exertion and difplay. ‘* Lord Ba-
thurft, in all he fays, carries along with h'm that conviGion
which arifes from a warm fenfe of liberty and virtue, dire&-
ed by great abilities and a moft exquilite difcernment. He
was called to the houfe of lords by means of the Tory inte-
reft, upon a particular exigence of ftate; and therefore it
might have been prefumed, that he was entirely devoted to
that party. Yet he has chofen his principles of government
fo happily from what is commendable in both parties, that,
upon whichfoever fide he fpeaks, he is always obferved to
lean to the extremes of neither.”” Gent. Mag. vol. x.
p- 103.
Lord Bathurft was married, in 1704, to Catherine, daugh-
ter and heirefs of fir Peter Apfley, by whom he had four
fons and five daughters. Having refigned, in 1744, the of-
fice of captain of his majefty’s band of gentlemen penfioners,
to which he was appointed in 1742, his lordfhip was in no
public employment till the year 1757, when he was ap-
pointed treafurer to the prefent king, then prince of Wales,
in which office he continued till the death of George II.
At his majefty’s acceffion in 1760, he declined the accept-
ance of any employment on account of his age; but in con-
fideration of his diftinguifhed merit, he had a penfion on the
Irifh eftablifhment of 2000]. a year. ** As his lordfhip’s abi-
lities and integrity,” fays an impartial and candid biograe
pher, “in public life, gained him the efteem even of his
political opponents, fo in private life, his humanity and bes
nevolence excited the affe€tion of all who were honoured
with his more intimate acquaintance.’’—‘ To his other
virtues lord Bathurft added all the good-breeding, polite-
nefs and elegance of focial intercourfe. No perfon of rank,
perhaps, ever knew better how to unite ‘ Otium cum digs
nitate.’”? The improvements he made round his feat at Ci-
rencefter were worthy of his fortune, and fhewed the gran-
deur of his tafte.”? In this refpe€&t Mr. Pope (Works,
vol. ii, p. 170. ed. 1776.) paid him a juf{ and fine com-
pliment :
«« Who then fhall grace, or who improve the foil ?
Who plants like Bathurft, or who builds like Boyle?”
The fame excellent poet, in his epiftle to Lord Bathurft on
the ufe of riches, has no lefs juitly exprefled his lordfhip’s
knowledge of the mght mode of employing a large for-
tune: :
“ The fenfe to value riches, with the art
T’ enjoy them, and the virtue to impart, ~
Not meanly, nor ambitioufly purfued,
Not funk by floth, not raifed by fervitude;
To balance fortune by a jult expence,
Join with economy, magnificence ;
With fplendour, charity ; with plenty, health;
Oh teach us, Bathurft, yet unfpoil’d by wealth 3
That fecret rare, between the extremes to move,
Of mad good-nature, or of mean felf-love.””
His lordfhip’s wit, tafte, and learning led him to feek the
acquaintance of men of genius; and he was intimately con-

nedied

BA /T

nefted with the eminent perfons of this charaéter who
adorned the beginning of the laft century. From the few
letters of his lord{hip that have been publifhed, it appears,
that his correfpondence was a real honour and pleafure to
thofe who enjoyed it. ‘To the clofe of his life he preferved
his natural chearfulnefs and vivacity ; and he was always ac-
ceflible, hofpitable, and bereticent. He was fond of rural
amufements; and enjoyed, with a philofophical calmnefs,
the thade of the trees which he had planted. Tull within a
month of his death, he conftantly rode out two hours in
the morning, and drank his bottle after dinner, jocofely ob-
ferving, that he never could think of adopting Dr. Cado-
gan’s regimen, as Dr. Cheyne had afflured him fifty years
before, that he would not live feven years longer, unlefs he
abridged himfelf of his wine. About two years before his
death, he hada party of friends; and being loth to part
with them at an early hour in the evening, when his fon,
the chancellor, wifhed to retire, he faid to his companions
in a {prightly manner, as foon as his fon was gone, ‘* Come,
my good friends, fince the old gentleman is gone to bed, I
* think we may venture to crack another bottle.” In 1772,
his lord{hip was advanced to the dignity of earl; and having
lived to fee his e!deft furviving fon feveral years lord high
chancellor of Great Britain, aad promoted to a peerage by
the title of baron Apfley, he died in the gtit year of his
aze, after a few days’ i'Inefs.at his feat near Cirencetter,
on the 16th of September, in the year 1775. Biog.
Brit.

BATHUS, in Entomology, a {peciesof Paritio ¢ Pied.
Rur.), with entire black wings, gloffed with blue ; be-
neath white, with numerous black dots, and a continued
fulvous band. Fabricius. Inhabits Anttria. This is Pa-
pilio Battus of Schmetterl, and Papilio Telephit of Efper.

BATHYCHRUS Cotor, in Paintiag; aterm ufed by
the Greeks to exprefs what the Romans call auflerus color.
Such a colour was coarfe and dull, and wanted the life of
the florid colours. See Evanrut Colores.

BATHYCOLPUS, in Ancient Geography, a bay and
river of Europe, in the Thracian Bofphorus. Hefychius.

BATHYLLUS, and Prtapes, in Biography, the in-
ventors of a new method of reprefenting all kinds of thea-
trical pieces by dancing. Bathyllus was a freedman of
Meecenas, the objeét of his extravagant and licentious at-
tachment; and in compliance with the wifhes of Mecenas,
Auguflus countenanced thefe players and their art. Bathy)-
lus exceiled as atcomic, and Pylades as a tragic pantomime,
They fourifhed under Avguitus, about the year B. C. 18,
From thefe two competitors for public fame in the refpective
departments of their art iprung two feéts, each of which
retained the name and preferved the manner and character
of its mafter. The difciples of Bathyllus were called Ba-
thylli, and thofe of Pyiades were denominated Pylade. The
Romans divided them{clves into parties on account of thefe
two pantomimes ; and the intereft of Bathyllus’s was at one
time fo prevalent as to procure the-banifhment of Pylades.
Upon his retura Auguttus recommended his behaving better
for the future, and not attempting to divide the people into
parties orfattions. Pylades replied, ‘¢ Czar, it 1s of fervice
to youto have the people bufied about Bathyllus and me.”
Gen. Did: Crev: Biko voli: p. 122.

BaTreyLivs, in Anetent Geography, a fountain of Arca-
dia, in the Peloponnefus, near Megalopolis. Paufanias.

BATHYMI, z people of Arabia Felix. Ptolemy.

BATHYS, a river of Phrygia Salutaris, which flowed
in the north of th's province, along the plain of the city
Dorylaum, and cifcharged itfclfinto the river Sangaris,

BAT

Baruys, Fume Tayhuro, a river of Sicily, which ran
into the gulf of Caftel a Mare. .

Baruys, the name of a port of Ethiopia. Ptolemy.

BATI, a people of India, on the other fide of the Gan«
ges. Ptolemy.

3A'TLA, a town of Italy, in the territory of the Sa-
bines.

Barta, a diftri&t of Attica, belonging to the tribe of
fi zides.

BATIAZ, a town of Epirus.

BATIANA, Baix, a town of Gaul, on the right fide
of the Rhine, according to M. d’Aaville.

BATIANI, a people of Italy, placed by Ptolemy in
Liguria.

BATILLUS, a mufical inftrument made of metal, in
the form of a ftaff, furnifhed with metalline rings, which
being ftruck, yielded a kind of harmonica! founds ; ufed
by the Armenians in their church-fervice.

BATINA, in Ancient Geography, a town: of Afia, in
Media. Ptolemy.

BATINUS, atown of Italy, in Picentinum.

BATIS, in Botany, Bxs, the name of an herb which
bears {ome refemblance to bramble, Bos, Pliny. Lin. gen.
n. 1104. Rech. 1208. Schreb. 1503. Brown"356. Jacq.
Amer. 260. Jufl. 443. Clafs and order, diecia triandria.
Gen. Char, * Male. Cal. ament pyramidal; fcales one-
flowered, fourfold, imbricate. Cor. none. Stam. filaments
four, ereét, longer than the feales of the ament; anthers
oblong, twin, incumbent. * Female, ona feparate plant.
Ca/. ament common flefhy, containing fome flofcules con«
globated into an ovate, quadrangular body ; involucre, two-
leaved. Cor. none. Piff, germ quadrangular, faltened to
the ament; ftyle none; itigma two-lobed, obtufe, villofe.
Per. berry conjoined with the reft, one-celled. Seeds, four,
triangular, acuminate.

Eff. Char. Male. Ament four-fold, imbricate. Ca/. and
Cor. none. Female. Ament ovate; involucre two-leaved.
Cal. and Cor.none. Stigma two-lobed, {eflile ; berries con-
joined, fou:-feeced.

Species, 1. B. maratima. Sloan. Jam. 1. 144. Kali. This
isa fhrub about four feet high ; ftems brittle, round, ath-
coloured, branched, diffufed, procumbent; young branches,
four-cornered, four-furrowed, green, oppolite and upright;
leaves oblong, acute, drawing to a point towards the bafe,
ficfhy, fucculent; flat above, convex beneath, feflile, oppo-
fite, fcarcely an inch long, numerous ; ftigma white; fruics
ycllow or greenifh-yellow. ‘The whole plant is very falt to
the tafte ; ard is burnt for barilla at Carthagena, &c. A
native of the Caribbee iflands and the neizhbouring conti-
nent; very common in ali the falt marfhes on the fouth
fide of Jamaica. Linnaus doubts whether it be diltinet
from the Jucephalon of Plumier. Martyn’s Miller’s Dic.

Batis, in Entomology, a fpecies of Puatz#wa, found in
England and fome other parts of Europe. The interior
wings are brown, with five rofe-coloured fpots on cach;
polterior ones whitifh. This isa rare and elegant infeét,
and is called by colleétors of Englifh infe€ts the peach-blofe
fom moth. Linn. Donov. Brit. Inf. &e.

Baris, in /chihyolocy,, a {pecies of Raya, called in Eng-
Jand the Skate. Itis varied ; back fmo th in the middle,
with a fingle row of {pines on the tail. Linnzus.

This is the largeft fifth of the Ray tribe; it inhabits all
the northern parts of Europe in immenfe quaatities, though
it is certainly lefs common than the thornback, with which
it is fometimes confounded. The ufual fize is from two to
three feet in length, or rather more, including the tail ; and
they have been taken of the weight of an hundred and fifty

5K2 or

BsANT

or two hundred pounds. They couple in March and April,
aud {pawn in May. The flefh of the fkate is thought
better than that of the other Rays.

BATISTANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Spain,
who inhabited the northern part of Betica.

BATISTE, in Commerce, a fine white kind of linen
cloth, manufa&tured in Flanders and Picardy.

There are three kinds of batifte: the firlt very thin; the
fecond lefs thin; and the third munch thicker, called Heol-
Jand batifte, 2s coming very n-ar the soodnefs of Hollands.
The chief ufe of batilte is for neck-clorhs, head-cloths,
furplices, &e.

BATMAN. a weight in Turkey, ceniifting of fix okes.
Forty of thefe batmans make a camel’s load, and emount to
abont feven hundred and twenty pounds Englifh weight.

Batman, or battament, is of a weight ufed in Turkey and
Perfia. The Turkith batman is of two kinds; che larger
containing fix okes, or ocguos; at three pounds three quar-
ters Paris weizht the ocguo ; fo that the batman amounts to
abont twenty-two Pans pounds and an half; the fmaller,
compofed hkewife of fix ocquos, at fifteen ounces the ocquo,
amornting to five pourds ten ounces. “Phe Perfian batman
is hkewife of two kinds: one called the hing’s cveighi. bet-
nan de chebi, or cheray: vfed for weizhing molt of tne necel-
daries of life, equivalent to about twelve pounds and a half
Paris weight ; the other called Zaiman of Tauris, equal to
fix pounds four ounces Paris or Amtlterdam weight. Tnefe,
at lealt, are the proportions given by ‘Vavernier. Chardin
rates the Perfian batmans fomewhat lower, viz. the former
at twelve pounds twelve ounces; and the latter at five
pounds fourteen ounces.

BATMANSON, Joun, in Biography, prior of the Car-
thufian menattery, or Charter-houfe, in Loudon, in the 16th
century. He ftadied at Oxford ; and being a great favour-
ite of Edward Lee, archbifhop of York, wrote at his re-
queft againft Erafmus and Luther. He died im 1531, and
was buried in the Charter-hovfe. Bale reprefents him as
proud, arrogant, acd fond of wrangling ; and fays, that
Erafmus ftyles him an ignorant fellow, and vain-glorious
even to madnefs. Pits, on the other hand, commends his
genius, learning, picty, and zeal; his acquaintance with
the feriptures, and his highly exemplary hfe. His works
are * Animadverlions in Annotationes Erz{mi in N. T.”
«A Freatife againlt fome of Luther’s wnitings ;” both
thefe he afterwards retra@ed: ‘Comment. in Proverb. So-
lomonis,”—“ in Cantica Canticoium ;’° “ De Unica Mag-
dalera ;?? “ Inititutiones Noviciorum ;”’ ** De Contemptu
Mundi 3”? «* De Chrifto duodenni,” ahemily on Luke i.
42; and “ Onthe words AZifus eff, &e.” Biog. Brit.
Gen. Di&. :

BATNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mefopota-
mia, in Ofdroene. Ammianus Marcellinus calls it Batne
and Batnz, and fays, that it wasa municipal city of Anthe-
mufia, of great trade, built by the Macedonians, at a {mall
dittance from the Euphrates. The emperor Juttinian made
ita place of defence by encompaffiag it with walls. Pro-
copius calls it 2 {mall and obfeure town, and fays, that it
was about a day’s journey diftant from Edeffa. It lay fouth
of Edeffa, and eatt of Zeugma. It was reduced by Tra-

jan, who took it from Chofroes, king of the Parthians.

Batxx was alfo a {mall town of Syria, fituate between
Berea and Hicrapoiis, pleafantly feated in a grove of cy~
preifes, about twenty miles from the latter city. When
Julian vifited thistown, A. D. 363, the folemn rites of fa-
crifice were decently prepared by the inhabitants, who feem-
ed attached to the worlhip of their tutelary deities, Apollo
and Jupiter.

5

BAT

BATNIR, or Barinpa, in Geography, a town of Hin
doftan, in the county of Moultan, ina diltri& famous for
paftures and fine horfes. "Timur marched from Adjodin, a
town included in one of the large iflands formed by the
branches of the Setlege, to Batnir, the diftance of Goceffes,
50 coffes being equal to about 95 Britifh miles; and ia his
way he croffed an extenfive defert; fo that Alexander was
not mifinformed when he was told there was a defert beyond
the Hyphefis. After taking and deflroying Batnir, repre-
fented as a very ftrong place, which, however, employed
only afew days, he marched by a circuitous road to Sama-
nah, dire@ly ditant from Batnir only 72 geographical miles.
Batnir is about 159 miles, E. S. . of Moulton, and 170
N. W. of Agimere. “N. lat. 29° 15’. E. long. 74° 40%

BATO, one of the Ladrone iflands. N. lat. 12% E.
long. 142°. See Ban.

Baro, ariver of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, which
runs into the Mediterranean, 2 miles S. E. of Scalea, in
the province of Calabria Citra.

BATOA, a {mall ifland near the weft coaft of Sumatra,
feated very nearly under the equino@ial line. E. long,

go

BATOE, Jkan Batoe, Tang Aboe, &§ Ikan Pampus Cam-
bodia, nem2s given by Valent. in his work on Incizn fifhes,
to the fpecies of Cx zToDon, Specifical.y called ANNuLaRIS
by Gmetin. .

BATON, or Batoon, in Heraldry. See Baston.

Baton, or Baffon, as an inftrument of purifhment.
Bastonado :

Baton, Fr. in Mujfic, a mufical chara€er for filence,
during two bars in aila breve time, and four cff common and
triple time. It fills up two {paces of the five-hne flaff 5

See

and has a 2 or a 4 placed over it, propor-
tioned to the time of the movement.
Tasre, and Rests.

BATOONS of Sr. Paur, Bafloncini di San Paolo, in
Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome of the Italian writ-
ers, as Auguitino Scilla and others, to the lapides Fudaict,
or other {pines of echini. ‘Thefe are found in vait abune
dance in the ifland of Malta; and as every thing there is com-
memorated with fome title, with St. Paul at the end of it,
thefe are called baculi Sti Pauli, or St. Paul’s batoons.

BATOPILAH, in Geography, a town of North Ame
rica, in the province of New Navarre, 120 miles north of
Cinaloa.

BATOS, in Ichthyology. See Batis.

BATRACHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afiay
in Sarmatia. Prolemy.

BATRACHIAS Lapis, the frog flone, a name applied
by different writers to two very different fubftances; fome
underftanding by it lumps of common flint, which have ac-
cidently formed themfelves into this figure ; and others,
thofe pieces of amber, which contain either a whole frog,
or any part of one. ,

BATRACHITES, among Ancient Naturalifts,a kind
of gem found in Egypt, denominated from its refemblance
in colour toa frog. The word is formed from Ba‘lpezos,
rana, a frog. Fliny {peaks of three ftones under this deno-
mination ; unam rane _fimilem colore, alteram ebori (or rather,
according to Hardouin’s correétion, ebeni), tertiam rubentis
et nigro. The batrachites differed from the modern bufonites,
which does not appear to have been known to the ancients.

BATRACHOIDE, in /chthyology, a genus of fithes of
the Jucuxares kind, eftablifhed by Lacépede for two
fifhes; the one belonging to the Gadus, and the other >

the

See Breve, Times

BAT

the Blennius, genera of Linneus, viz. G, far, and B. rari-
nus. The charaéter of the batrachoides confilts in having
the head very large and greatly depreflid; opening of the
mouth very fpacious; and one or more beards fituated about
or at the underfile of the lower jaw.

BATRACHOMYOMACHIA, formed of the Greck
Belpexos frog, mus, moufe, and payin, pugna, and denoting
the battle of the frogs and the mice; the title of a burlefque
poem, ulually afcribed to Homer. The fubjeét of the
poem is the death of Piycharpax, a moufe, fon of Toxartes,
who being mounted on the back of Phyfignathus, a frog,
on a voyage to its palace, to which he had been invited,
was feized with fear when he faw himfelf in the middle of
the pond, fo that he tumbled off and was drowned. Pny-
fignathus being fufpeéted to have fhaken him off with de-
fign, the mice demanded fatisfattion, and unanimoufly de-
clared war againft the frogs. Stephens, Nunnefius, and
other modern authors, take the poem not to be Homer’s;
but feveral of the ancients feem of another opinion; and Sta-
tius, who wrote under Domitian, makes no doubt of it.
See Fabric. Bibl. Gree. lib. ii. c. 1. § 3.

BATRACHOSALIS, in Jchthyology, a name affigned
by many of the Greek writers to the filh called by Linneus
Lornivs Piscarorivs.

BATRACHUS, the name given by Klein to the Lin-
nean Lorpuius Piscarorius.—Batrachus capite, rictuqne
rane, &c. Kiein. The Jatt writer alfo defcribes the Lin-
nean Loruius VesPerTiLio, a3 BaTRacuvs capite vo.
meris inttar cornuto, &c.

Barracuus, a fpecies of Strurus, found in Afia and

Africa. The dorfal fin is fingle, and contains fixty rays;
beards of the mouth eight. Linn, Mouf. Fr.—The tail is
entire.

BATTA, or Bara, in Geography, a diichy or province
of Africa, fituate on the fouth-weit of Pango, and having
Dembo, Amulaffa, and the falt-petre mountain on the
eaft, on the fouth the marquifate of Incuffa, and the burnt
mountains, and Congo and Pemba on the welt. It is of
confiderable extent, was formerly called Anguirima or Ag-
hirimba, and was a kingdom of itfelf, till both king and
people fubmitted to the kings of Congo. ‘This country is
generally fertile, well-watered by rivers, and produces feve-
ral forts of grain. The inhabitants are more civilized than
their neighbours.

Barra, the capital of the above duchy, is diftinguifhed
in no other refpect befides the fertility of its territory,
and its being the refidence of the governors of this province.
Thefe are allowed to have a number of arquebufiers in pay,
to defend it from the incurfions of the wild Giagas, or Ja-
gas, who inhabit the diftriéts near its eaftern frontiers, be-

ond the mountains of the Sun and Saltpetre, and who
chiefly fubfilt by ravaging the adjacent territories. The
road between this capital and that of the kingdom of Congo,
called St. Salvador, has, it is faid, a great number of houfes
and hamlets on both fides.

Barra, the name of a country in Sumatra, where the
Englith have two fettlements. The inhabitants flill eat
human flefh, but reftrict themfelves to that of prifoners taken
in war, and capital offenders.

BATTABLE Grounp, denotes land lying between
England and Scotland, of which the right of poffeffion was
difputed, when they were two diftinét kingdoms.

The word imports as much as litigious, or difputable
ground, from Jattre, to beat or fight.

BATTACKS, or Barroces, a punifhment in Rouffia,
fimilar to the baftinado, or baftonado, of China, Turkey,
&c. The delinquent is ftripped naked, and made to lie on

BeAr

his belly, while two executioners beat¢him with fimall flicks,
till the judge cries cut, enough. The order to defilt is fres
quently not given till the back of the unfortunate fuflerer
has been mortally manaled. During the whipping, he is
obliged to pronounce the word ‘ Winawat,” which mcans
‘Tam guilty ;”? and at the end of the punifhment he mult
go and kifs the feet of him who direGted it, and thank hin
that he did not make it more fevere. ‘The highelt lords are
not exempted from the battoges, and teke venjeance fur it
on their unhappy vaflals. This punifhment is particula:ly
referved for the inferior orders, whom malverfation or roguery
would any where elfe drive from their employments. In

Ruffia, it is reckoned fufficient to reduce them to an inierior

employment, after the corre@ion of the battoges. Chan-

trean’s Travels in Ruffiz, vol.i p.117. See Basvonapo.

SATTAGLIA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and province of Capitanata, 3 miles
N. W. of Viette.

BATTAL, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Ara.
bia, north-ealt of Julia Cefarea.

BATTALIA, an army ranged in order of battle, or
ready for engagement.

In this fenfe, we meet with the depth of a battalla; to
march in battalia, with the baggage in the middle; te break
the battalia, &c. In the Roman battalia, the Hasraty
made the front.

BATTALION, in the A%ilitary Art, fiznifies a {ma'l
body of infantry, arranged in regular order, and initruéted
to march and to aét in concert.

There are different opinions refpecting the force of which
a battalion fhould confilt. If compofed of too great a num-
ber of men, it cannot perform its evolutions with the necef-
fary facility; if,.on the contrary, the troops are not fvffi.
ciently numerous, it is incapable of producing by its attack
any confiderable effect. The number mult thetefore be fo
regulated, as to permit the neceflary manceuvres to be exe-
cuted with premptitude and regularity; and at the fame
time to compofe a folid body, capable both of charging
with firmnefs, and of fultaining the affault of other corps to
which it may be oppofed without falling into diforder.

The number of the battalion varies according to the
ufages of belligerent nations, their arms, the manner in
which they employ thofe arms, and the order in which they
engage. Europeans formerly differed very widely on all
thefe points; but at prefent all the continental powers, the
Turks alone excepted, obferve nearly the fame difpofitions
with refpeét to the battalion, ‘The term even is adopted ia
every modern language. :

The French have fixed the number of the battalion at
about 7oo men. Some nations form them {til {tronger,.
others weaker. In the Enolifh fervice they ufua'ly coniift,
in time of war, of ten companics; forming, exclufively of
the ftaff, a total of between feven and eight hundred. When
employed on fervice, the battaliora being filled up at the
commencement of a campaign, and rarely recruited till its
clofe, are feldom or ever complete; as well from the lofs
they fuftain in different engagements, as on account of ficknefa
and other accidents infeparable from the military profeffion.

The arms of the battalion have been frequently and ma-
terially altered. In the infancy of modern tactics, one third
of the troops were furnifhed with pikes, and drawn up in
the centre; the other two thirds carrying mufquets, were
potted on the wings, to flank, proteét, and fecond, by their
fire, the onfet of the pikes. ‘lhe infantry are now univer-
fally armed with firelocks and bayonets, the ufe of the pike
being completely laid afide.

The modern method of arrangement has been decried
the

BATTALION.

the -ingenious chevalier de Folard (Traité de la Colonne,
p: 7-) as rendering the battalions too fhallow, weak, inca-
pable of fupporting each other, and expofing them to be
ealily penetrated and broken through, all which he denomi-
nates cflential faultsin ta@ics. According to him, the real
ftrength of a corps confilts in its thicknefs, or the depth of
its Alcs, and their conne@tion and clofenefs, this rendering
the flanks almolt-as rong as the front. He even lays it
down as a maxim, that every battalion arranged decply, and
with a fma.l front, will defeat another much ftronger than
itfelf difpofed according to the ufual method. In fa@, a
co:ps whofe front is widely extended, and whofe depth is
but rnall, manceuvres with more difficulty, and cannot to-
tally avoid that wavering from which the ciofe order of

Ml. Folard’s battalion or column renders it comparatively
exempt. The opinion of the Chevalier has been in a great
meafure adopted by his countrymen, though his theory has
been violently attacked by two French officers formerly in
tie fervice of the States General. They admit the fuperior
firength of the column to the modern battalion, were the
action -to be decided with pikes and fwords; but maintain
that where fire-arms are ufed, M. Folard’s-column is but ill
calculated for the purpofe, and muft be infaliibly deflroyed.
The late campaigns in Italy furnifh the beft commentary
upon thef- feparate fyflems.

Battracion, Square, is a battalion the files of which are
equal to the ranks, and whofe fides form an equal front.
"There are two kinds, the folid, and the hollow: in the for-
mer, the ordinary intervals between the ranks and files are
the only ones preferved; in the latter, a vacant {pace is left
in the centre, of pretty confiderable extent, according to
the ground occupied by the battalion. We fhall prefently
give fome account of the evolutions neceflary in forming
both kinds of the fquare.

The /olid {quare, however ingenious in its formation, and
refpe€table in its appearance on a field of exercife, is of very
little utility in aétval fervice. In the firft place, it fuffers
prodigioufly from the fire of the enemy, efpecialiy if artil-
lery is brought to be8r upon it; in the fecond, it is next to
impoffible for the troops in the centre of the battalion to
employ their own fire effc€tually. M]. de Folard, in his
treatife de la Colonne, expofes much at large the defects
both of the folid and the hollow fquare. He indire&ly,
however, recommends their ufe; his own column being no-
thing more than two or three battalions drawn up according
to the rules of the folid fquare, and placed without any in-
tervals in the rear of each other. Regarding, however, the
folid {quare as entirely diftin& from the column, of which
we fhali fpeak more at large in its proper place, we fhall
here conclude by obferving that the only cafe in which it
f{eems capzble of affording any real fervice is when oppoled
to an enemy whofe forces conlift entirely of cavalry.

The hollow {quare, which claims for its inventor the ce-
Iebrated prince Maurice of Naflau, is much lefs unwieldy
in its movements, fooner formed, and more eafily reduced,
than the folid. Its fire too is more regular, better dire&ted,
and does much greater execution. It however participates
in a great meafure of all the difadvantages of the folid
f{quare, and its ufe can only be recommended in cafes of the
lait extremity, or, as above, when oppofed to cavalry. ~

Barravion, Triangular, isa body of troops difpofed ina
triangle, whofe ranks, augmenting equally, form an arithme-
tical progreflion, Many fkilful officers haye preferred it to
the {quare, from its prefenting a greater front, and being
able to make head on all fides. The difficulty is to enure
foldiers to march in this order; and we may conclude the
triangular only preferable to the fquare battalion in clofe

action, when it is neceflary to preferve an extended front, or
when the nature of the ground requires fuch a difpofition.

Batration, Round, is that in which the ranks form a
number of concentric circles. The Romans made frequent
ufe of this manauvre in cafes of emergency, aud were very
perfe@ in its execution. Czfar’s commentaries furnith feve-
ral examples, efpecially on occalion of the defeat of Sabinus
and Cotta by Ambiorix, where the formation ard nature of
the orb are very fatisfaétorily elucidated. (De Bell. Gall.
lib. v.) But inthe battle between Cefar and Labienus in
Africa, tranflators feem to have miftaken for the orb, a dif-
polition perfeétly different. (Hirt. de Bello Afr.)

Although recommended by M. de Puyfcgur, the round
a3 well as the triangular battalion are now generally dif-
uled.

Atacrifis like the prefent, we truft the following ac-
count of the training the recruit for fervice, the order and
formation of the battalion, and the principal evolutions it is
deltined to execute, will not prove wholly unecceptable to
our readers. Care has been taken to render the narration
as little tedious as poffib'e, and as concife as may. be confilt-
ent with perfpicuity.

Drill of the Recruit without Arms.

Tt requires in the inftruétors to whom this duty is en-
trulted, and who are an{werable for its execution, an unre-
mitting perfeverance, an accurate knowledge of the fubje&t,
and a clear and concife method of conveying inftruétion,
united with a firmnefs capable of commanding perfeét atten-
tion to their diretions. They mutt allow tor weaknefs of
capacity in the recruit, be patient and not rigorous where
endeavour and good-will are not wanting, as quicknefs is
only to be acquired by much praétice. Officers and in-
ftruGiors muft be critically exa& in their own commands, as
well as in obferving the execution of what they require from
others. Without this, all labour will preve ineffeCiual, and
the propofed difcipline never be attained.

The recruit mult be taught progreflively to comprehend
one thing before he proceeds to another. In the firft cir-
cumfances of pofition, his firelock, fingers, elbows, &c. are
to be jultly difpofed by the inflruGor. When more ad-
vanced, recruits fhould not be touched, but from example
and direétions be taught to correct them{elves when admo-
nifhed. They fhould not be kept too long at any particular +
part of their exercile, fo as to fatigue or render them un-
eafy ; and marching without arms eught to be much inter=
mixed with the ufe of the fire-lock. Fife, or mufic, muit on
no account be ufed. The young foldier is to be confirmed
by habit alone in that cadence of {lep he ts afterwards to
maititain in marching to the enemy in {pite of every variety
of noife or circumftance that may tend to derange him.

Each recruit muit be trained fingly, and in {quad, as here-
after deferibed; nor until fleadied in various points of his
cuty, is he to be ailowed to join the battalion, which is fen-
fibly inconvenienced by the awkward behaviour even of one
man. On return from lorg abience, every foldier mutt be
re-drilled before he can again rejoin his company.

I. Pofition of the Soldier. The equal fquarenefs of the
fhoulders and body to the front is the firft and great princi-
ple of the pofition of a foldier, The heels muit be in a
line, and clofed; knees ftraight, without ftiffnefs; tocs a
little turned out, fo that the feet may form an angle of
about fixty degrees; the arms are to hang near the body,
but not tiff, the flat part of the hand and little finger
touching the thigh; the thumbs as far back as the feams
of the breeches; elbows and jhoulders to be kept back 5
the belly rather drawn in, and the breait advanced, but
without conftraint; the body upright, but inclining ee

ward,

BAT T’A’LT ON.

ward, fo that its weight principally bears on the fore-part of
the feet ; the head to be ereét, and turned neither to the
right nor left. The pofition in which a foldier fhould move,
determines that which he is to obferve when ftanding ftill.
No method mutt be left untried to fupple the limbs,
and banith the air of the ruftic. But that excefs of pofition
which fliffens the perfon, and tends to throw the body
backward inflead of forward, is contrary to every true
principle of movement, and mutt therefore be molt carefully
avoided,

Il. Standing at cafe.” 1. On the word Svand at Eafe,
the right foot muft be drawn back about fix inches, and
the greateit part of the weight of the body be brought to
bear on it; the left knee a little bent, the hands brought
together before the body ; but the fhoulders to be kept back
and fquare; the head to the front, and the whole attitude
without conftraint. 2. On the word Aiention, the hands
are to fall {martly down the outfide of the thighs ; the ght
heel to be brought up on a line with the left, and the proper
pofition of a foldier to be immediately refumed. After
flanding at eafe for any confiderable time in cold weather,
the men may be permitted, by command, to move their
limbs, but without quitting their ground, fo that on the
word Aftention, no one fhall have materially loft his drefling
in the line.

III. Eyes to the right, &c. On the word Eyes right,
glance the eyes to the right, with the flighteft poffible turn of
the head; Zyes /eft, turn them in the like manner to the left;
Eyes front ; the look and head are to be diretly to the front,
the habitual pofition of the foldier. Thefe motions are only
ufeful on the wheeling of divifions, or when drefling is
ordered after a halt. Particular attention muft be paid, in
the feveral turnings of the eyes, to prevent the recruit from
moving his bocy, which fhould be preferved perfectly fquare
to the front.

IV. The Facings. In going through the facings, the
left heel never quits the ground; the body mutt rather in-
cline forward, and the knees be kept ftraight. At the word,
to the right, face, firft, place the hollow of the right foot
{martly againit the left heel, keeping the fhoulder Iquare to
the front ; fecond, raife the toes, and turn to the right on
both heels. To the left, face ; firft, place the right heel againft
the hollow of thelett foot, fhoulders fquare to the front;
fecond, turn, as before, to the left on both heels. Yo the
right about, face; tirft, place the ball of the right toe againit
the left heel, fhoulders fquare to the front; fecond, raife
the toes, and turn to the night about on both heels; third,
bring the right foot fmartly back, in a line with the
left. To the left about, face; tirit, place the right heel againit
the ball of the left toot, keeping the fhoulders fquare to the
front ; fecond, turn, as before, tothe left about ; third, bring
the mght toot fmartly up, ina line with the left. The
utmott precifion muft be obferved in the facings, for if they
are not exactly executed, a corps, although previoufly
properly dreffed, will lofe their drefling on every {mall
movement of facing.

V. Pofition in Marching. —March! The foldier muft here,
as much as poffible, maintain the pofition of his body, as
dijre&ted in fe&.i. He mutt be well-balanced on his limbs.
His arms and hands without ftiffuefs, muft be kept tteady
to his fides, and not {uffered to vibrate. He mult not ftoop
forward, ftill lefs lean back. His body is to be kept fquare
to the front, and thrown rather more forward in marching
than when halted, that it may accompany the movement of
the leg and thigh, which movement muit {pring from the
haunch. The ham mutt be ftretched, but without ftiffening
the knee. The toe a little pointed, and kept foncar the

prone, that the fhoc-foles may not be vifible to a perfon in
ront. he head to be well kept up, ftrait to the front,
and the eyes not fuffered to be calt down. The feet,
without being drawn back, muft be placed flat on the
ground.

VI. Ordinary Step. he length of each pace, from heel
to heel, is 30 inches, and the recruit muft be taught to
take 75 of thefe fteps in a minute, without tottering, and
with perfeé fteadinefs. Ordinary time being the pace on all
occafions whatever, unlefs greater celerity be particularly
erdered, the recruit is to be carefully and thoroughly trained
to this molt effential part of his duty, and made perfectly to
underltand, that he is to maintain it fora long time together,
in line, in column, and in marching over rough or {mcoth
ground. ‘This is the floweft ftep which a recruit is taught,
and is aifo applied in all movements of parade.

VII. The halt. On the word, halt, let the rear foot be
brought upona line with the advanced one, fo as to finifh
the tlep which was taking when the command was given.

VU. The oblique Step. Having acquired the regular
length and cadence of the ordinary pace, the recruit is
next to be taught the oblique ftep. At the words, fo the left,
oblique—march! he will, without altering his fquarenefs of
perional pofition, when he is to ftep with his left foot, point,
and carry it forward 19 inches, in the diagonal line, to the
left, which gives about 13 inches to the fide, and nearly the
fame number to the front. On the word favo, he will brin
forward his right foot 30 inches, thus placing the heel of
that foot 13 inches direétly before the left one. Here he
will paufe, and on the word two, continue the fame mode
of marching, by advancing his left foot 30 inches, paufing
at each ftep, until confirmed in his pofition, as it is eflentially
neceflary to take the greateft care in preferving the fhoulders
{quare to the front. Combining thefe two movements, the
obliquity gained will amount to an angle of about 25 de-
grees. When the recruit is habituated to the flep, he mult
be made to continue it firmly, without paufing, and in the
cadence of the ordinary pace, viz. 75 fteps in the minute,
As all marching (the fide-ftep excepted) commences by the
left foot, whether the obliquing commences from the halt,
or on the march, the firft diagonal ftep taken, is by the
leading foot of the fide inclined to, when it comes to its turn,
after the command is pronounced. Squarenefs of perfon,
and the habitual cadenced ftep are, confequently, the great
direétions of the oblique, as well as the dire&t march.

Each reeruit fhould be feparately and carefully inftru@ed

‘in the principles of the foregoing eight {eGtions of the drill.

They form the bafis of all military movements. Three or
four recruits will now be formed in one rank, at very open
files, and inftruéted in the following manner.

IX. Dreffing when halted. Drefling is taught equally by
the left as by theright. On the word dre/s, each individual
will caft his eyes to the point to which he is ordered to
drefs, with the fmalleft turn poffible of the head, but pre-
ferving the fhoulders and body {quare to the front. The
whole perfon of the man muft move as may be neceffary,
and bending backward and forward is not permitted. He
mult take fhort, quick fteps, thereby gradually and exa@ly
to gain his pofition, and on no account be permitted to
attempt it by any fudden or violent alteration, which will
infall bly derange whatever is beyond him. The faces of
the men, not their breafts, or feet, are the line of drefling.
Each foldier is to be able juft to diflinguih the lower part of
the face of the fecond man beyond him. In dreffing, eyes
are always turned to the officer who gives the word ; who is
potted at the point by which the body halts: and who
from that point corrects his men on another, at or beyond

the

BATTALION.

the oppofite flank. Faults to be avoided, and generally
committed in dreffing, are, pefling the line; the head for-
ward, and body kept back ; fhoulders not fquare; or the
head turned too much.

Two or more men being moved forward, or backward, a
given number of paces, and placed in che new line and
dircétion, the following commands will be given: 1. dy the
right (or left) forward-drefs ; 2. on the right(or left) back ward-
drefs. The drefling once accomplifhed, eyes front will be
given, that heads may be replaced, and remain {quare to the
front. No rank, or body, ever fhould be dreiled, without
the officer on its flank determining a line on which to form
it, and for that purpofe taking as his object the ditant flank
man, or a point beyond him, ora man purpofely thrown out.

Drefling mutt then be made gradually, and progredlively,

from the fixed point, towards the diltant flank one; and
each man fucceflively, but quickly, muft be brought up into
the true line, foas to become a new point, from whence the
inftruGor procceds in the correétion of the others; and
himfelf, while thus occupicd, mult take care, that his perfon,
at leatt his eyes, be in the true line, which he is then
giving.

X. Stepping out. The {quad marches, as already direéted,
in ordinary time. On the word, /lep out, the recruit mult be
taught to lengthen his ftep to 33 inches, by leaning forward
a little, but without altering the cadence. ‘The ftep is
neceflary, when a temporary exertion in line, and to the
front, is required; or wher the rear divifions of a column are
to move up in line with the leading ones, and is applied
both to ordinary and quick time.

XI. Mark time. On this word, the foot then advancing
completes its pace. The cadence is then continued, without
gaining any ground, but alternately throwing out the foot,
and bringing itback {quare with the other. At the word,
ordinary time, or forward, the ufual pace of 30 inches will
be taken. This {tepis necefflary marching in line, when any
particular battalion is advanced, and has to wait for the
coming up of ethers.

XII. Stepping hort. On the word, /fep /hort, the foot
advanced will finifh its pace, and afterwards each recruit
will ftep as far asthe bail of his toe, and no farther, until the
word, forcvard, be given, when theufual pace is to be taken,
This ftep is ufefel when a momentary retardment either of a
battalion in line, or of a divilion in column, is required.

XIIL. - Changing the Feet. To perform this in marching,
the advancing foot completes its pace, and the ball of the
other is brought up quickly to the heel of the advanced one,
which in{tantly makes a ftep forward, fo that the cadence
may not be loft. This is required of an individual who may
be ftepping with a different foot from the reft of his divifion;
in doing which, he will, in faét, take two fucceflive fteps
with the fame foot.

XIV. Side, or clofing Step. his is performed from the
halt in ordinary time, at. the following command; Clofe to
your right, or left (a caution)—March! On the latter word,
eyes are turned to the right, and each man carries his right
foot about £2 inches directly to his right; or, if the files are
clofed, to his neighbour’s left foot, and initantly brings up
his left foot, till the heel toucheshis right heel; he then
paufes, fo as to perform this movement in ordinary time, and
proceed to take the next ftep in the fame manner: the whole
with perfect precifion of time, fhoulders kept fquare, knees
not bent, and the true line on which the body is formed.
At the word 4a/t, the whole halt, turn their eyes to the
front, and are perfectly fteady.

_ XV. Back Step. This is performed in the ordinary time
and length of pace, from the halt, on the command /lep back

-—March ! The recruit muft be taught to move ftrsight
to the rear, preferving his fhoulders {quare to the front, and
his body ereét. On the word Aa/t, the foot in front mutt
be brought back fquare with the other. A few paces only
of the back ttep can be neceflary at a time.

XVI. Quick Step. The cadence ef the ordinary ftep
having become perfectly habitual to the recruits, they are
now to be taught to march the quick time, which is 108
fteps inthe minute, each of thirty inches, making 270 feet in
aiminute. The word of command, Quick—March!is given
with a paule between them. The word Quick, is to be con-
fidered’ as a caution, and the whole to remain perfe@ly {till
and fteady. On the word JZarch! the recruits ftep off with
the left foot, keeping the body in the fame pofture, and the
fhoulders fquare to the front. The foot to be lifted from
the ground, that it may clear any floncs, or other impedi-
ments in the way, and to be thrown forward, and placed
firm. The whole of the fole to tovch the ground, and not
the heel alone. The knees are not to be bent, neither are
they to be ftiffened, fo as to occafion fatigue or conftraint.
The arms to hang with eafe along the cutfide of the thigh ;
a {mall motion to prevent reltraint may be permitted, but not
to {wing out, and thereby occafion the leaft turn, or move-
mertof the fhoulder. ‘The head is to be kept to the front;
the body well up, and the utmoft fteadinefs to be preferved.
This is the pace to be ufed in all filings of divifions from
line into column, or from column into line; and by battalion
columns of mancenvre, when independently changing pofi-
tion. It may occationally be ufed in the column of march
of {mall bodies, when the route is {mooth, and no obftacles
occur; but inthe march in line of a confiderable body it
cannot prudently be required, nor often in a column of ma-
neeuvres. Fatigue will otherwife arife to the foldier, and
more time be loftin hurry and inaccuracy than is attempted
to be gained by quicknefs.

N.B. The word arch given fingly, at all times denotes
that ordinary time is tobe obferved. When the quick march
is meant, that word will precede the other. The word
March marks the commencement of movements from the
halt; but is not given when the corps is in previous
motion.

XVII. Quickef Siep. The quickeit time, or wheeling
march, is 120 Reps of 30 inches each, or 300 feet, in the
minute. The direétions already given for the march in quick
time are equally applicable to the march in quickeft time.
This is adapted chiefly to the purpofe of wheeling, and is
the rate at which all bodies accomplifh their wheels; the
outward file: ftepping 33 inches, whether the movement is
from line into columr, into columniduring the march, or
from column into line. In this time alfo divifions fhould
double and move up, when pafling obftacles in line, or when
in column of march it becomes neceflary to increafe or di-
minifh the front.

Three or four recruits in rank, with intervals of twelve
inches between them, fhould be praétifed in the various fteps,
that they may acquire the firmnefs and independence of
movement. Many different times of march would only
perplex the foldier: the three already mentioned muft
{uffice. Plummets, which vibrate the required times of
march in a minute, are of great utility, and can alone prevent
or corre€&t uncertainty of movement. They mutt be in the
pofleffion of, and occafionally referred to, by each inftructor
of a fquad. The feveral lengths of plummets {winging the
times of the different marches in a minute, are as follows;

Ordinary time, 75 fteps in a minute, 24 inch. 96 hund,

Quick do. 108 do, - 12 3
Quickeft do. 120 do. - 9 80

A mubket

BATTALION.

A mufleet ball, fufpended by a flring which is not fubject
to ftretch, and on which are marked the different required
lengths, will anfwer the above purpofe, and fhould be fre-
quently compared with an accurate ftandard. Accurate di-
ftances of {teps may alfo be marked out on the ground
along which the foldier is prattifed to march, and thereby
accuitom him to the juft length of each.

Six or eight recruits will now be formed in a rank, at
clofe files, having a fteady well-drilled foldier on their flank
to lead ; and file marching may be taught them.

XVIII. File Marching. "The recruits mult firft face,
and then be inftre@ed to cover each other exaétly in file,
fo that the head of the man immediately before may con-
ceal the heads of all the others in bis front. The ftri@teft
obfervance of all the rules for marching is particularly necef-
fary in marching by files, which is tirft to be taught at the or-
dinary, and afterwardsin quick time. Onthe word March,
the whole immediately ftep off together, gaining at the very
firlt tep thirty inches, and continuing each ftep withovt in-
éreafing the d.ftince betwixt each recruit, every man lock-
fieg or placing his advanced foot on the ground, before
the fpot whence the preceding man has taken up his.
No looking down nor leaning backward is to be tolerated
on any pretence. The leader is to be dire&ted to march
ftraight forward to fome diftant obje& given him for that
purpofe, and the recruics made to cover one another during
the marci with the moft ferupulous exaétnefs. Great at-
tention maft be paid to prevent them from marching with
their knees bent, which they will at firft be extremely apt
to do, from an apprehenfion of treading down the heels of
thofe before them.

XIX. Wheeling in fingle Rank, from the Halt. At the
word to the Rizht Wheel, the man on the right of the rank

. faces to that flank; on the word JZarch, they ftep off to-
gether, the whole turning their eyes to the left (the wheeling
flank), except the left tiand man, who looks inwards, and
during the wheel, becomes a kind of bafe line for the reft
to conform to and maintain the unifermity of front. The
outward wheeling man always lengthens his ftep to thirty-
three inches. "The whole obferve the fame time ; but each
man fhortens his ftep, in proportion as he is nearer to the
ftanding flank on which the wheelis made. During the
wheel, the whole remain clofed to the flanding flank, i. e.
they touch without incommoding their neighbour; nor
mult they ftoop forward, but remain upright. Opening
ont from the ftanding flank, and clofing in upon it, during the
wheel, are equaily to beavoided. Onthe word Halt—Dre/s,
each man halts immediately, without jumping forward or
making any falfe movements. When able to perform the
wheel with aceuracy in the ordinary time, the recruits
muft be next prattifed in the quickeft. Nothing fooner
tends to enable them to acquire the proper length of ftep,
accarding to their diftance from the pivot, than continuing
the wheel wi:hout halting for feveral revolutions of the circle.
| XX. Wheeling, in fingle Rank, from the March. The re-
ervits are firft taught to perform this wheeling at the ordi-
nary, afterwards in the quickeft time, the proper whecling
flep. “The rank marching to the front in ordinary time,
receives the word of command, Richt—Wheel. The man
n the right of the rank inftantly halts, and faces to his
right. The reft of the rank turning their eyes to the
wheeling flank:(as above directed), immediately change
the ftep together to wheeling time. Ass foon as the portion
of the circle intended to be wheeled, is completed, the
words Halt —Drefs willbe given, (a paufe of two or three
feconds may be made), and then March, at which the whole
rank fteps off together in ordinary time.

Vou. IIL.

XXI. Wheeling backwards, in fingle Rank. At the word
On your Right, backwards,—Wheel, the right-hand man of
the rank faces to his left. At the word March, the whole
ftep backward in wheeling time, drefling by the outward
whiceling man; thofe neareft the pivot making their fleps
extremely {mall, and thofe towards the whecling man in-
creafing them as they are placed nearer to him. ‘The re-
cruit in this wheel muft not bend forward, nor be Suffered
to look down; but by cafting his eyes to the whecling
flank, preferve the drefling of the rank. Onthe word Halt,
the whole remain perfeétly fteady, ftill looking to the wheel-
ing flank, till they receive the word Right—Drefs. ‘The
recruits fhould be firft praétifed to wheel backwards at the
ordinary ftep. At all times it will be neceffary to prevent
their hurrying the pace, an error foldiers are very fubje& to,
particularly in the backward wheel. Where large bodies
wheel from line into column, this wheeling is neceffary to
preferve the covering of pivot flanks, and the diftances of
the divifions, which the line has broken into.

XXIL. Wheeling in Jingle Rank, on a moveable Pivot. . In
performing this wheel, both flanks are moveable, and de-
feribe concentric circles round a point, which isremovedafew
paces from what would otherwife be the ftanding flank ; and
eyes are all turned towards the directing pivot man, whether
he is on the outward flank or the flank whecled to. When
the wheel is to be made to the direéting pivot flank (fup-
pofe the left), the rank marching at the ordinary pace, re-
ceives the word Right Shoulders Forward; on which the
pivot man, without altering either the time or length of his
pace, continues his march on the circumference of the
lefler circle; and tracing ovt a confiderable arch, on the
principle of dreffing, graduaily brings round his rank to
the direGtion required, without obliging the other flank,
which is defcribing the circumference of a larger circle,
to too great hurry. On the word forward, fhoulders are
fquared, and the pivot marches dire¢ily to his front.
When the direting pivot is on the outward flank, and
has to deferibe the circumference of the larger circle, on the
word Left Shoulders Forward, he will (preferving the time
and length of his pace) gradually bring round the rank to
the required direGtion, fo as to enable the inward flank to
ceferibe a fimilar arc of a leffer circle, concentric to the
one he himfelf is moving on. During both thefe wheels,
the rank dreffes to the proper pivot ; and when he deicribes
the {maller circle of the wheel, the other flank which has
more ground to go over, will quicken its march and ftep
out. When the pivot defcribes the greater circle of the
wheel, the other flank having lefs ground to go over, wilf
ftep fhorter and gradually conform. In the Srft cafe, the-
recruit muft be cautioned againit opening out from the pi-
vot; and in the latter, from crowding on him. The juft
performance of this mode of wheeling depends fo much on
the direéting pivot, that a well-drilled foldier fhould at firft
be placed on the flank named, as the proper pivot, and
changed occafionally. It is ufed when a column of march
(to follow the windings of its route) changes its direction
in general lefs than a quarter circle,

Drill of the Recruit with Arms.

I. Pofition of the Soldier. When the firelock is given, and
is fhouldered, the perfon of the foldier remains in the pofi-
tion deferibed in feGtion I. of the drill without arms, except
that the wriit of the left hand is turned out, the better to
embrace the butt; the thumb alone is to appear in front,
the four fingers to be under the butt, and the left elbow a
little bent inwards, without being feparated from the body,
or being more backward or forward than the right one.
The firelock is’ placed in the hand, not on the middle

5h of

BATT AL VON:

of the fingers, and fo carried, that it fhall not raife, ad-
vauce, or keep back, one fhoulder more than the other.
The butt muft therefore be forward, and as low as can be
permitted without reftraint ; the fore-part nearly even with
that of the thigh, and the hind-part of it prefied by the
wrilt againt the thigh. The piece mult be kept fteady and
firm before the hollow of the fhoulder. Should the firelock
be drawn back, or attempted to be carried high, in that cafe
one thou!der will be advanced, the other kept back, and the
upper part of the body diftorted, and not placed fquare with
refpe&t to the limbs. Each recruit muft be feparately
taught the pofition of fhouldered arms, and not allowed to
proceed until he has acquired it.

IL Motions of the Firelock. The following motions of the
firciock wili be taught and pra@tifed, until each recruit is
perfect in them; being neceflary for the eafe of the foldier
in the cour! of exercife. 1. Supporting arms; 2. Carrying
arms; 3. Ordering at eafed arms; 4. Standing at eale ;
5. Attention ; 6. Shouldzring; 7. Trailing arms; &. Shoul-
dering from the trail. ‘The reervit mut be accuftomed to
carry his arms for a con‘iderable time together: it is mott
effential he fhould do fo, and not be allowed to /upport them
fo often as is prattifed; under the idea that long carrying
them is a pofition of too much reflraint.

Ill. Forming the Squad. When the [quad, or divifion, of
fix or eight files, is ordered to Fadl in, each maa, with carried
arms, will, as quick as poflible, take his place in the
ranks, beginnmg from the flank to which he is ordered to
form. He will drefs himfeif in hne by the rule already
given, aflume the ordered pofition of a foldier, and ftand
perfely {till and fteady, until ordered to ftand at eafe, or
that fome other command be given him. Attention mult be
paid, that the files are correctly clofe ; that the men in the
rear ranks cover well, looking their file leaders in the middle
of the neck ; that the ranks have their proper diltance of
one pace, or 30 Inches, from each other; that all the ranks
are equally well drefled; that the men do not turn their
heads to the right or left; and that each man has the proper
unconflrained attitude of a foldier.

1V. Open Order. The recruits being formed in three ranks,
at clofe order, on the caution Rear ranks take open order, the
flank men, on the right and left of the centre and rear ranks,
ftep brifkly back, one and two paces refpetively, face to the
right, and fland covered, to mark the ground on which each
rank is to hajt, and drefs at open order: every other indi-
vidual remains ready to move. On the word March, the
dreffers front, and the centre and rear ranks fall back one
and two paccs, each drefling by the right, the initant it takes
its ground,

V. Clofe Order. Ov the word Rear ranks take clofe order,
the whole remain perfeétly fteady. At the word March,
the ranks clofe within one pace, marching one and two
paces, and then halting,

VI. The Manual Exercife. The following is the regula-
tion for performing the manual exercife, the recruit ftanding
at the poficion already defcribed, with his firelock thouldered.
The manual is not to be executed by one word, or fignal,
but each feparate word of command is to be loudly and
diftin&ly given by the officer who commands the body per-
forming it. ‘Three feconds are the time allotted between
each motion, except that of fixed bayonets, in which a longer
time mutt be given,

Order Arms. Bring the firelock to the trail in two motions;
feizing it at the firft at the lower loop, juft above the fwell;
at the fecond, bring it down to the right fide, the butt
within two inches of the ground; at the third, drop the
butt on the ground, placing the muzzle againit the

hollow of the right fhoulder, and the hand flat upon the
fling.

Lix Bayonets, At the word, fix, place the thumb of the
right hand, as quick as poffible, behind the barrel, taking a
gripe of the frelock. As foon as the word of command is
fully out, pufh the firelock a little forward, at the fame time
drawing out the bayonet with the left hand, and fixing it
with the utmof celerity. The inftant this is done, return
as quick as poffible to the order as above deferibed, and ftand
perteGly fteady.

Shoulder Arms. As foon as the word boulder is given,
take a gripe of the firelock with the right hand, as in fixing
bayonets; and at the laft word, arms, the firelock mult be
thrown with the right hand, in one motion, and with as little
appearance of effort as poflible, into its proper poition on the
left fhoulder. The hand croffes the body in fo doing; but
muft be inftantly withdrawn.

Prefent Arms. Virlt, feize the firelock with the right
hand, beneath the guard, turning the lock to the front, but
without moving it from the fhoulder; f{<cond, bring it to the
poife, feizing it with the left hand, the fingers extended along
the fling, the wrift upon the guard, and the point of the left
thumb equal in height with the eyes; third, bring down the
firclock, with a quick motion, as low as the right hand will
admit without conitraint, drawing back the right foot at the
fame inftant, fo that the hollow of it may touch the left heel.
The firelock in this pofition is to be totally fupported in the
left hand, the body to reft entirely on the left foot, both knees
to be ftraight.

Shoulder Arms. Firlt, by a turn of the wrift, bring the
firelock to its proper pofition on the fhoulder, as deferibed
above, the left hand grafping the butt; fecond, quit the
right hand, and bring it brifkly down to its place at the
fide.

Charge Bayonets. Firft, at one motion throw the firelock
from the fhoulder acrofs the body, to a low diagonal recover,
a pofition generally denominated porting arms, or preparing
for the charge, in which the lock is to be turned to the front,
and at the height of the brealt, the muzzle flanting upwards,
fo that the barrel may crofs oppofite the point of the left
fhoulder, with the butt proportionally deprefled. The right
hand grafps the {mall of the butt, and the left holds the
piece at the {well, clofe to the lower pipe, the thumbs of both
hands pointing towards the muzzle; fecond, make a half
face to the right, and bring down the firelock to nearly a
horizontal pofition, with the muzzle inclining a little up-
wards, and the right wrift refting againft the hollow of the
thigh, juft below the hip. N. B. The firft motion of the
charge is the pofition which the foldier will, either from the
fhoulder, or after firing, take, in order to advance on an
enemy whom it is intended to attack with bayonets fixed.
The word of command, for that purpofe, is; Prepare to charge.
The fecond pofition is that which the front rank takes when
arrived at a few yards diflance only from the body to be
attacked. The firft motion of the charge is alfo that which
fentries are to take, when challenging any perfons who ap-
proach their polts.

Shoulder Arms. Virtt, face to the front, and throw up the
piece into its pofition on the fhoulder, by a turn of the right
wrift, inftantly grafping the butt, as above defcribed, with the
left hand: fecond, quit the firelock brifkly with the right
hand, bringing it to its proper place by the fide.

The men mutt likewife be taught to /upport arms at three
motions, throwing the firlt and fecond nearly into one. Firft,
they feize the {mall of the-butt under the lock with the right
hand, bringing the butt in front of the groin, and keeping the
lock fomewhat turned out ; fecond, they bring their left arm

7 under

BATTALION.

under the cock; third, they quit the right hand. In carry-
ing arms, from the fupport, the motions are exactly reverfed.
In marching any diltance, or in ftanding at eafe when fup-
porting, the men are allowed to bring their right hand acrofs
the body, to the {mall of the butt, which latter mult, in that
cafe, be thrown {hill more forward ; the fingers of the left
hand being uppermoft, mult be placed between the body and
the right elbow. The right hands are to be inttantly re-
moved, when the divifion halts, or is ordered to drefs by the
right. In regard to the motions of /ecuring, grounding, and
trailing, as well as piling arms, it will be fufticient for the
foldiers to be taught to perform them in the quickeit and
moft convenient method. Unjixing bayonets is to be done
from the order, in the fame manner as fixing them.

Sentries pofted with fhouldered arms, are permitted after-
wards to /upport, but not to flope them. On the approach
of an officer, they immediately carry their arms, and put
themfelves into the proper pofition ; not at the inftant he
pafles, but by the time he is within twenty yards of their
polt, fo that they may be perfectly fleady before he comes
up. Ifa field officer, he is entitled to the prefent arms.
Corporals marching with reliefs, or commanding detach-
ments or divifions, will carry their arms advanced.

VIL. The Platoon Exercife. When perfect in the manual,
the troops are next to be taught this part of their duty, and
the manner in which to execute the feveral firings. The re-
cruit ftanding at fhouldered arms, the firit word given is:

Make Ready. This is done by bringing the firelock to the
recover, and initantly cocking.

Prefent. Slip the left hand along the fling as far as the
{well of the firelock, and bring the piece down to the pre-
fent, ftepping back about fix inches to the rear with the night
foot.

Fire. Having fired, drop the firelock brifkly to the prim-
ing pofition, and half cock. ;

Handle Cartridge. Firft, draw the cartridge from the
pouch ; fecond, bring it to the mouth, holding it between
the forefinger and thumb, and bite away the top of it.

Prime. Firlt, thakea little powder into the pan; fecond,
fhut the pan with the three lait fingers; third, feize the
{mall of the butt with the fame three fingers.

Load. Firlt, face to the left on both heels, fo that the right
toe may point dire€tly to the front, and the body be a very
little faced to the left, bringing, at the fame time, the firelock
round to the left fide, without finking it. It fhould, while in
this pofition, be nearly perpendicular (having the muzzle
only a {mall degree brought forward); and, as foon as it is
fteady there, it muft inftantly be forced down within two
inches of the ground, the butt nearly oppofite to the left heel,
and the firelock itfelf fomewhat floped, and dire&tly to the
front. The right hand at the fame inftant catches the
muzzle in order to fteady it; fecond, fhake the powder into
the barrel, putting in after it the paper and ball; third,
feize the top of the ram-rod with the fore-finger and thumb.

Draw Rame-rods. Firtt, force the ram-rod half out, and
feize it, back-handed, exactly in the middle ; fecond, draw it
entirely out, and turning it with the whole hand and arm ex-
tended from you, put it one inch into the barrel.

Ram down Cartridge. Yirtt, pufh the ram-rod down, hold-
ing it, as before, exaGly in the middle, til the hand touches
the muzzle; fecond. fhp the fore-fnger and thumb to the
upper end. without letting the ram-rod fall further intothe
barrel; third, pufh the cartridge well down to the bottom ;
fourth, firike it two very quick ftrokes with the ramerod.

Return Ram-rods. Firlt, draw the ram-rod half out, catch-
ing it back-handed ; fecond, draw it totally out, turning it
very brifkly from you, with the arm extended, and put it

into the loops. forcing it as quick as poffible to the bottom;
then face to the proper front, the finger and thumb of the
right hand holding the ram-rod, as in the pofition 1mmediately
previous to drawing it, and the butt raifed two inches from
the ground.

Shoulder Arms. Strike the top of the muzzle fmartly with
the right hand, to fix the bayonet and ram-rod more firmly,
and at the fame time throw it nimbly up at one motion, to
the fhoulder. N.B. Though the butts are not come to
the ground in cating about, as accidents may happen from
it, yet they are permitted, while loading, to be fo retled;
but it muft be done without noife, and in a manner imper-
ceptible in the front.

In priming and loading quick, 1f, bring the firelock down
in one brifkk motion to the priming pofition. the thumb of the
right hand placed againft the pan cover or ftcel, the fingers
clenched, and the elbow a little turned out, fo that the wrilt
may be clear of the cock. 2d, Open the pan. by throwing
up the fteel with a {trong motion of the nght arm, turning
the ebow in, and keeping the firelock tteady in the leit
hand. 3d, Bring your hand round to the pouch, and draw
out the cartridge. The reft as above defcribed; except
that in the quick loading, all the motions are to be done
with the utmoft difpatch poffible, the foidiers taking their
time from the flugel-man in front, for caftng abcut and
fhouldering only.

In firing three deep, the priming pofition for the front
rank is the height of the wailtband of the breeches ; for the
centre rank, about the middle of the ftomach ; and for the
rear rank, clofe to the breaft. The firelock in all thefe po-
fitions is to be kept perfe@tly honzontal.

As Front Rank kneeling—make ready. Bring the firelock
brifkly up to the recover, catching it in the left hand, and,
without ftopping, fink down with a quick motion on the
right knee, keeping the lcft foot faft. the butt of the fire-
lock at the fame moment falling upon the ground. Then
cock, and inftantly feize the cock and fteel together in the
right hand, holding the piece firm in the left, about the
middle of that part which is between the iock and the {well
of the ftock; the point of the left thumb to be clofe to the
fwell, and pointing upwards. As the body is finking,, the
right knee is to be thrown fo far back, that the left lez may
be right up and dows, the right foot a little turned cut,
body ftraight, and the head as much up as if fhouldered.
The firelock muft be upright, the butt about four inches to
the right of the infide of the left foot.

Prefent. Bring the firelock down firmly to the prefent,
by fliding the left hand to the full extent of the arm along
the fling, without letting the motion tell; the right hand at
the fame time {prinzing up the butt by the cock fo high
againft the right fhoulder, that the head may not be too
much lowered in taking aim; the right cheek to be clofe to
the butt, the left eye fhut, and the middle finger of the
right hand onthe trigger. Look along the barrel with the
right eye, from the breech-pin to the muzzle, and remain
fieady.

Fire. Pull the trigger ftrong with the middle finger,
and, as foon as fired, {pring up uimbly upon the left leg,
keeping the body ereét, and the left foot faft, and bringing
the right heel to the hollow of the left. At the fame in-
ftant, drop the firelock to the priming pofition, half cuck,
handle cartridge, and go on with the loading motions as be-
fore deferibed.

As Centre Rank—make ready. Spring the firelock brifkly
to therecover. As foonas the left hand feizes it above the
lock, raife the right elbow a little, placing the thumb of that
hand upon the cuck, with the fingers open on the plate of

5 L2 the

BATTALION.

the lock, and then, as quick as peffible, cock the piece, by
dropping the elbow, and forcing down tle cock with the
thumb. Step at the fame time with the right foot a mo-
derate pace to the right, and keeping the left faft, feize the
fmall of the butt with the right hand. ‘The piece muft be
held in this pofition perpendicular, and oppofite the left fide
of the face, the butt clofe to the breaft, but not prefled, the
body ftraight and-full to the front, and the head ereét.

Prefent, as in the foregoing explanation.

Fire. Poll the trigger ftrong with the middle finger ;
and, as foon as fired, bring the firelc ck to the priming pofi-
tion. Prime and load as before, with this difference only,
that the left foot is to be drawn up to theright,-at the fame
time that the firelock is brought down to the priming pof-
tion ; and thac, immediately after the firelock is thrown up
to the fhoulder, the men fpring to the left again, and cover
their file leaders.

As Rear Rank—make ready. Recover and cock as be-
fore direGted for the centre rank. As the frelock is brought
to the recover, ftep brikly to the right a full pace, at the
fame time placing the left heel about fix inches before the
point of theright foot. The body to be kept ftraight, and
as {quare to the front as poflible.

Prefent, as in the foregoing explanation.

Fire, as before ; remembering only the difference of the
priming pofition for this rank. After firing and recovering
the fhoulder, the men ftep as the centre rank does.

Tn firing with the front rank ftanding, that rank makes
ready, &c. as mentioned in the firft part of the platoon ex-
ercife. ‘The platoon exercife is always to be performed with
ranks clofed, except at the drill.

VIII. Firings. When the recruits have acquired the
management of their arms, and are perfe& in the motions
of the manual and platoon exercifes, they will be inftruéted
in clofed ranks, at fring, rf, dire€t to their front; 2dly,
obliquely to the right and left; and, jdly, by files.

IX. Marching to the front and rear. The divifion, or
fquad, is to be particularly well dreffed, files correét, arms
carried, the rear ranks covering exa&ly, and each individual
to have his juft attitude and pofition, before the {quad is or-
dered to move. The march will be made by the right or
left flank, and a proper traised man will therefore conduct
it. The word divifion may be given as a caution; and at
the word march, each man fteps forward a full pace. The
recruit muft not turn his head to the hand to which he is
drefling, as a turning of the fhoulders would undoubtedly
follow. His elbows muft be kept fteady, without con-
ftraint: if they are opened from his body, the next man
mutt be prefled upon ; if they are clofed, there arifes an im-
proper diftance, which muft be filled up. In either cafe,
waving on the march will take place, and is therefore to be
avoided. The going to the right or Jeft about, in march,
is not to be at firlt praétifed, but the fquad is to halt, front
by command; and then march. - As the being able to march
ftraight forward is of the utmo!t confequence, the officer
commanding the drill will take every pains to perfect his
{quad init. For this purpofe he will often go to the rear,
place himfelf behind the flank file which regulates the
march, and take a point or objeét exaétly in front of that
file. He will then command, march ; and remaining in his
place, will dire&t the advance of the fquad, by keeping the
flank file always in a line with the objet. It is alfo from
behind he will foonelt perceive the leaning back of a fhoul-
det, or the bringing it forward ; faults which ought inftantly
to be reétilied, as produStive of the worlt confequence in
a line; where one man, by bringing forward a {houlder, may

change the diretion of the march, and oblige the wing of

a battalion to run, in order to keep drefled. In fhort, it is
impoffible to labour too much at making the foldier march
ftraight forward, keeping always the fame front as when he
flepped off. “This is effeted by moving folely from the
haunches, keeping the body fleady, the fhoulders {quare,
and the head to the front ; and will without difiiculty be at-
tained by-a ftri& attention to the rules for marching, and
a careful obfervance of an equal length of hep, and an equal
cadence or time of march.

Changing from ordinary to quick time, and from quick
to ordinary, mut always be preceded by a halt. Although
this may not appear effential for the movements of a divifion
or battalion, it is abfolutely fo for thofe of a larger body,
and is therefore required in {mall ones. ‘Turning on the
march, in order to continue it, though inaccurate and im-
proper fora large body,. is neceflary, and mult often be
allowed, in the movements of {mall divifions in file or front,
when conne&ed with others in line or column. As helps
for fixing the true cadence of the march, the plummet mult
often be reforted to. The words /eft, right, may when
neceflary, be repeated ; flowly for ordinary, and more rapidly
for quick time. “Strong taps of the drum, regulated by the
plummet, may be allowed to be given immediately before the
word march, to imprint the required meafure on-the mind
of the recruit ; but they are on no account, or in any fitu-
ation, to be given during the march.

X. Open and clofe Order, on March. The fquad, when
moving to the front in ordinary time, receives the werd,
Rear ranks take open order ; on which the front rank conti-
nues its march without altering the pace, and the centre
and rear ranks mark the time, viz. the centre once, and fteps
off at the feeond pace; the rearrank moving forward on the
third. On the word Rear ranks take clofe order, the centre
and rear ranks ftep nimbly up to clofe order, and inftantly
refume the pace at which the farlt rank has continued to
march,

XI. March in File to a Flank. The accuracy of the
march in file is fo eff-ntial in all deployments into line, and
in the internal movements of the divifions of the battalion,
that the foldier cannot be too much exercifed to it. ‘The
whole battalion, as well as its divifions, is required to’ make
this flank movement, without the leat opening out, or
lengthening of the file, and in perfect cadence and equality
of itep. After facing, and at the word march, the whole
fquad fteps off at the fame initant, cach replacing, or rather
overftepping the foot of the man before him, ¢. e. the right
foot of the fecond man comes within the left foot of the
firft, and thus of every one; more or lefs overlapping, ac-
cordiag to the clofenels or opennefs of the files, and the
length of ftep. The front rank will march ftraight alon
the given line, each foldier of that rank looking along the
necks of thofe before him; never to the right orleft ; other-
wife a waving of the march will take place, and of courfe
the lofs and extenfion of line and diltancey whenever the
body returns to its proper front. ‘The ceritre and rear ranks
mutt look to, and regulate themfelves by their leaders of the
front rank, and always drefs in their file. Although file
marching is generally in quick, yet it mutt alfo be prattifed -
in ordinary time. The above pofition of feet takes piace ta
all marching in front, where the ranks are clofe and locked
up. With a little attention and prattice, this mode of
marching, apparently -fo difficult, will be found by every

foldier to be eafier than the common method of marching

by files, when, on every hait, the rear muft run up to gain

the ground it has unneceffarily lof.
XII. Wheeling in File. ‘The fquad, when marching in
file, mult be accultomed to wheel its head to either flank ;
each

BATTALION.

each file following in fucceffion, without lofing orincreafing
diftance. On this occafion, each file makes its feparate
wheel, ona pivot moveable in a very fmall degree, but with-
out altering its time of march, or the eyes of the rear ranks
being turned from their front rank. ‘The front rank men,
whether pivot-men or not, mult keep to their diflance ;
and the wheeling men mult take a very extended ilep, and
lofe no time in moving on.

XIIL. Oblique Marching in Front. When the fquad is
marching in front, and receives the word fo the right oblique,

-each man, the firft time he raifes the right foot, will, inftead

of throwing it ftraight forward, carry it in the diagonal di-
reGtion, as has been already explained in § 8. of the drill
without arms; taking care not to alter the pofition of his
body, fhoullers, or head. The greateft attention is to be
paid to the fhoulders of every man in the fquad, that they
‘remain parallel to the line on which they firlt were placed,
and that the right fhoulders do not fa!l to the rear, which
they are very apt to doin obliquing to the right, and which
immediately changes the direction of the front. On the
word forward, the incline ceafes, and the whole march
forward. In obliquing to the left, the fame rules are to be
obferved, with the difference of the left leg going to the
left, and attention to keeping up the left fhoulder. The
fame inftruGtions that are given for ordinary time, ferve alfo
for quick time; but this movement, though it may be made
by a {mall divifion, cannot be required from a larger body.
Obdiiquing to the right is fometimes to be praétifed with eyes
to the left; and obliquing to the left, with eyes to the
right; as b:ing abfolutely neceflary on many occafions:
for if one of the battalions of a line in advancing be ordered
‘to oblique to the right or,to the left, the eyes mult {till con-
‘tinue turned towards its centre.

XIV. Oblique Marching in File. Ina obliquing to the
right or left by files, the centre and rear rank men will cor-
tinue look'ng to their leaders of the front rank. “Each file
is to confider itfelf as a rank entire, and is to preferve the
fame front, and pofition of the fhoulders, during the oblique,
‘asbeforeit began. ‘This being a very ufeful movement, re-
€rbits are to be often praétifed in it:

XV. Wheeling forward from the Halt. The dire&tions
already given for the wheeling of a fingle rank, are to be
riAly attended to in this wheel of the (quad. On the word
right, or ‘eft wheel, the rear ranks, if at one pace diftance,
Jock up. At the word march, the whole ftep together in
the quickeft time, and the rear ranks, during the wheel, in-
cline fo as to cover their proper front rank men. At the
word Aalt, the whole remain perfedly fleady.

XVI. Wheeling backward. The {quad muft be much
praCifed in wheeling backward ia the quickeft time. In
this wheel the rear ranks may preferve their diftance of one
pace from each other. Great attention fhou!d be paid to

revent the recruits from fixing their eyes on the ground.

XVII. Wheeling from the March. The direQions for
wheeling on a halted and on a moveable pivot, have already
been given under the drill without arms. ‘The {quad fhould
now be practifed in both, until thoroughly confirmed in
thofe movements. y

XVILT. Stepping out, &e. The fquad muft likewifé be
practifed in flepping out, flepping fort, marking time, changing
the feet, the fide flep, and flepping back: the inftruétions
for which have been fully detailed in the firft part of the
drill.

It can neither be too ftrongly inculeated, nor too often
remembered, that upon the correét equality of march, efta-
blifhed and praétifed by all the troops of the fame army,
every juft movement and manceuvre depend.” If this is not

attended to, difunion and confufion will neceffarily take
place on the junétion of feveral battalions in corps; ale
theugh, taken individually, each may be in moft refpe&s
well trained. It is in the original inftru@tion of the recruit
and fquad, that this great point is to be laboured at and
attained. [he time and length of ftep, on all occafions,
are prefcribed. The time is infallibly afcertained by the
frequent corre@tions of the plummet, which, when fo ap-
plied, will foon give to each man that habitual meafere fo
much defired. Every driller mult therefore have it at hand ;
and, as ‘already obferved, before any {quad or larger body
is put in march, five or lix ftrong taps of the drum may be
given, in exa& time, as regulated by the plummet, which
will imprint the true meafure on each ear, and prepare for
taking an accurate ftep at the word march. The lenath of
{tep is only to be acquired by repeated trial; and therefore,
before the recruit 1s put in motion, each inflru@or fhould
afcertain the {pace on which he is to drill his men; he wilk
therefore ({ippofing that he himfelf is accurate in his paces,
and that there is ground for that purpofe) mavk out an ob-
long fquare of forty paces by twenty or thirty, the corrers
of which he wili afcertain by halberts, ftones, or any other
vilible manner. Along the fides of this figure he will march
the pivot flank of his {quad, making correét wheels and halts
at the angles. ‘The time of march being exactly afcectained,
he wil then fee that the fides of the oblong are gone over at
the known number of fteps; and if there be any inaccuracy,
he will ieagthem or fhorten the ftep, till the {quad marches
with the utmoft precifion, every man preferving his jult po-
fition, and all the other indifpenfible attentions in marchine
being ftriGtly obferved. Where there is a fufficiency of
ground, the {quads will occafionaily march over larzer
{paces; but the dittances fhould in the fame manner be exe
actly determined, fo that there may be no doubt as to the
true length of the ftep. In proportion to the ftrength of
fquads or drills, one or more formed foldie-s fhould accom-
pany each, to march on the flank, give diftances, and in
other points regulate the motions of the drill.
formation and Exercife of the Platoon, or Combany.

The recruit being thoroughly grounded in all the preced«
ing parts of the drill. is now to be inftru&ted in the move-
ments of the platoon, as a more immediate preparation for
his jotning the battalion. For this purpofe, from ten to
twenty files are to be aflembled, formed, and told off in the
following manner, asa company in the battalion.

I, The platoon falls in three ranks, at clofe order, with
fhouldered arms; the files lightly touching, but without
crowding. Each man will then occupy a {pace of about
22 inches. The commander of the platoon takes polt on
the right of the front rank, covered by a ferjeant in the
rearrack. ‘The other ferjeants will form a fourth, or fu-
pernumerary rank, three paces from the rear rank. The
platoon will be told off into fubdivifions, and, if of fuffi-
cient ftrength, into four feGtions; but as a feGtion fhould
never be lef{s than five files, it will often happen that, forthe
purpofes of march, three feGions only can be formed.
The four beit-trained foldiers are to be placed in the front
rank, on the right and left of each fubdivifion. When thus
formed, the platoon will be praétifed in opening and clofing
of ranks; drefling to the front, to the rear, or in an oblique
direGtion, by ‘the right or left; and exercifed in the feverak
motions of the firelock. Clofe order is the chief and pri-
mary order in which the battalion and its parts at all times
aff-mble and form. Open order is only regarded as an ex
ception from-it, and occafionally ufed in fituatiors of parade
andfhew. In clofe order, the -rear ranks are clofed up to
within one pace; the length of which is to be taken from

the

BATTALION.

the heels of one rank to thofe of the next. At open order
they are two paces diftant from each other.

Il. Marching to the Front. In the drill of the platoon,
the perfon inflru@ing mult always confider it as a company
in battalion, and regulate all its movements upon that prin-
ciple. He will therefore, before he puts it in motion to
front or rear, indicate which flank is to direét, by giving
the word Eves Right, or Lyes Left, and then March.
Should the right be the direGing flank, the commander of
the platoon himfelf will fix on objeéts to march upon, ina
line truly perpendicular to t!.c front of his corps. When
the left flank is ordered to dire&, he and his covering fer-
jeant will fhift to the lett of the front rank, and take fuch
obje&s to march upon. To march on one objec only, and
to preferve a ftraight line, is an operation not to be de-
pended upon. The conductor of the platoon therefore, be
fore the word to march is given, will endeavour to remark
fome diltinét obje@& on the ground in bis own front, and
perpendicular to the direGting flank. He wiil then obferve
fome nearer and ietermediate point in the fame line, fuch as
a ftone, tuft of grafs, &c. Thefe he will move upon with
accuracy ; and as he approaches the neareft of thofe points,
he muft from time to time chufe frefh ones, in the original
dire€tion, which he will by this means preferve, never hay-
ing fewer than two fuch points to move upon. Iino object
in the true line can be afcertained, his own fquarenels of
perfon mut determine the diretion of the march. A per-
fon placed in the rear of a body can, more readily than
if potted in its front, determine the line which is perpendi-
cular to that front; and, could we fuppofe ranks and files
perfeGtly corre&t, the prolongation of each file would be a
perpendicular to the front of the body. As the march of
every corps, except in the cafe of inclining, is made on
lines perpendicular to its then front, each individual com~
pofing that corps, mutt in his perfon be placed and remain
perfe@ly {quare to the given line; otherwife he will natu-
rally and infenfibly move in a direGtion perpendicular to his
own perfon, and thereby open out or clofe in according to
the manner in which he is turned from the true point of his
march. If the diftortion of a fingle man (and all turnings
of the head do fo diftort him) operates in this manner, it
may ealily be imagined what that of feveral will occafion,
each of whom is marching on a different front, and whofe
lines of Gireétion are croffing each other, Accuracy and
{quarenefs of pofition, the equality of cadence and ftep, the
light touch of the files which is never to be relinquifhed,
jult diftances, and true lines of movement, will give, with-
out apparent conftraint, the head being turned, or the leaft
trouble taken in dreffing, the moft decifive exadinefs in the
miarches and operations of the largeft bodies.

The platoon, during its march in line, will occafionally
be ordered to flep out, mark time, open and clofe ranks, and
eblique, as already decribed.

III. Side Step. The fide or clofing ftep muft alfo be fre-
quently pradtifed. It is very neceflary and ufeful on many
occafions, when halted, and when a very {mall diftance 1s
to be moved to either flank; for inflance to open or clofe
files; to join one diviticn to, or open it from, another; to
regain an interval in line; tg move a whole battalion or p2-
rade twenty or thirty paces to a flank; to regulate diftances
between clofe columns, before deploying, &c. Alterations
made in this manner are imperceptible from the front, and
better made than by facing and file-marching. The words
of command muft be decided and ftrong. When the whole
platoon is to clofe; at the word, to the Right—Clofe, the
platoon officer takes one ftep to the front, and initantly faces
about, the covering ferjeant replacing him. On the word

March, the whole move together. -On the Halt, the pla.
toon officer refumes his place, having ftepped in the fame
manner as the men, but fronting them, and thereby aflifted
in preferving the direCtion.

IV. Back Step. The platoon muft be accuftomed, at the
halt on the words Back Step—March, to ftep back any’
ordered number of paces in the ordinary time and length,
as it is an operation that may be fometimes required from a
battalion.

V. File Marching. In marching by files, the commander
of the platoon will lead the front rank. If therefore the
movement is by the left, on the word #o the Left—Frace, he
and his covering ferjeant will inftantly fhift to the left flank
of the divifion. At the word Quick—March, the whole
fteps off together ; and on the Halt, Front, the leader and
his ferjeant will return to their potts on the right.

VI. Wheeling from a Halt. In wheeling, whether for-
ward or backward, from a halt, the commander of the pla-
toon, on the word Right or Left Wheel, moves out, and _
places himfelf one pace in front of the centre of his platoon.
During the wheel, he turns towards his men, and inclines
towards that flank which has been named as the direéting
or pivot one; giving the word Ha/t—Drefs, when his
whecling man has jutt completed the required degree of
wheel. He then {quares his platoon, but without moving
what was the ftanding flank, and takes his poit on the now
direGing flank. ‘

VII. Wheeling forward by Subdivifions from Line. Onthe
word By Subdivifions,—to the Right, Wheel, the commander
of the platoon places himfelf one pace in front of the centre
of the right fubdivifion; at the fame time, the men on the
right of the front rank of each fubdivifion face to the right.
Atthe word March, each fubdivifion fteps off in wheeling
time, obferving the dire€tions above given for wheeling for-
ward. ‘The commander of the platoon, turning towards
the men of the leading fubdivifion, and inclining io its left
(the proper pivot flank), gives the word Halt—Dre/s, for
both fubdivifions, as his wheeling man is taking the lait itep
thet finthes the wheel fquare; and inftantly pofts himfelf
on the left, the pivot flank. The covering ferjeant, during
the wheel, goes round by the rear, and takes poft on the
pivot flank of the fecord fubdivifion. It is to be obferved,
that the commander of the platoon invariably takes poft
with the Jeading fubdivifion; therefore, when the platoon
wheels by fubdivifions to the left, the commander of the
platoon moves out to the centre of the left fubdivifion, and
during the wheel, inclines towards the right, now become
the proper pivot flanks of the fubdivifions. ‘The proper
pivot flank in column, is that which, when wheeled up to,
preferves the divifions of the line in the natural order, and
to their proper front ; the other is denominated the revere
flank. In column, divilions cover and drefs to the proper
pivot flank; to the left when the right is in front, and to
the right when the left is in front.

VILL. Wheeling backward by Subdivifions from Line. The
platoon will alfo break into open column of fubdivifions by
wheeling backwards. When the right is intended to be in
front; at the word, By Subdivifions, on your left backwards
Wheel, the commander of the platoon moves out brifkly,
and places himielf in-front of the centre of the right fub-

divifion ; the man on the left of the front rank of each .

fubdivifion at the fame time faccs to the right. On the
word March, each fubdivilion wheels backward in quickeft
time. Durmng the wheel, the commander of the platoon
turns towards his men, inclining at the fame time to the
left, or pivot flank; and om completing the wheel, gives
the word Halt—Dre/s, to both divifions. He and his

covering

BATTAL TON,

covering ferjeant then place themfelves on the left flanks
of their fubdivifions. It may be confidered as a rule a!-
mott general (the reafous for which are fubfequently given),
that all wheels of the battalion or line (when halted, and
when the divifions do not exceed fixteen or eighteen files) into
column, fhould be backward; and ail wheels from column into
line, forward. The only neceffary exceptions feem to be in
narrow ground where there is not room for fuch wheels.

IX. Marching on an Alignment, in open Column of Subdi-
vifions. The platoon having wheeled backwards by fubdi-
vilions from line, as juft tated, and a diitant marked obje&
in the prolongation of the two pivot flanks being taken,
the commander of the platoon, who is now on the pivot
flank of the leading fubdivifion, immediately fixes on his in-
termediate points tomarchon. On the word March, both
divifions {tep off at the fame inftant; the leader of the fore-
moft corps marching with the utmolt fleadinefs and equality
of pace onthe points he has taken ; and the commander of
the fecond divifion preferving the leader of the firft in an
exaét line with the diltant object, at the fame time he keeps
the diftance neceffary for forming from the preceding divi-
fion, which diftance is to be taken from the front rank.
Thefe objects are in themfelves fuflicient to occupy the
whole attention of the leaders of the two divifions; therefore
they muft not look to, nor endeavour to correct, the march
of their men, which care mut be entirely left to the non-
commiffioned officers of the fupernumerary rank.

XK. Wheeling into Line from open Column of Subdivifions.
The platooa being in open column of fubdivifions, marching
at the ordinary ltep on the alignment, receives the word Halt
from the inftructor of the drill. Both divifions mftantly halt,
and the inftructor fees that the leaders of the divifions are
correé&t on the line in which they have moved. He then
gives the word (fuppofing the right of the platoon to be in
front), By Subdivificns, to the left wheel into Line. On this
the commander of the platoon’ goes to the centre of his fubdi-
vifion ;.the two pivot men face to their left, exa@ly fquare
with the alignment; and a ferjeant runs out and places him-
felf in a line with them, fo as to mark the precife point at
which the right flank of the leading fubdivifion is to halt,
when it fhall have completed its wheel. At the word AZarch,
the whole wheel up in quickelt time. During the wheel,
the commander of the platoon, turning towards his men,
inclines to the wheeling flank, and gives the word Halt—
Drefs, the moment the wheel of the divifion is completing.
He alfo, if neceflary, corrects the internal drefling of the
platoon on the ferjeant and pivot-men. This dreffing mutt be
quickly made; and when done, the commander of the pla-
toon gives the word Lyes Front, ina moderate tone of voice,
and refumes his poft in line. In all wheels of the divifions
of a column {either from the halt or from the march) that
are made on a halted pivot, the flank firelock of the front
rank on the hand wheeled to, is fuch pivot; not the officer
who may be on that flank, and whofe bufinefs is to con-
form to it. All wheels by fubdivifions or fections from line
into column or from column into line, are performed on
the word given by the commander of a battalion, when the
whole of a battalion is at the fame inftant fo to wheel; or
on the word given by the captain of the company, when
companies fingly, or fucceflively, fo wheel. They are not
to be repeated by the leaders of its divifions.

XI. Ln Open Columns of Subdivifions, wheeling into an
Alignment. The platoon being in open column of fubdivi-
fions, marching in ordinary time ; when its leading divifion
arrives at the ground, where the wheel is to commence, it
receives the word, Right or Left Wheel, from its commander.
On this the rear ranks, if at one pace diftance, lock up;

the flank front-rank man alone halts, and faces into the
new direction, while the others quicken their pace to the
wheeling time, and regulate their ttep by the outward hand
to which they have turned their eyes, until the wheel is
completed. Ie then gives the word Halt—Dre/s, for his
divifion to drels to the hand it is to move by; and whenever
the fecond divifion, which has continued to advance in or-
dinary time, arrives clofe to the wheeling point, he gives
his divifion the word AZarch, and moves on in ordinary time,
fo as its rear rank does not eccalion even a momentary ftop
to the divifion behind it, which at that moment receives the
word Wheel, then Halt—Dre/s, and*“finally AZarch, when-
ever the leading divifion has gained its proper diftance from
it. he officer conduéting the léadiny and every other di-
vifion of the column in march on any given point or obj-é
where it is to wheel into a new direétion, and to its proper
pivot hand on a halted pivot, always flops at that point or
obje& clofe on his outward hand, and gives the word /{‘heel,
when the front rank of his divifion has taken one pace be-
yond fuch object. He thus allows {pace for his own perfon,
when the wheel is finitfhed, to move on clofe behind the
new direction of march. But if the proper pivot flank is
to be the wheeling one, each commander of a divifion gives
his word Wheel, as he fucceflively arrives at fuch a diftance
from the point on which he has moved, as that at the com-
pletion of the wheel, his divifion may halt perpendicular to
the new line, but with the given point of courfe behind the
proper pivot; and that he alfo, in his own perfon, be on
the new direétion, prepared to give his word AZarch, aud to
proceed. The rear ranks, if at one pace diftance, mutt
clofe up at the word /Vheel; and during the wheel, they in-
cline fo as to cover their proper front-rank men. The fub-
divifions mut take care that they continue their march cor-
rectly upon, and wheel exaétly at the point where the
leading one wheeled, and that they do not fhift to either
flank, which without much attention they are apt to do,
In this manner, the fubdivifions fucceed each other ; and if
the words of command be jultly given, no fLop made on ar-
riving at the wheeling point, the wheels performed at an
increafed time and ftep, and the proper halt, drefiing, and
paufe, be made after the wheel, no exter fion of the column
will take place, but the jult diftances between the-divifions
will be preferved. The officer condu&ting the dire&ing
flank of a divifion may, during the wheel, be advaneed one
or two paces before it, aad remains fo, facing to the flank,
that he may the more critieally be enabled to give the word
Halt, at which inttant he will again place himfelf on the flank,
ready to judye his diftance, and to give the word March.
XIL. Ln Open Column of Subdivijions, wheeling into anew
Diredlion on a moveable Pivot. The commander of the lead-
ing fubdivilion, when at a due diftance from the intended:

_ new direétion, will give the word Right or Left Shoulders

Forward ; and he himfelf carefully preferving the rate of
march, without the leaft alteration of ftep or time, will
bexin to circle in his own perfon from the old into the
new direction, fo as not to make an abrupt wheel, or that
either flank fhall be ftationary. The reit of his divifion, on
the principle of drefling, will conform to the direétion he is
giving them; when this is effected, he will give the word
Forward. The Jeader of the fecond fubdivifion, when he
arrives at the ground on which the firft began to wheel,
will in this manner follow the exact tra@& of the firft, al-
ways preferving his proper diftance fromhim. Thus, with-
out the conftraint of formal wheels, a column, when not
confined to its flanks, may be conduéted in all kinds of
winding and changeable direétions; for, if the changes be
made gradual and circling, and that the pivot leaders of

divifions

BATTALION.

Givifions purfue their proper path, at the fame uniform equal
pace, the true diftances will be preferved, which is the great
regulation objeét on this occafion, and to which every other
mutt cive way. ;

XIII. Countermarch by Files. The platoon, when. it is
to countermarch, mult always be confidered as a divifion
of a battalion in column. The inftruétor of the drill will
therefore, previous to his giving the caution to counter-
march, fignify whether the right or left is {uppoied to be
in front, that the commander of the platoon and his co-
vering ferjeant may be placed on the pivot flank, before
fuch caution is giv@i; as it is an invariable rule in the
countermarch of the divifions of a column by files, that the
feciogs be made from the flank, then the pivot one, to
the one which is to become fuch. On the word To the
Right or Left Face, the platoon faces ;.the commander of
it immediately goes to the other flank; and his covering
ferjeant, advancing to the fpot which he has quitted, faces
to the right about. At the word Quick March, the whole,
except the ferjeant coverer, fteps off together: the platoon
officer wheeling fhort round the rear rank (viz. to-his
rizht, if he has fhifted to the right of the platoon ; or to
his left, if he. remains on the left of it) ; and proceeds, fol-
lowed by the platoon in file, till he has conducted his pivot
front-rank man clofe to his ferjeant, who has remained .im-
moveable. He then gives the words Halt, Front, Drefs ;
fquares, and clofes his platoon on his ferjeant, and then re-
places him. All countermarches by files neceflarily tend to
an extenfion of the files. Unity of ftep is therefore able-
lutely indifpenfible, and the greateft care muft be taken,
that the wheel of each file be made clofe, quick, and at an
increafed length of flep of the wheeling man, fo as not to
xetard or lengthen out the march of the whole.

XIV. Wheeling on the Centre of the Platoon. The platcon
mutt be accuilomed to wheel upon its centre, half backward,
half forward, and to be pliable into every fhape which cir-
cumftances can require of it; but always in order, and by
2 decided command. The words of command are, Plataon
—on your Centre, to the Right Wheel, to the Left Wheels to
the Right absut wheel ; to the Left about wheel; Se. When
the wheel is to be made to the right, or right about, the
right half platoon is the one to wheel backward, and the
left forward. ‘The reverfe will take place when the wheel is
to be made to the left, or to the left about. Oa the word
March, the whole move together in the quickeft time,. re-
gulating by the two flank men, who, during the wheel, pre-
ferve themfelves ina line with the centre of the platoon. As
{oon as the required degree of wheel is performed, the com-
mander of the platoon gives the word Halt—Dre/s, and in-
ttantly {quares it from that flank on which he himfelf is to
take polt.

XV. Oblique Marching. The inftruétor of the drill will
have the oblique march frequently praCtifed in platoon, in
fubdivifions, andin file. He will fee, when in divifions, that
the rear ranks lock well up, and cover exactly ; when in file,
that the exaG diftances are preferved between the files ; and
in both cafes, that the platoon, during its march; continues
parallel to the pofition from which it commenced obliquing.

XVI. Increafing and diminifbing the Front of an Open Co-
lumn, when halted. 1. Increafing. The company {tanding
in open column of fubdivifions (fuppofe the right in front)
receives from the inftruGtor of the drill the caution to form
platoon. The commander of the platoon inttantly orders
Rear Subdivifion, to the Left oblique—Quick March. When
it has obliqued, fo as to open its right flank, i. e. when its
right flank has room to march paft the left flank of the di-
gifion that was in its front he gives the word Forward ;

and on its arriving in a line with the firft civifion, he orders
Halt—Drefs, and takes poft on the left, the pivot flauk of
the platoon. 2. Diminifhing, On the cautionary command,
from the inftruéter ofthe drill, to form Subdivifions, the
commander of the platoon orders, Left Subdivifion—to
the Right Face; and initantly on facing, the three leading
files diténgage to the rear, the ferjeant coverer running
round to head them. Onthe word Quick March, the fers
jeant conduds the {ubdivifion in file to its proper diftance,
in the rear of the firft fubdivifion. The commander of the
platoon, having moved to the left flank of the leading divi-
fion, as foon as he fees the-rear file of the fecend in a line
with his own perfon, gives the word /alt—Front and Left
—Dref:.. The ferjeant coverer at the fame time moves
brifly to his poft on the left flank of the rear fubdivifion,
and fquares it. “It is to be obferved as a general rule, in
diminifhing the front of a column by the doubling of fub=
divilions or feétions, whether .the column be halted or in
motion, that the fabdivifion or fe@lion on the reverfe flank:
is the one behind which the other fubdivifions, or feétions,
double. Thus, when the right is in front, the doubling;
will be in rear of the right divifion, and vice verfa whem
the left is in front; by which means the column is at all’
times in a fituation to form line to the flank, with its di-
vifionsin their natural order, by {imply wheeling upon the
pivot flanks. In increafing the front of a column, the rear
fubdivifions cr feétions oblique to the hand the pivot flank:
is on; fo that when the rightis in front, the obliquing will
beto the left; and the reverfe when the left is in fronts i
XVII... Lacreafing and diminifbing the Front of ano

Column on the es i gare! The ee mae
ing at the ordinary time in open column of fubdivifions (fup-
pole the right in front), receives from the inftructor of the
drill the cautionary command Form Plataon: The com=
mander of the platoon inftantly gives the words Left od-
ligue—Quick March; on which the rear fubdivifion oblique:
to the left, and as foon as its right flank is open, receives
the word Forward. When it gets up to the firft fubdivi-
fion, which has continued to march with the utmoft iteadi-
nefs at the ordinary pace, the. commander of the platoon
gives the word Halt—Aarch, and takes poit on the pivot
flank, 2- Diminifhing : When the inftruGor of the drill gives
the caution to form {ubdivifions, the commander of the pla~=
toon immediately orders, Left Subdivifions Mark Time. Thi:
it does till the right one, which continues its march fheadily ;
at the ordinary pace, has cleared its flank. He then orders
the left fubdivifion, Quick oblique; and when he percei
that it has doubled properly behind the night pate ee
the word Forward, on which jit takes up the ordinary
march, and follows at its due diltance. The fame diree«
tions that apply to increafing or diminifhing by fubdivifions,
apply equally by. feClions, which individually repeat» the
fame operations. ‘The words for the fubdivifions or fe€tions
increafing or diminifhing the front of a column, are given
by the commander of a company, and not repeated by
thofe of its divifions. Inereafing and reducing the-front
of acolumn is an operation that will frequently occur im
the march of large bodies; and it is of the utmoft import-
ance that it be performed with exaéinefs. ‘The inftru&tor
of the drill muft therefore be particularly attentive, that
the tranfition from one fisuation to the other be made asi
quick as poffible; that the leading divifion continues its
march at the regular time and length of pace; and that the
exa@ diltances between the divilions be accurately preferved.
Doring the operation, the ranks muft.be well clofed,.arms
carried, and the greatelt attention required from each indivi«
dual, <.

XVIII. The

BATTALION.

XVIII. The Platoon in open Column of Subdivifions to
pafs a fort Defile by breaking off Files. We fuppofe the pla-
toon in open column of fubdivilions, with the right in front,
marching in ordinary time. When the leading divifion is
arrived within a few paces of the defile, it receives from
the inltru&tor of the drill an order to break off a certain
number of the files ({uppofe three) ; the commander of the
leading divifion inftantly gives the words, Three Files on
the Left, Right turn, The named files immediately turn to
their right, and wheel out in rear of the three adjoining
files. The commander of the fubdivifion himfelf clofes
into the flank of the part formed. When the fecond fub-
divifion comes to the fpot where the firft divifion contraé-
ed its front, it will receive the fame words of command
from its own leader, and will proceed in like manner,
Should it be required to diminifh the front of the column
one or two files more, the commander of the leading di-
vifion will, as before, order the defired number of files to
turn; on which thofe already in the rear will incline to
their right, fo as to cover the files now ordered to break
off, and which are wheeling out in the manner already pre-
feribed. In this movement, the files in the rear of the
fubdivifions muft lock well up, fo as not to impede the
march of the fucceeding divifion. As the defile widens,
or the inftruétor of the drill fhall dire, the commander
of the leading fubdivifion will order files to move up to
the front, by giving the word Que, two, or three Files to
the Front; on which the named files turn to their front,
‘the left, and lengthening their pace, march up, file by
file, to the front of their fubdivifion, and immediately re-
fume the ordinary pace. Thofe files which are to conti-
nue in the rear, will oblique to the left, lenzthening alfo
their ftep, till they cover, and are cloied up to the three
files on the left flank of their fubdivifion. _

XIX. Marching in quick Time. The platoon mutt fre-
quently be praétifed to-march in quick time, particularly in
file, until the men have acquired the utmott precifion in this
movement, which is effcntial in all deployments from clofe
column. The platoon will alfo occafionally be marched in

. front at the fame ftep, as it may be fometimes required from
{mall bodies.

XX. Forming to the Front from File. ‘The platoon, when
marching in file, may form to its front, either in feCtions,
fubdivifions, or in platoon. The right flank being fup-
pofed to lead, on the word halt front, the platoon inftantly
halts, and faces to its left. The wordis then given, dy /ec-
tions, fub-divifions, or platoon, on your left backwards wheel ;
and at the word march, the wheel ordered is performed in
the manner already directed in fe&. viii. But in fituations
where it may have been neceffary to order an extenfion of
files (fuch as will fometimes occur in marching through the
ftreets of a town), a body thus moving, in order to avoid
incorrect diftances between the divifions, may form to the
front in the following manner, either by platoon, fub-divi-
fions, or feétions. On the word ¢o the front form platoon,
the front rank man of the leading file halts alone,-and is in-
ftantly covered by his centre and rear-rank men. Every
other file of the platoon makes a half face to the left, and
fucceffively moving up, drefits on the right file. When
the commander of the platoon fees it is properly dr:ffed, he
gives the word. eyes left, and places himfelf on the pivot
flank. Shouldthe order have been, fo the front form fecions
or /ub-divifions, the leading {ub-divifion or fection will pro-
ceed in the manner already detailed for the platoon. ‘The
fucceeding fub-divifions or {e¢tions will each continue mov-
ing on, until its front file arrives at the proper forming dif-
tance from the divifion inits front, when it will receive from

Vou. III.

its commander the word fo the front farm, and will inftantly
form up by files in the manner already defcribed.

XXII. Forming Pitts Pile to either Flank. The platoon
marching in file, fuppofe from the right, has only to halt
and front to be formed to the left Aank. 'T'o form to the
right, it will receive the word ¢o the right form. "The front
rank man of the leading file inftantly turns to his right, and
halts ; his centre and rear rank men move round and cover
him. All the other files of the platoon make a half turn to
their left, and move round fucceflively in a line with the
right hand file ; the centre and rear rank men of each file
keeping clofed well up to their file leaders.

XXIT. To form to either Flank from open Column of Sub-
divifions or Seétions. The platoon marching in the ordinary
time in open column of fub-divilions or fe Stions, to form to
its left receives the words hak, left wheel, and form, march, &e.
and proceeds as has already been fhewn in fe&. x. To form
the platoon to its right flank, the initrutor of the drill
gives the cautionary word of command, ¢o the right form pla-
toon ; on which the commanders of the feveral divilions {hift
to the other flank, and the commander of the leading fub-
divifion or fection inftantly gives the word to his divifion,
right wheel: and when it has wheeled fquare, he orders ha/f,
right drefs ; goes to the right flank of his divifion, and dreffes
it on the intended line of formation. The commander of
the other fub-divifions or fe@tions, on the leading one being
ordered to wheel, gives the word fo the left oblique, and gra-
dually inclines fo as to be able te march clear of the rear
rank of the divifion forming. This being effected, the word
forward will be given to each divifion, and they move on in
the rear of the one formed. . When the fecond fub-divifioa
or fection is arrived at the left flank of the firft, its com-
mander gives the word right wheel, then halt, drefs up; on
which the divifion moves up into the line with the one
formed ; and its commander inftantly places himfelf two or
three files from the left of his firft divifion, and dreffes his
own on it as quickly and as accurately as poffible. Thus
each fucceeding fection fhould proceed, until the whole be
formed.

MXIT. The Platoon moving to the Front to gain Ground
toa Flank, by a March in Echellon by Szdions. In the drill
of the platoon, when the foldier is completely formed, he
may be taught to march in echellon by {cétions. This isa
very ufeful movement for a battalion or larger body moving
in line, that is required to gain ground to a flank, and may
be fubftituted inftead of the oblique march. It will be per-
formed in the following manner: the platoon marching to
the front in the ordinary time, receives the word by /ecions
to the right. The right hand men of the front rank of each
{eGtion turning in a fmall degree to their right, mark the
time for three paces, during which the feGions are wheeling
in ordinary time on their pivot men. At the fourth pace,
and at the word forward, the whole move on dire&t to the
frent that each fe&ion has now acquired, and the com-
mander of each {e€tion having taken pott on the right of his
divifion, the platoon continues its march in echellon. On
the word form platoon; the pivot men mark the time for
three paces, turning back ina {mall degree to the left, their
original front ; and the feétious inftantly wheel backward
into line. At the fourth pace, the whole move forward.
When the platoon is in two ranks only, two paces inftead
of three will be fufficient to mark time, and to ftep off at
the third inftead of the fourth pace.

XXIV. From three Ranks, forming into two. The pla-
toon halted, is ordered form tao deep. The rear rank men
of the left fub-divifion infantly ftep back one pace. On
the word /f? face, the rear rank of both fub-divifions face.

5M The

BATTALION.

The word quick march is then given, on which the men of
the rear rank of the left fub-divifion ftep fhort, uutil thofe
of the right get up to them; they then move on with them
in file. As their rear is clearing the left flank of the pla-
toon, the commander, who has fhifted to this flank during
the movement, gives the words halt, front, drefs up, inftantly
dreffes them on the ftanding part of his platoon, and
refumes his poft on the right. One third .or one more
{ub-divifion is thus added to the front of the company,
which is here fuppofed ftanding as one in a battalion
column. .

XXV. From two Ranks, forming into three. The platoon
being halted, and told off mto three feétions, it receives the
word form three deep 3 on which the third feciion inftantly
fteps back one pace. The word right face is then given,
and the man on the right of its front rank, on facing,
difengages a little to his mght. On the word quick march,
the front rank men of the third fection ftep off, thofe of the
other mark the time, till they have pafled, and then follow.
When the leading man has got to the right of the platoon,
the commander gives the word halt front ; on which, each
man halts, faces to his left, and inttantly covers his proper
file leader.

In purfuance of the foregoing inftruGions, and on the
principles they contain, every company of a battalion mult
be frequently exercifed by its own officers, each fuperintend-
ing a rank, or an allotted part of the whole. Ona {pace of
feventy or eighty yards fquare, every circumftance can be
pratifed that is neceflary to qualify it for the operations of
the battalion. That fpace being pointed out by under
officers, or other marks, as directed at the latter end of the
drill with arms, the company will praétife, both at open and
clofe files, without and with arms.

By ranks. 1ft, March in fingle file, by fucceffive ranks,
along the four fides of the fquare; the fame by twos.
2d, Marchand wheel by ranks of fours; file off fingly and
double up, preferving proper ditances, and not quickening
on the wheel. 3d, March and wheel by fub-divifions of
ranks. 4th, March and wheel by whole ranks. 5th, March
to front and to rear, ranks at ten pacesafunder. 6th, March
the company ina fingle rank to front and to rear, by a
flank and by the centre. 7th, Oblique, by ranks, 8th,
Open and clofe files, and intervals, by the fide ftep. th,
March in file ro either flank. roth, Ranks fucceffively ad-
vance fix or eight paces, halt, and drefs ; ranks fucceffively
fall back the fame number of paces, halt and drefs. 11th,
Advance or retire two or three flank men, the ranks drefs
tothem. t2th, Open and clofe ranks.

Atclofe ranks and files. 13th, March and wheel in all
direGtions, by fub-divifions and by company; fhorten ftep,
and lengthen it; the march to be made both in ordinary
and quick time; the wheels to be made in wheeling time.
14th, Advance and retire two or three flank files, and drefs
to them. rgsth, Open and clofe to the flank by the fide
flep. 16th, Change front by the countermarch by files.
17th, March in file to the flanks, clofe, and without opening
out, form tothe front, or tocither flank. 18th, March
oblique. igth, Sub-divifions double on the march, and
again form up by obliquing. zoth, Wheel backwards by
f{ub-divifions, march along the line to prolong it ; form te
the flank by whecling up, or to the frevt by obliquing.
21, File from the flank of company tothe rear, as in” the
paflage of lines ; halt front, clofe into pivot files, wheel up
asin forming line. 22d, From three deep, form two deep.
23d, From two deep, form three deep. 24th, Exercile
of the firelock, manual and platoon, by ranks and com-
pany. 25th, Firings by Files, fub-divifions, and company.

’

The neceflary paufes and formations betwixt thefe move=
ments in order to conne&t them, matt of courfe be made.
They may be praétifedin whatever fucceffion that fhall at the
fame time be found proper. The greateft precifion mult
be required and obferved in their execution, according to the
rules already laid down.

Every efficer muft be inftru&ted in each individnal cir-
cumitance required of a recruit, or afoldier; alfo in the ex.
ercife of the fword; and accultomed to give words of com-
mand with that energy and precifion which is fo effenrtial.
Every officer, on firlt joining a regiment, is to be examined
by the commanding officer ; and if he is found imperleét in
the knowledge of the movements required from a foldier,
he muft be ordered to be exercifed, that he may learn their
juft execution. Till he is mafter of thofe poizts, and ca-
pable of inftru@ing the men under his command, he isnot
to be permitted to take the command of a platoon in the
battalion. Squads of officers muft be formed, and exer-
cifed by a field officer. They mult be marched in all direc-
tions; tothe front, oblique, and to the flank. They mult
be marched in line, at platoon diftance, and marched as in
opencolumn. ney mult change direction, as in file, and
cover anew in column. In thefe, and other fimilar move-
ments, the pace and the diftances are the great objeéts to be
maintained. From the number ot files in divifion, they muft
learn accurately to judge the ground neceffary for each, and
to extend that knowledge to the front of greater bodies.
Taey mut acquire the habit of readily alcertaining, by the
eye, perpendiculars of march, and the fquarenefs of the
wheel. An officer muft not only know the polit which he
fhould occupy in all changes of firuation, the commands
which he fhould give, and the general intention of the re-
quired movement ; but he fhould be mafter of the principles
on which cach is made, and of the faults that may be
committed, in order to avoid them himfelf, and to inétrud
others.

Thefe principles are in themfelves fo fimple, that moderate
refleGtion, habit, and attention, will foon fhew them to the
eye, and fix them in the mind ; and individuals, from time to
time, when qualified, mutt be ordered to exercife the batta-
lion, or its parts. ‘The complete in{truétion of an officer en-
larges with his fituation. and at laft takes in the whole circle
of military fcience. From the-variety of knowledge re-
quired of hiav, his exertion mu{t be unremitting, every one
{triving to make himfelf matter of hisown part. Befides the
inflru@ion peculiar to the non-commiffioned officers, they
fhould be exercifed inthe fame manner asthe officers are, as
they are frequently called onto replacethem. The neceflity
alfo of order, {teadinefs, filence, and of executing every thing
deliberately, and without hurry, fhould be ftrong!y inculcated
on the infantry foldier.

Formation of the Company.

The company is always to be fized from flanks to centre.
It is formed three deep. The files lightly touch, whea
firelocks are fhouldered and carried, but without crowd-
ing, and each man will occupy a fpace of about twenty-two
inches. ‘

Clofe order is the chief and primary order, in which the
battalion and its parts at alltimes aflemble and form. Open
order is only regarded as an exception from it, and oce
cafionally ufed-in fituations of parade and fhew. In clofe
order, the officers are in the ranks, andthe rear ranks are
clofed up within one pace. In open order, the officers are
advanced three paces, and the ranks are two paces diftant
from each other. Each company isa platoon. Each coms
pany forms two fubdivifions, and alfo four fections. But as
feétions fhould never be lefs than five files, it will happen

where

~

BATTALION.

wherethe companies are weak, that they can only, for the
purpofesof march, or three {eétions.

* When the company is fingly formed, the captain is on the
right, the enfign on the left, of the front rank, each covered
bya ferjeant:in the rear rank. .The lieutenant is in the
rear, asalfo'the drummer and pioneers in a fourth rank, at
three paces diftance. The left of the front rank of each
fubdivifion is marked by a corporal. The right of the left
fubdivilion may be marked by another corporal. When ne-
ceflary, the places of abfent officers may be fupplied by fer-
Jeants; thofe of ferjeants by corporals, and thole of corporals
by intelligent men. When the company is to join others,
and the battalion, or part of it, to be formed, the enfign
and his covering ferjeant quit the flank, and fall into the
fourth rank, until othcrwife placed. =~

When the company isto take open order from clofe order,
on the command Rear Ranks—take open Order, the flank
men on the right and left of the rear ranks, ftep back to
mark the ground on which each rank refpeCtively is to halt
and drefs at open diftance. “Chey face to the right, and
fland covered. Every cther individual remains ready to
move at the word of command March, the rear rank
dreflers front, and the rear ranks fall back one and two
paces; each drefling by the right the inftent it arrives on its
ground. The officers move out in frort three paces, and
divide their ground. One ferjeant is on each flank of the
front rank. The pioneer remains behind the centre of the
rear rank. The drummer places himfelf on the right of
the right ferjeant.

When the company is to take clofe order from: open
order, at the word of command Rear Ranks take clofe Order,
the officers, ferjeants, and drummer, faceto the ight. On
the word Marc/, the ranks clofe within one pace, marching
one and two paces, and then halting. The officers move
round the flanks of the company to their refpective pofts:
the ferjeants and drummers fall back, and each individual
refumes his place, as in the original clofe order. The above
regards the company when fingle; but when united in the
battalion, other pofts are allotted to the drummer and
pioneer,

Formation and Order of ihe Battalion.

A perfe& uniformity in the formation and arrangement of
all companies and battalions isindifperfible for the execution
of juft and combined movements. The ftrength of the bat-
talion is ten companies; one grenadier, eight battalion, and
one of light infantry, confilting moft commonly of three
officers, three ferjeants, three corporals, two drummers, and
fifty-feven privates. When thefe companies join, and the
‘battalion is formed, there is to be no interval between any
of them, grenadier, light company, or other; but every
part of the front of the battalion fhould be equally ftrong.
Each company which makes a part of the fame line, and is
to actin it, muft be formed and arranged in the fame manner.

The companies will draw up as follows, from right to
left. . Grenadicrs; firit and third captain; fifth and feventh
captain; eighth and fisth captain; fecond and fourth cap-
tain; light infantry. The four eldeft captains are on the
right of the grand divifions. Officers commanding com-
panies or piatoons-are all on the right of the front rank of
their refpeciive companies. ‘The eight battalion companies
will compofe four grand divifions, eight companies or

latoons. fixteen fubdivifions, and thirty-two feGtions, when
fufficiently ftrong to be fo divided, otherw:fe twenty-four,
fer the purpofes of march. The battalion is alfo divided
into right and left wings. When the battalion is on a war
eftablithment, each company is to be divided into two
platoons. When the ten companies are with the battalion,

they may then, for the purpofes of firing or deploying, be
divided into five grand divifions, from right to left. The
» battalion companies will be numbered from the right to the
left, 1, 2,3, 4. 5,9, 7, 8; the fubdivifions will be numbered
I, 2, of each; the feftions will be numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, of
each. The files of companies’ will alfo be numbered 1, 2,35
4, &c. The grenadier and light companies will be numbered
f{eparately in the fame manner, and with the addition of
thofe diflinGtions. The feveral appellations will be preferved,
whether faced to front or rear.

The companies muft be equalized in point of numbers, at
all times when the battalion is formed for ficld movement;
and could the battalions of a line alfo& be equalized, the
greateft advantages wovld arife. But though from the
different ftrengths of the battalions, this cannot take place,
yet the firft requifite always mult, and is indifpenfible.

Pi. Il. fig. 2. When the battalion is formed in clofe
order, ranks are at the diftance of one pace, except the
fourth or fupernumerary rank, which has three paces. All
the field officers, and the adjutant, are mounted. The com-
manding officer is the only officer advanced in front, for the
general purpofe of exercife, when the battalion is fingle; but
in the march in line, and in the firings, he is in the rear of
the colours. The lieutenant colonel is behind the colours,
fix paces from the rear rank. ‘The major and adjutant are
fix paces in the rear of the third and fixth companies. One
officer is on the right of the front rank of each company or
platoon, and one on the left of the battalion. All thefe
are covered in the rear rank by their refpective ferjeants, and
the remaining officers and ferjeants are in a fourth rank be-
hind their companies. Itis to be obferved, that there are no
coverers in the centre rank to the officers or colours.

The colours, which in moft regiments are carried by the
two youngelt enfigns, are placed between the fourth and fifth
battalion companies both in the front rank, and each covered
by a nen-commiffioned officer or fteady man in the rear rank,
One ferjeant is in the front rank, between the colours; he is
covered by a fecond ferjeant in the rear rank, and he by a
third in the fupernumerary rank. The fole bufinefs of thefe
three ferjeants is, when the battalion moves in line to ad-
vance and dire& the march. The place of the firft of thofe

‘ferjeants, when they do move out, is preferved by a named
non-commiffioned officer, who moves up from the fupernu-
merary rank for that purpofe. Of the officers appointed to
carry the colours, the elde(t carries the king’s, the youngeft
the regimental colour. Whenever the right wing advances
er retires, the king’s celour accompanies it on its flank,
and to it the men’s eyes are directed as their point of dreff-
ing. In the fame manner, the regimental colour accompa-
nies the left wing.

The fourth rank is at three paces diftance when halted, or
marching in line. When marching in-column, it muft clofe
up to the diftance of the other ranks. The effential ufe of ©
the fourth rank is to keep the others clofed up to the front
during the attack, and to prevent any break beginning in
therear. On this important fervice too many officers and
non-commiflioned officers cannot be employed. The pioneers
are aflembled behind the centre, formed two deep, and nine
paces from the third rank. The drummers of the eight
battalion companies are affembled in two divifions, fix paces
behind the third rank of their fecond and feventh companies.
The grenadier and light infantry drummers and fiters are
fix paces behind their ref{peGive companies. The muficare
three paces behind the pioneers in a fingle rank, and at all
times, as well as the drummers and pioneers, are formed at
loofe files only, occupying no more {pace than is neceflary.
The ftaff of chaplain, furgeon, quarter-mafter, and furgeon’s

5Ma2 affitant,

BATTALION.

affiftant, are three paces behind the mufic. Officers in ge-
neral remain pofted with their proper companies; but com-
manding officers will eccafionally make fuch changes as they
may find neceflary. Whenever the officers move out of the
front rank, in parade, marching in column, wheeling into
line, or otherwife, their places are taken by their ferjeant
coverers, and preferved until the officers again refume them.
When the line is halted, and efpecially during the firings
when engaged, the ferjeant coverers fall back into the fourth
rank, and obferve their platoons.

Pi. III. fig. 4. When the battalion is to take open order,
at the word of command Rear Ranks take open Order, the
flank men on the right of the rear ranks of each company ftep
brifkly back to mark the ground on which each rank refpec-
tively is to halt, They face to the right, and cover as pivots,
being regulated and drefled by the adjutant e7 ferjeant ma-
jot on the right. Every other individua¥remains ready to
move. At the word March, the flank dreffes face to the
front, and the whole move as follows :—The rear ranks fall
back one and two paces, each dreffing by the right the infant
it arrives on the ground. ‘The officers in the front rank,
as alfo the colours, move out three paces. Thofe in the
rear, together with the mufic, move through the inter-
vals left open by the front rank officers, and divide them-
felves, viz. the captains covering the fecond file from the
right; the lieutenants the fecond file from the left; and
the enfigns oppofite the centre of their refpective companies.
‘The mufic form between the colours and the front rank.
The ferjcant coverers move up to the front rank, to preferve
the intervals left by the officers. The pioneers fall back to
fix paces diftance behind the centre of the rear rank. ‘The
drummers take the fame diftance behind their divifions. The
major moves to the right of the line of officers. The ad-
jutant to the left of the front rank. The ftaff place them-
felves on the right of the front rank of the grenadiers. The
lieutenant colonel and the colonel (difmounted ) advance be-
fore the colours, two and four paces. Tbe whole being arrived
at their feveral pofts, the words Hali—Dre/s are given to the
refpe¢tive companies, and the battalion remains formed for pa-
rade in the order in which it fhould receive a fuperior officer.
When the battalion is reviewed fingly, then in order to make
more fhow, the divifion of dyxummers may be moved up,
and formed two deep on each flank of the line. The pio-
neers may form two deep, on the right of the drummers
of the right ; and the itaff may draw up on the right of the
whole.

When the battalion is to refume clofe order, the words
Rear Ranks take clofe Order is given. The lieutenant-colonel,
officers, colours, ftafi, and mufic face to the right. The
drummers and pioneers, if on the flanks, face to the centre.
The ferjeants, if inthe front rank, face to the right. Atthe
word March, the rear ranks clofe within one pace, moving
up one and two paces, and then halting. The mufic marches
through the centre interval. The ferjeants, drummers, pio-
neers, &c. refume their places, each as in the original forma-
tion of the battalion in clofe order. The officers move
through and into their refpetive intervals, and cach in-
dividual arrives, and places himfelf properly at his poft, in
clofe order.

On particular occafions, and when neceflary, officers com-
mandifg platoons, who in line are on the right of their
platoons, fhift to the left to conduét the heads of files, or the
pivot flanks of their divifions, in echellon, or in column.
When the battalion wheels by companies, or fub-divifions,
to either flank into column, both colours. and the file of
directing ferjeants always whecl to the proper front, and
place themielves behind the third file of the new pivot.

There is no feparate colour referve, the pioneers, mufic, &c.
fufficiently ftrengthen the centre; but in the firings, the
two files on each fide of the colours may be ordered to re-
ferve their fire. 4

The conftant order of the light company, when formed in
line, and united with the battalion, is at the fame clofe files
as the battalion. Their extended order is an occafional ex-
ception. When the light company is detached, and the
grenadier company remains, it will be undivided on one flank
of its battalion, whenever there are feveral battalions in line ;
but when the battalion is fingle, it is permitted to be occa-
fionally divided on each flank. When the grenadier or light
companies are detached, and make no part of the line, they
may be formed two deep, if it is found proper,

With a very few obvious alterations, thefe general rules
take place when a company or battalion is permitted or
ordered to form in two ranks only ; and which, on the low
eftablifhment of our battalions, may o@ften be done for the
purpofes of exercife or movement on a more confiderable
front. Itis alfo evident that they generally apply, whether
the companies are {trong or weak, and whether a greater or
leffer number of them compofe the battalion. Z

We fhall now proceed to give an abftra& of the moft effen-
tial general attentions required in the movements of the
battalion, and which may be found more fully detailed in the
rules and regulations for the battalion and theline, as pub-
lifhed by his majefty’s command.

I. Attentions of the Soldier.

Quick time is in general confined to wheelings and filings.
The other movements of the platoon or battalion are made
in ordinary time. It is feldom that they will, or ought to be,
required at quick time. All wheelings, forward or back-
ward, are made quick. Eyes are turned to the wheeling
flank, at the word March, and not before. The wheeling
flank man fteps out firm at a pace of thirty-three inches, till
he receives the word Ha/t. It is the bufinefs of the reft of
the rank to keep up to him. Eyes remain in all cafes to
the wheeling hand, till a new order is given by the com-
manding officer. All flings are made quick, clofe, and at
the lock ftep. Files are at no time to open out, on oceafions
of exercife, parade, or manccuvre; but they will often be
fo permitted and ordered, when marching in the ftreets ; or
in common route marching, when the march by divifions
cannot fo conveniently take place. All facings muft be ac-
curately made on the left heel. Pivot men muft cover care-
fully and exaétly. In wheeling backward, the ftanding man
faces the oppofite way to that he does in wheeling forward.
Pivots, whether in whecling into column, or in wheeling
into battalion, when once pofted are to remain immoveal
and do not alter their pofition in confequence of plato
drefling, nor on any account, but by order of the commande
ing officer of the battalion, when he finds it neceffary to re=
quire a more correct dreffing from the whole. 2 SRA

The great obfervance of the foldier in the ranks, and
underarms, is the fquarencfs of the fhoulders and body, the
head to the front, and eyes only glanced to the point of
dreffing. When the battalion is halted, and a more accurate
drefling is ordered, the head may be a little turned during
that operation only, and each man fhould juft diftinguifh the
lower part of the face of the fecond man from him. Whether
in movement, or halted; each man is juft to touch, without
crowding, his neighbour’s arm, towards which he dreffes, to
depend on that chiefly for his line, and at no time to feparate
from him. At the word arch, the ftamp of the foot is not
to be made, but the firlt itep isto be taken as firm and
long as any other, and the body of each man, if in his
true pofition under arms, is prepared for it by an inclimation

forward.

BATTALION.

forward. On the perfe& execution of this depends much of
the accuracy of march. Onthe word March, the firft tlep
in all fituations is taken with the left foot. When the com-
manding officer of the battalion gives that word, the whole
ftep off together, whether in line or in column. When he
gives the word Halt, the whole halt at that inflant. At
the word March, eyes are directed to the pivot flank, if in
column ; or to the head of the file, if filing ; to the colours,
if marching in battalion; and in general to that point by
which they are conduéted. At the word /a/f, the foot in
the air finifhes its ftep, and the other is brought up to it.
Eyes remain dire&ed to the pivot flank if marching in co-
lumn; to the colours, if in line; or to the wheeling flank,
if wheeling ; and in general to the point to which they were
turned when in movement, until a new order commands a
new dreffing. Whenever the word Dre/s is given by platoon
officers to their platoons, eyes are turned to the pivot where
the officer is, and from whence he correéts them upon a di-
ftant obje&. In marching in line, each man mutt preferve
his body perfectly fquare, and juft feel the touch of his
neighbour, who is nearer than himfelf to the directing point.
The rear ranks are to be well locked up, particularly when
firing. In marching in battalion, or when halted, rear
ranks will be locked up; but in marching in column, they
may in general be at one pace diftance. The fleps are to
be taken firm, and marked.

All alterations in carrying, /upporting arms, &c. are done
by the whole battalion at once, whether in line or column,
and not by the divifions ef it feparately. The commanding
officer gives the word, and not the platoon officers; and no
fuch change is at any time made, but in confequence of his
command. The men therefore in all cafes, wheel, halt,
march, drefs, &c. with their arms carried, fupported, trailed,
or floped, according as the laft-given command directed
them. The fame is to be obferved whenever-the battalion,
moving in line or in column, chauges its time of march.

In column, when the right of the battalion is in front,
the deft is the pivot flank ; and when the left is in front, the
right is the pivot. In marching in column, the pivot files
of men next to the officers muft have great attention in co-
vering, when the movement is made in a ftraight line, as
they are points on which the formation is made ; and there-
fore for that purpofe, they muft remain clofe to their pivot
officers, who in that fituation cover and give diftance.

Supported arms {hou'd only be allowed when halted in line,
or when moving in column. But the march in line, and in
general all wheclings up into line, and all formings of the
line or dreffing it, fhould be made with carried arms, as the
only fituation which preferves the true diftance of files, or
can give an accurate line.

; Il. Covering Platoon Serjeants.

The covering ferjeant accompanies and affilts the platoon
officer in all his movements, and preferves his place in line,
or on the pivot flank in column, whenever the officer’s duty
requires him occafionally to quit it. In battalion, he covers
in the rear rank. At open order he moves into the officer’s
place in the front rank. At clofe order, he leaves it for
the officer to take it. In the march in echellon, he is on
the outward flank of the front rank. When the battalion
breaks into column to the right or left, the ferjeant falls
back two paces ; and when the wheel is finifhed, he covers
his officer on the pivot flank. When the column marches,
if the officer is in front of the platoon, the ferjeant is on
the pivot of the front rank, and is anfwerable for the pla-
toon diftance; if the officer remains on the pivot flank, the
ferjeant then falls behind the rear rank, and covers the fe-
cond file from the pivot. When from column the right in
front platoons wheel up to the left into line, the ferjeant at the

word Wheel, goes to the right of the front rank of the
platoon, and wheels up with it, thereby preferving the offi-
cer’s place. If the wheel is to the right, the ea is be-
hind the right file, ready to move up to the officer’s place
at the conclufion of the wheel. On all occafions, when
any platoon, which is then feparated, joins in line to one on
its right; at that inftant muft the covering ferjeant be on
its right, to preferve the place of his officer, who may be
employed in drefling his platoon.

When the platoons wheel cither into line or into column,
the ferjeant of the leading platoon runs out, and marks
the point in the line of pivots where its flank is to halt.
When platoons countermarch in column, the ferjeant
moves into the officer’s place on his quitting it to lead in
file, faces to the right about, ftands fatt, and becomes the
pivot point for the front rank leader to clofe to after the
countermarch is finifhed, and its place is occupied by the
officer after dreffing his divifion. When the platoons from
columns file, in order to take a new line either to the front
or rear; the ferjeant' of each fuccelfively, as it arrives within
thirty yards of that line, and no fooner, runs out, takes di-
flance, places himfelf upon it, and remains as a point to
which his officer is to bring and clofe in the pivot flank man
of his platoon, and as a point which the officer himfelf is
afterwards to occupy... Whenever the battalion halts to fire,
the ferjeants fall back, and in concert with the fupernume-
rary rank, keep the rear ranks well locked up and attentive
to their duty. When the battalion again moves, ferjcants
refume their places. When the battalion is in column of
fubdivifions, if the officer is ordered to march in front of his
platoon, the ferjeant is on the pivot of the leading fubdivifion,
Tf the officer is on the flank of his leading fubdivifion, the
ferjeant takes the flank of the fecond. In column of fec-
tions, the ferieant alfo takes the flank of the fecond fection.
In clofe colunm, the ferjeant is on the flank of the reat
rank, behind the officer ; and in forming line after the Halt,
Front, of the platoon, he remains on its outward flank, and
marches up with it. 4

The pioneers, in column of march, are in front ; in line,
they are formed two deep behind the centre, and nine paces
from the rear rank. Drummers, in column of march or
clofe column, are with their companies, and on the flank
not the pivot one. In line, the grenadier and hght drum-
mers are fix paces behind the rear rank of their companies.
The battalion drummers are in two divifions, and formed
fix paces behind the third and feventh companies. In pa-
rade, at open order, the drummers preferve their fix paces
from the rear rank. Whenever the platoon is cautioned to
wheel forward or backward any wamed number of paces,
the ferjeant immediately _potts himfelf before or behind the
eighth file from the ftanding fiank, and takes the ordered
number of paces; when his platoon has conformed, he
places himfelf on its outward flank. The mutfic, in open
or clofe column, are on the flank which is not the pivot
one; in line, they are in a finale line behind the centre,
twelve paces from the rear rank. On parade, at open order,
they are between the colours and the front rank. Drum-
mers, mufic, pioneers, &c. will take care not to impede
the flank movements of the ciofe column, -nor its forma-
tion into line, but will get into the rear of their refpective
battalions, as foon as they are difengaged from each
other.

III. Attentions in Platoon Ojficers.

When the battalion is formed in line, company or platoon
officers are all on the right of their platoons, In column,
they are on the pivot flank, unlefs particularly ordered into
the front of each platoon, if a march for any confiderable

diftance is to be made. When on the pivot flanks, they
are

-

BATTALION.

are anfwerable in their own perfons for diftances and cover-
ing. When in front, their ferjeants, under their dire€tion,
preferve the ordered diftance.

In wheeling from. line to column, each moves cut, and
places himfelf one pace before the centre of his platoon.
Each turns towards his men during the wheel, and inclines
to his pivot flank. Each gives his word, Halt—Drefs,
when his wheeling man has juft completed his degree of
wheel. Each fquares his platoon, but without moving what
was the ‘ftanding flank. Each then places himfelf on the
proper pivot flank. After the wheel into column is com-
pleated, no one is to caufe his platoon to fhift, by way of
covering on the pivot flank, unlefs fo ordered by the com-
manding officer, or that in the courfe of marching a ftraight
line is gradually taken up. In wheeling from column into
line, the officer places himfelf one pace before the centre of
his platoon, turns towards his men duricg the wheel (in-
clinng towards the pivot of his preceding platoon), and
gives the word Halt—Drefs, when his wheeling man, on
whom his eye is fixed, is juft arrived at the next flanding
pivot man. He theh, from that pivot man correting the
interior of his platoon upon his own pivot mar, takes his
place, and remains fteady on the right of his platoon.

If the column is in movement, and platoons are fuecef-
fively to wheel into a new direétion, each officer, to what-
ever hand he is to wheel, gives the word from the point he
is then placed at, whether in front or onthe flank. If on
the wheeling flank, he conduéis it ; if on the ftanding flank,
he fteps out two or three paces, the better to fee that his
platoon wheels quick, with a proper ftep, and that he
may time his word Halt. This done he is to fall back to
his place on the pivot flank, no longer to look to his
platoon, but having his eye fixed on the officer of the pre-
ceding platoon, he isto give his word March at the inftant
that officer is taking the laft ftep which eftablifhes the
proper diftance between the platoons. When an officer
is marching on the pivot flank, he is to be anfwerable for
dftance and covering. Thefe circumftances alone muft
folely engage his atteation: he can only occafionally give
a glance of his eye towards his platoon, which mutt drefs
to him of courfe, and without any particular direction.
When platoons in column are each to countermarch on its
own ground, the officer, when his platoon faces, goes to
that flank which is to become the pivot flank, conduas his
platoon in file, and clofes its leader to the ferjeant, who has
remained to mark the pivot, Halts, Fronts, and dreffes it
{quare. He then places himfelf where the ferjeant ftood.

When the battalion marches in line, officers then become
individuals, equally attentive as the foldier; nor can officers
then be attentive to any thing but to the correétnefs of their
own perfonal march. Every operation then depends on the
word from the commanding officer, who moves, halts, and
dreffes the battalions. Whenever the battalion is in line,
officers give no commands except in firings.

When the platoons of a column file feparately to a flank,
the officer condu&ts the head; and when he arrives within
thirty paces of the new pofition ia which he is to form, he
detaches his ferjeant to mark the point at which he is to
place his pivot front rank man, either in filing to front or
rear. The officer ftops at that ferjeant, and halts, fronts,
and dreffes his platoon clofe to the ferjeant. He then him-
felf, after correGting his platoon, replaces the ferjeant, who
falls back to the rear rank. In filing, diftances and dreffing
are taken from that hand to which, by a face of the pla-
toons, the whole would ftand fronted in column, and the
line breaks into column towards the direGting point. The
leaders of the third, fourth, &c. platoons from the direGting

flank are never to overpafs the flraight line which joins the
heads of the firft and fecond, but are, if any thing, to be
behind it, till they arrive and halt exaly in the new line.
In movements to the rear, diftances and dreffing are always
taken from the fame point to which they wouid be made,
if the movement was to the front; that is, from the left in
going to the rear, if it fhould be from the right in going to
the front.

On the leading platoon officer of the column much of
the precifion of march depends. He muft lead at an equal,
fteady pace, and on two objects cither given te him, or
which he himfelf takes up on every alteration of pofition.
This demands his utmoft attention; ner muit he allow it
to be diverted by looking at his platoon, the care of whofe
regularity depends on the other officers and non-commiffion-
ed officers belonging to it. The fecond platoon officer
mutt alfo be fhewn, and know, the points on which the firft
leads. He is always to keep that firlt officer and thofe points
in a line; and thofe two officers, together with the placed
mounted officers, thus become a direGtion for the other pivot
officers to cover. In marching in open column, the cover-
ing ferjeants are placed behind the fecond fie from the pivot
officers, that the officers may the more correéily fee and
cover each other in column. In the column of march,
after the word Halt is given, no one is to move, and pivots
particularly muit remain where they are then placed. In
this fituation, when ordered to form, each platoon wheels
up to its adjoining pivot ; the whole will then perhaps, as
in the cafe cf marching upon a road, along the different
turnings of a height, &c. &c. be on a winding line, and muft
not attempt to get into a firaight line, unlefs fo erdered by
the commanding officer to anfwer fome particular object.
When the platoon wheels ackwards from line into column,
the fituation and bufinefs of the officer are the fame“as when
wheeling forwards ; and he halts and dreffes from his pivot
flank, which he gains during the wheel.

In clofe column, divifion officers are on the pivot flanks
In forming line, before the divifions face, they are fhifted
to the leading flank, if neceffary. The officer of each
ftops in his own perfon, when the divifion nearer to the
forming point than himfelf, receives the word Halt, Front,
allows his ferjeant to proceed with the divifion ; at the due
inftant gives his word Halt, Front,—Dre/z, and as foon as
the front of his divifion is clear, the word March, condu&t-
ing it into line. Before the divifion arrives within three or
four paces of its ground, the officer will have ftepped out
nimbly to the fank of the preceding divifion, and will be

thus ready to give the werd Hal/—Dre/s at the inftant his © ©

inward flank man joins the preceding divifion. The men
drefs by the formed part of the line, and the officer corrects
them on the known diftant point. He then refumes his
platoon place, which has been preferved by a ferjeant.
When the clofe column, or part of it, forms line on a rear
ivifion, the officer of each, when the one bchicd him halts,
fronts, will ftep nimbly round the rear, and without imped-
ing his divifion, allow his ferjeant to proceed. From hence
he can better judge the proper moment of giving bis words
Halt, Front, to his divifion. He then places himfelf on its
inward flank, and marches up when his front is clear. The
officer of one of the centre platoons is always in open co- _
lumn, to preferve diftance for the colour files. The colours
wheel up into column, with the leading centre platoon, and
place themfelvcs behind the third file of men from its pivot
flank. When the line forms, they clofe in to that fank.
When officers march in front of their divilions, they mult
in their own perfons keep fo clofe to the preceding ones, as
not to hinder the flank of their own divifion from preferv-

ing

BATT

ing its proper diftance. When the head of a column of
march changes its direction, and that marching in an align-
ment is not in queftion, inftead of making regular wheels
on fixed points, the officer who conducts the leading divi-
fion will often be direéted to bring it gradually round into
the new direGtion, by the turn of the outward fhoulder,
making both its flanks continue moveable ; but each fuc-
ceeding divifion, without the formality of command or halt,
does the fame thing, the whole attention refting on each
pivot flank, which at no rate mutt increafe its diltance, but
during this operation preferves the fame equality of time
and length of ftep at which it was before moving. On all
occafions of forming in line, either by wheeling up from
open column, or in moving up from clofe column, or in
marching up from echellon, &c. the conducting officer moves
nimbly to his point of appui, fome paces before the arrival
of his divifion in the line, and from thence gives his word to
Hfait, and inftantly dreffes it.

Officers and ferjeants of the fupernumerary rank are in
the rear of their reipective companies. When the battalion
is halted, or marching in line, they are three paces from
the rear rank. In open column, they are within one pace
of the rear rank. In clofe column, they go on the flank of
their divifion which is not the pivot. ‘Their great attention
during movements is, that files are correct, ranks kept up,
and that perfect order is preferved among the foldiers; cir-
cumftances in which they greatly affift the platoon officer,
who having the more important objects of diltance and the
covering of pivots to obferve, cannot in fuch fituation be
giving minute direétions to his platoon, without lofing fight
of his more material duties. During the firings, the fuper-
numerary rank, affifted by the platoon ferjeants, are to keep
the rear ranks well clofed up to the front, and to prevent
any break beginning in the rear. ;

The ftaff (adjutant excepted), in line, are three paces be-
hind the mulic; in parade, at open ranks, they are on the
right of the grenadier front rank. It is the particular bu-
finefs of the adjutant at all times to afcertain the direction on
which the column is to move, or on which the formation of the
line ts to be made. For this purpofe he is mounted ; otherwife
he could not properly difcharge this important duty ; and
he can_be much affifted in it, by having two or three camp
colour men, or non-commiflioned officers, properly trained
to line themfelves quickly with any two given points. He
is to take care that the point where the battalion in column
enters an alignment is afcertained to it ; when it is moving
in that aliznment, that two points a-head of the column are
always prepared ; when it wheels up into line, that a point
beyond each flank of that line is afcertained; when the
line is to be prolonged, and has wheeled backward by divi-
fions, that two points in the exaét line of the pivots are
ready for its march ; when the clofe column is to form in
line, that a point to each flank is given ; when the battalion
changes pofition, either by files, or by the diagonal march
of divifions, that there are points given on which the pivots
of files will cover, and can drefs their divifions upon from
their feveral points, of appui; in fhort, that upon all occa-
fions, fixed points of forming, dreffing, and march, are
given, except in advancing in line, where the afcertaining
fuch points does not depend on the adjutant.

When the battalion changes pofition, by the echellon
march, the named divifion wheels its eighth file into the new
direG@tion. The other divifions wheel their eighth file half
the number of paces as the named one. The ferjeant is on
the outward flank, the officer on the inward flank of each
divifion, At the word March, they move on, preferving
their relative diftance, and covering of pivots from before

3

ALION,

ad
them, and juft before the inward flank of each divifion ars
rives at the outward flank of its preceding one, which is
already halted in line, its officer places himfelf before that
flank; and when his inward man touches it, he gives his

word Halt—Drefs up, if the movement is to the front, and

dreffes his divifion on the diftant prepared flank point, fo
that his divifion is fteadied before the arrival of the next one.
When the change is made to the rear, the retiring part faces
about before the divifion wheels are made, proceeds as
above, and each officer gives the word Halt, Front, Dre/s—
Back, to his divifion when its inward man touches the pre-
ceding formed one.
IV. Aitentions of Commanding Officers of Battalions.

The battalion may be confidered with refpeé to the line,
what the platoon is to the battalion.

Commanding and field-officers are always to be mounted,
and unlefs they are active on horfcback, it is impoflible for
them to fee, to correé&, to prevent miltakes, or to move
with that difpatch which is neceflary from one point to ano~
ther. Whatever operation is to be performed by the whole
of the battalion at once, is done upon the word from the
commanding officer, without any repetition being made by
platoon officers. He puts it in motion, and halts it, whe-
ther in line or in column. He wheels it from line into co-
Jumn, and from column into line. He orders arms to be
carried, fupported, &c. He dreffes it from the centre,
when it has marched in line, and halts; and from what was the
leading flank when it has wheeled up from column into line.

Before the column marches, the commanding officer af-
certains points to the leading officer ; and when he intends
to change the dire€tion of the march, he gives new points,
and he watches over the jult leading of the column. He
takes care that all wheels of platoons are made at the identi-
cal point where the leading platoon wheeled ; that all
doublings of fubdivilions are made fucceffively in the fame
manner and at the fame point; and that forming up to
platoons is made at the {pot where the firft forming up is
made; that in all diminutions of the front, the natural or-
der of the column is preferved, whether the right or left of
the battalion leads ; that a column of half platoons occupies
no more {pace than a column of whole platoons, viz. juft
enough to wheel up into battalion.

When the open column marching in- an alignment is to
form ina ftraight line, and for that purpofe halts; the in-
ftant that it does halt, the commanding officer from the head
of the battalion correéts the pivot files of men (which how-
ever ought not to be neceflary ) in the true line, and upon a
rear point. But if the march is making in a winding di-
reGtion, and that the intention is not to form, or not to take
up a ftraight Ime, the platoons remain on the ground on
which they halt, and do not move in any fhape, until they
receive a further order, either to form in line, or firft to
cover, and then to form or continue the march. The
commanding officer always condudts the head of_his batta-
lion column to the point at which it is to enter a new line,
and he takes care in time to difpatch a mounted officer to
afcertain that point. When the platoons wheel up into line,
he immediately, if neceflary, correéts the drefling of the
battalion from the flank which led when in column, and
that generally upon a point beyond the other flank.

When aéting in line with others, the commanding officer
of each battalion conforms to the movements of the regus
lating one, and from it takes, and rapidly repeats, his words
of Halt, Wheel, March, &c.; andthe leaft delay in repeat-
ing any of thefe words mult undoubtedly diforderthe line in
proportion to that delay, for the whole of a line fhould
march or halt at the fame inftant. In line, the censure

officer

BATTALION.

officer isin the rear of thecolours. From thence, by marked
cautions, he makes his battalion ftep out, or ftep fhort, or
incline, as is neceflary to preferve its place in the general line.
His great attention is to fee and prevent the beginning of
faults, and not wait till they have had their effect. By
watching and regulating his advanced ferjeants, he beft regu-
lates his battalion. The fquarenefs of the march, the com-
patinefs of the files, and the equality of ftep, are the great
objets he is to have in view. The other mounted officers
are behind the wings, and can affift much in preventing faults,
and in correéting them.

All the battalions of a line muft halt at the fame inflant
in confequence of that word, repeated by commanding
officers, whether they are then corre, ornotinline. Each
half battalion from its own colour, and the men locking to
it, will be immediately dreffed on the colours of the next
adjoining battalion. By this means a general continued line
will be obtained, or, at any rate, a itraight one between each
two colours; and if all the colours fhall have truly halted
in one line, the whole corps will be completely formed in a
fttaight line. But if the halt is not juftly made, and that a
better line muft be obtained, the colours of the defetive
battalions will be-brought into the general line ; the platoon
officers will quickly arrange themfelves, eyes will be or-
dered to the right, and the men will in an inftant move
up. Too mnch celerity cannot be ufed in completing this
operation.

A fingle battalion, when it halts, is dreffed on its right or
left centre company, and is therefore in a flraight line.
Two battalions drefs each from its centre on each other’s
colours, their outward wings conforming, and are therefore
in a ftraight line. Three or more battalions drefs from the
centre of each, on their next colour ; and therefore if all the
colours halt in a line, the line of the whole will be flraight :
if they are not fo halted, the generai line will not be dreffed,
till a {pecial correétion is made, but no flank will be thrown
out of the general diretion. When a battalion retires and
halts, it ought never to remain in that fituation, but be 1m-
mediately faced about, and dreffed to the proper front. The
greatcft fault that a battalion in line can make, is increafing its
interval, Bad dreffing may be remedied without danger,
but a falfe diftance prefents a weak part to the enemy, and
is not to be clofed without a hazardous movement, and great
operation of the line. Commanding officers cannot take
too much precaution to afcertain true points in the line in
which they are to form, before the arrival of their battalions
in it. When a battalion is exercifing ingly, a commanding
officer may have two camp colour bearers behind each flank,
properly trained, and ready to run out to that flank, to give
points of marching, forming, or drefling upon the true line;
in doing which, one flank of the battalion is generally con-
fidered asin that line, and often both.

Words of command cannot be {pecified for all the variety
of circum{tances and fituations that occur, but commanding
officers, being themfelves clear in what is to be done, fhould
by diftin& and explicit orders, which they divide and adapt
for the occafion, lead their battalions through ail the points
of execution with precifion. This will always be found
the fhortelt path, nor on any account fhould any operation,
more efpecially the correction of an error or miltake, when
once a battalion is aflembled under arms, be performed in a
carelefs or floveniy manner, which will always be the cafe if
the commander’s orders be not pointed, loud, and fufficiently
explanatory.

A battalion clofe column forms in line on its front divifion,
on a rear divifion, or on a central one, according as circum-
ftances require; and in all cafes the line formed upon is that

on which the head of the column or columns is halted before
the formation begins. Therefore the divifion on which each
battalion at any time forms, moves up at the proper inftant,
and halts on that line. When feveral clofe battalions, ftand-
ing on the line, are to extend and form, the regulating and
named battalion only can be obliged to form ona central
divifion. Each of the others will form on its front or rear
divifion, viz. on that which firft arrives at its ground where
it halts, fronts, and occupies its proper place, while the ©
others move on, and fucceflively come up to it. In forming
line from clofe column, points muft be given beyond boih
flanks in the direétion of the line, and a mounted officer
halts, and fronts each divifion, which is efpecially neceflary
for thofe that form upon a rear one, although lefs fo for
thofe that form upon a frost one. The dreffing and cor-
re€tion of the line is from the firft formed divifion towards
the other flank, and allthe eyes of the battalion are of courfe
turned to that firft formed divificn.

The fame number of points are required for the march
into an alignment, and wheeling up into line of -an open co-
lumu of one battalion, as for that of feveral battalions; viz.
one where the line is entered, and always ¢awo beyond the
head of the column. Therefore, although thefe precautions
may appear formal for the movements of the battalion when
fingle, yet they are neceffary in all its exercifes, when it is
recollected, that fuch battalion is in the place of, and muft
confider itfelf as the leading one of the column, on whofe
correct pofition that of every following one depends. The
fame exa¢tnefs is required in every extenfion from clofe
column into line, and in every forming ard change of pofi-
tion that the battalion makes. In fine, in order to qualify
the battalion for a&ting in the general line, it muft at its
fingle exercifes work on points fixed and relative, and make
no chance and accidental movements or formations. Al-
though on moft occafions of movement ard formation, and
at all times in inflru€tion, determined points marked by de-
tached and mounted officers are given; yet fuch helps can-
not be expended or depended upon, when the line is ad-
vancing on an enemy, when a Corps is harafled in its retreats
and whenit is unfafe to fend out officers, &e. In fuch fitua-
tions every thing will depend on the eye and judgment of
conduGting officers, who muft preferve fuch direétien of
movement, and feize fuch accidental points as prefent them-
felves, and lead to the objeé which is to be accomplifhed.

In whatever fhape a battalion is moving, the commanding
officer is never to lofe fight of this great principle, that the
battalion fhould at no time cover more ground than its proper
extent when formed in line, Therefore if he is marching in
line, he muft take care that his files do not open; if in co-
lumn, bis great attention fhould be, that his divifions do not
open. For this purpofe his march muft be juft and com-
pad, his wheels quick, and all doublings up, or back, which
alter the extent of front, muit be made fo as not to impede
the general movements of the column, or to change its
diltances. When the front is to be diminifhed, he mutt fee
that the doubling divifion flackens 1ts pace, and when dif-
engaged from the other divifion, that it inclines well up,
quick, and covers, fo as not to impede the divifion in its rear.
When the front is to be increafed, the moving up divifion
does it quick, and by cblique marching.

The commanding officer muft recollect, in the winding
movements ofthe open column of march, that the wheeling
diftances mult be juft; thet the pivots are to follow on the
exaét traét which the leading one has traced out ; that the
whole, when ordered, halt on the precife ground they then
occupy; and that when they wheel up and form, the line
will not then be a continued, but probably an irregular curyed

one.

BAyT TA LION.

one. But if a ftraight line is to be entered, and formed
vpon, from the point where the head enters, and not fooner,
and where a mounted officer remains potted, does every pla-
toon pivot officer begin to cover in the true line, to march
in that line, and to preferve his true diftance ; nor muft any
obftacle that can poffibly be furmounted, ever force the
pivot officers out of that line, although the men of their
platoon, when it becomes neceflary, may open or widen their
files from them. If the piyots, on account of any material
impediment, are thrown for a time out of the line, they fhould
always, if poffible, move to the hand which carries them be-
hind the line, and again re-enter it if they can; for which
purpofe an officer, or non-commiflioned officer, fhould be
placed where they are to re-enter it. In marching in the
alignment, the commanding officer fhould frequently plece
himfelf in it, fee with a glance of the eye whether his files
preferve it, and correct them if neceflary.

As one field officer at atime mult command the battalion,
the others prefent can on'y act in aid of him, nor can their
fituation in all cafes be afcertained; but fhould the com-
manding officer not be at the head of the open column when
it marches, and particularly when it halts, to corre@ if
neceflary the pivots in the general line, another field officer,
or the leading officer, if no ficld efficer is there, fhould in-
ftantly attend to it, that the wheeling up may not be de-
layed. If in the courfe of exercife and inftruétion, the com-
manding officer is not behind the centre when the battalion
marches in line or halts, another field officer from that fitua-
tion can immediately give every proper aid in movement,
or in lining as it ought when halted; and in every cafe it
muft be evident in what manner the commanding officer
can be affifted. }

When the line is to break and wheel into open column of
march, in almoft all cafes it is better done by wheeling back-
ward than forward, for the wheel is in this manner made on
the pivot flanks; and although divifions may be unequal,
yet thefe flanks cover after the wheel, an advantage which is
loft if the wheels be made forward. When a battalion
makes a retired echellon, or part of an echellon of acon-
fiderable line, the commanding officer muift take great care
to regulate his movements by thofe of the one preceding
him, viz. that hepreferves his parallelifm, his ordered diftance,
his proper flank interval, and when the leading echellons
halt, and that he is to move up into line, that the outward
flank is not thrown too forward (which without great at-
tention will happen), and thereby perhaps be expofed to the
enemy’s enfilade.

Commanding officers of regiments, brigades, or larger
bodies, are moveable according to circumflances, and fhould,
by no means, confider the centre of fuch bodies as their
general poft in exercife or movements, or expect by the
exertion of one voice, from one fixed fituation, to command
and dire& the whole. Their prefence is more frequently
required near one or the other flank. In general, they fhould
be at the conducting point of movement or formation, and
to that addrefs their orders by voice or meflage ; for if that
point is led or placed in the direétion it fhould take, there
is little danger of the other parts of the corps not properly
and fucceffively conforming to it. There are many fituations
in.the movements of great bodies, where commands, that
are not immediately to influence the whole, are not given
loud, but quietly, to the directing body, to whofe fituation
the reft by the eye conform: as when the head of an open
column is ordered to halt, that the reft of the divifions may
move on, and fucceflively flop in clofe column; and on al
occafions where parts only of a large body are to march, or
halt, fucceffively. In thefe cafes, commanding officers of

eV Obs LIT.

regiments fhould have an attention to give their commands
in {uch manner as not to produce an alteration in thofe
points that are not meant to be influenced by them at that
infant.

Where a large body is marching in column or columns,
through a narrow ground, and when its parts are to be
affembled beyond the defile in feveral lines, in a compact
manner behind each other, fuch parts are not to begin to
affemble when the leading one docs, but the head of each
line is fucceffively firft to come up to the ground on which
itis to ftand, and when it there halts, its proper followers,
and not before, move into line with it; thus not impeding
the divifions that are ftili behind them in the defile, and
are to perform the {ame operation.

Preenfion of movement depends altogether on the inftant
citculation of commands of execution, and that on the atten-
tion of officers tc the point they may he expe&ted to come
from. Unlefs the whole of a body, however large, is put in
motion at the fame inflant, a column will be extended badly,
and a line will be ill dreffed, and with falfe intervals.
Officers muft particularly attend to the difference between
changes of direction made by wheel, and by /houlders forward.
In the firft cafe, one flank remains fixed, while the other is
on the wheel; in the fecond, both flanks are in motion.
Shoulders forward applies to a {mall front, and to a column
of march, where the change of direction is to be made gra-
dually without an alteration of the pace. In proportion to
the front of the body fo changing, mult be the degree of
fweep made by both flanks; and in all cafes, the reverfe
flank conforms to the pace of the pivot flank. In no cafe
can it be made fhort and quick, otherwife it becomes a
wheel.

Regulations in Firing.

1. The advance of the battalion fhould inftantly fucceed
the forming of the line, and when it arrives and halts at
the point where it 18 to fire, the firing eught inftantly to com-
mence at the word Halt, for the battalion having been ap-
prized, during the march, of the nature of the required
firing, no improper delay need therefore be made. The
greateft care fhould be taken by the officers and non-com-
miffioned officers in the rear (whofe principal attention this
is) that the rear ranks are well locked up in the firings, and
that in loading they do not fall back.

2. The paufe betwixt each of the firing words Make
ready—Prefent—Fire, is the fame as the ordinary time, viz.
the 75th part of a minute, and no other paufe is to be made
betwixt the words.

3. In firing wings by companies, each wing carries on its
fire independent, and without regard to the other wing,
whether it fires from the centre to the flanks, or from the
flanks tothe centre. If there are five companies in the
wing, two paufes will be made betwixt the fire of each and
the make ready of the fucceeding one. If there are four com-
panies in the wing, three paufes will be made in the fame
interval. This will allow fyfficient time for the firft com-
pany to have again loaded, and fhouldered at the time the laft
company fires, and will eftabli{h proper intervals between
each. In firing by wings, one wing will make ready the
inftant the other is fhouldering. ‘The commanding officer
of the battalion fires the wings.

4. In firing by grand divilions, three paufes will be made
betwixt the fire of each divifion and the make ready of the
fucceeding one. In platoon firing, two paufes will be made.
In firing by fubdivifions, when one fires, the next pre/ents ;
when one prefents, the next is ready: thus keeping up an
inceflant fire.

5+ In firing companies by files, each company fires inde-

N pendently 5

BATTALION.

pendently; when the right files prefent, the reft make
ready, andfoon. After the firft fire, each man as he loads
comes to arecover, and the file again fires without waitng
for any other.. The rear rank men are to have their eyes
on their front rank man, aud be guided by, and prefent with
them,

6. In general, after the march in front, and halt of the
battalion, company, or platoon firing. fhould begin from the
centre, and not from the flanks. In other cafes, and in
fucceflive formations, it may begin from whatever divifion
firft arrives, and halts on the ground.

7. The line, if retiring, felts, fronts, at one command,
and inflantiy begins firing, from the centre and not from the
flanks.

Objeds of Fire.

I. Againft Cavalry. Vhe chief obje& of the fire againft
cavalry isto keep them ata diltance, and to deter them from
the attack. As- their movements are rapid, a referve is
always kept up. But when fire commences againft infantry,
it cannot, confiftent with order, ard other circumitances, be
too heavy or too quick while it lafts, which fhould be till the
enemy is beaten or repuifed, or till the contefi becomes tco
unequal. The fire of three ranks ftanding, is hardly, with
our prefent arms, to be required, efpccially if the ground
fhould be broken, and the foldiers loaded with their knap-
facks. The fire of the rear rank, therefore, is generally re-
ferved.

II. Defenfive Fire. Where infantry are pofted upon
heights that are to be defended by the fire of mufquetry,
the front rank will kneel, that one third of the fire that may
be given fhould not be lof&; ctherwife the rear rank in fuch
a fituation could not fuficiently inciine their pieces to raife
the flope. Ass foldiers generally prefent too high, and as fire
is of the greateft confequence to troops that are on the de-
fenfive, and who are potted if p flib'e on commanding
grounds, the habitual mode of firing fhould therefore be rather
at a low level than ahigh one; and the fire of the front rank
kneeling being the moft efficacious, as being the moft rafing,
fhou'd not be d:fpenfed with when it can be fafely and ufe-
fully employed.

Ill. Jn Line advancing. When infantry marches in line
to attack an enemy, and in advancing makes ufe of its fire,
it is preferable to fire the two fi ft ranks ouly ftanding, than
to oblige the front rank to kneel, thus firing the whole.
But volleys, fired at a confiderable diftance, or on a retiring
enemy, may be g'ven by the three ranks, the front one
kneeling. ;

IV. Platoon Firing. A line pofted, or arriving at a fixed
firuation, will fire by platoons, each battalion independent,
and fuch firing generally commencing from the centre of
each. The firft fire of each battalion will be regular, and
eftablifh intervals. After the firft, each platoon fhall con-
tinue to fire as foon as it is loaded, independent of any
other, and as quick as it can, till the battalion or line is
ordered to ceafe.

V. Independent, or File Firing. If behind a parapet,
hedge, or abbatis, the two firft ranks only can fire, and {uch
firing may be file firing, and may be made deliberate and
cool, the two men of the fame file, always firing together.
It may begin from the right or left of platoons, and fheuld
be taught in fituations adapted to it, not in open ground:
Should the parapet, hedge, or abbatis be but little raifed,
platoon firing may be ufed.

VI. Running Fire. Troops fhould be often praétifed in
executing the dilleLande, or running fire. This fhould begin
on the flank files, and when once commenced, continued
without the foldier being fubje&t to any other rules than

xe

keeping filence. This fort of fring is the only one which ine
fantry fhould make ufe of in enzazements. It is the rot
lively, and more flaughtering than any. Tt emulates end
warms the foldier, aud renders him infenfible to danger.
The grand point is to accuftom trcops to leave it off when
afignal is given, and afterwards remain filent.

VII. Obique Firing. Obliqce fring by battalions is ad-
vantaseous on many occafions. As when attacked in an
oblique direGion ; when time does not allow to give an ob-
liqnity to a preater part of the hae; and when their fre can
in this manner be thrown againdt the opening of a defile, the
flanks of a column, or againtt cavalry or infantry that direct
their attack on fome particular battalion or portion of the
line.

VIII. Regularity of Firing. As long as the fire by bats
talion, by wings, or by p'atoons, canbe kept up regular, it
is highly advantageous, ard can at eny time be flopped; bet
fhould file firing be allowed, and one begun, uniefs treops
are exceeding cool and well dilciplined, it will be difficuls
to make it fimfh, and to make them advance and charge in
order. When a line halts at its point of firing, no time is
to be left in fernpu'ous drefling, and the fire is inftantly to
commence; but a line that halts, and is not to fire, or when
its firing ceafes after the halt, may immediately be ordered
to drefs from colours to colours. :

IX. Street Firing. Itis fo called from beirg obliged to
engage in aftreet, highway, lane, or narrow paflage, where
no more than 10, 12, 16, or 20 files can march abreaft ; fo
that, according to the breadth of the place, the platocns
muft be ftronger or weaker. When the column is in
motion, znd arrived where the firing is to begin, the com=
manding officer from the rear, gives the word Halt. The
officer commanding the platoon inftantly gives the words
ready, prefent, fire 3 recover arms, outwards face, quick march.
At the word recover arms, the platoon immediately in the
rear of the one that has fired, recover their arms alfo, and
cock, and when their front is open by the march of the
others down their flanks, they march on with recovered
arms, until’they receive from their officer the words alt, pre-
Jert, fire, &c. As foon as the platcon has got down the
flanks, it muft form inflantly in the rear, and immediately
prime and load again without halting, keeping always their
exaGt diflance from the divifion before them, which would
not be the cafe if they halted to load and fhoulder. ;

When this is to be put in pra€tice on real fervice, the
front of the platoons muft not be equal to the breadth of
the place they are to engage in; but there muft be a {mall
{pace of ground, or interval, left on the flanks, for thofe who
have fired to have room to march back, and form in the rear.
Itis in this manner, when there is not time to raife a brealt-
work, that a pafs, bridge, road, or ftreet is to be maintained
againft the enemy, by the platoons fuftaining one another,
and firing in their turn, which may be continued as long as
there is occafion, almoft without intermiffion, by one batta-
lion only. In firing as ebove defcribed, the colours, &c.
muit. at the firft, be placed in the rear, and kept there by the
fubdivifious, as they come down the flanks after firing,
forming conftantly in their front, till the whole bufinefs is
over.

There are, however, different methods, of retiring the pla-
toons fromthe front to the rear. Some are inftrudted, after
the word fre, to recover their arms, and wheel out the
platoon by fubdivifions from right to left, load, and remain
in that pofition till the laft platoon paffes them, when they
wheel back, and form. Another method is, fuppofing the
ftreet to be filled by the platoon, and no room left on the
flanks, then by throwing back or retiring a centre fection

oC

,

. BATTALLON;

of cach platoon, the retiring divifion may pafs through
the centre of the column to the rear, It looks well, and
has a good effect on a day of parade; but it is too com-
plicated to be attempted with fafety in the prefence of an
enemy.

General Obfervations.

There is no doubt but that the fire of the mufquetry may
be reduced to a theory ; bur far from that being the cafe,
the foldier has no principle given him, for at the diftance or
fituation of the objedts, be what they may, he fires at random.
Iris principally owing to the exercife of the target being fo
little practifed, that this ignorance and deficiency of principle
are fo feverely felt.

In our firings, che foldier is inftru@ted always to fire low,
yet no reafon is given him why it fhould be fo, but that the
ball rifes. To confider this a moment; the line of level
[The line of level is the ftraizht line by which is feen the ob-
ject on which the ball thould be carried to.] and the line
of fire (The line of the fire is a ftraight line which reprefents
the axis of the mu(quet. ] are byno means parallel; for accoid-
ing to the different weizhts of metal which the barrel has at
its breeching, and at its aperture, fo they defcribe an angle
more or lefs acute beyond the tube. Ass the eye [eeks its
aim from the length of the line of level, it is therefore fixed
at the exterior of the barrel. But entirely different to this
principle, the motional body, the bullet, is impelled from the
interior part of the initrument, and the length of che line of
fire; therefore the line of fire and the line of level cut each
other. From the law of attra@ion impofed on all bodies
obliquely thrown, at its dehvery from the mouth of the
cylinder, the bullet or ball defcribis a curve, which mfing
from the muzzle, cuts the line of level at a fmall diftance
from the mouth of the barrel. It will, at about the diltance

of 60 toiles, or 360 feet,.be found to be ata foot and a half

or two feet, its greateit elevation above the line of level.
From thence drawn to the earth by that gravitation to
which ail bodies are fubj-cted, it again inclines to the former
line, and’at the diltance of about 120 toifes, cuts it a fecond
time. It is this fecond point cf interf=Gtion which is called
the mufquet thot, or point blank, after which the bullet
finifhes to deferibe its parabola to the end of its fall.
What is here faid is a commen preperty to a'l fire-arms.

It follows, that to make the ball armve at the merk in-
tended, the fight mvit not be always precilely levelicd at
that mark. Suppofe a mark fix feet hizh, divided inte three
equal parts, if the ditiance from it is 50 or Go toifes, or 360
fect, then to itrike the upper dimenfion aim muft be taken
at the middle cne, two feet under the mark. If meant to
ftrike the middie, aim mult be taken at the lower dimenfion,
&e.

lf at 100 toifes, the aim mnuit be taken one foot below
the mark in order to hit it. If the difarce is more than
xco totfes, to ftrike any of the dimentions, aim mult be
taken above the mark, and fo keep railing in proportion to
the diftance.

Suppofe a battalion of the enemy in front; if at 300 toifes
diftance, aim fhouid be taken three feet over the battalion.
If at 200 torfes, about a foot anda haif. If at 150, aim
fhould be taken at their hats. It at 1co, at the middle of
the body, &c. Although the horizontal fhot of a mufquet
may be computed at 180 toifes, yet, where the fire of a line
of infantry can have efieGt, it is feldom more than at So
toifes, or 160 yards.

We thall ciofe this article with fome 2ccount of the form
of a review of.a battalion of infantry, and the method of
performing the eighteen manquvres, as practifed by his
majefly’s torces,

Receiving the General.

At the time appointed for the review, the battalion
will, as directed above, draw up in apen order. Four camp
colours are to be placed fo as to ferm a f{quare, round the
angles of which the wheelings are to be made. A fifth
camp colour is to be placed eighty or a hundred paces in
front of the centre of the battalion, where the general is
fuppofed to take his ftation; and a fixth at the fame
diflance, in the rear of the battalion, and oppofite to the
one in the front ; but although the genera] may choofe to
quit that pefition, itil the colour is to be confidered as the
point to which a!l movements and formations are relative.
The colour muft be fo paced, that ‘the right flank of the
divifious, when marching palt in review, thall be about four
yards diftant from the general.

When the reviewing general is within fifty or fixty paces
of the centre, he will be received with a general falute: the
colonel, with his back to the regiment, gives the word
prefent arms. The men prefent arms, and the efficers falute :
the mufic will play, and the drums beat. The officers, in
faluting, take their time from the fluzel man; as he comes
to the poize, they bring their {words to the recover; 2s he
finks his firelock to the laft motion of the prefent, they drop
the points of their {words; when he cem<s to the fhoulder,
they bring their fwords to the recover; and then, taking
their time from the colonel, bring them graceiully acrofs
their bodies to the port; and remain perfe@tiy fleady and
{quare to the front. The colours only falute fuch per-
fons, as from their rank, and by regulation, are entitled
to it.

The colonel then gives the word boulder arms. While
the general is going round the battalion, every perfon re-
mains perfectly fleady : nocompliment is paid. The mufie
will play, and the drums beat, but they will ceafe es fecn
as the general has retureed to the right flank of the batta-
lion. While the general is proceeding to place himfelf in.
the front, the colonel turns to the regiment, and gives tte
word rear ranks take clofe order—march. He wil then, as
alfo the heutenant-coloncl, mount on horfeback. in the rear
of the centre, giving the words companies, om the left bact-
wards whecl—guick march. Pioneers and mulic are ordered
to the head of the column. Officers commanding companies
muft be very attentive when they give the words huli—adrefs,
to fee that they are well obeyed.

Column—ITarch. The companies wheel fucerflively at
the firlt and fecoud angles of the ground. When the lead-
ing company has made the fecond wheel, it brings them ca
the line on which they pa.s the general. Each kader of a
company, when it has advanced fix paces from the whecling
point, changes quickly by the rear to the right flank of his
company, and gives the words eyes rivdht, th-n rear ranks take
open order. "Vhe mofic begins to_plav, the cificers move
three paces in front of the company, dividing the ground
equatly, the captain on tle right, the lieutenant on the left,
and the enfignin the ceatre. ‘The captain’s place is fuppiied
on the right flank by his covering ferj-ant, who is refporfible
for keeping the company at the proper wheeling diftance
from the one preceding it. The colonel is at the head of
the grenasicrs, or leading company, with the major a little
behind him on his left. The muiie are in ewo ranks, fix
paces before the colonel. The pionecrs are in two ranks,
fix paces befers the mufic, kaving a corporal at their head to
lead them. . The drummers and fifers are on the left fark of
their relpeGive companies, and the {upernumerary f-1jeants
three paces in the rear of their feveral divifions. The lieu-
tenant-colonel is in the rear of the light company; the °
adjutant a little behind him on his kit. The colours are

5N2 thice

BATTAL TON:

three paces behind the fourth battalion company, covered by
thar ferjeants. Staff officers do not march patt.

The officers, when within fix paces of the general, prepare
to falute, by recovering their fwords. They drop them
when in a line with the general, and recover them when ten
paces from him, bringing them afterwards to the port, with-
out in the lealt altering the rate of march, or impeding the
front ranks of their companies. The commanding officer,
when he has faluted at the head of the column, places him-
felf near the general, and remains there till the rear has
marched pait. Uhe drummers give a roil each, when the
officers of their own companies falute. The officers com-
manding companies will, each fucceffively, when he has
paffed the general by thirty paces, give the words rear ranks,
take clofe order, avd will immediately fhift to the left, the
proper pivot. Officers bring their {words to the advance,
and each individua! of the company refumes the poft which
he held when the column was firit put in motion.

When the third wheel is completed by ell the compa-
nies, and the leading company is near to where the left of
the battalion fteod in its original’ pofition, the colonel gives
the word fait. The whole halt, and the mufic ceafes,
At the words /upport arms—quick march, the whole march
off in quick ume No mufic. The column makes three
feveral wheels ; viz. at the point where the left of the batta-
lion firtt itood, at the point where the firit wheel was made,
and juft before the third whee] commences, the colonel gives
the word carry arms.

When the third wheel is completed, which pafles the
column on the line of paffing the general, the mufic begins
to play. The leading officer of each company fhifts to its
right, by its rear, giving the word eyes right, and when he
has peflrd the general thirty paces, he will refume his proper
pivot flank, giving the word eyes left. The fupernumerary
officers and ferjeants march in a rank, in the rear of the
feveral companies, at one pace from the rear rank; ard
officers’ {words are carried fteadily againft the “right
fhoulder. The colonel, Heutenant-colonel, major, and
adjutant, are in the fame placeg as in marching palt in
ordinary time; as alfo drummers, pioneers, and mutfic.
In marching pall in quick time no compliment is paid by
officers.

When the head of the column approaches to the left of
the ground on which it orizinally ood, the mafic will ceaie.
The colonel gives the word halt, and, after 2 paufe, march.
The men carry their arms, and the column takes up the
ordinary march, for the purpofe of movinz on an alignment.
When at the point on the left of the alignment, cach officer
gives the words halt, left wheel, halt drefs, march. Yt is
{csrce neceflary to obferve, that thefe words are repeated at
every wheeling pomt. The column prolongs the alignment,
till arrived at the point where its head or right is to be placed,
viz. where it originally ftood. The colonel then gives the
word halt. Pivots are corrected, if neceflary, but fhould be
done initantly, and if poflible, ought to be avoided, as no-
thing can more clearly point out how badly difciphined, and
how inattentive the commanding officers of companies mult
be, when this operation is neceffary to be done in the face of
the general. On the word, companies, to the left, wheel

into line, pioneers and mufic go to their pofts behind the’

centre, officers move to the front of their companies, and
at the word quick march, the battalion wheels up again into
Ime.

When the line is formed, the colonel then cautions the
battalion, that it will perform the manual and platoon exer-
ciie. He immediately goes to the rear, and the major, ad-
vancing to the front of the battalion, gives the commands

rear ranks take open order, march —order arms—unfix bayoncts
—foaulder arms—officers take poft in the rear. ‘Une officers
recover their (words, and face to the right. On the word
march, they, as well as the colours, &c. march through the
feveral intervals occupied by the ferjeants, three paces beyond
the rear rank. At the word front, they face about, and
bring ther fwords te the port. “he colonel, heutenant-
colonel, adjutant, pioneers, mafic, fupernumerary ferjeants,
drummers and fifers, are at their polts in the rear, as when
the battalion is formed at clofe order, where they remain per-
fectly tteady.

The major proceeds with the manual as direéted by rezu-
lation, obferving-only the front rank comes down to the
lait pefition of the charge dayonet, the others remaining
ported. The ferjeants wno preferve in the front rank the
places of the platoon officers, remain there fteady during the
whole of the manual, except that they charge their pikes at
the fame time as the bayonets. Woaen the manual is over,
the major gives the words rear ranks take clofe order, march,
on which officers, ferjeasts, colours, and every other indivi-
dual. take their places as when the battalion ts at clofe order.
Tne major thea gives the word platoon exercife, and proceeds
with it, according to regulation. When Sntthed, the major
goes to hi- polt, the colonel comes into the front, and gives
the word «with cartridze—prime and load. The corps isnow
ready to commence the ordered movements. Te flagel
man ‘tands oppolite the centre of the battalion, with bis front
to the general, and goes through the motions as di-e€ted for
the manual exercife, &c. OF courfe he is not to per-
form any of what ae called the flugel motions.

Method of performing the Eicureen Manorurrss.
First Manoeuvre. Clofe Column on a Rear Divifion.
The colonel gives the word the battalion will form clofe

column of companics, in rear of the grenadiers. Remaining com-
panies—right, fece. All the compinics, except the grena-
diers, face to the right. The captains and their coverin
ferjeants polit themlelves at the lead of their files, ready to
lead. Twoorthree leading files of each company difengage
alittle totherizht. ‘Ihe captain of the grenadier company,
with his covering ferjeant, fhifts to the left of his company,
the pivot flank. ‘I'he colonel then gives the word quick,
march. All-the companies, except the grenadiers, fiep off
at once, and move on in file till they come near the com-
pany to be formed on, when the ferjeants who were leading
the files, itep brifkly forward to mark the fituation of their
companies in the perpendicular of the front of the column.
The covering ferjeant of the firft company halts one pace in
the rear of the covering ferjeant of the grenadier company,
carefully covering him, and finding perfeétly {quare in his
own perfon. His own captain alfo halts clefe to him, and
allows his company to move on in the rear of the ferjeant,
taking care that the right hand, or le2ding file of the com-
pany, does not pafs beyond, but mark time when it comes
up to the right hand file of the grenadiers. As foon, there-
fore, as the captain fees that the left hand tile of his com~'
pany is in with his covering ferjeant, he initantly gives the
word halt, front, eyes loft; and having drefied his company
correctly on his covering ferjeant, he gives the word eyes,
front, takes his proper poft, which his ferjeant had kept for
him, who immediately covers him, while the captain himfelf
correétly covers the captain and covering ferjeant of the
grenadier company. In this manner each fucceeding com-
pany proceeds till the column is completely formed. The
colours precede the fifth company, and remain on its reverfe
flank, covered by their ferjeants. 7

The clofe column being now formed, with the right in
front, the colonel gives the word, form column of grand

divifions,

BATTALLON,

divifions. At this caution, all fupernumeraries, but not the
colours, go to the rear of t»e column, if not there already.
Left companies, left face. The left companies immediately
face, always to the pivot flank, and their captains take one
fide ttep to the right, fo as to be clear of their rank. At
the word march, the captain ftands fait, the ferjeants con-
duc& the divifions, and the captain of each, when it has
cleared the ftanding divifion, gives the word halt, front,

drefs. He then fteps nimbly to the third file of the ttanding
company, and from that gives the word march, halt,
dre/s. The captains commanding the right companies are

now on the right of each grand divifion. The captains com-
manding the left companies move to the left flanks of the
grand divifion, their intervals being kept by their ferjeants.
The colonel now gives the word, the column will clofe to the
front, march. AN the divifions ftep off, except the front
one, and each, when within one pace of the divifion in its
front, gets the word halt, drefs, from the pivot captain of
each divifion. The clofe column of grand divilions is
now formed, and ready to deploy. The colours are with
their proper divifion in the column, and that divifion mutt,
of courfe, out-flank on the hand, not the pivot. ‘To obviate
this inconvenience, fome regiments leave a {pace between the
third and fourth grand divifions, for the colours.

The colonel then gives the word, the column will take
ground to the right, and on its march deploy on the rear
grand divifion. At this caution, a ferjeant immediately
iteps ent from the rear divifion, and places bimfelf oa the
pivot flank of the front grand divifion, following it in file.
When the rear grand divifion is halted, this ferjeant halts
a'fo, and inftantly fronts, remaining perfeGly fteady to mark
the ground for the rear grand divifion to march up to. The
colonel gives the word right face, quick march, and when
the column, in obedience to thefe orders, has marched as
far as he fees neceflary, generally twenty or thirty paces, he
gives the word rear grand divifion, halt, front, and when
he fees that the divifion immediately before the rear one has
cleared its front, he gives the word, fourth grand divifion,
halt, front. As {oon as the rear divifion, which has halted
and fronted, fiads its flank free by the Aalt, front,’ of the
divifion that was -immediately before it, at that inftant the
captain on the /eff gives it the word march. The grand
divifion marches iteadily till it places ics pivot flank; the left,
clofe to the ferjeant who had ftepped out to mark the ground
for it. It then receives the word /alt, drefs, from the
captain oa the /eft. He dreffes the grand divifion, from
the ftanding ferjeant (the point of appui)to the camp colour
(the point of formation) on the right. As foon as the
dreffing is finifhed, he fhifts to the right of his company.
The rear grand divifion being dreffed, the fourth is marched
up, and dreff-d on it, exaGily as the rear one had dreffed on
the flanding ferjeant, and fo the third, fecond, and firft,
till all arein Line. If the deployment be correétly made, the
firft grand divifion has only to halt, front, as it is already
in the true line. Much of the exaétnefs of this, and every
deployment of the fame kind, mult depend on the accuracy of
the mounted officer, who halts and fronts each grand divifion.
For this purpofe he muit bein the rearof the column. If he
is confufed all will be deranged. Supernumerary officers and
ferjeants, drums, mufic, and pioneers, halt with their re-
{pective grand divifions, and as they are halted and drefled,
take their proper ftations inthe rear. The line is now
formed to the general’s left.

Obferve, when the column deploys on the rear divifion, it
faces from the pivot flank, which then becomes the follow-
ing one.

.

Seconpn Manoruvrn.—Clofe Column on a Front Divifion.

Vhe colonel gives the word, the batralion cwill form clofe
column of companies in front of the right infantry s remaiu-
ing companies—left, face. The captains and their cover-
ing ferjeants polt themfelves at the head of their leading
files. Heads of files difengage. At the word guick—
march, the covering ferj-ant of the eighth company fteps
brifkly forward till he comes in front of the light infantry
captain, and three paces from him he faces him. Then, be-
ing certain that he is in a true line with him, he immediately
faces to the right about, and flands perfectly feady, and
{quare to his front. ‘Che captain of the eighth company
leads on his company till he p!aces his pivot mzn clofe co the
ferjeant. He then gives the word halt, front, drefs, re-
places his ferjeant (who immediately covers him), and
gives the word eyes front. In this manner, each fucceed-
ing company proceeds, till the column 1s completely formed,
with the grenadiers in front. The colours move in rear of
the fifth company.

The celumn of grand divifions is then formed, and clofed
up, exattly as directed im the firft manceuvre.

The colonel then gives the words, the column will take
ground to the left, and on its march deploy on the front grand
divifion, left, face—quick, march. When the column has
marched thirty or forty paces, or as many paces as the
colonel fees neceflary, he gives fuccefiively, and in due time,
to each grand divifion the words halt, front, till ail are
halted, beginning with the front divifion. he inward cap-
tain of each grand divifion (that is, the captain on the right,)
when it has halted and fronted, gives his words, drefs,
march, halt, drefs, and the outward captzin (the captain
on the left) remains on the flank of the divifion in the lise,
till the fucceeding captain, having fo dreffed his grand divi-
fion, comes to replace him. He then replaces his covering
ferjeant on the right of his proper company. In this man-
ner, grand divifiom after grand divifion comes up till the
whole are in line, and the fupernumeraries alfo take their
places gradually in the rear.

Obferve.—When the column deploys on a front diyifion,
it faces to the pivot flank, which then becomes the leading
one.

Tutap Manoeuvre.—Chofe Column on a central Divifion,
facing to the Rear.

Vhe colonel gives the word, the battalion will form clofe
columu on the right centre company, facing to the rear. Right
centre ‘company, right, face. Right counter-march, quick
march. ‘Ve captain at the head -of his company, which
has faced immediately on receivins the order, turns fhort ia
file to his right hand, and feads his company till he places
his front rank in line with the rear rank of the fifth and third
companies. He next gives the word Aalt, front, and then
drefs, from the right of his company, where’ he remains.
The colours and centre ferjeasts countter-march with this
company. At ‘the ‘word remaining ‘companies, outwards,
face, the companies cn the right of the right centre com-
panies face to the right, thofe en the left face to the left.
Captains and their covering ferjeants move to the heads of
files. On the word ¢o the loft counter-march—quick march,
the captains lead the files; the whole ftep off at once. The
companies of the left wing, No. 5,6, 7, 8, and light infantry,
file one after another in the front of the right centre com-
pany. The right wing, No. 3, 2, 1, and grenadiers, file
one after another into the rear of the right centre company.
The ferjeants mult be very careful to follow the inftruétions,
as in the firft and fecorid manceuvre. Each company, as it
compleats its counter-march, receives the word, hall, front,

: drefs,

BRAT ZAL YON

drefs, from its own captain, who is now on the pivot flank,
the right; the left of the column being in front.

At the word column, left face, the column immediately
faces to the left, captains, &c. moving to the heads of
files to lead them. All the covering ferjeants ftand fat.
At the word, the left hand companies will lead out, quick march,
the left, or alternate compan es, that is, No.1, 3, 5, 7, and
the light infantry, march out in quick time, until their rear
has cleared the ftanding companies about four or five paces.
The colonel then gives the command halt, the whole will coun-
ter-march tothe left, left counter-march, quick march. ‘The whole,
except the covering ferjeants, who face to the right about, in-
{tantly counter-march. The right companics, viz. the grena-
diers, 24, 4th, 6th, and 8th, ccunter-march, on their own
ground exa&ly. The left companies, i.e. the rft, 3d, 5th, 7th,

and light infantry, march on towards the column, until they

fill the intervals they had quitted, and are again in column in
their proper place. The captain of each company gives the
words, halt, front, dre/s, as their companics finifh the counter-
march, which is compleated when the leading man of each
front rank arrives at his refpective ferjeant. When the
counter-march is finifhed, the column itands with its right
in front, as in the firft manceavre, and its’ centre oppotite
the general.

The colonel gives the word, the column will deploy on the
right centre company, remaining companies, outwards face. The
right centre company itands falt. ‘he compentes on the
right of the right centre company, face to the right ; thofe
on the left of it, face to the left. Atthe word guick march,
the covering ferjeant of the right centre company fteps up
to the left flank of the grenadiers, and remains there. As
foon as the flanks of the right centre company are clear, its
captain gives it the word march, and when he arrives clofe to
his covering ferjeant who occupies the exa& ground quitted
by the grenadier captain, he then, with great correctnefs,
alis, and drefés bis company on the ferjeant (the point of
appui) to the point of formation on the right, and then,
giving the word eyes front, fhifts to his poft, the right of
his company. When the remaining companies are clear of
each other’s flanks, they get the words halt, front, march,
from their own captains. The third company drefles fom
the right of the right centre company, its point of appui,
to the diftant point of formation on the right. The other
companies of the right wing drefs in the fame manner on the
ftanding companies as they feverally come up into line. When
the fifth or left centre company, has marched up to its point
of appui (the left flank of the right centre company), its
captain from that point dreffes his company to the point of
formation on the left. In this manner each company pro-
ceeds, till all are in line on their original ground, the centre
oppofite the general.

FourtH Manotuyre.—Change of Pojition in open Co-
luma.

On the word by companies on the left backwards, wheel,
left hand men of companies face inwards to their companies.
Captains ftep nimbly to the front of their divifions. The
ferjeant of the right company fteps back, and remains to
mark the {pot where the wheeling man of his company is to
reft when the quarter circle is compleated. The other com-
panies conform to this, each ftanding perpendicular to the
bafe line on which its pivot is placed. At the word quick
march, all the companies wheel back the quarter circle on
the principle alrcady laid down. Captains halt, dre/s, their
companies, and then giving the words eyes front, remain on
the pivot flank of their companies. The battalion is now in
open column of companies, the right in front.

The colonel gives the word column march. The column
marches thirty or forty paces in ordinary time. ‘The adju-
tant having been apprized by the commanding officer, that=
the battalion is to change its direétion to the left, and having
the {pot pointed oxt to him where the change is to com-
mence, and alfo the direétioa which the column is to take,
wiil immediately move forward, and place a camp colour at
the {pot where the leading company is to wheel. He will
place a fecond*colour as the peint of dire€tion on which the
leading flank of the column is to move in the new alignment;
and he will place a third camp colour, the point of formas
tion, oblique to the right of the column, covering exaétly the
other two colours, fo that a line drawn from the fecond colour
to the firk, and continued to the third, will be a right line,
which line will be oblique to, and cut the original line on
which the column was marching at the point where the lead=
ing company began its wheel, which point is on the new
alignment. ‘Lhefe matters being all quickly arranged, when
the colonel fees that the leading company 1s near the point
of wheeling, he will give the words.

The column will change its diredion to the left. "The captain
of the leading company, on the principle of the moveable
pivot, gives the words right /houlders forward, and when
the company has made the required wheel, he gives the
word forward, and keeps his eyes fixed on the diftant camp
colour, to which he fleadily marches. Each compaiy, as it
approaches the wheeling point, (the firft camp colour, ) con-=
forms exactly to what has been done by the leading come
peny. When the colonel fees as many companies wheeled
into the new direétion as he judges to be fufficient, gencrally
three, he gives the word halt. The leading companies, and
fuch others as have elready wheeled into the alignment, be-
ing row at their proper points, remain fo.

The rear companies will file into the new alignment. Rear
companies. right, face. At this word, all the companies who
are itil in the old dire€tion face to the right, é. e. to the
flank which conduéts to their place in the new line. Cap-
tains and their covering ferjeants fluft to the heads of files,”
to lead them. At the word guick march, the ferjeants ep
brifkly forward, to mark their points in the line where the
pivot flanks are to be placed. Each captain leads his com-
pany to his covering ferjeant, where he halts, and lets his
company pals in rear of the ferjeant, till its left flank is in
with him, and he then gives the word, halt, fren?, drefe.
At the word, colwmn, to the left wieel into line, quick march.
the ferjeant of the grenadicrs moves quickly to the right,
and places hinifelf in line with the pivots. The rett of the
covering ferjeants go as ufual to their night flanks, to keep
the place for their captains, When the wheel is compleated,
the captains give the word alt, def, from the file on their
right to the camp colour on the left, and immediately ree
place their covering ferjeants.

Firrnh Manozuvre.—Wing thrown back. ~ _

The colonel gives the following words of command; ¢he
left company will wheel four paces backwards on its left. The
remaining companies will go to the right about, and wheel two
paces to their right. The coverng ferjeant of the left com-
pany, now on the circle, fteps to the rear, and on the eighth
file trom the pivot marches the named number of paces, and
comes'to the right about, lining himfelf with the camp
colour, placed by the adjutant on the right, to mark the
new line, which is to be parallel to the original line’of forma--
tion. The command is then given, left company, four paces
on the left backwards wheel, quick march. The company’s
ferjeant halts the company in a low toue of voice, and the
captain accurately drefles it on the colour to the right, a

the

BATTALION.

the word, remaining companies, to the right about face, they
face aceordingly. On that of, two paces to the right wheel,
march, each coveriuys ferjeant eps out two wheeling paces
on the circunference of the circle, and when the men wheel
up to him, he haits them in a low tone of voice. The cap-
tain drefles the company. The battalion now ftands in
echellon, with its rear ranks in front, the eaptains having
fhifted to the inner flanks of their feveral companies, and
their covering ferjeants to the ontlide flanks.

The battalion will march in echgllon, and form line on the
left company, march. The companies march with their rear
yanks in front. The captain of the company next to the
formed one. gives the word iif? fhoulders forward, and then
having difengaged himfelf from his divifon, the moment his
leading flank man ot his (now) front rank touches the flank
of the company that js already formed, he will give the
word, halt front, drefs back, on which his company fronts,
and, without hurry, dreffes back on him and the formed
part of the line, he correG@ting them on the more diftant given
point, the camp colour on the right, which having done,
he goes to his poft, the right of his company. Every other
captain does the fame, till the line is formed. It is then pa-
rallel to its original line of formation, but more retired by
the length of feven companies; fuppofing that three wheeled
into the ob‘ique alignment, The battalion is now to the
general’s left. It is to be obferved, that the greateft aGtivity
mult be ufed by each captain in this drefling, otherwife the
point of appui wili not be ready for the next company, and
the diftant point will be obfcured ; whereas it muft be left
open and diftinét, fo that the direction of the line may run
at the diitince of one file from the given object of dreff-
ing. -

To follow the plan as laid down in the rules and regula-
tions, the battalion fhould now goto the right about, retire
fifty or fixty paces, and then halr, front.

Sixth Manoeuvre.—Counter-march, folid fquare, and
change of pofition.

On the word, dattalion, by companies on the left backward
heel, quick march, the battalion breaks into open column of
companies, the right in front. The colonel then gives the
word, the column will change its front by the counter-march of
companies to the right, companies, right face. At this word,
the whole faceto the right. Each captain will immediately
guit the pivot, and place himfelf on the mght of his com-
pany, and his covering ferjeant will advance to the {pot
which he has quitted, and face to the right about. At the
word, right counter-march, quick march, the whole move.
Each captain wheels {hort round to the right, and proceeds
followed by his files of men till he has placed his pivot front
rank man clofe to his ferjeant, who remains immoveable.
Each captain inftantly gives the words, halt, front, dre/s, to
his company, fo as to have it fquared, and clofed to the
right, which is now the pivot flank. The captain replaces
his ferjeant, who falls back hehind the rear rank. The
column now ftands faced to its former rear, with the left
in front.

Column march. The column marches thirty or forty
paces. Atthe word column will clofe to the front, the lead-
ing company immediately halts, and the remaining com-
panies each halt within one pace of the company in its front.
Captains muft be very careful to halt dre/s their companies
corre@tly, as this is preparatory to forming the folid {quare.
Obferve, that the column may be clofed at the option of the
chief, either inthis manner, or by the head divifion con-
tinuing its march, and the rear ones being ordered to march
quick into clofe column, and fucceflively to refume the ordi-
nary march. J

Form folid Jquare. All the companies compofing the front
half of the column, i.e the left wing, take one pace fore
ward, except the lizht infantry which flands feft. The
two laft companies clofe up one and two paces to the com-
pany before them. At the word, fubdivifions, one pace to the
right and left, march, the whole companics make an. interval
of two paces in the centre, by their fubdivifions taking each
one pace to the flanks. T'wo captains, with their ferjeants,
place themfelves on each of the front and rear intervals.
‘L'wo captains, with their ferjeants, alfo take poft on each
cf_.the increaf-d intervals in the centre of the fid-s. A fer-
jeant takes the place of each flank front rank man of the
fir'l divifion, and of each flank rear rank man of the laft di-
vifion. All the other officers, ferjeants, the four difplaced
men, drummers, &c. afflemb!e behind the centre of the come
panies which are to form the flink faces.

N.B. Lhe remainder of this- manceuvre cannot be cor-
reGily performed, uniefs each company confifls of at leaft
twelve files formed three deep.

Four files, outwards, face, The two rear companies face
to the right about, and forr files on each flank of ail the
companies, except the grenadiers and light infantry, face
outwards, the whole lining with the flanks of the front com-
panies, and dreffing in ranks from front to rear. On the
word giick march, the fifth Bie from each flank of all the
companies, except the firft and lait, followed by the front
rank man of the fixth file, move up to right and left,
and refpeGively fill up the interval between their own and
the preceding divifion. ‘The remainder of the men of the
fide divifions arrange themleives to their right and left,
forming clofein the rear of their own divifions refpeétively.
The whole thus ftand faced outwards, and formed at leaft
four deep. with two officers and their ferjeants in the middle
of each face to command. The captains may fill the inter-
vals as follows: The grenadier and firft company in the rear
face ; the light infantry and eizhth company in the front
face ; fecond and third in the right face; fourth and fifth in
the left face; each covered by his ferjeant. All the other
officers, as well as ferjzants, difplaced men, the colours, &c.
are in the void fpace in the centre, behind their companies ;
and the files of the captains in the faces may be compleated
by ferjeants, &c. from the interior, in {uch manner as the
chief may direct. The mounted officers pafs into the centre
of the {quare by the rear face. Whatever is the ftrength of
the companies which compofe the flank fides, the whole of
them will face outwards, except their four centre files,
which are always referved for filling up the intervals.

Prepare for firing. The two firit ranks all round kneel,
and flope their bayonets. The two next ranks fire ftanding,
and the others, if any, remain m feferve. The file coverers
behind each captain in the fides give back, and euable the
captains to ftand inthe third rank. They are-replaced by
their ferjeants, who, with the ferjcants in the angle, flope
forward their pikes, at the fame time that the men flope
their bayonets. ‘The colonel then gives the word commence
independent firing, and on the clofe of the preparative, the
two ftanding ranks commence file firing from the right of
each face. This ceafes on the beat of the general, and the
colonel gives the word, éneeling ranks, prefent, jire. TE
ordered, the kneeling ranks may load again without rifing
up. Otherwife they immediately recover their feet after
firing, and the word frinje and load is given,

When the colonel fees it proper to reduce the fquare, he
gives the words form clofe column. The files that faced out-
ward, come to their proper front. Thole in the intervals,
iz. e. the fifth file, and front rank man of the fixth, face
about. At the word quick march, the front company takes

one

BATTALION.

one pace forward, and the two rear companies, i. c. the
grenadiers and fir’ company, one and two paces forward,
and then face about. The files from the intervals take their
proper places. Officers, ferjeants, difplaced men, &c. will
quit the interior, move to their feveral ftations, and the com-
panies that compofed the flank faces will be compleated.
Not to multiply words of command, the beft method to
clofe the fubdivifions, &c. is to move the column immedi-
ately, by giving the word, column, march, either in quick or
ordinary time, as the colonel thinks proper,

When the column has marched as far as the commanding
officer judges neceflary, he gives the werds, column qwill open
from ihe rear, on which the captain commanding the rear
company gives the word to his company, grenadiers, halt,
and immediately the caution firf? company, to the company
in his front. When he fees it exaétly at a proper wheeling
diftance from him, he gives it the word /a/f. ‘The capiain
of the firft company, when he has halted, gives the fame
caution and command to the fecond; the fecond to the
third, and fo on in fucceffion, till the column is opened
out.

The colonel now gives the word, the column qwill change
its head by the counter-march of companies from the rear. Right
wing, to the front. The grenadier captain gives the words,
grenadters, left face. e and his covering ferjeant imme-
diately fhift to the left to lead the files. He then gives the
word, guick march, till his righ¢ flank can freely pafs near
the /eft flank of the others. He then gives the word halt,
front, march (in ordinary time) clofe by the left flank of the
firt company. The captain of that company, while the
other is approaching, gives the word, left, face ; and as foon
as the grenadiers have cleared his flank, guick march, leading
his company into the rear of the now leading one. He gives
the word alt, front, when he covers, and march, when at
the due wheeling diftance. All the other companies fuccef-
fively perform the fame operation; and when the light com-
pany has taken its place ia the rear, the whole column is in
perfeét order.

Column, halt, left wheel into line, quick, march. When the
battalion has wheeled into line, it is confiderably to the ge-
neral’s right, and with its rearto him. Obferve, That fome
regiments at review, in this counter-march from the rear to
the front, face their companies to the right, and bring them
out on that fide, contrary to the general principle. The
divifions which advance come out always on the fide to
which front is to be made, and on which the enemy is
placed ; becaufe then, with the divifions that are free, he
can be oppofed, while the others are moving behind the
line.

SeventH Manotuvre.—Counter-march by Files on the
Centre of the Battalion.

This brings back the battalion to its original front. The
colonel gives the following words ;. the battalion will counter-
march from its centre, and on its centre, by files—wings—in-
wards—face. The whole face to the colours, which ftand
faft; and a ferjeant remains to mark each flank of the bat-
talion. The word is given, wings—three fide fleps to the right
—march ; if the battalion is only two deep, two paces to the
right is fufficient. Each wing takes the named number of
paces to its flank, that they may be difengaged from each
other. At the fecond word march, or guick, march, the whole
move on, and each file wheels fucceffively into the centre,
as it arrives at and beyond the colours. As foon as each
company is in the line from the colours to the flank ferjeant,
the captain fronts it. When the whole is formed, the co-
lours countermarch, and if neceflary, the drefling of the
lineis corrected.

E1icutx Manoeuvre.—March in open Column.

The battalion will form open column in rear of the left com-
pany— Remaining companies on the right backwards wheel—
quick march. All the companies wheel backwards on
their right, except the light infantry, which ftands faft.
On the word /eft face, they all face to the left, except
the light company ; and the captains place themfelves to
lead the files. At the word guick march, the whole will
lead to the rear, and the covering ferjeants will fucceflively,
as before, take up their points on the new line. ‘The cap-
tain conduéting each platoon, when he arrives at his ferjeant,
will ftop directiy before him, allow his platooa to move on
behind the ferjeant, til the rear file comes clofe to, but be-
yond him, ‘(he captain will then halt, front, and drefs his
platoon, with his front rank clofed in to the ferjeant. He
will himfelf take the place of the ferjeant, and remain fteady
on the pivot flank.

As foon as the third company has taken its place in the
column, the colonel gives the word march. The head of the
column moves on in ordinary time, and the remaining compa-
nies follow, preferving the proper wheeling diftance between
each. When the Jeading company arrives within 12 or 15
paces of the point where it is neceflary to diminifh its front,
the colonel will give a loud caution, that the fubdivifiens are
to double, either by companies fucceffively, or the whole bat-
talion at once. If at once, as is ordered in this manceuyre,
then he gives the words form codumn of fubdivifions—right
fubdivifions—mark time. Each right hand fubdivifion marks
time, till its left hand fubdivifion, which marches on fteadily,
has opened or cleared its flank. At the words quick oblique,
or left oblique, the right divifions immediately oblique to the
left, and cover the left ones correctly. The captains move
to the right flank of the left fubdivifions. Their covering.
ferjeants lead the right fubdivifions.

When the column of fubdivifions has marched as many
paces as the colonel fees proper, he gives the word form
companizs, right fubdivifions—quick oblique. As foon as each
right {ebdivifion has cleared the right flanks of the left, by
the quick oblique, it immediately receives the word forward,
and when in line with the left fubdivifion, each receives the
word ordinary from the captain, who had fhifted to its
right. It may be obferved, that the above is in conformity
tothe general rule, whether the column be halted or in mo-
tion, that the fubdivifion or feétion on the reverfe flank is
the one behind which the other fubdivifion or feGtion doubles,
But in this cafe, were the left fubdivifions to double in front
of the right ones, the pivots would be better dreffed, as
the right fubdivifions, which were marching correGtly in the
alignment, would not be difeompofed. ‘The colonel gives
the words column halt—right wheel into line—quick march,

Nintu Manoeuvre.—Lchellon Change of Pofition.

The colonel gives the words, companies on the right back-
wards wheel—quick march. The battalion breaks into open
column, the left in front, each company getting the sa/H—
dre/s from its own captain, as ufual. The colonel continues ¢
The feventh company (the third, reckoning from the left) will
avheel four paces, the remaining companies fix paces, on the left
backwards—quick march. ‘The companies are drefled by
their captains, who are now on the infide flanks of the
echellon. The colonel orders eighth and light company right
about face. Two camp colours are fent to the right and left
in a corre line with the feventh company. At the word
the column will march in echellon, and form line on the feventh
company—march, the captain of the feventh company fhifts
to its right flank. Each company on the right of the fe-
venth, viz. Nos. 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, I, and grenadiers, as it comes
fucceffively into line, receives from its captain the word Aalt

7 —drefs

BATTALION.

—dre/s onthe camp colour to the right. The captain then
fhifts to the right of his company. ‘The companies on the
left of the feventh, viz. N° 8. and the light infantry, re-
ceive the words from their captains halt, front, drefs up.
They are drefled on the camp colour to the left.

Trento Manozuvrr.—Lchellon Change of Pofition.

The colonel gives the words the light infantry will wheel
four paces, ihe remaining companies tevo paces to the left. When
the covering ferjeants have taken the named number of paces
from the front of the eighth file from the left of their com-
panies, the colonel gives the word quick—march. ‘The cap-
tain commanding the light infantry immediately fhifts to its
left flank. When the company has wheeled up, he gives
the word halt, drefs, dvefling it Bald on the camp co-
lour, which the adjutant had previoufly {ent to the right for
this purpofe. The captain, when his company is correCtly
drefled, gives the word eyes front, and refumes his place on
the right of his company, taking care that his men fland
perfectly fteady, and with carried arms, until the next com-
pany has drefled on them; his right flank being the point
of appui. When the colonel fees that every divifion is
ready, he gives the words the battalion will march in echelons
and form line on the left company—march, All the companies
march in ordinary time. As they arrive in line fucceflively,
they are drefled by their captains from their flanding com-
panies to the camp colour on the right. Each captain, when
he has fo dreffed his company, gives the word eyes front,
and then fhifts to the right of his divifion. The whole are
vow formed in line, parallel to their original front, and con-
fiderably to the general’s right.

Eveventu Manoruvre.—Change of Pofition.

The colonel gives the words the battalion will form
open column of companies in the march—right face—march.
When the battalion has marched in file as far as isjudged
neceflary, he gives the word form companies. The files in-
ftantly make a half face, each marching up quick and dia-
gonailly to their ref{pective leading men, who do not alter
their pace. As the pivots are in the rear of companies,
when they come up, the companies drefs to them by their
captain giving the word eyes /eft: and they take up as they
form, the ordinary ftep. The column marches ; and when
the colours are oppolite to the general, the colonel gives
the word Aal/t, and then to the left wheel into line, quick
march. ’ 7

Twevrru Manoevvre.—Retreat in Line.

The colonel gives the word she battalion will retire— right
about face—march. It marches fifty or fixty paces in or-
dinary time dreffing by its centre. No mufic plays during
the retreat of the battalion. ‘The colonel gives the word
halt front, and directly after the Laitalion will fire twice by
companies, from centre to flanks. On the laft ftroke ot the
preparative, the captains on the right of companies ftep
out one pace, and give the word of command platoon, ready
-—prefent—fire—load. When the firlt part of the general 1s
beat, the captain falls back into the front rank. ‘The colo-
nel then gives the word, the battalion cwill retire by alternate
companies—right companies, right about face—march. After
marching in ordinary time about fifty paces, they receive
the word Ja/t, front, In marching, one colour remains on
the flank of its proper company in each line. The King’s
colour with the right centre, and the other colour with the
left centre company. A ferjeant will advance fix paces be-
fore each colour during the march. Each line direéts its
movements by its colour; diftances are preferved from
hat oolour, and to it the men’s eyes are turned during

ze march. Each line hasa commander. Captains are or-
dered to be on the inward flanks of their companies, but

Vor. Il.

this makes a perpetual fhifting
omitted,

The colonel
—prefent—fire.
to the recover, half cock, and fhoulder arms.
word right about face—march, the left companies march
fteadily on, drefling by their colour. They pafs through
the intervals of the right companies, and continue marching
until they receive the word from the colonel /alt front—
prime and load. \ If the chief fires the left companies, the
next in command fires the right companies, exactly as the
left companies were fired. ‘hey retire in the fame manner

of pofitions, -and is better

gives the word left companies, make ready
Immediately after firing, the men come
At the

‘through the intervals of the left companies. ‘lhe colonel

then fires the left companies, and retires them
fo on till he thinks it expedient to form line.

The le ee ee willformlineon theright companies—march.
When they have marched and filled up the intervals, the
word halt is given by the colonel, and dre/s by the captain
of each company. The right companies may form line on
the left in the fame manner. Sometimes the right companies
are fired in battalion previous to their retiring. The words
of command are the fame as if they had been feparated
from the left companies. The light infantry may be di-
vided in the interyals of the firft line, retire with it, and
charge to the other line, whenever it becomes the advanced
one. In this fituation, they cover the retreat, and may oc-~
cafionally fire; and when the line is formed, they refume
their poit on the left. Unlefs, however, the battalion is
very itrong, the light infantry remain in their ufual pofition
asa company. When the line is formed, the colonel gives
the word the battalion will retire in line—right about face—
march. When it has retired as faras he chufes, he gives the
word halt, front.

TuirTEENTH Manoevyre.
Echelon.

The colonel gives the word Ja/talion, by companies four
paces to the right wheel, and form echellon. Covering ferjeants
take the named number of paces as ufual. The pivots
make a half face to the right, the ferjeants dreffing by them.
On the word guick march, captains on the right of their
companies give the word ha/t, drefs. Covering ferjeants go.
to the reverfe flank. The colonel then gives the word the
battalion will advance in echellon—march. 'The whole ad-
yance to the flank in echellon about two hundred and fifty
paces. Atthe word wheel back into line, the three centre
{erjeants inftantly ftep out into the front, and mark the time
for the battalion. The pivots mark time, gradually turning
to their proper front, while the reft of the divifions wheel back
the four paces they had advanced. When the fourth pace
is completed, the colonel gives the word forward; and the
whole, drefling by the centre, ftep out their full pace, till
they receive the word ha/t. The line is then coniiderably to
the general’s left, and parallel to its original front. In this
fituation, the colonel commands fire three rounds by companies
from centre to flank. Each captain gives the words platoon,
ready, prefent, fire, load.

OURTEENTH Manoeuvre.—Z he Hollow Square, and
its Movements.

The colonel gives the word the battalion will form a hollow
Square on the three centre companies (viz. the fourth, filth, aad
fixth), remaining companies—four paces on the right and left
backwards wheel—quick march. The companies on the
right each wheel back the eighth of the circle on their
left, and the companies on the left wheel the fame numberof
paces backward onthe right. The colours, at the fame time
that the companies are forming their echellons, move back,
three paces ito the rear. The fourth company by the fide

50 itep

as before, and

March to a Flank in

BAT T ALT OM,

ftep inclines to the fiftheompany, toclofe theintervalthat was
made by the falling back of the colours. At the word right
about face, the compenies that were in echellon face accord-
ingly. The colonel then gives the word, in echellon, march;
to form fquare—march. ‘Iwo ferjeants or camp colours
fhould be placed in the rear, in a perpendicular line with
the outfide flanks of the front face, marking out a perfect
f{quare. ‘The companies now march in echellon, and by the
turning of the left fhoulders of the right companies, and
the right fhoulders of the left companies, they wheel in to
form fquare. Their captains halt and front them in a cor-
aeé&t line. The firit company will wheel round the ferjeant
placed to mark the angle, and the grenadiers round the
proper right of the firft company ; the light infantry at the
fame time wheeling round the ferjeant on.the oppofite an-
gle, till its right flank touches that of the grenadiers.
They then, as alfo the firft company, get the words halt,
front, drefs, from their captains. They have then formed
the rear face of the fquare, and in this manner the proper
front rank of the rear face will be outward. The fquare
is now perfeGtly formed, and compofed of four faces. ‘The
front face confifts of the fourth, fifth, and fixth companies ;
the right face of the third and fecond ; the left face of the
feventh and eighth ; andthe rear face of the firft company,
the grenadiers, and light infantry. The mounted oflicers,
colours, mufic, drummers, &c. and the battalion guns, are
all within the fquare.

The colonel then gives the words the /guare will march by
the right angle of the front face, left and rear faces—right
about face. ‘The two fides that form the right angle, that is,
the front face and the right face, ftand fait; the other two
fides, viz. the left face and the rear face, go to the right
about. At the word by /ubdivifions four paces to the right and
left wheel—march, the whole by fubdivifions wheel up one
eighth of the circle, two fides to the right and two fides to
the left, and are thus parallel to each other, and perpendi-
cular to the direGtion in which they are to move. The pi-
vot flanks are in this manner placed on the fides of the
fquare, each fide being thus in echellon, and the colours be-
hind the leading angle. At the word march, captains, who
are on the inward flank of their leading fubdivifions, care-
fully preferve the diftances they wheeled at, and from the
flanks to which they wheeled. At the words halt, front
Square, or reform fquare, the whole wheel back into fquare;
and the two fides that require it, that is, the left and rear
faces, go to the right about. Captains drefs their divifions
as ufual, in the fame manner as is defcribed for the fquare.
The directions given for the march of the fquare by the
right angle of the front face, will equally apply, fhould it
be found neceflary to march the fquare by any of its
other angles.

The colonel then gives the words the /quare will march
by the right face. The colours move up behind the centre of
the named face, as do the mounted officers, &c. At the
word front and rear faces, by fubdivifions to the right and left
cwheel—quick march, the oppofite fide, that is, the left face,
fices about; and the two flank fides wheel up by fubdivi-
fions, fo as to ftand each inopen column. At the word by
right face—march, the fquare marches two fides in line and
by their centre, and two fides in open column, which cover
and drefs to their inward flanks on which they wheeled up
carefully preferving their diftances. The fame direCtions
that are given for marching by the right face, will apply
to the march by any of the other faces. ‘The colonel,
when the fquare has marched as far as he fees neceflary,
gives the word halt, reform /quare. "The {quare halts, the
fubdivifions in column immediately wheel back, and form

their fides, and the fide which faced about again faces out-
wards. The captains give the words halt, dre/s.

On the word prepare for firing, the front rank kneel and
prefent their bayonets floped. ‘The {quare is then ordered
to fire in whatever manner may be judged proper ; the two
rear ranks to fire ftanding ; or companies by ranks fuccef-
fively : or by companies independent of each other; or by
fubdivifions, one firing when the other has loaded ; or com-
panies by files; as ordered. ‘The front rank remains as a
referve. Should the battalion be formed only two deep, the
front rank will remain kneeling, and the other rank will fire
by files. The wordis now given /guare will fire by compa-
nies, beginning on the right. When the firing by companies
has ceafed, the command is given by the colonel kneeling
ranks, make ready, prefent, fire (the men rife up after firing),
prime and load. The word is them given the /quare will form
line on thethree cenire companies—fide and rear faces—by com-
panies, fix paces to the right and left wheel, quick march. The
captains, as ufual, ha/t—dre/s their companies. The words
are then given in echellon march and form line, march. "The
whole march in echellon, except the three centre companies,
the outward companies taking care not to impede the
inner ones, which muft form before them. This may be
done by the facing and filing of each divifion from its in-
ward flank to its point in the new line, where it will form
up. Captains ha/t—dre/s their companies, as in the third
manceuyre.

If the {quare is compofed of the eight battalion compa-
nies only, then the grenadier and light company may be
placed as a referve in the rear, ready to be applied according
to circumftances. In marching the fquare by any of its
faces, fome regiments have been inftruéted to march two
fides in file inftead of open column; and if the men march
tolerably in file, there can be no queftion but that it is the
beft method. é

Firreentu Manoruvre.——Aeetiring and filing to the
Rear.

When the battalion is to retire, it ought to be previoufly
dreffed with the fame exatnefs as when it is to advance, and
the fame care inafcertaining the direétion of its march muft
be taken. Therefore, before the retreat is to begin, an
officer or ferjeant will have placed himfelf thirty paces in

the rear, fo as to ftand perpendicular to the front direGting

ferjeant ; and of courfe he will be in the line, or nearly fo,
of the dire@ting ferjeant. Whenever the battalion marches
to the rear, it muft cover its proper extent of ground. The
rear muft therefore avoid clofing their files more than
ufual; otherwife the front rank men, who are in general
larger, will be crowded in their rank. Mufic, drums, fuper-
numerary officers, &c. will take care to march with exaétnefs,
and not to interrupt, but rather affift the battalion.

The colonel gives the words the battalicn will retire. As
foon as this caution is given, the three direéting ferjeants’
face about. The fame centre ferjeant that dire¢ts to the

front, direéts alfo to the rear. le moves on in the line ~

of the advanced officer, fix paces beyond the rear rank, and
halts. The two other ferjeants move up on each fide of
him. When the line is retiring, mufic is never to play. On
the word right about face, the whole face: and the fupernu-
merary officer, who had replaced the dire&ting ferjeant,
moves up into the leading rank. A mounted field officer
paffes through to the rear, and the directing ferjeant in the
interior prolongs his line, and takes his objeét betwixt the
feet of the potted officer. Immediately after facing about
the word march is given by the colonel. The whole batta-
lion inftantly fets off. The replacing officer betwixt the
colours preferves, during the movement, his exact diftance

of

—_

BATTALION.

ef fix paces from the advanced ferjeant, and is the guide of
the battalion, the directing ferjeant conducting on his points
under the correction of the colonel, who is ten or twelve
paces behind the centre of the battalion. In this retreat, if
the light infantry act feparate, and not as a company of the
battalion, at the word march they move quickly round by the
flanks, and form in the rear of the centre, extending fo as to
cover it during the retreat, and following at the diltance of
fifty or fixty paces.
The colonel gives the words the battallion will, from the

‘proper right of companies, file to therear—pafs companies by files.
Each captain inftantly gives the word /efi, ‘urn—guick march,
aad wheels out his leading file, the reit of the files following
‘in fucceffion. The heads of companies muft obferve the
proper diltance from each other, and are regulated from the
left. Circumftances may require that the companies fhould
pafs from their proper left, initead of the right, in which cafe
the leaders will fhift and conduct fuch left until the line is
formed, when they will again refume their proper places.
When the companies in file have marched as far as is
neceflary, the colonel gives the word 4a/s, front. The whole
now ftand in open column of companies, the right in front.
When the column is ordered to halt, the light infantry pafs
quickly through it, and take poft thirty paces in the rear of
‘the intended line. On the word by companies, left, wheel into
line—quick march, captains, as ufual, halt, dre/s their compa-
nies. When the line is formed, its centre is oppofite to the
general.

| SixreentH Manotuvre.—Vfiling,
‘charging to the Front.

' The colonel, having previcufly placed himfelf ten or
‘twelve paces behind the exa¢t line of the dire@sing ferjeant,
will remark the line of its prolongation, and thus afcertain
the direction in which it fhould march, and in doing this, he
will not at once look out fora diitant objeé&t, but will hit on
it by prolonging the line, from the perion of the directing
ferjeant to the ae Or he will order the covering ferjeant
to run out twenty paces, and will place him in the line in
which he thinks the battalion ought to advance. The
dire€ting ferjeant then takes his -direCtion along the line
which pafles from himfelf, betwixt the heels of the advanced
ferjeant, and remarking his obje€t, preferves fuch line in ad-
vancing. The colonel then gives the words the battalion will
advance. Before the line {o advances, the light company
quickly forms, in extended order, thirty paces before the
centre, and preferyes that diftance in advancing. The front
direGting ferjeant of the battalion moves fix accurate and
_exaét paces in ordinary time, and halts. The two other fer-
jeants that were behind him, move up on each fide of him,
and an officer from the rear replaces in the front rank the
leading ferjeant. The centre ferjeant, in moving out,
‘marches and halts on his own obferved point, and the two
other ferjeants drefs and fquare themfelves exa€tly by him.
The directing ferjeant, after being affured that he himfelf is
perfeGtly and fquarely placed in the rank, by cafting his
eyes down the centre of his body, from the junction of his
two heels, and by repeated trials to take up or prolong a line
perpendicular to himielf and to the battalion, will obferve
and take up any accidental {mall {pot on the ground, and
within 100 or 150 paces, intermediate ones cannot be want-
ing, nor the renewal of fuchas he afterwards fucceflively ap-
“proaches to in his march. In this manner he is prepared,
under the future correction of the colonel from behind, to
conduét the march. ;

“The line of direétion being thus afcertained, the colonel

gives the word march. The whole inftantly ftep off, and
without turning the head, eyes are glanced towards the

advancing, and

colours in the front rank. The replacing officer betwixt the
colours preferves, during the movement, his exaét diftance of
fix paces from the advanced ferjeant, and is the guide of the
battalion. ‘The centre advanced ferjeant is Eat eerablé for
the direction, and the equal cadence orlength of ftep. To
thefe objeéts he alone attends, while the other two, ferupu-
loufly conforming to his pofition, maintain their parallelifm
to the front of the battalion, and thereby prefent an objeét
to which it ought to move fquare. They are to allow no
other confideration to attract their attention, and will notice
and conform to the direétion of the commander only. If
any {mall alteration in their pofition is ordered, it muit be
gradually and coolly made. When the battalion is advancing
in line for any confiderable diftance, the mufic may be
allowed at intervals to play for a few feconds only, and the
drums in two divifions to roll; but it is the wind in-
ftruments only which play. The large drum, or any other
inftrument whatever, which marks time by the ftroke, is not
permitted.

When the battalion advances fifty paces, the colonel gives
the words the battalion will file from the right of companics—
pyfs jiles to the freut. Each captain immediately gives the
word right, turn—quick, march, wheels out his leading file,
and pafies on direét to the front, preferving a relative diitance
from the left, as being the head of tke column, or from the
other flank, if particularly fo ordered. When the column has
marched fifty paces, the colonel gives the words halt, front.
The whole now iftaads in open column, the left in front.

The light compzny pafies quick to the rear, affembles half
of it behind each flank, and moves relatively with the flank
companies.

The words now given in fucceffion are column, right, wheel
into line, quick, march. The battalion will advance—march.
The battalion marches fifty paces. The battalion will ad-
vance by aliernate wings, and jire four tites—left wing, halt.
The left wing halts, and the right wing continues to move
on fifteen paces. Left wing, march. Right wing, hait, ready,
prefeat, fire, load, march. The lett wing marches pait them
till the right wing, being loaded and fhouldered, receives the
orderto march. Left wing—halt, readv, &c. as directed for
the right wing, and thus they alternately proceed, till-each
wing has fired twice. The left wing will fori line on the right
—right wing, halt. When the line is formed, the battalion
will advance, march. After marching fifty paces, halt. The
battalion will fire a volley—front rank kneeling, make ready,
prefent, fire, prime and load. The battalion will advance—
march. When it has advanced twenty paces, it receives the
command halt. The battalion will fire a volley, and port arms;
when the battalion has fired, it immediately ports arms.
Quick march ; the battalion advances firm, dreffing by the
centre. When it has advanced fifty paces, halt ; the front
rank comes down to the charging pofition. Shoulder arms—
prime and load.. The light company, iffvicg from behind
the flanks, purfue, return, and affemble and jo on the
left of the battalion. The battalion is now ad ed near
the general, and with its centre oppofite him.

If the battalion is not very ftrong, the light infantry
fhould not aét as fuch, but only as a company in batta-
lion. In firing by wings, that is, by half battalions, the
colonel generally fires the right wing, and the next in com-
mand the left. When the battalion has charged bayonete,
they may be ordered to move forward on the charge ata very
quick ftep; but by no means to run. A very few paces
only can be neceflary. Care muft be taken that the batta-
lion moves in perfe&t drefs, which it cannot do if it run.
The fiugel man gives the time for each wing to caft about,
and fhoulder.

5 O2

Ssvix.

BATS £E PG:

SevENTEENTH Manoeuvert.—Retiring in Line.

The colonel gives the words the baitalion will retire—right
about, face—march. While it is retiring, he gives the
caution the battalion will fire twice by alternate wings—ihetwo
Sufi ranks, fianding. He then gives the words right cuing—
halt, front. The light infantry are not ordered by the rules
and regulations for the infantry formation, to cover the
regiment in this manceuvre ; but it appearing to be as re-
quifite as in advancing, they will be formed feparately. On
the halt of the right wing, they file round the left flank, and
cover the left wing at fix paces in front, firing and retiring till
they occupy the ground quitted by the left wing, dreffing
by the ght. When the left wing has gained fifteen paces,
it receives the word from the lieutenant-colonel, halt, front.
The light infantry ceafe firing. The colonel orders right
eving—ready, prefent, fire (the men after firing immediately
come to the port, or to the recover, as may be ordered).
The light infantry face to the right, and cover the right
wing at fix paces. On the words right about, face—march,
the light infantry fire retiring, till they come into line with
the left wing by which they drefs, and continue firing.
When the right wing has marched fifteen paces beyond the
left, it receives the words halt, front—prime and load. When
loaded, the fignal founds for the light infantry to ceafe firing.
The inftant the lientenant-colonel fees that the right wing
has fronted, he immediately gives the word of command, and
conforms in every particnlar to what the right wing has
done. The light infantry face to the left, and cover the left
wing as they did the right, drefling by the right. In this
manner each wing alternately proceeds, every due difpatch
being made in reloading. When the wings have each fired
twice, the colonel gives the words the left wing will forin line
onthe right wing—march—halt, front—primeandload. When
boaded, the light infantry ceafes firing, and the fignal is given
by the bugle for it to form company in the rear of the
centre. The colonel gives the word the line will retire ; and

when it has marched a hundred paces or more, covered by .

the light infantry, who file round the flanks, halt, front.
The light infantry, upon fignal, form company in the rear of
the centre and afterwards refume their poit on the left of the
battalion.

In retiring by alternate wings, one colour remains on the
inward flank of each half battalion, to which the men con-
tinue to look when they move, by which they drefs, and be-
fore which a directing ferjeant advances fix paces. ‘The
make ready—prefent—fire of the advanced wing is inftantly to
fucceed the march of the other advancing wing or the halt,
front, of the retiring one. In the-half battalion firing, ad-
vancing, and retreating, if formed two deep, both ranks will
fire ftanding. If formed three deep, the front and centre
ranks will fire flanding, and the rear rank will remain
fouldered in referve. '

Eicureentu Manoruvrr-—dAdvancing in Line.

The colonel gives the word the battalion will advance—
march. It marches a hundred paces, and receives the Aa/t.
At the words fire a volley obliquely to the right, the men of
the front rank turn one-eighth of a circle to the right ;
thofe of the rear ranks take a pace to the left, and cover
their proper file leaders. The words are then given make
ready, prefent, fire, load. Fire a volley obliquely to the left—
make ready, prefert, fire, load(theranks execute the reverfe of
what is direéted in the firing to the right). The battalion will
advanée—march. When it has advanced a hundred paces,
halt. Fire two volleys to the front—after thelaft, the men will

ort arms, and half cock. Battalion—ready, prefent, fire, load.

AMaion ready, prefent, fire—the men will port arms, and

half cock. Shoulder arms—/hut pans—rear ranks, take open
q

order—march. The colonel and lieutenant-colonel now dife
mount, and come through the centre into the front, as do the
mufic. Every one takes his ftation exa@tly as they had been
placed when receiving the general. The colonel, with his
back to the regiment, gives the words te batialion will ad-
vane march. The mufie plays, and when the line has ad-
vanced within fifty paces of the general, the colonel gives the
word hali—general falute—prefent arms. ‘The mufic plays
God fave the King, and the drummers beat a march.
When the mutic ceafes, the colonel, turning the battalion,
gives the words /houlder arms—rear ranks, take clofe order—
march, and the review is ended.

Light infantry. "The following is the method ufually ob-
ferved by the light infantry when required to form in ex.
tended order, as commenced at the twelfth manceuvre. «Pre-~
vious to the retreat in line, the colonel direéts the horn to
found the fignal for their forming company, when the officer
commanding it gives the words right face—guick march (in
double quick time, to ten paces in the rear of the fupernu-
merary rank, its centre covering the colours )}—halt, front—
order arms—iunfix bayonets —form two deep (the left fubdi-
vifion of the rear rank fteps back one pace) rear rank tothe
left face—quick march (its left fubdivifion arrives between it
and the centre rank, when the whole moves forward )—hal/,
front, dre/s, is then given by the fenior {upernumerary officar.
The light infantry being divided into fubdivifions, the right
is commanded by the captain, and led by his covering fer-
jeant ; the left by the fenior lieutenant, and led by the fe-
cond ferjeant ; the fecond lieutenant attends the right fub-
divifion. On the retreat of the line, at fignal from the horn,
the fubdivifions face outward, and file, in quickeft time,
round the flanks of the line, forming (when the retreat is
made by alternate companies) at ten paces in front. The
right fubdivifion covering at equal dittance the right wing,
except the grenadiers, and the other the left wing in the
fame manner, drefling to the centre. When the word march
is given tothe line, thelight company, at the found of the
bugle, commence firing for the Arft round from centre to
flanks. Each man, when he has fired, retires the ordered
number of paces, generally four, by the left of his file com-
rade, and reloads. On the fronting of the battalion, they
form company, as before mentioned, round the flanks, in
rear of the line, where they divide into feétions. The two
feGtions of the right fubdivifion form in rear of the firft and
third companies: thofe of the left in the rear of the fifth
and feventh. All the fe€tions are faced to the left, and on
the retreat of the alternate companies, fuppofe the left move
inftantly into the intervals, and.form as much extended as is
neceflary, in line with the right companies, who ftill remain
ftationary, firing independently till the companies in line re-
ceive the order to make ready. When the right companies
retreat, the light infantry move to the right, cover them as
they had before done the left, and fire retirimg till they
arrive at the intervals between the left companies, upon whom
they drefs. Thus they alternately continue to occupy the
intervals, till the line being formed, they wheel round the
re{pective flanks, form fubdivifions in rear of the fecond and
feventh companies, form again in front on the retreat of the
whole line, in extended order, and at its halt, «ffemble again
in company behind the centre. In advancing in line, and by
wings, the movements are fimilar to thofe already explained
in the feventeenth manceuvre, with this difference, that the
company moves forward inftead of retiring. To re-form

three deep, when re-aflembled in company behind the centre

of the line, the officer gives the words form three deep Mie
third fe&tion, or the whole of the proper rear rank, fteps
back one pace) rear rank, tothe right face—guick march (the

rear:

a

BAT

year rank of the fection marks time till the front rank has
paffed it, and then moves on) at the word halt, front, they
cover the centre rank correétly, at one pace diftant from it.
The company then fixes bayonets, faces to the left and re-
fumes the proper pofition in line.

Obfervations.

The number of paces mentioned in the feveral movements
are not {o pofitively preferibed, but are fuppofed to be nearly
fuch as will give the intended relative fituations. If the
ground allows the marches to the rear and front to be
longer, it will be fo much the better.

The colonel fhould give all his commands from the rear of
the battalion. No commanding officer fhould attempt, in
the face of the general, to put the regiment through any of
the manceuvres without being himfelf perfectly and minutely
acquainted with the principles on which each is performed.
He willthus avoid the diferace of calling to his adjutant for
inftruction, or galloping full {peed to the flank of the batta-
lion by way of rectifying a miftake which his ignorance and
temerity have brought him into, and which he cannot remedy
but by recurring for advice either to the other mounted
officers, or to the ferjeant-major in the rear.

When the reviewing general has feen the battalion go
through fuch of the ordered manceuvres as he judges necef-
fary, he will, that he may be able to report on the merits of
its performance, among other circumftances, particularly ob-
ferve and {pecify, whether or not the original formation of
the battalion is according to order.

The marches are made with accuracy, at the required
time and length of ftep, and on fuch objects as are given,
The proper diftances in column and echellon are at all times
preferved. The wheelings are made jutt, and in the manner
preferibed. The formations in line are made true, without
talfe openings, or neceflity of correction. .The officers are
alert in their changes of fituation, exact in their own per-
fonal movements, and Joud, decided, and pointed in their
words of command. The march in line is uniformly tteady,
without floating, opening, or clofing. The march in file
clofe, firm, and without lengthening out. The officers
and fupernumeraries give the aids required of them with due
quicknefs and precifion. Hurry and unneceffary delay in
the movements are equally to be avoided. In the firings,
the loading is quick, the levelling juft, the officers animated
and exaét in their commands.

Form of fending for, and lodging the colours. ‘The battalion
being in line, the commanding officer orders the grenadier
drummers to beat the drummer’s call; on which the two
youngelt enfigns recover their {words, face to the right, and
march between the line of officers and the front rank, till
they come to the head of the grenadiers, where they halt,
front, and bring their {words to the port. The drum-major,
with a party of drummers and fifers, will likewife face to
the right, and march to the head of the grenadiers, placing
themielves between the enfigns and the front rank. The
grenadier captain then makes his company take clofe order,
and will either wheel them by fubdivifions, or march them
in one. If by fubdivifions, he places himfelf on the pivot
flank of the firit, the eldeft lieutenant on that of the fecond,
and the other lieutenant in the fupernumerary rank of the
firft ; but if the company is marched in one divifion, the two
lieutenants are in the fupernumerary rank. The company
then marches, in ordinary time , to the quarters where the
colours are lodged, when it halts,’ and rear ranks take open
order. The drum-major unfurls the colours, and gives them
out of a window to the enfigns, who on halting had fheathed
their words. ‘The captain then orders his men to prefent
arms, Officers falute, and the drummers beat a point of

BACT,

war, which finithed, he fhoulders arms, cloles the ranks, and
marches them off in ordinary time, the drummers beating
the grenadier’s march. On arriving at the left flank of the
regiment, the company faces to the right, the enligns with
the colours march in front of the line of officers, the grena-
dier officers between them and the front rank, as alfo the
drums and mufic, and the grenadiers in files, between the
other ranks. ‘The commanding officer of the regiment, as
foon ds the colours arrive on the left flank, orders the bat-
talion to prefent arms, the officers falnte ; the mufic plays
God fave the king, and the drummers beat the troop.
On the colours arriving in the centre of the battalion,
the enfigns halt and front, and, when the grenadiers have
taken polt on the right, the battalion is ordered to fhoulder
arms.

When the colours are to be Jodged, on the drummer’s call
being beat, the enfigns, the drum-major, and a party of
drummers and fifers, march and take pott in the front of the
grenadiers. The battalion prefent arms, officers falute,
mufic plays, and drums beat. On the captain of grenadiers
marching off with the colours, drummers beat the troop-
When they arrive at the houfe, or place where they are to
be lodged, the drum-major receives them at a window, the
grenadiers prefent arms, officers falute, and drummers beat
a point of war. The enfigns on quitting the colours, draw
their fwords, and falute with the other officers. The cap-
tain will either march his company back, or difmifs them,
as he may be ordered by the commanding officer.

When the colours are not to be received, or lodged in
form, the ferjeant-major, with four ferjeants in the centre
of the battalion, will take the colours cafed, from, or to the
place where they are kept, in the following manner. Ser-
jeant-major, the two front rank ferjeants carrying the
colourson their fhoulders, covered in the rear by two other
ferjeants and the drum-major, who is to receive them when
they arrive at the place of their deftination. No compliment
is paid by the battalion in this cafe, and they are generally
fent away when the ranks are clofed. When the regiment
is ordered for a field day, the colours fhould-never be received
orlodged in form, as it takes up too much time.

The following is at prefent the detail of the battalion.
Field officers—one colonel, one lieutenant-colonel, one ma-
jor, (by a late regulation field officers have no companies, )
ten captains, twelve lieutenants, and eight enfigns. There
is no captain-lieutenant. Staff officers—one adjutant, one
pay-matter, one quarter-mafter, one furgeon, one affiftant-
furgeon. | Non-commiffioned officers—one ferjeant-major,.
one quarter-maiter ferjeant, thirty ferjeants, thirty corpo-
rals. Drummers—one drum-major, twenty-one drummers
and fifers. Privates—five hundred and feventy..

Rules and regulations for his Majefty’s forces. Ruflell’s
InftruGions for the Drill, London, 1803, &c. &c.

BATTARDEAUX, in bridge-building. See Correr-

dams.
BATTATA, in Botany. See Dioscorea..
BATTATAS. See HELianruus.

BATTAWAY, in Geography, atown of Africa, on the
Grain Coaft, eafily known at fea by. two large rocks,
two miles diftant from the fhore to. the weit, and allo by
fome high mountains behind the town. This is one of: the
beft built places on the coatt ;. populous and rich,. and trades.
extenfively in pepper and'ivory. The people however are.
addiGted to thieving.

BATTEAU. See Bateau.

BATTEL, in Geography, Law. Se. See Barres.

BATTEN, in Carpentry, aname which the workmen give
to afcantling of wooden ftuff from two to four inches case

ane:

BA

-and about an inch thick ; the length being pretty confidera-
ble, but undetermined.

The term is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of doors, &c. which
are not framed of whole deal, &c. with ftiles, rails, and pan-
nels like wainfcot, but are made to appear as if they were,
by means of thefe pieces, or battens, bradded on the plain
board round the edges, and fometimes crofs them, and up
and down.

Hence batten doors, or windows, are fuch as feem to be
wainfeot ones, but are not. Thefe are faid_ to be either
fingle or double, as the battens are fitted on to one fide, or
to both.

Barrens ofthe hatches, in Sea-language, are nailed along
the tarpaulings, and ferve to keep their edges clofe down to
the hatches, in order to prevent the water which wafhes over
the deck from penetrating into the lower apartments of
the fhip.

» Barren, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and principality of Upper Heffe ; 16
miles fouth weft cf Waldeck, and 16 north weit of Marburg.

BATTENBURG. See Barensourc.

BATTEN Kill, afmall river of America, which rifes in
Vermont, and after running north and north-wetterly about

o miles, fallsinto Hudfon, near Saratoga.

BATTERBURY, or Barrersy Jay, lies on the weft
coatt of Ireland, about two miles north eaft from Convitt
iflands. It has a narrow entrance, but is above 4 miles broad.
N. lat. 53° 19’. W. long. 10° 22’.

BATTERIE, isa French termin Mufic, for that kind
of arfeggio, or breaking of chords in a diftinét and detached
manner, different from common arpeggios, in the execution
of which on keyed-inftruments, no finger is taken off till the
note afligned it is again wanted ; and when, on the violin
:the notes of achord are not, as ufual, fwept up and down

“ND OF VOL.

Strahan and Preftor,
RKew-Street-Square, London.

BAT

in one bow, but either all to be bowed or feparated by a
tremulous motion of the bow.

In this article of the Encycl. Meth. after the definition of
the term Batterie, and a neceflary addition by M. Framery,
are inferted, the Abbé Feyton takes the pen, and in treating
the fubject metaphyfically, manifeits deep reflexion and
{cience in the theory of found ; but with a total difregard to
the practice of the greateft compofers and performers, who
have produced plealing effects by the very means which he
prohibits.

BATTERING-Ram. See Artes.

Bartrerinc-Rams, in Heraldry, a bearing or coat of
arms refembling the military engine of the fame name.

BarrerinG, the attacking a place, work, or the like,
with heavy artillery. See Barrery.

To Barter in Breach, batire en breche, is to play furioufly
on a work, as the angle of a half moon, im order to demo-
lifh and make a gap or breach in it.

In this, they obferve never to fire a fingle piece againft
the top of the wall, but all towards the bottom, from three
to fix feet from the ground; they alfo fire par camarade, all
together, till they perceive the earth fall from behind the
lining of the rampart.

Barrerine Pieces, or pieces of battery. See CANNON.

BATTEROW, in Geography, lies on the weft coaft of
Africa, 2 leagues from Dixcove, and 5 leagues more from
cape [Three points to the north of the eaft.

BATTERSEA, a village and parifh near London, in
the county of Surry ; where above 3co acres of land are oc.
cupied by the market gardeners, of whom there are about
twenty, who rent from 5 or 6 to nearly 60 acres each,
The gardens at Batterfea pay feven fillings and fixpence
per acre for tythes to their vicar. Lyfons’s Environs of
London, vol. i, p. 27.

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